fine arts fiske kimball librari. a book of old english designs j. irving bbar general agent builders exch richmond, na j. trying beak general gents builders exchang richmona, ve new pork jacobson & company na . please return this book to art & achitecture library alfred e. hopkins, architect executed a y jacobson & co. new york city an old english ceiling from four feathers inn. a very charming interior showing one of the various uses of geometrical ceilings and hand-modeled antique wall surfaces. jacobson & co. plate iii le - hardwick hall — - - - per running foot, $ . jacobson & co. io plate v %, x u b % h.x " ht base - - - - per foot, $ . per foot, . - - - - per foot, . ii - - - - - - - - - - each, $ . each, . - - - - - each, $ . - - - - - each, . - - - - - each, . ii jacobson & co. plate vi v r eeslikud tottestet ona w krstonia sidebt x w - - - - per foot, $ . - - - - per foot, . - - - - each, . - - - - each, $ . - - - - each, . - - - - each, . - - - - per foot, $ . - - - - per foot, . - - - - per foot, . - - - - - - per foot, $ . - - per foot, . jacobson & co. . plate vii " „teb p. p ,, p. / " p. / " - - - - - - - - - - per foot, $ . - per foot, . per foot, . - - - - per foot, $ . - - - - per foot, . - - - - per foot, . - - - - per foot, $ . - - - - per foot, . - - - - per foot, . plate viii jacobson & co. er / " / " p. - - - - - - - - per foot, $ . - - per foot, . - - per foot, . per foot, . - - - - - - - - - - - - per foot, $ . - - per foot, . - - per foot, . - - per foot, . - - per foot, . . - - - - per foot, $ . - - - - per foot, . - - - - per foot, . - - - - per foot, . plate x jacobson & co. ves no - - - - per foot, $ . - - - - per foot, . ---- per foot, . - - - - per foot, $ . - - - - per foot, . - - - - per foot, . - - per foot, $ . - - - - per foot, . - - - - per foot, . plate xii · jacobson & co. a tof gtol mton a-f - each ornament, $ . g-l - each ornament, . - - - - - each, $ . - - - - - each, . m-n, ornament - each, . - - - - - - - - - - each, $ . each, . jacobson & co. plate xv x % . . x. x m x % Ü ) k a to e h w.at base tbase % % % x " - - - - each, $ . - - - - each, . - - - - each, . - - - - each, $ . - - - - each, . - - - - each, . - - - - each, $ . - - - - each, . a-e - - per sheet, $ . - - - - - each, . - - - - - each, . jacobson & co. plate xvi ... each, $ . • - - each, $ . ... cach, $ . ..each, $ . - ..- each, $ , - . - each, $ . - .... each, $ . jacobson & co. plate xxxiv xi diane diam a-h a-y is averce a-f a-f connect , a-h and a-f. a. for hunt a-y - - - - each, $ . a-h - - - - each, . - - - - - each, . a-f'. --- each, $ . - - - - - each, . a-f - - - - each, . jacobson & co. plate xxv gilling castle price on application عينيات ا | ) من) اما و ا خ s كالط شامل .(drn ammenta car\/unos - re لا - r o) m n a - الا ان الاproeessor pr . . - o) - forence . " . . - . - - -eo h poley & co pe shers . pos-now and new york الإإإإإإإإإإإإإإإإإإإإإإلا illnl, fnk .f " / • e. date due a collection of entail (carvin(gs اdrna w n atu re أf r (o) m by professor frullini of florence cgeo). h. polley &g (co). publishers boston and new york t he لفا i « ا v فرف ، ، س . ،، ، أنت vv مه : تيفي ar ثb إلا ا i . .------- .- -------- .. m .. ,co., publus hers غقّ george h. polley boston and n =w yorx. ---------------------------- . -------------------------- ------ ==- -------- ------------------------ ------------------ ------------------ - . تند :s:s: . - ---------------------- . - frieze with - - - .. -- -- ا . . - . . (game in bas-relief. the photographer ani) pot -- -- ------------ - :(. x . -------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------- cons oie t abi e. .ersيرalusسg eorge h. pou l= x & co., p ، ا : ---------------------------- . ------------------- --------------- . . -------- ----- ----------- --------------- ------------------------ وج .- - - ,hersإgeorge h. polley % co., publus boston and new yorx. ---------------- ------------- --------- ------------------ ------------------------- .- ---------------------- ------------------- ----- -------------- . ----- ----------------------------- ------------------- -------- ------------- frieze with ( -{ ا ا ا . - . - . - . - - . ------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------- ::::::::::::::::.. - % a -------- ا --------- - .- - - - - - - . -. -- - ------------------- ------------------------ ن ----------------عا لر. ----------------------- ----------------- -------- ----------- -------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------- ---------------- مممممممممممم ----- "a - -- - ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- غو . - - - - - . ,ers برausسg eorge h. polley & co., p . =p |جs oi pe: t apت ton) ا | ا fa harvard unesty werary exposiÇÃo retrospectiva de arte ornamental portugueza e hespanhola em lisboa cartas ao redactor do « correio da noite » por a. filippe simÕes com uma carta do sr. fernando palha ao auctor ácerca da collecção de ceramica lisboa typographia universal de thomaz quixtino antunes, impressor da casa real rua dos calafates, ar an anig een berada neste line o tometamante gathe m a kép bima exposicÃo retrospectiva de arte ornamental portugueza e hespanhola em lisboa cartas ao redactor do ( correio da noite » por a. filippe simÕes com uma carta do sr. fernando palha ao auctor acerca da collecção de ceramica . t eu lisboa typographia universal de thomaz quintino antunes, impressor da caja real rua dos calafates, fa . harvard college library from the library of fernando falha.. december , as salas a, c e h lisboa, de janeiro de . meu amigo. — pediu-me para escrever no correio da noite acerca da nossa exposição de arte orna- mental. prometti satisfazer ao pedido, dando aos seus leitores esclarecimentos, que até certo ponto suppram a falta do catalogo, ainda no prélo, e que não poderá estar concluido, senão passados muitos dias. o processo mais facil para organisar a exposição seria aquelle que o museu south kensington, de londres, adoptou, dispondo os exemplares por gru- pos, segundo as suas procedencias. a commissão executiva, a que tenho a honra de pertencer, en- tendeu porém que seria muito mais util fazer uma classificação racional, que permittisse agrupar os objectos, não pelas pessoas a quem pertencem, mas pelas suas naturaes analogias. e, assim, fazendo apenas justificaveis excepções com relação aquelles com que sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. luiz, sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. fernando e a sr.& con- eis aqui a parte mais numerosa e mais impor- tante da grande collecção de tecidos e bordados. infelizmente não encontramos em portugal exem- plares de épocas muito remotas. os mais antigos são dos fins do seculo xv, excepto um que apparece solitario, como um animal antidiluviano entre a fauna dos tempos modernos. É uma velha mitra ( ) de seda branca, bordada a oiro, do seculo xii, que foi encontrada com um baculo da mesma época, na egreja da ermida, perto de castro daire, n'uma gaveta de farrapos, que por esquecimento não ti- nham deitado ainda para o lixo. deve-se ao digno prelado da sé de lamego a indicação d’estas curio- sas antigualhas que, sem a exposição, de certo se perderiam. os exemplares dos seculos xv e xvi, principal- mente d’este ultimo, são muito notaveis. n'essa parle a exposição revela-nos maravilhas desconhe- cidas, e que de todo o ponto correspondem ao es- plendor da architectura, da pintura e da ourivesa- ria na mesma época. repare, meu amigo, nos bordados a oiro de grande relevo, nas orlas da capa de asperges ( ) da abbadessa de lorvão com os seus grandes ni- chos povoados de santas, nas bellas ramagens que cobrem um fragmento de velludo ( ) e um frontal ( ) da sé de coimbra, na casula e frontal da sé de braga ( e ) bordados a oiro, prata e coral, imagine ainda as pedras de côres, as perolas e al- jofares desapparecidos n’estas ultimas peças, at- tenda ao frontal ( ) do extincto convento de jesus de aveiro, com os seus grandes leões bordados a oiro em tela, e diga-me se toda esta brilhante e re- levada bordadura não corresponde em verdade aos cordões e laçarias das fachadas dos jeronymos ou de thomar, ou á complexa e profusa ornamentação dos grandes pratos doirados da sala de sua mages- tade el-rei d. fernando, ou da collecção geral da ourivesaria na sala da edade media e do seculo xvi! mas outros muitos exemplares corroboram com egual força a minha asserção. citarei apenas al- guns: - os bordados a oiro e matiz em alto relevo do convento da conceição de beja ( ); da sé ( ) e da egreja de santo antão ( ), de evora; os fron- taes de lorvão ( , e ) e de carnide ( ); as casulas e dalmaticas com orlas e sebastos orna- dos de imagens de santos ( ); a capa de asperges da egreja de belem ( ), com grandes bordados a oiro e matiz, que representam nossa senhora sen- tada n’uma cadeira e varios santos sobre o fundo de rico velludo lavrado, etc. fixado o typo geral dos bordados do seculo xvi, facilmente se discriminarão os anteriores. eis aqui uma casula unica no seu genero ( ), pertencente á sé de portalegre. É de velludo car- mezim com bordaduras de applicação de retroz de côres e fio de oíro em alto relevo, que represen- tam vasos, ramos, apjos, aguias com duas cabeças, flores de liz, etc. os sebastos, adornados com figu- ras de santos em baldaquinos acastellados, formam uma cruz, na qual foi bordada com maiores dimen- sões a imagem do crucificado, com um anjo de cada lado. todo o desenho é incorrectissimo, e poderia até attribuir-se a época mais remota, se não fosse a viveza das cores e a excellente conservação d'esta curiosa peça. os baldaquinos egualmente acastellados dos se- bastos das dalmaticas da egreja matriz de ponta delgada ( e ), similhantes aos da casula de por- talegre, porém menos imperfeitos, denotam ainda a grandes dimensões, não pode ficar todo patente. sobre um fundo de seda vermelha vèem-se, borda- dos a oiro e matiz, animaes phantasticos, ramagens e flores com bellissimo colorido. no centro um grande medalhão representa ganimedes arrebatado pela aguia ao olympo. com a grande revolução da renascença a mythologia entrava desassombrada- mente nos templos como nos poemas. os bordado- res acompanhavam os architectos, os esculptores e os poetas. não está porém aqui somente a analogia. no bor- dado de lorvão, a par com a mythologia, appare- cem bem patentes is influencias orientaes. o dese- nho de alguns ornatos, as formas de alguns animaes são asiaticas, tornando-se bem clara a similhança geral dos bordados com o de algumas colchas orien- taes expostas na mesma sala. já que fallei d'estes artefactos não devo deixar de apontar as bellas col- chas da egreja de belem ( ), dos srs. osborne de sampaio ( ), conde de redondo ( ), martinho montenegro ( ), marqueza da fronteira ( ), mar- quezes de monfalim ( ), viscondessa da fonte ar- cada ( ) e adriano de moraes pinto de almeida ( ). o estylo das colchas importadas do oriente imi- tava-se não somente n'outras obras congeneres, fa- bricadas na europa, mas tambem n'alguns para- mentos ecclesiasticos. entre outros da sala a, citarei a casula da egreja de miragaya do porto ( ). uma das obras de maior effeito é o panno de es- tante de velludo vermelho bordado a oiro ( ) do convento de santa clara de coimbra. o sceptro e corôa reaes, de correcto e elegante desenho, repetem- se em varias partes cercados de bellas ramagens. É tambem digna de menção, pela antiga passa- maneria de oiro, uma capa de asperges de velludo verde da sé de coimbra ( ). emfim, notam-se ainda, entre os bordados dos fins do seculo xvi ou dos principios do seculo xvii, um frontal da madre de deus ( ) de velludo carmezim com sebastos de relevo; uma casula de velludo carmezim com se- bastos bordados a oiro, com bellas figuras de santos, de uma egreja de ponta delgada ( ) com as armas de inglaterra, d'onde parece ter vindo para os açores; e um frontal de velludo carmezim bordado a oiro e prata, da mesma egreja ( ). das colchas de linho bordadas a seda da mesma epoca, mas sem caracter oriental, ha exemplares muito interessantes. a colcha do sr. vasco ferreira pinto basto ( ) é das melhores d'este genero. re- presenta batalhas, guerreiros e costumes da epoca. não tanto pela belleza da bordadura, como pela singularidade do assumpto, torna-se notavel a colcha do sr. antonio teixeira de sousa ( ), de lamego, na qual se vê a cidade de din, os seus baluartes designados com palavras portuguezas e guerreiros trajados e armados ao modo da epoca. as colchas de setim bordadas a matiz no seculo xvii ou xviii produzem um grande effeito. sirvam de exemplo as da sr.a d. guilhermina pereira ma- chado ( ), do porto e do sr. victor carlos sasseti ( ). outras ha, não menos bellas, bordadas somente a oiro, como a da sé de vizeu ( ) e a do sr. d. luiz de carvalho e lorena ( ). entre os paramentos mais admiraveis do seculo xviii notam-se uma casula de lhama verde bordada a oiro, da sé de lisboa ( ), uma grande capa de asperges ( ) com as armas do geral de santa cruz de coimbra, hoje pertencente á sé da mesma cidade, outra capa de asperges de tela escarlate bordada a oiro ( ) que faz parte do thesouro da capella de s. joão baptista de s. roque. outros bordados da mesma capella foram dispostos por outras salas. entre os bordados a matiz de melhor effeito ci- tarei finalmente um veu de hombros da egreja de santa justa de lisboa ( ), e uma casula ( ) da sr.a d. henriqueta gomes mora de araujo, de lis- boa. nas paredes da sala sobresaem seis quadros bor- dados a matiz com grande perfeição no seculo xvii ( , a, , , e ). representam assum- ptos historicos e pertencem á sr. d. maria de lemos e alvellos, do porto. além dos frontaes que em molduras doiradas es- tão por cima dos grandes armarios envidraçados, de alguns dos quaes já tive occasião de fallar, veem-se ainda varias tapeçarias interessantes. a mais notavel, pelas dimensões e pelo alto relevo de algu- mas das suas partes, é a que reveste o fundo da sala (b- ). representa grandes columnas salomo- nicas, vasos com flores, um veado, etc. pertence a secção hespanhola e diz-se ter sido da casa do conde duque de olivares. uma colcha, tambem hespa- nhola, de pellucia e com vivo colorido foi exposta pelo sr. visconde de monserrate. É da confraria da boa morte da sé de coimbra um bello tapete orien- tal, que adorna uma das paredes lateraes. na parede do fundo da sala a, aos lados do grande panno hespanhol; estão dois medalhões ( e ) que foram do pendão da inquisição de lis- boa. são bordados a oiro e torçal em alto relevo, e tanto um como o outro teem as armas d'aquelle, tribunal. pendão da inquisição de evora ( ) conser- vou-se inteiro. É de damasco escarlate, e tem de um lado as armas respectivas, e do outro a imagem de s. pedro martyr (pedro d'arbués), com esta le- genda : pro sancto munere martirii obtinere me- ruit palmam. foi collocado sobre a porta do fundo da sala. do mesmo lado, entre os frontaes collocados por cima dos armarios, está um bello quadro de tape- çaria de arras ( ) que representa o baptismo de christo. o desenho e o colorido assimelham-se extre- mamente aos das pinturas flamengas do seculo xv. era do extincto convento da madre de deus. a collecção dos trajos foi exposta nas salas a e c. interessantes para a historia do costume, não tem comtudo grande valor artistico. infelizmente raros serão anteriores a ; e só o podem ser dois fa- tos de homem ( e ), um do sr. osborne de sampaio, outro do sr. bento de queiroz. corres- pondem á época de luiz xiv em frança, de d. pe- dro ii ou d. joão v em portugal. outros fatos de homem, menos antigos, porém notaveis pelas bordaduras, foram expostos pela sr.a condessa da anadia ( , , e ). dos vestidos de damas o mais antigo pertence ao sr. ruy lopes de sousa, de santar ( ). É de lā de camello com barra bordada a matiz e vidros; e corresponde á primeira metade do seculo xviii. o sr. francisco ribeiro da cunha expõe um vestido de seda verde, com ramagens tecidas a matiz e prata ( ), e o sr. bento de queiroz, de vizeu, outro de tulle branca, bordada a palheta de prata ( ). estes ultimos são da segunda metade do se- culo passado. na sala c, não se admiram os esplendidos exem- plares do seculo xvi, são porém muito interessantes os dos seculos xvii e xviii, expostos nos armarios lateraes. na classe dos paramentos merecem particular menção uma casula de lhama branca, bordada a oiro e a matiz da sé de angra ( ); uma capa de as- perges de gorgorão carmezim, bordada a oiro, que do mosteiro de santa cruz de coimbra passou para a sé do porto ( ); uma casula de velludo branco quasi toda coberta de bordados de applicação, per- tencente ao sr. antonio de albuquerque, de vizeu ( ). esta peça, bem como as anteriores, é obra do seculo xvii e muito notavel pela belleza da bor- dadura a oiro e matiz, representando anjos, meda- lhões e ramagens de grande effeito. entre os paramentos do seculo xviii mencionarei uma casula, bordada a oiro e matiz, da egreja de s. domingos de lisboa ( ), e alguns dos frontaes que adornam as paredes por cima dos armarios. das colchas da sala c, as mais notaveis são uma de linho bordada a retroz de cores com figuras emblematicas dos cinco sentidos, designados com palavras portuguezas, bordadas tambem a retroz ( ). interessa-nos esta particularidade, como todas as provas de que quaesquer dos objectos expostos foram fabricados em portugal. a bordadura das colchas era de certo uma occupação predilecta das ricas ou nobres damas purtuguezas durante as horas que lhes deixavam livres outros lavores domesticos. a colcha que representa os cinco sentidos é do sr. bento de queiroz, de vizeu. n'estes trabalhos, re- vela-se em geral uma grande paciencia, ás vezes certo gosto na escolha das cores que formam o ma- tiz, mas quasi sempre a ignorancia do desenho. não se observa porém esta falta ein grande parte das colchas bordadas a oiro, trabalho que parece mais que simplesmente domestico e ter sido talvez desempenhado por artistas especiaes. tal é a colcha dos ( ); e finalmente as dos mantos de baptisado dos srs. marquez de penalva ( ) e conde de rio maior ( ). entre os bordados expostos mencionarei uma coberta ou toalha bordada á lacis do convento das chagas de lamego ( ) representando animaes de phantasia, e um vestido de filó bordado a prata do sr. bento de queiroz, de vizeu ( ), a quem perten- ce tambem um lenço de cambraia, bordado a cabello de differentes côres, imitando com perfeição uma aquarella. a grande collecção de tecidos e bordados conti- núa e termina na sala h, para o visitante; pois a sua verdadeira terminação, segundo o catalogo, é na sala c. o sr. julio cordeiro expõe dois bordados ( e ); um, o mais bello e mais antigo, representa a morte de nossa senhora; o outro a adoração dos magos. já vimos alguns dos bellos e ricos paramentos da capella de s. joão baptista, da egreja de s. roque, na sala a. na sala h estão expostos outros, que vem a ser dois reposteiros, dois frontaes, uma ca- sula e um véo de hombros ( , , , e ). do outro lado da sala estão alguns paramen- tos de seda bordados a torçal, de mafra ( , , , e ) uns e outros são obras italianas do seculo passado. tambem n’esta sala estão expostas muitas col- chas, sendo mais dignas de attenção as dos srs. con- des de prime, conde de mesquitella, ernesto do canto, tenreiro e osborne sampaio ( , , , e ). finalmente mencionarei um lindissimo baixo-relevo em marmore que está sobre uma mesa, e um meda- lhão della robbia suspenso da parede. o primeiro, uma das esculpturas mais notaveis do estylo da renas- cença que se conservam em portugal, veiu da casa da misericordia de vianna do alemtejo, o segundo, que tem a parte central de marmore e a moldura similhante ás dos outros, collocados em varias salas, procede do extincto convento da madre de deus. as duas vitrines da sala h e todos os objectos que ellas conteem, foram enviados pelo museu south kensington de londres para a exposição de arte or- namental em lisboa. este museu, que é um dos mais ricos da eu- ropa, especialmente em productos industriaes, pos- sue muitos exemplares das industrias hespanhola e portugueza. quando foi a londres o sr. sousa vi- terbo, para fazer conduzir os objectos que portu- gal mandou á exposição, promovida por aquelle mu- seu, e que deu origem á de lisboa, permittiram- lhe que escolhesse das collecções os exemplares que julgasse mais dignos de virem a portugal. são es- tes que hoje occupam as duas vitrines da sala h. o mais antigo é um cofre de marfim ( -- ), todo coberlo de ornatos em relevo, com a tampa á maneira de cupula, articulada com a parte restante por meio de longas e estreitas charneiras de bronze cinzelado e doirado. nos tres grandes medalhões que occupam a maior parte da superficie do cofre parece estarem representadas scenas da vida de um personagem, caçando, no primeiro; sentado n'um throno, no segundo; e finalmente viajando n'um pa- lanqué sobre um elephante, no terceiro. os espaços que separam os medalhões são intei- ramente cobertos de ornatos minuciosos represen- tando animaes de caça, aves, gryphos, flores, etc. a tampa, similhantemente ornada, tem na borda uma inscripção em caracteres cuficos, mutilada no principio por faltar um grande pedaço a esta parte do cofre : e prosperidade e felicidade para riaydh ben aflah capitÃo da guarda superior; isto foi feito no anno . este anno da hegira corresponde ao de christo de . este cofre do museu kensington, juntamente com outro muito similhante da sé de braga, exposto na sala m, e com os outros dois pertencentes aquelle museu, expostos na mesma vitrine da sala h ( , - , — :), constituem uma collecção interes- sante para o estudo da arte hispano-arabe dos se- culos x e xi. conserva-se na sé de pamplona outro cofre do mesmo genero. quem desejar fazer a comparação da arte maho- metana com a christã, na esculptura do marfim, n'esses tempos remotos, compare com os cofres ci- tados aquelle que na secção hespanhola é attribuido ao seculo x, e tambem o crucifixo de fernando o magno da mesma secção, obras de que hei de fallar n'uma das minhas cartas seguintes. essa comparação levará a attribuir á arte christã outro cofre de marfim do museu kensington, ex- posto na mesma vitrine, e attribuido ao seculo x ou xi ( — ). a ornamentação em baixo-relevo, re- presentando aves, quadrupedes e folhagens, asse- melha-se à do crucifixo citado, com quanto não seja tão perfeita e delicada. encontram-se pois na exposição seis exemplares interessantissimos para o estudo da arte da escul- ptura em marfim nas épocas em que é menos co- nhecida. o museu kensington expõe ainda um pequeno contador ( — ) e um cofre de marfim ( – ), attribuiveis á industria indiana dos seculos xvi e xvii, e outros dois cofres de madeira tambem indo portugueza, ambos do seculo svi. um, mais singelo, ( – ) tem uma grande aguia na tampa e outros ornatos em baixo-relevo nas quatro faces. o outro ( – ) é mais nota- vel pela minuciosidade e delicadeza dos ornatos que totalmente o revestem. na tampa estão representa- das muitas scenas da vida de christo. numerosis- simas figuras, algumas em alto-relevo, povoam os nichos ou ediculos ornados com arcos ou com outros elementos architectonicos ou esculpturaes do estylo indiano. emfim nota-se ainda na collecção dos cofres e caixas, uma forrada de couro estampado ( — ), obra hespanhola do seculo xvi, e producto de uma industria muito conhecida — a das cadeiras de sola. occupam a outra vitrine algumas obras da ouri- vesaria hespanhola e portugueza e um grande nu. mero de joias, interessantes pela sua belleza, anti- guidade e perfeita conservação. os fructeiros portuguezes ( — , - ), e como taes classificados no catalogo do museu ken- sington, são analogos aos que foram expostos em outras salas. uma pyxide de ( — ), e dois calices de e de ( — , – ), attribui- dos á industria hespanhola, são notavelmente infe- riores, como obras de arte, aos exemplares das col- lecções portuguezas. não está no mesmo caso o bello porta-paz do meiado do seculo xvi ( e ), comparavel, pelo desenho architectonico e pela perfeição do cinzel, a alguns dos que se expozeram nas salas me n. isto mesmo direi da placa dourada que parece lambem um porta-paz e que representa na parte inferior o presepe e na parte superior dois anjos. de maior preço ainda é o medalhão ( — ) com grotescos em relevo, no estylo de renascença. n’um prato de filigrana de prata ( - ), hes- panhol tambem, vê-se claramente a mesma indus- tria que produziu outros similhantes, expostos na sala f, por sua magestade el-rei o sr. d. fernando ou pela sr.a condessa d'edla, industria largamente influenciada pela arte mourisca das provincias me- ridionaes de hespanha. expõe finalmente o museu kensington uma grande e interessantissima collecção de joias fabricadas em hespanha, nos seculos xvi, xvii e xviii, entre as quaes avultam, pelo esmero, belleza e antiguidade, aquellas que pertenceram ao thesouro de nossa se- nhora do pilar de saragoça. n'alguns exemplares vê-se em execução o estylo dos desenhos de um in- teressante codigo da secção hespanhola, que contem esboços, feitos á penna, de muitas joias e obras de ourivesaria do seculo xvi. - ) ença. hes- s na ando ente ii me a sala b ande sem (secÇÃo hespanhola) ce as jade. . se tares ntem as de quem passar pela porta da sala c para a sala b, achar-se-ha de repente em hespanha, como se, com um passo apenas, transpozera a fronteira. a maior parte dos visitantes da exposição, des- lumbrados pelos reflexos metallicos, pelo brilho re- luzente das collecções portuguezas, não apreciam devidamente a secção dos nossos visinhos. todavia estão alli representadas as differentes civilisações que fazem da arte hespanhola um variegado matiz. obras wisigothicas, arabes, latino-byzantinas, ogi- vaes, mudejares, da renascença, dos dois ultimos seculos, em oiro, prata, bronze, latão, ferro, bar- ro, marfim, couro, lã, seda, pedra e madeira, obje- ctos do peru e do chili... é um verdadeiro cos- mos da arte. a hespanha, só a hespanha, poderia formar uma collecção assim, notavel pela variedade e importan- cia de tantos exemplares. eis aqui os braços de uma cruz wisigothica de oiro, adornada com pedras ( ), uma pequena parte do grande thesouro, achado ha uns trinta annos em guarrazar, perto de toledo, cujas esplendidas co- rôas e cruzes constituem hoje uma das collecções mais preciosas do museu de cluny em paris. junto d'aquella interessante reliquia da ourivesa- ria wisigothica do seculo vii, admiram-se no mes- mo estojo uma pulseira de oiro rebatido e um bra. celete do mesmo genero, ambos de estylo arabe e do seculo xiv ou xv. procede a primeira de mondu- jar da provincia de granada e o segundo de alme- ria ( e ). a ourivesaria mahometana é ainda representada por um cofre de prata do seculo xi, com inscripção de caracteres cuficos, procedente de santo isidoro de leão, e por outro cofre de prata com ornatos gravados e com inscripções cuficas de esmalte ne- gro, procedente da mesma egreja ( e ). são da arte christã, posterior á da época wisigo- thica, mas ainda com alguns vestigios de influencias arabes e byzantinas, um cofre de agatha e prata es- maltado de negro, em cuja ornamentação figuram algumas portas com arcos de volta de ferradura ( ), obra do seculo ix ou x, e o baculo do anti-papa d. pedro de luna ( ), obra do seculo xv, e muito similhante na forma da haste e nos lasangos que adornam o nó, a outros exemplares, contempora- neos, expostos na grande collecção da ourivesaria portugueza. não menos interessam ao estudo da arte algumas obras de metaes não preciosos. são do seculo xv as mais antigas: uma campa de bronze de castro ur- diales ( ), e um cofre com ornatos ogivaes ( ). a campa tem gravadas uma figura humana, varios ornatos de estylo ogival e a seguinte inscripção em caracteres gothicos: + aqui yace martin fernandes de las cortinas que finÓ el primer dia de marsco era de mccccix annos, aqui yace catalina lopes su muger que finÓ a ocho dias de mayo era de mccccxi annos, + aqui yace sos fijos lope fernandes, josepha fer- nandes, diogo fernandes, e a que dios perdone. em tudo se assemelha ás campas de bronze, me- nos antigas, que se conservam n'uma capella da egreja de s. joão evangelista, da casa de cadaval em evora, e que cobrem os restos mortaes de ruy de sousa e de sua mulher. são ainda do mesmo se- culo um thuribulo de alcalá de henares, attribuido ao cardeal cisneros ( ) e um cofre do ferro ex- posto pelo sr. d. ignacio daner, de madrid ( ). excepto este ultimo exemplar, todos os outros de que tenho fallado são expostos pelo museu archeo- logico de madrid. egualmente o são dois grandes candelabros de ferro rebatido, do seculo xvi, estylo da renascença ( e ). era d'este mesmo estylo, porém, muito mais perfeito, um altar ou capella de ferro que ha- via no claustro da sé de evora, e que, pelos annos de , pouco mais ou menos, foi desmanchado e vendido a peso. vi ainda algumas columnas com bellos medalhões, tropheus e outros ornatos, al- guns dourados. entre as obras de ferro da renascença distingue- se, pela sua bella ornamentação, um cofre, exposto pelo sr. d. mariano diaz del moral, de madrid ( ). de uma época posterior, já do seculo xvii, porém notavel ainda, pela belleza das formas e pela orna- mentação, é uma grande balança romana, exposta pelo museu archeologico de madrid ( ). d'esta clas- se mencionarei entre as obras da arte mahometana a grande lampada de bronze ( ), suspensa do cen- tro do tecto da sala, e que por assim dizer, por si só lhe imprime caracter. foi da mesquita da alham- bra, d'onde passou para a universidade complutense e d'ahi para a universidade central. É exposta pelo citado museu. a esculptura em marfim está representada por al- guns exemplares notaveis. bastaria, para honrar a exposição, o crucifixo de fernando magno ( ), ve- nerando monumento do seculo xi. a ornamentação de animaes e folhagens, caracteristica da época, é, relativamente, delicada e perfeita ; a imagem de christo, porém, imperfeitissima, bem revela o atrazo da estatuaria, de uma arte que nas cathe- draes se não differençava ainda do mister do can- teiro, ao mesmo tempo apparelhador de pedra e esculptor de estatuas. a imperfeição da estatuaria não podia ficar limitada ás obras de pedra, devia necessariamente abranger as de outras materias. na face anterior por cima do crucificado lè-se : ihe nazarenvs rex ivdeorvm; e no reverso; ferdinan- dvs rex sancia regine. consta de uma carta de doação de haver sido dado nesse anno com outras alfaias á egreja parochial de s. joão baptis- ta, hoje santo isidoro de leão. egualmente merecem especial menção um cofre attribuido ao seculo ix ( ), procedente de santo isidoro de leão, com figuras illustradas de legen- das em caracteres anteriores aos gothicos; um di- ptyco com os passos da vida de christo ( ), orna- dos de arcarias ogivaes do seculo xv; e finalmente, da arte mahometana, um cofre de madeira com em- butidos de marfim e ébano, em cujo desenho ama- dor de los rios viu reminiscencias da arte persa. ha na sala b uma parte muito curiosa e interes- sante, embora pouco agradavel aos olhos do visi- tante, que somente aprecia as coisas bonitas e re- luzentes. são os velhos fragmentos de madeira es- culpida, conservados á força de injecções anti-se- pticas, os grandes e pesados moveis, denegridos pelo tempo, e que, sem os processos chimicos, den- tro em pouco se desfariam em pó, corroidos e des- aggregados pela acção destruidora do caruncho. na impossibilidade de transportar para uma ex- posição distante as grandes estatuas, os pesados baixo-relevos de pedra, os volumosos fragmentos architectonicos, estes exemplares de madeira, en. viados de hespanha, mostram-nos os varios gene- ros e phases da esculptura hespanhola, e as suas feições caracteristicas relativamente ás épocas e ás civilisações que os produziram. os fragmentos mais antigos são do seculo x e procedem da mesquita de cordova ( ). seguem-se depois os fragmentos de sóccos e de frizos dos es- tylos mudejar e granadino dos seculos xiii, xiv e xv, um pulpito de s. marcos de leão ( ), com esculpturas ogivaes do seculo xv, as grandes arcas do mesmo estylo e época ( e ), tambem de leão, e finalmente outras duas arcas de menores di- mensões, porém muito mais elegantes, com gran. des relevos do estylo da renascença, obras do se- culo xvi ( e ). todos estes exemplares são expostos pelo museu archeologico. as armas e armaduras da secção hespanhola, com quanto interessantes, não causarão admiração a quem tiver visto as ricas e numerosas collecções de madrid. augmenta-lhes, porém, o interesse a po- breza da nossa exposição n’este genero. das obras de arte que teem desapparecido de portugal, ne- nhumas parece terem sido votadas a tão completo exterminio como as armas e armaduras. bastará di- pada borda anche a tu zer que os membros da commissão executiva que percorreram lisboa e as provincias em busca de exemplares para a exposição, apenas obtiveram uma armadura completa, pertencente a sua magestade el-rei d. luiz. peças cinzeladas de lavor nota vel tambem somente sua magestade el-rei as expoz. a armaria real de madrid expõe uma meia armadura com uma rodela ( ), que pertenceu a el-rei d. fi- lippe ili. outras duas de menor estatura, que fo- ram do mesmo rei emquanto principe, e do prin- cipe d. carlos ( e ), e doze espingardas e arcabuzes, obras do seculo passado, com os nomes dos fabricantes ( a ). o museu archeologico expõe duas adargas de coiro, bordadas a prata e seda ( e ), duas espadas castelhanas, uma do seculo xvi, outra do seculo xvii ( e ), uma espada granadina, com punho de cobre esmaltado ( ), do seculo xiv, e, finalmente, um par de estribos cinzelados e doira- dos que pertenceram ao imperador carlos v ( e ). o sr. conde de valencia de d. juan expõe um par de estribos arabes, de ferro, adamascados de prata, com adornos rebatidos de prata e alguns es- maltes ( e ). a ceramica representa talvez a parte mais cara- cteristica e mais caracterisada de toda a sala b. logo no centro, por baixo da grande lampada de bronze, ergue-se um grande jarrão esmaltado de azul e com reflexos metalicos ( ), attribuido á arte granadina do seculo xiv. uma inscripção esmaltada confirma a deducção tirada dos caracteres do tra- balho. . além d'esta curiosa antigualha, o museu archeo- logico nacional expõe trinta e cinco pratos, uns his- pano-arabes, pela maior parte de grande preço, pela finalmente, utenceram ao impera d. juan expo de na code bueno urbin sua belleza e raridade, outros de fabricas hespanho- las, todos interessantes ao estudo da arte da cera- mica na peninsula. expõe mais um grande numero de outros objectos de ornato ou de uso domestico, entre os quaes se notam os hispano-arabes, as bel- las majolicas de urbino e os elegantes grupos da fabrica de buen-retiro. na collecção dos esmaltes figuram dois relicarios de cobre esmaltado de limoges, do seculo xu ( e ), procedentes de s. marcos de leão, simi- lhantes aos da sé de vizeu, expostos na grande collecção da ourivesaria portugueza, porém mais singelos e de menores dimensões. são expostos pelo museu archeologico, bem como duas bacias do se- culo xili, ( e ) quatro esmaltes com assumptos religiosos ( e ), que dizem ter sido fabrica- dos em aragão no seculo xv, á imitação dos de li- moges, porém menos perfeitos, e finalmente dois quadros com peanhas e molduras de ebano, con- tendo esmaltes em negro de limoges, do seculo xvi ( e ). o sr. rodrigues seoane expõe um pequeno es- malte representando a magdalena, do seculo xvii ( ), e em tudo egual a outro do museu portuense, que figura na grande collecção da ourivesaria por- tugueza, na mesa central da sala m. uma descripção dos tecidos e bordados, conforme à sua importancia, não cabe ncs estreitos limites d'esta carta. mencionarei um bordado do seculo xiii ( ), que representa scenas da vida de nossa se- nhora, exposto pelo sr. conde de valencia de d. juan, que expoz tambem tres curiosas collecções de passa- inaneria hespanhola ( , e ); mencionarei tambem as capas bordadas do palacio real e do museu archeologico, a primeira do seculo xvi, a se- gunda do seculo xiv ( e ). das tapeçarias merecem especial menção aquella de que já fallei na minha primeira carta, exposta na sala a, e outras duas similhantes expostas na sala n, que dizem ter sido da casa do conde-duque de olivares; outras da fabrica de madrid, que representam d. quixote (exposta na sala n) e desenhos de d. luiz wanloo, d. ramon bayeu e d. francisco goya, todas nota- veis pela viveza do colorido. os tres primeiros, do conde-duque de olivares, são expostos pelo museu archeologico, os outros pelo palacio real. o museu archeologico de madrid expõe, final- mente, interessantes e copiosas collecções de ar- mas prehistoricas de pedra e de cobre da america : de vasos peruanos e de vasos de bronze chinezes, pertencentes à secção ethnographica do mesmo mu- seu. iii a sala f (collecÇÃo de sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. fernando e da ex.ma senhora condessa d'edla) entremos agora na sala f, uma das mais ricas da exposição, pelas preciosidades que contém, a mais bella de todas, pelo gosto com que foi ele- gantemente disposta. n'este encantador recinto, onde com razão se de- leitam e extasiam os visitantes, patenteia-se o sen- timento esthetico do apaixonado cultor da arte, o gosto apurado das suas mais bellas manifestações, os conhecimentos artisticos, adquiridos pela obser- vação e pelo estudo no espaço de muitos annos. não se nota alli um só objecto que pareça de mais ou deslocado, um logar vazio que devesse ser preenchido, uma discordancia de fórmas ou de cô- res. todas as coisas estão harmonicamente dispos- tas em relação não somente de umas para com ou- tras, mas tambem de todas para com a sala a que servem de ornamento. das numerosas e interessantissimas obras de ou- rivesaria, expostas por sua magestade, prendem mais em particular a attenção os grandes pratos e gomis de prata dourada, tanto por suas grandes dimensões, como pela profusão, variedade e relevo dos ornatos. as palavras portuguezas, gravadas em alguns, a preferencia de certos assumptos, o estylo que se differença, por feições particulares e proeminentes, dos outros conhecidos da ourivesaria estrangeira, contemporanea, fazem com bom fundamento attri- buir estas e outras obras congeneres a ourives por- tuguezes do seculo xvi, aquelles ourivezes que o bom do chronista de el-rei d. joão i dizia estarem no cume, ao tempo em que escrevia a sua miscel- lanea. entre, meu amigo, na sala m, examine os gran- des exemplares da ourivesaria religiosa alli expos- tos, e diga-me se, plausivelmente, se pode contes- tar a existencia de um estylo nacional, proprio do seculo xvi, e gerado e desenvolvido nas mesmas condições que produziram a architectura denominada manuelina. na ourivesaria, porém, o estylo affirmou- se, individualisou-se mais que na architectura. pa- rece que o genio dos artistas, menos ligado á ob- servancia das regras estabelecidas e á imitação dos modelos, podia expandir-se mais livremente em criações tão imaginosas como originaes. a profusão de ornatos e de figuras que se entre- laçam e atropellam, que não destacam bem umas das outras, pela falta de vazios intercallares, a fór- ma convencional das arvores, a imaginosa e exage- rada phantasia dos monstros e chymeras caracteri- sam estas obras notaveis da ourivesaria portugueza na primeira metade do seculo xvi. os tres grandes pratos e um dos dois gomis, expostos por sua magestade el-rei d. fernando, são os exemplares em que melhor se desenha o estylo portuguez. a primeira impressão, ao contemplar uma d'es- tas obras, é confusa e vaga. depois à vista começa a distinguir as particularidades do intrincado con- juncto : anjos, patriarchas, guerreiros a pé e a ca- vallo, reis, chymeras, tendas, castellos artilhados e guarnecidos de mosquetes, escadas de assalto, car- ros com provisões de guerra, luctas, caçadas, ar- vores, ramagens, ornatos de toda a especie. as vezes o mar povoado de galeões e monstros marinhos; deuses fabulosos e santos do calendario romano; a par com a mythologia o christianismo; juntamente com os medalhões da renascença os ve- lhos ornatos gothicos. É a historia da época, escri- pta no metal, são as ideas que inspiraram camões influindo da mesma sorte na imaginação dos artistas. com effeito, que imaginação fecunda se não pa- tenteia n’um dos gomis ! as figuras do bico e da aza parece excederem os maiores devaneios da phan- tasia humana. uma mulher, com pernas de abutre e com uma carranca no ventre, agarra sobre o peito as pernas caprinas de um satyro que se esforça por trepar pelo corpo do bico. a ponta, á maneira de gargula, é abraçada na face inferior por uma figura humana e cavalgada na parte superior por outra, que, ao mesmo tempo, agarra os braços da primeira e lhe finca os pés no peito. a aza, do lado opposto, compõe-se de figuras de não menos imaginosa phantasia. as pernas de umas engancham-se com os braços de outras ; duas acos- tam-se em direcções inversas. um grande basilisco de azas abertas e bocca escancarada está como que defendendo a ascensão da cadeia humana. para os portuguezes do seculo. xvi viver era lu- ctar, luctar com o oceano, com as tempestades, com os homens, com os animaes. a lucta, portanto, a feição proeminente dos costumes, tornava-se o as- sumpto predilecto dos artistas. a par com o prato e gomil ( e ) de que te- nho fallado estão do outro lado, sobre o mesmo fo- gão, outro prato e gomil de estylo italiano ( e ). estas obras, da mesma época ou pouco poste- riores, fazem com as primeiras notavel contraste, e servem muito bem para patentear com toda a cla- reza as differenças caracteristicas do estylo portu- guez. os ornatos de pura renascença não teem nada da accumulação que se observa nos pratos portu- guezes, antes se destacam graciosamente nos gran- des fundos lisos que os separam. finalmente a phantasia não ultrapassa os limites marcados pela arte classica. - a comparação d’estas obras differentes vale por si só uma lição de bellas artes. os grandes pratos e gomis são os exemplares em que mais claramente se desenha o estylo da ourive- saria portugueza na primeira metade do seculo xvi. todavia offerecem-nos ainda interesse, como repre- sentantes d'este mesmo estylo, outras obras de me- nores dimensões e de menos complexa ornamenta- ção, expostas por sua magestade na sala f. eis aqui tres fructeiros de prata doirada tendo todos por medalhões centraes o mesmo brazão dos sousas, encimado pela corôa de marquez. o dese- nho e o relevo assimelham-se aos dos grandes pra- tos. notam-se n'um d'elles galeões de fórmas ca- prichosas; n'outro sobresaem mais os ornatos da renascença, modificando já o estylo com a sua fei- ção proeminente e caracteristica. patenteia-se ainda melhor a similhança com os grandes pratos n'outro fructeiro de prata doirada, maior que os tres mencionados, com a forma quasi da bacia, orla rendilhada e brazão prelaticio no cen- tro. o estylo, porém, modificou-se cada vez mais, transformado pelas influencias irresistiveis da re- nascença. differe muito das obras anteriores uma salva com brazão prelaticio no centro, e uns gran- des bustos de homem e de mulher. a data de , gravada n’esta salva explica-nos a differença. fallando da ourivesaria portugueza da primeira metade do seculo xvi, exposta na sala f, não devo deixar de mencionar uma bella caldeirinha de prata doirada com grandes medalhões e ornatos de phan- tasia. lembra-se, meu amigo, de que foi pela compa- ração das obras italianas com as portuguezas que melhor cheguei a evidenciar a originalidade do es- tylo nacional. podemos repetir agora con, egual re- sultado o mesmo processo. juntamente com os exem- plares a que me tenho hoje referido está um bello medalhão de prata doirada, de puro estylo gothico, obra allemã dos fins do seculo xv. representa nossa senhora com o menino, s. paulo, s. jeronymo e um outro doutor da egreja, de joelhos, em adora- ção e parece ter servido de fecho a uma capa pre- laticia. a leve e graciosa architectura, a elegancia do de- senho, a delicadeza do cinzelado, mostram-nos dif- ferenças profundas entre este exemplar e os outros da mesma sala, e mais ainda se o compararmos com. as obras congeneres da arte religiosa, expostas na sala m. sua magestade el-rei d. fernando expõe ainda outros exemplares interessantes de ourivesaria. taes são duas pulseiras de oiro celticas; dois calices de prata doirada do seculo xvi; duas grandes coroas, uma de prata branca, outra de prata doirada, e dois fructeiros pequenos, obra portugueza do se- culo xvi, um de prata doirada, outro de prata branca e doirada. são ambos ornados de segmen- tos esphericos, uns simples, outros compostos de segmentos menores, imitando o granuloso da amora. relacionam-se naturalmente con estes exemplares outros dois, expostos um na sala g pelo museu kensington, outro na sala g pelo sr. manuel ba- rata de lima tovar, e finalmente uma salva do sr. d. luiz de carvalho daun e lorena. esta ul- tima não tem segmentos esphericos, mas pequenas pyramides de base quadrangular. todas estas obras são attribuiveis ao seculo xvi. a sr.a condessa d'edla expõe tambem na sala f alguns exemplares interessantes de ourivesaria. taes são um dos fructeiros, a que já me referi, com obrazão dos sousas no centro, uma imagem de nossa senhora e dois anjos em alto relevo, obras portuguezas do seculo xvi, uma sacra de prata, ca- racteristicamente portugueza, e alguns fructeiros de prata branca, do seculo xvii. entre estes ultimos ci- tarei dois com a forma de bacia, sendo um d'elles adornado com um busto de mulher doirado no me- dalhão central, e com a seguinte legenda em roda: anna mavr ella oldofredi d. ise. Æt. x. o resto ficou encoberto com o busto. são ambos extrema- mente similhantes a outros dois expostos na sala n, um dos quaes tem por medalhão central a effigie de : filippe in de hespanha, pela qual se determinaria a época, se ella não estivesse claramente indicada na ornamentação. os fructeiros mais elegantes expostos pela sr.a con- dessa estão n'uma das vitrines sextavadas. as alle- gorias das quatro partes do mundo, que adornam em baixo-relevo os centros e as largas cercaduras de ramagem, denunciam a industria franceza do se- culo xvii. os fructeiros de prata branca e dois pratos de filigrana de prata de cordova, expostos por sua ma- gestade, fazem realçar no grande armario de car- valho, pelo contraste das cores, os objectos de prata doirada. os esmaltes de limoges, em que a exposição é riquissima, estão tambem superiormente represen- tados na sala f. os mais antigos são uma collecção de doze com outros tantos passos da vida de christo, formando um triptyco ( ). representa a flagella- ção, outro, do seculo xvi ( ), comparavel, pela bel- leza do colorido, ao grande esmalte da bibliotheca de evora, exposto na sala m. É obra de joão péni- caud. finalmente outro pequeno esmalte, com mol- dura, parece representar a princeza margarida de saboya ( ). antes de me referir a outras obras de esculptura, direi algumas palavras acerca dos moveis ornados com obra de talha. como se prova pelos innumeros retabulos das egrejas e conventos, teve esta arte um grande des- envolvimento nos seculos xvii e xviii, e houve até artistas notaveis que trabalharam com grande per- feição. todavia os exemplares expostos nas outras salas são poucos para convenientemente represen- tarem este grande ramo de industria nacional. re- nencia das suas folhagens e fructos de cores verde e amarella. as duas estatuetas, a que já me referi, represen- tando santos em adoração, pertencem ao mesmo genero com a imagem da virgem que lhes serve de centro, e que não foi exposta. pertencem á sr.a condessa d'edla, que os adquiriu na italia. dos seculos xvii e xviii estão na sala f alguns pratos e talhas de talavera e de alcora, ornados com scenas de costumes e outras pinturas. no bojo de uma talha de talavera vê-se uma estudantina, tal qual é ainda hoje. . interessam-nos, porem, mais que tudo, as obras da fabrica do rato: espelho, as bailarinas, o busto da rainha d. maria , algumas das quaes são expos- tas pela sr.a condessa d'edla. ao espirito occorre perguntar, porque se não faz hoje o que em cera- mica se fazia ha mais de um seculo. alguns quadros gothicos e de épocas posteriores adornam a sala f. a primeira vista contam-se tam- bem como pinturas dois bellos mosaicos romanos do seculo passado, um dos quaes representa o ecce homo, e outro nossa senhora, ambos com ricas molduras doiradas. assimelham-se no estylo e na perfeição aquelles que se admiram na capella de s. joão baptista da egreja de s. roque. sobre o centro de nogueira, no meio da sala, es- tão joias e objectos de menores dimensões. perten- cem á sr.a condessa d'edla uma rica e numerosa collecção de caixas de rapé e algumas joias nota- veis. levar-me-ia muito tempo descrever todos estes objectos, que tanto attraem os olhos dos visitantes e particularmente das damas que se demoram n'esta sala. não deixarei, porém, de fazer menção de um grande collar de ambar e de filigrana de oiro, obra indo-portugueza dos fins do seculo xvi e de alguns vidros expostos no mesmo logar por sua magestade el-rei d. fernando. iv . a sala g (as vitrines de sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. luiz) lisboa, de fevereiro de . ao entrar na sala g deparam-se-nos logo as duas vitrines de sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. luiz. não é muito numerosa esta collecção; compre- hende apenas sessenta e nove objectos; mas ha en- tre elles alguns extremamente importantes. taes são duas torques ou collares de oiro, celti- cos, achados, ha alguns annos, perto de vizeu. con- temporaneos, talvez, da denominada cava de viriato, assimelham-se a outras torques que se teem desco- berto na galliza; bem como aquelle monumento pa- rece tambem corresponder aos antigos castros gal- legos. merece particular attenção a cruz de oiro de d. sancho . faz lembrar, sobretudo pelas finas pedras que a adornam, as joias wisigothicas do thesouro de guarrazar, não obstante os seis secu- los que as separam. todavia a forma e o desenho . dos ornatos são do seculo xii, que, dominado ainda pelas influencias byzantinas, se differença profunda- mente da antiga arte wisigothica, byzantina tam- bem, mas de outro modo caracterisada n’aquella época remota. a data da cruz de d. sancho está na seguinte inscripção, que darei aqui sem as abre- viaturas : dominus sancius rex jussit fieri hanc crucem ano incarnationis mccxiiii. adornam a face principal d'esta cruz muitos aljo. fares, saphiras e rubis, finos arabescos gravados sobre o oiro com guarnecimentos de filigrana. al- gumas das pedras estão marcadas com siglas. a base tem a forma de esphera achatada, tambem co- berta de ornatos de filigrana. os ornatos da face posterior são todos gravados a buril; no centro o agnus dei; nas extremidades da haste e dos braços o anjo e os animaes emble- maticos dos evangelistas, cujo desenho apresenta as fórmas elegantes e phantasiosas da esculptura orna- mental christã do seculo xii: na haste a inscripção já transcripta, cuja data foi gravada n’uma fita que o anjo de s. mattheus sustenta nas mãos. el-rei d. sancho i legou em seu testamento ao mosteiro de santa cruz de coimbra o oiro para esta obra notavel. entre esta cruz e outra de que mais adiante fal- larei está a custodia de belem, o mais admiravel dos monumentos da ourivesaria portugueza. em ne- nhuma outra obra d'este genero se reproduziu com tanto primor a phantasia, o arrojo, a esbelta ele- gancia e maravilhosa delicadeza do estylo ogival, pela difficuldade de reduzir no ouro ou na prata as fórmas dos elementos architectonicos das grandes ca- thedraes de pedra. o auctor da custodia de belem fez este milagre da arte, e deu á sua obra uma apparencia verda- deiramente phantastica e maravilhosa. o genio na- cional, as ideas que exaltavam o caracter portuguez no seculo xvi, as inspirações que os artistas rece- biam do oriente patenteiam-se na obra de gil vi- cente, como em thomar, em belem, ou nos lusia- das. compõe-se a custodia de quatro partes : base, haste, relicario e cupula. no bordo inferior da base lè-se o seguinte em caracteres de esmalte branco: o muito alto prin- cipe e poderoso senhor rei dom manoel i a man- dov fazer do ovro i das parias de quiloa aquabov e cccccvi. a superficie da base é distribuida em seis gomos adornados com aves, buzios e flores esmaltadas e em alto relevo. formam a haste dois corpos hexagonos, fenestra- dos, ligados pelo nó tambem hexagono, muito vo- lumoso e proeminente; em cada uma das seis fa- ces, entre dois columnellos, a esphera armillar. es- tes columnellos são uma transformação ou derivação das torrinhas que adornam as partes corresponden- tes de algumas alfaias do seculo xv, como se pode vêr nos exemplares expostos na sala m. sobre a haste ergue-se o grande corpo archite- ctonico que contém o relicario, e cuja base é, na face inferior, adornada de rendilhados e de festões. doze modilhões de forma pyramidal, com os ver- tices para baixo, guarnecem adiante e atraz a cir- cumferencia da base. sobre cada um d'elles, n'um plintho hexagono, está de joelhos a estatueta de um apostolo. querendo evitar a monotonia que offereceriam doze figuras de joelhos, o artista variou por extremo as fórmas, as côres e os pannejamentos das vestes, e tambem as cabeças, fazendo umas calvas, outras com cabellos, doirados todos, mas diversamente an- nellados. sobre a base do relicario erguem-se duas colum- nas quadrangulares, entre as quaes está fixada a caixa circular com vidros para conter a hostia. exteriormente reveste cada uma das columnas um corpo de grande altura, formado de peças de- licadissimas. em baixo nichos com anjos cobertos com baldaquinos, sobre os quaes se levantam altos columnellos, ornados de espiraes e sustendo outros anjos e baldaquinos. os ornatos cada vez se tornam mais delicados, de baixo para cima, até chegarem a parecer quasi microscopicos. a cupula articula-se com a columnas e corpos lateraes, baixando na parte media até ao nivel su- perior do hostiario, ao qual forma uma como coroa, guarnecida de rendilhados e ornada com seis sera- phins n'outros tantos medalhões. a cupula propriamente dita, que se eleva acima d'esta especie de corôa, compõe-se de tres corpos de arcarias, rendilhados, anjos e baldaquinos, liga- dos entre si por columnellos enciinados por coru- cheus. por baixo do corpo superior está o busto do padre eterno, coroado, com a esphera do mundo e a cruz n’uma das mãos, e abençoando com a outra. uma cruz serve de remate superior a toda a obra. esta custodia e a cruz de d. sancho i foram re- colhidas, em , com as alfaias de oiro e prata dos conventos á casa da moeda. d'aqui passaram mais tarde para a casa real em troca de outros ob- jectos, pertencentes á corôa, que n'aquella casa ha- viam sido fundidos. sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. luiz expoz tam- os do barco, ao mesmo tempo que uma d'ellas resiste contra um outro demonio que lhe lança as garras. no quadro seguinte estão n'um logar alto, junto das muralhas de uma fortaleza, tres cavalleiros, con- tra os quaes parece virem outros, e entre elles um rei; outro rei, atravessado por uma espada, é pre- cipitado para o terreno mais baixo, por onde os ul- timos avançam. no immediato representa-se uma grande carnifi- cina. em frente das tendas de um arraial homens armados de espadas degolam ou atravessain outros, alguns dos quaes jazem prostrados em terra. no immediato um rei seguido de outros homens, um dos quaes está de joelhos em terra, assiste ao desmoronamento de uma fortaleza. o seguinte representa tres homens presos, indo adiante dois alabardeiros e atraz um cavalleiro.. depois um papa, acolytado por dois bispos, ba- ptisa um rei. na terceira zona, ou exterior, dois galeões com velas latinas, levando as do primeiro a cruz de christo, seguidos por um barco menor com vela triangular, navegam pelo mar encapellado; deixando atraz a terra coberta de arvoredo, e mais ao longe uma fortaleza. num outro quadro um rei a cavallo, precedido de dois alabardeiros de pé e seguido de cavalleiros, deixando atraz as tendas de um arraial, approxi- ma-se de umas muralhas ameiadas, de cima das quaes dois homens parece fallarem para baixo. outro representa uma viagem de cavalleiros. junto de um bosque alguns homens enchem de agua, que tiram com cantaros do chão, as vasilhas que um ca- vallo transporta. ao longe seguem uma estrada, na maior altura, alguns camellos. outro representa um combate. alguns cavalleiros e cavallos jazem por terra. n'outro dois homens entram n'uma casa, onde, sobre um estrado, algumas mulheres lhe saem ao encontro. a principal é precedida por outra que traz uma creança n'uma bandeja. algumas outras, atraz, estão sentadas. mais atraz, junto de uma chaminé, outra mulher assa carne n'um espeto em frente do fogo. no immediato alguns homens, sobre um caes, junto de um bosque, assistem á partida de um ou- tro, que n'um batel, com um rèmador, segue para um galeão pouco distante. outro representa o encontro de quatro cavallei- ros que se cumprimentam tirando os chapéos, e de uma e de outra parte precedidos por homens de pe e de cavallo. n'outro, finalmente, um rei parece enfermar ou agonisar n'um leito. ao lado um papa está para lan- çar-lhe em cima um lençol ou coberta. mulheres e homens de joelhos, um d'elles com um brandão acceso, os outros, de mãos postas, as- sistem a este espectaculo. taes são as scenas representadas no grande prato de prata doirada de sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. luiz. É possivel que a ordem natural dos qua- dros seja outra, mas nem por isso deixará de ter interesse a descripção de cada um d'elles, afim de dar idéa d'este estylo singular. no centro houve de certo um brazão, hoje sub- stituido por um medalhão, representando em baixo- relevo um combate de cavalleiros. a par com estas obras de ourivesaria nacional expõe sua magestade outras de estylo mui diffe- rente. taes são tres grandes pratos de prata doi- gem de christo resuscitado. os paineis representam em baixo-relevo, adiante o enterro, atraz o calvario, de um lado a crucifixão, do outro o descimento da cruz. são do mesmo estylo da renascença e do mesmo seculo xvi, porém obra italiana, uma gorgeira e um peito de armadura, ornados de bellos baixo-relevos, que representam assumptos guerreiros. attribuem- se a francisco i. a sua magestade a rainha a senhora d. maria pia pertencem tres joias de grande preço, expostas n'uma das vitrines: uma cruz de oiro esmaltado, ornada de perolas e esmeraldas; um pingente de oiro esmaltado representando uma sereia, ornado de perolas e grenadas; e finalmente um relicario de oiro. a cruz e o pingente são do seculo xvi; o relicario, pelas pinturas que o adornam, parece do seculo xvii. ao lado da custodia de belem está uma cruz tam- bem de oiro, já do seculo xvii, mas de elegante e apurado lavor. e toda coberta de rendilhados com rubis, diamantes, esmeraldas, brilhantes, saphiras e perolas. está vinculada na casa de bragança e denomina-se cruz de villa viçosa. além das duas vitrines de sua magestade el-rei, contem a sala g outras duas, occupadas por grande variedade de objectos na parte inferior; na parte superior por innumeros leques de varios exposito- res (pela maior parte expositoras) de lisboa e das provincias. tanto estes dois grupos de leques como o da sr.a condessa d'edla, exposto na sala f, fazem bellissimo effeito: semelhantes na forma e nas côres ás azas das borboletas, parecem bandos d'estes insectos a librar-se no espaço interior das vitrines. não lhe indicarei, meu amigo, os de maior preço, pois francamente confesso a minha ignorancia na materia, mas os mais bellos, ou pelo menos aquelles que assim me parecem. aqui está logo em frente um leque de inverno, exposto pelo sr. fernando palha ( ) e que decerto merece o logar em que foi collocado. notarei tambem disseminados pelos dois grupos, os das sr.as condessa de prime ( ) d. maria francisca saldanha de oliveira e daun ( , ), d. maria da gloria rezende coutinho ( ), viscondessa de daupias ( , , ), d. eugenia vizeu ( ), condessa de rio maior, d. izabel ( ), d. camilla ribeiro de faria ( ), marqueza de fronteira ( ), d. maria das dores ferreira navarro ( ). espõem, finalmente, exemplares não menos inte- ressantes os srs. albano pinto de mesquita carva- lho e gama ( ), conde de mesquitella ( ), au- gusto moreira ( ), francisco xavier de carvalho ( ), d. duarte manuel de noronha ( ) e c mu- seu municipal do porto ( ). e curiosa a collecção de caixas de rapé, expostas n'uma das vitrines a que me tenho referido. umas de oiro simples ou esmaltado, outras de prata branca ou doirada, outras com baixo-relevos, outras, final- mente, com miniaturas. entre muitas, de que pode- ria fazer digna menção, notarei apenas uma de pra- ta doirada com ornatos de applicação de filigrana de prata branca, pertencente ao sr. manuel barata de lima tovar, outra do sr. bento de queiroz, de vizeu, com um baixo-relevo que representa uma toirada. É tambem d'este ultimo expositor, cujo nome apparece tantas vezes repetido na exposição, uma grande bolsa de rede de prata doirada, que, pelas suas dimensões, destaca entre os relogios e caixas de rapé. parece do tempo de d. joão v e dolorosa. são bellos o colorido e a forma das figu- ras. ha porém nas posições a exageração e a affe- ctação que se apontam como defeitos caracteristicos das obras que sairam ou procederam da escola de mafra. este grupo é exposto pela sr. d. helena de aragão. logo adiante vê-se uma estatua de cera e gesso doirada que representa el rei d. josé. attri- bue-se a joaquim machado de castro, como um primeiro e desprezado modelo para o monumento do terreiro do paço. mencionarei ainda um cofre, só notavel por ser de ambar, e finalmente uma curiosidade, uma prova da paciencia e do lavor delicado de que são capazes um cerebro e mão humanos. É um papel recortado å thesoura, figurando uma paizagem e mettido entre duas laminas de vidro. a maior parte dos olhos passa como uma gravura em vidro ou crystal. É exposto este objecto pela sr. viscondessa de fonte arcada. occupam a parte inferior da vitrine grupos de joias de varios expositores, entre os quaes avulta a copiosa e variada collecção do sr. julio cordeiro. extremamente differentes nas formas, cores e dis- posição das pedras: brincos, anneis, collares, me- dalhas, adereços completos, broches, cruzes, relo- gios, alfinetes de peito, pregos de cabello, fivelas, condecorações, etc., são todos do seculo passado. deixemos agora as vitrines e demos um rapido giro á roda da sala, começando pela esquerda á en- trada. eis aqui sobre uma meza de pau santo um grande tinteiro de bronze, memoravel somente por ter pertencido ao primeiro marquez de pombal, em cuja casa religiosamente se tem conservado. sobre a mesma meza está um grande vaso de prata lavrada, obra de guimarães, do seculo xyli, e exposto pelo sr. manuel pedro guedes; e final- bordada a oiro, com anjos e outros ornatos de bronze doirado ( ). tem interesse unicamente como curiosidade historica. É a sedes gestatoria em que, no seculo passado, traziam o patriarcha em procissão, como n'um andor. recorda-nos, pois, aquelles privilegios que el-rei d. joão v comprou por avultadas sommas para ter em lisboa uma imi- tação das pompas religiosas de roma e do luxo pon- tificio, menos christão do que asiatico. cobre em parte a parede do fundo da sala i um biombo de cartão, ornado de medalhões com a serie dos monarchas portuguezes, desde o conde d. hen- rique até d. pedro il e seu filho o principe d. joão. na parte inferior veem-se representadas em seis grandes quadros as batalhas da restauração da in- dependencia nacional ( ). a fórma das casas, o colorido e a ornamentação suscitam a idea de que este singular biombo tenha sido pintado na china. foi exposto pela sr.a vis- condessa de fonte arcada; e diz-se que pertencera ao primeiro visconde d'este titulo, pedro jacques de magalhães, um dos cabos das guerras da inde- pendencia. o sr. custodio correia da rocha, de lamego, ex- põe um leito de pau santo de forma assås elegante e no estylo de luiz xv. É forrado de coiro estam- pado, como um canapé, e pode servir com colchão ou sem elle ( ). no topo da sala estão um espelho e mesa com obra de talha em grande relevo ( e ). como outros similhantes moveis, parece terem sido fei- tos com antigos fragmentos. foram expostos pelo sr. francisco d'aboim. encontram-se ainda na sala tres medalhões de faiança ( , e ), genero della robbia, simi- neto coo ve dos morer dente dois : cordeiro ( ) artes ( ). o primeiro rada esculpiora, cbras de talla del mais forte razão, a wrpado extremam ca-se, portanto, un quer que appareça. o segundo é um co que se attribuiria ao ables o producto de uil heapadba, como ga ita cteres da arte local os t gião se fabricaram em na sala h está um com frança, e attribuido a ca se conbecem, que pelo se a hypothese de que não mente antigos. na ceramica da sala ji interessantes. taes são azul epocas e estylos differentes, sobresaem pelas dimenso dros de azulejo, que foram cosa ( e ). um repre paizagens vivamente colorid as armas do duque de bra madas pela coroa e dragã abjos. a ornamentação á r nascença, e representa fitas, fructas, flores, vasos, etc. n’uma das paredes está um grande medalhão de marmore de carrara ( ), representando em mais de meio relevo nossa senhora com o menino, e dois. anjos sustendo uma grinalda. era da fachada da egreja da madre de deus, como se prova pelo conhecido quadro que a representa tal qual era no seculo xvi, encorporado hoje n'um movel de sacristia, e formando a parte posterior de · uma porta do mesmo movel, exposta na sala j, onde somente está à vista o quadro da face anterior, que representa o casamento de d. joão iii. a moldura primitiva do inedalhão já não existe. foi substituida pela de um outro medalhão de dia- metro um pouco maior. todavia é no genero d'a- quella que se perdeu. É tambem do mesmo genero e da mesma época um portico de faiança azul e branca com pilastras ornamentadas no estylo da renascença, e pertenceu egualmente ao mosteiro da madre de deus. ha n’esta sala dois notaveis baixo-relevos em pe- dra lithographica, ambos do seculo xvi. um, per- tencente ao sr. duque de loulé ( ), representa o calvario. o outro ( ), do sr. conde de villa real, representa o descimento da cruz. mencionarei, finalmente, algumas figuras de barro coloridas ( , , e ), que foram de um presepio d'aquelle convento, e que parecem obras do auctor de outras, expostas na sala g, e das quaes já fallei n'uma das minhas cartas antecedentes. o desenho é correcto, vivo e colorido, mas resente-se d'aquella exaggeração com que costumamos, ainda hoje, representar mais burlescos do que, em ver- dade, são alguns typos populares. entremos agora na sala k e examinemos primei- ramente a vitrine xxxii, que nos fica logo á entrada da porta. eis aqui numerosas imagens de santos, a maior parte das quaes são expostas pelo sr. cor- deiro feio. merecem attenção estes exemplares, bem como outros da mesma sala e da immediata. infe- lizmente, por serem quasi todos da mesma época, não bastam para representar nas suas differentes phases a imaginaria portugueza. já nos seculos xv e xvi havia muitos imaginarios, cuja arte se desenvolvia principalmente sob a pro- tecção das egrejas e conventos. todavia, anteriores ao seculo xviii, poucas obras d'este genero se en- contram na exposição. ter-se-hia de certo preen- chido esta falta, se não prevalecesse commumente a idea de que só poderiam ser apreciadas as coisas notaveis pelo seu valor intrinseco ou pela sua per- feição artistica. algumas das estatuetas, expostas pelo sr. cor- deiro feio, são de madeira pintada e doirada; ou- tras de marfim e ebano. estas ultimas diz-se terem sido feitas na italia e offerecidas por junot á con- dessa da ega. É possivel. mas, comparando esta collecção com outra, exposta na sala l, e que sei com certeza ter vindo de gôa no principio d'este seculo, entro em duvida sobre a veracidade d'aquella tradição. antes me parece dever attribuir as esta- tuetas n.ºs a e tambem outras, expostas na vitrine xxxv com os n.os a , á industria indo-portugueza dos fins do seculo xvii, ou dos princípios do seculo xviii. a.collecção da sala l consta de treze peças dif- ferentes, formando uma banqueta de altar de capella. uma figura de mulher, allegoria da asia, com um joelho em terra sustem sobre o outro joelho o do seculo svi e attribuidos o primeiro á industria italiana, o segundo á industria bespanhola. a espada, exposta pelo sr. manuel thimotheo de andrade, tem os punhos e os copos de oiro, orna- dos de bustos, tropheus e outros lavores e crave. jados de pedras. na folha lè se a data de , e n'uma face: viva d. joÃo de austria ; ,e na outra: viva d. joÃo de braganÇa. a bainha é de velludo carmezim e de oiro no terço inferior e no superior, o qual é tambem adornado de pedras. a coexistencia d'estas duas inscripções antinomi- cas na mesma espada é um facto inexplicavel. consta apenas que fora dada de presente a manuel thimo- theo valladares, antigo governador na india e no brazil. a vitrine xxxv contém entre muitos outros obje- ctos as estatuetas de marfim, a que já me referi, expostas pela sr.a d. laura rodrigues blanco; chi- caras e pires de porcelana do derbi cornwall, do sr. fernando palha; estatuetas de saxe, do sr. pes- soa de amorim; um par de pistolas com ornatos de prata do sr. dr. caetano de albuquerque; dois medalhões de wedgwood, um busto de agatha sobre um lindissimo pedestal ornado de esmaltes e rubis, um serviço de almoço de saxe e um orgão portatil com ornatos gravados em marfim e com a seguinte inscripção: arsacyos geyer hoc opvs fecit . es- tes ultimos objectos pertencem á academia real das sciencias de lisboa. · ha na sala k, alguns moveis notaveis. o maior, e o que mais prende a attenção dos visitantes, é um grande leito italiano do seculo xvii, com ornatos de prata rebatida e cinzelada, e com pinturas re- presentando assumptos mythologicos. um escudo com as armas da casa de sabugal serve de remate å cabeceira. pertence actualmente, bem como a colcha que o cobre, ao sr. julio cordeiro. nas salas ke l ha grande numero e variedade de cadeiras, algumas do seculo xvii, a maior parte do seculo xviii. julgo, porém, que em lisboa e ainda na provincia se encontrariam algumas mais antigas e mais interessantes, que as que figuram na exposição. das expostas nas salas ke l as mais notaveis são duas de guadamecis, uma da academia real de bellas artes, outra do sr. marquez da graciosa, ambas muito similhantes e attribuiveis å industria hespanhola do seculo xvii; outras duas com assen- tos de coiro estampado e costas de madeira com um brazão esculpido ( e ), ambas do seculo xviii, uma d'ellas exposta pelo sr. basilio cabral teixeira de queiroz, outra pela academia de bellas artes de lisboa. da antiga cadeira de coiro portugueza do seculo xvii e xviii, da qual se conservam ainda tantos exemplares de formas differentes, poucos vieram á exposição. além das duas expostas na sala j, pou- cas mais se encontram nas salas ke l; e ainda al- gumas d'ellas com restaurações evidentes. as cadeiras de coiro com moldura de talha do seculo xviii, em que os grossos pés revestidos de arabescos e folhagens substituem já os torcidos ou torneados, estão mais bem representadas. entre ellas merecem attenção duas do extincto mosteiro de lorvão, e uma do sr. visconde de daupias ( e ). grande parte dos moveis, enviados á exposição, e collocados não somente nas salas ke l, mas tam- bem nas anteriores g, h, i e j, são estrangeiros. sabe-se, todavia, que a industria da mobilia foi uma das que mais produziram em portugal, e que mais se differenciaram, por caracteres particulares, das industrias correspondentes de outros paizes. infelizmente, a commissão executiva, occupada com os trabalhos da organisação da exposição, não teve tempo de procurar e de pedir em lisboa os exemplares d’este genero. por outra parte, alguns dos expositores deixaram em casa os antigos mo- veis portuguezes, para mandar os estrangeiros, de certo mais bellos e de maior preço, mas que de modo nenhum deveriam obter a preferencia para uma exposição da arte portugueza. . tres grandes armarios, dois designados com os n. e na salà k e outro com o n.º na sala l, representam na exposição um genero, de que se encontram ainda muitos exemplares em portu- gal. conhecem-se n'outros paizes moveis similhan- tes, hollandezes ou flamengos, que talvez tenham sido imitados em portugal. no mais bello dos tres lê-se na parte inferior em grandes letras relevadas : anno . este armario, de madeira de carvalho, pertenceu ao extincto convento de chellas, o outro da sala k, tambem de carvalho, exposto pelo sr. paiva de andrada, torna-se notavel pelas figuras e outros ornatos de talha, se bem que menos perfeita que a do anterior. o da sala l, de pau santo o de forma assás elegante, pertence a academia de bellas ar- tes de lisboa. dos grandes armarios de pau santo, ornados de tremidos e com bellas chapas e puxadeiras de latão, que pelo estylo correspondem aos contadores, me- sas, e cadeiras de pés torneados, não temos na ex- posição nenhum exemplar, posto que se encontrem ainda em algumas casas de lisboa e das provin- cias. esta industria portugueza do seculo xvii, está re- presentada na sala k somente por um elegante con- tador ( ), exposto pelo sr. teixeira de aragão. alguns contadores e outros moveis de embutidos representam nas salas ke l a industria indiana, da qual se encontram ainda em portugal tantos exem- plares. da sala k merecem menção dois moveis, como obras caracteristicamente portuguezas. É uma com- moda de pau santo ( ) com embutidos de madeira de espinheiro e puxadores de latão circulares, que servem como de molduras a medalhões de esmalte, que representam bustos de mulheres. pertence ao sr. d. miguel pereira coutinho. o outro é um touca- dor ( ) do mesmo genero, exposto pela sr. d. he- lena de aragão. uma parede da sala k está coberta de armas de varias especies e épocas, elegantemente dispostas. são escudos, capacetes, cotas de malha, peitos, cou- raças e outras peças de armaduras, espadas, espa- dins, alabardas, punhaes, esporas, acicates, etc., em numero de mais de cem exemplares. nos vãos das janellas dois armeiros contéem es- pingardas dos srs. manuel bento de sousa e tei- xeira de aragão, umas do seculo passado, outras já d'este seculo, e quasi todas com os nomes ou marcas dos fabricantes portuguezes. finalmente, de outra parede pende ainda um me- dalhão de faiança do genero della robbia. repre- senta em alto relevo o busto de um imperador ro- mano. a moldura é egual ás dos outros medalhões já mencionados, e o desenho do busto egualmente correcto. foi exposto pelo sr. visconde de daupias. a vitrine xxxvi da sala l contém grande numero de objectos de cobre esmaltado. vinte e dois, collo- cados todos na parte inferior, formam a notavel col- , lecção dos srs. duques de palmella, outrora per- tencente, segundo consta, á casa de angeja. d'estes vinte e seis objectos, vinte e tres são de cobre es- maltado de limoges, do seculo xvi e xvii, notaveis pela belleza, variedade de fórmas, differença do co- lorido e diversidade dos desenhos. · a collecção consta de pratos, fructeiros, častiçaes, saleiros, um tinteiro e um repuxo. em dois gran- des pratos ellipticos ou travessas estão representa- dos, n'um o banquete dos deuses, no outro o rapto de europa. estes bellos quadros fazem lembrar, pelo esmero, nitidez e elegancia das figuras, as obras ca- pitaes da renascença. . examinando com attenção estas curiosas peças, n'ellas se reconhecem tres typos differentes.. ao primeiro pertencem os dois grandes pratos ellipticos e alguns dos fructeiros. um d'aquelles tem a data de e as iniciaes p. r. (pierre rey- mond). o segundo typo, menos antigo, é o dos fructeiros e de differentes objectos de varias formas, destina- dos para usos diversos. o nome do fabricante jean laudin, faz parte da legenda de um pequeno prato. o terceiro, finalmente, differença-se dos outros dois por signaes muito caracteristicos. os seis pra- tos d'este ultimo genero representam assumptos re- ligiosos, ainda com as minucias das antigas pintu- ras flamengas, e são de todos os da collecção aquel- les que menos differem dos outros esmaltes do se- culo xvi, expostos nas salas f e m. as letras i. c. que se encontram no reverso dos pratos parece se. rem do nome jehan courteys. uma das classes do programma que menos re- presentada está na exposição, é a dos instrumentos musicos, notaveis pelos ornatos. não faltarão elles de certo em hespanha e portugal, onde o povo tanto aprecia as obras de madeira com embutidos de cores. sendo em verdade para lamentar esta falta, não deixarei de mencionar dois bandolins da vitrine xxxii, expostos pela sr.a d. maria julia botelho lobo de santos e silva. são ambos de madeira marchetada de tartaruga e madre-perola, e um d'elles tem o se- guinte letreiro : daniel de matos o fez em lisboa. na praÇa da alegria no anno de . na mesma vitrine e na immediata, marcada com o numero xxxviii, estão as treze peças da banqueta de ebano e marfim a que já me referi, e n’esta ul- tima tambem merece attenção o assento e o espal- dar de uma cadeira de coiro estampado e doirado. o desenho dos ornatos estampados é commum, a douradura, porém, bastante rara, particularmente com a perfeição que conserva n'este exemplar. e do sr. maximino de mattos carvalho. algumas tapeçarias cobrem as paredes da sala k, que, pela sua estreiteza e pouca luz, não deixa bem aprecial-as. as mais antigas e de mais preço são dois pannos de arras do seculo xv, analogos pelos desenhos e colorido ás boas pinturas flamengas da mesma época. infelizmente, não estão tão bem con- servados como aquelle que pertenceu ao convento da madre de deus, e foi exposto na sala a. as ou- tras tapeçarias fazem parte da secção hespanhola. finalmente, para concluir o que tenho a dizer da sala l, mencionarei um azulejo do seculo xvi, que faz lembrar, pelo colorido, e talvez pelo estylo, aquelle que el-rei o senhor d. fernando expoz na sala f. procede do convento de s. bento, de evora. vi a sala m as salas m, ne , contéem a grande collecção de obras de ourivesaria, por entre as quaes se in- tercallaram algumas de outras classes, afim de evi- tar o aspecto monotono de uma longa serie de ob- jectos metallicos. na disposição d'esta collecção por todas as tres salas, seguiu-se a ordem chronologica, excepto em. certos casos, em que, por conveniencia da colloca- ção, se alterou excepcionalmente o systema geral. a sala m, a maior de todas, é occupada pelos exemplares da edade media e do seculo xvi. a sala n, por alguns ainda do seculo xvi e pelos do seculo xvii. a sala , finalmente, pelos do se- culo xviii, com mui poucas excepções.. a evolução da arte segue-se, pois, como n'um livro de historia, por todas as tres salas, cada uma das quaes, e mais em particular a sala n e a sala , teem a sua feição caracteristica dependente do es- tylo do seculo respectivo. falta, porém, na sala m esta unidade de estylo. a maior parte das obras de arte, que contém, são ogivaes; mas, além d'estas, muitas outras anterio- res: arabes, byzantinas, romanicas; outras tam- bem posteriores, produzidas já pela renascença; outras, finalmente, em que os dois estylos se com- binam, formando umas vezes bellos contrastes, ou- tras vezes productos hybridos e disformes. tudo isto faz com que seja extremamente cu- rioso o aspecto da sala m. os seus exemplares re- presentam-nos as revoluções que, durante a edade média, mudaram as nacionalidades, os systemas po- liticos, os cultos religiosos e os estylos das artes; depois o grande movimento da renascença, que abriu aos povos europeus os largos horisontes da civilisação grega e romana; finalmente, os esforços dos artistas para accommodar ás exigencias de uma religião monotheista a architectura e a esculptura do polytheismo, esforços que de certo lhes sairiam baldados, se não tivessem os santos e santas do calendario para substituir aos antigos deuses, re- presentando-os na estatuaria, ou agrupando-os nos baixo-relevos. os exemplares mais antigos da sala m, são al- gumas obras da arte mahometana. já antecedente- mente me referi ao cofre de marfim hispano-arabe da sé de braga ( ), quando fallei de outras simi- lhantes antigualhas do museu kensington. uma d'es- tas ultimas, a mais notavel de todas, tem a maior analogia com o cofre de braga, nas inscripções, na fórma e na ornamentação. ambas as inscripções de caracteres cuficos, estão gravadas nas bordas das tampas, quasi hemisphe- ricas. no cofre do museu kensington, falta, com um grande pedaço da tampa, a primeira parte da in- scripção, a qual diria, segundo a formula commum: em nome de deus, etc. a parte restante, anda in- terpretada nos catalogos do museu, pela seguinte forma : prosperidade e felicidade para riyadh ben aflah, capitÃo da guarda superior : isto foi feito no anno de (a. d. ). a inscripção do cofre da sé de braga, segundo a lição, publicada n’uma carta de a. soromenho, nas artes e letras ( .a serie, pag. ), diz o se- guinte: em nome de deus a benÇÃo e prosperidade e a fortuna para o hadjeb seifo'-d-daula por esta obra que mandou fazer por mĀos de... seu eunuco alamerita. o auctor da carta suppoz que na parte que falta da tampa estaria o nome do eunuco, e julgou tam- bem, por considerações historicas acerca do perso- nagem, a quem pertenceu o cognome de seifo’-d- daula, que o cofre da sé de braga terá sido feito entre os annos e . a maior similhança está nas fórmas dos dois co- fres. ambos teem os corpos cylindricos e as tam- pas quasi hemisphericas, mas o de braga, de me- nor diametro, é mais elegante. tanto um como outro são inteiramente cobertos de lavores do mesmo estylo. no de braga, porém, não se representaram scenas correspondentes ás dos tres quadros que adornam o do museu kensington. sobre seis columnas incompletas estribam-se outros tantos arcos de volta de ferradura, encimados por medalhões circulares, cujo espaço é occupado, em cada um d'elles, por uma ave ou um quadrupede. os espaços interiores e exteriores dos arcos são pre- enchidos com arvores, ramagens, flores, fructas, fi- guras de homens e de animaes, etc. a inscripção do cofre de pamplona, ao qual tam- bem já me referi, e que, pelas scenas representa- das nos quadros ou medalhões da face anterior, se assimelha por extremo ao cofre do museu kensin- gton, dará o nome do auctor dos tres cofres e com- pletará a historia d'estas curiosissimas antigualhas : em nome de deus, a benÇÃo de deus, a completa felicidade, a fortuna, a realisaÇÃo da esperanÇa das boas obras e o adiamento do termo fatal para o hagib seifo dÁula abdelmalek ben almansur : isto foi feito por sua ordem, sob a inspecÇÃo e direccÃo do chefe dos seus eunucos, nomayr ben mohammad alameri, seu escravo; no anno de , (a. d. ) . entre os outros exemplares da arte mahometana merecem particular menção dois fragmentos de gesso com ornamentação de folhas em baixo-relevo ( e ) e o capitel de marmore ( ) lavrado no mesmo es- tylo, encontrados em montemor-o-velho, em exca- vações feitas na parte superior do castello. o que principalmente då importancia a estes fragmentos é a raridade dos vestigios da época arabe em portugal. são de tempos menos antigos outras obras da arte mahometana, conjuntamente expostas por se- rem da mesma classe. algumas serão talvez imita- ções modernas. com quanto não sejam obras da arte peninsular, teem grande interesse, pelo estylo caracteristico e como documentos para a historia dos esmaltes de limoges, dois relicarios da sé de vizeu ( e ) de madeira revestida de cobre esmaltado com figuras em meio relevo de cobre doirado. na secção hes- panhola estão dois relicarios similhantes, proceden- tes de s. marcos de leão, porém, menores e mais imperfeitos. tanto uns como os outros se attribuem ao seculo xii ou xiii. j. p. riaño - the industrial arts in spain, pag. . entre as obras d'esta mesma época se hão de classificar dois baculos de cobre doirado, um da sé de braga ( ), outro da egreja da ermida de castro daire ( ), uma imagem do bispo s. nicolau, de prata doirada, da sé de coimbra ( ) e a grande collecção de calices byzantinos ( , , , , e ). a academia de bellas artes de lisboa pertencem tres, dos quaes dois foram da egreja de alcobaça, como se deprehende das suas inscripções. aquella que foi gravada na face interior da base do maior ( ) diz: in nomine domini nostri jesu christi hunc calice dedit regina dvlcia alcvbacie in honore dei et gloriose virginis marie ad serviendvm in maiore altare. a inscripção gravada na base de outro ( ) é a seguinte: calix iste ad honorem dei et sancte marie de alcobacia factum est. n'outro finalmente ( ) lê-se: emccxxv rex sanci et regina dvlcia offervnt calicem istvm sancte marine de costa. ainda hoje pertence a esta mesma egreja de santa marinha da costa, perto de guimarães. os outros dois calices teem a mesma forma, po- rém, ha differenças notaveis na ornamentação. o da sé de coimbra ( ) é muito mais elegante e muito mais perfeito nos lavores. adornam a base os emblemas dos quatro evan- gelistas, em medalhões circulares. na borda inferior lê-se: geda menendiz me fecit in onorem sancti michaelis e mclxxxx. o nó é de filigrana, como o do grande calix de alcobaça, e a copa quasi toda coberta com as figuras dos apostolos, com os seus respectivos nomes gravados em cima, na borda superior. na superficie da copa conservam-se ainda servia para guardar as reliquias de s. vicente. po- rėm tanto os arabescos lineares como as figuras de s. vicente, de corvos e de galeões, que adornamo cofre da sé de lisboa, são de lavor menos perfeito. a cruz da mitra patriarchal ( ) parece obra hespanhola do seculo xii ou xiv. a disposição das linhas correspondentes aos engasles das pedras é muito notavel. a maior parte das figuras resultan- tes do encruzamento d'essas linhas são ogivaes, mas o desenho geral e o intrincado das voltas parece do estylo arabe. não sei determinar tambem a origem de um co- fre de madeira, da mesma época, pertencente ao cabido de vizeu ( ). e interessante a pintura da face interior da tampa, representando em fundo prateado um cavallo, um cavalleiro e uma dama. da ourivesaria da segunda metade do século xiv e do seculo xv apparecem já maior numero de mo. numentos. a custodia de alcobaça ( ), despre- zando a parte media, accrescentada no seculo xvii, é um bom exemplar para a determinação do estylo d'esta época. a ornamentação e a forma dos ele- mentos architectonicos tem caracteres salientes. a inscripção com a data é um documento importante: esta copa mandou fazer don frei joam dornelas abade de alcobaÇa era de mil quatro cento e quatro. o exame comparativo da custodia, das cruzes de alcobaça ( a), da sé de coimbra ( ), da aca- demia de bellas artes ( ), da freguezia de gaula ( ), da collegiada de guimarães ( ), de montela- var ( ) dá a idéa mais geral dos caracteres da ou- rivesaria dos seculos xiv e xv. taes são as formas acastelladas, a proeminencia e altura das torres e gi- gantes, os ornatos lineares que se enrolam à ma- n dos despojos do rei de castella na batalha de alju- barrota. contra a tradição estão protestando expres- sivamente os escudos das armas reaes portuguezas, sem vestigio nenhum de terem sido accrescentados å fabrica primitiva. gaspar estaço, conego da collegiada de guima- rães, que viveu nos seculos xvi e xvii e publicou o seu livro intitulado varias antiguidades de portugal em , não falla de semelhante lenda. antes, re- ferindo-se a el-rei d. joão i, diz que, armado de to- das suas armas, ase mandou pesar a prata, e a deu a nossa senhora de offerta. da qual se fez o reta- bulo de prata do presepe de christo nosso senhor, que nos dias solemnes se põe no altar maior, em que estão as armas d’este rei. não é de modo nenhum crivel que um conego da collegiada, antiquario, deixasse de mencionar a pro- cedencia do oratorio, se estivesse convencido de que em verdade fôra tomado ao rei de castella na ba- talha de aljubarrota. as pequenas torres ameiadas predominam, como ornatos, na base da cruz-relicario do convento da conceição de beja ( ), e melhor ainda no relicario da sé de coimbra ( ). esta peça é curiosissima pela fórma e pela inscripção, que transcreverei sem as abreviaturas: hic continet vnvm velvm beate virginis marie et vnvm frysticvm ligni sancte crvcis vere. decanvs colimbriensis johanes medicvs illustrissimi domini infantis petri me obtulit li- tissime virginis marie. do seculo xv ha tambem na sala m outros objectos não menos dignos de attenção. É um d'elles o co- fresinho de prata doirada da misericordia de mon- temor-o-novo ( ). a sua fórma, simples e ele- gante é a de um pequenino bahú. adornam a face dignos dorada da mista. simples e face parte inferior juntáram-lhe uma peanha de prata ligada por meio de um arco á placa de crystal, tudo isto se fez no seculo xvii. e por ser d'esta época se expoz aquelle ornalo na sala , onde tem o n.º . os calices, que attribuirei com mais certeza ao seculo xv, veem a ser os da academia de bellas ar- tes de lisboa ( ), da vera cruz, de aveiro ( ) e da mitra patriarchal ( ). differença-se o primeiro, e mais antigo, dos outros, pela sua forma obsoleta e pelo caracter archaico dos caracteres gothicos das suas inscripções. a base tem grandes chanfros, e na sua face superior dois qua- dros de esmalte, como o calix mais antigo da col- legiada de guimarães ( ), e folhagens similhan- tes ás do cofre da mesma collegiada ( ). o nó do calix, hexagono, liga-se por meio de botareus a um plano tambem hexagono, que se muito para fóra, á maneira de varanda. É unica esta disposi- ção em todos os calices expostos. a copa, de forma pyramidal, assimelha-se tambem á do calix de gui- marães mais antigo; é porém menos aberta. o calix da mitra patriarchal relaciona-se melhor, pelas fórmas acastelladas da sua haste, pelas arca- rias do nó e pelos baixo-relevos da copa e da base, com outras obras portuguezas da mesma época. os arcos das ogivas são polycentricos. o calix da vera cruz, de aveiro ( ) approxi- ma-se já dos exemplares do seculo xvi nos ornatos de applicação na copa e de relevo na base; mas o nó volumoso, faceado, e os losangos que o ador- nam são caracteristicos do seculo xv. e tambem de caracter anterior ao seculo xvi o engradado do bordo ou frizo da base e o plano liso, que tem à roda. a fórma caracteristica do nó com os seus losan. gos encontra-se nas hastes das cruzes processionaes da misericordia de setubal ( a) e de santo an- dré de mafra ( ). da primeira conserva-se ainda a primitiva caixa de coiro com a seguinte inscri- pção gravada a buril em caracteres gothicos do se- culo xv: senhora virgem santa maria lembra te do tev devoto nvno gonÇalves. nos losangos esmal- tados da segunda estão representadas as armas dos sousas. outro exemplar curioso d'este mesmo seculo é o porta-paz de prata doirada da sé de leiria ( ). sob um baldaquino gothico de forma assås caracte- ristica, está a imagem da senhora da piedade; na base sobre esmalte azul uma inscripção de caracte- res gothicos arredondados, que diz: pax domini sit semper vobiscum. para concluir esta breve noticia dos objectos da ourivesaria do seculo xv, falta-me citar o relicario de chellas ( ), cujo nó tem a forma e os losangos caracteristicos. o tecto, pyramidal, é imbricado; a base ornada de folhagens em relevo, similhantes ás do calix da vera cruz, de aveiro, e de outras peças. além da caixa de coiro, já mencionada, estão ex- postos na sala m alguns objectos do seculo xv, que não pertencem a classe da ourivesaria. tal é o baixo- relevo em jaspe ( ) do sr. domingos josé de oli- veira salvador, de lamego. representa a annun- ciação. as figuras da virgem e do anjo gabriel, extremamente curiosas, teem grande expressão. na parte superior está o padre eterno, de cuja bocca sae uma longa fita, terminada em pomba, que se dirige ao rosto da virgem. era commum na edade media este costume de representar figuradamente a conceição. na egreja de leça do balio conserva-se um baixo-relevo com ermida de s. braz ( ), attribuil-os-hei, pois, só com probabilidade e não com certeza, ao seculo xv. o ultimo é o unico em que se observa a seguinte notavel particularidade: alguns dos anjos da copa são barbados. o calix maior da sé de coimbra ( ) é obra do mesmo ourives, que fez o da mitra patriarchal ( ), cujas fórmas acastelladas da base lhe determinam com certeza a edade. ora estas mesmas fórmas se encontram na parte inferior da haste do calix da sé de coimbra, na qual as seis faces que represen- tam as muralhas do castello estão cobertas ainda de arcarias ogivaes. tambem as devem ter tido as partes correspondentes do calix da mitra patriarchal, de onde as arrancaram, ficando patentes os orifi- cios em que estiveram cravadas. debalde, porém, se buscarão n'este ultimo ves- tigios do estylo da renascença, bem claros na base e na copa do outro. com effeito, as duas bases são extremamente similhantes, mas na do calix da mitra patriarchal, as figuras em baixo-relevo estão sepa- radas por pilastras puramente gothicas, formadas de cordões torcidos e com capiteis e bases caracte- risticos do seculo xv. na base do calix da sé de coimbra, em vez das pilastras gothicas, apparecern- nos as da renascença, com os capiteis corinthios e os fustes cobertos dos ornatos caracteristicos. as copas de ambos os calices são em grande parte envolvidas por ornatos de applicação, que não adherem á superficie - por seis anjos, que rama- gens separam. mas os anjos e as ramagens do calix da mitra patriarchal são gothicos, os do calix da sé de coimbra, sem serem ainda inteiramente da re- nascença, teem mais d'este estylo que do gothico. os dois calices representam portanto muito bem as duas maneiras de um mesmo artista, educado no estylo ogival, e influenciado pela renascença nos fins do seculo xv ou nos principios do seculo xvi. o calix da sé de coimbra já ali existia no pri- meiro quartel do seculo xvi, pois por esse tempo o mandou doirar o bispo d. jorge de almeida. ne- nhum d'estes dois calices tem tintinabulos, nem jamais os teve, porque lhes faltam os anneis para se suspenderem. a custodia e o calix da misericordia de setubal ( e ) parecem tambem obras de um mesmo ourives. os chanfros das bases, extremamente si- milhantes n'estes dois exemplares, não se encontram assim em nenhum dos outros expostos. a esta si- milhança corresponde a dos nós, não obstante ser quadrangular o da custodia, e hexagono o do calix. a ornamentação é a mesma em ambos, no calix, porém, mais fina e delicada. a caixa circular da custodia foi acrescentada modernamente. É possivel que por este meio transformassem em custodia um relicario. este curioso exemplar torna-se notavel pe- los extensos esmaltes que cobrem a haste por cima e por baixo do nó. expõe tambem a misericordia de setubal um re- licario, e este sem alterações grandes da sua fabrica primitiva. o estylo, porém, não é exactamente o mesmo das outras duas alfaias e relaciona-se antes com o da custodia de s. martinho de cintra e do calix de s. pedro de almargem do bispo, do con- celho de cintra. estas tres peças formam outro grupo muito na- tural, que se differença pela extrema singeleza das arcarias ogivaes, cujos grandes espaços intermedios são inteiramente vasios de ornatos. todavia o reli- cario da misericordia de setubal parece mais antigo, vii a sala m (continuação) não faltou quem estranhasse a accumulação de grande numero de alfaias do culto nas salas da ex- posição, dando-lhes um aspecto menos profano do que alguns desejavam, como se para a historia ar- tistica fosse possivel lançar á margem a arte reli- giosa. esta carta provará, bem como algumas das ante- riores, que essa accumulação é a unica luz que, á falta de documentos escriptos, pode esclarecer-nos acerca da historia da arte nacional, que até hoje ninguem escreveu. n'este labyrinto, cheio de som- bras e de incertezas, somente o exame comparativo de muitos exemplares nos dará, por inducção, ba- ses certas e positivas para qualquer tentativa histo- rica. as custodias dos seculos xiv, xv e xvi, sobre- tudo, formam uma serie muito interessante para a determinação dos estylos e das épocas, pelas datas ou indicações equivalentes, que se encontram na maior parte d'ellas. eis aqui a serie por ordem chronologica : custodia de alcobaça ( ) — . dita do porto ( ) – fins do seculo xv. dita de setubal ( ) — fins do seculo xv ou prin- cipios do seculo xvi. dita de belem (gi)- . dita de evora ( ) — ... dita de cintra ( ) – ... dita de coimbra ( ) - . dita de vizeu ( ) — . dita da academia ( ) — ... dita de guimarães ( ) — . a custodia de belem, unica em tudo, não se re- laciona com algum outro dos exemplares da ouri- vesaria expostos, excepto nos caracteres geraes do estylo ogival. x custodia da sé de evora já não é um exem- plar unico. tem analogias com outros da sala m. convirá, porém, advertir que algumas das partes primitivas d’esta custodia foram substituidas por outras de estylo inteiramente discordante. vê-se cla- ramente a substituição na caixa circular do relicario com os seraphins que lateralmente a adornam. fo- ram egualmente substituidos o nó e as partes mais proximas da haste, tanto por cima, como por baixo d'elle. subsiste ainda assim a maior parte da fabrica primitiva, de estylo muito similhante ao da cruz do convento do paraizo de evora ( ), cruz de bel- las ( ), base da cruz da terrugem ( ) e thuri- bulo de pombeiro ( ). os caracteres principaes d'este estylo veem a ser: columnas quadrangulares simples, com faces empe- nadas, arestas mais ou menos tortas, corucheus vo- lumosos com a forma de apagador: corpos qua- drangulares com as faces fenestradas, e ornadas na parte superior com voltas formadas pelos arcos das ogivas, prolongados á maneira de de conta, e, al- gumas vezes, de volutas, como em varios exempla. res do seculo xv. a custodia da sé do porto, obra dos fins d'este mesmo seculo, parece marcar a origem de um ou- tro estylo, que é o das custodias das sés de coim- bra e de vizeu, da academia e da collegiada de guimarães, do porta-paz da academia ( ), da cruz do funchal ( ) e do calix de pombeiro ( ). os caracteres d'este estylo são os seguintes : - lumnas delgadas compostas de columnelos juxta- postos, faces perfeitamente desempenadas e arestas rectilineas, corucheus esguios e elegantes : arcadas ogivaes articuladas com as columnas, estatuetas bem cinzeladas e elegantes, ornamentação fina e delicada. a obra mais antiga d'este estylo é a custodia da sé do porto. mas, com quanto nos offereça os cara- cteres differenciaes já mencionados, excede em de- licadeza e perfeição os outros exemplares. a sua grande, similhança com a custodia da collecção des- mottes, que figurou na ultima exposição nacional da belgica, faz suppor que não terá sido fabricada em portugal. demais as outras obras da ourivesaria na- cional da mesina época differem consideravelmente pelo seu estylo mais pesado e menos perfeito. a cruz da sé do funchal parece ter sido antes feita em portugal. assimelha-se mais aos outros exemplares do mesmo grupo nos elementos archi- tectonicos da base. por outra parte os baixo-rele- vos dos braços e da haste teem a maior analogia com os de alguns dos antigos pratos portuguezes. finalmente, os rendilhados e ornatos de applicação com a forma de ramagens relacionam assim natu- ralmente este exemplar com o calix de pombeiro. ha tambem grandes similhanças entre as custo- dias da sé de coimbra e da collegiada de guima- rães, não obstante as grandes differenças de fórma. basta a situação inversa dos relicarios, que são in- ferior na primeira e superior na segunda, para dar logar a fabricas essencialmente differentes. com- tudo quem examinar e comparar com attenção es- tes dois exemplares, convencer-se-ha sem difficul- dade da sua mesma origem. em ambas as custodias as cupulas terminam em ornatos com a forma de jarras. as columnas são similhantes em tudo; os rendilhados, os mesmos; as arcadas ogivaes do mesmo estylo articulam-se do mesmo modo com as columnas; as bases apoiam-se em animaes; em gryphos e centauros na de guima- rães, em leões na de coimbra. mas a escolha d’es- tes ultimos animaes foi sem duvida determinada pelo brazão do bispo d. jorge de almeida. finalmente, as estatuetas são ainda analogas, tanto pela per- feição do desenho, como pela delicadeza do cinzel. estes mesmos caracteres apparecem tambem no bello porta-paz da academia ( a). as relações de similhança entre os exemplares mencionados são evidentes. se foi um artista só ou uma escola, que os produziu desde até , não o sei eu dizer. seriam necessarios elementos de outra ordem para resolver esta duvida. a cruz da collegiada de guimarães é outro pro- blema. na fórma e ornamentação geral da cruz propriamente dita assimelha-se aos exemplares do grupo a que pertence a custodia da sé de evora. a peanha, pelo contrario, tem maior analogia com os exemplares do segundo grupo, que parece deri- var da custodia da sé do porto. todavia, os ele- mentos architectonicos são mais pesados e o traba- lho de cinzel mais imperfeito. os baixo-relevos, os medalhões e outros ornatos são do estylo da renascença. as columnas, coru- cheus e arcarias pertencem ainda ao estylo gothico. em nenhum outro dos exemplares expostos se en- contra de tão extraordinario modo a mistura dos dois estylos. É talvez n’este genero o maior con- traste conhecido. as custodias e as cruzes processionaes, com serem de fórmas essencialmente differentes, participam to- davia de certos caracteres communs de estructura e de ornamentação, que permittem classifical-as nos mesmos grupos, á maneira de varios generos de plantas que, não obstante suas formas diversas, se reunem nas mesmas familias. debalde, porém, se tentará distribuir os calices pelos grupos formados por aquelles exemplares. as differenças na ornamentação e na fórma, são de tal ordem, que o exame comparativo, só por si, parece insufficiente para servir de base a qualquer plausi- vel tentativa de classificação racional. assim é, que de tantos calices da mesma época . e do mesmo estylo das cruzes e custodias, apenas um, o de pombeiro ( ), offerece alguns caracte- res importantes, para se incluir n'um mesmo grupo com a cruz do funchal ( ). o calix menor da sè de coimbra ( ) poderá ainda relacionar-se com a custodia da academia ( ) pela similhança das fitas entrelaçados que adornam as bases das d’estes dois exemplares. o calix me- nor de arouca ( ) faz lembrar tambem, por al- gumas particularidades da ornamentação, o grupo a que pertence a custodia de evora ( ). todos os outros se tornam, por assim dizer, refractarios ao agrupamento. o maior dos calices que foram de arouca ( ) como callacionar-das i expostos, deveria dar ao de arouca um aspecto sin- gularissimo, augmentando ainda a exuberancia da sua grande e complexa ornamentação. É para la- mentar que hoje não possamos fazer a menor idéa dos ornatos que se fixavam na copa, alternando-se com os tintinabulos. ao passo que este calix, pelas razões indicadas, sobreleva a todos os que se conhecem do mesmo es- tylo, o outro, do mesmo mosteiro, da mesma época, da mesma abbadessa d. melicia de mello, com uma patena muito similhante, é uma obra que se não differença por nenhuma particularidade notavel, dos outros calices dos principios do seculo xvi. os ornatos esmaltados da base assimelham-se aos dos calices de braga e de guimarães. os dois cor- pos acastellados da haste, um, adornando a sua parte inferior, o outro, servindo de nó, caracteri- sam tambem os calices da mitra patriarchal e da sé de coimbra. mas isto, parece-me, não basta para collocar decisivamente todos estes exemplares no mesmo grupo em que foram classificadas a custo- dia de evora e algumas cruzes processionaes. o que tenho como admissivel é, tomando por base as fórmas acastelladas da haste e a existencia de dois ou tres corpos com essas formas, sendo um ou dois separados do nó, constituir, não um grupo natural, mas uma serie chronologica : calix da mitra patriarchal ( ), dito da sé de coimbra ( ), dito de arouca (menor) ( ), cus- todia-calix de cintra ( ), calix de thomar (g- ), dito de arouca (maior) ( ) se á custodia-calix da sé de evora não fallasse o nó e outras partes da haste, é possivel que, pela comparação, se chegasse a classificar no grupo a que ella pertence aquella serie de calices, excepto aturais da mitra de arouca de thomar talvez o maior de arouca ( ). o mais que pode- rei avançar com probabilidade é que a serie dos ca- lices gothicos se relaciona melhor com o grupo da custodia de evora do que com o outro em que en- tram as custodias da sé de coimbra e da collegiada de guimarães. na serie indicada segue-se passo a passo a trans- formação do elemento architectonico, que n'alguns exemplares do seculo xv, como o relicario da sé de coimbra ( ) e a cruz da sé do porto ( ) é uma verdadeira torre, guarnecida de ameias ou coberta de cupula. este elemento, pois, começa a adelga- çar-se separando-se da muralha nos calices da mi- tra patriarchal e da sé de coimbra, até se tornar filiforme no calix maior de arouca. de sorte que, não se observando a degeneração progressiva, se- ria difficil, se não impossivel, reconhecer n'este ul- timo calix, como torres, os ornatos que mal as re- presentam. termina aqui o estudo dos calices gothicos. os outros, ainda em grande parte do seculo svi, como obras do estylo da renascença, embora n'alguns se encontre um ou outro vestigio gothico, serão exami- nados mais tarde com os outros exemplares d'este mesmo estylo. tenho-me alongado demasiadamente na critica dos exemplares expostos na sala m. pareceu-me, porém, não dever perder a occasião, talvez unica, de ajun. tar alguns materiaes para a historia da antiga ou- rivesaria portugueza tão interessante, como desco- nhecida. a falta de documentos escriptos, não ha senão o methodo da inducção, tal como o tenho empregado, que possa dar-nos resultados positivos, comparaveis aquelles que os naturalistas obteem nas suas clas- sificações ou na historia e explicação dos phenome- nos naturaes. methodo, pois, está exigindo que os pratos e salvas da sala m se estudem conjunctamente com os das outras salas da exposição. a maior parte d'estes exemplares teem os cara- cteres geraes do estylo portuguez. do primeiro exame não resulta mais que esta idea de uma dif- ferença fundamental entre o seu estylo e o das obras de ourivesaria das outras nações. depois uma obser- vação mais demorada fará descobrir caracteres dif- ferenciaes que denotam typos, escolas, cinzeis di- versos. os que por mais antigos parece formarem um primeiro grupo são os dois grandes pratos ( e ) expostos por sua magestade el-rei o sr. d. fernando no armario da sala f e a reproducção electrotypica do museu de kensington ( – ). n’estes exemplares não apparecem ainda claramente as influencias da renascença. as figuras são grandes, desproporcionadas, quasi disformes. e egualmente incorrecto o desenho dos outros ornatos. nos dois primeiros pratos aburidam as palavras portuguezas de letra gothica, e grandes cordões torcidos entre- laçam-se e formam com as suas voltas as molduras dos baixo-relevos. · a fórma, as dimensões, o genero da ornamenta- ção, a distribuição dos ornatos em zonas, o grande numero e adherencia das figuras de homens e de animaes levar-me-hia a classificar no mesmo grupo o grande prato ( ) da collecção de sua mages- tade el-rei o sr. d. luiz, o dos lobos da silveira em reproducção galvanoplastica na sala m ( -a) e o de sua magestade el-rei o sr. d. fernando, sobre o fogão da sala f ( ), se differenças fun- o granceito sr. d. canonlastica no imaginoso na arte da esculptura ou nas suas appli- cações. o artista possuia em alto grau a faculdade da invenção, e, tanto o estylo da renascença como o gothico ou ogival, indifferentemente se lhe presta- vam aos seus devaneios. não quiz cingir-se á obser- vancia rigorosa das regras fundamentaes, nem aos limites que lhe imporia a servil imitação de mo- dêlos. as suas faculdades inteiramente livres e es- pontaneas imprimiam n’estas composições um cara- cter original. affirmei que o prato, o gomil e o calix são attri- buiveis ao mesmo artista. a exuberante e origina- lissima phantasia da ornamentação é já um indicio importante, confirmado pela identidade de certos lavores do bojo do gomil e da copa do calix. ! n'este ultimo o artista não podia deixar de seguir o estylo gothico na forma e estructura do nó e do resto da haste. deu, porém, á ornamentação ogival um caracter novo pela grande phantasia e profusão das arcarias, baldaquinos, corucheus e outros ele- mentos. fez com estes elementos da ornamentação ogival o mesmo que fizera com os da ornamenta- ção da renascença, no gomil d'este mesmo grupo. o prato da sé de coimbra ( ), de estylo muito differente, tem por caracteres principaes os seguintes: nas ondas do mar golphinhos, alguns montados por figuras humanas com azas ou sem ellas. estas e as outras figuras de homens, en grande numero, luctando muitas vezes com animaes phantasticos, armadas de arcos ou de massas, ou tocando instrumentos, são de desenho incorrecto. as chimeras e ramagens, de melhor desenho, en- trelaçam-se miudamente quasi sem deixarem espa- ços intercalares. todos estes caracteres denunciam a industria indiana, e será facil mostrar a analogia da ornamentação d'este prato com a de algumas obras de madeira, cuja proveniencia é conhecida. por estes ou por outros caracteres parecem tam- bem do estylo oriental muitos outros exemplares: os fructeiros ( e ) da sala m, as pequenas salvas da mesma sala ( , , , , ) e a outra analoga de sua magestade el-rei o sr. d. luiz ( ); os fructeiros da mesma collecção ( , e ), os de sua magestade el-rei o sr. d. fernando ( , , , e ); o da sala g ( ); e finalmente a da sala h ( - ). as formas das fi-, guras de animaes e das ramagens poderão ainda levar a subdividir n'outros este grande grupo. uma salva e um fructeiro da collecção de sua magestade el-rei o sr. d. fernando ( e ) for- mam outro grupo caracterisado pela disposição das figuras de ornato, separadas por grandes espaços lisos. a salva tem a data de . finalmente os fructeiros da sala f ( e ), o da sala h ( - ), da sala m ( ) e a salva da mes- ma sala ( -b) constituem outro grupo natural, caracterisado pelos segmentos esphericos lisos ou granulosos, como os da superficie da amora, ou com a forma de pyramides quadrangulares. o do museu kensington foi classificado como obra hespanhola, mas o numero de exemplares ex- postos fazem antes suppor que se deverão attribuir á industria portugueza. n'este grupo sobresae pela belleza e originalidade a salva do sr. d. luiz de carvalho e lorena. restam-nos finalmente na sala m tres pratos ( , e que nem teem similhanças entre si nem com os outros exemplares expostos. sómente o do sr. christiano vanzeller faz lembrar muito de longe o grande e bello prato exposto por sua magestade el-rei o sr. d. luiz, ornado no centro com o brazão do marquez de abrantes. este ultimo, porém, ė obra muito mais perfeita. convirá notar, que tanto aquelle brazão como os outros da mesma familia foram accrescentados no seculo passado. o prato é do seculo xvi. o prato do sr. martinho montenegro ( ) não se assimelha a nenhum dos outros pratos, porém ao gomil da sé de coimbra ( ). o lavor do primeiro é, em verdade, mais fino e delicado, mas a ornamentação da zona exterior tem a maior analogia com a da base do segundo. os me- dalhões e sobretudo as mascaras e cabeças de ho- mens e de animaes, que o artista profusamente em- pregou como elemento decorativo, ein nenhum outro dos exemplares expostos apparecem com o mesmo caracter. a caldeirinha da sé de coimbra, notavel pelas grandes dimensões e pela sua larga facha, decorada com o brazão do bispo d. jorge de almeida e com elegantes arabescos da renascença, parece antece- der um grupo, com o qual só muito de longe se relaciona pela fórma e ornatos da parte inferior do bojo. esta relação, porém, é tão vaga que ficaria desconhecida se não fosse o thuribulo da sé de coim- bra ( ), cujo reservatorio e base têm, posto que em menor ponto, a mesma forma e ornatos. são mais evidentes as relações d'este exemplar com a lampada da universidade ( b) e com a cruz de figueira de lorvão, e por conseguinte com as de pombeiro ( ) e de s. miguel de poia- res ( ). parecerá talvez infundado approximar a lampada a estes objectos. a sua fórma, as suas grandes co- lumnas e alterosa cupula fazem, com razão, lembrar a architectura manuelina, e portanto uma época e um estylo muito differente d'aquelle que se nos de- pára nos exemplares indicados. todavia, quem pozer de parte a forma e atten- der somente á ornamentação, formará de certo um juizo muito differente. o desenho dos ornatos, não obstante a profusão caracteristica das obras ante- riores, é muito menos fino; em alguns bustos até grosseiro, incorrectissimo. por outra parte, os nichos que adornam a parte superior da cupula, os rendilhados e pyramides são extremamente similhantes aos ornatos correspon- dentes do thuribulo da sé de coimbra e da cruz de figueira de lorvão. a esphera armillar alterna-se, como ornato, com as armas reaes na guarnição superior da base da lampada. esta particularidade faria tambem com que se attribuisse ao reinado de d. manuel, se a mesma esphera se não encontrasse na cupula do thuribulo, sem que n'este caso se lhe possa dar aquella significação. antes parece mais um motivo para attribuir ao mesmo artista os dois exemplares. a cruz de s. miguel de poiares tem a data de . a de figueira de lorvão, e por consequen- cia o thuribulo da sé de coimbra, pela similhança da primeira com a segunda, não poderão ser ante- riores a . nas egrejas proximas de coimbra en- contrar-se-hão, talvez, outros exemplares da mesma época e do mesmo estylo. o numero de taes objectos faz provavel a exis- tencia de um ou mais ourives em coimbra no se. culo xvi, que, ainda conservando a tradição de uma época anterior, seriam, todavia, incapazes de impe- dir a progressiva degeneração da arte, egualmente manifestada na esculptura em pedra, cujas obras se tornáram cada vez mais imperfeitas em relação àquellas que produziu a primeira metade do sé. culo xvi nas egrejas de s. marcos, santa cruz e sé velha. estão expostas na sala m seis navetas de prata brancà, todas com a forma de galeão, armado de esporão e com uma ou duas ordens de postigos para a artilheria. do periodo comprehendido entre os fins do se- culo xy e os fins do seculo xvi não se colligiu senão uma outra naveta com forma differente. e uma con- cha de nautilo com guarnições e outras partes de prata doirada. o todo representa uma chimera com cabeça e peito de mulher, azas, corpo e pés de ave. pertence á sé de faro ( ). entre as outras seis ha duas muito notaveis, a de pombeiro ( ) e de condeixa a velha ( ), pelo signal repetidas vezes gravado n'algumas das faces. e o arani ou swastica, symbolo do fogo, tão fre- quente em monumentos da india e em antigualhas pre-historicas da europa. . o numero dos thuribulos do seculo xvi não cor- responde ao das navetas, de certo por se arruina- rem mais depressa com o fogo. ha ainda na sala m cinco exemplares que se agru- pam pela similhança dos ornatos das cercaduras gra- vados a buril, não obstante a diversidade das épo- cas e origens. É o relicario de lorvão ( ), a pedra d'ara do mesmo mosteiro ( ), o pequeno retabulo de prata da sé de braga ( ), e os cofres da mise- ricordia de montemor-o-novo ( ) e da academia de bellas artes ( ). o relicario contém um humero attribuido a um dos martyres de marrocos, é de um é de outro lado miniaturas que representam o martyrio d'estes san- tos, e no reverso o brazão da abbadessa d. catha- rina d'eca. a pedra d'ara, de serpentina verde, é guarnecida na face inferior e nos quatro lados por chapa de prata doirada. n'aquella face tem gravado um bra- zão similhante ao do relicario : nos lados a seguinte inscripção em caracteres gothicos quadrados : esta ara com todas as pecas de infra conteudas mando fazer neste devoto moesteyro de lorvĀao a muy illustre senhora ha senhora dona catherina deca abbadessa do dicto moesteyro. s. ha cruz que ten ho lenho da vra cruz e ho bago e hua portapaz com pedreria e dois castisaes e hu thuribulo com sua naveta e culher e duas galhetas e hu bacio e duas caldeyrinhas com seus ysopos todo esto de prata e ha moor parte das pecas dovradas e mays ovto pontificaes. s. hos tres de broquado e hos outros de seda e dos delles com betas de bro- quado e mais hua vestimenta de broquado e ou- tras tres de broquado e velludo ano d mil dxiiii. os castiçaes a que se refere a inscripção podem ser os de crystal e latão ( ) e uma das caldeiri- nhas a de crystal e prata, adornada de camafeus ( ). o quadro de prata da sé de braga representa o calvario, no estylo das gravuras de alberto durer. na parte inferior estão gravados o brazão e o nome do arcebispo d. diogo de sousa e a data de . o cofre da misericordia de montemor-o-novo, an- tecedentemente descripto, é do anno de . o da academia parece mais dos fins do seculo xv. a chapa gravada da sé de braga não é de certo obra portugueza. uma das obras mais preciosas da sala m, e de toda a exposição é o relicario que foi do convento da madre de deus, perto de lisboa ( ). É este relicario de ouro, decorado de finissimos esmaltes, de ornatos de applicação de filigrana e de pedras preciosas. tem de altura om, e de largura m, . representa um oratorio com a base rectan- gular sobre a qual se erguem quatro columnas qua- drangulares que sustentam a parte superior com a fórma de concha. em cada uma das paredes late- raes vê-se um arco de volta redonda e sobre elle um oculo circular. na parede do fundo está um nicho em que se repete, reduzida, a fórma geral de relicario, e de cada lado uma fresta de volta redonda; dentro do nicho um altar adornado com uma esmeralda, sobre o qual se ergue um tubo de crystal com a reliquia, um espinho, que, segundo a tradição, teria feito parte da coroa de christo, e pertencera a el- feito p. duarternidades na pieanha de em nas extremidades do arco do nicho estão engas- tados dois rubis, e na parte superior da volta um diamante que serve de peanha a uma cruz. no friso do entablamento lè-se 'em caracteres ro- manos a inscripção seguinte: misericordie tve mor- tis gravisime dvlcisime domine iesv xpe resplendor patris concede nobis famvlis tvis. na parte anterior, superior e central do arco tem as armas reaes de d. joão ii e de d. leonor com a corôa e encimadas por uma urna. a volta do arco, representando um meio cylindro, é coberta exte- riormente de escamas esmaltadas: na sua parte superior eleva-se uma urna coberta com uma pe- rola. uma esmeralda e um rubi adornam a primeira a face anterior da base, o segundo o centro parą onde convergem as nervuras da abobada que tem a forma de concha. na frente, na parte inferior de cada columna, está fixo um escudo esmaltado com o camaroeiro, divisa da rainha d. leonor. falta porém já a di- visa do lado esquerdo. atraz na face posterior do arco está representado o calvario em baiso-relevo. na parte inferior, no centro da faxa ornada com esmaltes e ramagens de applicação vê-se um pequeno medalhão esmaltado, representando uma cabeça de mulher, talvez a rainha d. leonor, e em roda uma fila com a ins- cripção seguinte: casa m d. (casa da madre de deus ?). não se sabe do testamento da rainha d. leonor, mas por uns extractos d'este documento, publicados na chronica seraphica, consta que o relicario que fizera mestre joão fôra legado pela rainha ao mos- teiro da madre de deus. quem era este mestre joão ? nos reinados de d. manuel e d. joão hi trabalharam em portugal ar- tistas estrangeiros. alguns eram assim designados pelo seu nome de baptismo, ao qual se antepunha a palavra mestre. É provavel que se refira ao auctor do relicario o seguinte documento que se conserva na torre do tombo: «nos el-rey mandamos a vos joham de saa recebedor da especearia da nusa casa da india e aos sprivães della que des a mestre joham orivez cento e trinta e hum mill quatro centos e trinta réis que lhe mandamos dar em comprimento dos cljiiixxi que lhe sam devidos de feitio da costodia que lhe mandamos fazer pera o mosteiro da comceição de beja porque dos vinte mill reis que falecem pera comprimento leva outro desembargo pera eitor nunes dos quaes tinha outro desembargo para joham de figueiredo que foy roto ao asignar deste. e vos faze-lhe delles bom pagamento em pimenta a rezam de vinte e dous cruzados o quin- tall. e por este com seu conhecimento mandamos que vos sejam leuados em conta. feyto em lixboa a xxb dias do mes de junho affonso figueira o fez anno de mill bxj annos. rey... o recibo está assignado por johan van der staygolstsyt. o nome, que difficilmente se decifra, indica-nos pois um artista flamengo. mestre joão era um compatriota de mestre olivel de gand e de tantos artistas cujo trabalho a grande riqueza da nação pagava bem, e cuja vinda para o reino as re- lações com flandres favoreciam. o documento não é uma prova, mas apenas um indicio. infelizmente a custodia de beja que, pelo estylo, se conheceria ser do mesmo ou de outro ourives, já se não conserva n’aquelle convento. o estylo do relicario, quasi pura renascença, no pri- meiro quartel do seculo xvi, levaria antes a attri- buir esta obra a algum artista italiano. todavia não é impossivel que um flamengo, educado na italia, antecedesse por esta forma os seus compatriotas. na exposição não se encontra nenhum outro exem- plar attribuivel ao auctor do relicario. o relicario da madre de deus, com quanto fabri- cado em portugal, é obra de um estrangeiro e ne- nhuma influencia parece ter tido na arte portugueza. isto mesmo direi de alguns outros exemplares da sala m, cuja procedencia é de certo estrangeira. a pyxide que foi da egreja de nossa senhora da penha de frança e hoje pertence à academia de bellas artes ( ) torna-se extremamente notavel pela ornamentação de ramagens, arabescos, cheru- bins e cabeças de anjos e de satyros. entre as obras de prata levantada e cinzelada esta é unica no de- senho e na perfeição da execução dos lavores. entre os exemplares da ourivesaria estrangeira merece incontestavelmente o primeiro logar o bello calix de ouro esmaltado da sé de evora. o genio de um artista superior manifesta-se claramente na perfeição das pequenas figuras dos baixo-relevos dos medalhões da copa e dos anjos que os sustem, dos seis paineis de nó e finalmente dos gomos da base. a viveza, colorido e variedade dos esmaltes fazem sobresahir ainda mais a perfeição dos baixo- relevos. na parte interna e inferior da base ha um escudo de armas esmaltado e em roda esta inscripção: doct. paulus alphonsus reg. consiliarius in ecctia eboren. archid. et canonicus donavit. anno dñi . a cruz da sé de lisboa ( ), para onde dizem ter vindo do convento de christo de thomar, tam- bem de ouro esmaltado, no estylo muito differente do calix de evora, é todavia uma obra de grande preço. a cruz, que tem com effeito a forma das de christo, firma-se sobre uma peanha á maneira de urna, em cuja base se lè: philippvs. rex. mdlxxxiii. por baixo ha mais um grande pedestal, em cujas faces anterior e posterior estão dois escudos com as armas de hespanha unida a portugal, encimadas por corôas fechadas. a sala m contém numerosos exemplares interes- santes ao estudo dos esmaltes. primeiramente os mais antigos dos seculos xii ou xiii, os relicarios da sé de vizeu ( e ) e as placas da bibliotheca de evora ( e ); depois os esmaltes empre- gados na ornamentação de algumas alfaias do seculo xiv e xv, finalmente os quadros do seculo xvi, e as obras esmaltadas d'este mesmo seculo como o calix de evora e a cruz de que ultimamente fallei. o grande triptyco da bibliotheca de evora ( ) é a obra capital d'este grupo. tem de altura om, e de largura m, . o estylo do desenho e colorido indica ter sido feito na primeira metade do seculo xvi. nenhum signal dá a conhecer o auctor, talvez um dos penicaud de limoges. parecem da mesma época e procedencia os vinte e seis esmaltes ( ) que representam passagens da vida de jesus christo. pertenceram ao sanctuario do mosteiro de santa cruz de coimbra, d'onde passaram em para a academia de bellas artes do porto. são tambem da mesma época os cinco esmaltes do sr. visconde de daupias ( , , , e ). foram attribuidos á industria de limoges, mas, segundo a opinião de pessoas entendidas, de- verão antes considerar-se como hespanhoes. pela sua perfeição parece facil confundil-os com os de limoges. são incomparavelmente superiores aos aragonezes expostos na secção hespanhola. em todos estes exemplares o esmalte constitue a parte essencial. ha porém muitos outros em que se empregou accessoriamente, como ornato. além d'aquelles, já atraz mencionados, citarei ainda uma bella patena de ouro ( ), que pertenceu a um calix de alcobaça, roubado ha muitos annos da bi- bliotheca nacional. uma lindissima miniatura esmal- tada representa a cêa n'uma das faces da patena; na outra christo despregado da cruz, junto d'ella, entre nossa senhora e s. joão. a parte superior da vitrine central da sala m contém joias, algumas de grande valor pela anti- guidade, belleza ou pedras que as adornam. a máis antiga é o fragmento de um collar de ouro ( ), pertencente ao convento de santa clara de coimbra, onde o attribuem á rainha santa isabel. com effeito á fórma do collar e sua ornamentação correspondem muito bem aq seculo xiv e é prova- vel que n'este caso a tradição ande confórme com a verdade. a grande devoção para com a rainha santa, mais de certo que a cubiça do ouro e das pedras ou pe- rolas, tem feito com que do collar não reste mais que esta pequena parte, muito mutilada ainda nas peças de que é feita e que se articulam entre si. logo em seguida está um grande annel abbacial de latão dourado com restos de esmalte verde. no centro tem uma cornalina com mitra e baculo gra- vados, e a seguinte legenda tambem gravada : pe- trvs abbas. outro annel notavel entre alguns que estão aqui expostos é um de prata dourada ( ) com uma cornalina, onde está gravada a figura de um rei coroado, com o sol na mão direita e uma palma na esquerda. no arco foram gravados a buril aos lados da pedra, dois yy, cada um d'elles coroado, como usava el-rei d. joão i nas suas moedas. parece pois ter periencido a este monarcha. É exposto pela sr. d. helena de aragão, e dizem ter sido encontrado perto de alvor. a corôa fechada de oiro ( a), adornada com pedras finas e esmaltes, faz bello effeito pelo con- traste do oiro, diamantes, perolas e cores branca azul e vermelha das rosaceas esmaltadas. foi dada pela infanta d. maria, filha d'el-rei d. manuel, ao convento da luz, d'onde passou para a academia de bellas artes. os brincos ( ) de oiro esmaltado e perolas da sr.& condessa de prime são notaveis pelo tamanho e belleza. dois grandes ganchos, consistindo apenas n'um arame de oiro aguçado na ponta, serviam para os segurar nas orelhas de modo bem pouco deli- cado. a corôa e os brincos são obras do seculo xvi. ao mesmo genero e época pertencem uns cãesinhos de oiro, com esmalte, diamantes e rubis ( ), outro par de brincos de oiro esmaltado com diamantes e perolas ( ), e um alfinete rematado por uma flor de oiro esmaltado com aljofares e uma esmeralda, tudo da sr.a d. maria manuela de brito e castro. parece que todos estes objectos serviram antiga- mente de pregos do cabello, sendo depois adapta- dos aos fins para que hoje servem. são tambem da mesma classe as joias do con- vento de santa maria de almoster: um pingente de oiro que representa uma aguia coroada e adornada com diamantes ( ); um prego do cabello com a forma de lagartixa, adornado com um rubi e tres esmeraldas ( ); outro prego do cabello com a forma de borboleta ( a), adornado com uma esmeralda e diamantes rosas, e finalmente dois pingentes de oiro esmaltado representando um seraphim e um s. joãosinho ( e ). algumas d’estas joias teem certa similhança com as hespanholas da collecção do museu kensington. seriam importadas de hespanha, ou representa- rão os vestigios de uma arte portugueza que, a par com a ourivesaria, deve ter tido grande desen- volvimento no seculo xvi? eis uma pergunta inte- ressante que em face da exposição se formúla, mas a que se não pode responder. em l'ortugal ha de certo ainda muitas joias d'aquella época que não vieram á exposição, e que, reunidas com as outras expostas, de certo nos dariam alguma luz sobre este ponto tão obscuro como interessante. eis aqui uma joia que tem todo o caracter, todo o espirito do seculo xvi. É um pingente de oiro es- maltado. um cavalleiro, de maça em punho, cavalga um golphinho agigantado, seis ou oito vezes maior do que elle. com a maça levantada e todo inclinado para traz, a sua attitude é de querer vibrar rijas pancadas contra o collosso. duas cadeias suspen- dem o golphinho pela cabeça e pela cauda. É do mesmo genero um pingente de prata esmal- tada do sr. almeida santos ( ). a parte central representa em alto relevo um cysne montado por cupido, sobre fundo azul com estrellas de oiro. adornam a moldura, muito relevada, perolas, rubis e diamantes. a dureza do cinzel e a pouca transpa- rencia das cores suscitam algumas duvidas acerca d'este exemplar. será genuino ou uma imitação? merecem tambem attenção tres relicarios: um da sr.a marqueza de alvito ( ), outro da sr. vis- condessa de daupias ( b), outro, finalmente, da sr.a d. marianna fischer berquó ( ). o primeiro é uma cruz de crystal com engastes e ornatos de oiro esmaltado, n'uma das faces tem a imagem de christo, na outra a de nossa senhora, que dois an- jos corôam. o segundo é uma capsula oval acha- tada, que tem dentro a imagem de s. josé, com guarnição de filigrana de oiro e perolas à roda, e por fóra outra guarnição mais larga de filigrana. o terceiro, emfim, é de oiro. n’uma das faces tem a trindade, na outra nossa senhora; faz lembrar, pelo estylo, o relicario exposto por sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. fernando e assignado por david. o da sala m tem gravadas interiormente estas pa- lavras rio janr. com estas joias está exposto um pequeno relogio de crystal e latão doirado do museu portuense e duas bellas miniaturas, retratos de duas damas, com o seu estojo de ferro com um brazão cercado de bandeiras dispostas de tal forma que fazem lem- brar a ornamentação gothica. estas miniaturas fo- ram do arcebispo d. manuel de cenaculo, que as deixou em evora com a sua bibliotheca. nos vãos inferiores das vitrines estão alguns ob- jectos de ferro antigos e doze pratos de latão com baixo-relevos nos centros e alguns com inscripções gothicas em flamengo. estes pratos bem como a ba- cia de latão e gomil com a forma de leão, expostos por sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. fernando, parece terem sido fabricados, como outros muitos objectos congeneres, em dinant, nos fins do se- culo xv ou nos principios do seculo xvi. estes pra- tos são muito communs nas egrejas antigas de por- tugal. teem talvez a mesma procedencia as campai- nhas de bronze, tambem numerosas, das quaes ha quatro exemplares na vitrine central da sala m. viii a sala n entre os exemplares da sala m e os da sala n não ha uma completa separação. faz-se insensivel- mente a transição de uns para outros, e para con- stituir certos grupos naturaes hão de reunir-se os seus membros dispersos pelas duas salas. aqui estão na mesma vitrine da sala m dois cali- ces ( e ) de alturas differentes, porém tão extremamente similhantes em tudo o mais, que nin- guem deixará de attribuil-os ao mesmo ourives. en- tram naturalmente no mesmo grupo os calices de nossa senhora da esperança de lamego ( ), e de santo andré de poiares ( ), ambos da sala n. outro grupo, tambem do estylo da renascença, mas com grandes differenças da forma e da orna. mentação, comprehende o calix de santa justa ( ), cujo nó é ainda gothico, os da academia de bellas artes de lisboa ( e ), todos da sala m, e os calices da mitra patriarchal ( ), e da sé de elvas ( ) da sala Ñ. dois d'estes calices teem datas, o da academia ( ) deve ter pertencido á sé de coimbra, como se prova pelos brazões do bispo. d. jorge de al- meida, que adornam a base; pelos rotulos, com a sua conhecida divisa : nequid nimis; e, finalmente, pela seguinte inscripção : este cales deixov o bispo don iorie dalmeida ao santo sacramento da sÉe era de . no da mitra patriarchal ( ) leem-se as datas de e . differem muito d'estes dois grupos, pelos caracte- res da forma e da ornamentação dois calices (g — e g-- ) expostos por sua magestade el-rei o se- nhor d. luiz, e os da egreja de belem ( ) e de santa cruz do funchal ( ), ambos da sala n. o calix de oiro da sé de coimbra ( ) assime- lha-se na ornamentação da base aos do segundo grupo; mas o nó tem a fórma caracteristica do ter- ceiro: um corpo hexagono, formado de paineis com os seus nichos, e separados uns dos outros por co- lumnelos. o calix da sé de coimbra ( ) tem na parte inferior e interna da base o brazão do bispo d. joão soares, que governou a diocese conimbri- cense de a . a custodia de trevões ( ) assimelha-se muito aos calices da mitra de lamego e da capella da uni- versidade de coimbra na ornamentação da base. · porém a sua fórma, e particularmente da cupula que lhe serve de remate, é tão differente de todas as outras, que não sei se poderá attribuir-se à ou- rivesaria portugueza. as custodias de santa clara de coimbra ( ) e do convento de s. domingos de odivellas ( ) da sala n, das francezinhas ( ) da sala d, e o reli- cario da sé. de coimbra ( ) da sala m, parecem obras do mesmo ourives, e dos fins do seculo xvi. as das maltezas de estremoz ( ), dos conven- tos do paraizo ( ) e de santa catharina de evora ( ), e da egreja de s. francisco de guimarães ( ). assimelham-se aos calices do terceiro grupo na fór- ma e ornamentação do nó. poderão attribuir-se estes exemplares aos fins do seculo xvi, ou aos princi- pios do seculo xvii. a um periodo mais adiantado d'este seculo pertencem a custodia de santos o ve- lho ( ), da misericordia de cascaes ( ), da egreja das mercès de lisboa ( ), todas da sala n, e outra da egreja de entre as vinhas de mertola, exposta na sala k. a pyxide de santos o velho ( ), do mesmo es- tylo da custodia da mesma egreja ( ), determina a época do ultimo grupo. lê-se, com effeito, na base da pyxide : esmola de dom lviz dalencastre conde de vila nova com.dor mÓr da ordem de avis. ora este conde de villa nova de portimão nasceu em e morreu em . havemos, portanto, de attribuir esta custodia e outras similhantes å se- gunda metade do seculo xvii. a cruz da academia de bellas artes ( ) é uma das obras mais notaveis da ourivesaria do seculo xvi. a base, de forma rectangular, assenta sobre um plintho similhantemente rectangular com as super- ficies todas cobertas de baixo-relevos, e com os quatro angulos apoiados sobre cabeças de toiros. n’uma das quatro faces do plintho representa-se a foz de um rio entre duas margens com fortalezas; na face opposta um naufragio; n'outra o rapto de europa; n'outra, finalmente, um centauro arreba- tando uma mulher, e um homem disparando fre- chas contra elle. ornam os angulos figuras de phan- tasia. os baixo-relevos das quatro faces verticaes da peanha ou base representam a prisão de christo, a oração no horto, a via dolorosa e o ecce homo. a cada um dos quatro angulos encosta-se uma chi- mera com cabeça e peito de mulher e azas. nas quatro faces superiores outros baixo-relevos repre- sentam outros passos da vida de christo. rama- gens, flores e fructos decoram as faces da cruz, da anterior das quaes pende a imagem de christo. tudo n'esta obra notavel está indicando um artista supe- rior da primeira metade do seculo xvi. nem ha na exposição outro exemplar com o qual tenha affini- dade. apenas os porta-paz ( ) da sala m e ( e ) da sala n teem com ella alguma longinqua similhança, principalmente o ultimo, em cujo re- verso está gravada a data de . os ornatos gra- vados a buril no reverso d'este e de outro porta- paz são caracteristicos da época e, pelo phantasioso do desenho, approximam ainda mais estes exem- plares da cruz da academia. entre os cofres da sala n merece o primeiro logar o da academia de bellas artes ( ). É de bronze doirado com ornatos de prata branca. adornam as quatro faces do cofre dez paineis em baixo-relevo, representando passos da vida de christo, separados uns dos outros por pilastras decoradas com esta- tuetas. É de forma rectangular, muito elegante, e apoia-se sobre quatro leões. talvez não seja impossivel encontrar algumas ana- logias entre este cofre e aquelle que sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. luiz expoz na sala g, e que per- tenceu a el-rei d. sebastião. a similhança, porém, é mais evidente entre este ultimo cofre e o de odi- vellas ( ), cujos baixo-relevos teem maior analo- gia com os do cofre da sala g, sendo-lhe, comtudo, inferior nas dimensões, no desenho geral e no par- ticular das figuras e ornatos. o cofre da mitra patriarchal ( ), com fórma similhante, porém com ornamentação muito diffe-. rente, tem a data de . se aos cofres mencio- nados accrescentarmos os de prata, gelatina, tarta- ruga, madre-perola, ebano, etc., expostos nas varias salas da exposição, e em maior numero nas salas m, ne , convencer-nos-hemos da impossibilidade de qualquer classificação natural. a razão está em que estes objectos vieram, pela maior parte, de fóra do reino com reliquias, faltando-lhes para isso o nexo que teriam se fossem obras da industria portugueza. as pyx.des do seculo xyli teem caracteres proe- minentes pelos quaes facilmente se differençam: na sala n as de santos o velho ( ) e da sé do fun- chal ( — b); na sala f outras duas ( e ); na sala g, finalmente, outra ( ). os fructeiros de prata levantada são as obras mais numerosas e mais caracteristicas da ourivesa- ria portugueza durante o seculo xvii. com effeito, a este seculo pertencem os que em grande numero foram expostos na sala n. apenas de poucos será licito duvidar se não serão antes dos fins do se- culo xvi. estão n'este caso os dos srs. marquezes de monfalim ( , e ); e talvez tambem as terrinas e pratos do sr. bento de queiroz ( e ), e do sr. d. luiz de carvalho e lorena ( e ). os seis fructeiros do sr. francisco manuel fra- goso ( e a ), e o do sr. joão de castro sampaio ( ) formam outro grupo, que, pela or- namentação das ramagens e fitas entrelaçadas e pelos baixo-relevos dos medalhões centraes, se dif- ferençam bem do primeiro grupo. assimelham-se antes aos fructeiros francezes do tempo de luiz xiv. as bandejas da sr.a condessa de rezende ainda mais se distanciam dos fructeiros portuguezes. as duas mais bellas ( e ) e de mais perfeito ?e tos portrende ainda - desenho são obra estrangeira, como attesta a ins- cripção gravada n'uma d'ellas: j. a. thelot. . este thelot, auctor de outras obras de prata, colli- gidas na exposição, será o andré thelot, ourives de augsburgo, que viveu de a e fabricou algumas das mais notaveis peças do thesouro de dresde? a ornamentação das outras duas bandejas de prata levantada ( e ) é mais grossa e incor- recta e, por algumas pequenas analogias que tem com a dos fructeiros, poderá ser talvez obra da industria peninsular, mais provavelmente da hespa- nhola que da portugueza. a época d’estas ultimas parece corresponder aos fins do seculo xvii. finalmente outro grupo de fructeiros compre. hende exemplares de lavor menos perfeito, como é o da sé de lisboa, cujo medalhão central representa um galeão. muitos dos fructeiros expostos na sala f pela sr.a condessa d'edla entram naturalmente n'este grupo. cinco jarros de prata branca ou doirada, de va- rias dimensões e ornatos, mas todos com fórma si- milhante, parecem caracteristicos do seculo xvii. o mais bello, pela profusão e delicadeza dos ornatos, é o do sr. fernando palha ( ). o do sr. antonio teixeira de sousa ( — a) tem gravado na aza o seguinte: a. m. parecem productos de uma in- dustria estrangeira, hollandeza talvez. um outro jarro, o da mitra de lamego ( ), po- derá menos duvidosamente attribuir-se à industria nacional. a fórma da aza d’este jarro é como a das azas de outros expostos na sala . muitos exemplares da sala n tem uma ornamen- tação commum que parece carecteristica do seculo xvii. os arabescos, as fitas entrelaçadas, os pon- teados substituem sem vantagem nenhuma, excepto a da simplificação do trabalho, os ornatos em relevo. na cruz do sebal grande ( ), com a data de , apparece já este genero de ornamentação. encontra-se egualmente nas lampadas do convento do paraizo de evora e do sr. bento de queiroz ( ); na cruz da egreja da ameixoeira ( ); na estante de prata do convento das chagas de lamego ( ); no relicario da sé de coimbra ( ); no prato do sr. bento de queiroz ( ) na caldeirinha do convento da castanheira de villa franca ( ; e finalmente nas bacias ou fructeiros do sr. macario de castro ( ) e da sr.a d. umbellina julia da costa ( ). este ultimo tem por medalhão central a effigie de filippe ii com a seguinte legenda : phi- lipvs iii. hispaniar. rex. estes dois fructeiros e ou- tros dois da sr:a condessa d'edla, expostos na sala f, parecem obras do mesmo ourives, portuguez ou hespanhol, não obstante o nome allemão da seguinte legenda que circumda n'um dos ultimos a effigie do medalhão central : anna mavr ellaoldofredi d ise aet x... a ourivesaria conimbricense, que no seculo xvi parece ter produzido alguns dos exemplares da sala m, poderão attribuir-se os objectos de prata das egrejas de s. bartholomeu e de s. christovão. a lanterna da primeira ( ) tem a seguinte inscri- pção : estas alinternas derÃo os irmÃos que prin- cipiarÃo a irmandade no anno de . a lanterna, ( a), vara de mesario ( b), cruz processional ( ), cereaes ( ), thuribulo ( ), naveta ( ), capa de campainha ( ) de s. chris- tovão de coimbra e a corôa ( ) do convento de semide, a corôa ( ) de santa clara representam provavelmente aquella industria local. a lanterna de s. bartholomeu tem a data de . as outras obras parecem approximar-se mais dos principios do seculo xvii e são mais perfeitas. a degeneração da arte, começando na segunda me- tade do seculo svi foi proseguindo, arrastando por fim a sua completa extincção. o caracter local dos objectos attribuiveis á indus- tria coninbricense tornar-se-ha mais apparente, se os compararmos com outros de egrejas distantes de coimbra, por exemplo as lanternas de s. christovão e de s. bartholomeu com a da egreja de s. pedro de almargem do bispo do concelho de cintra ( ). onde muito bem se desenha o estylo da ourivesa- ria portugueza do seculo xvii é na sacra da egreja de santa maria de belem ( ), na pia de agua benta do sr. flamiano lopes ferreira dos anjos ( ) e no baixo-relevo do sr. joão alegro ( ), que representa um milagre de santo antonio. a sacra de belem assimelha-se por extremo aquella que foi exposta na sala f pela sr.a condessa d'edla. outras duas obras do mesmo genero, posto que de maiores dimensões e de mais larga ornamenta- ção, adornam as paredes da sala n. É o frontal da confraria de s. josé do funchal ( ) e a porta do sacrario da egreja de santa maria de belem ( ). esta porta de sacrario é de madeira coberta de folha de prata levantada, representando em baixo- relevo a adoração dos reis. na parte inferior en- tre grandes folhagens tem as armas reaes de por- tugal e por baixo o seguinte letreiro: principe d. pedro qve deos gvarde dev este sacrario a este real mosteiro de belem no anno de . segundo um documento publicado pelo sr. r. v. d'almeida, o sacrario de belem foi feito pelo ouri- ves joão de sousa, em cumprimento de um voto das chagas é muito elegante e muito bem ornamen- tada. contém a sala n, alguns exemplares da industria indiana. em todos se conhece claramente o caracter oriental. o crucifixo de santa clara de coimbra ( ), de pau santo, cobre dourado e marfim, ainda hoje é conhecido n’aquelle convento sob a denomi- nação de senhor da india. as columnas da peanha são perfeitamente orientaes. conserva-se outro com uma peanha similhante na capella da quinta do sr. marquez de vallada em cintra. parecem obras dos fins do seculo xvi ou principios do seculo xvii. o oratorio ou triptyco da academia de bellas artes, outr'ora do convento do carmo da vidigueira, é outro exemplar interessante ( ). forrado de velludo verde com peanha e remate de prata, é exteriormente adornado de guarnições e fechos de prata e de medalhões pintados em molduras do mesmo metal. no fundo está um crucifixo com a imagem de ouro e com peanha de prata. aos lados tem as imagens da virgem e de s. joão, de prata; nas paredes lateraes dois santos da ordem de s. francisco; nos reversos das portas s. pedro e s. paulo. trouxe-o da india para o convento o padre andré, coutinho, que falleceu em . representam tambem a industria indiana uma estante de missal ( ) e um porta-paz ( ) da academia de bellas artes e que egualmente perten- ceram ao convento do carmo da vidigueira; uma cruz d'azeviche da sé de coimbra ( ) e duas imagens de nossa senhora, feitas de dente de ca- vallo marinho, uma dos srs. marquezes de monfa- lim ( ), outra da egreja de trevões ( ). esta ultima é notavel pela sua grande belleza e pela per- feição da esculptura. o thuribulo da sé de coimbra ( ) da sala m parece tambem obra da industria indiana. ha outro similhante n'aquella sé. são ambos de forma es- pherica, suspensos em trempes com pés de cabra. a ornamentação consiste em grandes carrancas cir- culares em que parece se pretendeu representar o sol. não se conhece nenhum outro exemplar d'este genero. ix a sala o a transição da sala m para a sala n é quasi in- sensivel. além de que, por falta de espaço, passa- ram para esta ultima muitos exemplares do seculo xvi, a maior parte dos da segunda metade d’este seculo não se differençam por caracteres proeminen- tes dos da primeira metade do seculo seguinte. o estylo da renascença, generalisa-se n'aquelle pri- meiro periodo e continua durante o segundo sem alterações profundas. uma barreira porém parece separar a sala n da sala . os objectos aqui expostos são com raras excepções do seculo xyili, e em quasi todas as clas- ses da ourivesaria o estylo se modificou profunda- mente nos principios d'esse seculo ou nos fins do anterior. esta modificação affecta não somente a fórma geral dos objectos, mas tambem o desenho e o genero da ornamentação. ao passo que algumas obras se differençam das anteriores por uma elevação notavel do estylo, ou- tras, pelo contrario, patenteiam uma inferioridade grande na forma e na ornamentação, preferindo-se ( e ) da sala n, os baixo-relevos do sr. marquez de pombal ( e ) da sala , e outro similhante com a mesına data de na sala , pertencente á academia real das sciencias ( ). os pratos de germain tem a sua assignatura e as datas de e . entre os exemplares da ourivesaria estrangeira da sala , merece tambem mencionar-se a urna da sr.condessa de geraz de lima ( ). a cafeteira do sr. carlos munro ( ) e a chaleira do sr. joão de castro sampaio ( ) tomar-se-hiam como obras estrangeiras, se não houvesse na sala o outros exemplares que parecem obras do mesmo ourives ( , , e ). com estes exemplares não podem competir os da ourivesaria nacional, cuja decadencia, começando no seculo xvii, continuou progressivamente até hoje. citarei, como termos de comparação, a lampada do sr. manuel barata de lima tovar ( ), os jarros e bacias, urnas, bules, salvas e outros objectos ex- postos na sala . as peças de um apparelho de chá, do sr. josé maria de alpoim ( a ) tem certa originalidade. são de prata dourada cobertos de ornatos de appli- cação de prata branca, representando parras e ervas, mas executadas sem grande delicadeza. não tenho até agora fallado das marcas da ouri- vesaria, porque são extremamente raras nos exem- plares das salas me n. encontram-se n'alguns, poucos, da sala . o l coroado, marca de lisboa, apparece no castiçal da sé d'esta cidade ( ), na cafeteira dos srs. duques de palmella ( ), nos objectos de um serviço de toucador da sr. d. maria manuela de brito e castro ( , , etc.). o p, marca do porto, no jarro dos srs. rosas ( ) não te porque se me coroados a cidade meter na cafeteira e leiteira do sr. abilio augusto martins ( a e ), na cafeteira do sr. bento de queiroz ( ), na urna ou cofre da sé do porto. É possivel que alguns d'estes exemplares tenham já sido fabri- cados no seculo xix. as peças com a marca de lisboa são em geral mais elegantes e com ornatos de melhor desenho e execução. convém sobre tudo notar os objectos ci- tados da sr.a d. maria manuela de brito e castro, os quaes, sem a marca, se tomariam facilmente como obras estrangeiras. É instructiva e curiosa a comparação dos objectos da mesma classe chronologicamente dispostos nas salas m, n e . as custodias ogivaes ou de colum- nas ornadas de estatuetas, da primeira e da se- gunda metade do seculo xvi, modificam-se no seculo xvii, adquirindo em geral fórmas mais grossas e pesadas. os relicarios conservam ainda a forma rectangular, mas as columnas retorcem-se ás vezes na forma denominada salomonica; e aos lados appa- recem as quartellas á maneira de ss. a custodia da annunciada de setubal ( ), com a data de , conserva ainda esta forma. porém nas ontras da sala , o relicario perde a forma re- ctangular, para tomar a circular ou de resplandor, caracteristica dos seculos xviii e xix, e tão pouco elegante que vulgarmente lhe chamam de palmatoria. o resplandor com a haste faz com effeito lembrar este instrumento. algumas custodias do seculo xviii são adornadas com pedras preciosas, ás vezes de mistura com ou- tras falsas. estão na sala as da bemposta (hoje da academia de bellas artes) ( ) e da estrella ( ). ha outras porém, como a da sé de lisboa, que não figuram na exposição. o luxo que el-rei d. tremamente elegantes na forma e com bellos e de- licados ornatos, são obra do mesmo ourives que fabricou as da sr.a condessa d'edla, ( e ) ex- postas na sala f. deveriam ter sido antes collocadas na sala mou n, por corresponderem pelo estylo aos fins do seculo xvi ou principios do seculo xvii. são menos antigas mas tambem de grande belleza as do extincto mosteiro de jesus de aveiro ( ) e as da mitra episcopal de coimbra ( ). no relicario de mafra ( ), de ebano e prata, nota-se o defeito commum da esculptura contempo- ranea; tem grande exageração as estatuetas em posições muito affectadas. de uma grande banqueta de prata da sé de coimbra, constando de cruz, castiçaes, apostolos e jarras, figuram na sala duas d’estas ultimas ( ), de forma e ornamentação simples e elegante. as outras peças, de grande peso e dimensões, são obras muito menos perfeitas, pelo que não vieram para a exposição. nas salas me n, e na primeira mais ainda que na segunda, predominam as obras da ourivesaria religiosa. na sala o desapparece já este predomi- nio, e os exemplares da ourivesaria civil não são inferiores em numero ás alfaias do culto. duas causas explicam esta differença. nos seculos xvi e xvii a arte religiosa produzia mais do que a arte civil. por outra parte as obras d'esta ultima não estavam nas condições que favoreciam a conserva- ção das alfaias ecclesiasticas. no seculo xviii aug. mentou a producção das primeiras, além de não haver ainda decorrido o tempo sufficiente para a sua desapparição. os objectos de uso domestico participam dos de- feitos notados nos outros. parece ter diminuido a faculdade inventiva dos artistas que produziu as obras magnificas da renascença. não ha variedade de fórma nem de ornamentação, que se reduz, na maior parte dos exemplares, a alguns singelos lavo- res à roda de grandes superficies lisas. a singeleza dos jarros e bacias, tão numerosos na sala , con- trasta com a esplendida ornamentação dos gomis e pratos do seculo xyi, e com as grandes e profusas ramagens dos fructeiros do seculo xvii. duas bellas miniaturas, uma do sr. francisco xa- vier de carvalho ( ), outra do convento do co- ração de jesus, estrella, lisboa ( ), são acom- panhadas de notas manuscriptas, que attribuem a primeira a tibaldi ; a segunda a josé alyres, roma, , pertencem ao sr. visconde de daupias tres baixo- relevos em marfim ( , e ). um repre- senta christo crucificado, s. josé, s. francisco, santo antonio e outros santos. e obra do seculo xviii. os outros representam assumptos biblicos, sendo um a matança dos philisteus. estes ultimos são de bellis- sima esculptura dos fins do seculo xvi, ou dos prin- cipios do seculo xvii. a sr. viscondessa dos olivaes expõe dois peque- nos baixo-relevos, em dente de cavallo marinho, re- presentando scenas da vida de moysés ( e ). o sr. josé do canto, um triptyco de marfim, que representa em baixo-relevo a familia sagrada, e dos lados, nas portas, s. miguel e um anjo conduzindo uma creança ( ). outro baixo-relevo de marfim, da mitra archi- episcopal de braga, representa sete passos da vida de christo, e parece obra indiana ( ). * finalmente, a sr.& d. maria amalia cabral expõe uma annunciação, em marfim e madreperola, deli- cada esculptura do seculo xvm ( —b),'e a sr.a d. clara maria de mesquita, um baixo-relevo em marfim com a inagem de nossa senhora, obra da mesma época. uma collecção de joias dos seculos xvii e xviii, pela maior parte d'este ultimo seculo, serve de com- plemento ás collecções de ourivesaria das salas n e . estas joias, em geral, productos de uma arte enervada, não teem já a graça, a elegancia, a vida dos objectos analogos do seculo xvi, particularmente d'aquelles que represeatam lutas ou outras scenas de homens e de animaes. o altar do sr. francisco ribeiro da cunha ( ), e uma camara de sant'- anna e de s. joaquim, do sr. henrique de araujo tavares ( ), não obstante as pedras preciosas que os adornam e a perfeição das miniaturas do pri- meiro, mostram claramente a differença entre a arte do seculo xvi e' a do seculo xviii. pertence a primeira, mais do que á segunda, e deveria por isso ter sido collocada na sala m, uma cruz de prata doirada toda revestida de filigrana de prata branca. a saia que o christo veste e as ini- ciaes da parte superior da cruz, que algum tanto conservam ainda das fórmas gothicas, dão a este exemplar maior antiguidade do que a primeira vista pareceu. eis aqui tres rosarios, genero que a industria dos seculos xvii e xviii deixou numerosamente re- presentado. o mais notavel é o do extincto con- vento de jesus de aveiro ( ), de filigrana de oiro. pertenceu a esse mesmo convento um adereço de prata com amethistas e diamantes ( ) e um bello collar de diamantes ( ). da caixa geral dos de- positos procede outro collar d'este mesmo genero ( ). d'ahi mesmo vieram grande numero de brin- cos de oiro esmaltados de verde e ornados de pe- rolas ( , , , , , , ), produ- ctos da mesma industria no seculo xvii, ou no se- culo xviii. a sr.d. marianna guilhermina fisher berquó expõe um pente de oiro, feito da folha d'este me- tal, levantada á maneira da folha da prata nos fru- cteiros e n'outras obras do seculo xvii. É dos srs. condes de prime uma bella miniatura em cobre esmaltado, retrato do cardeal mazarin. no reverso tem esta nota manuscripta : le card. ma- zara in zme peinture de dalila labarchede elÈve de mr. soiron pÈre. paris . as medalhas de prata ornadas de perolas e pe- draria para retratos, foram muito communs no se- culo passado. muitas ha expostas tanto na sala , como na sala g. a mais bella de todas é a do sr. bento de queiroz ( ), exposta na sala . tem uma elegante firma de brilhantes na parte superior, entre as joias mais interessantes ou curiosas d’esta collecção mencionarei o peitoril de diamantes, da academia de bellas artes ( ), e o collar de fili- grana de oiro e de antennas de insecto, do mosteiro de lorvão ( ). dois pequenos instrumentos de prata dos srs. mi- guel osorio cabral de castro e francisco de abreu castello branco, parece terem servido de borrifado- res, da mesma sorte que os que actualmente usam os barbeiros, excepto em ser substituida pela insu- flação boccal a da borracha que impelle o ar. com effeito estes singulares objectos teem a forma de um vaso ou de um coração ôco. no gargalo en- tra um tubo que desce até ao fundo e que tem na parte superior um crivo. exteriormente ha outro tubo recurvado que sảe da parte inferior do vaso. contendo este uma porção de liquido, e assoprando pelo tubo exterior, o liquido, impellido pela pres- são do ar, deve sair, com mais ou menos força, em gotas pequenissimas, pelo crivo. finalmente resta-me citar uma linda cruz peito- ral de crystal e oiro, da mitra de aveiro. esta e uma grande parte das joias expostas na sala são attribuiveis à industria estrangeira. a sala e desejando dar uma noticia exacta da collecção de ceramica da sala e, pedi ao sr. fernando palha, or- ganisador d'esta collecção, que a descrevesse. sa- tisfez de tal modo o meu amigo e collega ao pedido que lhe dirigi, que só receio que a sua extensa, mi- nuciosa e interessante carta, a par com as minhas, não demonstre a insufficiencia d'ellas pela brevidade com que tratei de algumas das collecções da expo- sição. eis a carta : q... sr. dr. augusto filippe simões. — orde- na-me v. que escreva uma abreviada noticia da collecção de ceramica exposta na sala e, para v. me fazer a honra de a publicar juntamente com os seus ultimos trabalhos sobre a exposição de arte ornamental. a tarefa que v. me impõe é superior ás minhas forças e de todo me julgo insufficiente para ella, mas sendo a ordem sua não posso des- obedecer. supprirei com boa vontade os conheci- mentos que me faltam, como já o fiz quando se tra- tou de organisar a collecção. nas resperas da abertura da exposição, quando vi como n'ella a ceramica estava pobremente repre- sentada, fiz sentir esta falta ao sr. presidente da commissão executiva, e insinuei-lhe que, mesmo n'aquella occasião, seria facil obter dos principaes colleccionadores de lisboa um numero sufficiente de objectos que, expostos na sala e, inutilisada até ali para a ceremonia da abertura, viriam preencher uma lacuna que eu não era o unico a notar. s. ex.a abraçou a idéa com enthusiasmo, me pareceu en- tão, e perguntou-me se eu estava disposto a consul. tar os amadores de que fallava, meus amigos pela maior parte; acceitei immediatamente a incumben- cia, e tendo começado logo a minha peregrinação, tive a satisfação de achar em toda a parte as por- tas abertas de par em par. julgava eu que a minha missão terminaria no mo- mento em que viesse dizer á commissão que os srs. fuão e fuão punham as suas collecções ás or- dens d'ella, pois nunca tive a ousadia de pensar que vv. ex.as delegariam em mim, tão sem titulos, o pe- sado mas honroso encargo de collaborar na sua obra. foi, pois, com espanto que, tendo sido chamado å presença da commissão, ouvi dizer que eu propu- ‘zera organisar na sala e uma collecção de ceramica, promptificando-me a assumir todas as responsabili- dades, e a desempenhar todos os trabalhos que dis- sessem respeito a esta amplificação da exposição. como já disse nunca tal föra a minha idéa, porque não me achava habilitado para tanto, mas receiando, se o contestasse, que a minha recusa fosse interpre- tada como desejo de demittir de mim responsabili. dades, ou de me furtar ao trabalho, querendo por esta forma lançal-o sobre homens que, como v., ha- via tantos mezes, e ainda então, o tinham tão grande, calei-me e acceitei a missão com que vv. ex.as me honravam. achando-me desarmado para a bem desempenhar, sem tempo para preencher com o estudo as defi- ciencias dos meus conhecimentos, estudo que, como v. bem sabe, em materias d'esta natureza de nada vale sem a experiencia, recorrí ao unico expediente que o bom senso aconselhava: consultar aquelles que eu considerava mestres e que tinham o que me fal- tava, a pratica. assim fiz; em todos achei boa von- tade, mas muito especialmente no distincto amador e meu amigo o sr. osborne sampaio, que não só me franqueou a sua preciosa collecção, mas em tudo me ajudou, encaminhou e aconselhou. se alguma coisa ha que louvar na exposição de ceramica, sobretudo na sua disposição, é a elle que os louvores devem ir buscar e não a mim, porque em tudo lhe obedeci. da mesma forma se mais de mil objectos pode- ram ser colleccionados, dispostos e catalogados em pouco mais de um mez, devo-o a v. e aos seus collegas, vogaes da commissão executiva, que por- fiáram em aplanar os obstaculos que se me levan- táram no desempenhar a minha tarefa; devo-lhes por isso reconhecimento; bem vê pois que um de- sejo seu não pode deixar de ser ordem para mim. se no obedecer esta segunda vez commetter er- ros palmares como o fiz na primeira (e alguns for- nece-me v. agora occasião de rectificar), queixe-se da sua obcecada confiança e reconheça ao menos a minha boa vontade. merecem pela sua antiguidade occupar o primeiro logar n'este trabalho, como o occupáram, no cata- logo, os sete vasos etruscos da collecção dos du- - ques de palmella. hoje as imitações perfeitissimas que en italia se fazem tornam mui difficil para to. dos o determinar a authenticidade d'estes vasos, muito mais para quem, como eu, estranho até hoje á estes trabalhos, não teve occasião de educar o olho nos museus a differençar o verdadeiro do falso. comtudo a collecção dos duques de palmella julgo-a isenta mesmo da mais leve suspeita ; basta conhe- cer-lhe a origem. foi adquirida em roma por d. ale- xandre de sousa holstein, pae do primeiro duque de palmella e nosso ministro n'aquella côrte, onde morreu em , e n'esse tempo ainda a industria dos falsificadores não tinha chegado á perfeição que lamentamos. julgo, pois, que os vasos da casa val- mella devem pelo menos ter vinte a vinte e um se- culos, pois, segundo os auctores que tratam o as- sumpto, a fabricação d’este genero terminou annos antes de christo. · se não receiasse ser taxado de atrevido, diria mesmo que ainda são mais antigos, pois creio que não se podem classificar como do periodo da deca- dencia, e que pertencem a classe que jacquemart designa pelo caracteristico das pinturas vermelhas, datando a sua fabricação do quarto seculo antes da nossa éra. o processo porque estão ornamentados é tal e qual o que o sabio historiador da ceramica descreve : desenho das figuras com um ponteiro no barro, intervallos preenchidos com fundo de esmalte preto, e traços pretos a pincel completando o de- senho; em alguns o emprego da cor vermelha e do branco não altera a classificação. juntando a isto a elegancia das formas, que a arte moderna póde egualar nunca exceder, e a sobriedade dos orna- tos, julgo poder affirmar estarmos em presença de specimens distinctos d'esta remotissima fabricação. - - - - --. - o espirito humano pasma diante d’estas reliquias, quando .considera que, feitas da materia a mais fra- gil, poderam escapar incolumes aos cataclysmos que destruiram ou arruináram o forum e o colyseu. a par dos vasos gregos da casa palmella, e se- guindo-se-lhe tambem no catalogo um grande prato de faiança de urbino abre brilhantemente esta sec- ção, e temos n'elle a joia mais preciosa da collecção exposta na sala e. É tambem dos duques de pal- mella. obriga-nos a dar um salto de muitos seculos e a deixar as épocas remotas anteriores á nossa éra, e em que tudo é escuridão e incerteza, em que as mais trabalhadas classificações não passam de hy- potheses, que só inspíram confiança aos que teem sciencia bastante para acceitar como verdadeiros os dados em que se baseiam. achamos-nos com o prato dos duques em plena renascença italiana e mesmo muito proximos da se- gunda metade do seculo xvi. em ceramica, como em tudo mais, a italia acordou mais cedo do que o resto da europa do lethargo em que as artes jaze- ram por tantos seculos, mas ao passo que a pin- tura, a esculptura, a architectura attingiam ainda no seculo xv o seu maior esplendor, só no xvi vi- veram e trabalharam os grandes mestres da cera- mica, os xantos e os fontanas, pois os robbias, lucca e andréa, mais eram esculptores do que olei- ros. viu-se n'aquella época a mesma rivalidade de que o seculo passado nos deu o espectaculo, quando os principes da europa, em pacifica contenda, fize- ram consistir a sua gloria em fabricar nos seus es- tados as mais delicadas porcelanas, então os papas, os duques, as republicas, os simples condottieri, as- sim como porfiavam em roubar uns aos outros os raphaeis e os miguel angelos, assim protegiam os artistas mais modestos que nas suas côrtes, vinham fabricar as esplendidas majolicas que a industria moderna, apezar dos poderosos recursos de que dispõe, em vão tenta imitar. chaffagiolo, sienna, florença, asciano, monte lupo, faenza, forli, ri- mini, ravenna, bologna, pesaro, castel durante, urbino, gubbio, deruta, ferrara, genova, veneza, napoles, e omitto os nomes de outras tantas, segui- ram o impulso. um dos primeiros logares, senão o primeiro, pertence a urbino, onde se illustraram francesco xanto e orazio fontana. em portugal são rarissimos os exemplares d'estes productos, e pou- cos conheço. de todos o mais notavel é este prato dos duques de palmella, que contribuiria para illus- trar as mais afamadas collecções. são raras, mesmo nos museus, as obras assigna- das de oragio fontana. () monogramma que n'esta se encontra, composto de um e um f entrelaçados precedendo um v (oragio fontana, urbino) é dado por chaffers como do mestre, comquanto jacquemart o omitta. se um esmiuçador tão paciente como o escriptor inglez não tivesse classificado a marca como sendo de fontana, bastava este prato para se lhe dever attribuir, pois reune todos os caracteristicos dos seus artefactos: a largueza e correcção de de- senho, o vigor do colorido e o brilho imcomparavel do esmalte. na anatomia dos personagens que figu- ram n'elle está-se a reconhecer o pincel que dese- nhou o pastor da taça do museu do louvre, que representa o roubo de europa e que jacquemart reproduz na sua obra. não me atreveria a escrever com tanta certeza se não tivesse visto o meu juizo confirmado por mestres illustres que não me atrevo a citar, e ainda por um testemunho não pedido nem procurado e que por isso mais auctoridade tem. quando eu estava trabalhando no catalogo entrou um dia na exposição um illustre amador inglez, o sr. maniac, que possue uma collecção afamada, e que depois de estar em lisboa, onde vinha procurar um clima ameno, soube por acaso que a exposição estava aberta; tal foi a publicidade que teve este para nós importantissimo acontecimento que um amador apaixonado, vindo para portugal nos principios de março, ignorava antes de cá chegar que vinha encon- trar reunidas tantas preciosidades. mal este illustre viajante entrou na sala e e teve tempo de abraçar com um golpe de vista as cantoeiras e vitrines, veiu sem hesitar direito ao prato de urbino, attrahido por elle como o ferro pelo iman. vendo-me a escre- ver os bilhetes do catalogo perguntou-me quem era o dono, e como eu lh’o dissesse e accrescentasse que tinha a assignatura de fontana, respondeu-me: — não a precisava. qual é o assumpto que o artista quiz representar na sua obra ? e para mim bastante obscuro. no ca- talogo apresentei a hypothese de que o gigante que tantos estão subjugando figurasse a italia vencida e dominada pela austria. hoje, depois de mais madura reflexão, parece-me mais razoavel vêr n'aquelle monstro a discordia, a quem arrancáram seus attri- butos, o feixe de serpentes, e que os soldados do imperador, armados de raios, tratam de aniquilar; nos mortos e fugitivos do primeiro plano o partido vencido, os francezes talvez, caracterisados pela ven- toinha, emblema da versatilidade e ligeireza, de que em geral os accusam; finalmente no personagem a quem offerecem duas chaves, symbolo da submissão, carlos v, porque a bandeira da sua casa triumphante, não me consente deixar de ver na obra de fontana uma homenagem ao poderoso vencedor de francisco i. além d'isto conhece-se que o prato é dedicado ao mesmo personagem a quem se offerecem as chaves, pois o mesmo individuo que lh’as apresenta, esten- de-lhe tambem a outra mão em que se lê a assigna- tura do artista. coincidem com o começo da fama de fontana em as tregoas de nice assignadas por carlos y e francisco i e que vinham dar novas esperanças de paz e prosperidade á estafada italia. não quereria o artista celebrar o acontecimento? sabemos de mais que não foi só fontana que celebrou com seus tra- balhos as victorias do imperador; jacquemart cita uma peça importante representando a tomada de goletta feita em urbino em por francesco silvano; é mais um facto a favor da minha hypo. these. como hypothese a apresento e, attendendo á im- portancia do specimen e a estas incertezas, pedi ao meu amigo o sr. luiz de aragão que pela gravura o reproduzisse, para que outros que não lograssem vel-o possam estudar o assumpto e rectificar o meu parecer. longe, bem longe d'este specimen unico e precioso estão todos os mais exemplares que na collecção representam as faianças italianas. nem por isso dei- xam de ter interesse, mas como me falta o espaço e tempo não me deterei n'elles e só por lembrança os menciono. genova, savona, napoles estão repre- sentadas com exemplares de épocas relativamente modernas, pois não são de certo anteriores ao seculo xvii, se d'elle datam, e todos de fundo branco e pintura azul, especialidade das fabricas de genova que as outras imitaram. o catalogo, ao deixarmos a italia, leva-nos para sentiernas, polle datam idade das rentes generos dos seus artefactos, pela maior parte influenciados pelas porcelanas orientaes, que o com- mercio dos portuguezes e sobre tudo dos hollande- zes viera espalhar na europa. se os artistas de rouen tiveram a primeira idéa d'estas imitações, como jacquemart parece insinuar, sendo seguidos n’este caminho pelos outros centros de producção da frança e pelos proprios hollandezes, ou se a es- tes, que em primeira mão, em todo o seculo xvii, recebiam as louças da china e do japão, pertenco a iniciativa, é ponto que não me atrevo a decidir, apezar das probabilidades serem todas a favor da segunda hypothese. o caso é que os artistas normandos souberam, apezar de imitadores, crear typos proprios, e uma ornamentação sui generis que, recordando o gosto oriental, não se pode confundir com elle. tal é o ge- nero chamado de lambrequins de que é um bom specimen o jarro em forma de capacete que o sr. osborne sampaio expoz e que o catalogo descreve com o n.º . o n.º immediato pertence ao genero caracterisado pela cornucopia de flores, motivo prin- cipal da sua ornamentação; o exemplar, de forma original e curiosa tem todas as qualidades e os de- feitos d'este genero; qualidades no colorido, bri- lhante e bem matisado, defeitos na massa e sobre tudo no esmalte d’um branco azulado pouco agra- davel. querem os que tratam o assumpto vêr n'este typo dos productos de rouen uma tentativa bem succedida de emancipação da imitação servil dos productos orientaes. no n.° , assucareiro branco com paisagens chinezas a cores, temos ainda outro specimen de faiança normanda, d'um genero em que a imitação das louças orientaes ainda foi mais servilmente procurada. conheço pouco as faianças francezas, sou n'estes assumptos um mero principiante, por isso não é de estranhar que desconfie das minhas impressões, e que a medo as consigne aqui, mas como quero so- breludo sêr sincero direi que, do que tenho visto d'estes productos, julgo que como imitações da por- celana oriental ficaram muito abaixo das hollande- zas. jacquemart diz que a escola de rouen desde os seus começos soube imitar a porcelana chineza com uma fidelidade e um talento ao menos igual ao que se admira nos oleiros hollandezes. É possivel que se eu conhecesse as grandes collecções de faiança de rouen partilhasse a opinião do illustre traladista, até hoje nunca me succedeu tomar uma peça de rouen por china, ao passo que por vezes me tem sido necessario approximar-me e examinar bem vasos de faiança azul de delft para lhe conhe- cer a origem. o que digo do fabrico de rouen muito melhor se pode dizer dos artefactos de nevers, e não serão as duas garrafas de forma persa, descriptas com o n.º e espostas tambem pelo sr. sampaio, que, apezar da distincção das formas, modificarão o meu juizo. o esmalte embaciado e excessivamente azulado e a côr azul sem vigor empregada na ornamentação, fazem com que não haja illusão possivel. tambem creio que a primeira fabricação de gar- rafas d'esta forma, que tão frequentemente se en- contra em faiança de dellt, se deve aos hollandezes, e que d'elles a imitáram os fabricantes de nevers. como se sabe houve desde tempos remotos na hollanda o gosto pelo cultivo das tulipas, gosto que chegou a tocar na monomania, pois os amadores do genero não duvidavam pagar por preços loucus uma nova variedade d'aquellas cebolas, creio mesmo que houve mais de um exemplo de se terem com- mettido crimes para obter o exemplar desejado, quando não se podia adquirir por sacrificios pecu- niarios. ora a forma das garrafas de que fallamos é a mais apropriada para fazer germinar aquellas tão cobiçadas plantas; logo que foram conhecidas foram assim utilisadas, e eis a razão porque tão frequentemente se encontram em faiança de delft. ainda os vasos de pharmacia, tambem do sr. os- borne sampaio, descriptos com os n.os e , e a floreira dos duques de palmella, que tem o n.° , mais se podem dizer inspirados pela porcelana orien- tal do que imitados d'ella, não deixando por isso de serum specimens notaveis sobretudo pelas suas for- mas elegantes. não me espanta o encontrar em frança esta in- capacidade para a imitação. em todos os tempos a indole dos seus artistas mal se amoldou a copiar ar- tefactos estranhos, e, se alguma poderosa corrente vinha de fóra influenciar as predilecções do mo- mento, se os artistas não podiam resistir-lhe, sabiam mesmo n'esses artefactos, devidos a alheias inspira- ções, imprimir o gosto tão distincto e tão inimitavel da arte franceza; assim aconteceu quando da italia a renascença veiu revolucionar o mundo artistico, assim aconteceu quando a ampliação do commercio do oriente veiu introduzir uma nova influencia na industria europea. estava reservado para o nosso seculo ver em frança uma pleiade numerosa de artistas e indus- triaes applicar o seu talento na imitação servil dos · artefactos de outras épocas e de outros paizes, e conseguirem-n'o, para tormento dos colleccionado , res e para fortuna de negociantes menos escrupu- losos. as fabricas do sul da l'rança não seguiram os exemplos das do norte, os seus productos longe de imitarem modelos estrangeiros teem em tudo o cu- nho nacional, tanto na forma como na ornamenta- ção; quando não tinham artistas especiaes copiayam as composições dos mestres nacionaes que se pres- tavam a ser reproduzidas em objectos de pequenas dimensões, como são as do originalissimo calot, ou as de berain e de boulle. são specimens d'este ge- nero os n.ºs e tambem da collecção do sr. sam- paio. a terrina descripta com o n.° tem uma or- namentaçãe grotesca no genero de calot, e se é de joseph olery pertence à segunda época da sua fa- bricação, quando de volta de hespanha, para onde tinha ido por instigações do duque de aranda, co- meçou a ornamentar as suas faianças com as côres que vira usar nas fabricas hespanholas. se é de joseph olery, disse eu, porque, segundo a opinião de jacquemart, o monogramma formado pelas letras l , que se lê na bandeira que segura um macaco, não é prova sufficiente para se attri- buir a este artista as peças em que se encontra. comtudo um dos factos que aponta para motivar a sua duvida não se dá n'este caso, que é o encore trar-se o monogramma acompanhado sempre por ou- tras e mui variadas letras; aqui encontra-se des- acompanhado, e o sitio em que está pintado mais parece indicar a assignatura de um artista do que a marca de uma fabrica. a travessa que tem o n.° ostenta desenhos graciosos no genero bérain, se não copiados do pro- prio artista. as suas composições, frequentissima- mente reproduzidas em moustiers, servem para ca- racterisar numerosos productos d'esta procedencia, . e este exemplar, com quanto não seja de summa importancia, é bem proprio para os que quizerem conhecer o genero fixarem os seus caracteristicos. terminarei o que tenho a dizer sobre as faianças francezas mencionando as tres terrinas descriptas com os n.ºs , e . são todas tres specimens notaveis do genero que em marselha teve tanta voga, da pintura de flores sobre fundo branco, e repro- ducção de animaes em relevo nasazas e tampas. a ultima tem uma marca desconhecida e que po- derá de hoje em diante augmentar o elenco das mar- cas d'esta proveniencia. tambem de marselha, ou de um dos centros de fabricação que imitáram seus productos, é o ser- viço que o sr. macedo braga expoz, e tem o n.º . a facilidade com que estão desenhadas as paisa- gens e figuras que entram na sua ornamentação, o brilho das côres com que estão pintadas, tornam-n'o um exemplar distincto de um genero que pode com- petir em elegancia com a porcelana mais finamente pintada. antes de fallar das faianças hollandezas direi duas palavras do unico exemplar que na sala e repre- senta as fabricas belgas. É o n.º que me per- tence e que até ha pouco tive em casa sem o poder classificar. É uma cabeça de javardo perfeitamente modelada e pintada com uma só côr, cinzento azu- lado; a parte superior forma tampa, e devia servir de terrina ou simplesmente de ornato. desconhecendo completamente este genero de faiança, ainda hoje não saberia a proveniencia do meu javardo, se ha pouco, folheando o livro publicado depois da expo- sição retrospectiva belga, e que se intitula — l'art ancien à l'exposition nationale belge — não deparasse com um exemplar perfeitamente egual reproduzido pela gravura. bom seria que a nossa exposição ins- pirasse um trabalho similhante onde se reproduzis- sem sobretudo aquelles objectos que ainda não fo- ram descriptos em outras publicações, o que serviria para de futuro auxiliar os estudiosos e sobretudo os que tomam interesse pela arte portugueza. já tive occasião de me referir á influencia que julgo dever attribuir as faianças hollandezas sobre as do norte da frança, dando-lhes o exemplo da imi- tação das porcelanas orientaes e servindo-lhes de modelo n’este genero de fabricação. que á hollanda pertence n'ella a precedencia parece-me difficil de contestar. depois dos portuguezes, e d'estes falla- rei a seu tempo, nenhum povo da europa deve ter tido mais cedo o conhecimento das porcelanas orien- taes. não é pouco provavel que, nos tempos em que os reis de portugal tinham em flandres um feitor permanente, consignatario obrigado das mercado- rias da casa da india, para as quaes anvers era quasi o mercado exclusivo e ao mesmo tempo ne- gociador de quanto emprestimo a corôa portugueza se via obrigada a contrair, e eram frequentes nos tempos chamados da nossa prosperidade, alguma loiça da india lá devia ter ido parar, não como ob- jecto de commercio mas como presente ou luvas para os poderosos argentarios que durante tantos annos dispozeram do mercado monetario. não foi, de certo, esta a unica origem da introducção na hol- landa de porcelana da china e do japão; ainda no tempo da feitoria, e sobretudo depois d'elle, as re- lações commerciaes de portugal com os seus por- tos eram frequentes, conservadas, principalmente, pelos judeus portuguezes, que a politica fanatica e cubiçosa dos nossos soberanos tinham obrigado a refugiar-se em terra de mais liberdades, e que tão fundas raizes tinham lançado em portugal que ainda hoje conservam vestigios da sua origem, e que n'es- ses tempos tendo deixado entre nós parentes e ami- gos provavelmente alimenta vam estas relações com presentes de parte a parte. os que de cá fossem póde-se affirmar à priori que continham jarras da china ou do japão. mais tarde, quando os aconteci- mentos de auctorisáram as naus hollandezas a equiparar as quinas aos leões de castella, bem depressa, supplantando-nos no commercio oriental, começaram a importar directamente as desejadas mercadorias. logo em já era tão manifesta a vantagem do commercio do oriente que os estados julgáram dever fundar a companhia das indias, des- tinada a tão prolongada prosperidade, e em , só doze annos depois, os mesmos estados conce- diam a claes janssen wytmans o primeiro privi- legio conhecido para o fabríco de porcelanas pouco mais ou menos como as que vinham de paizes re- motos. este facto o que indica? que os primeiros pro- ductos importados, tendo tido geral acceitação e não podendo pelo seu preço e limitado numero satisfa- zer a todos os pedidos, a industria nacional come- çou a procurar nos proprios recursos o meio de sa- tisfazer o gosto do mercado. a porcelana tornou-se ainda no seculo xvii um dos principaes artigos que compunham os carregamentos da companhia, basta lembrar que só em , em duas remessas, intro- duziu nos seus depositos : peças, e n'outro anno um só negociante, wagenaar, recebia : de porcelana branca, mas é provavel que nos seus começos a abundancia não fosse esta, e como então sobretudo a procura devia ser immensa, como o é sempre para novidades, o estabelecimento da nova industria fez-se em condições verdadeiramente ex- que fuecida, pelo aspo os mo cepcionaes. eis a origem das faianças de delft imi- tando porcelana oriental. n'estas imitações foram os hollandezes eximios e, repito-o, julgando pelo que conheço, ninguem os egualou. a faiança pintada de azul, e não é o genero mais estimado dos seus productos, pelo brilho do esmalte que quasi lhe chega a dar o aspecto da porcelana translucida, pela côr que em nada differe da dos modelos, e pelo aspecto geral da ornamentação chega a illudir mesmo os mais praticos. d'este ge- nero tenho na sala e quatro exemplares que julgo se devem classificar como bons specimens e que seriam de primeira ordem se infelizmente não tives- sem alguns defeitos, filhos do tempo e do pouco cuidado, com que em geral entre nós estas cousas eram tratadas. são as garrafas de forma persa des- criptas com o n.° e os dois potes que tem os n.os e . se não fosse o detalhe do desenho, que não resiste a uma ligeira analyse, pois nunca um artista europeu foi capaz de pintar um chinez como os chinezes se pintam a si proprios, assim como es- tes apezar da proverbial exactidão na copia nunca foram capazes de retratar um europeu que não pa- reça um chinez, se não fosse, digo, esta circum- stancia, a pequena distancia, a illusão seria completa, para os maiores entendedores, como o é, mesmo com os defeitos que tem, para os que o são menos. para o provar basta contar o que succedeu com as peças a que me refiro. pertenciam a uma antiga casa de vianna do cas- tello, onde de ha muito se lhe tinha perdido a lem- brança da origem, e eram considerados de louça da india. quando, por morte da ultima representante da familia, um dos co-herdeiros mostrou desejos de as obter para o seu quinhão, e lhes deu o ver. dadeiro nome, para todos foi surpreza ouvirem que as louças que desde crianças chamayam da india não passavam de faianças hollandezas, e era tudo gente acostumada a porcelana oriental. as fabricas de delft não se contentaram com imi- tar a porcelana azul da china, mais ambiciosas bem depressa tentaram ornar os seus productos com o verde, o encarnado e o oiro dos modelos que tinham debaixo dos olhos, e, se como imitação ficaram muito áquem dos resultados obtidos com o primeiro ge- nero, comtudo conseguiram crear uma decoração de côres brilhantissimas, harmonicamente matisa- das; se o esmalte excessivamente opaco, e o tom falso dos fundos não viessem contrabalançar estes resultados a illusão seria pelo menos igual a pro- duzida pela faiança azul. o pote n.° e a fructeira do sr. francisco ribeiro da cunha que tem o n.o são exemplares distinctos do genero, e tem a marca que o dr. mandi, um dos mais distinctos col- leccionadores de faianças hollandezas restituiu a cornelis keyser, jacob e adrião pynaker, que tra- balharam nos fins do seculo xvii a datar de e que a todos excederam pelo brilhante colorido de seus artefactos. . d'elles tambem e unico specimen d'um genero ainda mais estimado, que os amadores designam pelo nome de delft doirado, por isso que n'elle o oiro veiu juntar-se as cores verde, azul e vermelha, na decoração das faianças são os dois pequenos ca- nudos que o sr. osborne sampaio expoz com o n.º . pertencem ao typo caracterisado pelo desenho chamado da codorniz, porque n'elle figura esta ave. terminarei dizendo que as faianças de delft, es- timadas desde os seus principios, merecem ainda orientaes, enquanto não conseguiram destruir em granada a ultima capital do seu longo dominio, a raça dos vencidos, que fora tão cultivada, que fizera da hespanha a mimosa patria de todas as industrias, de todas as artes, apezar de decadente, não deixou de exercer a sua influencia sobre os rudes vence- dores, modificando-lhes os costumes, a industria, os proprios ritos do culto aborrecido, e n'esse tempo a louça era arabe como tudo mais. mas logo que as ambições de carlos v, a sua elevação ao throno im- perial, as pretensões que herdara do pae vieram desviar as forças da hespanha para a italia, onde em amiudadas pelejas se discutia não só a posse do milanez mas o dominio do mundo, quando os gene- raes do imperador tanto se chamavam hernando de avallos como prospero colonna, quando era o titiano que tinha a honra de legar á posteridade o sem- blante carregado do carcereiro de francisco i, então os modestos artistas que em talavera começaram a exercer a sua industria tentaram imitar os artefactos que de urbino, de faenza e d'outros centros da italia chegavam até à côrte do seu soberano, home- nagem às suas façanhas que celebravam. mais tarde, depois de vencida nos campos de enghien a velha infanteria hèspanhola, quando com luiz xiv a casa de bourbon conseguiu substituir se nos destinos da europa á da austria em plena decadencia, quando sobre tudo entrou em hespanha com filippe v, o engodo pelas modas, pela elegancia, pelas artes francezas vemos que alcora nasceu d'essa nova cor- rente de ideas. as faianças de talavera estão bem representadas na sala e. dois dos exemplares os n.os e jul- guei podel-os attribuir ao seculo xvi e devem re- montar á época em que os artistas, ainda hesitantes, comquanto não podessem resistir ás influencias es- tranbas, não tinham perdido de todo o gosto pela or- namentação arabe que até então fora o nacional. no n.° , do sr. osborne sampaio, as côres são as empregadas pelos grandes ceramistas italianos, o azul, o verde, o amarello, ou por outra são d’ellas o pallido reflexo porque lhes falta o vigor e o brilho incomparavel dos esmaltes italianos; os anjos que figuram na ornamentação são italianos tambem, fa- zem lembrar os que esculpia donatello com as per- nas defendidas com armaduras; o resto é arabe; são os passaros, as corças, as plantas mil vezes variadas, mil vezes reproduzidas na mesquita de cordova ou no alcazar da alhambra. no prato des- cripto com o n.º , tambem do sr. sampaio, ainda é mais evidente a influencia arabe, pois se não fosse uma pequena egreja pintada n’um dos lados ninguem poderia affirmar que o artista que o decorou fosse um artista christão. demais, os productos de tala- vera, apezar de inspirados pelas faianças italianas, tiveram sempre um cunho proprio e originalidade nos ornatos e sobre tudo nas formas, nacionaes com raras excepções. além d'isto a indole das duas fa- bricações era bem diversa; os fontanas, os xantos; verdadeiros artistas, só empregavam seus pinceis em peças de apparato, pratos, taças ou gomis, destina- dos a ornamentar os palacios dos poderosos mecenas, os oleiros de talavera trabalhavam para o povo, os seus artefactos eram destinados para as necessida- des domesticas e é certo que as quartas e cangirões, que hoje se conservam em museus, muitas vezes foram á fonte ou serviram em roda para encher as canecas dos freguezes d'algum taberneiro das cas- tellas. a maior parte das formas são as que já an- teriormente tinham sido adoptadas para uso diario e que ainda hoje se empregam; outras menos sim- ples têem um aspecto original e um cunho proprio; taes são as do candelabro exposto pelos duques de palmella com o n.° , provavelmente destinado a alumiar algum altar, e a caneca dos mesmos srs. que tem o n.° . os assumptos reproduzidos na ornamentação va- riam. uns representam costumes populares, toscas paisagens, caçadas um tanto phantasticas : taes são o n.° dos duques de palmella, em que dois sol- dados com os trajos á luiz xili, da época, fraterni- sam, os n.° , , dos mesmos srs., os , do sr. sampaio e o da academia de bellas artes em que se podem vèr caçadas á lança e com galgos, combates de animaes e paizagens. outros, mais eruditos, se assim se pode dizer, vestem os seus personagens á romana, como no n.º em que dois cavalleiros fazem lembrar a estatua equestre de luiz xiv, ou vão buscar á mythologia os modelos dos seus, como se vê no n.º do sr. sampaio; e accrescentarei que este prato se distingue entre os outros exemplares da exposição, pois além do vigor extraordinario do colorido, a correcção com que está desenhado parece indicar sêr devido a um verdadeiro artista. nos productos de alcora o cunho nacional mui difficilmente se percebe. vê-se que a industria que alli floresceu foi transplantada do estrangeiro e que os artistas que o duque de aranda soube attrahir para a aperfeiçoar lhe imprimiram um typo estranho que nunca mais abandonou. se os seus artefactos co- meçaram ainda no seculo xvii não sei; os que d'elles tenho visto teem todos o cunho do seculo passado. mesmo nos exemplares evidentemente destinados ás necessidades das classes populares como é o can- girão descripto com o n.º , e os pratos que tem os n.os e todos do sr. sampaio, a influencia dos modelos, das modas e predilecções francezas são evidentes; no n.º que pertence a um typo vul- garissimo tres personagens turcos fazem lembrar os que moreau le jeune desenhou para illustrar as tragedias de voltaire; são turcos de convenção não são turcos da turquia. os artefactos mais perfeitos chegam a confundir-se com os das fabricas do sul da frança a ponto de ser difficil muitas vezes dif- ferençar uns dos outros, e de existirem nas collec- ções com a designação de moustiers ou marselha quando são de alcora ou vice-versa. como não teem marca a maior parte das vezes, a classificação é difficilima. está n’este caso a terrina que expuz com o n.° que, apezar da sua forma purissima do estylo luiz xv, os tropheos correctamente desenha- dos no mesmo estylo e gosto francez, a natureza do esmalte, mais brilhante do que o de marselha, me fez classificar como de alcora. ainda notarei a fonte do sr. osborne sampaio descripta com o n.º que, de forma completamente franceza, está or- nada com ramos de flores devidos de certo ao pin- cel de um artista de merito. para terminar este rapido passeio pelas faianças expostas na sala e resta-me fallar dos productos attribuidos á fabrica real do rato. se nos pertence como vulgarisadores um capitulɔ na historia da ceramica, em compensação a cera- mica portugueza não tem historia. estou bem longe de seguir o exemplo, hoje tão frequente, dos que se desvanecem com o mais insi- gnificante objecto logo que julgam poder-lhe altri- buir origem nacional, e que, desprezando como indi- gnos de louvor os mais finos productos das industrias que julgam poder mais ins gnos origem nacional, estranhas, enchem a bocca com :- e portuguez, muito interessante —, servindo assim de pretexto para os desapaixonados nos attribuirem vaidades e ignorancia, que felizmente nem de todos é apana- gio. conheço que lhes vou excitar as iras, mas é mal a que já estou acostumado. apezar de escrever com a exposição de arte ornamental aberta julgo não faltar á verdade dizendo que não somos nem nunca fomos um povo de artistas. ha factos que vão de encontro a esta opinião, fa- ctos que se chamam a batalha, thomar, belem, a custodia dos jeronymos, a cruz do funchal, etc.; são excepções que, como sempre, não destroem a regra. a excepção na ceramica portugueza chama-se a fabrica do rato. É verdadeiramente uma excepção? quasi que nem isso é. uma industria exercida por artistas estran- geiros, copiando modelos estrangeiros, que viveu o que vivem geralmente as tentativas d’este genero dos soberanos e dos ministros, quando não vem acu- dir a uma necessidade real, só porque foi exercida sobre o solo portuguez, com a vil materia prima portugueza, e braços inconscientes portuguezes tam- bem, pertence à historia do trabalho portuguez? custa-me a responder affirmativamente. em todo o caso, tal qual foi ou como se quizer con- siderar, enxerto mal succedido, ou acclimação pros- pera ainda que ephemera, a fabrica do rato é o unico estabelecimento ceramico portuguez cujos productos merecem ser notados. a sua historia está por es- crever. se não fosse o gosto da nossa época pelo bric-à-brac, que tem salvo do esquecimento tantas reliquias do passado, provavelmente a sua existen- cia não seria conhecida senão por algum curioso que desejasse saber a razão porque a rua da fa- faiança. É o que nos conta ratton, e quando a enu- mera juntamente com os outros estabelecimentos que com ella nasceram, diz: - fabrica de loiça á imitação da que vinha de frança, cuja fabrica deu algum lucro, mas por estar mal collocada e se ha- verem estabelecido muitas outras no reino, e parti- cularmente pela opposição que lhe fez a loiça in- gleza se veiu a fechar. comtudo d’esta fabrica, de que foi mestre um italiano, saíram officiaes que ainda se empregam com bastante utilidade publica. É curto o paragrapho, mas precioso. diz-nos qual foi a idea que presidiu ao estabelecimento da in- dustria e a quem se encarregou a execução, e co- nhecidos estes dois pontos estão explicadas as duas influencias, tão diversas, que predominam nos arte- factos. de facto abundam nas loiças attribuidas á fabrica real objectos que á primeira vista parecem ter saído dos fornos de rouen; pertencem ao ge- nero chamado de lambrequins, e se não fosse uma incorrecção no desenho e uma deficiencia no esmalte, aos mais praticos seria difficil classifical-os, faltando, de mais a mais, a marca da fabrica em quasi todos, senão em todos, os productos d’este genero, talvez de proposito para illudir o consumidor acostumado a fornecer-se de loiça franceza. na collecção da sala e um só objecto, o n.º , terrina que per- tence ao sr. osborne sampaio, serve para exempli- ficar o genero, mas está exposto na sala k, entre outros objectos, um taboleiro pertencente á acade- mia real das sciencias, que faz hesitar os mais co- nhecedores. a par d'este genero, que provavelmente foi aquelle a que de principio se dedicou a fabrica, como o in- dicam as palavras de ratton, encontramos um sem numero de objectos em que a influencia do mestre italiano é manifesta; taes são todos os de loiça branca, sem pintura alguma, em que se attendeu sobretudo á fórma. a fabrica devia ter á sua dis- posição um modelador de primeira ordem, porque em quasi todos os productos d'este genero nada ha que criticar. taes são as estatuetas expostas por sua magestade el-rei o senhor d. fernando na sala f com o n.º , e que não deshonrariam os artistas de capo di monte, taes os bustos expostos na sala e com o n.° , copiados, julgo eu, de modelos de machado, expostos pelo sr. antonio maria fidié, o do n.º , a bacia e jarro que o sr. osborne sam- paio expoz, e que teem o n.° , e outros que omitto. ainda a par d'este genero apparecem productos do rato que não podem facilmente dizer-se copia- dos de modelos estrangeiros, e que constituem uma especialidade da fabrica; taes são a gallinha que ex- puz com o n.º , o pato, que tem o n.° , e as celhas, dos duques de palmella, expostas como n.° . o mais distincto artefacto attribuido á fabrica real, exposto na sala e, é com certeza a terrina perten- cente á academia real das sciencias e que tem o n.° . copiada evidentemente de alguma peça de baixella de prata, não me espantaria se viesse a saber que na casa real existe o modelo, pois assim como constitue uma excepção entre os productos da mesma origem, assim posso suppor que o modelo deveria ter a marca de um dos mestres francezes da escola de germain, pois o estylo é purissimo; no mesmo caso está o espelho que a sr. condessa d'edla expoz na sala f com o n.° e em que se está a vêr um d'esses que acompanhavam as caixas e bandejas dos toucadores das elegantes do tempo. factos isolados, objectos, d’esta ordem só depun- ciam o capricho, quer do artista que os modelou para offerecer a algum poderoso patrono, quer do principe que se lembrou de fazer executar em ma- teria tão fragil o modelo que possuia, nunca podem servir para d'elles se induzir que a officina donde sairam se dedicou seguidamente á fabricação d’um genero em que a perfeição da mão d’obra não está d'accordo com a vileza da materia prima. tambem considero excepcional e devida talvez ao pincel de algum dos artistas da época, a travessa que o sr. osborne sampaio expoz com o n.º e que artisti- camente decorada se afasta muito da incorrecção com que são pintadas quasi todas as peças da mesma origem, e por isso julgo que na sua execução en- traram elementos que não eram os ordinarios da fabrica. ratton escreveu em e diz-nos que n'essa época já a fabrica real tinha fechado, não podendo resistir á concorrencia ingleza e á das outras muitas que no reino se estabeleceram. d'essas muitas poucos vestigios restam, a não ser que se lhes deva attribuir a maior parte dos obje- ctos que até hoje se classificavam como do rato. de facto poucos são os que tem a marca e, se não acon- tecesse achar-se em objectos perfeitamente eguaes, difficil seria determinar-lhes com certeza a origem. comtudo não estou longe de suppôr que alguns pertencem as fabricas que faziam concorrencia á do rato ou se devem aos officiaes que de la saíram quando fechou. conheço na vidigueira um grande serviço de jantar, com numerosas peças quasi todas de formas elegantes, que alli existe desde vinte ou trinta annos antes do fim do seculo passado, e que pintado de azul no genero rouen, reproduzindo as fórmas d'aquella procedencia, é de uma execução tão tosca que não se lhe pólle assignar esta origem, nem tão pouco se pode dizer ser do rato, pois tem numerosas marcas não conhecidas, comquanto se possa affirmar que é portuguez, attendendo á na- tureza do barro e esmalte. a fabrica real do rato não tinha razão de ser, não era viavel. como industria destinada a prover as classes populares, não era com mestres e opera- rios estrangeiros que poderia produzir tão barato que lhe não faltassem os consumidores; nas classes medias tinha a lutar com as importações inglezas e sobre tudo chinezas, mais baratas e mais perfeitas, pois, como é sabido, ainda ha poucos annos a por- celana ordinaria de cantão era a que se via em quasi todas as mesas portuguezas; como fabricação de luxo vinha tarde, quando a europa inteira 'estava a fabricar as mais preciosas porcelanas e diante d'ellas tinham já abaixado bandeiras os fabricantes de faiança. consolem-se pois os que lamentam a sua ruina lembrando-se de que só á custa de conti- nuados sacrificios se poderia ter evitado. os resul- tados não os compensavam a porcelana oriental e europea está profusamente representada na sala e. esta profusão tem a sua razão de ser. n’uma exposição retrospectiva de arte ornamental, destinada a fazer conhecer a historia da arte d’um povo ou d’uma raça, o intelligente orga- nisador deve, quanto possivel, procurar que se achem representados todos os objectos, que, desti- nados ás necessidades multiplas do homem, servi- rão ao mesmo tempo de pretexto ao habil cinzel do ourives, ou ao delicado pincel do decorador. só as- sim poderá o estudioso reconstruir o viver dos pas- sados, no templo, na rua, e na casa. se a arte na- nos tempos em que na europa os banquetes dos opulentos eram servidos em artisticas majolicas ou em baixellas cinzeladas por alguns dos mestres da renascença, em portugal estas alfaias eram devidas å industria dos orientaes, e esta preferencia ainda hoje dura. póde-se pois dizer, ainda que a asserção tenha o seu sabor paradoxal, que a louça portu- gueza é a louça da china. bem nossa é ella, e se o patriotismo póde des- culpar a exagerada estima de objectos de pouca importancia e nenhum valor artistico, justificadissi- ma estava a numerosa collecção da sala e, se eu podesse concordar em que o merecimento dos ob- jectos n’ella reunidos, não basta para o fazer. se é justificado o orgulho do povo que se honra por con- tar entre os seus filhos um raphael ou um cellini, não o é menos o d'aquelle que conta entre os seus maiores um gama ou um albuquerque. os frescos do vaticano, as taças ou os punhaes que restam do grande cinzelador recordam ao italiano o seculo de leão x, recordam-lhe que o talento dos artistas da sua patria os habilitou a tratar como de egual para egual com as testas coroadas, e fez da italia a pa- tria das artes; as colchas e os contadores da india, a louça da china e do japão lembram em quasi to- das as casas portuguezas, que a audacia, o talento, á tenacidade dos nossos navegadores patentearam å europa mais de meio mundo; pois ainda que a maior parte dos objectos que hoje se conservam em portugal estejam longe de datar da época gloriosa em que os galeões das quinas davam a lei d'aqui até as mais remotas ilhas do extremo oriente, e se. jam devidos a importações recentes, a ignorancia dos seus possuidores consente-lhes poder attribuil-os ao quinhão que pertenceu a algum capitão illustre nos ramente assassinados e perdendo casas e haveres no incendio que destruiu a poroação, foram em fundar novo estabelecimento en chin-chéo, estabelecimento que teve a sorte do primeiro. não descorçoando, em tomavamos pé em macáo, que lá está ha mais de tres seculos resistindo por todos os meios ás repetidas tentativas que contra ella se tem dirigido. d’alli, d'aquelle ilhéo arido e isolado, veiu para à europa a porcelana chineza, e mal foi conhe- cida mereceu a preferencia sobre todos os produ- ctos similhantes, predilecção que ainda hoje dura. imital-a foi desde logo a constante preoccupação de industriaes, artistas e sabios, e já vimos o que os fabricantes de faiança conseguirão n'este genero, mas só perto de duzentos annos depois é que a des- coberta de jazigos de kaolin, materia prima indis- pensavel, veiu habilitar a europa a iniciar um fa- brico, que se por alguns lados é superior ao da china, por outros nunca se lhe equiparou. merecem as porcelanas orientaes a procura que teem, ou, pelo contrario, são dignas do desprezo que alguns (poucos) censores mal humorados lhe tri- butam? a constancia dos amadores já de ha muito respondeu a esta pergunta. accusam a arte chineza de ser uma arte de con- venção, indigna de tal nome, alheia completamente ao estudo da natureza, para que a arte europea se dirige cada vez mais, accusam-n'a de uma rotina inveterada que lhe faz reproduzir hoje os modelos que reproduzia ha tres seculos. de certo que quem quizer achar nos artefactos chinezes os primores da arte europea facil lhe serà affirmar que está bem longe de ter conseguido resultados eguaes, mas quem de boa fé procurar n'elles o unico resultado em - qne puzeram a mira, o effeito decorativo, ha de dizer que ninguem ainda os egualou. o que ha nos mais estimados productos da industria europea capaz de alegrar e ornar uma casa como as talhas da china dos srs. condes de porto covo, que estão expostas com os n.ºs , e , ou como os tanques dos duques de palmella e do sr. visconde de daupias, que teem os n.os , e , ou ainda como os enormes pratos que os mesmos duques expozèram com os n.ºs , , e ? que brilho nos esmaltes, que vigor no colorido, que opulencia na ornamentação. são estas qualidades para desprezar só porque outras lhes faltam? os preços por que os mercados de paris e londres pagam similhantes ob- jectos são a resposta á pergunta. se taes objectos não tinham logar n'uma exposição de arte ornamen- tal, e por os ter admittido merece censura a com- missão, porque será que em todas as exposições retrospectivas, que ultimamente se teem realisado em frança, talhas eguaes, que pertenceram a uma casa fidalga de portugal e hoje são de m. andré, teem sempre figurado ? emquanto á accusação de faltar o realismo aos artefactos chinezes parece-me injusta. em primeiro logar não é com os nossos olhos europeus que po- demos decretar que as figuras que a nós nos pare- cem convencionaes, que as paizagens que se nos figuram de phantasia, não são, pelo contrario, ver- dadeiros retratos, verdadeiras vistas, quando vemos que elles sabem reproduzir flores (essas conhece- mol-as nós) que parecem colhidas de fresco nos nos- sos jardins, quando, sobretudo, em alguns objectos excepcionaes a imitação da natureza é servil, e vê-se que foi procurada. hesitaria por acaso o esculptor mène em pôr a sua assignatura nos grous ou nas umas certas regras empiricas, transmittidas de paes para filhos, chamavamos japão a um certo numero de typos determinados. eu partilho da ignorancia geral e, não tendo nunca pensado em estudar o as- sumpto, quando comecei o catalogo tudo me servia de embaraço. lancei mão do livro de jacquemart e sem hesitar adoptei a sua classificação e terminologia visto que entre nós a não havia. a classificação do illustrado tratadista está longe de satisfazer a ignorantes, como eu, que querem sempre tocar com o dedo para se convencerem, as bases em que se funda nem sempre são verdadeiras, os caracteristicos ado- ptados nem sempre pertencem exclusivamente ao genero a que elle os attribue. por exemplo: a fa- milia chrysanthemo peoniana é determinada sobre tudo por predominar na sua ornamentação a peonia e a chrysanthema, ora ha porcelana, que por forma alguma se pode classificar n’este genero mas em que estas flores constituem às vezes o unico orna- mento. como ha de o inexperiente evitar erros gros- seiros ? mais: ao ler o que elle escreve sobre a porcelana japoneza a impressão que fica no espirito é que tudo ou quasi tudo o que nós até hoje considerava- mos da china, as jarras pintadas com personagens, a louça chamada da india, de flores varias, as imi. tações de porcelanas européas, etc., tudo é japonez. contra similhante asserção protestam os factos e protestam os proprios livros chinezes. para a acre- ditar seria necessario admittir que tendo os portu- guezes relações seguidas e directas com a china por via de macáo, tendo à sua disposição para lhes acceitarem as encommendas as numerosas fabricas da provincia de cantão, não tendo, pelo contrario, i com o japão senão relações eventuaes em que pre- dominava o interesse religioso, relações que os abusos da companhia de jesus fizeram em breve cessar, preferiram desprezar a porcelana chineza para ir fornecer-se ao japão. É inadmissivel. de mais na época em que veio para portugal a maior parte da porcelana que hoje cá existe, e de que tanta pertence aos typos por elle classificados como do japão, já de ha muito o nosso commercio com aquelle imperio tinha cessado completamente, e de macáo provinha toda a porcelana importada. da his- toria da porcelana chineza de tching-thing-kouer, traduzida por stanislas julien, se vê que as imita- ções de porcelanas europeas e, o que é mais, a re- producção na porcelana de desenhos europeus de longe datam, e até parece um ponto assente que os cobres esmaltados foram na china inspiradus por esmaltes francezes. o erro de jacquemart provém de certo de ter elle visto unicamente uma das faces da medalha; tinha debaixo das vistas o grande numero de por- celana importada pelos hollandezes, sabia que estes, ao contrario dos portuguezes, no japão tinham tido as principaes feitorias, e tinham sabido, abstendo-se de propaganda, conservar por muito tempo as boas graças dos poderosos da terra, concluiu que ao japão pertencia aquelle genero de fabricação; se em vez d'isto tivesse escripto em portugal cahia de certo no erro contrario. a verdade é que se torna summamente difficil descriminar os productos japonezes dos chinezes e vice-versa, exceptuando alguns typos bem conheci- dos que pela côr e pelas formas se não podem con- fundir. quando eu era ainda mais ignorante do que sou hoje decidia de cadeira o que era do japão e o que era da china; comecei a abrir os olhos e logo a perplexidade do meu espirito foi grande; não me atrevia a classificar o mais insignificante objecto. o general japonez, que ha pouco visitou lisboa, foi quem veiu socegar os meus escrupulos. soube pelo interprete que s. ex. era grande ama- dor e entendedor; não me fiando só na informação, mostrei-lhe varios objectos que eu sabia bem o que eram, e em todos achei a sua opinião conforme com a dos que eu considero verdadeiros entendedores e com a dos livros; contei-lhe então as minhas du- vidas : « não me admira, me respondeu elle, os maiores entendedores do japão não podem affirmar que um objecto é japonez ou chinez por maiores que sejam as probabilidades, porque os chinezes imitáram as porcelanas japonezas e os japonezes as d'elles, e as imitações são perfeitas.» desde esse momento soceguei, porque tinha encontrado uma regra para me guiar; é a seguinte: - em portugal toda a loiça é chineza emquanto não estiver pro- vado até á evidencia que é do japão. os hollande- zes que sigam a inversa, e é provavel que ninguem se engane. apezar d'isto são tão fortes os preconceitos adqui- ridos na infancia, tem para nós tanta força uma ra- zão que o não é, o: sempre ouvi, tão portuguez, que apezar de prevenido estou desconfiado de que fiz no catalogo confusões deploraveis. de algumas já te- nho a certeza. por exemplo: classifiquei como do japão os barros descriptos com os n.° , e ; classifiquei-os assim apezar dos carimbos chi- nezes que lhe via no fundo, porque desde creança ouvira sempre que barros d'aquelle genero eram ja- ponezes; descrevi-os n'essa fé e mandei o catalogo para a imprensa. , d'aque já menelém dos pratos do sr. d. fernando de sousa, que tem o n.° . de porcelana azul antiquissima, com seus, per- sonagens tão differentes dos que os chinezes hoje piotam, é a cabaça do sr. sampaio, que tem o n.º e a data de a . da familia verde além dos pratos dos duques de palmella que já mencionei e que tem os n.os e , é um bom specimen o par de vasos do sr. sampaio, que tem o n.º . de mandarins a jarra do sr. visconde de dau- pias n.° , e a que tem o n.° , do sr. eduardo van zeller, d'um typo differente e que mal se pode classificar n’esta familia; ainda as jarras do sr. an- tonio maria fidé que tem o n.° , e sobretudo as chavenas do sr. francisco ribeiro da cunha que tem o n.° e que recommendo aos amadores como joias preciosas, pois a delicadeza com que es- tão pintadas não se excede. da familia chamada rosa a talha dos duques de palmella n.° e o prato do sr. macedo braga que tem o n.° . dos differentes typos de porcelana chamado da india tão variados, além das talhas dos condes de porto covo, que já mencionei, dos tanques dos du- ques de palmella e das talhas dos mesmos senhores que tem o n.° , é um verdadeiro objecto de mu- seu a talha do sr. visconde de daupias que tem o n.° . ainda difficil de classificar, talvez chrysanthemo peoniana, a jarra do sr. eduardo van zeller que tem o n.° e que é digna de menção. como producto de influencia da arte europea na industria chineza nada na sala e se pode comparar ás terrinas da sr.a condessa de ficalho, descriptas com o n.° ; a elegancia de fórmas que os ou- rives francezes sabiam dar aos seus trabalhos, junta ao esplendor e brilho incomparavel dos esmaltes chinezes. páro aqui; proseguir seria repetir o catalogo; pois o que procurei na escolha dos objectos foi que na collecção se encontrassem todos os typos das porcelanas chinezas, evitando as repetições; julgo tel-o conseguido. do japão só mencionarei quatro objectos. as ta- lhas dos duques de palmella, que teem o n.° , pois não tenho noticia da existencia de outras, e não são menos bellas do que raras; as que teem o n.° , de forma pouco vulgar e antiguidade incon- testavel; as jarras do sr. osborne sampaio, speci- mens raros, eguaes a uma pertencente ao barão gus- tavo rotschild, que mereceu ser reproduzida por jacquemart na sua historia da ceramica; finalmente o milhafre do sr. d. duarte manuel, exposto com o n.° , e que bem prova que os artistas japonezes quando querem sabem tão bem como outros quaes- quer copiar a natureza. alongado de mais vae este trabalho, e para ser completo ainda me falta lançar uma rapida vista de olhos pelos numerosos specimens de porcelanas eu- ropeas. abbreviarei o mais que poder. no seculo passado portugal, apezar do amor que tinha ás suas porcelanas orientaes, não pôde esca- par ao gosto que em toda a europa se desenvolveu pelas graciosas porcelanas de fabricação recente. para cá vieram numerosos productos de vincennes e sèvres, e da pleiade de fabricas que em frança se fundáram em torno d'esta, e sobretudo de saxe e dos mais pontos da allemanha. os serviços de meissen ou de sèvres, os surtouts de figurinhas, de biscuit faziam no seculo xyili parte obrigada da mo- deros de fabre sobres servichas de bilia das casas fidalgas, e por isso tinham direito a um logar nas salas da exposição; dava-lh’o tambem o seu valor artistico, só contestado pelos mais ob- cecados. confesso que me encantam muito mais a graça e delicadeza com que os artistas de meissen modela- ram as suas figurinhas, a riqueza das cores com que sonhavam decoral-as, qualidades que as tornam o mais elegante ornato de um toucador ou de uma sala de senhora, unica ambição que teem, do que a ingenuidade dos toscos oleiros que no seculo xv ou xvi pintavam burros que não são burros mas que o queriam ser porque teem orelhas de burro; para admirar artistas tanto ou mais ingenuos escuso de remontar a épocas tão remotas, tenho-os ahi a cada passo illustrando os muros da cidade e assi- gnando com — cecilio — as suas obras, ou vou aprecial-os á feira de belem nos bonecos em que os olhos são pontos e os narizes são traços. procurei que na sala e todos os paizes, todas as fabricas estivessem representadas, e d'algumas con- segui obter specimens verdadeiramente notaveis. rapidamente mencionarei o que de todas me parece melhor. de vincennes, origem da fabrica de sèvres, o estabelecimento ceramico mais notavel do mundo, os, dois potes de pasta molle que o sr. osborne sampaio expoz com o n.° . de sèvres os cheiradores (pots-pourris) do mesmo senhor que tem o n.° , notaveis pela cor e oiro, e ainda os n.ºs e da mesma collecção. gra- ciosas quanto possivel as estatuetas do sr. francisco ribeiro da cunha que tem o n.º . de niederviller, da época em que o conde de custine adquiriu a fabrica, o grupo de biscuit re- de vienna d'austria a collecção de chavenas dos mesmos duques que tem os n.os a . das fabricas inglezas o prato de wedgwood que tem o n.° é o mais notavel specimen que tenho visto d’um genero que nunca ninguem excedeu. a collecção de biscuits do sr. antonio maria fidié des- cripta com os n.° a , e que julguei poder classificar como de origem ingleza, attendendo ao typo dos personagens, é no seu genero das mais notaveis. de capo di monti são dignos de nota a preciosa tigella branca do sr. antonio maria fidié (n.° ) e sobre tudo o grupo do sr. ribeiro da cunha (n.° ). finalmente da fabrica hespanhola do buen retiro egualam as mais apreciadas figurinhas de saxe os n.os a e são d’uma graça e elegancia inex- cedivel as figuras do grupo exposto pela sr. con- dessa de ficalho com o n.° . cumpri as ordens de v. ahi estão consignadas as minhas impressões pessoaes sobre a collecção da sala e. nada valem porque me falta sciencia e auctoridade. resta-me a consolação de poder di- zer que a publicação d'ellas não é devida a pre- sumpção minha, mas á bondade de v. que me quer collocar em logar que não mereço, xi a sala e (continuação) cinco vitrines da sala e contêm a maior parte dos codices que concorreram á exposição, tanto de hespanha como de portugal. a superioridade da collecção hespanhola está no valor archeologico de alguns exemplares; a da col- lecção portugueza na perfeição artistica de muitos. com effeito, em quanto o mais antigo dos nossos codices não passa além dos fins do seculo xii, um dos hespanhoes é ainda anterior ao seculo x, outros d'este seculo e do immediato. o que se reputa anterior ao seculo x é um cu- riosissimo breviario mosarabe ( ). o uso do offi- cio gothico ou mosarabe, cujá instituição se attribue a santo isidoro, arcebispo de sevilha, durou 'em hespanha até ao tempo de affonso vi. o rito mosa- rabe era muito mais simples que o gregoriano, não continha as ceremonias que de seculo a seculo se foram introduzindo nos officios divinos, e que este ultimo rito auctorisava e regulava. a missa mosarabe, similhante pois à dos primitivos chris- tãos, conservou-se, durante seculos, sem os succes- sivos accrescentamentos que pouco a pouco se in- troduziram no ritual romano. o breviario exposto, monumento interessante para a historia ecclesiastica da peninsula, contem psal. mos, hymnos e canticos. a traducção dos psalmos, attribuida a santo isidoro, differe das versões co- nhecidas. a letra wisigothica mosarabe tem um ca- racter particular. a alteração do romano é muito maior que n'outros codices contemporaneos; pre- dominam as formas curvas, o que tudo faz mais difficil aqui a leitura que n'outros manuscriptos da mesma epoca. as letras que se lêem melhor são as versaes das epigraphes, porque não são tão profun- damente alteradas como o cursivo. as letras capitaes, coloridas, de caracter disforme e phantastico, representam ás vezes cabeças huma- nas, aves ou peixes; outras vezes ornatos com fór. mas menos definidas. muitas d’estas illuminuras fa- zem lembrar os ensaios de pintura das creanças. os psalmos ou hymnos começam por neumas de musica. este codice, em pergaminho in-fol. está muito deteriorado pelo grande uso que teve. eis aqui outro monumento da antiga paleographia hespanhola. É a obra de s. gregorio magno, mo- ralia in job, em pergaminho, in-fol. maximo. cal. ligraphicamente considerado, este codice já não differe, tanto como o anterior, dos outros contem- poraneos. a letra, com ser wisigothica, é muito mais regular, e por tanto muito mais legivel; as versaes das epigraphes mais correctas e perfeitas. a seguinte nota, lançada n'uma das ultimas fo- lhas dá a epoca e o nome do auctor d'esta copia: explicit liber moralium gregori romensis pape. era dcccclxiii in idus aprilis. vita pasce hora prima deo gratias. regnanti rege raneniro et comite fre- denando, nec non et basilio episcopo. uma nota fi- nal declara o nome do scriba florencio. no archivo da egreja de santo isidoro de leão, conserva-se uma biblia da mesma epoca, muito si- milhante na letra e na ornamentação, porém de outro copista, como se lè n'uma de suas paginas : conscriptus est hic codex à notario sanctione pres- bytero xiii kal. julias. era dcccclxviii obtinente glo. rioso ac serenissimo regni consulque ejus fredinando gundisalvis egregium comes in castella comitatum gerenti. uma pagina d'este codice de santo isidoro de leão é illuminada. consiste a ornamentação n'um grande arco, e n'elle outros quatro inclusos, todos de volta de ferradura, fustes e capiteis das colum- nas tambem arabes, e os quatro evangelistas com as formas dos animaes emblematicos.' ha em hespanha, na bibliotheca do escurial ou- tro codice, tambem do seculo x, porém mais orna- mentado e em maior perfeição. representa uma das suas estampas nove figuras em tres series: as tres primeiras são de chindasvinto, kecesvinto e egica; as tres segundas de urraca, sancho e ra- miro; as tres ultimas, finalmente, de sarracenus socius, vigila scriba e garsea discipulus. taes fo- ram os tres que illuminaram e copiaram o codice aheldense, e que, do alto da realeza da arte, não hesitaram em emparelhar-se na mesma estampa com os proprios monarchas. ? o seculo xi está representado na collecção pelo liber evangeliorum ( ), ms. em pergaminho, in- fol. menor, com illuminuras douradas e coloridas. : museu español de antiguedades, tom. , pag. . idem, tom. iii, pag. . na maior parte d'estas illuminuras predomina a côr verde. as figuras, muitas das quaes são coroadas ou mitradas, estão assentadas em cadeiras gothi- cas de varias formas. o desenho é muito incorre- cto. a biblia, que fazia parte da livraria da egreja d'avila ( ), com ser já do seculo xii, assemelha-se ainda muito, na letra, na ornamentação e até nas dimensões aos codices do seculo x. a illuminura da primeira folha representa a arca de noé com um desenho incorrectissimo. em cada face da arca ha tres series de janellas, que não deixam quasi es- paços entre si, occupadas por figuras humanas ou de animaes. por baixo da arca um medalhão repre- senta noé e seus tres filhos; ao lado o mesmo pa- triarcha sacrificando n'um altar. as tarjas coloridas são ornadas ao modo arabe, estylo predominante nas illuminuras de todos os codices citados dos se- culos x, xi e xii. bem como no codice de santo isidoro de leão, os evangelistas foram representados na biblia de avila a fol. com as formas dos animaes emble- maticos. as illuminuras d'este codice conservam as côres tão vivas que parece terem sido ha poucos dias applicadas sobre o pergaminho. o ordenamiento de alcalá, collecção de leis pro- mulgadas em alcalá de henares por d. affonso ix, tem a primeira folha illuminada com o sello d'el-rei d. pedro. É este um d'aquelles bellos sellos roda- dos, em cuja execução tanto se esmeravam alguns dos illuminadores de castella, e que se encontram em muitos codices e documentos antigos d'este paiz. no centro estão pintadas as armas reaes; à roda em bellos caracteres gothicos floridos : segno del- rey don pedro. mais fóra em gothico redondo, mas liso; + don nuno senhor de viscaya alferez mayor del-rey confirma. don fernando de castro mayordomo mayor del-rey confirma. o codice con- clue com a seguinte nota em caracteres similhantes aos ultimos : yo nicolas goncalez escrivano del- rey lo escrivi y illumine. - este codice fazia parte da bibliotheca particular do prelado d. pedro te- norio, por elle doada á egreja de toledo pelos an- nos de . parece d'este mesmo seculo a biblia casielnana, exposta com os livros portuguezes, por pertencer å bibliotheca publica de evora ( ). a letra é mais imperfeita que a do ordenamiento d’alcalá; as il- luminuras que representam figuras humanas deno- tam egualmente um atrazo maior da arte ou antes do artista. os desenhos lineares de estylo arabe das letras capitaes é que mais se assemelham aos d'aquelle codice. muitas das illuminuras não chega- ram a ser feitas ou concluidas. para umas ficaram os espaços em branco por varios logares; para ou- tras o illuminador fez apenas os esboços. os dese- nhos são tão incorrectos e tão grosso o colorido que, se não fora a forma de letra, facilmente se attribuiria este codice ao seculo xii ou xiii. É o segundo tomo de la grande y general histo- ria do rei de castella d. affonso, o sabio. joaquim heliodoro da cunha rivára, sendo bibliothecario da bibliotheca publica de evora, deu-se ao trabalho de cotejar minuciosamente este codice com as descri- pções que os bibliographos hespanhoes fazem do tomo segundo da general historia, e achou muitas e notaveis variantes que fazem do codice eborense este codice deve ter sido escripto e illuminado de a . póde ver-se outro similbante de no mus. es. pan. de antiguedades, tom. v, pag. . os generia fazem imento de monjina immedia: serve à larga tarja de ramagens, aves e outros ornatos, illuminados a cores e ouro, serve de moldura ao quadro. na pagina immediata, no meio de um fra- gmento de moldura similhante, está pintado o escudo da casa estuñiga. o missal antigo de toledo ( ) é ainda em le- tra gothica; as tarjas e letras capitaes decoradas no estylo arabe, e a capa ornada n’este mesmo estylo. as illuminuras, que representam o presepio e a céa, são de estylo hespanhol com reminiscencias arabes e flamengas. não é menos curiosa que as illuminu- ras a encadernação mosarabe toledana, da mesma época. diz-se que pelo cardeal lorenzana fôra adqui- rido este missal em roma, em , e depois doado å egreja de toledo. todavia ninguem pode duvidar de que foi escripto, illuminado e encadernado em hespanha. de outro missal de toledo, denominado o missal rico, veiu á exposição o volume .° É tambem de letra gothica, porém nas grandes tarjas e nas letras capitaes illuminadas apparecem já claras influencias da renascença. algumas das tarjas são ornadas de bustos, um dos quaes é o do papa leão .. n'este volume, e diz-se que tambem no setimo, vêem-se em todas as portadas e n'algumas das tar- jas as armas dos cisneros. começou a escrever o missal rico de toledo gon- çalo de cordova em . illuminaram-no o clerigo affonso ximenes, bernardino carderroa e fr. filippe, segundo consta dos livros da contadoria que se con- servam na obra e fabrica da egreja de toledo. n'algumas das tarjas do sexto volume lêem-se as datas de e . foi dedicada esta obra ao cardeal ximenes de cisneros, arcebispo de toledo. figuram na secção hespaphola dois livros de ho. jas começourdova epernarding a contadoria de ras, ambos do seculo xvi. o mais antigo e de mais preço contém vinte e tres illuminuras de pagina inteira, letras capitaes e tarjas a cores e ouro. al- gumas das letras capitaes são ornadas com miniatu- ras delicadissimas perfeitamente coloridas. as mi- niaturas e as tarjas e letras illuminadas são do mesmo estylo que as de alguns livros congeneres da collecção portugueza ( , e ). o catalogo manuscripto dos codices da secção hespanhola diz ter pertencido «à illustre senhora d. leonor de la vegan e que fora dado em roma ao embaixador garcia laso, enviado de bruxellas como capellão da archiduqueza joanna d'austria. a deputação provincial de barcelona enviou á ex- posição uma collecção interessantissima de sete co- dices com os desenhos originaes das joias e obras de ourivesaria fabricadas pelos artistas da catalu- nha no periodo de tres seculos e meio. com os exemplares da bibliotheca nacional de madrid está exposto um d'estes codices. a maior parte dos de- senhos teem os nomes dos ourives, e alguns as na- turalidades. seria extremamente interessante a his- toria authentica e illustrada da ourivesaria catalã, extraida d'esta collecção de documentos. não me consta que em nenhuma outra cidade da peninsula se conserve outra similhante collecção. esta mina foi explorada pelo sr. barão ch. davil- lier para as suas recherches sur l'orfèvrerie en es- pagne, livro em que se encontram não somente a noticia dos codices de barcelona, mas tambem mui- tos nomes de ourives e fac-similes dos seus dese- nhos. o outro livro de horas ( ) não pertence á bi- bliotheca nacional, mas ao sr. d. marcial lorves de aragon, de sadava, saragoça. a maior parte da época. os trajos reduzem-se a compridas vestes cingidas ao corpo. um leito curioso, não obstante faltar-lhe toda a perspectiva, uma scena campestre representando a vindima, a ceifa e um lagar; eis o que se pode colher das sessenta e tantas illuminuras do codice. ainda assim, em attenção aos poucos monumentos que restam de tão remota época, a observação de a. herculano é inteiramente exacta. o codice * da sala a é um novo testamento em pergaminho in fol., escripto no seculo xil ou xiii, e de pequeno interesse artistico, pelo que respeita ás illuminuras. todo o seu merito, que é grande, está na encadernação de prata com douraduras, feita no seculo siv. uma das faces é adornada com a imagem de christo crucificado entre as de nossa senhora e de s. joão. na parte superior dois anjos incensam com thuribulos. a inscripção seguinte, em allemão mi- nusculo do seculo xiv, cobre a moldura: yhvs avtem trasiens per medeo ylorom ibat ave maria gratia plena dominus tecon. na outra face vê-se tambem a imagem de christo, porém aqui sentado n'uma cadeira com a forma de dois leões, abençoando com a mão direita e segu- rando um livro na esquerda. uma cercadura de ra- magens adorna a moldura d'esta face. quatro broxas ou cabuchões, pregados nos quatro angulos de cada face, defendem dos choques e attritos as partes re- levadas. pertence este codice á sé de vizeu. merece particular attenção uma biblia hebraica exposta pela bibliotheca nacional de lisboa. e das collecções hespanhola e portugueza o unico exem- plar illuminado no estylo arabe, propriamente dito, isto é, no seu estado de pureza e de maior perfeição. em muitas folhas, no principio e no fim do livro, o texto, distribuido por uma, duas, ou quatro co- lumnas é contido em portadas coloridas de formas e côres variadissimas. alguns dos arcos tem a forma da ogiva pouco elegante, anterior a , outros são de volta re- donda, outros de volta de ferradura, outros quin- quilobados, outros finalmente á maneira de mitra. algumas vezes a forma de portico é substituida pela de moldura, exteriormente quadrangular, e in- teriormente curvilinea, sendo a curva formada por seis segmentos de circulo. as cores, a ornamenta- ção dos arcos e columnas, sobre tudo os ornatos geometricos, perfeitamente arabes, dão a este exem- plar um interesse grande, pela raridade dos livros assim illuminados. collado a uma folha está um pa- pel com a traducção ein latim do texto em frente, da qual consta que um certo samuel escrevera os vinte e quatro livros do codice nos annos de e . são numerosos os codices do seculo xv attribui- veis pela maior parte ás industrias francezas e ita- lianas. eis aqui na sala a um dos mais notaveis. É a historia das antiguidades judaicas de flavio josepho, escripta em francez em pergaminho in-fol. (* ). comprehende vinte e sete livros, sendo a columna em que cada um começa, guarnecida por uma grande e bella tarja a côres e ouro, represen- tando ramagens, flores, aves, etc. por cima da epi- graphe de cada capitulo uma estampa representa algum dos seus assumptos, geralmente uma batalha. muitas letras capitaes e iniciaes são tambem illumi- nadas. todas as grandes illuminuras que precedem os capitulos são muito finas e muito bem coloridas. a architectura das cidades, edificios e fortalezas do es- tylo ogival : os costumes da mesma época. a illu- minura do cap. xxvi representa a cidade de jeru- salem cercada pelos soldados de tito, vestidos e armados como os do seculo xv. um d'elles dispára contra a cidade uma bombarda cercada de anneis de ferro, como eram as primeiras que se empregá- ram, nos seculos xiv e xv, nos campos de batalha. pertence actualmente este bello codice ao sr. mar- quez de ficalho. não ha n'elle, porém, nenhuma carta ou signal que nos indique o nome do auctor e a sua procedencia. codice da sala g, exposto por sua mages- tade el-rei o senhor d. luiz, é da mesma época, escripto egualmente em francez, e ornado com uma portada do mesmo estylo. É um tratado de hygiene e de medicina de allebrand, escripto em pergami- nho, in-fol. pequeno. na ultima folha foi lançada a nota seguinte em letra da mesma época, porém, se- gundo parece, de mão differente : cest la liure que fu fait et compile par maistre allebrand de flo- rence a la requeste de la comtesse de provence qui estoit mere de la royne de ffrance de la royne dalmayn de la royne dangleterre de la contesse danjou et fust compile en lÃn mil ccclbj. esta data deve referir-se ao livro original e não á copia, feita de certo alguns cem annos depois. a portada do livro contém uma illuminura re- presentando a creação do mundo; em baixo, no meio da tarja, um escudo esquartellado. o desenho e colorido d’esta estampa são no mesmo estylo que os do codice de que anteriormente fallei. porém n'esta copia de allebrand o que ha sobretudo e excepcionalmente notavel são as innumeraveis il- luminuras, feitas a côres e oiro, das letras ca- pitaes. cada uma, de grandes dimensões, repre- senta o assumpto do capitulo a que dá principio. o cap. i trata do ar. começa, pois, por uma le- tra illuminada representando este elemento; isto é, uma planicie, e por cima o céo azulado, onde se movem algumas aves e nuvens; exactamente como nos nossos modernos livros de meteorologia, onde se representam os meteoros atmosphericos. as cÔ- res são vivas e os desenhos finissimos. o segundo trata du mengier (du manger). a letra capital representa um homeni sentado a uma mesa, comendo. a do terceiro, que trata das bebidas, re- presenta uma mulher dando de beber a um homem; a do quarto um lagar de vinho; a do quinto uma mulher recostada, dormindo; a do sexto um banho; o setimo, que fem por epigraphe de aller á femme, um homem abraçando uma mulher, junto de um leito. as outras representam a sangria, a applica- ção de ventosas, a applicação de sanguesugas, o ef- feito de um emetico, o medico aconselhando o modo de preservar da peste; o sol e o zodiaco, a propo- sito da insolação; uma cidade, a proposito da esco- lha de logar para habitação; um navio e um vian- dante, a proposito das jornadas por mar e por terra; homem cortando uma peça de panno, a proposito da hygiene das edades; duas figuras com grandes barretes, a proposito da hygiene do cabello; um me- dico dando instrucções a outra pessoa sobre a hy- giene dos olhos. seguem-se mais umas cento e trinta illuminuras do mesmo genero, representando assum- ptos da vida domestica, da vida rural, animaes, plan- tas, etc. para o seculo xv era uma obra illustrada immensamente superior aquellas que a gravura em madeira e a chromolithographia modernamente en- riquecem com as suas maravilhas. a maior parte das illuminuras são do mesmo pincel; algumas, pou- cas, muito mais imperfeitas denunciam mão menos habil. pertenceu este codice å bibliotheca da con- gregação do oratorio de casa de nossa senhora das necessidades. o livro de horas d'el-rei d. duarte, com estam- pas, grandes tarjas, letras capitaes e versaes a cô- res e oiro, é profusamente illuminado no estylo dos codices d'esta mesma época. as illuminuras, porem, não são tão finas e perfeitas. na pagina em que principia o officio da virgem foi lançada a seguinte nota de letra gothica : illus- trissimi principis eduardi johanis portugalie et algarbis regis serenissimi cepteque domini filii primogeniti. a letra capital d'esta mesma pagina contém o escudo das armas reaes portuguezas, com o banco de pinchar pintado de cor branca e as flo- res de liz. no fim foram accrescentadas algumas ora- ções tambem de letra gothica, mas differentes, or- nadas com illuminuras de outro pincel. a primeira estampa representa santa catharina com a corôa real, e com a palma e a roda do martyrio. tem illuminuras e letras do mesmo genero as horas do seminario episcopal de faro ( ). na capa conserva-se a seguinte nota de letra cursiva moderna de impressão: do bispo inquisidor geral d. josé maria de mello. da bibliotheca do mosteiro de mafra veiu uma collecção de nove livros de horas, psalmos, officios e outras orações, uns in- .', outros in- .° pequeno, todos em pergaminho, e na sua maior parte de le- tra similhante à dos codices anteriores, e com illu. minuras do mesmo genero, em geral mais imper- feitas. somente dois foram expostos ( e ). n’um d'elles, no verso da primeira folha, lê-se : suas differentes gradações. a ornamentação é de- licadissima, as figuras em posições phantasticas ou exaggeradas são sempre muito graciosas e elegan- tes. muitas lutam entre si ou com animaes, n'aquelle genero tão querido dos artistas da renascença. o que mais admiração causa n’esta obra notavel é a sobriedade das cores e a profusão e variedade das miniaturas, algumas das quaes para se verem nitidamente exigem o auxilio da lente. foi provavel- mente pintado por antonio de hollanda, pois d'elle escreveu seu filho, francisco de hollanda, que fora quem primeiro fizera conhecida en portugal uma maneira suave de pintar em negro e branco, supe- rior a todos os processos conhecidos nos outros pai- zes do mundo. encontram-se n'um codice da bibliotheca nacio- nal de lisboa, que contém parte das chronicas de eusebio, escriptas em lingua hespanhola, tarjas illu- minadas no mesmo estylo; fundo branco, ramagens de côr negra, nas varias gradações d'esta côr, e de oiro. este codice é do seculo xv, mas os ornatos são menos delicados, e as figuras de anjos n'um estylo que no seculo xvi, em geral, caira já em desuso. as tarjas representando flores e borboletas, em fundos doirados ou coloridos, caracterisam outro grupo de livros de horas, em que se encontram conjuntamente outros signaes que denunciam já me- lhor o seculo xvi. eis aqui entre os representantes d'este grupo um livrinho de horas da bibliotheca de evora ( ), notavel por outras particularidades que não se encontram n'outros exemplares. cada pagina do calendario está marcada com o signo respectivo na forma de uma pequena moeda doirada. estas miniaturas, bem como as das letras capitaes, são delicadissimas. n’estas ultimas o pintor tambem não · empregou mais que as cores branca e negra nas suas varias gradações. as tarjas ora são de flores, fructos e borboletas coloridas sobre fundos doira- dos, ora, mais raras vezes, representando aquelles objectos doirados sobre fundos coloridos. no officio dos mortos os fundos das tarjas são negros, e cra- neos e ossos accrescem aos outros ornatos. duas notas da mesma letra em que foram escriptas as orações latinas, explicam em lingua franceza a ori- gem miraculosa de duas d'aquellas orações. as horas da bibliotheca nacional ( ) tem a maior similhança com as antecedentes nas estampas, tarjas, letras capitaes e versaes illuminadas. parecem por- tanto attribuiveis tambem á industria franceza. as horas do sr. conde de mesquitella ( ) tem algumas tarjas no genero d'aquellas que adornam os dois codices antecedentes. são porém muito mais ricas pelo numero, variedade e belleza das illumi- nuras. · muitas estampas preenchem as paginas inteiras no reverso em frente do texto ficando o anverso em branco. a primeira representa n'uma portada do estylo da renascença com ornatos ogivaes o brazão dos costas. depois segue-se o calendario. cada mez tem uma estampa de pagina inteira representando um assumpto analogo. a do mez de janeiro repre- senta uma familia, parte da qual se aquece em frente de um fogão e outra parte prepara a cea sobre uma mesa. são lindissimos os effeitos da luz e o colorido d'este quadro todo flamengo. em frente a tarja do calendario, de aguada de ouro, represen- ta ornatos architectonicos do estylo ogival, e da parte inferior contém tres miniaturas, representando o signo e assumptos respectivos ao mez. o calen- dario dos outros mezes é ornado com illuminuras similhantes. os assumptos das estampas de pagina inteira são tirados da vida rural; a ultima, de des zembro, representa a matança de um porco. são todos curiosissimos. seguem-se os officios com muitas estampas de pagina inteira analogas ao assumpto de cada um d'elles. a primeira, que representa a prisão de christo á luz de um grande facho, faz lembrar pelos magnificos effeitos de luz alguns dos quadros de rembrandt. outras paginas são adornadas com tarjas e miniaturas perfeitissimas a aguada de ouro. em quatro estampas encontra-se em letra gothica a legenda : ave maria grative plena dominus tecum. mas esta ultima palavra apparece sempre com a fórma tecom, bem como na encadernação do codice da sé de vizeu e n'outras obras francezas e fla- mengas. as casas e fortalezas das paizagens são do estylo flamengo. as pequenas horas do sr. d. duarte manuel de noronha ( ) são illuminadas no mesmo estylo, po- rém com maior predominio dos ornatos da renas. cença, misturados ainda com outros ogivaes. sua magestade el-rei o sr. d. fernando possue umas horas illuminadas no estylo das que expoz o sr. conde de mesquitella e attribuiveis á mesma época. mas parece obra feita em portugal, pois uma das estampas representa o enterro d'el-rei d. manuel. ao passo que n'estes codices illuminados na frança e nas flandres, ou por artistas francezes e flamengos, o estylo gothico se conserva ainda nos principios do seculo xvi, nas obras illuminadas na italia, ainda no seculo xv, esse estylo desapparece inteiramente, substituido pelo da renascença. a col- lecção portugueza contém dois exemplares magni- ficos da arte italiana, ambos pertencentes ao archivo da torre do tombo. É o primeiro uma copia das obras de pedro lom- bardo, arcebispo de paris, denominado magister sententiarum, feita por um certo jacob carmelita, por incumbencia d'el-rei d. joão ii, como se de- prehende da subscripção: finit liber sententiarum feliciter. anno incarnationis dominice millesimo qua. dringētesimo nonagesimo quarto: idus decembris. et reliqua sua tota vita se tibi portugallo regi jacobus uere carmelita scriptor hujus comictit regi et tua taniù stipe peroptat. todo o verso da primeira folha, depois do prologo, é preenchido com uma bella portada a cores e ouro com medalhões representando os evangelistas e ou- tros santos. no quadro interior da tarja um portico de ordem corinthia, sustido por figuras de vulto in- teiro, com o indice dos livros contidos no volume. em baixo as armas reaes de portugal, encimadas pela cruz de christo. na pagina seguinte começa o primeiro livro, a cujas linhas de letras douradas serve de moldura uma grande tarja similhantemente illuminada. na parte superior está representada a trindade, e na inferior repete-se o escudo real. as primeiras paginas dos outros tres livros são illu- minadas no mesmo estylo, e n'ellas se repetem, tanto as armas reaes de portugal, como a cruz de christo. da biblia dos jeronymos, em sete volumes, está esposto o segundo. a subscripção prova-nos que este volume foi escripto em por alexandre verzano. tão pequenas são as differenças entre as pertence tambem á sr.a marqueza de fronteira um broche de brilhantes, rubis e esmeraldas ( ), imitando um portico de éstylo ogival. era da infanta a sr.a d. isabel maria que o deu em presente de nupcias á sr. condessa da torre, hoje marqueza de fronteira. a medalha de ouro ( ) mandou-a cunhar a aca- demia real das sciencias de lisboa para galardoar o serviço prestado por d. maria wanzeller no porto, inoculando por suas proprias mãos a vaccina, antes que os medicos o fizessem por duvidarem da sua efficacia. finalmente são dignos de attenção quatro baixo. relevos em marfim ( , , e ), pertencentes aos srs. duques de palmella. representam a ascens são, a assumpção, a epiphania e o presepio. . as salas p, q e r são forradas de pannos de arras dos seculos xvi, xyii e xviii. procedem das sés de coimbra e de lisboa, do ministerio da ma- rinha, da mitra episcopal de lamego, do palacio real de mafra, do convento de jesus á estrella, da mitra episcopal de leiria e da casa do sr. marquez da graciosa. alguns estão marcados com os nomes de dau- busson e de leynier. os de mafra são attribuidos a pedro tavares que dizem ter vindo de tavira para aquella villa. um d'elles tem a palavra tavira na parte inferior; e um tapete, as letras p tmr (pedro tavares, mafra real) . na pôpa de uma galera de um dos pannos do ministerio da marinha lê-se fortuna . o es- tylo d'esta collecção assimelha-se ao de daubus- son. · dois modelos em madeira ( e ), ambos da academia de bellas artes, ambos expostos na sala . p, representam um o edificio do erario regio, de que se não fizeram mais que os alicerces, no sitio da patriarchal queimada, o outro a capella de s. joão baptista de s. roque. pertence tambem á academia de bellas artes uma liteira com pinturas e douraduras, ornada de talha e interiormente forrada de damasco carmezim ( ). É obra do seculo passado. nas cocheiras da casa real em belem, e nas de algumas mitras e ca. sas particulares das provincias conservam-se vehi- culos d'este mesmo estylo, que provam ter sido muito usados em portugal. eram de varias especies : coches, liteiras, cadeirinhas, etc. está exposta na sala p uma obra notavel de es- ' tatuaria. É uma imagem de s. jeronymo em barro. ignora-se d'onde veiu para belem, a cuja egreja pertence. parece obra italiana, porém de época pos- terior á de lucca della robbia, a quem tem sido at- tribuida. quem conhecer as obras d'este artista de- balde procurará no s. jeronymo de belem a uncção religiosa que elle dava ás figuras dos santos. o s. jeronymo é um velho, um mendigo, que parece modelado sobre o natural. se não fosse a pedra que tem na mão em frente do peito, e o chapéo de cardeal, desprezado a um lado, ninguem se lembraria de lhe chamar s. jeronymo, ou de lhe dar qualquer outro nome de calendario romano. e toda- via n’este exagerado realismo está o grande mere- cimento da estatua. É um velho de carne e osso transformado em barro. aqui temos mais um exemplar de um genero tão numerosamente representado na exposição: uma cruz de pau santo com a imagem de christo de marfim. pertence aos srs. marquezes de mon- falim e de terena. tres estatuetas de pedra, procedentes da batalha, representam a estatuaria do seculo xv que profu- samente povoou de outras similhantes os porticos d'aquelle edificio. está exposta na sala p uma curiosa collecção de medidas de bronze dos reinados de d. manuel, d. joão e d. sebastião, pertencentes a acade- mia real das sciencias de lisboa e á camara mu- nicipal de coimbra. perlence á sr.a condessa da cunha um busto de marmore branco representando d. luiz da cunha, embaixador d'el-rei d. joão v em varias côrtes. dizem ter sido offerecido ao embaixador portuguez pela academia franceza. parece-me, porém, duvi- doso o facto, não somente por se não saber a que titulo faria a academia franceza tamanha honra a um estrangeiro, mas tambem porque o busto tem a data de j. b. xavery, , esculptor, natural de antuerpia, que trabalhou na hollanda. um baixo-relevo em marmore branco, da época romana, procede do mosteiro de chellas, onde es- tava embutido n'uma parede do claustro. e obra infinitamente inferior ao sarcophago de marmore, achado em reguengos, no alemtejo, e que hoje se conserva no museu municipal do porto. o sr. casimiro candido da cunha expõe seis baixo-relevos em marmore branco, representando a annunciação, a visitação, a epiphania, a adora- ção dos pastores, a circumcisão e a fugida para o egypto, procedentes de algum convento de lisboa ou das proximidades. todos estes baixo-relevos são da mesma época, segunda metade do seculo xv, e provavelmente do mesmo artista. o da adoração dos pastores poderá, á primeira vista, parecer mais antigo, mas, reparando com attenção, desde logo cessará toda a duvida. a extrema similhança das cabeças, e particularmente dos cabellos e barbas, n'uns e n'outros, o desenho das arvores n'este qua- dro e no da visitação estão indicando uma mesma época, um mesmo estylo, se não um mesmo ar- tista. o estylo é já influenciado pela renascença, n'uma época em que o gothico dominava ainda com absoluto imperio na arte portugueza. as legendas que illustram cada um dos quadros são dos fins do seculo xvir ou dos principios do se- culo passado, e notavelmente gongoricas. É este mesmo caracter que determina a época em que fo- ram gravadas e pintadas no marmore. entre as obras de marmore expostas na sala p, mencionarei, finalmente, um bello frontal de mo- saico com grandes ramagens. foi da egreja de s. bento. hoje pertence a academia de bellas artes. no seculo xvii esteve muito em uso ornar as egre- jas com frontaes, retabulos e outras peças n'este genero. encontram-se frequentemente nos templos de evora, por exemplo no que os jesuitas edificá- ram, e hoje faz parte da casa pia, e no espinheiro, na distancia de tres kilometros d'aquella cidade. a proximidade das pedreiras de estremoz favoreceria de certo esta industria no sul do reino. a sala p contém numerosos objectos de bronze ou de latão com ou sem doirados, procedentes, pela maior parte, de mafra. entre elles ha uma estante de côro, que alli, dizem, servia a el-rei d. joão vi nos seus exercicios de cantochão. É curiosa a col- lecção de candieiros de varias formas e dimensões, procedentes d'aquelle convento, da academia de bellas artes e de coimbra. na sala e estão expostos alguns moveis interes- santes, productos da industria nacional. o mais an- rrada de cafestas ferrheria d'este tigo é uma arca forrada de coiro com grandes fer- ragens estanhadas. o estylo d'estas ferragens é do seculo xv; porém nas obras de serralheria d'este genero, feitas em vizeu e na guarda, o estylo mui- tas vezes não corresponde á época, por ter conti- nuado em uso por muito tempo, depois de haver desapparecido em lisboa e n'outras cidades. ora o mencionado cofre procede do convento de santa clara da guarda. os outros moveis são cadeiras de sola, um con- tador de ébano do sr. joão tamagnini da motta bar- bosa, um armario do museu kensington, um orato- rio de pau santo do sr. teixeira de aragão, duas cadeiras de talha da india do sr. joão jorge cecilia koll, e um canapé e cadeiras eguaes a outras ex- postas na sala p, no estylo de luiz xv, estofadas de tapeçaria de gobelins, pertencentes á mitra de leiria. no oratorio do sr. teixeira de aragão está uma cruz de madeira com imagem de marfim e a haste e braços forrados anteriormente de prata lavrada, pertencente ao sr. augusto pinto moreira da costa. É obra indiana, similhante a outra de santos-o-ve- lho, que não foi exposta. n'este e n'outros pontos prova a exposição como, nos seculos xvii e xvili, eram importados da india numerosos artefactos, des- tinados ao culto ou ao uso domestico. são tão raras em portugal as obras de esculptura em madeira, anteriores ao seculo xvii, que, bem como já tive occasião de observar, quaesquer exem- plares d'esta classe, só por isso, e independente- mente de qualquer outra circumstancia, teem um grande interesse. vem esta reflexão a proposito das duas estatuas de madeira, pintadas e doiradas, pro- cedentes do convento de thomar, e expostas pela bibliotheca nacional de lisboa, onde se conservam outras similhantes. teem estas estatuas dois metros de altura, e por isso parecem mais disformes e mais grosseiramente esculpidas do que em verdade são. julgo que muito ganhariam em ser vistas na distan- cia para a qual, nos seculos sy ou xvi, foram com effeito destinadas. na mesma sala está exposta uma reproducção em gesso de um dos baixo-relevos do claustro de santa cruz de coimbra. brevemente se exporá outra na mesma sala. ha mais um terceiro baixo-relevo que pelo seu estado de deterioração não convém já re- produzir. estes baixo-relevos do claustro de santa cruz, outro similhante que resta no antigo claustro da sé velha, hoje incorporado no edificio da imprensa da universidade, o pulpito de santa cruz, a porta la- teral da egreja da sé velha, o retabulo da capella mór da egreja do convento de s. marcos, outros retabulos das egrejas antiga e moderna de santa clara, da egreja incompleta de s. domingos, etc., demonstram a existencia de uma escola de escul- ptura, que fundada alli no seculo xvi por algum ou alguns artistas estrangeiros, cujas producções mais notaveis são o pulpito de santa cruz e o retabulo de s. marcos, se desenvolveria depois a ponto de deixar grande numero de productos não somente em coimbra, mas tambem em diversas egrejas da beira. o grande retabulo da capella mór da sé da guarda, extremamente similhante ao da capella do sacramento da sé velha, é, como este ultimo, uma obra da escola de coimbra, porém dos fins do seculo xvii, quando se apagára já, em degeneração crescente, o explendor da escola conimbricense em tempo de d. manuel ou d. joão iii. tanto no feitio como no genero de ornamentação. teem muito mais comprimento e largura que estes ultimos, sem que tão desmesuradas proporções lhes façam perder a elegancia. a obra de talha doirada, que nos segundos constitue a sua principal decora- ção, vendo-se distribuida por toda a caixa, tejadi- tho, jogo e rodas, está accumulada nos primeiros, e com muito mais profusão no jogo principalmente, e depois nas rodas. a caixa e tejadilho são forra- dos interna e externamente de ricos estofos, com guarnição de obra de passamaneria de oiro ou pra- ta. «o coche triumphal ( ) tem o tejadilho e toda a caixa vestidos, por fora e por dentro, de velludo carmezim, recamado de ornamentos de oiro em lin- das cercaduras e outras diversidades de desenhos. a parte superior do tejadilho é ornada nos angu- los, em vez de maçanetas doiradas, com uns enfei- tes do mesmo velludo, a modo de plumagem. as cortinas que, em logar de vidros, os vedam pelos quatro lados, são egualmente de velludo carmezim, com a mesma guarnição de oiro. os assentos e al- mofadas, bem como o persevão , são forrados de velludo carmezim guarnecido de galões de oiro. sobre o jogo, ao lado da almofada do cocheiro, er- guem-se duas estatuas allegoricas doiradas. na tra- zeira vêem-se lindos grupos allegoricos de figuras de vulto inteiro, tudo de obra de talha doirada, re- presentando a lusitania entre as estatuas da fama, que a está coroando, e da abundancia, que entorna seus dons liberalmente; e por baixo um dragão e as figuras de um preto e de um musulmano, am- dá-se este nome á parte interior do coche, onde as- senta os pés quem vae dentro. como, porém, na portada e nas tarjas figuram as armas reaes de portugal com o banco de pinchar, os escudos da rainha d. leonor e a cruz de christo, e como eu atten. desse a estas circumstancias somente, pareceu-me que a d. manuel, e não a d. joão ii, se devia attribuir o ter mandado escrever e illuminar o livro em italia. com effei- to, sendo d. manuel irmão da rainha d. leonor, poderia, como ella, ter tomado o brazão de infante, de seu pae, d. fernando, duque de vizeu, filho d'el-rei d. duarte e de sua mulher a rainha d. leonor, da qual, por ser filha de d. fernando i de aragão, provinham os escudos d'este reino para as armas dos infantes, seus filhos. a rainha d. leonor, mulher d'el-rei d. joão , e seu irmão d. ma- nuel usariam pois o brazão do infante seu pae, e d. ma- nuel, como mestre da ordem de christo, podia encimal.o com a cruz d'esta ordem. a mim pois não me pareceu duvidoso que as armas, tantas vezes pintadas no livro fossem as de d. manuel, antes de subir ao throno. e, com esta idea, na errata do catalogo emendei, em vez de d. joão u, d. manuel. re- clamou o sr. basto, dizendo-me que, tendo o livro a data de , era então rei de portugal d. joão . e' justa a reclamação, e esta divergencia entre a data e o brazão e mais em particular quando encimado pela cruz de chris- to, poderia talvez explicar-se, suppondo que el-rei d. joão i mandára fazer o livro em italia para seu primo d. manuel nota a pag. a biblia dos jeronymos, em sete volumes illumipados. nos primeiros tomos d'esta obra encontra-se tambem o escudo real com o banco de pinchar, porém já sem os dois pequenos escudos de aragão. estas, bem como no codice fa . a exposicao retrospectiva de arte o fine arts library bax this book should be returned to the library on or before the last date stamped below. a fine of five cents a day is incurred by retaining it beyond the specified time. please return promptly. joh . a handbook of ornament with three hundred plates, containing about three thousand illustrations of the elements, and the application of decoration to objects by franz sales meyer professor at the school of ttpplied art karlsruhe third american edition the architectural book publishing company paul wenzel and maurice krakow thirty-one east twelfth street, new york architecture nk introduction. [the term "ornament", in its limited sense, includes sucb of the elements of decoration as are adapted, or developed, from natural foliage. these differ from the geometrical elements, inasmuch as they are organic i. e. possessing stems, leaves, flowers, &c., while the latter are inorganic. when merely drawn on paper, &c., and unapplied — a foliated element is considered in the abstract as "ornament". when applied to beautify an object — it becomes an "element of decoration". the term "decoration" signifies the art or process of applying the various elements to beautify objects. it is also used to dencti the completed result. thus the artist, who is occupied in the "deco ration" of a vase, may represent ornament upon it; and the ornamen; is then the "decoration" of the vase. the "elements" of decoration are: geometrical-lines, ornament, natural-foliage, artificial objects, animals, and the human figuro. these may be considered as the "ingredients"; and they are miici!. and applied, on various arrangements or "features", according to certain acknowledged "recipes" which are termed "principles". the "principles" of decoration are not included in this hand- book, as the limits of it allow only a brief notice of such elements as have been in general use during the successive historic-epochs.] wherever the hand of man has produced any decoration, be it ii introduction. original invontion, or only the arbitrary variation of some familiar fundamental idea, the following will invariably be the case: (a) the decoration is produced by arranging and joining dots and lines, or by combining and dividing geometrical figures, in accordance with the laws of rhythm, regularity, symmetry, &c.; (b) it arises from the attempt of the decorator to represent the objects of the external world. nearest at hand for imitation, is or- ganic nature with the plants, animals, and human form. but in- organic nature also offers models: e. g. the forms of crystallisation (snow-flakes), and the phenomena of nature (clouds, waves, &c.). rich sources are also opened-up by the artificial objects which are fashioned by man himself. it is obvious that all kinds of elements may be used in com- bination: geometrical may be united with natural forms; and so on. moreover it was easy for human imagination to combine details taken from nature into monstrous forms not found in nature, e. g. the sphinx, centaur, mermaid, &c.; and animal and human bodies with plant-like terminations. if we collect, into groups, the bases or motives of decoration omitting what is non-essential and detached, we arrive at the classi- fication given in the following pages. decoration is applied to countless objects; and the style may be very varied without being arbitrary; being determined, firstly, by the aim and the material of the object to be decorated, and, secondly, by the ideas ruling at different periods and among different nations. it is therefore obvious that it has a comprehensive and important domain. a knowledge of it is indispensable to artists; and it is an instructive and sociologically interesting factor of general culture. the peculiarities which arise from the reciprocal relation of material, form, and aim, more or less modified by the ideas of the age and the natural characteristics of the nation, are termed the "style" of that period and nation. the mention, of the century and the nation, gives a convenient method of labelling works of art, which is now well understood; e. g. — " th century, italiaji". the majority of works on ornament, arrange their material according to periods and nations'; but the present handbook, follow- ing the principles laid down by semper, bbtticher and jacobstbal, is based on a systom which is synthetic rather than analytic; and in- tended more to construct and develope from the elements than to dissect and deduce. it contains three main divisions: division i treats of the "elements of decoration", or motives of which it is formed. geometrical motives formed by the rhythmical arrangement of dots and lines, by the regular section of angles, by the formation and division of closed figures, are followed by the forms of nature which are offered for ornamental imitation by the introduction. ill vegetable and animal kingdoms, and bj the human frame. these in their turn are followed by artificial objects, or forms borrowed from art, technology, and science, and usually met-with in the class of trophies, symbols, &c. division ii, "ornament applied to features", arranges them according to their functions, and the reciprocal relation between the construction of the object and the application of the ornament the division falls into five sub-divisions: a. bands (bordering, framing and connecting forms); b. free ornaments (forms whose construction expresses a termination or cessation); c. supports (types of ornament which express the principle of weight-bearing); d. enclosed ornament suitable for the enlivenment of a defined bordered field, (panels); e. repeating ornament (the decoration of surfaces which, disregarding the limits of space, are developed, on a geometrical or organic basis, into "patterns"). division iii, shows the application of decoration to vase-form, metal objects, furniture, frames, jewelry, heraldry and writing, printing, &c. further details, as to the groups and divisions, will be found in the "table of the arrangement of the handbook" which follows this introduction. the illustrations, numbering almost , , and comprised on full-page plates, represent the styles of the most various periods and nations. a comparatively large share of attention has been devoted to the antique, because it is in that period that form usually finds its clearest and most beautiful expression. next to that in impor- tance is the renascence with its wealth and freedom of form. the space, devoted to the creations of the middle ages, is more limited. from the styles of the decadence, only a few examples have been admitted, for the sake of comparison and characterisation. modern times, as a rule, have only been taken into account, where forms arose which do not occur in the historic styles. the illustrations have been partly taken direct from the originals; and partly — as was almost unavoidable — reproduced from other books; for the leading idea of the present work is not to offer anything 'new, but to arrange what is already known, in a manner suitable both to the subject and to the aim of a handbook. where the author was acquainted with the source, which he regrets was not always the case, the authority has been mentioned in the text. each division and sub-division is prefixed by a few remarks on style and history, characteristics, motives, symbolism, aim, and appli- cation. these are followed, so far as is necessary and practicable, by notes on the places where the objects illustrated were discovered, where they are now preserved, and on their material and size. hints iv introduction. as to construction, are given oniy where the construction cannot at once be inferred from the figure. readers -who use this book for purposes of tuition, will find in the author's "ornamentale formenhhre"* the plates on a scale of /j times the size of this handbook, together with the requisite hints for the use of the work in schools. * franz sales meyer: ornamenlale formenlehre; three hundred folio plates, in a portfolio. table showing the arrangement of the chapters and plates. division l the elements of decoration. a. geometrical elements. . network. - . band motives. - . diaper patterns. . the sector, polygon, and star. - . the square, ami itssubdivision. . the octagon, and its sub- division. . the triangle, hexagon, &c, and thoir subdivision. - . the oblong, and its sub- division. . the rhombus, and trapezium, and their subdivision. . the circle, its subivision, and intersections. . gothic tracery. . the ell ipse, and its subdivision. .b. natural forms. a. the organisms of plants (the flora of ornament). . the akanthos leaf. - . the artificial leaf. - . artificial foliage. - . the laurel, and olive. - . the vine. . the lotus, papyrus, and palm. . the ivy. . the corn, and convolvulus. . the hop, and bryony. . various leaves. - . various flowers. - . the fruit festoon. . the leaf, and flower festoon. b. animal organisms (the fauna ol ornament). - . the lion. - . the griffin, &c. - . the lion head. - . the panther head, *c the horso head, &c. - . the eagle. . the wing. - . the dolphin. . the shell. . tho serpent, &c. c. human organism. . the mask. - . the grottcsquo mask. . tho medusa head. . the grottesque. - . the half-figure. . the sphinx, and centaur. . the cherub-head, &c. c. artificial objects. - . the trophy. - . the symbol. - . the ribbon. . miscellaneous objects. vi table. division ii. ornament applied to features. a. bands. - . the fret band. . the chain band. - . the interlacement band. . the rosette band. . the palmetto band. . the vertebrate band. - . the undulate band. . the evolute-spiral band. . the enrichment of the astragal. . theenrichmentofthetorus. . the enrichment of the cynia. and the ovolo. b. free ornaments. - . the link border. . the cresting border. - . the akeroter, and antefix. . the stele crest. . the perforated cresting. - . the cross. - . the finial. . the finial-knob, and vase. . the pendant-knob. . the rosette. . the crocket, and gargoyle. . the hinge, &c. . the tassel. . the fringe, and valence. . the lace border. c. supports. the foliated shaft. the fluted shaft. the base. . . - . . the decorated shaft. . the profiled shaft. - . the capital. . the pilaster panel. - . the pilaster capital. . the candelabrum base. . the candelabrum shaft. . the candelabrum capital. . the balauster. . the terminus. . the parapet. . the railing post. . the furniture leg. - . the trapezophoron. - . the console. . the bracket. - . the caryatid, atlante, ac. d. enclosed ornaments, or panels. - . the square panel. . the star-shape panel - . the circular panel. - . the oblong panel. . the elliptic panel. - . the lunette, and spr.nrail panel. . the lozenge panel. - . various panels. e. repeating ornaments, or diapers. . the square diaper, &c. . the circle diaper, &c. . the scale diaper, ac. - . the circle diaper, &c . - . various diapers. . various grill diapers. division hi. decorated objects. a. vases, sac. . fundamental vase-forms. holders. . the amphora . the urn. . the krater. . the basin, and di«h. . theampulla,alabastron,&c. . the flower-vase, &c. . vase forms for various purposes. . the jar, and cist. . the font, and holy-water stoup. t tablk. dippers. . the hydria. . the bucket, &c. . the spoon, and ladle. c. pourers. . the prochoiis, oinochos, olpe, &c. . the lekythus. g- . the lip-spout pitcher. . the pipe-spout pot. w - . the bottle. d. drinking vessels. . the kylix, kantharos, ac. . the rhyton. . the cup, and beaker. . the chalice, and goblet. . the hanap. . the rummer or rsmer. . various drinking vessels. . the mug. . the tankard. . modern drinkmg glasses. j . metal objects. a. utensils for illumination. - . the candelabrum. . the antique lamp. - . the candlestick. . the hand-candlestick . the candlo-bracket. . the pendant-lamp. . the chandelier. . modern lamps. b. religious utensils. . the altar. . the tripod. . the censer. . the crucigx. . the crozier, and mon- strance. c- utensils of war and hunting; weapons. . the shield. . the helmet . thesword, and its scabbard. . the dagger, and its scab- bard. . the halberd, &c. a. table utensils. . the spoon. ml . the knife, and fork, . the papcr-knife. . the scissors. . the hand-bell. e. various domestic utensils, ic g. the door-knocker. . the kev. . the hand-mirror. . the fan. . various tools. c. furniture. a. seats. - . the chair. - . the throne, and arm-chair. . the stall. . the stool. . the folding-chair . the bench. . the sofa, and con^i. b. tables. . the table . the writing-table. c. cabinets. . the cabinet. . the sideboard. . the hanging-cabinet. . the chest. d. miscellaneous. . the desk, and easel. . the clock-case, and toilet cabinet. - . the bedstead, and cradle. d. frames, ic. - . the architectural frame. - . the mirror-frame, &c. - . the strap-work frame. - . the typographical frame. . the strap-work tablet. . the strap-work border, and margin. e. jewelry. . the pin. . the button. . the ring. . the chain. . the necklace. . the bracelet. viii table. . the girdle, buckle, and clasp. . the pendant . . the ear-ring. . miscellaneous jewelry. f. heraldry. . tinctures, and divisions, of the shield. . shapes of the shield. . ordinaries. - . charges. . forms of the helmet. s - . helmet trappings. . crowns. coronets, &c heraldic accessories. o. writing, printing, t&c . romanesque letters. - . gothic uncial letters. . old english letters, &c . old german letters. . modern texts. . renaissance letters. . roman initials. . roman letters. . constructions, numerals, monograms. a. geometrical elements and motives. geometrical ornament is the primordial or oldest of the elements of decoration. the implements of savages, and the tattooing of the indians, prove this. the seam, with the thread running slant-wise from one piece to the other, may have been the original for the zigzag line; and woven-work, of warp and woof of every kind, the original for reticulated patterns; and the plaited hair that of the plaited band. the revolutions of a fork-like instrument led to the dis- covery of the circle; the combination of dots, at regular intervals, to the polygon or pointed - star. the gradual developement of these original geometrical forms, rising from stage to stage with the growth of culture and knowledge, led finally to geometrical artistic forms such as we see in moorish panelled ceilings, in gothic tracery, in guilloche-work, and the like. the developement of geometry into a science, with its theorems and proofs, also came to the assistance of art. as evidence of this, we need only refer to the construction of the ellipse from given lengths of axes. the majority of all geometrical ornaments may be divided into three groups. they are either continuous and ribbon-like (bands), or in enclosed spaces (panels), or in unlimited flat patterns. in every case the foundation of the geometrical ornament will be a certain division, a subsidiary construction, or a network. we will begin with the last; and pass in turn to the ribbon motives, the flat patterns, and the figure motives. !• network. — band motives. network. (plate .) the systems of subsidiary lines required in geometrical patterns, e. g.: parquets, mosaics, window-glazing, &c, are termed nets. the name explains itself. they may be of very various kinds. the most frequent are quadrangular and triangular reticulations, combined of single squares or equilateral triangles. a special network, resembling the plait of a cane chair, is required for some moorish patterns. plate . network. . ordinary quadrangular. equal divisions are set off in one direc- tion, parallels are drawn through the points of division, and the former cut by a line at an angle of °. the points, where these diagonals cut the parallels, mark the divisions in the opposite direction. . oblique quadrangular. the divisions are set-off on a vertical line and the parallels are then drawn at an angle of " on each side of the points of division. . straight, with alternate divisions. construction similar to no. . . oblique quadrangular, with alternate divisions. construction similar to no. . . moorish diapers. . enlarged detail to no. . . triangular net. it is based on the construction of the equi- lateral triangle; and may be arranged in two attitudes, as shown in figs. and . and . enlarged details to fig. . band motives. (plates — .) plates , and contain a number of band motives. these are made by the joining of regularly-placed points: those in plate nre joined by straight lines; those in plate by arcs; and those in plate by a combination of both. each of the plates contains, beneath the motives, specimens of their application, taken from different styles. plate . band motives, in straight lines. , , and . greek. . zigzag lines. . moorish plaited hand. and . these examples may be illustrated by folded strips of paper. geometrical elements. mm \ / | in v \ / / \ / \ / \ / \ plato . band motives. geometbical elements band motive?. plate .saapok pnsg baud motives. — diaper patterns. and . carvings in basrelief from the implements of savages . greek rase painting, motive: the seam. . waves with lotus, egyptian wall-painting, (owen jones). plate . band motives, m arcs. and . undulate lines. . motive of the "strung coin" pattern (coins threaded on a cord). . romanesque ornament from an evangeliarium written for charle- magne, th century, library of the louvre, paris. . romanesque mural painting, swedish church. . chinese damaskeened ornament from a vase, (racinet). plate . band motives, mixed. . romanesque glass painting, church of s. urban, troyes. . frieze, house, beaune, th century, (racinet). n. b. where two arcs are joined: it is necessary, in order to avoi<l a break, that the two centres and the point of junction should be in ibi same straight line. diaper patterns. (plates — .) plates , and give a selection for flat patterns. almost all the constructions may be referred to the quadrangular or the trian-. gular net. the examples in plate show junctions in a straight line; those in plate are composed of arcs; and in plate tho regularly-placed points are joined by mixed lines. the designs may be used as patterns for parquet flooring, window glazing, and similar work, without further enrichment. they are at the same time available as construction-lines for the further develope- ment of richer patterns for mural and glass painting, carpets, tapestry, ceilings, ac., as shown by the examples of application appended to the simple motives. plate . diaper patterns, &c, with straight lines. and . roof-covering may be considered as the motive. . the natural motive is the cell of the honey bee. — . designs for coffer ceiling, by sebastian seilio lgth century, fformenschatz). plate . diaper patterns, with arcs. , and . scale motives. . romanesque glass painting, cathedral, bonrges, (racinet). geometrical elements. x'iate . diaper platterns. geometrical elements. diaper flatteras. plate . geometrical elements. plate . diaper platterns. diapor patterns. — the sector, polygon, and star. . mural painting, assisi, (vorbilder fur fabrikanten und hand- werker). . old italian mural painting, san francesco, assisi, (hessemer). plate . diaper patterns, with mixed ltxes. . old italian mural painting san francesco, assisi, (hessemer). the sector, the polygon, and the star. polygons and stars are of frequent occurrence in ornamental design. the sector is the foundation of rosettes. the polygon and the star are often used as frames to ornaments. they also servo as compartments in coffer ceilings and composite ornamental designs. in this case, they are frequently divided into smaller figures, as will be seen in the following plates. plate gives the shape, and construction of those which most frequently occur; followed by some examples of their application. plate . radiating figures, &c. *— . the sector, produced by the regular division of circles. . the square, described obliquely in a circle. . the square formed by the juxtaposition of right angles and cutting-off the lengths for the sides. . the regular octagon, described obliquely in a circle. . the regular octagon, described in the square by measuring half diagonals from its angles. . the regular triangle and hexagon, formed by measuring the radius, as chords, six times round the circumference. . the regular duodecagon, formed by applying the radius to the circle from the ends of two diameters at right angles to each other. — . the regular pentagon and decagon, formed by a construc- tion based on tho theorem of the "golden mean", as shown in the figures. . the regular five-pointed star, formed by joining the alter- nate points of five points placed at equal distances in the circumference of a circle. known in the history of magio and witchcraft as the pentagram or "pentacle". . the regular six-pointed star, formed by joining alternate points placed at equal distances in the circumference of a circle. the sector, polygon, and star. — the square, and its subdivisions. — . regular eight-pointed star, formed by combining every second or third of eight points placed at equal distances in the circumference of a circle. — . regular ten-pointed stars, formed by joining every second or third of ten points placed at equal distances in the circumference of a circle. the pointed stars may also be formed by producing to a sufficient distance the sides of ordinary regular polygons; and, conversely, each star contains a simpler star, as well as the regular polygon of the same number of sides. . star, formed by a suitable combination of corresponding points regularly placed on the circumferences of two con- centric circles. . uraniscus, the star-like decoration. of a tireek coffer ceiling. from the propylaea in athens. gold on a blue ground. . back of a modern chair, carved in basrelief. . ornamentation of a semi-regular pointed star. arabic, th century, (prisse d'avennes). the square, and its subdivisions. (plates and .) the regular four-sided figure or square, with its equal sides and angles, is a fundamental form of frequent occurence. it may be divided into compartments in various ways; the principal auxiliary lines for this purpose being the diagonals (or oblique lines con- necting the angles), and the diameters (or lines connecting the centre of each side). where the square is divided for a ceiling, floor or similar object: a border is made round the enclosed space. in most cases, a large central compartment is retained; and this may be a square, either parallel or oblique to the other; or may be a circle, an octagon, &c. the subdivisions of plate follow the richer divisions of plate . plate . the square. — . the simple subdivisions. plate . the square. — . richer and more complicated subdivisions. . panelling of ceiling, inn, nuremberg, modern. . panelling of ceiling, massimi palace, rome, by baldassare peruzzi, italian renascence, (letarouilly). geometrical motives. plate . the square, and its subdivision. the subdivisions of the octagon, triangle, and hexagon. —the oblong,&c. the subdivision of the octagon, triangle, and hexagon. (plates and .) next to the square: the regular polygons most frequently occur- ring in ornamentation are the octagon and the hexagon. the triangle, pentagon, decagon and duodecagon are, for obvious reasons, less common; while the other regular polygons are scarcely used at all. sometimes the semi-regular polygons also appear. these are formed by cutling-off equal triangles from the angles of a regular polygon in such a manner that the resulting figure has long and short sides alternately, and the angles all lie on the circumference of a circle. diagonals and diameters with series of lines in the manner of pointed stars, are the readiest auxiliaries for dividing regular and semi-regular polygons. plate . the octagon. — . the best-known subdivisions. plate . the triangle, the hexagon, &c. — . simple subdivisions of the equilateral triangle. — . the best-known subdivisions of the regular hexagon. . subdivisions of a regular pentagon. the oblong, and its subdivision. (plates — c) the right-angled plane figure with unequal pairs of sides, known as an oblong, is the most usual of all fundamental forms. ceilings, floors, walls, doors, wainscoting, panels of furniture, tible- tops, book-covers, and numbers of other objects, have au oblong shape. the difference in the lengths of the sides adapts itself to all possible conditions: the oblong approaching the square on the one hand and the band or border on the other; so that the divisions aro very various; as will ho seen by a glance at the examples. as a rule, the diagonal is not used as an auxiliary line, but is replaced by the mitral-line of the angle, as this latter alone gives equal breadths of the border. when the oblong approaches the square, a distorted square subdivision is sometimes resorted-to, (compare pl , fig. ). plate . the oblong. — . the usual subdivisions. mosaic, flooring, italian, th century, (storck). the oblong, and its subdivision. — the subdivision of the. rhombus, <fcc. plate . the oblong. . subdivision for door panels, sofits of arches, &c. . „ „ tablets, &c. . „ „ borders for ceilings. and . modern album-covers, (gewerbehalle). plate . the oblong. . ceiling, quedlinburg, german, , (gewerbehalle). . ceiling, massimi palace, rome, by baldassare peruzzi, (leta- rouilly). . coffer ceiling, farnese palace, rome, by barozzi da vignola. (letarouilly). plate . the oblong. . ceiling, modern, (gewerbehalle). . vaulted ceiling, s. peter's, rome, beginning of the th century, (italienisches skizzenbuch). the subdivision of the rhombus, and the trapezium (plate .) rhombus or "lozenge" is the name usually given to the equi- lateral foursided figure with pairs of unequal angles. the principal auxiliary lines of these figures are the diagonals. the subdivision generally leaves an oblong or hexagonal panel in the centre. the trapezium is a four-sided figure with unequal sides. the parallel trapezium has two parallel sides which are unequal and two equal sides which are not parallel (pi. , figs. to ). the sym- metrical trapezium has two pairs of adjacent equal sides (pi. , figs. and ). any other irregular four-sided rectilinear figure is a trapezoid. some suitable subdivisions are given on plate . definite directions for the trapezoid can scarcely be given; its sub- division is seldom easy, and varies with "each particular case. the general principle is: —endeavour to cut-off projecting angles by means of triangles in such a way as to leave a portion of the entire figure regular or symmetrical. this is, however, a matter of artistic tnste; and more easily learnt than taught. among other applications of the symmetrical or parallel tra- pezium is that to cupolas of domes: the lines are indeed curves oa a bent surface; but this causes very little alteration in the sub- division. plate . the oblong, and its subdivision. geometrical motives. plate . the oblong, and its subdivision. the oblong, and its subdivision. plate . plate . the rhombus, the trapezium, and their subdivision. the-subdivisions of the rhombus, &e. — thocirclc, &c. — gothic tracer/. pl.ate . tlik rllomgus, and the trapezium. . — . subdivision of the rhombus. — . ° „ „ „ parallol trapezium. i) — „ „ „ symmetrical trapezium. the circle, its subdivision, and intersections. (plate .) the circle is often used in ornamentation as a fundamental form. no good result is produced (as a rule) by dividing it merely by radii or other straight lines; and it is therefore usually divided by means of curved lines or of a combination of arcs and straight linos. by describing circles to cut each other: motives may be obtained, as shown by figures and , the latter of which is the basis of a roman mosaic pavement found in pompeii (figure ). that circles which cut each-other form of themselves an effec- tive pattern—is shown by the engine-turned ornament, which is pro- duced by machinery and applied to the decoration of watch-cases, and to the plates from which bank notes, sharo certificates, &c. are printed. ornamentation by means of arcs plays a conspicuous part in gothic tracery, which will be treated-of in the following chapter. plate . the circle. — . difforent divisions and intersections. — . tracery in the gothic style. . centre of a mosaic pavament, pompeii, (kunsthandwerk). gothic tracery. (plate .) in the forms of tracery, the gothic style evolved and brought to perfection a characteristic decoration by means of arcs of circles. and although the results have something stiff and mechanical, when compared with the ornaments taken direct from nature in other styles, it cannot be denied that they possess a great originality, and richness of form. tracery was chiefly applied to stone, and wood; in architecture, and furniture; for galleries, windows, and panels, &c. well-known forms are the circles (figs. — of hate showing , , and foliations), the trefoil (plate , figs. and ), geometrical motives plate . the circle, and its ubdiviaion. gothic tracery. plate . gothic tracery. — the ellipse. the quatrefoil (in the centre of fig. ), the cinqaefoil, ac tlie pro jecting points are termed cusps, the voids between the cusps are termed foils. plate . tracery. — . gothic tracery, for panels and windows. the figures give partly the fundamental construction, partly the further deve- lopement. thus figures and , and , and , and , and , belong together. the ellipse. (plate .) the ellipse is a figure, whose radius of curvation is continually changing. it has the peculiar quality that, if any point on the circumference be joined with the two foci, the sum of the two con- necting lines is invariable, and always equal to the longitudinal axis. the three-centred arch is an approximate construction to an elliptic curve. it is composed of a number of arcs, which is not possible in the case of the ellipse. as regards beauty of line it can never be a substitute for the ellipse; but its easier construction has, notwithstanding, caused it to be used for many purposes. the expression "oval" for the ellipse, is erroneous. oval is derived from "ovum" (egg), and therefore means an egg-shape. the ellipse is of comparatively late appearance in art, the con- struction presupposing a certain knowledge of geometry, which was not possessed by primitive peoples. afterwards it became of common application, as will be seen from many passages of this handbook. the ellipse is a very popular shape for ceilings, panels, boxes, and dishes. figure affords hints as to the manner of subdividing it. pi .ate . tut; ellipse, &o. — . construction by means of points. when the square with its diagonals and transversals is projec- ted as an oblong, the circle described in it becomes an ellipse. . construction from the foci. from the ends of the conjugate axis, doscribe circles with a radius of one half the transverse axis; the points where these circles cut each other will be the toci. now divide the trans- verse axis into two unequal parts, and from the foci as centres describe circles having these unequal parts for their radii; the points of intersection will be four points of the ellipse. another division will give another four points, and so on. -l construction by means of tangents. construct an oblong with sides of the lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes respectively; draw the transversals, that is, the ellipse. the transverse and conjugate axes; join the ends of the axes in one of the quarters by a diagonal; and set off a number of points on this diagonal. through these points draw straight lines from the opposite angle, and also parallels to the longitudinal axis. now join the points thus obtained on the outside of the quarters in the way shown in the figure; and transfer these lines to the remaining three quarters; and a series of tangents will be obtained, within which the ellipse can be drawn by hand. constructions by means of two circles. with the centre of the ellipse as a centre describe two circles passing through the ends of the transverse and conjugate axes respectively; draw a number of diameters through two opposite quadrants; where these diameters cut the smaller circle, draw parallels to the longitudinal axis; and where they cut the greater circle, parallels to the transverse axis (or vice versa); the points of the parallels will then be points on the ellipse. the other points required may be obtained by producing the parallels into the remaining quadrants. this construction may be specially re- commeuded for practical use. practical construction on a larger scale (centres, garden-beds, &c.). mark the two foci by nails, posto, &c.; place round them a cord equal in length to the transverse axis plus the distance- between the foci, and tied at both ends; stretch the cord tense, by means of a pencil, and let the latter run round the foci: the resulting figure will be an ellipse. several constructions for ellipsoids. in constructions — the length of the transverse axis has a definite, invariable proportion to that of the conjugate axis, so that when the one is given the other immediately follows. in constructions — the length of each axis is variable. the poiut of junction of two circles of different diameter must lie on the same straight line as the centres of the two circles. describe two circles each of which passes through the centre of the other. join the centres with the points of intersection of the circles: the straight lines so formed will mark-off the four arcs of which, as the figure shows, the ellipsoid is composed. the centre points are marked by small dots. describe two circles touching each other, and with the point of contact as centre, describe a third circle of the same diameter. these three circles cut each other in four points. join these to the external centres as shown on the figure; and the resulting four straight lines will again mark-off the four arcs which are thon to be described from the points indicated by the small dots. construct two squares, having one side in common, and in them describe the four diagonals; these will then mark-off the four arcs which must then be drawn from the points denoted by small dots. • construct a rectangle with sides equal to the transverse and longitudinal axes respectively; draw the two transversals (the transverse and longitudinal axes) and join their ends in one of the quarters. cut-off from this line, beginning from the point of junction with the conjugate axis, the difference of half the trans- verse and half the conjugate axis; on the centre point of the re- maining piece draw a perpendicular and the three more similar hnes: those four lines will then show the limits of the arcs which are then to be drawn from the noints marked by small dots. the ellipse, ic . — the three-centred arch. . construct an oblong with sides equal to the transverse and longitudinal axes respectively, and draw the two transversals- measure the half of the transverse axis upon half the longitudinal axis, and ascertain the difference; halve this difference. this half difference must now be taken four times along the transverse axis trom the centre point of the ellipsoid, and three times along the longitudinal axis. the four required points will thus be ob- tained. the straight lines connecting them will give the points of junction of the arcs. . construction from eight centres. construct an oblong whose sides are equal to the major and minor axes respectively; draw the transversals, and join their ends in one of the quarters. from the nearest angle, draw a perpen- dicular to this diagonal; the points where this perpendicular cuts the two axes will be two of the required centres. two more are obtained by symmetrical transference. from these four points describe circles with a radius — /« (cb-da); the points where they cut each other internally will give four more centres. if the centres thus found be joined by means of straight lines, as shown on the figure, the latter will mark the points where the eight arcs will meet. — . construction of ovals or egg-shaped figures. the construction of such figures usually consists in combining a semi-circle with a semi-ellipse. . draw in a circle two diameters at right angles to each other, and two intersecting -chords of a quadrant; these when produced will determine the points where the various arcs meet the centres of these latter lie on the ends of the diameters. . the construction of the lower half is the same as in fig. . the centre of the upper lies in the intersection of tangents to the lower and upper circles. . example of the subdivision and decoration of an ellipse, (storck's zeichenvorlagen). the three-centred arch. the three-centred arch, which was often used in the transition period between the gothic and the renascence, may be considered as a semi-ellipsoid; and it may be described by one of the methods shown on plate (see also the head-piece to this section, on page ). lfryer, handbook ol ornameot- b. natural forms. a. the organisms of plants (flora of ornament). in nearly every style the plant-world has been used in patterns. leaves, sprays, flowers, and fruits, either singly or combined, have boen adapted in ornament. the direct imitation of nature, retaining form and color as much as possible, leads to the naturalistic con- ception; the construction of an ornament according to the rules of rhythm and symmetry, with a stricter observance of regularity — is known as the artificial method. che selection of the comparatively few plants from the luxuriant field of the plant-world was partly determined by beauty of form (the outline of the leaf, the delicacy of the spray, &c.) and partly by the fact that they possess (or did at some time possess) a symbolic meaning. the plates which illustrate this section will first exhibit the akanthos; and then such plant-forms as are less used or only found in certain styles. they will first be presented as they exist in nature; and then as they were modified in the various styles. the akanthos leaf. (plates — .) of all the ornamental designs which have been borrowed from plants; the akanthos is the most popular. since its introduction by the greeks, it recurs again and again in every western style. a symbolical significance has never attached to the akanthos; its frequent the akanthos leaf, &o. and varied application is due to the ornamental possibilities and beautiful serration of its leaves. it grows wild in the south of europe, but in more northern latitudes is only found in our botanical gardens.* there are many varieties of the plant, of which we may mention the following: akanthos mollis, with broad, blunt tips to the leaves; akanthos spinosus, with pointed lobes terminating in spines, and comparatively narrow leaves. the conception and treat- ment of the margin and shape of the leaf, is the principal characteristic of the different styles. the greek foliage has pointed leaf-edges; in the roman style, the tips of the leaves become rounder, broader, to some extent with more vigorous curves; the byzantine and roma- nesque styles, again, return to stiffer, less delicate forms. the gothio style, which used the foreign akanthos in addition to a number of native plants, adopted in the early period, round, bulbous forms; later gothic, o™ the contrary, preferred bizarre, long-extended, thistle-like foliage: in both cases the general conception is more or less naturalistic, but the details are usually idealised beyond recognition. the renascence, which revived antique ornament, developed the akanthos, and parti- cularly the tendril, to the highest degree of perfection; in the follow- ing styles formalism degenerates in this direction. modern ornamental art seeks its models in almost every style; and its creations have generally no pronounced, specifically modern character. plate . the akanthos, and artificial leap. . leaf of akanthos mollis, (jacobsthal). . akanthos calyx, the leaves and flower of akanthos mollis, natura- listically treated, (jacobsthal). . leaf of akanthos mollis, (raguenet). . leaf of akanthos spinosus, (gewerbehalle). . cup, corona of a greek stele, (raguenet). . overlap of leaf, roman candelabrum, vatican. . greek leaf, displayed, (jacobsthal). . roman leaf, capital of a column, pantheon, rome, the spoon- like roundings of the points of the leaves, as well as the deep incisions, are characteristic; and designed to look well at a distance. plate . the artificial leap. . leaf, roman capital, (raguenet). . leaf displayed, as it is often used on roman reliefs, e. g.: so- mewhat more richly developed, on the so called florentine pilaster, uffizi, florence, (jacobsthal). . byzantine leaf, sta. sofia, constantinople, (raguenet). . romanesque leaf, st. denis, (lievre). « natural forms. plate . the akanthos leaf, and the artificial leaf. the artificial leaf. plate . the artificial leaf. — artificial foliage. . romanesque leaf, monastery of st. trophimus, aries, xil century (ragnenet). . gothic leaf, (lievre). plate . the artificial leaf. . leaf, french renascence, st. eustache, paris. . leaf, style of louis xvi, (raguenet). . leaf, french renascence, church, epernay, (lievre). . leaf, french renascence, (gropius). . modern leaf, louvre, paris, (f. a. m. cours d'ornement). . modern leaf, theatre, monte carlo, monaco, (raguenet). artificial foliage. (plates — .) the scroll is a purely artistic invention, the natural plant having no tendrils. flowers and calices, such as frequently occur in artificial foliage, are usually developed with serrated edges, composed to recall natural models, (comp. plate , figs. und ). artificial foliage is often combined with forms from plants, e. g.: laurel, oak, ivy, ears of wheat, &c., (comp. plate , figs. and ). what was said above of the akanthos leaf, holds good here too, for' the differences of exe- cution in the various styles. the greatest luxuriance and the highest elegance were attained by the italian renascence, (comp. plate , fig. ). it is characteristic of the louis xvi. epoch that the lines which form the scroll are somestimes flattened, and, so to speak, make elliptic spirals, (comp. plate , fig. ). plate . artificial foliage. . ornament, summit of the monument of lysikrat.es, athens. . cup, roman. . roman ornament, the so called "medicean pilaster", (artificial fo- liage of a large size). . fragment of a greek relief, (f. a. m., cours d'ornement). plate . artificial foliage. . roman ornament, maible biga, from the 'style of the ornament it must have been an ^mitation of an original in bronze. . roman ornament, from the so called "florentine pilaster", a richly decorated marble .relief in the dffizi, florence, (jacobsthal). . romanesque frieze, st. denis, (lievre). . early gothic, notre dame, paris, (lievre). . renascence ornament, relief on the tomb of hieronimo basso, sta. maria del popolo, rome, by sansovino, (gropius). natural forms. artificial foliage. plate . natural forms. plate d, artificial foliage. artificial fohage. — the laurel, the olive, and the vine. pirate . aktificial foliage. — . details from a relief on the lectern, cathedral, limoges, (lievre). . ornament, louis xvi. style, (p. a. m., cours d'oruement). . modern fredoh ornament, (p. a. m.). the ladrel, and the olive (plates , .) the laurel and the olive owe their introduction into ornamen tation to their symbolical significance. -both played a conspicuous part in the tree worship of the ancient greeks. the laurel was sacred to apollo. it was the symbol of atonement; singers and con- quering heroes were crowned with it; and in a similar sense it is still nsed as a symbol of glory. the olive was sacred to athene; olive branches were the prize of victory et the olympian games. in rome the victorious, laurel- crowned heroes were met on their return home by slaves bearing wreaths of olive boughs. the olive branch is the symbol of peace. plate . the laurel, &c. from nature. laurel (laurus nobilis). evergreen; blossoms yellowish whito; fruit ball or egg shaped, blue black. . olive (olea europea). evergreen; blossoms small, white; fruit oval, greenish, or black. plate . the laurel, &c. — . branches, greek vase, conventional painting, (owen jones). . branches, beaker, in the silver treasure, hildesheim, roman, original of chased silver, museum, berlin. . fragment, roman marble relief. . branch, intarsia panel, palazzo ducale, mantua, (meurer). . branch, spaurail, louis xvi. style, (lievre) . hand, french renascence. the vine. (plates , .) although the vine does not occu* frequently, it is not an un- popular element oi artistic decoration. the antique and medieval styles, in particular, show a certain preference for the vine. in antiquity the vine (vihs vinifera) is the attribute of bac- chus. vine leaves and ivy, sometimes in connection with laurel, encircle the brows of bacchantes, and adorn their drinking vessels and utensils, the thyrsus, kantharos, &c. natural forms. plate . the laurel, and the olive. the laurel, the bay, and the olive. plate . plate . the vine: natural. the vine: artificial. plate . the vine, the lotus, the papyrus, and the patm. , the ecclesiastical art of the middle ages adopted the vine, toge- ther with ears of corn, as the symbol of christ. later styles, and modern art, have adopted the vine in both the antique and medieval senses. pirate . the vine. . natural branch. plate . the vine. . scroll ornament, roman relief. . roman ornament, vertical border. . early gothic ornament, notre dame, paris, (lievre). . renascence ornament, italian pilaster. . renascence ornament, frieze, venice, icth century, (griiner). the lotus, the papyrus, and the palm. (plate .) the lotus and the papyrus are plants of ancient oriental civi- lisation; and play an important part in the social life, of the egyptians, hindoos, assyrians, and other nations. the dried stalks of these "water plants were used as fuel, or made into mats and other plaited arti- cles; their roots served as food; the pith as wicks for lamps. the paper of the ancients was made of papyrus. this explain sits appear- ance in the ornamental art of these nations, and its special luxuriance, in egyptian style. spoons and other utensils were decorated with lotus flowers and calices; the capitals of columns imitate the flowers or buds of the lotus: the. shaft resemples a bound group of stalks; the base reminds- us of the root leaves of these water plants; their mural painting shows lotus and papyrus motives in the most comprehensive manner. the lotus was sacred to osiris and isis, and was the sym- bol of the recurring fertilisation of the land by the nile, and, in a higher sense, of immortality. the palm, of which a few varieties exist in «the east and south 'of europe, is also used in ornamental art. palm leaves or branches were used at the entry of kings into jerusalem, at the feasts of osiris in egypt, at the olympian games in greece, and in the triumphal pro- cessions of anciont rome. they were the symbol of victory, and of peace. in this latter sense they have been received into the ritual of the christian church. the late renascence and following styles down to the present day have made a decorative use of palm leaves. the symbolic significance in a higher sense, as the token of eternal peace, has secured for the palm leaf a place in modern art on tombs and .'similar monuments. the decorative effect, of dried palm fronds natural forms. plate . the ivy: natural, and artificial. the lotus, the papyrus, and the palm. — the ivy. along with lulls of grasses and the like, has brought them into fashion as a finish to ibe artistic adornment of rooms. plate . the lotus, &c., from nature. . lotus (lower (nymphaea nelumbo — indian water lily). and lower end and half-opened bud of the papyrus plant (cy- perus papyrus l. — papyrus antiquorum willd). . idealised lotus and papyrus, egyptian mural painting, (owen jones). . frond of an areca palra (areca rubra — in asia as a tree, the so called pinang). the species chamaedorea and phoenix have similar fronds. c. leaf of a pan "palm (corypha avstralis). the species lalania, chamaerops, borassus, &c., have a leaf of similar shape. the ivy. (plate .) the ivy ( ieiera helix) is indigenous to the east, north'africa, south and central europe, and england. it is an evergreen climbing sbrab which develops into a tree under favourable circumstances. in ancient times it was sacred to bacchus. beakers for filtering wine were made of ivy wood. as an attribute of bacchus it is found twined round the thyrsus which the bacchantes flourished in their hands in processions and dances. the ivy is a common decorative ornament on ancient vases. it was also the symbol of friendship, ©specially of the weaker with the stronger. ivy leaves are of very various shapes. usually broad and five-lobed, they appear at the ends of young shoots in long pointed, lance-like forms. flowering twigs have leaves without indentations, heart-shaped, with elliptic or oval tapering. the latter forms in particular were adopted by antique art plate . the ivy. . spray with broad-lobed leaves, from nature. . spray with elliptic tapering leaves, after blooming, from nature. . spray with lanceolate leaves, from nature. . decoration of the neck of a greek hydria, campana collection (l'art pour tous). . upper part of a pilaster like-panel, antique. . fragment of decoration, roman column, vatican, borne. the com, ae. — various leaveo. the corn, the hop, the convolvulus, and the bryony. (plates , .) seeing how important agriculture has been in all ages, it was impossible that decorative art should neglect the ears of wheat, although their comparatively scanty ornamental possibilities prevented any very extensive application. combined with other motives, ears of corn have been made use of in various styles. in ecclesiastical art they have a symbolical significance (see what was said of the vine). the hop (hamulus lupulus) is a well known indigenous plant of civilisation, and also occurs wild in marshy woods. its picturesque qualities indicate it as well adapted for ornamental use. in combina- tion with ears of barley, it is applied in modern art to the decoration of beer-mugs, the walls of inns, &c. the convolvulus (convolvulus), an indigenous climbing plant of ornamental appearance, is frequently used in modern art. the bryony (bryonia) has delicate tendrils and beautifully in- dented, leaves, which afford a fertile motive, so that it is astonishing that this, and other allied plants have hitherto found comparatively little favor in decorative art. plate . the corn, &c. . ears of oats (avena sativa). . ears of rye (secale cereale). . ears of wheat (triticum vulgare). . ears of spelt (triticum spelta). . ears of the common barley (hordeum distichum). . ears of the battledore barley (hordeum zeokriton). . field convonvulus (convolvulus arvensis) with red flowers. the hedge convolvulus (convolvulus sepium) has a similar habit and white flowers. (the group has been sketched freely from a cast from nature, by bofinger of stuttgart.) plate . the hop, c. hops and bryony (drawn from pressed plants). various leaves. (plate .) plate presents a series of various leaves, whose general orna- mental possibilities have either secured or deserve to secure for them a place in art. the oak, the king of our indigenous trees, the symbol of power the corn, and the convolvulus. i'late . plate . the hop, and the bryony. various leaves. plate . various leaves, and flowera. and strength, in antiquity the tree of jupiter, has from time to time been used in every western style. oak foliage, and perhaps almost as frequently the leaves of the maple, are often used in early gothic, where we meet them on friezes, cornices, and columns. the fre- quent recurrence of oak leaves, in certain works of the italian rena- scence, is due to the fact that the oak was the crest of the family of della rovere {rovere = winter oak; two members of which family ascended the papal chair, as sixtus iv. and julius ii.). oak, someti- mes alternating with laurel, is a usual ornament of medals and coins. plate . oak leaves, &c. . leaf of the winter oak (quercus sessiliflora). . spray of the bitter oak (quercus cerris). . leaf of the maple (acer campestre). . spray of the sugar maple (acer plantanoides). . leaf of a species of ranunculus. . leaf of the oriental amber tree (liquidamber orientale). . leaf of the american amber tree (liquidamber styraciflua). (this tree furnishes the storax or styrax, a kind of resin.) . leaf of the tulip tree (liriodendron tulipifera). . leaf of the climbing mikania (mikania scandens). . leaf of the liverwort (hepatica triloba). various flowers. (plates g, .) it need scarcely be said that flowers, these most beautiful pro- ducts of the plant world, have in all ages been exceedingly popular in ornamental art. in flat as well as in relief ornament they are used in the most manifold forms, as bouquets, garlands, wreaths, &c. flower-painting for decorative purposes (fans, tapestry, &c.) has de- veloped into a distinct branch of art. flowers, with their natural developement from a centre, are the most obvious models for the for- mation of rosettes (rosette = fittle rose). the rosettes on the well- known sarcophagus of scipio, the rosette bosses on the doors of the antique and the italian renascence, are striking examples of this. the realm of flowers is'so extensive that we must confine our- belves to a few examples. plate gives a variety of single flowers (drawn from casts from nature by j. g. bofinger of stuttgart): plate shows a bou- quet of sowers. plate . various flowers. \. alpine rose (rhododendron). natural forms. various flowers. plate . natural forms. plate . various flowers. various flower*. — the festoon. . chrysanthemum. . white lily (lilium eandidum). . hellebore (htlleborus). . wild rose (rosa canina). . blue-bell (campanula). . wild rose, seen from the back. plate . various flowers. bouquet, carving, louis xvi. style, (f. a. m., cours d'ornemenf). tue fruit festoon. (plates — .) fruit, tied in a bunch with leaves and flowers, was a popular decorative motive of the roman, renascence, and later styles. we may mention the hanging clusters as a decoration of pilaster and similar panels; and the clusters hanging in a curve and known as festoons. in these cases: flowing ribbons fill up the empty spaces. the plates give examples of both kinds. festoons of fruits hanging in deep curves between rosettes, can- delabra, skulls of animals, &c., are common in the roman style. the origin of this style of decoration is to be sought in the circumstance that festoons of real fruit were hung as a decoration on the friezes of the temples, alternating with the real skulls of slaughtered sacri- ficial animals, in connection with the candelabra, tripods, and other sacrificial instruments. this style of decoration was then transferred from sacred to secular architecture, revived by the renascence in more or less altered forms, and has remained in use to the present time. in the roman style the empty space above the centre of the curve is often filled by rosettes, masks, and figures. these features were usually replaced by heads of angels on the ecclesiatical buildings and tombs of the italian renascence. plate . the fruit festoon. . cluster, libreria, cathedral, siena, italian renascence. . cluster, tomb of louis xii. st. denis, french renascence. . cluster, modern. . festoon, tomb of cardinal della rovere, st. maria del popolo, rome, italian renascence. plate . the fruit festoom . festoon, between skulls, roman. . festoon, roman mortuary tablet, vatican plate . the fruit festoon. plate . the leaf, and flower festoon. the festoou. — animal organisms. plate . the leaf festoox, &c. festoon between skulls, roman. festoon, tomb of beatrice and lavinia ponzetti, sta. maria della pace, rome, renascence, by baldassare peruzzi. . festoon, louis xvi. style. . festoon, modorn, paris, (ragucuet). b. animal organisms (the fauna of ornament). by the side of the flora, stand the fauna of ornament. the use of animals, in natural or idealised forms, is considerable, but, compared with that of plant-forms, it is less extensive. the reason of this is obvious: that greater difficulties stood in the way of the adaptation of animal forms than in the use of plant motives. the absence of animals in the mahometan styles is due to religious maxims which forbade or limited the use of representations" of living beings. following the same direction as was taken in the flora, we shall find that the principal representations from the fauna are not, as might be supposed, those of domestic animals such as* the horse, the dog and the like, but that the selection was guided first by the sym- bolic character, and next by the ornamental possibilities of each. if we disregard the more accidental naturalistic use of animals, such as enliven scroll ornaments in the shape of butterflies, birds, reptiles, and other animals, and confine our attention to those inde- pendent forms of animal ornament which have become typical; they will be found to diminish to a comparatively small number, the most important of which will here be treated in detail. of the mammalia we have first to mention the lion, tiger and panther, the ox, the horse, and the goat; the delphin also finds a place. the eagle is the only bird which has been generally used. then come the fantastic forms of fabulous animals: the griffin, the double headed eagle, &c the lion. (plates — .) the lion (felis leo) holds the first rank in ornamental fauna, [lis strength, bis courage, and his nobility, have assured him from the earliest times the title of "king of beasts". his majestic stature, his compact, proportionate build, his striking muscles, offer grateful pro- blems to art. lying, walkings sitting, fighting, conquering or con- quered, he is an often-used motive. lion scenes and lion hunts are common subjects on the palaces of the assyrian kings. characteristic, nntnral movements, and a ii the lion. distinctive rendering of the muscles, give these idealised representations a peculiar charm and a certain grandeur. the lion was used in the egyptian religion. the fact that the annual overflow of the nile, so fertilising and of such immense im- portance for the land, occurred at the time when the sun entered the sign of the lion, brought the animal into relation with water; and led to representations on pails and other vessels for water, &e. egyptian art usually idealises the lion till he is unrecognisable; it represents him at rest; and the simple, severe treatment of the mane (not unlike a stiff ruff) gives him somewhat of the appearance of the lioness, which does not posses one. among the greeks and romans the lion was considered as the guardian of springs, of gates, and temples- hence his appearance at fountains, on flights of steps, over gates, and on monuments. the sleeping lion is the symbol of the fallen hero. (the lion of the piraeus, the tomb of leonidas, and the tombs of halicarnassus, may be quoted as evidence.) in christian art: the symbolism of the lion is various: as the emblem of the redeemer (the lion of the tribe of judah), as the emblem of the evil principle and of the enemies of the church as well as of the devil .himself (the enemy who goeth about as a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour), as the attribute of the evange- list st. mark, and of other saints. hence his frequent appearance on the vessels, and other articles of religions use, &c. in consequence of the crusades in the th century, he was in- troduced into heraldry, in which he became the most popular animal figure. as a heraldic creature he was severely idealised, (see division hi, under heraldry). in the renascence period, the lion is represented in all of the foregoing uses. in the rococo period, there was little skill, and little understan- ding, for the figure of the lion. modern art follows the example of the antique and the renas- cence; and thus it comes that in the present day the lion enjoys the lion's share in decoration. it is remarkable that in all ages, when representing the lion, ar- tists have given to his countenance something of a human type, by using the oval eye of man, instead of the round cat-like eye, (compare, plate , fig. ).» plates — show the lion in naturalistic treatment, and also the conventional treatments of the various epochs; plate is devo- ted to heraldic treatments. * an exhaustive article, entitled "der l we in der kunst," by const. uhde, will be found in the "gewerbehalle," . pp. et seqq. plate . the lion. natural forms. the liou. plate . plate the lion. the lion. plate . the lion. . walking lion, from nature, (miinchener bilderbogen). . egyptian lion, relief with sunken outlines, temple, dachel, (ha- gue net). . egyptian lion, capitol, rome, (raguenet). . assyrian lion, glazed clay slabs, royal palace, kborsabad, th cen- tury b. c. . heads of slaughtered lions, assyrian bas-relief, british museum. plate . the lion. . lion supporting a shield (called "il marzocco"), by donatello, na- tional museum, florence, italian, th century. . lion, front of the louvre, paris, modern, by barye, (baldus, ra- guenet). . lion, tuileries, paris, modern, (baldus, raguenpt). and . lion, in front of the palace of the cortes, madrid, mo- dern, (raguenet). . lion supporting a shield, modern, (raguenet). plate . the lion*. . sleeping lion, monument to pope clement xiii., st. peter's, rome, by canova. . wounded lion, kriegerdcnkmal, hannover, by professor volz, of carlsruhe. . head of the companion of the above. . walking lion, modern, french. plate . the lion. . lion, in pavement, town hall, liinoburg. . lion, shield of johann of heringen, register of the university of erfurt, , (heraldisehe moistorwerke). . lion, coat of arms, inlaid marble work, sta. croce, florence. italian renascence, (teirich, eingologto marmorornamente) . lion, coat of arms, intarsia panel, sta. maria novella, florence, italian renascence, (meurer, flachornamento). . lion, tomb in wcrthcim, german, lcth century, by johann of trarbach. . lion supporting a shield, mural decoration, modern, (heral- dische meistcrwerke). — . heraldic lions, albrocht diirer. the griffin, &c. — the lion head. the griffin, and the chimaera. (plates and .) in addition to the imitations of natural animals there have been, from the earlist times, various fabulous monsters, which were composed of parts of several different animals. centaurs, sphinxes, the assyrian human lions, lion and eagle men, combine the human and the animal body. the combination, of different animal-forms with one another, leads to monsters, the chief representatives of which are the griffin, and the chimaera. the griffin is the union of a lion's body with the head and wings of an eagle. the fore extremities may belong either to the lion or the eagle. as the lion with water, so the griffin is associated in antiquity with fire; hence his frequent appearance with candelabra on friezes, &c. in heraldry the griffin is the symbol of wisdom, and watchfulness. there are other combinations; e. g. the chimaera, the hippo- griff, the ichthyogriff, &c., which may be seen in pompejan decoration. plate . the griffin. . groek griffin, fragment, museum, naples. . roman griffin, fragment. . griffin, renascence. plate . the griffin, &c. . head of an assyrian eagle-headed personage, )„...,„ . - a . t, ) ijritisu museum. . hoad of an assyrian lion-headed personage, j . roman chimaera, vatican. . sitting griffin, support of a seat, castle of gaillon, french renas- cence, (f. a. m., cours d'ornement). . winged lion, tomb of loys de bresze, rouen cathedral, — . . winged lioness, as supporter, louvre, paris, modern, (baldus). . sitting winged lioness, casa s. isidora, santiago, chili, modern, french, (raguenct). the lion head. (plates , .) the lion head has been still more extensively applied than the entire figure of the lion. it io found in countless examples: — as a gargoyle on the temples of the antique, as a spout on vessels, with a ring in the jaw as a handle and knocker on the doors of the por- tals of the middlo ages and the renascence; and as a purely deco- rative element like bosses and rosettes. the antique created a natural forms. the griffid. plate . plate g tbe griffin. &c the lion head, &c. — the goat head, ic. remarkable form by the direct union of the lion head with one leg, to form the support of a table, (see division ii, supports, plates and ). platt . the lion head » . head, prospectus of dr. schubert's naturgcschichto. . head, painting by paul meyerheim. . gargoyle, metapontum, greek, (gropius, archiv.). . gargoyle, terracotta, athens, (gropius). . gargoyle, parthenon, athens. and . front and side view of an antique head, vatican. plate . the lion head. . door knocker, cathedral, mainz, romanesque — . heads, in basrelief, by ghiborti, medallions inside the bronze doors, baptistry, florence, italian renascence, (gropius). . head, fountain of the sacristy, san lorenzo, florence, ita- lian renascence. . head, in medallion, italian renascence. . head, heidolberg castle, german renascence. . gargoyle, opera house, paris, modern, french, architect garnier, (raguenet). . head, modern, french, architect gamier, (raguenet). . head, in profile, modorn, french, by the sculptor cain of paris, (raguenet). . head, by lienard, modern, french. . head, by prof. volz, of carlsruhe. the lion head, goat head, &c. (plates , .) tho tiger (fclis tigris) and the panther (felis pardus) are sometimes found in autiquo works. amoriui, bacchantes, and maenads, gambol about on them or drive in carriages drawn by these crea- tures; and decorate themselves and their utensils with their skins. panther and tiger heads, as well as the head of the lynx (fclis lynx), find from time to timo similar application to the lion head. ram heads are a favourite form of corner ornament for the cornices of altars, and tripods; or serve, liko tho skulls of oxen, a,s objects from which to hang festoons. the decoralivo use in both cases is connected with the use of the ram as a sacrificial animal, (com- pare p. ). instead of real animal heads wo sometimes moot with fantastic forms which may bo described as chimaera beads. natural forms. plate tue lion i load natural forms. the lion head l'lute s. heads of various anunnls. plate . tire panther head, &c. and front and side view of panther head. modern, french. and . front and side view of tiger head, from nature and . front and side view of lynx head, antique gargoyle, vatican. plate the ram head, ac and . front and side view of chimaera head, corner of antique three-sided altar. . ram head, roman altar. . ditto. . ditto. and . front and side view of ram head, late renascence. heads of various animals. (plate .) the horse (equus) offers certain difficulties in the way of artistic imitation. the legs, for example, are too thin for rendering in statues, except in metal. this circumstance presents less hin- drance to representations in bas-relief. as an isolated figure the horse seldom occurs; he is more frequent in groups forming teams of two, three, and more (biga, iriija, quadriga), intended to be the crowning feature of monumental editices (san marco, venice; brandenburger thor, altes museum, berlin, propylaea, munich) mostly along with the figure of the man who leads him (horse-tamers on the monte cavallo, rome) or rides him (statue of the condottiore bartolommeo colleoni , venice, the colossal statues in the burg- hof at vienna; the grosser kurfiirst, the altor fritz, the battle scenes by kiss and wolff on the staircasos of the museum at berlin). in bas-relief tho horse is, almost without exception, represented only in profile (hunting scenes from the ancient assyrian royal palaces, the frieze of the parthenon) in grottesque painting he furnishes the fore parts of various monsters, the hinder parts being formed by fish tails, or in somo other way the use of tbo horse head its a medallion, on stables, riding schools, prize-cups, and numerous objects connected with sport, is common in modern art in heraldry the horse occurs in a few casos (shield of stuttgart). in japan: the horse is symbolical, and is connectod with the hours. still less adapted to ornamental purposes is the ox; and repre- sentations are therefore exceedingly rare the same is true of the dog, the pig, the fox, the stag, the hare, &c., whose forms, either entire or as heads, are only used symbolically, on such objects as have some conneption with hunting (hunting weapons, powejer bonis, targets). the panther head, &c. flute . natural forms. plate . . the ram head, &c. beads of various animals. — the eagle. plate . tiie house head, &c. horse head, parthenon, athens. horse head, assyrian basrelicf, british musenin. — . antique horse head. . horse head, modern, german. g. head of a hunting dog, i head of a fox, i , , , , head of a boar, \ b? habenschad,.,, of mrincbon. . head of an ox, j the eagle. (plates — .) like the lion among quadrupeds, the eagle (aquila, faico fulvus) is the most important representative of the feathered tribes. his size and strength, his majestic flight, his keen vision, distinguish him abovo all other birds. he has been used in decorative art since the earliest times, e. g. in the persian, assyrian, and egyptian styles with the greeks: ho was the companion of zeus, whose thunder- bolts he keeps and guards; he carried off ganymede on his wings the romans used him in the apotheoses of their emperors; and chose him for- the standards of their legions. napoleon i., imitating lioman caesarism, granted his armies the french eagle in s . hence the frequent appearance of the eagle on trophies, and omb'ems of war iu. ecclesiastical art: tho eagle is the symbol of the evangelist s. john, whom ho either accompanies, or symbolises independently tho eaglo appears in heraldry at a very early period, about the time of charlemagne. next to the lion he is tho most-used heraldic creature (e. g. the united states, germany, austria, prussia, and franco under the second empire, all possess tho eagle) his heraldic forms vary considerably from the natural ono. blue excepted, ho appears in all the tinctures tho donbln-headed eagle is a byzantine invention. the heraldic eagle is a highly ornamental figuro, so that, from tho middle ages up to the prosont time, he has been employed not only for heraldic, but also for purely decorative purposes: he is seen in manifold forms in in tarsi a, cut or etched in metal, cut in leather, embroidered, woven, and painted; on weapons and tools, furni- ture, ceilings, and walls, (see the heraldic treatment in division hi, heraldry). our figures show him, natural as well as idealised, in various positions and concopt.ious; plate shows his heraldic forms, (comp. plat* ). the eagle. — the wing. # plate . the eagle. . young eagle, in a scutella (dish), roman. '- . roman eagle, pedestal of trajan's column, rome, (raguenet). . roman eagle, vatican, rome, (raguenet). . roman eagle in an oak garland, bas-relief originally in trajan's forum, now in ss. apostoli, rome, (de vico, trenta tavole, &c.). . sitting eagle, modern, (gerlach, das gewerbemonogramm). plate . the heraldic eagle. . romanesque eagle, germanisches museum, nuremberg. . eagle, gothic style, viollet-le-duc, (dictionnaire de l'architec- ture). . eagle, gothic style, oil painting, germanisches museum, nurem- berg. . eagle, gothic style, by albrecht diirer, (hirth, forinenscbatz). . eagle, renascence, by albrecht diirer, (hirth). . eagle, renascence, (hirth). . eagle, renascence, by wenderlin dietterlin, (hirth). . eagle, modern, german, (heraldische meisterwerke). plate . the eagle. . eagle, as akroter, flora pavillion, louvre, paris, architect lefuel, (baldus). . eagle, in a laurel garland, modern, german, by ranch. . eagle, with olive branch, in medallion, louvre, paris, (baldus). . eagle, high relief, by rauch, on monument, berlin. . french eagle, modern, new opera house, paris, architect gamier, (raguenet). . flying eagle, from nature, (raguonct). . eagle, from nature. tne wing. (plate .). as the small scale of the preceding plates does not admit of the details of the wing being fully shown; and as draughtsmen, as well as modellers, are ofton called-upon to design winged shapes (be- sides the eagle, angels, amorini, gonii, grottesques, the caduceus of mercury, the symbolic wheel of the railroad, drc,: we have thought it advisable to add a plate showing the details of the wings on a somewhat larger scale. they are taken from nature; but will be found helpful for idealised renderings. plate . the wing. . wing of a duck. . wing of a wild goose. major, handbook of ornament. natural forms plate . the eagle. natural forms. plate the eagle. the wing. plate . the dotphin. the dolphin. (plates — .) the dolphin (delpkinus delphis, french, dauphin) has enjoyed an unusual share of attention. this sea mammal, which has some- times been erroneously classed among the fishes, lives in the seas of the northern hemisphere, swarms round ships, swims in shoals, and is fond of sport. in ancient times the dolphin enjoyed, and enjoys even now in some parts, a kind of feneration which protects him from persecution. we meet him occasionally on antique coins, on graeco-italic terracottas, on pompeian mural paintings, on furniture and utensils, and in the architecture of the greeks and romans. guigo rv. of viennois ( ) took to himself the title of "dauphin", and the dolphin as crest . one of his successors, humbertii., surrendered the dauphiny in to charles of valois, in exchange for a legacy and on the condition that the heir to the throne should always boar the title "dauphin"; which condition was faithfully kept. this is the explanation of the frequent appearance of the dolphin in french decoration; but its frequent appearance in italian decoration, is due to its artistic capabilities. the dolphin is often used in pilasters, panels, in in tarsi as, in ceilings and mural paintings, in enamel, in niello work, and in typographical ornaments. in modern styles the dolphin often masks the spouts of fountains. in symbolic representations he is the companion of nymphs, nereids, and tritons, and of arion, aphrodite, and neptune, with whose trident he is often combined in ornament . plate . the dolphin. . portion of frieze, graeco italic, campana collection, paris. . shield of the french kings, th century, (baguenet). . castle at blois, french renascence, (raguenet). . italian renascence, louvre, paris, (raguenet). . head, from a relief, french, by clodion ( — ). . pair of dolphins, by schinkel, (vorbilder fur fabrikanten und handworker). . head, as spout, by barbezat, paris, (raguenet). — . heads, as spouts, face and profile, (hauptmann, moderne orna- mentale werke im stile der italienischen renascence). ptate . the dolphin. . frieze, sta. maria dell' anima, rome ( to ), italian, (raguenet). . panel ornament, french renascence. . choir seats, certosa near pa via, italian renascence, (teirich, meurer). the dolphin. plate .r.g. natural forms. k plate . the dolpbin. itt) the dolphin. — the shell. — the serpent . part of frieze, home, arco della chiesa nuova, italian re- nascence, (weissbach nnd lottermoser, architektonische motive). — . heads. — . parts of address by german artists, to king humbert of italy, by director gbtz. plate . the dolphin. . panel, venetian renascence. . lower part of panel, ducal palace, venice, italian renascence. . part of frieze, sta. maria della pace, rome, by braraante, - , italian. . part of majolica tile,. sta. caterina, siena, italian renascence. . head, cathedral, limoges, french renascence. . handle of a vessel, pilaster, by benedetto da majano, italian re- nascence. . pen drawing, by lucas von- leyden ( ). the shell. (plate .) among molluscs: the nautilus (nautilus pompilius) and various shells, principally of the family of the trochoidae, are placed on feot; and, elegantly mounted in metal, sorve as drinking-vessels. the scallop shell is used as the top of cylindrical niches, as a waterbasin in the form of a shallow dish, and as a decorative back- ground for vases and busts. it was extensively employed for these purposes in the later renascence. plate . the shell. . nautilus, from nature. , . snail (turbo marmoratus), from a renascence drinking-vessel. . exterior of the scallop (oslrea jacobaea — pccten jacobaeus), from nature. . interior of the scallop, after jost amman, (hirth, formonscliatz). . scallop design, louis xvi. style, lower end of a panel. . scallop design, by the sculptor lehr, of berlin. . scallop design, for the decoration of a niche. the serrent. (plate .) the serpent is occasionally used for symbolic and decorative purposes. it is developed ints an antique bracelet, and to a handle for vessels, a pair twine round the staff of mercury (the caduceus, the shell. plate natural forms. the serpent. — human organism. comp. plate ), and a single one round the staff of esculapius, coiled in a circle with tail in mouth it is the symbol of eternity on tombs, it is used in mythology, and is an indispensable accompani- ment of the symbols of envy and dissension; and the hair of medusa is represented as composed of serpents (plate ). in ecclesiastical art: the serpent is the symbol of wickedness, sin, and temptation (the scene in paradise); it appears under the feet of the virgin mary with an apple* in its mouth. in heraldry: it is represented devouring a child, on the shield of the visconti, of milano. plate . the serpent. . cast from life of a viper (vipera berus — pelias beru.i) with a lizard (lacerta viridis — lacerta agilis), by j. eberhaij of heilbronn. . cast from life of a viper, by j. eberhard of heilbronn. . antique bracelet in the form of a viper, pompeii. . the snako as the symbol of eternity, (gerlach, allegorien und embleme). e. human organism. the human form has been, and is destined to be a favoured object of representation in art. the desire, to depict for contemporaries and to transmit to posterity, the great deeds of individuals and the epoch-making achievements and fate of whole races and nations, is universal among mankind; as also the attempt to reproduce the portraits of celebrated persons. even the supernatural powers, his gods, man represents in the form of men. the "lord of creation" can give to the beings he venerates no more ideal form than his own, which he holds to be the most developed*. the christian conception has arrived at the same result by the reverse process: "god created man in his own image." virtues, vices, passions, sci- ences and arts, ages, seasons and hours, elements, rivers, countries, hemispheres, and many other things receive symbolic expression; and are pictorially rendered by human figures. and the human body is often represented, without any meaning, and solely (decoratively) mortals, however, opine that the gods had an origin man-like; feel and have voices like men, like men have a bodily fashion oxen and lions, no doubt, if they had but hands and a chisel, pencils as well, to depict the figure divine, would do likewise: god for the horse were a horse, and god for the oxen were ox-like. each would think god like himself and give to his god his ova image. xenophanes of colophon. b. c. the human figure. — the mask. on account of its beauty of form. all these delineations, which fall within the do"main of high art, lie beyond the scope of this work. we have only to deal with the human figure so far as it has been received into decoration: we have only to occupy ourselves with "conventionalised" man. this includes the applications of the human face, more or less true to nature or with arbitrary accessions; masks and caricatures; grottesques, those strange combinations of human with animal or plant elements; and also the applications of the upper half of the human body as the starting-point of ornament; half-lengths as commencements of ornaments; those mixtures of human and animal shapes in which the upper half falls to the share of man, e. g.: — sphinxes, centaurs, &c. the mask. (plate .) the mask, strictly so-called, is an artificial, hollow face, intended to be placed in front of, and to conceal the human countenance so as to make the wearer unrecognisable, or to characterize him in some special way. the use of the mask dates back to the popular harvest games of the earliest greek period. from these games the mask is bolieved to have been transferred to the ancient theatre, in which the actors all appeared masked. different classes of masks were recognised: tragic, comic, &c. definite types of masks were connected with .de- finite characters and "persons". the mouth-openings of these masks were unnaturally large and shaped like a bell-mouth, so as to reinforce tbe voice of the speaker; in latin the mask is termed "persona" (from personare = to sound through). from theatrical, the masks passed to artistic use, e. g. in the mural paintings of theatres and secular edifices (pompeian decorations), on bacchic vessels and other utensils (various beakers in the silver treasure of hildesheim). the renascence and the following styles have at times used masks in decoration, altering and exaggerating the forms. in particular the mask is often used for the decoration of the keystones of door and window arches. we may also mention the beautiful, freely-treated heads of dying srarriors by schliiter on the arsenal at berlin; and the masks in antique style on the new opera house in paris, by gamier. plate . the mask. . bacchus, graeco italic, fragment of a vessel or utensil. — . heads, goblet (hildesheim treasure), roman, berlin museum. . keystone, graeco italic, terracotta, campana collection. . part of frieze, gra'eco italic, campana collection. . silenus, handle of etruscan vessel. — . decoration, pompeii. the maak. — the grotteaque maslt. . satyr, italian renascence, by sansovino, over a festoon in sta. maria del popolo, bome. . dying warrior, by schltiter, berlin arsenal, . the grottesque mask. (plates — .) masks and caricatures pass into each other, so that it is diffi- cult to draw a strict line between them. the french language ex- presses this connection olearly, by using the related words "masque" and "mascaron." under masks are usually classed the delineations of beautiful countenances, either true to nature or idealising it . caricatures are faces gunning, deformed, distorted by accessories, or terminatiag in foliage. tho antique, which had no love whatever for the depicting of the ugly and bizarre, only used caricatures in its oldest periods, in the so-called archaic style. the middle ages frequently employed caricatures. the renascence and barocco styles, as well as our most modern, art, often apply caricatures to keystones, to consoles, as spouts and handles, on shields and cartouches, in capitals and panels, on the backs of chairs, and in general on carved furniture, on stove-^les, &c we possess a number of excellent caricatures from the hand of the youthful michelangelo, who treated this form with predilection, and with the breadth characteristic of his genius. plate . the grottesque mask. . etruscan, terracotta, campana collection, (f. a. m., cours d'ornement). . grottesque, italian renascence, venice. . grottesque, tomb of the cardinal sforza, sta. maria del popolo. rome, italian renascence, by sansovino. . single grottesque, from frieze, italian renascence, by michel- angelo, san lorenzo, florence. . part of capital of pilaster, french renascence, tomb of louis xii, st . denis. — . modern french grottesques. plate . the grottesque mask. . carved bench, italian renascence, bargello, florence. — . female, metal shields, german renascence. . akroter, tribunal de commerce, paris. . grottesque, louvre, paris, (baldus). natural forms. plate the mask, &c the grotesque mask. meyer, handbook of ornament plate . plato . the grottesque musk. the grottesque mask. — the medusa head. — the grottesque. . modern french, theatre de bellecour, lyons, architect chatron, (raguenet). . modern french, ministry of war, paris, architect bouchot, (raguenet). plate . the grottesque mask. . grottesque, by michelangelo, italian renascence, (raguenet). . grottesque, castle of ecouen, french, , (raguenet). . german, th century, (lessing). . grottesque, german renascence, gemanisches museum, nuremberg. . grottesque, pedestal of a column, tomb in pforzheim, german renascence, by hans von trarbach. . from the spout of a can, german renascence. . grottesque, escutcheon of a lock, german renascence. . grottesque, modern panel, sculptor hauptmann. the medusa head. (plate .) unique among the masks is the head of medusa. medusa, in mythological tradition one of the three gorgons, whose head perseus cut-off, to present it to athene as an ornament for her shield. it is employed in ancient art as a decoration for breastplates and shields, on and above doors and gates, and on the ground of paterae ,and dishes. the expression is that of the rigidity of death; its look is meant to petrify; the hair is interlaced with serpents; serpents wind themselves in knots beneath her chin; and small wings are often added. the archaic art represented the gorgon as ugly, terrible, and disgusting; the later greek conception, under praxiteles, was of stern, grand, beauty, (the so called rondanine medusa in the glyptothek at munich). in the modern and renascence styles, the head of medusa is only decorative; and it is seldom employed. plate . the medusa head. . the farnese dish (odvx patera), museum, naples, roman. . centre of antique patera, roman. . medallion, probably modern, french. . tympanum, tuileries, paris, (baldus). the grottesque. (plate .) grottesques (from grotto) are fantastic, often really ugly monsters, produced by the combination of human, animal, and plant organisms the grottesque. — the half-figure. in the freest and most arbitrary manner. squatting, winged female figures without arms; human bodies with fishtails, with endlessly long, winding necks, with extremities terminating in foliage, are types of this style of ornamentation. the origin of the grottesque must be sought in the decorative painting of the romans. pompeii offers copious material. various painters of the italian renascence, among them rafael, revived and used the antique grottesque painting (rafael's loggie), after the discovery of the grottesque painting in the thermae of titus at rome, (from these' vaults or grottoes is derived the name grottesque). the grottesques are a striking example of the playful and artistic feeling of the ancients; and stand in great contrast to the coarse attempts at the comic to be found in medieval art. from decorative painting the grottesques passed to the plastic art of the renascence. the revival of italian decorative painting in modern art has led to the retention of these forms also. flate . the grottesque. . part of pilaster, italian renascence, by benedetto da majano. . part of pilaster, tomb of louis xii., st denis, french re- nascence. . part of pilaster, palazzo magnifico, siena, italian renascence, by barile. — . parts of ornamental columns, palazzo guadagni, florence, (schutz). . italian majolica pavement, siena, italian renascence, (l'art pour tous). . stall in san severino, naples, italian renascence, by barto- lommeo chiarini and bernadino torelli da brescia, (schutz). . stall, san agostino, perugia, italian renascence. the half-figure. (plates — .) from antique times up to the present day, half-figures have been popular as startings for ornaments. the upper part of the human body undergoes little variation from its natural forms. below the breast or the stomach, often defined by a girdle, there is developed a sort of inverted foliage-cup, from which the scroll orna- ment grows. half-figures are found not only in the flat and in bas- relief, but also in round plastic art, in this latter case as brackets for lamps, torchholders, doorknockers, &o. plate . the half-figure. — . panels, roman altar. . part of a roman relief. natural forms. plate . the .medusa head. natural forms. the grottesque plate . natural forms. plate . the half-figure. the half-figure. plate . the half figure. — the sphinx, and the centaur. . socle of altar, cathedral of orvieto, italian renascence, (go- werbehalle). . part of relief, italian renascence. plate . the half-figure. . bracket, , italian, south kensington museum, london, (arundel society, objects of art). . decoration on ceiling, castle of s. angelo, rome, italian re- nascence. . sketch, by polidore da caravaggio, th century, italian, louvre, paris. . centre of a relief, lectern, cathedral, limoges, french renascence. . from basrelief, by j. verchere, modern, french. the sphinx, and the centaur. (plate .) the sphinx is an imaginary combination of the human bust with the body of the lion. it was originally an egyptian invention. the colossal sphinx of memphis was begun under cheops; it is hewn from the living rock, partly supplemented by masonry, and is more than iso feet long. the bust is generally a woman's; but in some cases it is a ram head. the sphinx is the guardian of temples and tombs, in front of which it is frequently ranged in avenues. in the roman period: wings are added, probably through assyrian influence; and the crouching position is sometimes exchanged for the half-erect. the renascence uses sphinxes in painting (as double sphinx also, with a single head and double body), and in free shapes as fire dogs, &c. the barocco period adorns gardens and portals with crouching sphinxes, (the castle garden at schwetzingen contains a considerable number). centaurs are imaginary wild monsters, with the fore part of a man and the hinder part of a horse. among the greeks, the centaur ori- ginally symbolised the thessalian race of equestrian renown. mytho- logy recounts their struggles with the lapithae. later delineations, such as the mural paintings of pompeii, depict the centaurs less wild, tamed to the service of dionysos, and sporting with amorini and bacchantes. the decorative capabilities of these fantastic figures has ensured them renewed application in later styles; and they are some- times used in modern decoration. plate . the sphinx, and the centaur. . crouching sphinx, egyptian, louvre, paris, (raguenet). . crouching sphinx with ram head, egyptian, (raguenet). . lower corner of an antique candelabrum, roman. natural forms. the sphinx, and the centaur. plate . plate . tbe cherub head, &c miscellaneous heads. . sitting sphinx, modern, french, andiron, by the sculptor fiat, (l'art pour tons). . crouching sphinx, modern. — . centaurs and bacchantes, mural paintings, pompeii, (chofa d'oeuvre de l'art antique). miscellaneous heads. (plate .) angel-faces, winged, youthful heads, with a circular or disc-like halo, are first met-with in the byzantine style, as a result of the activity of ecclesiastical artists. in the early italian benascence, the rendering is charmingly naive (lucca della bobbia may be specially mentioned)-, they adorn friezes and arches, fill medallions, and are found in borders. they occur often on tombs; and they are also much used in modern ecclesiastical decoration. the profiles of minerva, mars, apollo, frequently occur in me- dallions. the skull or death's head, the gruesome grinning relio of de- parted life, and emblem of decay and death, finds its place in the dances of death, at one time so popular; also on the shield of death (albrecht dfirer), on monuments, tombs, &a. it is generally represented in front view, and often over two crossed bones. plate . the chehdb head, &c . cherub, early italian benascence. .. cherub, candelabrum, certosa near pavia, italian benascence. . frame, germanisches museum, nuremberg. . column of the plague, vienna, barocco. . modern, medallion, by prof. heer, carlsruhe. . minerva, berlin museum, modern. . minerva, modern. . warrior, louvre, paris, (baldus). . mars, from lievre, les arts decoratifs. . skull, from nature. c artificial objects. besides geometrical elements, and those copied from organic nature: ornamental art avails itself of artificial objects, either alone or in combination with the two first-named classes. but this does not include the accidental use of all kinds of articles in symbolic work, and the still-life painting, but only the vessels, tools weapons, instruments, shields, knots, ribbons, &c, which are used as decora- tion, or blended with it. it is easy to understand how tho vessels of religious rites passed into the decoration of religious edifices, temples, and churches. in the antique style: tho altars, tripods, candelabra, sacrificial axes, sprinklers, c; in the christian styles: tho symbol of the cross, marks of priestly dignity, tho instruments of the passion, &c, decorate friezos, walls, and panols, (comp. plato , figs. and ). decorative groups of hunting and warlike implements and of tools, &c, are termed trophies: tho devices of guilds and companies are symbols. the following chapters will treat of these things in detail, along with other designs, of somewhat rarer occurrence, which also belong to this section. the trophy. (plates and .) it was the custom of the greeks to hang on the trunks of trees, the weapons which the flying enemy had left behind on the the trophy. — the symbol. ill field of battle. these tokens of victory, or trophies, have also found a place in decoration. the romans erected artificial, symbolical trophies of stone or bronze in the form of columns, pyramids, and similar architectural structures. since their time trophies have been used not only to decorate all monuments connected with war and victory, e. g. arsenals, the offices of the ministry of war, guard-houses, barracks, and weapons, especially shields; but they have been used up to the present time for purely decorative purposes, as elegantly- arranged and prettily-grouped weapons of war, in the architecture of the pilasters of castles, town-halls and tombs, in the intarsias of the renascence, on woven fabrics and tapestries, as vignettes; and, above all, in plastio ornament. it was also natural that trophies should also be formed of hunt- ing-weapons, which have much similarity with weapons of war, and also of objects connected with the navy. the original meaning 'of the word (tqotzciiov = token of victory, from tgonri), turning, flight) has, it must be admitted, been lost sight of in these applications. plate . the trophy. — . decoration of abased metal dish, renascence. — . decoration of clock panel, french renascence, louis xlll style, (lievre). — . panels of door, otto-heinrich portion of the castle, heidel- berg, german renascence, (pfhor). 'late . the trophy. . panel, tomb of galeazzo pandono, san domenico maggiore. naples, italian renascence, (schiitz). . part of panel, italian renascence. . part of panel of a stall, dordtrecht, dutch renascence. . pedestal of monument to a margrave, pforzheim, by hani von trarbach, german renascence. — . panels, quay front, tuileries, paris, (baldus). . part of design for a monument, by j. ch. delafosse. the symbol. (plates — the grouping of tools and instruments, to symbolise some special idea, leads to the design of symbols. thus we find, disregarding those of war and hunting, which we have treated of as trophies, symbols of art, both of art in general and of the special arts: musio, painting, sculpture, architecture, c.; symbols of science, artificial objects. imate the trophy. the symbol. either as a whole or for individual sciences: mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, &c; of commerce, of technical science, and finally of handicrafts and trades. singing, for example, is symbolised by a lyre with or without sheets of music: music by violins, flutes, horns, pan's pipes, &c; dancing by the tambourine and castagnettes; acting by masks; paint- ing by brush and palette; sculpture by the hammer, chisel, and works of sculpture, busts, torsi; architecture by square, straight-edge and compasses, usually in combination with capitals. the railroad and steam are symbolised by a winged wheel, the telegraph by coils of wire, which radiate lightning. trade is represented by casks and bales of goods on which the caduceus (a staff round which winged serpents are twining — the attribute of mercury) is resting; agriculture has the plough, the sickle, the scythe, &c, vine culture the vine press. the different trades have chosen their symbols partly from their tools, partly from their finished products. the guilds and companies of past centuries introduced a certain system into these outward and visible signs; a large number of guild pictures, some of them very beautiful and ingenious, are preserved in the industrial art museums of modern times. a far more detailed and extensive treatment of symbols than can be given in the present work will be found in gerlach's allegoricn und embleme, to which we are indebted for a number of illustrations. plate . the symbol . angle ornament, hall of the myiistry ot state, louvre, paris, (baldus). . louvre, paris, (baldus). . symbol of the violin makers' guild, elingenthal, , (gerlach, allegorien und embleme). — . pilaster panels, by the sculptor fomilini of florence, modern. — . medallions, by the sculptor lehr of berlin, modern. plate . the symbol. . carved wood door-head, french, th century, (l'art pour tons). — . symbols of sculpture and painting, by the sculptor hauptmann, dresden, modern. . part of exhibition-programme, miinchen, , by r. seitz. . address-card of an ink factory, by prof. hammer of carlsruhe. . title to an edition of goethe's works, by dir. g tz of carlsruhe. plate . the symbol. . part of panel, court of ducal palace, venice, italian renascence, (schttti). plato . the symbol. plate . the symbol. artificial objects. plate l>. the symbol. iso the symbol in pilasters, by the sculptoi hauptmann, modern, staircase of museum, dresden. . ecclesiastical art, . architecture and sculpture, . painting, . antique art, . christian art, . art, . sculpture, plate . the symbol. . banner, of the architectural school of the polytecbnicum, carls- ruhe. . chemistry. . mathematics. . mechanical engineering. . civil engineering. ! forestry. . post and commerce, polytechnicum at carlsruhe, designed by q. kachel. . mechanical engineering, j . the mechanic, [ (gerlach, allegorien und embleme). . smithery, . navigation and commerce, tuileries, paris, (baldus). plate . the symbol. . navigation, \ . agriculture, i music i vovn front of the tuileries, pans, (baldus). . farming, > — . war, border of a copper plate engraving, by heinrich goltzius ( — ). . hunting and fishing, by stuck of munich, (gerlach, alle- gorien und embleme). . forestry, . sword-making, . musketry, ^ (gerlach) . farriery, . smithery. the eibbon. (plates — .) ribbons are not used alone, but are frequently employed as a decoration of garlands and festoons (comp. plates , , ), of sym- bols (comp. plates — ), or they are labels to bear some motto (comp. plate ). the ribbons of the antique are simple, often ter- minating in a ball or acorn like knob; the middle ages, particularly artificial objects. the ribbon, and the label plate . artificial objects. plate . the ribbon. artificial objects. miscellaneous objects. plate . the ribbon. — miscellaneous objects. the gothic, make them curled and quaint"; in the renascence they are developed in various free and elegant styles, often divided at the ends like a pennon. in the louis xvi. style they are often peculiarly crinkled, but in spite of this mannerism they are not without a cer- tain decorative charm, (comp. plates and ). plate . the ribbon, and the label. . label for motto, on the seal of the town of schiltach, gothic, inscription on the scroll: "s. opidi schilttach". . ribbon, from jost amman's wappen- und stammbuch, german renascence. . ribbon, painting by b. zeithlom, carlsruhe gallery, gothic . label for motto, old germain painting, school of cologne, carls- ruhe gallery. . label for motto, triumphal car, by hans burgkmair, — , german, (hirth). . label for motto, albrecht dttrer's "der eiilen seyndt alle vogel neydig und gram," german renascence, (hirth). plate . the ribbon. . ribbon and knot, after daniel mignot, german renascence. . ribbon and knot, the louis xvi. style, (lievre). . ribbon and knot for a bunch of fruit, after prof. sturm of vienna, (storck's zeichenvorlagen). . drapery festoon, (raguenet). miscellaneous objects. (plate ). finally, among the artificial objects which are used in decora- tion, especially of pilasters, we may mention those forms like cande- labra and vases, from which ornaments, like growing plants, usually rise, (comp. plates and ). cornucopias, torchessmall inscription tablets, and many other objects, are introduced. plate . miscellaneous objects. . vase, window pilaster of the cancelleria, rome, by bramante. ita- lian renascence, (de vico). . vase, pilaster of a door, san angostino, rome, (de vico\ . vase, lower part of a panel, italian renascence. . vase, tomb of louis ql, st . denis, french renascence. . vase, louis xvl style, (f. a. m., cours d'ornement). . crossed torches, upper part of pilaster, by benedetto da majano, italian renascence. . crossed torches, renascence. - introduction. the second division of the handbook deals with ornament as applied in decorative features. they will be arranged according to their function, and treated in accordance with the mutual relations of the decorative form and its application. every one acquainted with decoration, must have been struck by the fact that on certain objects and on certain parts of them the decoration invariably appears to have been modelled on the same principle, no matter how much the selected motives may vary from each other or belong to special styles. in decoration, as elsewhere, there is a right and a wrong use for everything; each object, even the very smallest, requires its own proper form and decoration, and the artist who understands style will give these, though in many cases unconsciously; artistic instinct guiding one man where another must study laboriously. be this as it may, the relations are there. a socle ornament cannot be reversed and used as a frieze without modification; a column, which looks beautiful and even delicate on monumental archi- tecture, may produce a clumsy effect if reduced and applied to furni- ture; no one finds fault with the or flutings of it in archi- tecture, but half of them would more than suffice for the smaller cabinet and so on. the achievements of those periods, in which the intimate connection between form, aim and material was either unknown or forgotten, are what might be expected. the empire style, which copied the antiqne at the instance of an august per- sonage; and, in so doing, produced work which is classical in respect of its mannerisms; is an example. a greek temple and an arm chair are two different things; each has its own peculiarities; and must be fashioned and decorated in accordance therewith. it were an insoluble problem to give a formula for each case; and to attempt to do so lies beyond the scope of this handbook. but we will attempt to bring together some important groups from the entire field; and by means of them to illustrate the principles of design. a. bands. the group of bands includes all those ornamental forms which are used to give expression to the ideas of bordering, framing, and connecting. the motives are partly geometrical, partly organic, chiefly plant- forms; artificial forms being more rarely used. the band has no "up" or "down"; but only an onward or an outward tendency. it has no limitation in regard to length; but is generally a narrow, ribbon-like ornament. the proper application of bands is to the enclosing of ceilings, walls, floors, panels, on certain architectural constructions, on the abacus and the plinth of columns, and as a running ornament round the shaft of the latter. they are further used as the hem or border of garments, carpets and other textiles; as borders in typography, on the rims of plates or dishes, or to separate the ground from the rim, &c. the principal ornaments in this group arei the fret; chain and interlaced patterns (guilloche); foliated bands in the various forms of rosette, palmette, flower, leaf, and scroll bands, &c. the evolute spiral band (plate ) stands to a certain extent on the borderline between bands and free ornaments. leaf patterns, and the egg-and-tongue which has been devel- oped from them, are not bands at all, in the strict sense of the word. they express the mediation between the support and the weight, for which reason they are used as the enrichment of mouldings. they are here included among bands in order to avoid an independent group for the sake of the one plate. as a matter of fact, they do often appear as bands (the egg-and-tongue as a decoration of plate medallions, sec). the fret band. the fret band. (plates — .) the greek fret (or meander border) is, as it name indicates, a specifically greek ornament, and no doubt of textile origin. its accomodation to the rectangular network suggests this. the name "meander" is said to be derived from a river of asia minor, the maeandros, now the menderes, which flows in sinuous curves. although the forerunners of the greek border are to be found in the assyrian and egyptian styles, it was greek vase-painting and architecture which gave rise to the variations of the pattern; architecture also employed it plastically. among other applications in the roman style it was used for mosaics on floors and often — contrary to the principles of style of flat ornaments — in those parallel perspective representations in which it seems as if it were a plastic ornament, (plate . ). the middle ages seldom used the fret (one example will be found on plate . ); but similar forms are common in the chinese and japanese styles (plate . ). the renascence revived the fret in its ancient application; made new combinations; and sometimes interlaced it with plant motives (plate . ). although very commonplace, the fret still has a good effect when it is applied in the proper manner. its construction is very simple. in general — although not always — the breadth of the broad lines or ornament is equal to the distance between them; we therefore draw a square network as shown on plate , fig. , then draw all the horizontal lines (the measure- ment of the lengths and the observance of the rhythmic regularity peculiar to each greek pattern are the only difficulties), and then join their ends by means of perpendiculars, (plates and ). centres are formed by arranging the axis at a suitable place, and reversing the pattern, (plate . and ). angle junctions may be similarly arranged by cutting the pattern diagonally to the square net at a suitable place, and reversing as before, (plate . , and ). the angle-treatment of current frets is more difficult (plate : figs. , , and ). the end of a fret with only one row may be formed by outting the pattern short at a suitable spot; where two or more rows run parallel to or cross each other, they may be combined so as to form proper endings (plate . ). the pattern is sometimes carried round a circle; but this is an arrangement which is quite out of accordance with its character. the square network is not always applicable to cases in which the fret has to be repeated within a given length. in this case the divi- sions of length are either elongated or compressed by drawing the auxiliary lines at a greater or less angle than ° (this is shown on plates and ). the fret band. — the chain band. plate . unsymmetrical ob current frets: greek vase paintings. — . ordinary, simple patterns. . elongated pattern. . raking pattern. — . patterns which are interrupted ty rosettes, stars, &c. — . abnormal pattern, formed by fragments, instead of a contin- uous line. plate . reciprocating frets. — . ordinary, simple patterns. . double pattern, greek., . intersecting pattern, louvre, paris. and . fragmentary pattern, greek, and modern. and . symmetrical double pattern, greek. — . ornamented patterns. plate . intersecting frets, &c. i— . ordinary patterns, greek vase paintings. .. abnormal pattern, japanese metal vessel. . pattern in parallel perspective, roman mosaic pavement. . mediaeval folded-tape pattern, resembling the fret, (racinet). . pattern ornamented with laurel, louvre, paris. plate . ends, angles, and centres, of frets. , and . free, unsymmetrical angle treatment s, , , and . symmetrical angles. and . centre treatments. ii— . ends of patterns. antique motives, except no. (chinese), and no. (modern). the chain band. (plate .) the basis of the design is the chain. the chain band is there- fore cemposed of circular, elliptical, square, or lozenge shaped links, which are either represented all in front view (as in , , and ), ort alternately in profile (as in , , , and ). the chain pattern probably occurs sporadically in every style. that chain-bands have not been more frequently used, although they are a simple and effective mode of decoration, may be due to the fact that the chain appeared to a certain degree to he too force- ful, too vigorous in its effect. at any rate, delicacies of artistic feel- mejer, handbook of ornament. bands plate . the fret band. bands. bands. plate . the fret band. bands. the fret band. riate . bands. plate . the chain band. the chain band. — the interlacement band. ing, which have found expression elsewhere, and often unconsciously, seem to point to this conclusion. the construction of such bands is simple; and in the case of those illustrated may be understood from the plate itself. plate . the chain band. — . modern decorative painting. — . carved wooden ceiling, townhall, jever, german, ronascence. toe interlacement band. (plates — .) the interlacement band includes all those bands which are for- med of a number of lines interlaced or plaited together. they are usually symmetrical to the longitudinal axis; and may be produced indefinitely. the principle is that the interlacing broad lines shall pass over and under one-another alternately. rope patterns are used as borders in painting, in textiles, in pottery, intarsia, and the ornamentation of manuscripts; in architect- ure on the under sides of stays and beams, on archivolts (the arches of doors and windows), in the soffits of arches, sometimes in a frieze, and often as the enrichment of the torus moulding. interlacement patterns are used in all styles, though in some they are more popular than in others. and in this ornament the indivi- duality of each style is very strongly marked. in the antique: the ornament consist of wavy interlacing bands round regularly-placed knobs or eyes. the wavy lines are composed of arcs or of arcs and straight lines, in which latter case the arcs make tangential junctions with the straight lines (plate ). in flat ornament the interlacing lines are distinguished from each-other by shading or by colour; in plastic ornamentation they are fluted or channelled. the interlacement patterns of the middle ages — chiefly of the byzantine and romanesque periods — make use of antique forms; adding to them the angular bend (plate . — ). in the so called northern styles — celtic, anglo-saxon, norman, scandinavian, and old frankish: it is the most conspicuous ornament. here we meet extremely complicated and richly combined interlacings. mostly freely drawn, without the aid of the compasses. it is cha- racteristic, and remarkable in regard to these styles, that tho same band appears in sections of different colours in their ornament. the works of owen jones and racinet contain numerous examples, mostly from old illuminated manuscripts: our plate ( — ) reproduces some of the simplest (reconstructed with the compasses). the interlacement band. the moorish style favours a peculiar interlacement. it is cha- racteristic that the bands, which are always straight, make angles of s or °, and are adapted to a network as shown on plate , fig. s. here, too, we find the alternate colouring of the single bands. numerous examples will be found in owen jones, racinet, and prisse d'avennes, "l art arabe", a selection from these being given in plate , figs. — . the other oriental styles exhibit greater variety in this respect; and .also employ round forms, (plate .! und ). the renascence developed great variety. besides the traditional forms of the antique, peculiar constructions appear, chiefly to be met-with in the arts of inlaying, on book-cover decoration, in pewter chasing, and typographical borders, (plate ). modern art borrows from all styles; and, as was also the case in the middle ages and the renascence, intersperses its patterns with foliage, (plate ). plate . the interlacement band. — . ordinary antique patterns, single, double, and triple. — . elongated antique patterns, single, double, and triple. . antique pattern, doubly interlaced, with unequal waves. . antique pattern with two rows, terracotta painting. construction: first mark the centres of the eyes: in and these lie on the points cf intersection of a triangular net; in and on those of a diagonal square net. the rest will be understood from the figure. plate . the interlacement band. . romanesque patterns, decoration of archivolt, segovia. . byzantine pattern, sta. sofia, constantinople. — . northern patterns, manuscript ornaments of the th and th century, (racinet.) plate . the interlacement band. — . simple moorish patterns, alhambra, granada. . persian pattern, metal vessel, (racinet). . russian oriental pattern, (viollet le due, "l'art russo"), plate . the interlacement band. — . patterns, wood and ivory inlaid work, italian renascence. . pattern, by domenico de fossi, of florence, th century, (raguenet). . intarsia pattern, sta. maria in organo, verona; in the original the interstices are enriched by plant sprays. bands. b the interlacement band. plate . hands plate . the interlacement band. bands. plate . the interlacement band. bands. the interlacement band. — the rosette band. . title border of a mathematical work, printed in paris, oronce fine, , (hirth> . soffit ornament, entrance of the otto heinrich building, hei- delberg, to , (musterornamente). plate . the interlacement band. — . angles of border, modern french, (raguenet). . edge of a modern damask border, (gewerbehalle). — . modern borders, (bstticher, "ornamentenbuch"). . modern wood in tarsia, (gewerbehalle). the rosette band. (plate .) the term "rosette band" is a general name for rosette, spray and other bands, when the rosette is the leading characteristic the single rosettes, which are similar to conventional roses seen in front- view, are either in immediate juxtaposition (plate . and ), or divided by channels (plate . ), by calices (plate . , , ), or by stalks and sprays (plate . , , , ). the rosette bands are either current, that is, they have a definitive direction sideways; or they are entirely without direction, that is, they are symmetrical, not only from top to bottom but also from right to left. by allow- ing the rosettes to overlap we get a band more or less identical with the so called strung-coin, or "money-moulding", (plate . and ). rosette bands are especially common in the assyrian style, in antique vase painting, in the medieval enamels (cologne enamel), in the indian style, in the renascence, and in the modern styles. plate . the rosette band. . antique vase painting. . modern decorative pattern. antique bronze shield. and . antique patterns, after jacobsthal. . neck of a greek hydria. . . latin evangeliarum, written by godescald for charlemagne, th century, (racinet). . enamel ornament, the great reliquary, aachen. (racinet). . indian enamel border, (prisse d'avennes). . indian carving, (owen jones). . intarsia border, sta. maria in organo, verona, , (muster- ornamente). . popular renascence pattern. . pattern, persepolis. . plastic border, louis xvi. style, (raguenety bands. plate . the palmette band. tbo palmette band. — the vertebrate band the palmette band. (plate .) the palmette is a specifically greek kind of ornament. like the fin- gers of an outspread hand (palma, the palm of the hand) a group, odd in number, of narrow, entire leaves is combined into a symmet- rical ornament. the centre leaf is the largest; and the leaves diminish gradually as they approach the sides. the tips of the leaves lie on a regular curve. the lower ends of the leaves are disconnected, divi- ded from each other by slight intervals, and usually spring from a tongue-shaped leaf. the delicate sensitiveness of greek artistic feeling finds a striking expression in this ornament. it is applied in mani- fold ways, e. g: as antefixes and akroters, as cornice-decoration (comp. the group of free ornaments), and as palmette borders. in rare cases the palmette ornaments are in juxtaposition without anything between them — this is usually the case on the lekythos (a greek vessel for oil, &c.) plate . — in the majority of cases the palm- ettes are connected or bordered by spiral bands (plate . . &c.). palmette ornaments are of frequent occurrence on greek vessels, and on the friezes of their architecture. where they occur in later styles: it is only sporadically; and the severe classical beauty is not retained. plate . the palmette band. . , and . paintings, greek, terracotta vessels. . and . greek, friezes. . intarsia, italian renascence. . modern, wrought iron trellis. the vertebrate band, &c. (plates — .) leaf bands are generally numerous in all styles; and as varied as are the modes of their application. the leaved stalk, with or without flowers, fruits, &c., is the simplest natural motive. the various plants are used as a basis, partly with, partly without, symbolical reference. the antique chiefly availed itself of the laurel, olive, and ivy; the middle ages used the vine, clover, thistle, and maple; the renascence shows the artificial leaf. to these traditional patterns: modern art has added some others which are specially adapted for naturalistic representation, such as the convolvulus, the passion-flower, the hop, &c. thus we find in the antique: a succession of buds (plate . ); straight stalks with leaves, either attached or free (plate . , ); or undulating stalks, with leaves, fruit, or flowers (plate . , , ). mayer, handbook of ornament. the vertebrate band, & the undulate band. the latter mode was retained in the medieval style; in the roman- esque style the stalks are more comprised, and the lobes of the leaves fully rounded (plate . , ); in the gothic style the former are thin and extended, the latter slit and pointed. extremely common are the two forms depicted on plate . and . characteristic of the late gothic is the example , plate ; this kind of ornament- ation is excellently adapted for simple wood-carving and stamped leather-work. the oriental conception, in textile fabrics and by the engraved and inlaid metal-work, is shown (plate . — ). intarsia technique, leather-stamping, weaving, and the ornamenta- tion of manuscripts offered the renascence opportunity to make use of, and to vary the floral border with" advantage (plate ). inter- lacement and floral patterns are frequently combined in the same example (plate . and ). as examples of modern art, the naturalistic borders figured on plate . — . are given. when the main-stem runs longitudinally along the centre of the band; like the vertebral- column in the skeletons of animals, then the arrangement is termed vertebrate. when the main-stem oscillates from side to side (as in plate . , , & ), then the arrangement is termed undulate. plate . the vertebrate band, &c. — . paintings, greek, terracotta vessels. — . french, mural paintings, th century, (racinet). . glass window, cathedral, bourges, th century, (racinet). . medieval. . intarsia, sta. maria in organo, verona, . . modern, plate-border. plate . the undulate band. — . persian, metal vessels, (racinet). . indian. . byzantine, glass mosaic, san marco, venice, (musterornamente). . portion of romanesque initial, th century, berlin museum. . romanesque, portal of cathedral, lucca, (musterornamente). s. gothic flat carving, end of th century, (musterornamente). . medieval, mural painting, swedish church. . french, mural painting, th century, (racinet). . early gothic, french. . gothic, manuscript ornamentation. . late gothic, flat carving, th century, (musterornamente). bands. the vertebrate band, &c. tlale . ' bands. plate . the undulate band. bands. t plate . the undulate band, &c the undulate band. — the evolute-spiral band. plate . the undulate band, &c. — . leather stamping, th century, schwabisch hall, (muster- ornaments). . terracotta frieze, castle of schalaburg, lower austria, (wiener bauhiitte). . intarsia frieze, from the same castle. — . borders of robes, tombs in niederstetten and lensiedel, th century, (musterornamente). . renascence, manuscript ornament. — . german renascence, (hirth, formenschatz). . archivolt of door, otto-heinrich building heidelberg castle, german renascence. . french, renascence. plate . toe undulate band, &c. . border, picture by domenico zampieri, th century, (muster- ornamente). . border, half-columns, sta. trinita, florence, italian ro nascence. . intarsia frieze, stalls, san domenico, bologna, italian re- nascence. . wrought-iron trellis of balcony, milan, (gewerbehalle). . frieze, italian renascence. . modern, (cesar daly). . modern. — . laurel and oak borders, (gewerbehalle). — . modern borders, (gewerbehalle). the evolute-spiral band. (plate .) the wave of the sea has been suggested as the motivo of this "wave" pattern; but its origin is purely geometrical. the. line of the evolute-spiral pattern divides the surface of the bonier into two parts, which in flat ornamont are coloured differently. in plastic work, for which tho pattern is also suitable, the lower part projects. in wrought-iron-work: tho curved line runs freely between two bars. this pattern is adapted for borders of robes, shields, and plates; for uso on vessels, friezes, cornices, and tablets in architecture; and also as borders, for tapestries, and mural-paintings. a rosotto is often placed at tho volute-ceutrcs (date . and ); tho intorslices between tho linos are sometimes decorated with loaves and flower-buds (plato . — ). this occurs chiefly in the renascence period, when iho antiquo seemed loo simple how the evolutc-spiral band. — the enrichment of the bead moulding. far this may be carried, in some cases, in shown by fig. , in which the evolute-spiral line is nothing more than the skeleton of the orna- ment . the middle ages did not use this form at all.. angles, and centres are arranged as shown on figs. — . this band is excellently adapted for the framing round circular panels. plate . tiie evolute- spiral. — paintings, antique vessels. — . angles. . central junction. . pattern round a circular panel. . painting of a stove tile, german renascence, germanisches museum, nuremberg. , . modern borders. border, by sebastian serlio, th century. frieze, "otto-heinrich building of heidelberg castle. wrought-iron trellis, temple of apollo in the garden ol the castle at schwetzingen. . painting, palazzo ducale, mantua, italian renascence. the enrichment of the bead moulding. (plate .) bead, or astragal, is the name given to those small balf-round mouldings, which are often enriched by ornaments like pearls, strung together, c, or as turned bands ami cords. generally they are only used in plastic art, and as a rule not alone; but below the egg- and-leaf ornaments, and similar cornice profiles (plate ). they also occur as intermediate members between the shaft and the capital of columns. beads are enriched with balls, discs, or ovals, in rather more than half relief. the simplest bead-enrichment is formed of round pearls, either close together or permitting the representation of the thread to show between them. disc and oval enrichments are seldom used alone, but arranged alternately, as shown in figs. to in addition to the simple examples of the antique, the renas- cence uses richer forms, the single members being again ornamented, profiled and more arbitrarily fashioned (plate . and ), or finished-off with small leaf calices (plate . and ). wood carving avails itself of strung discs seen in perpective (plate . ). the enrichments may also suggest torsion. after the moulding is made, it is set-out like a screw, as indicated by the auxiliary constructions in figs. — . leaves or pearls sometimes lie in the hollows and follow the thread of the screw (plate . ). bands the evolute-spiral bund. plate . mouldings. plate . the enrichment of the bead moulding. the enrichment of the astragal, the torus, and other mouldings. hore also must be grouped those ribbons rolled spirally round rods, such as we find in the art of the middle ages and the re- nascence (fig. ). corners are generally covered with a small leaf. plate . the enrichment of the bead moulding. — . simple enrichments, antique. — . richer enrichments, renascence. — . beads enriched like twisted ropes. . spiral-ribbon enrichment, louvre, paris. the enrichment of the torus moulding. (plate .) torus is the name given to those larger mouldings of semi- circular or semi-elliptic section, such as are specially used in archi- tecture on the bases of coluihns and pilasters, on socles, on mediaeval door and window arches, and on the ceiling mouldings of the renascence and modern times. while the smaller beads are ornamented with pearls and twisted cords, these more important mouldings are dec- orated by enrichments which resemble a bundle of rods round which ribbons aro twisted at suitable places (figs. and ); by surrounding them with plaited or net work (figs. , , ); by clothing them with foliage (figs. , , ); or by combining the various systems (figs. and ). in modern times the torus is enriched by bound clusters of fruit . water-leaves, artificial leaves with serrated margins, laurel, oak, ivy, &c are most in use for the leaf ornaments. as in the case of fruit clusters: ribbons are twined spirally at suitable placed round the fruit or foliage (figs. , and ). all these examples are drawn by first marking-off the divisions on the profile, as indicated on the figures. plate . the enrichment op the torus moulding. — . modern. — . antique. — . antique, decorated with laurel and oak. . mediaeval. . mediaeval, decoration of an archivolt, gelnhausen, th century. . temple of jupiter, rome. — . louvre, paris, french renascence, (baldus). toe enrichment of other mouldings. (plate .) the egg-and-tongue enriches, in architecture, the ovolo moulding of capitals, and the lower members of cornices, &c mouldings. mouldings. the enrichment of the cyma, and ovolo mouldings. plate . the enrichment of mouldings. in these cases it harmonises the support and the weight; and has also a decorative purpose as a bordering member. the leaf enrichment may be explained in the following way: a row of leaves, growing upwards, supports the* weight, and is bent outwards by its pressure (fig. ). if this only occurs partially, we have the doric form (fig. ). if the leaves are bent-down tow- ards their lower ends (fig. ), we obtain forms like the so-called "lesbian cymatium." a false conception, which regarded the leaf-shape merely as a geometrical element, afterwards gave rise to the corrupt forms of the late greek and roman styles (figs. a, a, and b). if the simple waterleaf be replaced by more richly serrated ones like the artificial leaf, we obtain examples'like fig. . figure shows the egg pattern, from which all the more or less misunderstood varieties have, in course of time, been derived. the dart-shaped intermediate leaves have often been developed into actual darts; and the eggs or curved surfaces of the leaves have also been covered with independent ornamentation, in complete defiance of their origin (figs. and ). the corner is treated, either by freely carrying the pattern over into a palmetto anthemion (figs. and ), or by covering it with independent leaves. further details on the subject of this chapter will be found in botticher's tektonik der hellenen. plate . the enrichment of the cyma and ovolo mouldings. and . drawings to illustrate the origin of the pattern. . graeco-doric, painted. . leaf, erechtheum, athens. and . corrupt leaf, (bstticher). . roman leaf, (jacobsthal). . greek egg-and-tongue., erechtheum, athens. . campana egg-and-tongue, graeco-italic, campana collection. . colossal egg-and-leaf, temple of jupitor tonans, rome. . roman egg-and-dart, arles cathedral, (raguenet). — . renascence egg-and-dart, (raguenet). . modern egg-and-dart, (raguenet). a free ornaments. those ornaments, which are applied to suggest the end or finish of an object, may be classed in a group which, following an ex- pression already introduced, are termed "free ornaments", the word "free" implying not a severoly-enclosed baud or panel, but a freely- treated edge-ornament. the edging may be arranged to grow .in an upward, downward, or lateral direction; the character of the ornamentation will be depen- dent on these conditions. endings with an upward direction are most, numerous; and as plants, with their natural, upward growth, are adapted for this purpose, foliated ornament is the usual decoration of akroters, antefixes, steles, ridges, and finials. crosses, knobs, rosettes, and pendants, are independant free- ornaments, which are generally geometrical in their treatment. in tassels and fringes, which form endings in a downward direction, tho organic plant motive is, of course, excluded; while lace (woven, pillow, itc.) avails itself of both motives, either singly or combined. crockets aro fohated excrescences which are popular in tho gothic style as an ornament of the edges, and ribs of buildings gargoyles (as are termed the rain spouts winch occur so fre- quently in the architecture of tho middlo ages and the renascence) are also freo ornaments with a lateral direction; they havo often tho form of figures, less often those of decorated channels. the link border. the link border. (plates — .) link borders are so termed because the transversely-growing foliage is connected together by scrolls which serve this purpose, like the "links" of a chain. of this class are much decoration of cornices, crestings in architecture, and fringes in textile art. besides these, link borders, which may be enlarged at will, and have a de- finite direction upwards or downwards, are used in a similiar manner as borders as edgings for carpets, plates, and panels; as borders for walls, floors, and ceilings (in which case the edging almost invariably grows outwards); on the neck, body, and feet of vessels; and fre- quently in architectural friezes. palmetto leaves, connected by circles or by links, are adapted for edgings. the typical form is found on antique vessels and friezes; its forerunner is seen in the connected lily and pomegranate of the assyrian style. the link-border is found in every subsequent style, both flat, and in relief. it is generally composed of identical details, symmetrically re- peated. unsymmetrical and naturalistic forms are rarer, (plate , ). plate . the link border. . assyrian, painted bas-relief, khorsabud. . external margin, greek kylix, (lau). . greek hydria, (l'art pour tous). . greek, cyma. . mosaic ornament, san marco, venice, byzantine, (musterorna- mente). . medieval, mural painting, swedish church, (racinet). . old embroidery, eisleben, (vorbilder fur fabrikantcn und hand- worker). . painted, cathedral, brandenburg, (vorbilder fur fabrikantcn und handwerker). . illumination of a koran, tomb of the sultan el-ghury, th cen tury, (prisse d'avennes). . majolica dish, germanisches museum, nuremberg. . majolica dish, th century, (kunsthandwerk). . modern, (gewerbehalle). plate . the link border. . greek, carved frieze, erechtheum, athens. . roman, frieze, (fragments de l'architecture antique). . romanesque, frieze, th century, (musterornamente). the link border. — on mouldings. — the cresting . arabic, mosque of the sultan hassan, cairo, th century. . italian renascence, marble frieze, tomb of the conte ugone, badia, florence, (weissbach und lottermoser). . italian renascence, intarsia frieze, (meurer). . modern decoration, (eolb und hcgg, vorbilder flu* das orna- mentenzeichnen). the link border on mouldings. (plate .)- the cjma in architecture is the topmost or concluding member of a cornice. it is frequently used as a gutter. the section is some- times a concave or convex quadrant, but in most cases consists of two arcs curving inwards and outwards respectively, (fig. ). the ornamentation was merely painted in the earlier periods; but afterwards received a plastic form. it is chiefly composed of palmette leaves, either unconnected (fig. and ) or connected (figs. , and ), with lily cups between. artificial leaves, pointing up- wards and lying close on the profile with calices or water-leaves peep- ing out between them (fig. ) are also used. the middle ages used both systems, especially the latter, with the latter, with the modifications required by the changed forms of the leaves, (figs. and ). both the renascence and modern art follow the tradition of the antique; but give the palmette ornament a richer form, (figs. — ). plate . the link-border enrichment op mouldings. — . antique, (bfltticher). . roman altar. . graeco-italic terracotta ornament, (lievre). . romanesque cornice, house, metz, th century, (raguenet). . cornice, notre dame, paris, th century, (musterornamente). — . cornice, louvre, paris, french ren iscence. . marble frieze, tomb in sta. maria sopra minerva, rome, italian renascence. . modern, (arch. skizzenbuch). the cresting border. (plate .) crestings are intended to ornament the ridge or top of the roof. such ornaments have been especially popular in france from gothio mayer, handbook of ornamrnt. plate . the link border. plate . the link-border enrichment of mouldings. free ornaments. gc the cresting. — the akroter, &c. times to the present day. they are mostly of perforated work, and the top has usually a varied mass-shape. the materials used are stone, lead, wrought-iron, and, in modern times, zinc. similar ornaments are also found as finals of entablatures and attics, as well as on the balaustrades of galleries. cresting ornaments appear on gothic altars, shrines, chim- neypieces, &c., and in cast-iron on our modern stoves, railings, &c. the antique made no use of this form, although similar forms occur, as, for example, on the entablature of the well-known monu- ment of lysikrates. on the other hand, we must mention those valence-like borders which are seen on the terracotta reliefs of the campana collection, represented on figs. and . in most cases, these latter ornaments, if reversed, may be used as crestings. plate . the cresting border . gothic, (jacobsthal). . modern gothic, cast-iron. . modern french, castle of pierrefonds, restored by viollet-le due, (raguenet). . modern french, cour de cassation, paris, (raguenet). .. modern german, by gropius of berlin, (arch. skizzenbuch). — . graeco-italic borders, downward growth. the akroter, &c. (plates — .) the akroter is the feature which serves as on ornamental finish to the apex of a gable. antique temples bear this decoration in a great variety of materials: stone, terracotta, painted, plastic, and cast in metal. groups of figures, griffins, &c., were sometimes used for this purpose; but the usual features were slabs of marble, bearing a palmette ornament, the central decoration of which is sometimes a mask, (plate . ). smaller ornaments of a similar kind are found ranged along the lower roof line, in front of the imbrices; and these are termed antefixes. the middle ages and the renascence make no general use of the ante fix, but it occurs on modern monumental buildings in the antique style. the corner akroter which isusually found at the lower ends of the gable lines, consists of half the motive of the central one, (plate . ). plate . the akroter, and the antefix. . greek akroter, painted, temple of wingless victory, athens. . greek akroter, painted, acropolis,, athens. the akroter. — the stela crest. . greek antefix, parthenon, athens. . greek sepulchral stele-crest, in the form of an akroter. . graeco-italio akroter, terracotta, museum, perugia. — . front and side view of a corner akroter, (betticher). plate . the akroter, &a. . greek antefix, tropylaea, athens, (raguenet). . roman antefix, temple of jupiter stator, rome. . modern french antefix, theatre des celestines, lyons, archi- tect renaud, (raguenet). . modern french akroter, house in paris, architect renaud, (raguenet). . modern french akroter, orleans railway station, paris, archi- tect renaud, (raguenet). — . akroter and corner-akroter, fountain in the certosa near flo- rence, italian renascence. the stele crest. (plate .) the stele is the greek tomb-stone. it usually takes the form of an upright tablet, sometimes tapering towards the top; and bears an inscription. it is sometimes decorated with rosettes, garlands and figures. at the top is a plain cornice, on which an ornament, similar to the akroter, forms the crowning finish. although the akroter and the stele-crest often have a perfectly identical form (plate . shows a crest which might just as well have been an antefix), still the style of the crest is as a rule more severe; and it is characteristic of a great number of steles that they have not the striking palm- ette centre, which the akroter always possesses, (figs. and ). very often, too, the crest is so designed that the sides are extended, to make a larger feature, (figs. and ). these monuments, dedicated to the memory of the dead, show better than almost anything else the special individuality and beauty of greek ornament. plate . the stele-crest. . stele-crest, (stuart and revett, vulliamy, jacobsthal). . „ „ (jacobsthal). . „ „ ("l'art pour tous"). . „ „ (lievre). free ornaments. plate . the akroter, and the antefix. free ornaments. the akroter, &c. plate . plate . the stele crest. the perforated cresting. plate . the perforated cresting. — the cross. the perforated cresting. "(plate s.) in modern wood buldings, the dressings, intended to form an ornamental finish to the construction, are often perforated. the gable is decorated by a finial; smaller corner-ornaments are attached to the lower ends of the lines of the gable; the pro- jecting ends of the gable - rafters are also provided with barge-boards, both for decorative effect, and also, no doubt, to serve as a protection against the weather. the finials are fashioned as knobs of varied profile, with a direction downwards. the oblique lines of the gable and the horizontal lines of the roof are also covered with barge- boards. the material requires a special treatment; as the ornamentation must be large and broad, and have as many points of connection in itself as possible. wooden ornaments of this kind are found on pavilions, watchmen's huts, farm-houses of richer construction; country villas in the swiss cottage style, &o. among architectural works which deal with wood buildings and especially with the decoration of them: we may mention the works of h. bethke (details fiir dekorativen holzbau), from which the majority of the figures on plate have been taken. plate . the perforated cresting. i. top ornament of a gable, by the architect eisenlohr, of carls- rube. — . various barge-boards, (bethke). the cross. (plate .) the cross (latin crux, french croix) is the most important symbol of christian art, it symbolises the person of christ, christ- ianity and sacrifice. its decorative applications are innumerable, and of great variety. various fundamental forms of the cross have been distinguished and are known by different names. the greek (or st. george's) cross consists of two arms of equal length, bisecting each-other at right angles. in the latin cross the lower limb is lengthened. these two forms are those most often used. in the st. andrew's cross the arms cross each-other diagonally. st. anthony's (the egyptian or old testament cross) is a latin cross without the upper limb. omitting from consideration the crucifix, which represents the crucifixion of christ, we shall find the cross in the utmost variety free ornaments. tlate . the cross. the cross. — the finial of form on utensils and vessels, on robes and garments, on carpets and banners dedicated to religious uses; in heraldry, and as a free ornament to form the upper ornamental finial of architecture. in christian architecture: the cross is used as a finial on steeples and gables, on tombs, pulpits, &c. often it is employed alone, as a monument, (tomb, wayside and votive crosses). plate . the cross: in stone. . modern french, charterhouse glandior, (raguenet). . modern. . modern french, with the monogram of christ, genouilleux, (ra- guenet). . gable of a church, st. urban's, unterliraburg, schwabisch-hall. . tomb, churchyard, baret, th century. . modern french, pere-lachaise, paris, (raguenet). . steeple, st. pierre, montrouge, paris, (raguenet). . tomb, st. lazare, montpellier, (raguenet). . granite, tomb, becon, (raguenet). the cross in metal. (plate .) wrought-iron, and, in late years, cast-iron and zinc, are sometimes used as a material for steeple and gable crosses, as well as for monu- mental crosses. the ductile nature of wrought-iron admits of a rich, delicate execution of these objects. the german renascence, in parti- ticular, offers a wealth of forms in this respect. the framework usually consists of strong bar-iron; the orna- mental decoration is in flat or round iron, fastened to the frame by clamps or rivets. hammered foliage is sometimes added. in many cases the point of the steeple cross is decorated with a cock as weather-vane. the centre of monumental crosses is often occupied by a plate of metal, to contain the inscription. plate . the cross: in metal. — . mediaeval steeple crosses, franconia, (gewerbehalle). . modern steeple cross, (bad. gewerbezeitung). . steeple cross, st. ambroise, paris, architect ballu, (raguenet). — . 'wrought-iron tomb crosses, thiengen, th century. . the finial. (plate .) while the ordinary cross rises as a free-ornament in a vertical plane, the final makes a cross, in plan. it extends its arms not only s the finial in stone, and in metal. sideways, but also regularly to the front and back. crocket-like ad- ditions (comp. plate ) clothe the stem, which usually takes the form of an elongated four or eight-sided shaft. there may be one or more tiers of crockets. the finial serves to decorate spires, pinnacles, baldachins, tombs, &c, and is a specifically gothic ornament. the most beautiful forms are furnished by french gothic, from which most of the il- lustrations of our plate are taken. piate . the finial: in stone. . modern gothic . early gothic, (jacobsthal). . french gothic, (viollet-le-duc). . early gothic, cathedral, chartres, th century, (musterorna- mente). «— . modern, (viollet-le-duc). . modern, (bosc). the finial in metal. (plate .) in the artistic wrought-iron work of the middle ages, the re- nascence, and modern times, we find charming finials in the shape of idealised flowers. these decorations ore found on the tops of balaustrades, on the gables over doors, on brackets and chandeliers, on the supports of rain-spouts, on wall-anchors, &c leaves, volute-like spirals, bell-flowers, and ears, are arranged round a central axis of iron; in many cases the centre is formed by spindle-shaped spirals of wire. plate . the finial: in metal. . corner of a mediaeval grill, (viollet-le-duc). . part of a grill, toulouse cathedral, th century, (viollet-le-duc). . termination of a fountain, cluny museum, paris, th century, (l'art pour tous). . part of a spanish trellis gate, th century, (l'art pour tous). . part of a chancel screen, minster, freiburg, th century, (schau- insland). . wrought-iron, th century, (guichard). . terminal, bruges, th century, (ysendyck, documents classes de l'art). . modern, wrought-iron, ihne & stegmiiller, berlin. . modern, post, by ende & boeckmann, berlin, (gewerbehalle). . wrought-iron coronal; liinburg on the lahn, th century, (kachel, kunstgewerbliche vorbilder). . coronal, modern gate, c. zaar, berlin. plate . the finial, &c the finial knob, and vase. — the pendant knob. the finial knob, and vase. (plate .) knob is the term applied to ornamental terminations in the form of profiled bodies of revolution, naturalistic buds, fir-cones, &c. knobs are tmall features used as the terminations in architecture and furniture. they are also used on flag-staffs, bosses of shields, centre-pieces of rosettes, &c. the material, whether stone, wood, stucco, metal, &c., depends on the use to which they are to be applied. vases form another class of finials. they are preferentially used on tombs, doorposts, in the centre of divided pediments, on the attics of ornamental architecture, and instead of antefixes. plate . the finial knob, and vase. — . stone, milan cathedral, italian gothic, (eaguenet). . modern. . modern fir-cone. . modern vase, (bosc). . modern french, ministry of war, paris, (raguenet). — . modern french, house in the park monceau, architect tronquois, (raguenet). . lower end of a flag-staff or lightning-rod, (lienard) the pendant knob. (plate .) pendants are hanging terminations; reversed knobs, so to speak. in some cases, but not in all, the former may replace the latter. these pendants are more or less elongated bodies of revolution. the decoration is produced by the addition of leaves, scales, headings, nulls, &c. these being specially suitable to convex profiles, while the channelled treatment is better adapted to concave profiles. pendants, in stone, wood, stucco, or metal, are used as brackets for lamps (hence their french name: cul-de-lampe); and as the lower terminations of oriel-windows, pulpits, &c. in the latter case the pendants are generally only in half or threo-quarter relief from the wall. plate . the pendant knob. — . part of tripod, (jacobsthal). s. part of lantern, dijon, french renascence, (l'art pour tous) . lower end of a chandelier, th century, (l'art pour tous). . bracket under a piscina, french, th century, church, moret, (l'art pour tous). . modern, stucco-work. . modern, wood. » plate . the finial knob, and vase. free ornaments. ^ the pendant knob. plate . the kosette. the rosette. (plate .) • the rosette, strictly so called, is an artificial rose. in a wider sense any ornament of a circular shape, which radiates from a centre, may be termed a rosette. according to its execution and use: the rosette may be considered either as a free-ornament, or a panel- ornament. in the first case, it must always be plastic, project pro- minently and have some resemblance to the knob or pendant. in the latter case, it may be in low relief or be a flat ornament. here we have only to deal with the rosette as a free-ornament. considering the rosette from this point of view: its most im- portant application is as the boss in the centre of romanesque and gothic ribbed vaultings; and as the centre-piece of ceilings, of which we find numerous examples in the temples of the antique, the palaces of the italian renascence, and the vaulted cupolas of ecclesiastical and secular architecture. 'besides this, rosettes are found on fur- niture, gates and doors (the italian renascence makes the most lavish use of them in this capacity), and as the centre-pieces of modern ceilings, &c. in these cases, however, their quality as free-ornaments is less prominent. as regards the formal plan of rosettes: ti e flower motive is the commonest; geometrical motives are rarer, and motives from figures rarer still. the arrangement is usually in a series of zones; the growth is from the centre, outwards; and in the majority of cases is radial, that is at right angles to the bordering circle; but sometimes the leaves are curved. the rosette may have any number of divisions; but , , , , , , , or divisions are the rule; divisions into , , , &c., are as rare as divisions exceeding the number . the divisions may vary in the separate zones; but generally only so that the same divis'ons interlock, that is to say, the points of the leaves of one zone fall on the intervals between the leaves of the next. plate . tiie rosctte. . antique, of four divisions. . roman, of five divisions. . naturalistic, of six divisions. . romanesque boss, of four divisions, chapter-hall of the monastery of heiligcnkreuz near vienna, th century, (musterornamento). . early gothic boss, of three divisions, saiute-cbapelle, paris, . french, of four divisions, louis xiii, ( — ), (muster- ornamente). . italian, of five divisions, the door of the baptistery, parma, re nascence, (musterornamento). . modern french, ceiling-flower, stucco. the rosette. plate . plate . the crocket, and the gargoyle. the crocket, and the gargoyle. tiik crocket, and tuk gargoyle. (plate g). crocket is the designation applied to those excrescences which appear on the edges of spires, and pinnacles, and on the raking lines of gables, in the richer gothic styles. occurring at regular intervals, they form an ornamental interruption to the bald architectonic lines. at first of a rather naturalistic character (figs. and ), they otolved during the decay of the style a moro artificial character, as- suming bulbous forms (fig. ), which havo their own special peculiar- ities in england, france, and germany. crocket - ornamentation has more or less been copied from stone architecture in furniture, choir-stalls, ic. the aims of the latter (figs. g— ), and the miserero-seats, are often foliated hke a crocket. metal, and particularly wrought-iron work, frequently makes use of crockets, in forms suited to the nature of the material, (figs. - ). contrary to the modern method, by which the water that collects ou tho roofs of buildings is conveyed to earth through pipes, tho builders of thd middle agos and tho renascence discharged tho rain, clear of tho wall, by means of long projecting spouts. the spout wns used in the antiquo style in the form of lion heads, &c. in the ecclesiastical and monumental architecture of the middle ages they are termed gargoyles; and are mostly of stone. in dwelling houses thoy aro of sheet-metal; and they are either architectonically decorated (fig. ), or human, animal, or fantastic figures, treated in a comic manner, the water flowing through tho mouth or other orifices of tho body. copious material on tho subject of crockets and gargoyles will be found in raguenet's "materiaui et documents do l'architecturo". plate . the crocket, and the gargoyle. — . front and sido view of a plain gothic crocket, amiens cathedral, restored by viollet-le-due, (ragucnet). . gothic crocket, th century. . modern gothic crocket, paris, (raguenet). . gothic crocket milan cathedral, (raguenet). t). arm of a stall, salisbury cathedral, (raguenet). — . arms of stalls, monastery, maulhronn. — . wrought-iron, gothic, augsburg. . gargoyle, viollet-le-duc, eglise d'eu,• (raguenet). . gargoyle, bell-tower, st. sernin, toulouse, restored by viouet- lo-duc, (raguenet). . gargoyle, meauz cathedral, (raguenet). — . gargoyle, st. eustache, paris. (raguenet). i hi; tho decorated dingo, ac. tin: decorated hinge. &c . (plate .) the middle ages, and after thein the renasconco, brought the rtcvelopement of wrought metal-work to the highest state of perfection. here we havo to consider tho different kinds of bands, technically known, according to their shape, as hinge, strap, &c. although these bands were originally intended only to bind-to- gother the underlying wood construction of gates, doors, caskets, chests, &c., tho bald, practical form was soon made decorative; and this tho moro readily that the gothic principle of wood construction, with its narrow stave-like or matched strips of wood, offered only scanty opportunities of artistic decoration. delicate series of lines, designed as free-ornaments, start from the hinge and terminate as leaves and flowers. the heads of the necessary rivets and screws, themselves shaped as rosettes in the richer examples, give a pleasing relief. gothic usually applies the extended strap-hinge (figs. — ); while the renascence, in accord- ance with its principlo of bordering in wood constructions, prefers the shorter butt-hinge (figs. — ). in the latter epoch the surface of tho metal received further decoration trough the arts of etching, engraving, niello-work, &c. book-mounts, in particular, offered a wide field for the application of these arts. modern times have with justice devoted increased attention to these objects; and have restored them to the domain of art from which various causes had excluded them for almost a century. tho plate gives a- small selection from the copious material to bo found in museums and publications. plate . the df.corated hikce, &e. . gothic hinge, church-door, viersen near cologne, th century. — . plain terminations of hinges, hefner-alteneck collection, th century. — . terminations of hinges, town-hall, miinster. g. termination of hinge, prie-dieu, gelnhausen, th century, (musterornamente). . gothic hinge, door of a cabinet, town-hall, zwolle. . gothic hinge. . renascence hinge, old kaufhaus, on the limmat, zurich, . . renascence hinge, town-hall, augsburg, th century, (muster- ornamente). . renascence hinge, door in ettlingen, united collections, carls- ruhe. . door-hinge, german, , free imitation by prof. storck, (zeichenvorlagen). the decorated hinge, &c. plate . the tassel. — the fringe, and the valtdcc. the tassel. (plate .) the chief contributions of textile art to the group of free-orna- ments are tassels, fringes, and laces. the two latter are current edgings, the first, on the contrary, are the termination of the lower end of cords or of shaped draperies. thus we find tassels used on girdles, bell-pulls, and curtain-holders; as pendants from flags, 'standards, valences, cushions, table-covers, palls, and tent-covers; also on pouches, hoods, caps, harness, ac. the tassel consists of a tuft of threads or cords, hanging straiglt down from a core of wood, turned in various profiles, and decorated with twisted threads. the original may be assumed to have been the cord with a simple knot, the knot being intended to keep the cord from ravelling-out. the tassel is undoubtedly of great antiquity. the reliefs found in khorsabad, niniveh, and elsewhere, show that the assyrians were great admirers of such kinds of trimming. and, although such a lavish use does not occur again; there would probably be little difficulty in finding examples of tassels from all periods of art not only form but also colour-contributes to the effect of tassels, so that the examples in our plate really only give half the eftect. an exhaustive study of trimmings, by jacob falke, will be found in teirich's "blatter fur kunstgowerbe" . plate . the tassel. . french lady's girdle, th century, (viollet-le-duc) — . tassels, holbein, (teirich). . tassels, turkish harness, th century, united collections, carlsruhe. . tassel, old standard, united collections, carlsruhe. . tassel, tunisian pistol, united collections, carlsruhe. . leather tassel, lady's bag, german renascence. — . modern tassels, by aug. t pfer, (gewerbehalle). . modern tassel, by a, seder, munich. the fringe, and the valence. (plate .) if, at the end of a-piece of material, the weft-threads (parallel to the end) be drawn-out, the remaining warp-threads will form a simple fringe. if we give the end greater security, by knotting or tieing the threads together in tufts, we get the ordinary fringe. the fringe, however, is not always made of the material; it is ofted manufactured independently, and sewed-on to the edge of the material. in this case the fringe is combined with a woven heading-band (gimp). the tassel. plate . c the fringe, the valence, and the lace border. richer types of fringes may be produced either by variety of the edge, so that tufts of unequal lengths form rhythmically alternating groups (fig. ), or by using several thicknesses of fringe, lying one behind the other, (fig. ). the fringe is always applied long, when a pendant termination is required. in other cases as, for example, whero the fringed ma- terial is to lie horizontally, like small table-covers, napkins, &&, it is advisable to keep the fringe short. fringes have been in use from the very earliest periods; but it is again the orientals, and especially the assyrians, who show a pre- ference for this form. fringes occur perpetually in various national costumes, and in the toilet of our modern ladies. the renascence adopted the fringe as a trimming for furniture, and specially for chairs; although not always with true artistic feeling. the valence is a hanging textile termination; the lower edge is ornamentally cut, and is often ornamented with cords, tassels, em- broidery, &o. the upper edge of the valence is generally fixed to a moulding. valences occur as the interior furnishing of windows, on four-post beds, baldachins, canopies, tents, marquees, &c.; of late years, they have been used on awnings, and outside-blinds. plate - the valence. . tomb of the incas, ancon, peru, united collections, carlsruhe. . indian-mexican pouch, united collections, carlsruhe. . . egyptian, (ebers). . renascence, (storck). . mediaeval maniple, (teirich). . turkish saddle-cloth, , united collections, carlsruhe. . renascence, silver. — . modern designs, by prignot. the lace border. (plate .). of all products of the textile art, lace is the most interesting. there is something poetical about it, like flowers. the combination of the conventional treatment with those accidental features which hand-work confers upon the delicate, light material, gives them a peculiar charm. who invented lace manufacture, and in what year, cannot now be determined. lace is one of those things which the renascence has handed down to us without having inherited it from the antique. the stimulus, to the invention of lace and the basis of its manufacture, is probably to be found in tho textile hand-work of the middle agps, such as was practised, particularly in convents, for ecclesiiisfical purposes. the fringe, and the valence. plate . . »wld the lace border. ( lace belongs in most eases to the free-ornaments. more rarely it is manufactured as an insertion, with the character of a ribbon, or for independent use as a shawl or wrap. compared with fringe, the applications of lace are freer and more varied, and by no means con fined to the character of a pendant termination. the reader may be assumed to be acquainted with the various uses of lace. if we exclude the allied crochet-work as not strictly belonging to this section, we shall find that the manufacture of lace may be divided into two groups: ( ) sewed or point lace; and ( } bobbin or pillow lace. the former method has chiefly been practised in italy, spain, ireland, and france; the latter in england, france, the nether- lands, schleswig, switzerland,-and saxony. the chief centres of the lace industry were and to some extent still are: venice, genoa, milan, ragusa, devonshire, buckinghamshire, ireland, alencon, valenciennes, brussels, mechlin, binche, tondern, annaberg, &c. as in other branches, the cheap machine-made article has nowa- days reduced the manufacture of the dearer but far more valuable hand-made lace to very modest limits. see reports on lace, by alan s. cole (department of science and art). among the numerous kinds of lace for which no generally re- cognised terminology as yet exists, we have selected some, principally of older date, among which the best patterns are to be found: point coupe (punto tagliato). the linen ground is out-out and the edges worked with th« needle. point tire (punto a maglia quadra). single compartments of a quadrangular knotted or woven net are filled-up. point tir (punto tirato). the threads of the linen fabric are partially pulled-out, the others connected together and sewed round. point coupe (punto a reticella). groups of threads stretched lengthwise and crosswise like a net, are spun round and connected. point noue (punto a groppo). produced by plaiting and knotting the threads. point lace. the threads are sewed together, following the pattern, and joined together by "brides". this is almost the only kind of lace which can now be found on ladies' work-tables. plate . the lace border. . venetian guipure, old pattern-book. . point noue, end of the th century. — . old, point — . modern, pillow, old patterns. . modern, knotted, with fringe, (macrame lace). bfoytr, handbook of ornament. a supports. all those elements of ornamental art which express the idea of supporting or bearing, are here gathered into a special group to which is given the name "supports". supports, in tho strict sense of the word, are piers or columns. but it does not fall within the scope of this work to treat these forms from the architectural point of view, or to enter into the details and proportions of the so-called "orders of architecture". all that is required on this point may be gained from the works of architectural specialists: botticher, tektonik der hellenen; mauch and lohde, die architeklonischen ordnungen; r. phen spiers, the orders of archi- tecture; vignola; dunn and others. we will therefore disregard the undecorated forms, and discuss only the decorative details of these supports. like a tree which consists of root, trunk, and crown, piers and columns necessarily have a base, a shaft, and a capital. (the doric column is an exception as it has no base.) the natural model for the pier and the column is the trunk of a tree hewn into a cylindrical or prismatic form. the motive of the channellings and flutings of the shaft of a support is to be found in the channels and flutings of endogeneous plants. supports which, like piers and columns, are intended to bear a considerable weight, usually have a strong cylindrical or prismatic structure, generally tapering towards the top; the fundamental forms of the candelabrum, which is meant to bear only an inconsiderable weight, like lamps, &c., are freer, have more variety, and offer a wider field for decoration than the forms of the former group. the candelabrum is also divided into foot, shaft, and crown. the shaft, supports. — the foliated shaft. again, is frequently composed of several distinct parts. the cande- labrum as a whole will receive a more detailed consideration in division iii, (utensils). small pillars, shaped like a pier, column, or candelabrum, nro also used for the construction of balaustrades; in which case they have to support only a rail. the small pillars have thick, compact forms; balausters, on the contrary, are slender bodies of revolution, with great variety in the profile. very peculiar forms of support are the antique trapezophors or uble-legs; the legs of modern furniture bear more resemblance, to balauster pillars. terminus is the name given to supports which widen out in an upward direction like an inverted obelisk, and terminate in a bust or capital. beside the geometrical and plant elements, the human form is also used as a motive of supports. male forms thus used are termed atlanta; and female forms caryatids. the various forms of consoles are included in the group of supports. the foliated shaft. (plate .) we have already mentioned that the plant-world furnishes the motive for the forms of supports. reeds, canes, tree-trunks with knots, &c., were copied in the antique. the mural paintings of pompeii show lofty airy constructions with extremely slender, foliated supports. the bronze candelabra and lampadaria, intended to hold lamps, are often direct imitations of plant stems, while the roman state-candelabra are often decorated- with artificial foliage. later epochs have made little change in this respect; it may be said in general that, as regards delicacy of feeling, and moderation in the application of natural forms, they have seldom reached and still more seldom surpassed the antique models. plate . the foliated shaft. . finial of the choragic monument of lysikrates, athens, (in- tended for the reception of a bronze tripod), greek. . part of the shaft of a roman state-candelabrum, marble, vatican museum, rome. — . supports, mural paintings, pompeii, (jacobsthal). . graeco-italic, lamp-stand, bronze. . upper part of shaft, graeco-italic candelabrum, brondsted collec- tion, (vulliamy). plate . the foliated shaft the kiuted shaft. — the baso. tue fluted shaft. -(plato .) columns, piers, candelabra, and similar supports frequently bavo channelling or flutings. the object of these is to give animation to the smooth shaft, and to emphasize the exprossion of the principle of weight-bearing. this latter is specially true of the chanuelliugs. in tho doric style the flutings are shallow without any interval, only divided from each othor by a sharp edgo, (figs. and ). the ionic and corinthian shafts, havo deopor (lutings (tigs. and ), separated from each other by cts -formod of the untouched surface of the ^haft. the ch;iunellings terminate upwards like small niches, with somicircular or elhptical heads, (fig ). leal-like terminations, like that on fig. are rarer! the termination downwards is similar to those shown on figs. — . the number of cbanncllings on a shaft varies from to on smallor constructions, such as furniture, balausters, &c., the number is reduced; but seldom less than . the cbannellings taper proportionately with the shaft. pilasters are also channelled to match the columns. in strict architecture, rich and composite cbannellings and flutings are rather injurious than otherwise (figs. — ); but on candelabra, and mouldings they often produce a good effect. when applied to the torus and the cavetto: the former (convex) should be decorated by nurls; and the latter (concave) should have flutes. plate . the fluted shaft. — . sections of doric fluting. — . sections of ionic and corinthian fluting. — . construction of the terminations of fluting on cylindrical shafts. — . composite fluting, with sections, and terminations. . part of an antique candelabrum, with tapered fluting. . termination of the fluting, monument of lysikrates, athens. (the construction is clearly indicated on the drawings.) the base. (plate — .) it is unquestionably moro beautiful when something in the hape of a base is interposed between the shaft of a column and the substructure on which it rests, than when, as in the doric stylo, the column rises without any such base. bases suggested by the radical leaves of plants, are common in oriental styles. plate , fig. gives an egyptian example of this kind. decorations of this sort are, however, oftener applied to the lower end of the shaft than plate . the fluted shaft. the base. to the base itself. this natural method of decoration is also met- with on richly decorated examples of roman style, where a row of artificial leaves encircle the shaft, (plate . ). antique bases are composed of a square foundation slab (the plinth); and some mouldings which follow the circular plan of the shaft. the well-known and oft-used attic base, consists, beginning from below, of a plinth, a great torus, fillet, scotia, fillet, upper torus, fillet and apophyge. the last, as a quarter-hollow forms the transition between fillet and shaft. when the plinth is decorated, which is the case only iri very rich examples, the motive is either a band or a scroll. the tori are de- corated with braided work, as shown on plate , the hollow or "scotia" is sometimes decorated with leaves, the smaller tori may be treated as astragals; and so on. plate shows three rich roman examples. others will be found in bbtticher's tektonik der eellenen.. the byzantine and romanesque periods follow the antique in the treatment of bases. the spaces which remain on the upper sur- face of the square plinth are, however, filled up with ornament (plate . , , , ), or with small animal figures, (plate . ). in the later gothic style the torus overlaps the sides of the plinth, which reduces these spaces; the corners of the plinth are also some- times finished as shown on plate . . the gothic period profers geometrical to organic form; and se- cures good effects by a variety of profiles placed high up on com- posite clustered columns, (plate . ) gives an example of this. remark the similarity with the chinese example, fig. , which would seem to have been suggested by a cluster of juxtaposed shafts. the renascence and modern styles resort to direct copying from the antique; but, as a rule, do not use ornamented mouldings. the treatment of the bases of piers and pilasters is usually identical with that of columns; so that there is no necessity for dealing with these separately. plate . the base: roman. . capitoline museum, rome, (de vico). . temple of concord, rome, (de vico). . baptistery of constantino, rome, (vorbilder fiir fabrikanten und handworker). piate . the base: romanesque, &c. . egyptian, temple of tutmes iii, karnak, (raguenct). . chinese, (raguenet). . romanesque, coupled, schwarzacb. — . mediaeval. . romanesque. plate . the base. the base. plate . the base. — the ornamented shaft. . romanesque, st. remy, reims, (raguenet). . romanesque, cistercian monastery, maulbronn. . romanesque, abbey "des dames". caen, (raguenet). . gothic, church, brou-asn, (raguenet). the ornamented shaft. (plates — .) the simplest, most natural and perhaps the most beautiful de- coration of a shaft is fluting, beyond which the antique very seldom goes. where it does: it clothes the stem in naturalistic fashion with plant-forms, (plate . ). in the byzantine, romanesque, and scandinavian styles: we often find the shaft covered with a geometrical network, and ornamented in a corresponding style, (plate . — ). the gothic style prefers to leave the slender shafts smooth. the renascence is not satisfied with the simple flute especially on small architectural work like altars, monuments, &c. the craving to give the column a decoration commensurate with that of the other parts of the architecture became irresistible. it is raised on a pedestal; the shaft is banded, being divided into parts by projecting cinctures, generally two, the lower at about one-third, the upper at about two- thirds of the height on the lower part are suspended festoons, weapons, trophies, cartouches, &c., the upper part is channelled or decorated with artificial foliage (plate . ); finally, festoons of fruit or drapery are suspended from tho capital. where the columns are not large, especially in furniture, the cylindrical shaft is replaced by tho richer profiling of a more candelabrum- like form, (plate . ). flat ornamentation is also used, as well as plastic decoration, by means of painting, incrustation, or inlaying, (plate . ). all these methods of application are more or less in agreement with the object and principle of construction of the column, but the same cannot be said of the renascence and the following styles of the decadence, which build up their columns of large and small drums, alternately ornamented and plain, or even give the shaft a spiral twist and decorate it with spiral flutings. plate . the decorated shaft. . italian renascence, tomb in sta. maria del popolo, rome, by sansovino. . romanesque. . shaft, church, tournus, (ragupnet). . roman, marble. . column, with intarsia decoration, german renascence, (hirth). the decorated shaft. plate . plate . the profiled shaft. the ornamented shaft. — the capital. plate . the profiled shaft. . candelabrum-like column, tester-bed, french renascence. . lower part of a column, mayence cathedral. . lower part of column, palais du commerce, lyons, (raguenet). . column, diploma, modern. . column,. modern, (gerlach). the capital. (plates — .) the upper termination of the column is the capital. the capital forms the transition from the supporting shaft to the superincumbent weight. this transition may assume either geometrical or organio forms. very frequently both systems are combined; so that, strictly speaking, we can only say that one system or the other predominates. the egyptian -capital is suggested by the cinctured bundle of papyrus stems with buds (plate . , ), or with opened papyrus or lotus flowers, (plate . , ). abnormal capitals are found in the old persian style. plate . , gives an example from persepolis, composed of the fore-parts of bulls. as examples of oriental forms: two moorish capitals from the alhambra in granada are given on figs. and of the same plate. antique art adopts three general types of capitals: doric, ionio and corinthian. the doric capital consists of the abacus, which is square in plan, and the echinos, which is circular. the transition to the shaft is effec- ted by hollow mouldings and astragals. the graeco-doric capital was painted. v^here the sides of the abacus are decorated: a fret pattern is employed (plate . ). the echinos is a member of conflict, and is ornamented accordingly. in the roman and renascence styles plastic ornamentation takes the place of painting. the band of leaves becomes an egg-and-dart ornament (plate . }. leaves pointing upward are sometimes used (plate . ). at the top of the abacus a small moulding is used. a necking, generally decorated with rosettes, is interposed between capital and shaft. similar rosettes decorate the spaces on tho under sido of the abacus (plate . — ). the ionic capital replaces the square abacus by a scroll rolled- in on both sides, in great volutes. tho intervals, between the egg band and the scroll, are marked by palmettos. a neck may bo'added as in the doric capital, and it is frequently decorated with a pal- metto ornament (plate . — ). the side view of the scroll shows plain profilings as on plato . , decorated with leavos or scales in the richer examples. the. ionic capital has two faces, and iiog tbo capital. two sides. for this reason it is of only limited application, as, when the capital is applied to the corner colnmn of two adjacent sides of a building, it is impossible to avoid a bad effect from the two reentering volutes on the inner faces. the fundamental form of the corinthian capital is the calix. the decoration may be designed on two methods. firstly a row of leaves, or two rows arranged alternately one above the other, clothe the lower cylindrical part of the capital, and plain broad waterleaves form the transition to the square abacus. to this class belongs the capital of the tower of the winds in athens, and a capital found on the island of melos, which is shown on plate . . or, secondly: volutes rise from the rows of leaves and unite in pairs under the corners of the abacus, which are then extended, so that the sides are rendered concave in plan. the centre of each sides of the abacus is decorated with a palmette or rosette (plate . — ). the fusion of the ionic and corinthian capitals produced the composite capital; whose appearance is more interesting than beautiful' (plate . ). early christian, and, to a certain extent, byzantine and roma- nesque art, models the forms of capital on those of the antique. the corinthian capital is the one mostly followed. the details are made correspondingly simpler and ruder (plate . — ). but along side of these reminiscences of the antique, new and independent forms appear. the antagonism between the cylindrical under part and the square upper termination is adjusted by geometrical construc- tions. thus originated the cushion and the trapeziform capital. the cushion capital is specifically romanesque. a half sphere is cut by planes below and on the four sides. its simplest form is given on plate . . the decoration is sometimes geometrical (plate . and ), and sometimes contains foliage and figures (plate . ). tire double-cushion capital is a variant of the cushion capital (plate . ). the trapeziform capital is specifically byzantine. in this style: the cylindrical shaft is continued to the square abacus, which causes each side of the capital to assume a trapeziform shape (plate . ). very often these capitals are richly decorated with figures. the arrangement of clustered-shafts, so popular in the middle ages, led to the coupled-capital, which appears sometimes as con- joined capitals (plate . ), and sometimes as the juxtaposition of two ordinary capitals with a conjoined abacus. in the gothic style, particularly in its later period, the abacus becomes octagonal. crocket-like knots of leaves are loosely attached to the calix-formed core. the vigourous projections of these leaf ornaments give the capital the appearance of an inverted bell (bell capitals, plate . — ). the renascence adopts the doric and ionic capitals, and more the capital. usually the corinthian capital directly borrowed from the antique; but the forms become freer and more taped; and, compared with the overcharged roman examples, simpler. the volutes at the comers develope into independent forms, and are often replaced by dolphins, cornucopias, and other fantastic forms, scattered instances of which may, however, be found even in the antique. modern architecture, like the renascence, also follows these traditions. plate . toe capital. . ancient persian, persepolis. . egyptian, kdm-ombo. . , philae. . , memnonium thebes. . . luxor, (owen jones). — . moorish capitals, aihambra, hall of the two sisters, (raguenet). " . graeco-doric. . roman-doric, thermae of diocletian, (mauch and lohde). . doric, italian renascence, by barozzi da vignola. plate . the capital. . graeco-ionic, (jacobsthal). . tonic, bassae, (cockerell). . ionic, pompeii. . roman-ionic, (musterornamente). . graeco-ionic, ercchtheum, athens. . ionic, louvre, paris. . antique corinthian, found in melos, (vorbilder fur fabrikanten und handwerker). . greek-corinthian, monument of lysikrates, athens. .' roman-corinthian, palaces of the emperors rome. . roman composite, louvre, paris. plate . tite capital. . romanesque cushion-capital, st. gereon, cologne, (otte). . « ' • i the abbey church, laach, (otte). . byzantine, sta. sofia, constantinople. . romanesque double-cushion-capital, rosheim church, xi. cen- tury. . romanesque double-cushion-capital. . romanesque cushion-capital, freiburg. — . romanesque, former cloisters of the church, schw.irzncb. . romanesque coupled-cupital. . romanesque. i'late the capita!. supports. plate . the capital. the capital. plate . * plate . the pilaster panel. the capital. — the pilaster panel. . romanesque cushion-capital, monastery, lippoldsberg. — . late gothic, triforium of the choir, minster freiburg. plate . the capital. . renascence, drawing by holbein, (guicbard). — . renascence, designs by heinrich voigtherr, (hirth). . composite, italian. . renascence, palazzo scrofa, ferrara, italian. . renascence, tomb in sta. maria del popolo, rome, by san- so vino. . renascence, italian, palazzo zorzi, venice. . modern, municipal baths, carlsruhe, architect durm. . modern french, vaudeville theatre, paris, architect magne. the pilaster panel. (plate .) in many cases the pilaster or wall-pier shaft is devoid of orna- ment. unlike the column, the pilaster does not, as a rule, taper up- wards; and if the pilaster is ornamented with fluting the tapering is never permissible. the pilaster frequently has cinctures, generally two, the lower at j , the upper at j/s of its height. the ornamental decoration, when present, takes the form of an elongated, sunk panel bordered by a moulding. the ornamentation may be of three kinds: firstly: an ascending plant motive may be used, rising symmetrically or in the form of a wavy line from calices, vases, &c., animal and human figures being not infrequent accessories; secondly, the decora- tion may consist of festoons of flowers, fruits, trophies, shields, &c., varied by knots and ribbons, the points of suspension being rosettes, rings, lion beads, &c.; thirdly, the panel may be decorated with flat strapwork, as in the elizabethan manner. of these three kinds of decoration the first is the most used; and the most suitable. few antique examples have come down to us; the middle ages make scarcely any use of the pilaster; but the renascence is much richer in such exampbs. stalls, altars, sepulchral-monuments are scarcely to be found without pilasters. plate offers a small selection from the copious material; all the panels show the first of the three kinds of decoration. plate . the pilaster panel . italian renascence. — . italian renascence, sta. maria dei miracoli, venice. — . italian renascence, by benedetto da majano. — . modern panels, in the style of the italian renascence. the pilaster capital. the pilaster capital. (plates — .) generally speaking, the structure of the capital of the pilaster follows that of the column; and, to a certain extent, translates the forms of the latter from the round to the flat. this observation is true in the renascence period; but not in the antique. in pilaster-capitals in the doric style one or more leaf or egg- and-dart mouldings run under the abacus, and are covered at the corners with palmettos or leaves. beneath this proper part of the capital a neck more or less high is usually found, decorated with rosettes or with other ornaments (plate . ). on modern capitals of this class the neck may even be fluted (plate . ); not infre- quently the centre of the capital is still further decorated by the addition of masks, symbols, &c. (plate . and ). while the renascence adopted the form of the ionic capital with scarcely any change for its pilasters (plate . ), the antique possessed a special form of pilaster capital of this order (plate . ). the most numerous, varied and beautiful capitals of pilasters are in the corinthian order. the profile and general arrangement are the same as with the columns; generally, however, the pilaster is broader in proportion to its height. the lower part is encircled by artificial leaves which sometimes dwindle to the two corner leaves supporting the volutes. the volutes are of the most varied descrip- tions, sometimes replaced by cornucopias, dolphins, chimeras, and other figures (plates . and . ). leaf-ornaments, vases, garlands, calices of flowers, &c., are arranged at the centres (plate . — ), also masks (plate , , and ). neckings are rare on corinthian capitals (plate . ). the egg-and-dart mouldings, which run along the bottom of antique examples (plate . — ), are reminiscences of the doric style, so that these forms may also be regarded as a kind of transition capital. plate . the pilaster capital. . greek-doric anta, erechtheum, athens. . greek-ionic anta. . greek-corinthian. — . roman-corinthian, (bstticher). . roman-corinthian, pantheon, rome. . roman-corinthian, temple of mars ultor, rome, (de vico). plate . the pilaster capital. . corinthian, italian renascence, court of the scala dei giganti, venice, (wiener bauhiitte). the pilaster capital. plate . plate . thc pilaster capital. the pilaster capital. plate . the pilaster capital — the candelabra base. . corinthian, italian renascence, sta. maria dei miracoli, venice. . corinthian, italian renascence, certosa, florence. . corinthian, italian renascence, scuola di san marco, venice, by pietro lombardo. — . corinthian, italian renascence, chapel of the palazzo vecchio, florence, (musterornamente). corinthian, italian renascence. . corinthian, french renascence', tomb of louis xh, st. denis. plate . the pilaster capital. . corinthian, italian renascence, portal of san michele, venice. — . corinthian, italian renascence, palace of the doges, venice. . ionic, french renascence, (lievre). . wronght-iron, castle at athis-mons, french, th century. . wrougbt-iron, by jean benin, french, th century, (raguenet). . modern doric, architects kayser and v. grossheim. . modern doric, new opera house, paris, architect gamier. . modern ionic, rue dieu, paris, architect sedille. . modern corinthian, atelier of a painter, paris, sculptor bloche. , the candelabrum foot. (plate .) for lighting, the candelabrum played an important part in the domestic and religious life of the ancients. in the house, they mostly employed slender, delicate bronze candelebra; and for religion, the great state-candelabra of marble. the candelabrum, like the column, consists of three parts: the base, the shaft, and the capital. to afford the necessary steadiness, the base of the candelabrum is planned on a comparatively large scale, and divided into three legs, which stretch-out, towards the points of an equilateral triangle. for the foot, the claw of an animal, and in particular the claw of the lion, is used. not infrequently the claws rest on balls or discs (plate . ). the transition to the shaft is designed with a double calix, the upper leaves of which rise and encircle the shaft, and the lower leaves descend and mask the junction of the three legs (plate . and ). a delicate anthemion may be perceived between each pair of feet on richer examples (plate . and ). in exceptional cases the leg appears to grow from the mouth of an animal (plate . ). occasionally a circular, profiled and decorated disc is used instead of the double calyx and anthemion. sometimes, too, the shaft is prolonged downwards beneath the disc in the form of a knob, but does not touch the ground. the candelabrum base, & shaft it is obvious that the delicate forms and the division into legs, whicn was so suitable for a material like bronze, could not be trans- ferred directly to the construction in marble; but reminiscences of it may be seen in the retention of the triangular ground-plan, the re- duced claws, the double calyx, &c. (plate . ). plate . the candelabrum babe. . antique, bronze, museum, naples, (botticher). . „ „ (betticher). . „ „ studj publici, florence, (weissbach and lotter- moser). — . antique, bronze, musoum, naples. — . legs from antique candelabra: the former found in the ruins of paestum; the other in the museum, naples. . roman, state-candelabrum. . renascence candelabrum, collection of drawings, uffizi, florence. the candelabrum shaft. (plate .) the decoration of the shaft of the antique bronze domestio candelabrum is simple; and consists of flutings or channellings, some- times of naturalistic buds and leaves. far richer ia the ornamentation of the antique state-candelab- rum. it is divided into zones (plate . ), or the shaft swells and diminishes alternately, giving a richer profile (plate . ). smooth 'and fluted parts with contrast with foliage and figure; and the ascending decoration is varied by trophies and festoons. the effect depends on the propriety of the division. the repetition of similar masses or similar forms becomes tedious. the antique and also the renascence, particularly in italy, has transmitted to us a number of standard forms of candelabra; of which a few examples are reproduced plate . plate . the candelabrum shaft. . roman, marble. . roman, marble. . antique, (bstticher). . mast-socket, piazza of s. mark, venice, bronze, italian renas- cence. . candelabrum-like foot of a holy water-stoup, pisa cathedral, italian renascence. . italian renascence, badia near florence. hate . the candelabrum base. the candelabrum shaft. plate . the candelabrum capital. — the balauster. the candelabrum capital. (plate .) the capital of a candelabrum has a plate or cup-like form, according as it is destined to receive a lamp, or a candle. the tops of the antique bronze candelabra, as a rule, are profiled like the so-called krater (figs. — ). the profiles, and ornamentation already given, may be re- garded as standards. the insertion of real capitals, or of figures, as bearers (fig. ) is rarer. the marble candelabra of the antique usually terminate in a plate or table (fig. ); and this is also the case with the renascence candelabra intended to receive candles. these were not placed in a cylindrical socket hut stuck on a co- nical pricket. on the decoration of candelabra the reader may compare the plates dealing with this subject in division iii, (group of utensils). plate . the candelabrum capital. — . antique, museum, naples. . roman. . renascence, drawing in the uffizi, florence. the balauster. (plate .) balansters are small squat columns of circular or square plan. sometimes they are only symmetrical around their axis, sometimes however they are also symmetrical in an upward and downward direc- tion. in most cases their construction is that of the candelabrum. they may be divided into base, shaft, and capital. ranged side-by-side in a row, balausters are employed by the renascence and modern art in parapets, balconies, attics, and stair- cases. when the balausters are placed on a stair-case: the bases and capitals are either slanting, or the. horizontals of the balausters follow the slanting lines of the stair-case. the latter method was adopted in the decadence of the renascence, but is unjustifiable; and can, in any case, only be adopted with balausters of a square or oblong plan. a rich variety may be obtained by the use of square and cylindrical forms in the same balauster (fig. ). the balauster is occasionally used as a support for stalls, and on furniture. ra- guenet's "documents et materiaux" contains a large number of ba- lausters; from which we have selected some examples. the candelabium capital. plate the h.ilaustor. — the tei minus. plate . the balausteii. . square plan, itahan renascence, sta. maria della salute, venice . a system of squaro balauslcrs, palazzo pesaro, venice. . circular plan, modern italian. . wood, italian renascence,, stalls in sta. maria novella, flo- rence. . modern french, architect rout, paris. — . square wooden, (bethke: "der decorative holzbauer"). — . modern, terracotta. tiik terminus. (plate .) the terminus is a pilaster-like support, the fundamental form of which is characterized by tape-ring downwards in a manner re- calling an inverted obelisk. the name is derived from the fact that m miliar constructions wore usod in the antique as milestones and to mark the terminations of fields, &c. the terminus consists of the profiled base, not infrequontly supported on a special pedestal (figs. and ); the shaft tapering downwards and usually ornamented with festoons (figs. , , , ); and the capital, which is often re- placed by a bust or half-figure (figs. ^ , ). in this latter case, it assumes the appearance of a caryatid; and, as the bust is that of hermes (the god of letters), this application is often termed a "hermes". standing isolatod, it servos as a pedestal for busts and lamps, as a post for railings, and in gardens and terraces. the last was exceedingly popular iu tho rococo period. joined to the wall, the terminus often takes the place of tho pilaster. this is especially true of the furniture and small architectural constructions of the renascence period. it is also not uncommon on utensils, e. g. tri pods, handles of pokers, seals, &e. plate . the terminus. . upper part, antique, silver treasure of hildesheim, berlin museum, (obviously from a roman tripod). . stone terminns bust, italian renascence, villa massimi, rome, (raguenet). . stone terminus bust, german renascence, mantel-piece, town- hall, lubeck. . stone terminus bust, german renascence, otto heinrich build- ing, heidelberg castle. . stone terminus bust, german renascence, monument, church of the castle, pforzheim. "meyer. rin'lbook of ornament plate . the termiuns. the terminus. — the parapet — the railing post. — . wooden terminus, renascence. . small terminus figure, german renascence, national museum, munich. . terminus with mask, modern chimney-piece, (gewerbehalle). the parafet. (plate ho.) besides the parapets which are formed by rows of balausters, there are others which are arrangements of pierced or perforated tsone or wood, and cast or wrought iron. the gothic style prefers tracery, the renascence prefers scrolls for stone parapets (figs. and s). parapets of perforated wood, which are typical of swiss architecture, are composed of strips of boards, with shapes more or less rich, care being taken that the intervening spaces also form pleasing shapes. to construct parapets in the form of bi-axial trellises, was a popular custom of the renaseence; and it has continued so to the present day. but the function of the supports is only fully shown when the pattern has an upward direction. this, however, does not ex- clude the use of other treatments, e. g. panels. raguenet has nume- rous examples. plate . the parapet. . modern gothic, stone, viollet-le-duc, (raguenet). . modern gothic, stoue, viollet-le-duc, castle of pierrefonds, (raguenet). . stone, german renascence, *dagobert tower, new castle, baden- baden. — . trellis, schinkel, (vorb. f. fabr. u. handw). . modern french, hotel mirabeau, paris, architect magne, (raguenet). . trellis, barocco, wrought-iron, french. railing post. (plate .) staircase railings, are formed of rows of upright posts. these are of slender, delicate form; and take the place of the stouter balauster. the usual materials for balausters are stone, terracotta, and wood; the railings, on the other hand, are of metal, or, in their simpler forms, of wood. in the last decades, cast-iron was the ma- * supports. plate ho. the parapet. the bailing post. — the furniture leg. terial most often used; but lately a return has been made to the more plastic wrought-iron. the ornamentation depends on the material selected. > wrought - iron posts are decorated with scrolls and tendrils, while cast - iron uprights are decorated in bai - relief. if the bailing-post has to stand on a horizontal plane, it is ad- visable to construct the foot in the manner ~ shown in figs. , , and ; if it is to be affixed to the sides of the treads of a staircase, arrangements similar to those in figs. , , and , are necessary. where the upper end has to support the hand-rail, independent terminations, like figs. and , may be adopted. spherical head may be applied to all angles (fig. ). plate . the railing post. . modern post, cast-metal, architect v. leins, stuttgart, (ge- werbehalle). . modern post, cast-metal, architect v. hoven, frankfurt, (ge- werbehalle). . modern post, wrought-iron, (gewerbehalle). . „ „ cast-metal. . „ „ architects gropius and schmieden. . plain wooden post. — . modern posts, cast-metal, architect v. hoven, frankfurt the furniture leg. (plate .) the legs of wood furniture may be divided into two classes according to their height. tables and chairs have high legs; low legs or feet serve as supports for all kinds of cabinet and box-like articles. the general plan is that of a balauster-like body of revolution as turned on the lathe. angular forms, however, are also used. high legs are frequently decorated with carved ornaments; low legs are usually left plain; and this would seem to be in accordance with their character. metal feet are sometimes used for small pieces of furniture like caskets. where the legs have to stand on the floor: it is advisable to taper them downwards (figs. — ); where they have to stand on raised platforms and seldom require to be moved: it is better to furnish them with a pedestal (fig. ). it has lately become fashion- able to apply metal casters to pianos, heavy chairs, couches, &c. tho furniture leg. — the trapczophorou. plate . tin: fuknitdre lko. . mojorn. . modurn. . modern. - . modern. — . various old designs. toe trapezopqoron. (plates — .) "trapezophoron" is tho n.imo given to the support of the antique table. they wore usually of marble, tho top itself was of wood or stone, sometimes ornamented with mosaic. we may distinguish two principal classes of antique tables: the circular table with three logs (compare plate . ); and tho oblong table, resting on two end-supports (compare . and . ). the lower part, of tho support of the round table, consists of a great leg which generally passes into a foliated calyx with- a small hoad of a lion, lynx, panther, or other animal growing out of it ( . — ). the heads are sometimes human ( - . ) or human half-figures, such as the genius bearing a bowl on l'late . — . in the early period of antique art we llnd forms of more architectonic character like plate , fig . the end-support for the oblong table is a symmetrical duplication of tho motive of the single leg already men- tioned, with the addition of wings, and with the space between the animal forms filled either by figuros or ornaments (plate . — and . ). very striking in both classes of support is the differ- «nco in scale of the various elements (a phenomenon which also appears elsewhere in roman art). on antique table-legs the reader may also consult division iii, (furniture). plate . the trapezophoron. . three-legged table, roman, legs of marble, table-top of mosaic. — . front and side view of the support of a roman table, found in the atrium of the house of cornelius rufus in pompeii, (fragments de l'architecture). . support of antique table. — . marble support of roman table, lynx hoad and claw, museum, naples. — . marble support of roman table, panther head and claw, bri- tish museum. — . marble support of roman table, lion head and claw, vatican, rome. the trapezophoron. plate supports. plate the trapezophoron. the trapezopboron. — the console. plate . the trapezophorox. . marble support of antique table, museum, naples (judging lrom the symbolism of the ornamentation, tho leg is probably from a table sacred to zeus), (l'art pour tous). — . front and side view of a small roman table-support, marble, naples museum, panther claw, eros garbed with the nebris. . roman table-support, marble, british museum. . „ „ „ , head of hercules and lion claw, vatican. . antique support, marblo, (vulliamy). the console. (plates — .) the form of the console is extremely varied; as aro its uses and applications. it is determined by the function, and the material of which it is made, as well as by the style of tho period. architectural members of the character of consoles are early found in the chinese and indian, as also in the assyrian stylo; but in the egyptian style they are wanting. volute consoles, very beautifully developod, -are found sporadi- cally in the greek style; but the roman stylo was the first to mako an extensive use of these forms. the decorated ends of beams are probably to be regarded as the original model for consoles. the s-shaped double volute, with a large and a small spiral, is the standard form. in this console, the line of construction and the space for the actual decoration are giveu in the side-view, while tho front, which is subordinate, is ornamented by scale motives, and leaves, which adapt themselves in graceful curves to the standard forms. , when the console is used in the console-band of a cornice, or as the bracket of-a balcony, its attitude is recumbent. when it sup- ports the cornices of doors and windows, its attitude is erect. no other apphcation is known in the antique. a beautiful example occurs on the north door of the erechtheum at athens (plate . — ). some examples of recumbent consoles, of roman style, are given in figs. — , of the samo plate. the example — , of the late roman epoch, shows decorative accessories of swans. the bend of the curve of the volute here departs from the normal example, and approaches a more convex curve, which is demanded by tho static calculation for these supports. the early christian and romanesque art adopted coarse copies of the antique, and also created new ones suited to the new require- ments. thus early, we find those modillion forms which become typical for the wooden architecture of the middle ages, being chiefly the console. used beneath mouldings, and in corners of doors between the jambs and the lintel. the example on plate . may be taken as representative of this kind of support. another class of supports exhibits a central core', tapered downwards, like pendants with a polygonal or round plan (plate . and ). this latter form is also used in gothic art as a bracket for the statues of the saints, which were applied to piers and the arches of portals. the renascense remodels the last-named console in its own way, but recurs by preference to the antique form (plate . ), some- times reversing the volutes (plate . — ), and giving the front a richer and more independent ornamentation (plate . ). the combination of several smaller consoles to form a composite - con- sole, is shown on plate . fig. . just as the pendant-consoles of the gothic style imitate the calyx capital, so too does the rena- scense remodel the doric, ionic, and corinthian capitals for consoles (plate . — ). in wood architecture, we meet with consoles which have the form of richly-decorated struts (plate . ). the barocco style, which followed the renascence, also made essential additions to the richness of the forms. the strict line of the volute is abandoned and frequently broken by straight lines (plate . — ). the console is shaped in front-view like a pen- dant triangle, or typographical tail-piece (plate . and ). an- other invention of this period is the triglyph-console (plate . ). the rococo period abandons the traditional standards, and sacri- fices construction to picturesque license. shell-work, and unsymme- trical scrolls, serve as supports. modern art recasts the elements of former styles, without adding anything essentially new, unless we regard as a novelty the custom of placing busts, clocks, and knicknacks, on independent consoles which are used as brackets. finally: we may mention that in almost every style, consoles in the various forms have been used as the keystones of door and window lintels, in which case they are, generally speaking, not supports, as they have nothing to support it should be considered inadmissible to apply distorted consoles i. e. those which have vertical sides though they are on the raking sofits of pediments, as was done in the late roman period, and in imitation thereof by the renascence in some examples. examples, of all periods, will be found in raguenet's work; and an exhaustive essay on the console by dr. p. p. krell in the gt- werbehalle, , no. . plate . the console. — . front and side view, greek, north door, erechtheum, athens. — . front and side view, roman, vatioan. supports. supports. plate . the console. the console. plate . plate . the bracket. the console. — the bracket. — . roman, front and side view, temple of jupiter stator, rome vatican. — . roman, front and side view, vatican. plate . the console. — .- renascenee, side views, vatican. . renascence, hotel d assezat, toulouse, (raguenet). . renascence, wooden, french, hotel d'assezet, toulouse, (ha guenet). . renascence, istrian limestone, venetian, hamburg, museum. . renascence, marble, italian, sta. maria de' miracoli, venice, (gropius). — . modern, french, architect rous, paris. . „ „ „ n n . mediaeval, church, athis, france. plate the console. . romanesque, noyon cathodral, th century, (raguenet). . gothic, st. pierre sous vezelay, (gewerbehalle). . renascence, french, castle, blois. . — . renascence, german, new castle, baden-baden, (gmelin). . renascence, german, heidelberg castle. . renascence, triglyph-console, late french. . modern, french, library, louvre, architect lefucl, (raguenet). . modern, french, (raguenet). . modern, french, new casino, lyons, architect porte, (raguenet). the bracket. (plate .) a special class of supports is formed by those wrought-iron bearers which the middle ages, the renascence, and modern times, have produced in the shape of brackets. the uses of brackets are very various, e. g. in supporting shop-signs, conduit-pipes, gargoyles, candles, lamps, hats, coats, &c. in form, they vary with the style and richness of the work manship. square, hat and round iron, enriched by chasing and other methods of decoration, are used. tboy are frequently fastened to the wall by the aid of ribbon like strips of metal, which mny themselves be decorated with scrolls and curls. the plato shows a number of such supports, of ancient and mo- dern date, destinod for a variety of purposes. mrirnr, handbook of omawonl l the bracket. — the caryatid, and the auante. plate . the bracket. — . part of reading-desk, . benedetto, near mantua, italian re- nascence, (gewerbehalle). . wrought-iron, sign, regensburg, german renascence, (mustcr- ornamente). . wrought-iron bearer of conduit-pipe, kloster lichtenthal near baden, german renascence, (gmelin). . wrought-iron bearer of water-stoup, sepulchral cross in ceme- tery, kircbzarten, german renascence, (schauinsknd). — . wrought-iron supports, for gargoyles, german renascence. . wrought-iron, sign, modern, architect crecelius, mainz. . modern wrought-iron bracket, (badische gewerbezeitung). the caryatid, and the atlante. (plates and .) the freest and the richest motive for supports, is the human figure. as early as egyptian and persian architecture, we find human figures as bearers of beams and roofs. the greek and roman styles also make use of this motive. the modern names for such supports are derived from the antique. accord- ing to greek mythology, atlas supports the vault of heaven at the ends of tho earth. hence is derived the name "atlantes" for these male supporters. they are also sometimes termed "telamons". the name "caryatids", for female supporting figures, is derived from the town of carysa in the peloponnesus. according to another version the caryatids are imitations of the virgins who danced in the temple at carya at the feast of diana. according to vitruvius, their intro- duction into architecture is owing to the fact that ladies of caryae, as a punishment for the support they rendered to the persians, were carried into captivity and compelled to serve as carriers of burdens. the caryatids are termed "canephorae" (basket bearers), when capitals in shape like a basket are interposed between their heads and the superincumbent burden. among well-known examples in the antique are the atlantes in the temple of jupiter at agrigentum, and the caryatids of the erechtheum at athens. the middle ages made little use of atlantes and caryatids; the renascence and the following stylos, on the contrary, used them freely. atlantes and caryatids occur isolated, and connected with walls; and in both high and bas-relief. sometimes the whole length of the figure is employed, sometimes only the upper half in conjunction with a console (plate . — ), or with terminus-like bases (plate . — ). composite bearers in the form of double caryatids are also a popular motive, as shown by the example on plate , from the louvre at paris. supports. plate . the caryatid, ac. the caryatid, the atlanta, ac. plate . the caryattd, the atlante, &c. . greek caryatid, erechtheum, athens, (vorbilder fur fabrikanteo und handwerker). . antique caryatid, villa mattei, after piranesi, (vorbilder fur fabrikanten und handwerker). modern french atlante, house in paris, sculptor caille, (ra- guenet). — modern, front and side views of half-figure consoles, ziegler and weber, carlsrnhe. plate . the caryattd, &c . modern, double caryatid, louvre, paris, (baldus). — modern, caryatids, conservatoire des arts et mitiers, paris, sculptor e. robert, (raguenet). — . modern, caryatids, director c. hammer, nuremberg. — . modern, caryatids, director c. hammer, nuremberg. d. enclosed ornament. (panels.) that method of treatment, which has for its object to decorate a plane surface, and to cover it with ornament, c., by means of painting, inlaying, engraving, etching, &c., we term flat decoration. this falls into two classes. firstly the ornament may be de- signed for a definite, bounded space, such as an oblong, according to artistic rules, so that it fits exactly into this space alone: in which case it is a discontinuous or "panel" ornament or, secondly, the ornament may extend itself in every direction, repeating its details without regard to any definite boundary: in which case it is a con tinuous or "diaper" ornament, such as a wall-paper turning our attention first to discontinuous or tand-ornament. we shall find, in addition to objects whose boundaries are arbitrary and to be fixod at will, that we have principally to consider the following shapes: the squaro, the other regular polygons, the circle, tho oblong, the ellipse, the lunette, the various forms of the span- rail, the lozenge and the triangle. geometrical, natural, and artificial elements, either singly or combined, are used. the character of the ornament may be natura hstic, or it may be artificial, and adapted to some pre-arranged leading-lines of the shape. this book does not. treat of examples of the former character those of the latter character, i. e. artificial ornament, will dopend on the attitude of the panel with regard to the horizon. enclosed ornament. — the square panel. when the panel is inon-axial, i. e. it is symmetrical on both bides of one axis: then the panel-ornament is suitable to a vertical surface. when it is developed regularly in all directions from the centre of the figure, and is symmetrical to two or more axes: then the panel-ornament is suitable to a horizontal surface. the central feature of a horizontal panel is not infrequently emphasized by a rosette ornament, while the decoration of the remaining surface is kept in low-relief. trifling variations, from absolute symmetry and regularity, are often met-with; but they are confined to the details, the impression of symmetry and regularity being preserved in the general effect. these remarks, as well as some further relations arising out of the nature of the subject, we now proceed to illustrate in detail in the following chapters and plates. for the most part we shall con- fine ourselves to the best known and most frequent figures; and shall only offer some few examples of abnormal panels. the square panel. (plates — .) the lines, on which the decoration of the square may naturally be based, are the two diagonals, and the two diameters which join the centre of the opposite sides. these lines cut each-other in a common point, the centre of the shape; and form an eight-rayed star with rays of alternately unequal lengths. they divide the figure into equal spaces, which are usually decorated with repeated orna- ment, and are therefore suitable to the horizontal attitude, (compare plate , figs. — and others). numerically this mode of deco- ration is predominant. barer are the cases in which the angle is once more bisected and the square consequently divided into tri- angles, (compare plate , fig. ). the simplest decoration is the many-rayed star, which is termed the uraniscus, in the coffers oi greek ceilings (comp. plate , fig. ). the centre of the figure is generally accentuated by 'the addition of a rosette, and the direction of growth, like plant-motives, is from the centre outwards (plate , ty. , , , and others); or alternately from the centre outwards a,id inwards (comp. plate . ). slight variations from strict symmetry and regularity are partly caused by the use of the geo- metrical interlaced band (plate . and ), and are partly the deliberate result of artistic freedom of conception (plate . . and . ). the latter example is highly remarkable in this respect; and its originality may serve as a model. the example is also one of the rare cases in .which the ornamentation is symmetrical to the diagonals, and not to the diameters. the square panel. another kind of square decoration is that in which it ia sub- divided into separate spaces, each of which receives an independ;ut ornamentation. plates and of the handbook give a number of such divisions of squares; a similar mode of decoration will be found on plate , fig. , plate , figs. and , and elsewhere. the decoration of the square in an upright attitude, with symmetry to one axis, belongs to the same category as the oblong; and we may therefore refer to what will be said below with reference to this latter figure. square panel are to be found in all styles; we have taken some striking examples from the coffer-ceilings of the antique and the renascence, from the pavement-tiles of the middle ages, and from the metal-work of the renascence and modern times. plate . the square panel. . greek, uraniscus, coffer of ceiling, propylaea, athens. . roman, bas-relief, found during the rectification of the tiber near the farnesina, rome, in , museo tiberino. . assyrian pavement, kouyunjik, (owen jones). — . greek, coffers of ceilings, propylaea, athens. . „ „ „ „ , athens. . „ „ „ „ , parthenon. . roman, mosaic pavement, pompeii, (owen jones). . byzantine, bas-relief, san marco, venice, (owen jones). plate . the square panel . decoration, of a book, th century, library of the duke of devonshire, (racinet). . scandinavian bas-relief, celtic stone cross, churchyard, meigle, angus, (owen jones). . bas-relief, tomb of "pierre is venerable", cluny museum, th century, (l'art pour tous). — mediaeval, tiles, (owen jones, racinet &c.). . tiles, cistercian monastery, bebenhausen. . moorish tiles. . gothic, tiles, bloxham church, england, th century. plate . the square panel land . inlaid work, th or th century, sauvageot collection, (racinet). . arabian mosaic, (prisse d'avennes). . moorish, alhambra, th centuiy . arabian, wood door, th century, (l'art ponr tous). tbe square panel. - the star-shape panel. . renascence, intarsia, gorman (hirth, fonuenschatz). . modern. — . renascence, intarsia, sta. maria gloriosa ai frari, venice, th century, (mnsterornamonte). plate . the sqdare panel. . renascence, motive from a robe in the sacristy, sta. croce, florence, italian. . renascence, tiles, collection of the count d'yvon, (racinet). . renascence, motive after peter flstner, german. . renascence, mosaic flooring, cathedral, spoleto, (jacobstbal; the centre altered). . renascence, intarsia, stalls, certosa near pavia, italian. . renascence, majolica tiles, sta. caterina, siena, italian. . renascence, intarsia, door of the cambio, perugia, by antonio mercatello, , italian. — . renascence, door of the madonna di galliera, bologna, italian, (musterornamente). plate . the square panel. and . wrought-iron, french, th century, (l'art poor tons). and . wrought-iron, german renascence, (hirth, formenschatz). . wrought-iron, oxford, , (l'art pour tous). — wrought-iron, modern. and . wrought-iron, modern, cemetery, carlsruhe. . wrought-iron, by georg klain, salzburg, th century. the star-shape panel. (plate .) the decoration of polygonal stars is generally based on radiat- ing axes. exceptions, in favor of symmetry to one or two axes, are comparatively scarce (fig. ). where thero is no sub-division into independent panels, accord- ing to plates and of the handbook (fig. ): the ornament follows the natural lines of division furnished by the diagonals. in this case the number of the single, similar triangles of division depends on the number of sides (fig. ). decorated star-shaped panels are extremely common in the arabian and moorish styles, whero tho ornament is often of such a character that it would very well suit a simple polygon, and only fills out accidentally (so to speak) the star angles (figs. , and ). the square panel. plate . plate the square panel. the square fane). plate . plate . the square panel. enclosed oenament. the star-shape panel. plate . . the star-shape panel. — the circular panel. plate . the star-shape panel. . mural painting, s. francesco, assisi, (hessemer). . decoration of arabic koran, th century, (prisse d"avenues), i . arabian architecture, (prisse d'avennes). — . arabian ceiling paintings, (prisse d'avennes). . etched ornament, armour, national museum, munich, th cen- tury, (gewerbehalle). — . arabian ceiling paintings, th century, (prisse d'avennes). the circular panel. (plates — .) the circle may be regarded as a polygon of an infinite number of sides. as it is impossible to take this infinite number into account, it is usual, when working on radial axes to divide the circle into , , , , , , , or , similar parts, as indicated in the figures. another principle of frequent application is that of division into zones; each ring-like band being ornamented independently. this principle predominates in the so-called archaic styles, e. g. on etruscan 'and assyrian shields (plate . , , and ). this principle is ex- cellently adapted to the decoration of dishes and plates, the profiling of which naturally points to a zonal division. the centre of the circle, which is sometimes decorated by a rosette, may also be filled by some feature which is symmetrical to one axis or is unsym- metrical (plate . ). the latter mode of decoration has also been adopted, although in comparatively rarer cases, for the decoration of the circle as a whole. geometrical sub-division of the circle, by the insertion of poly- gons, or arcs, is common, not only in gothic tracery, which is specially dependent on these processes, but in every other style (comp. the tracery panels and on plate , and the niello ornaments and on plate ). in many cases, the circular panel is decorated by an ornament whioh is merely an enlarged rosette or cieling- flower, so that no clear line can be drawn between the two classes, (compare what has been said of the rosette on p. ). plate . the ctrculak panel. . assyrian, pavement, nimrud, (owen jones). . assyrian shield, khorsabad, (owen jones). . old frankish panel, sacramentarium, rheims. — . greek, paintings on vases, (lau). the circular panel. <!. celtic stone cross, churchyard, st. vigeaus, angus, (owen jones). — . paintings on greek, vases, (lau). ['late trre circular panel. . romanesque, manuscript, th century, (racinet). . modern, early gothic, (ungewilter, stadt- und land kirchen). . byzantine, sta. sofia, constantinople, th century. . mediaeval stone slab, th century, museum, rouen, (racinet). . ditto, laon cathedral, (racinet). . ditto, wrought-iron key-handle. gothic boss, th century, st. benoit, paris, (racinet). gothic, old cabinet, united collections, carlsmho. an'i gothic, chip-carving, old cabinet, (gewerbehalle). . mediaeval glass-painting, soissons cathedral, (racinet). plate the circular panel. . arabian fiat ornament, mosque raonam-ed din, (prisse d'avcnnes). . . romanesque, minster, basol arabian bus relief, door, cairo, th century, (prisse d'avonnes). . as no . arabian bas-relief, l th century, (l'art pour tous) . arabian, sunk decoration, metal plaquo, (prisse d'avennes). — niello, baltasar silvius, lgth contury, (ysondyck). marble, mosaic, floor, s. vitale, ravenna, (hcssemor). romanesque, portal, s. laurenco, segovia, th century. . arabian, decoration of koran, th century, (prisso d'avennes). platf. toe circular panel. renascence, bas rehef, vendramini tomb, ss. giovanni e paolo, venice, italian, (menrer). and renascence, majolica tiles, sta. caterina, siena, italian. . renascence, wrought iron panel, san salvator, prague, german, (gewerbehalle). . renascence, church, kamenz, german, (gewerbehalle). . renascence, peter flbtuer, german. . modern, centro of a silver plaque, by ihne and stegmiiller of berhn, (gewerbehalle). . modern, ceiling of staircase, villa croissy, seine et oise, french, (cesar daly). meyer, handbook of orneraeat ' plate . the circular panel. t enclosed ornament. enclosed ornament. ' the circular i'anel. plate . the oblong panel the oblong panel. (plates — .) tho shape of the oblong is particularly adapted to receive both a bi-axial and a mon-axial treatment; and as it is by far the most fre- inently-used shape: numerous examples of the two treatments are to ue found in all styles. when the oblong is not sub-divided (as shown on plates to ic), the natural axes, around .which the ornament is grouped are, for the bi-axial treatment, the two diameters, which join the centres of the opposite sides. these lines divido tho figure into smaller oblongs, each of which receives an identical decoration (comp. plate , figs. — , and plate , figs. — ). to use the diagonals as lines of symmetry, as is the rule with the square, pro- duces an unfavourable effect; because the triangles thus formed, although similar to each other, do not present the same angle to the centre (comp. plate . ). this panel differs from the usual rule, as the organic growth of the ornament is not from the centre out- wards, but from the angles inwards. the strict greek palmetto ornamentation, which has such nn excellent effect in the square, is less suitable for the oblong (plate , figs. and ) than the freer decorations of the roman period (plate . ) and the renascence (plate g . — ). on vertical surfaces: the attitude of the oblong panel may be either "figure-wise", or "landscape-wise". examples of the former attitude are figs. and ; and of the latter are, figs. and on plate . the vertical line through the centre is the axis of these. the ornament is seldom geometrical; organic or artificial motives are mostly used. tho mon-axial treatment is most properly employed where it is applied in a really vertical plane, e. g. on pilasters, (comp. p. , shafts of pilasters), on walls, doors, &c. the poly-axial treat- ment is best adapted for the decoration of horizontal planes, such as floors, ceilings, &c. copious material is furnished by the inlaid-work, bas-reliefs, and metal-work, of the renascence. plate . tiie oblong panel. — . greek, painted coffers of ceilings, tropylaea, athens, (owen jones). . roman. . roman, under-side of the architrave, temple of vesparian, romo. . renascence, church, kamenz, german, (gewerbehalle). plate . the oisi.oxo panel. . renascenco, intarsia, cabinet, perugia, italian, (jacobsthal). . renascenco, palazzo vecchio, mantua, italian, (jacobsthal). enclosed ornament. the oblong panel. plate . enclosed ornament. tlate . the oblong paucl. the oblong panel. hate . enclosed ornament. plate . the oblong panel. the oblong panel. — the elliptic panel. . renascence, marzuppini tomb, sta. croce, florence, (jacobsthal). . renascence, tomb, stiftskirche, stuttgart, german, (musterornamente). . renascence, s. michael's, schwabisch-hall, german, (musterorna- mente). plate . the oblong panel. . renascence, wrought-iron grill, italian, (gewerbehalle). . wrought-iron grill, choir of s. blasius, miihlhausen, thuringia, th century, (musterornamente). — . ivory inlays, by hans schieferstein, th century, museum, dresden. . wrought-iron, house, freiburg, switzerland, th century, (l'art pour tous). . ornament, over picture of saint, by barthel beham, carlsruhe, german renascence. — . stalls of the laurentian library, florence, italian renascence. plate . the oblong panel. i. grill, sohlettstadt, , (gewerbehalle). — . intarsia, s. petronio, bologna, , (musterornamente). . wrought-iron balaustrade, th century. . wrought-iron, french, th century. . wrought-iron, stift strahov, prague, german, renascence. the elliptic panel. (plate .) as regards the principle of decoration, the ellipse bears the same relation to the circle that the oblong does to the square. when not sub-divided (see plate , fig. ), it is treated either mon-axially, with the ornament symmetrical to ono of the axes (fig. ); or it is treated bi-axially, with the ornament symmetrical to both (figs. to ). the elliptic panel was not often used in decoration during the best periods. in the th and th centuries, it was used as the form for snuff-boxes, sweet-boxes, &c., the decoration being carried-out in niello, and similar metal work. it was also in use during the same period in centre-ornaments for the covers of books. from such examples, most of the figures on the plate have been taken. plate . the elliptic panel. — . renascence, german, (formenschatz). . centre of a book-cover, gold blocking on vellum, german th century, (storck). enclosed ornament. the elliptic panel. plate . enclosed ornament. plate the lunette, and the spanrail panels. enclosed ornament the lunette, and the spanrail panels. plate . the lunette, and the spanrail panels. — various panels. *me as two conjoined trianguloids. it lias a vertical central axi> another well-known shapo results when two smaller semicircles are taken-'away from a larger, as when, for instance, two round-headed windown lights are enclosed by a common arch. finally we 'may mention the quadrant, which is not infrequently used in the angles of ceilings (figures and of plate ). plate . toe lunette, and toe spanraii. panels. . roman, (vulliamy). . italian renascence, (gewerbehalle). . arabian, (prisse d'avennes). . early gothic spanrail, stone church, england. — . arabian, mosaic spanrail, (prisse d'avennes). — . modern. plate . the lunette, and the spanhail panel. . renascence, intarsia, sta. maria in organo, verona, italian. : wrought-iron grill. . renascence, wrougth-iron grill, german. . renascence, plinth of a column, st. antonio, padua, (meurer) . modern, vaudeville theatre, paris, (raguenet). — . renascence, by vredeman de vries. the lozenge panel. (plate .) the lozenge in decorative art includes the rhombus, and the square when one of its diagonals is vertical. the lozenge is treated either as an upright panel, symmetrical to one axis (figs. , , and )j or the two diagonals are the axes of symmetry for a bi- axial pattern (figs. , and ). in the former case, the ornament consists of two; and in the latter case of four, similar parts. the lozenge is not often employed. occasionally it finds a place as a panel in lattices, doors, dadoes, ceilings, &c. plate . the lozenge panel. . door, nordlingen church, th century. — . grill, townhall, wurzburg, german renascence. — . modern decorative painting. various panels. (plates — .) plato and give a number of incidental panel-shapes, of which there is a great variety. the principle of decoration must enclosed ornament. plate . various panels. (i various panels. be adapted to each case; and should follow the analogy of tho prin ciples enunciated above. thus, for example, regular polygons with convex or concave sides (plate . and ); are treated similarly to polygons with straight sides. figures like those on plate . and , are decorated in the manner of an oblong or an ellipse. the ornament of plate . , recalls the decoration of tho lunette. the trapezoid is treated either as an upright panel, the central axis being perpendicular to the two parallels; or the ornamentation approaches that of a bi-axial oblong panel; but it will be somewhat modified, to fit the angles (plate . and ). this latter cir- cumstance has also to be taken into consideration in the case of a right-angled triangle of unequal sides, when the line of bisection of the right-angle is used as the axis of symmetry (plate . ); an unsymmetrical arrangement is best in this case, see figures to on the same plate. this latter free style of design, which is not bound by axial lines', may also be recommended for the baking parallelo- grams which occur on staircases. plate . yarious panels. . wrought-iron grill, townhall, villingen, late german re- nascence. — . balaustrade of staircase, frankfort on the main, german th century, (gewerbehalle). — . grill, pulpit-steps, thann, german th century, (gewerbe- halle). . grill, padua, italian renascence. . detail of lattice, late german renascence. . grill, late german renascence. plate . various panels. . trefoil tracery, gothic, (jacobsthal). . mural painting, swedish, romanesque, (racinet). . louvre, paris. — . marble inlaid-work, pulpit, cathedral, savona, italian renascence, (meurer). — . triangular panels, stalls of the laurentian library, florence, ascribed to michel angelo. e. repeating ornament. (diapers.) it is the essence, of repeated ornament, that it may be ex- tended on all sides at discretion, the component parts of the design (i. e. the pattern) admitting of uninterrupted repetition. the ele- ments are either geometrical, organic, or, as in the majority of cases, geometrical are combined with organic elements, sometimes with the addition of figures and artificial accessories. diaper ornament has either a poly-axial or a bi-axial character. in the former case, the decoration expands regularly on all sides; the basis is a system of inter- secting axes of symmetry, as shown in the square or triangular nets on plate . in the second case, the decoration consists of growth in an up- ward direction, the repetition on each side being secured by "turning the pattern over" symmetrically, or by juxtaposition (in the usual sense of the word). here, also, combination frequently occurs to this extent that many patterns have a poly-axial basis while single panels and medallions have upright decoration. growth in a downward direction, or in an oblique upward di- rection, <fec., must be classed as exceptions to the rule. when diaper patterns are applied to circumscribed surfaces, e. g. on walls: they are either cut-off abruptly, as in wall-papers, or are stopped-short of the limits, and a border is applied. there is seldom much difficulty in the case of geometrical patterns; but with organic designs the sides of the upright patterns usually terminate at the axis of symmetry. diaper ornament is applied to many purposes. mosaic, parquetry, marquetry, using geometrical patterns; the textile, wall-paper, and the square diaper, circle diaper, ac wall-painting crafts using the organic elements; and floor-cover- ings, glass-painting, inlaying, and similar metal-decorations, using both. the treatment of large grills sometimes demands a repeated pattern, that may be expanded at will, so that we may add this branch to the others. the square diaper. (parquetry.) (plate .) parquetry is the term applied to the overlaying of flooring with mosaic of hard woods. the patterns are almost exclusively geo- metrical; the basis is the quadrangular or triangular net. the single parts are first put together to form square or regular hexagonal figures, which are then tongued and grooved, and fixed to the boards. the plate shows a number of modern parquet-patterns: figures , , and being based on the triangular; and the others on the qua drangular net. parquet-patterns which are so designed that the floor has the effect of projections and hollows, are inadmissible because they are unsuited to a floor, which is intended to be walked on, and should, therefore, be flat in design as well as in reality. plate . the square diaper, &c — . modern parquet-patterns. the circle diaper. (mosaic.) (plate .) mosaic (opus musivum) is, in its wider sense, the designing and inlaying of pieces of stone, wood, glass, leather, straw, &c, to make a picture or pattern. more strictly: mosaic means pictures and patterns composed of pieces of stone, pottery, pearl, and glass, the last being coloured or underlaid with metal-foil. there are two principal classes of such mosaic the opus tesse- latum is composed of small pieces, mostly cubes, held together by being inlaid in a kind of cement . the opus sectile is composed of little slabs, varying in shape according to the object to be repre- sented. mosaic work is very ancient; and is mentioned as early as the book of esther. a large number of roman mosaic pavements, in opus tesselatum, have been preserved to us. early christian art also decorated walls and piers with geometrical mosaic (opus orecanicum), numerous examples of which are to be found in ravenna, palermo, venice, and elsewhere. all kinds of mosaic have been practised in italy down to the present day, less, it is true, for the decoration of walls and pavements than for ornaments, pictures, table-tops, &c repeating ornament riatc . tbe circle diaper, &c. the circle diaper, scale diaper, &c. in the arabian and the moorish styles, incrustations of mosaics in stone and glazed terracotta were a popular method of wall-decoration. the art of mosaic has never acquired a firm footing in northern countries. plate . the circle diaper, &c. . mosaic, cathedral, monreale, sicily . arabian mosaic, stucco on stone, (prisse d'avennes). . roman mosaic. . marbld mosaic, windows, cathedral, florence, (hessemer). . geometrical pattern, sta. croce, florence. .' marble mosaic, san vitale, ravenna, (hessemer). . modern tesselated mosaic, sorrento. and . moorish mosaic, ambassadors' hall, alhambia, granada, (owen jones). . arabian mosaic, stucco on stone, (prisse d'avennes). the scale diaper. &c. (enamel.) (plate .) where the surfaces of metal utensils and vessels are to receive a flat decoration this is usually effected by engraving, etching, dam- askeening, enamel, or niello work. in the process of engraving, the decoration is engraved by means of the graving-tool, and the hollows in some cases filled up with coloured lacquer, &c. in etching, the metallic surface is protected against the action of the etching-fluid by being coated with a film, so that the design is sunk where the protecting film is removed by the artist. in damaskeening, the pre- cious metals are fastened on iron and steel, by being hammered into engraved hollows which have been undercut with a roughened ground. the processes of enamelling are very various. in the cloison process: bent bands or fillets of metal (cloisons) are soldered-on to the metal ground, and the hollows or cells thus formed are filled with pulve- rised glass paste (glass coloured with metallic oxides) which are then vitrified by heat. in the sunk or "cbamp-leve" process: the hollows in the metallic ground are produced by the graver, or by casting and subsequent chasing, and are then filled with enamel. niello resembles black enamel: the enamel paste being replaced by a com- position of metal and sulphur. enamel work (sunk-work) was known in antique times. the cologne enamel was celebrated in the middle ages. cloison enamel has been practised in the east, in china, and in japan, from the earliest times. the so-called limoges "enamel" is painted on a lilain metal ground, without any previous cloisons or any sunk fields for repeating rnamen . lisi plate . the scale diaper, &c. tbo scale diaper, circle diaper, ac . the pigments. damaskeened objects are found in german and old prankish tombs. this art, however, disappeared in the west only to be pursued more energetically in the east, where it still flourishes, e. g in persia, and india niello, engraved, and etched work were most fashionable at tho time of the renascence. plate the scale diapek, &o. — chinese and japanese. , and indian and persian and renascence and mediaeval, (cologne enamel). the circle diaper, &c (tiles.) (plate ) the decoratiod of walls and pavements, with glazed clay tiles, dates back as early as assyrian times the middle ages made a most extensive use of pavement tiles the individual tiles are mostly of a square shape, and vary in size from ins. to ins the pattern is generally in intaglio; and fre- quently filled in with olay of another color the designs of these tiles are usually excellent the tile contains either the whole of the repeating ornament; or only a part of it so that tiles form the unit of design. these tiles are common in england, france, and ger many majolica tiles are used in italy; and are generally adopted for the wall-decoration so popular in england. plate . the circle diaper, &c. — various mediaeval tiles, after owen jones, racinet, and others. . fontenay, cote d'or. and rouen museum. . cathedral, st. omer. . troyes, archives de l'aube. the circle diaper, &c. (stained glass.) (plate .) window glazing is an introduction of the middle ages, and was unknown to tho antique. coloured windows were first used for churches. the oldest process consisted in fitting-together pieces of coloured glass in the mosaic style. about the year , the prin- cipal place of manufacture was kloster tegernsee. in the th and plate . the circle diaper, &c. the circle diaper, &c — various diapers. th centuries, painting begins, followed by glass-painting strictly so-called, the design being outlined in brown paint; flashed glass, ac followed later. after passing through a period of decadence; and almost vanishing during the last two centuries; glass-painting has, of late years, again become the object of great attention, and especially that branch which, leaving strict painting on one side, produces its most striking effects with coloured glass and leaden cames. the vigorous outlines, produced by the lead-setting, enhance the brilliancy of the colours, and prevent the unpleasant optical effect produced by the blending of contiguous tints. we have here to deal only with the ornamental decoration of surfaces by painting or mosaic. the best examples are to be found in the transition period from the romanesque to the gothic style in the churches of germany, france, and england, the three countries which may be regarded as the true home of stained glass. plate . the cescle diaper, &c. — . various patterns, romanesque and early gothic (owen jones, racinet, and others). and . chartres cathedral. and . bourges cathedral. . soissons cathedral. various diapers. (mural painting.) (plates — .) the models and precursors of mural-decoration are to be looked- for in hangings of carpets and textiles. the egyptian style offers the earlist known examples of the decoration of surfaces by means of wall-painting. the scheme is generally a meander or similar pattern, varied by rosettes, &c. (plate . and ). the pompejan artists used figures and architectural representations in perspective instead of diaper patterns. early christian art used mosaics, which were gradually driven-out by wall-painting during the romanesque, and gothic periods. churches and public buildings are again the first edifices whose "interiors were decorated by "tapestry paintings", as we may term this style of decoration in view of the mutual relation between it and textile art. with respect of the principles of design: we may refer the reader to the general introduction, page , and to the plates — . the use of wall-papers in modern times has greatly narrowed the sphere of mural painting: its principal task being now confined to the decoration of public buildings. repeating ornament. repeating ornament. plate . various diapers. various diadcre. plate . various diapers. — . painting, old cabinet, brandenburg, beginning of the th century, (musterornamente). . painting, sta. croce, florence, italian renascence. — . painting, consistory church, assisi, th century, (hessemer). and . modern french, church painting. . painting, castle of trausnitz, landshut, end of th century, (gewerbehalle). . painting, palazzo del podesta, florence, th century, (muster- ornamente). plate . various diapers. . ancient egyptian, meander. . ancient egytian, ceiling painting, (racinet). — . arabian paintings, kaithey mosque, (prisse d'avennes). . arabian mural painting, mosque of ibrahim aga, cairo, (hessemer). various diapers. (weaving.) (plates — .) the artistic decoration of textile fabrics goes back to the very earliest times; and is of a most varied character. after the decoration of animal skins, by sewing and embroidering, came the creation of patterns in plaited mats by the use of material of various colours; and this again was followed by the different products of weaving, variegated by the use of coloured yarns, by embroidery, by print- ing, &c. it is due to the perishability of the material that scarcely any products of the loom of the older epochs are to be found in our museums; and that we can only infer their patterns from descriptions and pictures. all the richer, on the other hand, is the choice offered by the renascence, the middle ages, and the east. it would go beyond the scope of this book to give a detailed historical and technical description of textile industry; and we refer the reader to the special works and monographs on this subject*. usually the mode of decoration depends on the object, and varies with the artistic conceptions of the different styles. by the side of purely geometrical patterns (plate . and ), we find organic elements in a geometrical framing (plate . and , plate , ). by the side of poly-axial arrangements (plate . , and ), there are others with mon-axial features (plate . and ). by the side of symmetrical "turn-over" patterns (plate . ), we have others unsymmetrical (plate . ). by the side of artificial flowers and rosettes, powdered * otto v. sdiorn, "die textilkunst". leipzig. merer. handbook of ornament. various diapers. over the ground (plato . ), there occur natural elements like the curious japanese design on plate , cg. ; and so on. the great principle of style, in the standard examples of all periods, is the avoidance of representations of relief, or of perspective views of archi- tecture, which contradict the nature of the flat surface. important is also the proper distribution of the masses, so that distracting lines or empty spaces may be avoided. of equal importance with the design is the colour, but the plan of this work compels us to leave it out of consideration. next to the fabrication of textiles for ecclesiastical vestments and secular garments: the most important manufacture is that of car- pets, and of tapestries for use on walls, as curtains, portieres, &c. of the introduction of the latter into painting, we have already spoken, on plato . here we will only refer to the tapestried backgrounds, common in pictures of the th to the th century, examples of which are to be seen in figs. and of plate . woollen and silk tapestry were followed by sheets of stamped-lcatber, an arabian invention, which in its turn was followed by the modern wall-paper, at first in painted single sheets, and afterwards in the printed rolls now so common. that we do not devote a special chapter of our work to this important product of modern art, is due to the fact that a difference between mural painting and textile pat- terns really only exists in the mode of manufacture, there being no essential distinction in respect of design. modern wall-papers have, on the average, a breadth of ins., on which the pattern is arranged once or oftener, according to tho sizo of the design. the repeating of the pattern in an upward direction is partly due to technical con- siderations. in printing by baud from a wooden block, the length of the repeating pattern varies from ins. to ins. pi-yte . various diapers. iaud . mediaeval textile, (gewerbohallo). . textile, th century, original in silk and gold; found in a tomb in tho abbey of st. germain dos pros, paris, (kacinet). . patterned gold ground of altar shrine, monastery of heil- bronn, end of th century, (gewcrbehalle). . patterned gold ground of altar shrine, church of st. egidius, barthfcld, (gewcrbehalle). . french silk tapestry, ui century, (l'ait pour tous). plate . various diapers. . bishop's robe, sacristy, sla. croce, florence. . pillow pattern, tomb, st. george's, tiibiugen, german renascence, (gcworbchalle). eepeating ornament. plate . various diapers. various grill diapers. plate . <j various diapers. . lace, th century, german, by hans siebmacher. . stamped leather, book-cover, th century, (geworbohallo). textile, german renascence, (musterornamonte). . carpet, rottwoil, german renascence, (gewerbehalle). . modern japanese silk, (l'art pour tons). . painted gold ground, st. lorenzo, rottweil, end of tho th century, (musterornamento). i . carpet, stiftskirche, comburg, beginning of the th century, (musterornamente). . textile, venetian picture, , berlin museum, (gewerbehalle). various grill diapers. (plate .) wrought-iron grills may also be treated as diapers; and railings and gratings are often treated as shown by the figures in the plate. the skeleton is formed by bars interlaced on the basis of the quadran- gular or lozenge net; the compartments being filled, either con- tinuously, or at regular intervals, with recurring ornamental accessories (figs. , , and ). another system places a repeating scroll-like ornament between parallel bars (fig. ). the straight lines of the skeleton may also bo replaced by curved bars (fig. ). the material is square, round, and flat iron bars; either singly, or in combination. both the middle ages and the renascence have transmitted numerous examples in this branch; a selection is given in the plate. plate . vabious grill dlvpebs. . late gothic, choir-screen, minister, constance, th century. . german renascence. . italian renascence. . modern, by ende and bockmann, berlin, (gewerbehalle). . german, th century. . german renascence. division iii decora ted objects. a. vases, <s.c. b. metal objects c. furniture. d. frames, &c. e. jewelry. f. heraldry g. writing, printing, &c prefatory remarks. the third division of the handbook is entitled "decorated objects". it is intended, firstly, to show in what manner and on what principles decoration is applied to objects, (thus complement- ing the work of the second division); and secondly, it will pass a little beyond the strict limits of aisthetics, and enter on the* sphere of tectonics, in order to present a view of the construction, profiling and general plan of objects of art, e. g. vases, utensils, furniture, &c these considerations, and the wish to be as comprehensive as possible, have necessitated the inclusion of some objects which are not decorated. this inclusion will increase the bulk of the book; but the selection of objects will be restricted, as much as possible, to those which illustrate the principles of decoration. a. vases. vases, with which this division opens, are one of the most interest- ing and important of its groups. gottfried semper, who has treated keramics brilliantly in his epoch-making work "der stil", says in the introduction to the chapter on this subject: "the products of keramic art were held in unusually high esteem by all peoples and in all periods. they had attained a religious symbolical significance long before the times of monumental edifices, which latter, indeed, were greatly influenced by the former; directly, in that keramic works served for the construction and ornamentation of the monu- ments; indirectly, because architecture took up principles of beauty and style and even finished forms which had already been developed in keramic work, and had first been fixed by the art potters of pre- architectural times" "they are the oldest and most eloquent docu- ments of history. show us the pottery which a nation has produced, and we can in general tell what manner of nation it was and what height of culture it had attained!" professor gmelin, who, in his essay: "die urformen und gestaltungsprinzipien der topferei" and in his work: "die elemente der gefassbildnerei", has attempted with much success to popularise semper's theories, says: "a bit of dar- winism is here unfolded in the sphere of industry: the way in which the development of man has been influenced by climate, the character of the soil, food, &c., finds its parallel in keramics in the formation of vessels as conditioned by the joint causes of aim, material, and technique". vases. how far pottery goes back to prehistoric times, is proved by the calculations made from the alluvial deposits of the nile valley, and the geological conditions on the coasts of scandinavia, which give us the respectable age of to years for the pottery discovered in those spots. the circumstance that, besides satisfying the needs of daily life, pottery was used in religious and funeral rites, more especially the custom of placing vessels in the grave of the departed, of enclosing the ashes of the dead in urns before com- mitting them to the earth, has at any rate preserved to us certain kinds of pottery, of which, otherwise, only sherds and fragments had remained. by eeramics we understand not only earthen-ware, but the design and making of vessels in general. next to the various clays, glass, and metals, which have the first claim on our attention, stone, wood, and ivory, along with other less common materials, are the substances generally used. each of these materials imparts its own character to the vessels made of it; the corresponding technique will limit or modify the form. a metal vessel requires form and decoration diffe- rent from one of glass or porcelain; the profile of & clay vase cannot be made in marble without much modification. on the other hand the purpose, for which the vessel is intended, will influence the choice of the material; so that a reciprocal interaction arises, which stimulates to the study of keramics, and makes it charming and instructive. that the majority of the examples in this group of pottery have been taken from the antiquo, is due to the fact that this epoch offers a general picture complete in itself; and that it is chiefly in the greek style that the above-mentioned reciprocal interaction, regularity of form, and tectonic principle are, on the average, most clearly ex- pressed. that, on the other hand, we have brought the constructions of other countries and periods into suitable connexion with the antique, arises from our wish to meet the wants and requirements of our time in a greater degree than can be done by monographs of greek keramics alone, such as we possess in a largo number of special wocks*. in view, of the immense importance of antique keramics and of clay as a material in general: it may be well to offer here a few general remarks on this subject, reserving our observations on other materials and styles till the elucidation of the plates in question. pottery is generally made on the potter's wheel. in egypt, india, and * among such works whose size, get-up, and text render them suitable for school and educational purposos, we may mention: th. lau: die gruchischen vascn, ihr formal- und decoratiotusystem. tafeln mit einer historischen einleitung und erlaulemdem text von dr. brunn und dr. krell. loipzig: e. a. seemann. a. genick: gricchische keramik. tafeln mit einleitung und be- schreibung von adolf furtwanglcr. berlin: ernst wasmuth. vases. mesopotamia, the use of this important implement of civilisation goes back to tho very earliest times. the mural paintings of beni hassan, which have been referred to the th century b. o, show that pottery was then already known; while germany did not use pottery before the bo man period; and america, previous to the arrival of europeans, was only acquainted with the formation of pots by hand, in spite of the great achievements of the peruvians. the formation of pottery by hand, is still in use in many countries. to this class belongs the building-up with zonal or spiral strips, and the moulding over plaited moulds or gourds which are then destroyed in the firing. wooden and stone moulds were used in early times; and also in modern times in connection with the wheel. at the outset, people con- tented themselves with drying the clay; afterwards drying was followed by firing. an intermediate stage is to fire beneath a covering of cow-dung, the air being excluded; when the smoke penetrates into the clay, and colours it gray or black. originally only smoothed and polished, the vessels were afterwards rendered more impervious to liquids by being painted with a varnish, such as is seen on greek vases; and by the discovery of the tin and lead glazes, such as are found on the so-called "majolica ware". the porosity, of many oriental vessels, is intentional, in order that the contents may be kept cool by the process of evaporation on the sur- face of the vessel. of the chemical composition of these ancient varnishes, we are not so well informed as we could wish. antique pottery is found in all places where ancient civilisation penetrated; but the principal sources are: greece, sicily, and italy, particularly campania and etruria. to this latter circumstance is ascribed the erroneous use of the name "etruscan", in the last century, as a collective name for antique pottery in general. athens, corinth, and chalcis, were the chief factories of pottery in greece; and ta- rentuui and comae in italy, where pottery established itself after the decay of greek art. apart from prehistoric products, it can be pro- ved that greek vase-painting begins historically in the th century b. c; attained its golden age about b. o; and decayed with the invasion by the romans about b. c. according to peculia- rities of form and finish, we distinguish different periods, the leading characteristics of which are as follows: — . the geometrical style: clay natural colour, yellowish-grey, rough; decoration brown, in bands, rings, zigzag lines, checks and other simple patterns, borrowed from the technique of weaving and wood carving, sometimes in connection with represen- tations of domestic animals, teams, &c., in rhythmic sequence, (compare plate . and ). . the asiatic style: clay natural color, yellowish, impregnated and smoothed; decoration dark brown, dark red, and white, boo vase. — fundamental vase-forms. with fantastic winged creatures, lions, panthers, geese, sphinxes, mostly arranged in zones. the intervening spaces, between the animals, are filled with rosettes, flowers, &c. the zonal deco- ration is often replaced by scales, (compare plate . ). . the black figure style: clay reddish-yellow, coloured with oxide of iron; decoration black, pure white being used for the carnations of female figures, horses, &c. the conception of the figures is frequently archaic, drawn in uncoloured com- partments bordered by ornamental bands. the lines of drapery, &c. are scratched through the black colour, to the clay. . the red figure style: clay red, very smooth: the entire vessel, with the exception of the ornaments and figures, coated black; the black sometimes having a greenish shimmer. white only occasionally found, for grey hair and the like. the tendency to simplification is predominant in respect of both ornament and figures; usually with only one figure or with simple groups of figures; outlines are painted-in with the pencil. . tjie painted style: clay as in no. ; the vessels frequently of colossal size (they are then not intended for practical use, as may be inferred from their having no bottom); the nume- rous red figures on the black ground are placed one over the other, with the addition of architectural decoration: technically the decoration is executed in a careless manner; dark red, white, yellow, and gold are also used; luxuriant brushwork ornament, patterns in perspective, and painted reliefs, are common. the succession of these styles, in time, is generally that of the above order; but they often blend with each other without any de- finite demarcation, forming composite styles and varieties. we find, for instance, certain drug-pots which have polychrome painting on a white background, and so on. fundamental vase-forms. (plate .) vases, as a rule, are composed of a number of simple forms or parts. these are usually the foot, the body, and the neck; to which a handle, a lid, and a spout, may also be added. the most impor- tant part is the body. in the majority of cases it determines the fundamental form of the vessel. the natural models for vessels are the hollow hand, the egg, the husks of fruits (gourds, nuts), the horns of animals, the skins of animals, and similar objects. these have, as a matter of fact, been used in all ages as models, for more thc fundamental vate-foruis. or less direct imitation; and were undoubtedly used by mankind in tho lowost stages of civilisation, instead of artificial vessels. certain stereotyped forms recur again and again: first among tbem (due to the use of the potter's wheel) the form of the so-called body of revolution. an attempt is made, on plate , to give a general view of the com- monest fundamental forms, with their names. the sphere, the cylinder, and the hyperboloid, are the simplest of these. the sphere is altered, by equally flattening or extending, to tho spheroid, or the ellipsoid. if these bodies bo cut-away at both ends: we have the erect, and the recumbent vessel. unequal flattening and extending produce forms which wo may term echinus, cake, egg, and top forms; or, if the length much exceeds the breadth: wedge, spindle, and drop forms. if only tho top be cut-into: we have either the dish, or the cup form. conical, bag, and canopus forms may be derived from the cylinder. in a similar way the hyperboloid also leads to new forms. if the height of tho vessel be a high multiple of the diameter, we get slender, tapering .forms: in the reverse case, we have dishes and plates. the egg is the commonest form in pottery. cylindrical and conical forms, i. e. such bodies as have a developible surface, are best adapted for sheet-metal work. mathematical curves, e. g. arcs of circles, are not strictly ad- hered-to in the profiles. vessels, which are not made on the wheel, often exhibit arbitrary forms which cannot be grouped in the scheme of the plate. in the chinese and japanese styles, for example, pris- matic forms are very common (compare plate . ); human and animal shapes are found in the antique, as forms of vessels, (com- pare plate . ). the various junctions, of the body with the neck, or the foot, will produce a series of new forms. the use of double-curvature in the profile will also produce new forms, the simplest of which are the bell, and the pear. the so-called "gourd-pots", the pilgrim-bottles, &c., also form special and rarer groups of forms. here too, may be mentioned duplex vessels formed by the juxtaposition of two vessels on a common foot, or by.uniting them with a common handle. these forms are found sporadically in prehistoric and all subsequent periods. as regards the feet of vessels: we have first to remark that in the earliest times footless and three-footed vessels are by no means rare. the former were sunk in the earth, the latter would stand on an uneven surface. the usual form of foot presupposes a level stand- ing surface and therefore some degree of civilisation. intermediate, between the absence of a foot and the high foot, is the ring-foot, a fundamental vase-forms. torus or profiled circular ring, forming the lower end of the vessel. it evidently arose from the early custom of placing footless vessels in hyperboloid rings, which were afterwards incorporated with the vessel itself. the decoration of the foot is generally subordinate to that of the body; and consists of simple motives, channellings, &c. the neck receives a cylindrical, conical, or hyperboloid form, according to the object of the vessel. as experience showed that pouring-out is best done through a narrow opening, and filling through a wide one: funnel-shaped necks, intended to meet both requirements, arose. a good decoration of the neck is to surround ii at its narro- west part with a neutral band, from which the motive of decoration may be developed upwards and downwards. the upper margin or mouth is either bent outwards or inwards, or is straight; the latter especially when the vessel was intended to be closed by a stopper. pouring-out is facilitated if the vessel be provided with a spout, or curved lip, as is the case with some mugs and cans." the decoration of the mouth, when round, is usually a beading or row of leaves curving downwards and outwards. the curved lip depends for its effect on the line of its curve, or, like the spout, is decorated by masks, scallops, &c. the lid generally fits into, on-to, or over, the upper margin, it may be raised by means of a knob, hoop, or ring; and if it does not lie loose on the mouth, is fastened by a hinge, or by cords and chains (censer). antique lids have sometimes the form of little vessels, or dishes. the handle varies in size, position, and number, according to the use and size of the vessel. the points of attachment of the vertical handle lie in a vertical plane; those of the horizontal handle are in a horizontal plane side by side; and those of the hoop handle are opposite each other in a vertical plane. the vertical handle is most used. the horizontal handle is specially intended for lifting; the ver- tical for tilting the vessel when pouring-out. vertical handles are most suitable for tall vessels; and horizontal handles for flat ones. other forms are produced by combination, as when a vertical handle is added to the centre of a horizontal one. as a rope was originally used instead of a handle, the latter frequently takes that form, (com- pare plate . ). if the vessel be intended for pouring-out. the handle should be so attached that the pouring-out may be done with equal ease whether the vessel be full or nearly empty. attempts have often been made to classify vessels according to their uses; but definite divisions cannot be made, as many vessels may serve for a number of purposes, which gives rise to combinations and inter- fundamental vase-forms. — the amphora. mediate groups. we mainly follow semper's classification when we divide vessels into the following groups- . solders; their chief object being storage and preservation. to this group belong: the amphora, urn, krater, dish and salver, the ampulla, the alabastron, and similar small vessels, flower-vase, salt-cellar, ink-pot, snuff-box, holy-water stoup, &c. . dippers; chiefly used for drawing and filling into other vessels. to this group belodg: the hydria, bucket, spoon, and patera. . pouters; for pouring-out. to these belong: the prochoiis, olpe, oinochb, lekythos, mug, can, and bottle. . drinking vessels. tbe principal representatives of this class are: the antique drinking vessels of the forms kylix, kantharos, kyathos, &e; the drinking horn or ehyton, beaker, bowl, goblet, rum- mer, tumbler, and all the various forms of our modern drinking-glasses. the various vessels will be treated in this order. in many cases: one half of the cut shows the geometrical view; and the other shows the vertical section. decorative figures are fre- quently omitted, particularly on antique vases; the decoration has sometimes been omitted, when that was required by the minuteness of the scale; and sometimes it has been only partially drawn or in- dicated, in order to avoid unnoccessary work. a. holders. the amphoha. (plate .) the ampbora is of frequent occurrence in the antique. it was intended to receive water, oil, and wine. originally sorving for practi- cal purposes, it was afterwards employed merely as a show, or stato vessel. the form was often revived in later styles; and has the follow- ing characteristics, erect, extended body, like an inverted egg (plato . ), a spindle (plate . ), a bag (plate . ), more rarely conical (plate . ), hyperboloid (plato . ), or cylindrical (plate . ). the neck is narrow, more nr less extended, with shoulder (plate . ), or without (plate . ), thickened at the tbe rim. two vertical handles, diametrically opposito each other. at first, without a foot (plate . — ), afterwards with a round or vases. the most usual fundamental forms of vessels and their names. ? ptate-shaped bag-s haped dish-shaped conical i cp recumbent cp> <^b> j echinus spheroid cake-shaped t cytindricat spherical i inverted cone top-shaped inverted egg ettlpsoid egg-shaped i cd erect cask. c&nopus pear-shaped hypcrbotoid i -mjp . shaped wedge-shsped spindte-shaped drop-shaped plate . chart of fundamental vase forms. the amphora. — the urn. high foot. with or without cover. material: clay, more rarely glass, or other materials.. size: very variable, according to use. plate . the amphora. egyptian, with cover, thebes, thutmes iii. . egyptian, with cover, thebes, xx dynasty. . small four-sided, with latin inscription, found in egypt, unpainted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . assyrian, with rope handle, clay. . roman, unpainted red clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . roman, unpainted yellow clay, found near aquileia in , united collections, carlsruhe. . roman, glass, with stopper, rouen, museum, (deville). . roman, iridescent glass, found at pompeii. ancient, attic, painted clay (so-called diota), munich, (lau). — . clay, painted in polychrome, with band-shaped handles, so- called alexandrian style, (lau and jacobsthal). . antique, black painted clay, (gropius). . antique state amphora, white marble, with swan handles, "vase of the athenian sosibios", louvre, paris. . modern french, state amphora, by lienard. . t faun with amphora, from the painted neck ol an antique drinking-horn, (compare plate . — ). the urn. (plate .) the urn is met-with, not only in the antiquo and all subsequent styles, but in early times everywhere and specially in prehistoric styles. apart from other purposes, the urn was frequently used in funeral rites, as a repository for the ashes of the dead, as a coffin, and so on. it has an erect body, profiled like an inverted egg or spindlo. the neck is comparatively wide and low, the mouth straight or curved outwards, usually closed by a cover. either without feet, or with a low round foot without handles, or with two small hori- zontal handles, attached to the greatest prominence of the body. material: clay. generally of considerable size. plate . tue urn. - egyptian, rubbing an urn, (menard et sauvageot). . prehistoric, gallic, (bosc). . grey clay, ornamentation in relief, united collections, carlsruhe. — . greek, painted clay, munich. . majolica, th century, italian. tbe urn. — the krater. — tbe basin, and dish. — . slavic, found in the district of the elbe and oder. . modern faience, bombay, (gewerbehalle). . majolica, th century, italian, (storck). . german, cut crystal, small with high foot, th century, na tional museum, munich, (eunsthandwerk). the krater (plate .) the krater is an antique vase, chiefly used for mixing water and wine (wine was not drunk unmixed); and perhaps also for ablu- tions. although we meet with it as early as egyptian times, it is not found in antique keramic art until its later periods. as a state vessel, the krater has probably been more highly developed than any other form. modern art employs the krater preferentially as a garden vase for plants. a characteristic of the krater is its great width at the top. the body is either a hemispherical dish (fig. ), or has a wide, cup - shaped neck, (figs. and ). where the junction is formed without a shoulder: we have the bell-shaped krater (figs. and ). the foot is frequently small; and so arranged that it stands on an independent base (fig. ). two, sometinies four, or more, horizontal or vertical handles, or hints of them. the principal materials were clay, marble, and metal. kraters are usually of con- siderable size. plate . the krater. . egyptian, with lotus cups. . egyptian, thebes, xviii dynasty. — . greek, munich, (lau). . greek, with columnar handles, munich, (lau). . greek, with volute handles, (lau). . antique, uffizi, florence, (gropius). . antique, marble, with four handles, found at ostia, evi- dently copied from a metal original. . ditto, found at tivoli, england. . antique, state vase, marble, the decoration of the neck, con- sisting of figures or rich scroll ornament, is omitted. . assyrian. — . antique, for ladies' toilet, greek vase-paintings. the basin, and dish. (plate .) basins, and dishes, are vessels of such common use, that they are found everywhere, and in all periods in which fhe keramic art vases. the krater. plate . the basin, and dish. tans been practised. their uses are manifold; their form is indicated by their names: dishes are the deeper, plate:; the shallower vessels. they occur without foot, and with a round or high foot. the last was specially adopted for the greek kylix. handles are wanting, or occur singly, or in pairs, horizontal, vertical, as hoop handles, and so on. material, and size: various. the decoration of dishes is generally on the exterior; and of plates is generally on the inner or upper face. in the latter case: the border and the centre are ornamented separately, being divided from each other by a neutral, undecorated zone, (figs. — ). to paint the entire surface with figures, dis- regarding the division of border and centre, would be contrary to correct style. piate . the hasin, and the dish. . egyptian dish, with hoop handles, metal, (menard et sauvagcot). . egyptian dish, with erect handles, metal, (menard et sauvageot). . greek dish, yellow clay, painted brown and red, geo- metrical style, united collections, carlsruhe. . view from above, of the handles of the abovo. . greek dish, yellow clay, ornamented with horn - like, ex- crescences, painted red, geometrical style, united collections, carlsruhe. . greek dish,- with high foot (kylix), yellow clay, decoration brown, geometrical style, munich, the interior is decorated with the ornament shown on plate . . . ditto. . greek, -flat dish, with ring foot, munich, (lau). . antique footless dish, (jacobsthal). . antique, small dish, with low foot, silver treasure, hildcs- heim. . antique, metal dish, with high volute handles, (menard et sauvageot). . roman, glass dish, with pierced handle ring, found in nor- mandy, (deville). — . majolica dish, view and section, italian renascence. — id. modern glass plates, with scalloped border. . modorn soup-tureen, with cover. . modern french metal dish, with vertical handle and three feet, (julienne). . modern spanish, small dish, of variegated glazed clay, malaga, united, collections, carlsruhe. . modern coffee-bowl, with horizontal handles. . handle of no. , viewed from abovo. vases, ml the basiin, ami the dish. plate . the ampulla, alabastron, ac. — the flower-vase, sec. the ampulla, alauastuon, &c. (plate iso.) the ampulla is a diminutive amphora, often in black painted clay, adorned with impressed ornament (figs. — ). the phiale is a slender vessel, without handles, with elongated body, and long narrow neck, of clay or glass (figs. — ). the alabastron has a bag-like or cylindrical body, no foot, a very narrow neck with a shoulder, a large plate-like mouth, and little ear-shaped handles (figs. — ). this vessel was intended for the reception of oils and unguents; it was made of alabaster or striped glass, whence its name. the lachrymatory, so-called from its tear-like profile, or from its purpose, is a glass vessel, of the forms shown in figs. and . not less frequent are little bag forms like the handleless vessels given in figs. , , and . like those already named, they were intended for toilet or religious purposes. plate g. the ampulla, alahastron, &c . egyptian phiale, with cover, thutmes iii. . antique phiale, painted clay, munich, (lau). . antique glass phiale, (stackelberg). . antique glass ampulla, striped bright blue and yellow. . antique ampulla, black painted clay with impressed orn- aments, athens, united collections, carlsruhe. . ditto, athens. — . antique, small vessels, painted clay, united collections, carls- ruhe. — . antique glass lachrymatories, museum, nuremberg, and united collections, carlsruhe. . antique alabastron, veined glass, imitating oriental ala- baster. . antique alabastron, milk-white glass, with brown stripes, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). . vase, white iridescent glass, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). . modern japanese, small vase, with mask handles, landes- gewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . old german, small stoneware vase. the flower-vase, &c. (plate .) flower-vase is the name given to vessels intended to receive and support bouquets of living or dried flowers. various as the forms of these vessels may be in other respects, their purpose requires that thev vases. plate . the flower-vase, &c. the flower-vase, &c. — vase-forms for various purposes. should have a funnel-shaped mouth. japan and china, which have been especially prolific in this group, use cylindrical and prismatic forms. such vessels do not possess a cover; handles, which are equally super- fluous, are also generally wanting; the decoration should avoid any attempt to imitate natural plant motives. glass, clay, and porcelain are the predominant materials. a special example of theso vessels is the so-called "hyaeinth-glass" intended for forcing bulbs in water. as it is desirable that the root should be visible, recourse must be had to some transparent material. decoration is excluded in the caso of the ordinary flower-pot, which must admit air and moisture. this has led to the use of the decorated flower-pot, an example of which is given in fig. . the suspended flower-vase, like suspended vases in general, must be furnished with three or more handles to which the cords and chains may bo attached; but it need not have a foot unless it intended to stand also. plate . the flower-vase, &c. . chinese, with cloison enamel, (lievro). . modern english, in oriental style, blue glazed clay, with black ornament, landesgewerbeballe, carlsruhe. . modern, glazed clay, with decoration in colours. . modern italian majolica, landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . modern, coloured stoneware, (gewerbehalle). . glass, th century. — . modern, glass. — . modern, hyacinth-glasses, (no. is patented: the upper part is made to lift out for greater convenience of pouriug- in water). . modern, decorated flower pot, green glazed clay. . arabian suspended lamp, enamelled glass, conventional form, (part of the ornamentation is omitted). — . modern suspended flower-vases, of glazed clay. vase-forms for various purposes. (plate .) this plate exhibits a numbor of receptacles for salt and other ppices, vinegar, oil, ink, c. the name "cellar" and "stand" have little connection with the form of these vessels, which may be very various. receptacles for oil and vinegar are often called "cruets". vessels belonging to this group havo not been preserved to us from the antique; but we may not conclude, from this, that salt, oil, <fcc., were not preserved in vessels in thoso days: ou the contrary, some small vessels in the silver treasure at hildeshoim, havo beon supposed vase-forms for various purposes. to be salt-cellars, though we have no definite evidence that this was so. the salt-cellar usually takes the form of a dish or bowl, some- times of a little trough or tub. the material is glazed clay, glass, porcelain, metal, &c. the renascence period created salt-cellars of rich design: the most celebrated is the famous one by cellini. with the increased use of writing, the inkstand has undergone an immense number of changes of form. the wooden inkstand, with glass lining, was in use, for a long time, till it was rendered obsolete by vessels of clay and glass. what is required of a good inkstand is: — it should not fall-over easily, and if it does should not spill; the evaporation must be reduced to a minimum; the height of the contents must be easy to regulate. to fulfil all these requirements numerous inventions have been made, some of which we will notice here. in fig. the centre of gravity lies in the foot, and this, with the form of the glass, prevents falling-over, or spilling. in fig. the level of the ink can be regulated by an india-rubber stopper. the funnel- shaped tube in which the ink rises is convenient for dipping the pen; and it reduces the evaporation. fig. shows an inkstand with sloping bottom, and revolving cover, which may be adjusted to the varying level of the ink. the form of fig. is intended to prevent falling-over, to reduce evaporation, and to maintain the level uniform for a long time; a result which is attained, notwithstanding the sim- plicity. oil and vinegar cruets are usually small bottles with a shoulder. they are generally placed in pairs, in a frame (fig. ); a direct union of the two, as in fig. , is rare. the pepper-box has of late years taken the form of the pepper mill or grinder (fig. ), otherwise it is associated with the salt-cellar, and receives the same form. the inkstand and the sand-box were also often associated together; but blotting-paper renders the latter unnecessary. plate . vase-forms for various purposes. . salt-cellar, renascence, (formenschatz). . salt-cellar, german, i th century. . majolica salt-cellar, italian renascence, (teirich). . spice-frame, glass, th century. . modern cruet-frame. . modern cruets, coloured glass, antique model. . modern cruet-frame. . modern peppermill. . old inkstand, wood. . modern inkstand. . inkstand, glazed clay. vase-forms for various purposes. rinle . vise-forms for various furposes. . modern inkstand, with adjustable stopper. . modern glass inkstand, with sloping bottom and revolving cover. . modern glass inkstand. . old horn inkstand, for the pocket; after unscrewing the foot- piece, the metal pin may be forced into the table-tap. . modern inkstand. . modern inkstand. the jar, the cist, ac. (plate . j.irs and pots are small receptacles of spheroid or cylindrical form, for solid, granular, or pasty substances. the lid is either loose, or affixed by hinges; and is an essential part of the vessel. the materials are clay, porcelain, glass, wood, metal, ivory, &c. besides the small clay pots and boxes which are common in the antique: we must also mention the cist. this is a metal vessel of cylindrical form, and considerable size, which was used for religious rites, and for the reception of jewelry, rolls, &c. the style is con- ventional: there were three claws for the feet; and the exterior of the cylinder was decorated with incised figures, and furnished with rings to which chains were attached, for the transportation of tho vessel. the lid is slightly domed; and the handle usually consists of two wrestlers grasping each other by tho shoulders (fig. g). plate . the jar, the cist, &c. . antique, yellow clay, painted brown and red, this is tho so-called "dodwoll vase" celebrated as the first-discovered of the vases in imitation of the asiatic style, dug-up. noar corinth. . antique, yellow clay, painted red and brown, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, with small kylix as lid, yellow clay, painted brown and red, imitating the asiatic style, munich, (lau). . antique, black clay. . antique, painted clay, belongs to tho later period of the rod figure style, metal ring, berlin, museum. g. antique bronze cist, louvre, paris, (l'art pour tous). . modern japanese, lacquered gold and black, the lid forms a dish, landesgewerbehallo, carlsruhe. . old persian, repousse copper, the decoration is too small to bo given, (kunsthandwerk). . modern snuff-box, birch bark. . modern tobacco-jar, norwogiau, carved in wood, landcsgewerbo- halle, carlsruhe. . metal box, with collapsible drinking-cup, modern. the font, and the holy-water stoup. — the hydria. the font, and the holy-water stoop. ' (plate .) holy-water plays an important part in many rites of the roman catholic church. it is kept in holy-water stonps. these are bowls, either free, or attached to walls. in the former case, the form generally approaches that of the krater; in the latter case, the edge projects as a half or three-quarter circle from the surface of the wall; and the stoup is supported on a pilaster, column, or console. for use in houses: the stoup takes the form of a suspended dish, as shown by fig. . the decoration is mostly symbolic, e. g. crosses, monograms, cherub-heads, &a. most of the examples are taken from the work by raguenet, which contains a large selection of these objects. plate . . romanesque, minster, weissenburg, (raguenet). . romanesque, church of the crucifix, compiegne, (raguenet). . romanesque, church, picardy, (raguenet). . romanesque, church, charleville, (raguenet). . th century, (yiollet-le-duc). . th century, church, mas d'azil, ariege, (raguenet). . th century, church, corinontrenil, (raguenet). . church, picardy, (raguenet). . modern, church, couthuin, belgium, architect halkin, (raguenet). . th century, chapel of the castle, mello, fiance, (raguenet). . th century, beaten silver, royal museum, stuttgart, (kunst- handwerk). b. dippers. the hydria. (plate .) the hydria, as its name implies, is the water-pot. it is the vessel which the maidens took to the spring; filled with water; and then bore home on their heads. it was carried, when empty in a horizontal; and when full, in a vertical attitude. of all vases: it is the most perfect in form; its aim being so' well expressed in its con- struction. it must be easy to carry, convenient to fill and empty, and to hold as much fluid as possible; it therefore has a vertical body of the shape of an inverted egg (this form places the centre of gravity at the top, which facilitates transportation in a vertical attitude); on which a funnel-shaped neck is placed. it has three handles: two are horizontal, dl a metrically opposite to each other at j the hydria. — the bucket, &c the greatest protuberance of the body, which served to raise the vessel when full; tho third is vertical, placed on one side of the neck, which served to carry the vessel when empty, to steady it when full and when pouring-out. the foot is always small. the neck has a shoulder, or blends in a curve with the body. a special kind of the latter treatment is the kalpis (fig. ). the smaller, slenderer hydrias, which were not intended to be carried on the head, are termed hand-hydrias. the material is clay. 'late . the hydria. . greek. (jacobsthal). . greek, of the kalpis form, body smooth, black, painted with red figures on the shoulder. . greek, painted black, reddish brown aud white on the clay ground, campana collection,' louvre, l'aris, (i/art pour tous), tho decoration is of the highest class, the shoulder is decorated by an ivy band, which is omitted in this figure, but given on plate . . — . graecq - italic hand-hydrias, unpaintcd clay, united collections, carlsruhe. — . greek vase-paintings, showing the mode of carrying and using the hydria. the bucket, &c. (plate .) we have seen that the hydria gives beautiful expression to tho idea of pouring-out; the bucket, on the other hand, is distincly a dipper, and the funnel a filler. the bucket is of specifically egyptian origin; with it water was drawn from the nile; and hence the drop-like form, with the centre of gravity low down. two such buckets were carried on a yoke. the form serving to prevent spilling, (figs. — ). the assyrinn bucket generally terminates below in a lion mask, from which the bag-shaped neck rises, (fig. ). in the graeco-italic style, we find footless buckets resembling an inverted egg (fig. ); others with a ring foot are, however, not uncommon, (figs. , , and ). instead of one hoop handle there were sometimes two (figs. and ). the ecclesiastical art of the middle ages gave its portable holy- water stoups the form of buckets, modifying the shape of the latter to fit them for this purpose (figs. , ). sometimes . the bucket is furnished with a spout, or a nozzle (fig. ). the funnel, as a rule, takes the shape of an inverted cone, with or without a tubular continuation; the handle is vertical (figs. , ), vases. s the backet, &c. — the spoon, &c. hoop-shaped (fig. ), or two horizontal double (fig. ). a water- ing pot is shown in fig. : the hole at the top is intended to let the water flow when opened, or to stop the flow by atmospherio pres- sure when closed by the finger. metal, as the more durable material, is generally used for buckets and funnels: clay, glass, &c., are less common. plate . the bucket, &c. . egyptian, thebes, tutmes iii. — . egyptian, bronze. . egyptian bucket-like vessel, without handle. . assyrian, with cord handle. — . graeco-italic, bronze, of various forms. . antique, with hoop handle, red clay, painted black, united collections in carlsruhe, the eye in the uppermost zone, which is found in greek keramics, has been explained as a protective against the "evil eye". — . mediaeval, beaten copper, th century, (viollet-le-duc). . modern italian, clay, with hoop-handle and nozzle, (gropius). — . modern coal-vases, sheet-metal, square and round. . antique clay funnel. . mediaeval vessel, for watering the ground, clay, (viollot-le- duc). . modern funnel, for watering tho ground, sheet-metal. general form of the modern sheet-metal funnel. the spoon, and the ladle. (plate .) spoons and paterae form a special class of dippers. as the table-spoon, strictly so-called, will come up for discussion among the utensils, we have here to consider only tho larger spoon-shaped vessels and the patera; (handled dishes) used for religious and other purposes. tho natural model of the spoon is tho hollow hand, whence the spherical, elliptical, or oval dish-shape, with an attached handle. the lattor usually lies in the plane of the rim, but it may also form an obtuse angle with it, or, as in tho case of the antique simpulum (fig. ), a right-angle. egyptian spoons, which are richly decorated, often possess a cover rotating round a pin (compare the projections on the dish, fig. ), tho spoon then becomes a kind of pot or receptacle. a foot is of courso superfluous nn the ordinary spoon; but the patera; with handles not infrequently have a ring- foot to enable them to stand (figs. — ). the spoon and the paterae may also be furnished with a special spout or lip (fig. ( ). vases. the bucket, &c. plate . the spoon, &c — the prochoiis, &e. as a rule: the dish is plain, or is slightly decorated by engraving the interior, (fig. ). the decoration is generally confined to the rim and the handle, or its points of junction. the material is usually wood, bono, or metal. the size varies with the use. plate . tiie spoon, and the ladle. — . egyptian spoons, plainly or richly finished, partly painted. . assyrian spoon-like vessel. . antique bronze patera, with lip. . , . antique bronze paterae, seen from the side, from abovo, and below. . antique terracotta patera. — . antique simpula. . antique spoon-like vessel, bronze, united collections, • carlsruhe. . antique cooking vessel, liko a handled dish, (menard et sauvageot). . c. powers, the prochoos, the oinochoe, the olpe, &c. (plate .) we commence the series of pourers with the antique forms of the prochoiis, oinochoe', olpe, &c as the definition of these appella- tions is not yet finally settled: it will bo best to leave the various intermediate forms entirely unnamed. the vessels were used partly for secular, partly for religious purposes. thus the prochoiis is tl:o sacrificial vessel from which the libations of wine were poured-out, into the patera. the oinochoe is believed to have been a secular wine jug; and the olpe to have been a receptacle for oil, &c all these vessels havo this in common: that the mouth is wavy, elongated to a channel on one side, or pinched-in at the sides, to form a large spout and facilitate the pouring-out. the older vessels, in particular, show great boldness in thus making the form of tlio mouth different to the circular plan which is a result of the use of the potter's-wheel; but in the later times there was a return to tho simpler and more beautiful shape. the prochoiis and the oinocvws generally have an upright body, in shape like an egg. tlio olpe invariably has a cake or bag-shaped body, a form which is occa- sionally found in the prochoiis. the vertical handle is raised above the vessel and is attached in a bold sweep to the side opposite the lip. the foot is usually ring-shaped. bronze and clay are employed the spoon, and the ladle. plate . the prochoos, c. — the lekythos, c. as materials. the prochoiis and oiuochos are, generally, vessels of considerable size, while the olpe is smaller. plate . the prochous, the oinochoe, the olpe, ac. . greek prochoiis, archaic form and ornamentation, painted clay. . greek prochoiis, geometrical style, red clay, painted black. . greek cyprian vessel, geometrical style, yellow clay, painted brown, munich, (lau). . greek oinochob, asiatic style, yellow, painted clay, (semper). . antique small vessel, yellow clay, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique small vessel, clay, painted black, engraved orna- ment, united collections, carlsruhe. — . greek vessels, painted clay. . greek bronze vessel, collection of herr von pulsky, pesth. . graeco-italic bronze vessel. . prochoiis in the form of a female head, museum, rome. — . antique olpe, painted clay. . antique bronze olpe, museum rome. the lekythos, &c. (plate .) the lekythos is a small antique pourer, employed sometimes in tbe toilet as a receptacle for oils and unguents, and sometimes in funeral rites, to be placed with the deceased in the grave. the form is generally elongated, cylindrical or spindle-shaped, more rarely bag-like or spherical. the foot is a plain ring foot, tho neck long and narrow with a shoulder. the handle rises from the body up to the upper end of the neck. as regards form and decoration, these pretty vessels form special groups. the slender forms are the older, the spherical and depressed the later. upright palmettes, as shown in fig. , are a characteristic decoration. the material is clay. plate . the lekythos, c. — . greek, red clay, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. — . greek, red clay, painted black. . greek, painted black and white, later period. . greek, attic style. . ditto. -- . greek, red clay, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. . greek, red clay, painted black and white, munich, (lau). vases. the lekythos. — the lip-spout pitcher. . greek aryballos (perfume vaso), united collections, carls- rube. . greek aryballos, painted black, united collections, carlsrube. . greek, perfume-vase, with hoop handle, painted black. united collections, carlsruhe. . greek lekythos, later period, united collections, carlsruhe. teie lip-spout pitcher. (plates — ) the want of some uniform nomenclature makes itself felt not only in the case of antique vessels, but also with such colloquial expressions as "pitcher", "jug", "pot", "can", "bottle", &c, which include a great variety of forms, so that what one calls pitchers and pots another calls jugs and cans. to maintain at least some kind of system in this handbook, we class all vessels with vertical handles, (unless they belong to some special category), as "pitchers" if they have the usual mouth with a lip; and as "pots" if they have a pipe- like spout. the material and size, of the pitcher vary greatly, according to its purposo and period. the principal representatives are the ewers, and jugs, of glass, clay, stoneware, and metal. . plate . the lip-spout pitcher. . egyptian, with saucer, recalling our modern ewers and basins. - . antique iridescent glass, germaniscb.es museum, nuremberg. . antique glass, found in trouville-la-riviere, norm.itidy, (deville). . antiquo glass, found near mainz, united collections, carlsruhe. . roman, glass, from a grave at bingerbriick, wiesbaden museum. . antique, blue glass, louvre, (deville). . like no. . . antique, yellowish green glass, germanisches museum, nuremberg. . like no. . . antique, glass, found in rouen, d century a. d., rouen museum, (deville). . antique ring-shape, unpainted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . roman - alemannic, red clay, found in kaferthal near mannheim, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique (?) bronze, with cover, found at saumur, (menard et sauvageot). . ancient american, grey clay, time of the incas, excavated at trujillo in peru, (the round compartment of the body is fan- tastically adorned with figures), united collections, carlsruhe. the lekytho , ac. plate . plate . the lip-spout pitcher. vases. the lip-spout pitcher. plate . the lip-ipout pitcher. — the pipe-spout pot . old german, bohemian glass. . modern hungarian, gla/.ed clay, landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. plate . tub lip-spout pituiilr. . italian faience, glazed in colours, th century, the blue lilies on a gold ground are the coat of julius iii., clnny museum, paris, (l'art pour tous). . german, by hans holbein, th century, (hirth, formea- scbatz). . old german, stoneware, with disc-shaped body. . german renascence, pewter, (hirth, pormenschatz). — . old german, stoneware, the decoration is omitted. . modern stoneware, with tin cover, by dir. kachel. . modern majolica, carlsruhe. — . modern, stoneware. — . modern, green and blue glass. the pipe-spout pot. (plate .) as already remarked, we group here all those one-handled pourers which possess a separate spout or mouth. here too, material, size, and form aro very various. distinct categories aro formed by the stato- jugs of metal, such as were in use at the period of the italian renascence (fig. ), tho oriental metal jugs, the venetian small glass jugs, milk, coffee, tea and watering pots, &c. where a' spout occurs: it is generally attached at the lower part or middle of the body, more rarely towards the top; and usually reaches to the level of the mouth. the spout generally tapers in an upward direction; its orifice is some- times a mask or a widened mouth-piece; in the case of tho watering- pot it-is furnished with a rose. the handle is vertical, or a hoop. noteworthy is tho long stump-handle of some modern coffee-pots (fig. ). the vessels of this group frequently have a lid. pi ate . the pipe-spout pot. . italian renascence, statc-jug, metal, design by polidoro caravaggio, uffizi, florence. . japanese, enamelled metal, louvro, (l'art pour tous). . arabian, metal, i th century, cluny museum, paris, (l'art' pour tous). — . venetian glass, th century, (hirth, and l'art pour tous). . modern oriental, unglazed clay, from jerusalem, united collections, carlsruhe. vases. i . ... | .... | the pipe-spout pot. plate ! . ( the pipe-spout pot — the bottle. . oriental tea-pot, painted china. . milk-ewer, painted faience, th century, united collections, carlsruhe. . modern coffee-pot. . modern tea-kettle, metal, hoop handle, with wooden guard. — . modern watering-pots, sheet metal. the bottle. (plates — .) the bottle has a spherical, elongated, or bag body; and an elongated, narrow neck, which usually expands like a funnel towards its upper extremity, and is sometimes closed by a stopper. bottles have either a ring foot or no foot at all, high feet are exceptional. handles are seldom attached; where this is done, they appear in pairs. in the case of pocket-flasks, which are usually of a disc or watch shape, the handle serves to attach the flasks to a cord or belt. the material is chiefly glass; but clay and metal are also used. the bottle form has been specially cultivated in the east, in persia, china, japan, &c. a natural model is frequently found in the calabash, which is itself often used as a vessel. plate . the bottle. — . egyptian, front and side view. * antique, small watch-shaped perfume-bottle, blue and white glass, with handles for suspension, like a hunting-flask, cam pana collection, (l'art pour tous). . antique, glass, with handles for suspension, (deville). . antique, perfume-bottle, transparent emerald green glass. . antique, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). . antique, two-handled, iridescent glass, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). . antique, iridescent glass, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, iridescent glass, united collections, carlsruhe. . old german, glass, from the spessart, (priedrich, die alt- deutschen glaser). . modern, cut glass, dresden, (gewerbehalle). . modern, green glass, with ring stopper. . modern, yellowish green glass. . modern, "florentine flask", covered with bast plate . the bottle. . . egyptian, without foot, two rope handles for suspension. antique, red, unpainted clay, united collections, carlsruhe! vases. plain hod. the bottle. tue boltlo. — drinking vessels. . antique, hammered bronze, with cover and ring, castellani collection. . ditto, united collections, carlsruhe. — . japanese, bronze. . persian, clay. — . modern, egyptian, mi glazed gray clay, united collections, carls nine. . chinese, blue porcelain, (lievre). . persian, damaskeened metal, (i/art pour tous). . wrought-iron military flask, holding pints, th century, cluny museum, paris. . modern hungarian military flask, colored glazed clay, lnndes- gewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . majolica, colored plastic ornamentation, modern english, landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . modorn, french, green glazed clay. d. drinking vessels. plates — show drinking vessels. drinking vessels are as ancient as drinking itself; and they are consequently found in every style. their forms and kinds are infinitely various; especially in the antique, the middle ages, and the renascence. semper says on this point: "athenaeus gives us the names and descriptions of more than a hundred drinking vessels, although he confines himself to those of the precious metals, which, long before his time, had replaced earthen- ware drinking vessels among the greeks. the same variety rules in the drinking vessels of the middle ages; and although, in this branch too, our poverty of invention is obvious, compared with tho earlier fecundity; still, an enumeration of tho different forms and kinds of drinking vessels now in common use would bo fairly extensive; and would bo all tho moro difficult inasmuch as our modern time does not adhero to typical forms; or, more correctly speaking, has lost all idea of what a type is. nowhere is the influonco of caprice, and heedless confusion of forms more conspicuous than in this class of vossels; so that any attempt to classify drinking vessels, and to enumerate the subdivisions which have existed and still exist, can meet with little success. but if wo disregard "freaks" and those anomalous forms of drinking vessels, which have been evolved more by the influence of fashion, and caprice than by tho intended use, we ehall fi'id that tho distinctions which wo found to bo true for the -.ho drinking vessels. — the kjhx, the kantharos, ic. forms of vessels in general, am applicable ,to drinking vessels in particular". notwithstanding this, we will attempt to classify the forms of drinking vessels. this will bo done, partly according to style, placing the commonest antique forms on one plate, specifically old german forms on another, apd the drinking vessels of our own time on a third. partly, too, wo will place, on other plates, definite groups which have either an identical fundamental form or a common object, regardless of their belonging to the same or to different styles, e. g. drinking horns and rhytons, cups and beakers, chalices and goblets, state-cups, rummers, mugs, and tankards. the kylix, the kantharos, &c. (plate .) drinking vessels of clay and the precious metals, played the chief, part in antique times, while glass, which was employed for other purposes, was only occasionally used. a very common form is the two-handled dish or kylix, with a low or high foot. both the form and the name of the later calj-x and our chalice are derived from kylix. when formed of clay, the kylix is a plain shallow dish, ornamented on the under side, some- times with figures on the inner side, and with two horizontal handles (figs. — ). in metal, the form becomes richer, the handles are elongated and bolder in curvature (figs. — ). the fundamental form of the kantharos is that of the deep dish or krater, with two vertical handles. the decoration is only external; the simplicity in clay (fig. ), passes into richness when metal is em- ployed (figs. — ). bacchic attributes, the vine, ivy, the thyrsos, masks, &c., from the decoration. the kyathos, a dipper and drinking vestel at once, is a dish with the handle elongated vertically and sometimes replaced by a straight handle, which gives the vessel somewhat of the appearence of a spoon (figs. , , ). the skyphos is a dish with two horizontal handles (figs. ); the kothon (fig. ), is the military drinking vessel, "a vessel with a broad rim bent inwards, out of which one could only drink by bending the neck right back; but it was convenient for dipping water from brooks, and the in-curved rim caught the impurities of the water so that they remained behind both in dipping and drinking", (semper). we might further adduce the deinos, the drinking vessel of hercules, the amphikypellon, a double beaker mentioned by homer, the ralathos, and others. but the examples selected above may suffice. the kylix, tho kantharos, &c. — the rhyton. plate . the kylix, the kantharos, &c. . antique kylix, painted clay, museum, naples. . the. same vessel, viewed from below. . greek kylix, bronze, found in sarcophagus at cephalonia, (stack el - berg). . greek kylix, bronze, found in ithaca. . antique kantharos, black painted clay, united collections, carls- ruhe. . antique kylix, beaten silver, hildesheim treasure, museum, berlin. . antique kantharos, beiten silver, found at berthouville near bernay, bibliotheque nationals, paris. . antique kyathos, black painted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique kyathos, painted clay, united collections, garlsruhe. . antique skyphos, metal, (menard et sauvageot). . antique skyphos, painted clay. . antique kothon, painted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. the rhyton. (plate .) the primaeval custom, of using the horns of animals as drinking vessels, led to the drinking-horn. the antique is not alone in creating, in the rhyton, a special kind of these vessels: in the middle ages and in modern times, in england and germany, drinking-horns are well known. in view of the varied and often complicated forms of these latter, we shall confine ourselves to presenting some antique examples. the form of the bhyton was that of an animal's head, with the addition of a handle. as a rule, it has no foot; and cannot be set down. when pierced at the lower end, it could be drunk-from in the manner shown in fig. . stags, asses, swine, vultures, &c. were utilised as modols, whence the special names elaphos, onos, kapros, gryps, &c. sometimes the human hoad was used, (fig. ). the vessel modellod naturalistically; and receives a painted decoration on the neck alono. the material is clay. plate . . antique, (tragclapbos) with a ram head. . antique, with a human head. . antique, (kapros) with a swine head. . antique, (elaphos) with a stag head, (semper). — . antique, (hippotragolaphos) on one side a ram, on the other an ass head. vases. the khyton. plate . plate . the cup, and the beaker. the rhyton. — the cup, and the beaker. - the chalice, and the gohlet antique, (gryps) with vulture head. . antique drinking-horn, with lion mask as spout. antique state rhyton, marble, vatican museum, rome. picture from an antique vase, showing the manner of drink- ing from the rhyton. the cup, and the beaker. (plate .) drinking vessels of these forms are of veiy general occurrence. they may be hemi-spherical, cylindrical, like an inverted cone, or of a .mixed shape; without foot, with a ring foot, or supported on balls; without a handle, or with one, two, or more handles. the use of the cup restricts it to a certain size; the material is metal, glass, clay, stoneware, &a. richly-decorated cups have come down to us from the antique, and the renascence. ['late . the cup, and the bearer. . assyrian, from a relief. . assyrian, painted clay. . antique, silver, parcel gilt, found on ithaca. . antique kalathos, found in athens. . antique, clay, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, red clay, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, beaten silver, found in pompeii, now in naples. . antique, originally decorated in sunk enamel, hildesheim treasure, berlin, museum. . antique, beaten silver, hildesheim treasure, berlin, museum. . antique, green glass, found in normandy, (deville). . antique, glass, (deville). . old german, glass. . venetian, glass, british museum. . old german, stoneware. . old german, stoneware. . german renascence, metal, with bosses and ball foot. the chalice, and the goblet. (plate .) these are deep vessels of the form of half an egg, without handle, and with a high foot. the form was chiefly used in the middle ages, and renascence; for both secular and religious purposes. for the former purpose, the material is glass or metal, and the size is vases. plate . the chalice, and the goblet. the chalice, &c. — the hanap. various; for the latter purpose, the chalice is invariably of metal, mostly of silver chased and gilt, enamelled, set with jewels, &e. tn the romanesque style, the cup is hemispherical and shallow; in the gothic style and the renascence, it becomes deeper. plate . the chalice, and the goblet. . egyptian, thebes. . antique, red clay, united collections, cailsruhe. . antique, clay, painted black. . romanesque chalice, chased silver set with jewels, villingen church. . gothic chalice, chased silver, wertheim church. . silver state-goblet, german, th century; this goblet, along with two others, is said to have been the model for the master- pieces of the goldsmiths; and is usually attributed to the nurem- berg goldsmith jamnitzer, although this has lately been doubted; the bossed outline is copied from the flower of the columbine (aquilegia vulgaris), municipal collection, nuremberg. . crystal goblet, with cut ornaments, th century, national museum, munich, . venetian glass goblet, th century, british museum, (l'art pour tous). . modern champagne-glass, landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . old german glass goblet, th century. . old german glass goblet, th century. the hanap. (plate .) the same blending of forms which the reader will have ob- served in the treatment of cups and goblets occurs in the case of hanaps. ordinary colloquial language makes no definite distinction between them. a state-cup presupposes a considerable richnoss of decoration, it is usually a cup or goblet-shaped product of the gold- smith's art, provided with a cover, or it may even be a ricbly finished glass cf similar form. plate . the- hanap. . design, by hans holboin, german, th century, (fornien- scbatz). . design, german, th century, (foimeuschatz). . design, nd half of the th century, the cover makes an in- dependent cup, (musterornamonte). plate . the hauap. the hanap. — the kfimer or rummer. i— . german, th and th centuries,, chased silver, treasure of regensburg, (musterornamente). — . old german, glass, th century. the romer or rummer, (plate .) the rummer, the glass par excellence for rhenish wine, is the most important representative of the old german drinking glasses, and is altogether one of the handsomest forms of vessels. c. friedrich in his work "die altdeutschen glaser", the study of which we warmly recommend, states that the fragments of antique glass were worked-up again into fine glass-ware; and that this ware was called "romanum vitrum" or "romanum vitrum" that led to the designation "romarii" which then became "romer" and "rummer". the original form of the rummer is somewhat cylindrical (fig. ); instead of a foot it has a ring at the bottom. at a later period a low foot was added, upon which the body began to be divided into members (figs. , and ). the high foot eventually led to the goblet form (figs. , and ). rummers, in which the contents reach to the bottom, belong to the nd half of the th century; rummers with spun foot, the wine reaching to the middle-piece, are to be ascribed to the th century; while rummers with an independent middle-piece are the product of the th century. all three forms have been revived in late years. the colour of the rummer is green or yellowish-brown; for aesthetic reasons, and not because it was impossible to manufacture clear glass. the middle-piece is often divided from the cup by a ribbed band and ornamented with bosses. in later times the cup was decorated with cut or painted ornament (figs. , and ). such modern examples, as rummers with white feet and pink cups, are aberrations of taste. the rummer is generally of moderate size; but examples of large size aro sometimes met-with. plate . the rummer. — . older forms, (friedrich). — . white and light-green, engraved ornaments, bavarian ge- werbemuseum, nuremberg, (friedrich). — . modern copies. . old form, without foot, (friedrich). — . modern forms. . wooden vessel resembling a rummer, lacquered black, from borneo, united collections, carlsruhe. plale . the komer or rummer. various driuking vessels. plate . various glasses. various glasses. (plate .) the plate contains a selection of other old german drinking vessels. what manifold varieties of drinking glasses existed, in the th century, for instance, may be seen in fischart's romance "gar- gantoa and pantagruel", which is sociologically so interesting. in the eight chapter, entitled "a conversation on drinking", he says: "da stachen sie eynander die focal auff die prust, da flogen die muhele, da stibeten die bomercken, da raumt man die dickelbacher, da soffen je zween und zween aus doppleten, die man von eynander bricht, ja soff aus gestifleten kriigen, da sttirzt man die pott, da schwang man den gutruff, da trahet man den angster, da riss und schalt man den wein aus polten, aus kelchen, napffen, oonen; hoffbechern: tassen: trinkschalen: pfaffenmasen: stauffen von hohen stauffen: kitten: kalten: kanuten: kopffen: knartgen:' schlauchen: pipen: nussen: fiolen: lampeten: kufen: niisseln: seydeln: kiilkesseln, malterlin: melkgelten, spitzmasen, zolcken, eannen, schnaulzenmas, schoppen- kiinnlein, stotzen: da klangen die glaser, da funckelten die krausen." we here offer a few forms, some of them named in the above descrip- tion of fischart's. the name angster is applied to a high narrow-necked drinking bottle (from the latin angustus, narrow). the neck, which rises out of a spherical, bulbous body, often consisted of , , or more tubes wound round one another, frequently bent to one side and broadening at the top into a cup-like mouth (fig. ). these glasses belong to tho category of puzzle-glasses, to extract the wine from which was a matter of "anguish". semper's observation is very true for such puzzle-glasses: "it -would really seem as if fashion and the toper's humor of the competitors, in drinking-bouts with obstacles, had spe- cially invented forms of vessels which demanded a most uncomfortable and ingenious mode of drinking." the gutrolf (gutterer, kutrof, perhaps from the latin gutturnium), seems to have been a similar glass with a straight neck (figs. and ). the spechter (presumably from spessart) is a tall, narrow, cy- lindrical glass with a low foot, decorated with bosses, scrolls, &c. (figs. , ). the passglas (peg-tankard) resembles the spechter, but is divided by rings into equal divisions which served as a scale in drinking bouts. it often bears painted figures, inscriptions (figs. , ). the form of the cabbage-stalk glass in sufficiently indicated by the name (fig. ). the tummler and handtummler (tumbler) are glasses without feet, which totter when set down; and if laid on their side at once various glasses. — the mug. resume . vortical position (figs. , ); as also glasses like that shown in fig. , which must first be drunk empty before they can be set down. to those times also belonged: puzzle-glasses from which the liquor had to be sucked - out at the end of the handle (fig. ); vessels in the shape of ladies (figs. — ), and of fantastic animals. it would carry us too far to enter upon the details of manu- facture: we therefore refer the reader once more to c. friedrich's "altdeutsche glaser". plate . various drinking vessels. . green cabbage-stalk glass, germanisches museum, nuremberg. — . old german peg-tankards, painted. — . old german spechters. c. kutrolf (angster), i th century, bavarian gewerbemuseum, nuremberg. — . old german angsters, no. in the bavarian gewerbe- museum, nuremberg. . kutrolf (angster) with winding neck. . puzzle-mug, (friedrich). — . old german glasses, in the form of ladies, no. in the bavarian gewerbemuseum, nuremberg. . large tumbler, th century, with metal handle; in the original a figure of mercury stands on the ball, bavarian gewerbemuseum, nuremberg. . painted glass tumbler, (friedrich). . hungarian coronation glass, painted. toe mug. (plate .) in accordance with its purpose, the form of the mug is essen- tially different from that of other drinking vessels. the body usually has a cylindrical form, and is without a foot, or with only a ring foot. a movable lid of metal, mostly tin, is attached by a hinge to the vertical handle, in order to keep the liquid as fresh as possible, in view of the great surface of evaporation. for the same reason the material is preferably stoneware. that glass has of late years been preferred to stoneware, is due to the fact that the liquid is visible and more easily investigated in glass vessels; and that these are more easily cleaned. compared with the wine-glass, the mug will always have a greater circumference, and show a more robust treatment. the hinge must be so attached that when the lid is wide open, it forms an obtuse anglo.with the rim. meyer, handbook of ornamcot. vases. plate . the mug. the mug. — the tankard. — modern drinking glasses. plate . the mug. . kenascence mug (schnelle), stoneware, german. . renascence mug, chased silver, regensburg treasure, (ge- werbehalle). . old german beermug, brown glass, painted, bavarian ge- werbemuseum, nuremberg. , , . old german stoneware beermugs. . old german glass beermug. . renascence mug, amber, mounted with silver, grunes ge- wslbe, dresden. — . modern stoneware beermugs, from old patterns. . modern beermug, brown glass, with green bosses. the tankard. (plate .) the tankard is a drinking vessel, more or less coarse in shape like a cylinder or an inverted cone; and made of glass, stone- ware, &c. the name is also given to vessels of more architectural pretensions, like that in fig. . the tankard is less for individual than for social use; and is intended chiefly for beer, hence its size and robust form. of special importance are the eagle, imperial, electoral, and guild tankards of the renascence period. plate . the tankard. . roman glass, of tankard form, found in pompeii, (deville). . ditto, (ditto). . old german green glass tankard, (compare this form with that of the rummer on plate ). . ditto. — . old german glass tankards. . old german armorial tankard, (friedrich). . modern brown glass tankard. . modern brown glass tankard, painted, (koller-leuzinger). modern drinking glasses. (plate .) great laxity is apparent in the forms of modem drinking vessels. alongside coarse forms in transparent blown and cast glass: delicate glasses, cut and etched, appear in the market. of late years old examples of coloured glass have been frequently copied, with plate . the tankard. vases. modern drinking glasses. plate . modern drinking glasses. more or less skill and intelligence. it is to be hoped that the general revival of applied art will lead to the attainment of high- class results in this branch also. plate . modern drinking glasses. — . various modern glasses for water, wine, and beer, of white and coloured glass. plates — present some different classes of vessels in nearly specimens. but even this copious material was far from permitting every form to be taken into consideration. the first place was accorded to definite groups and to conventional, over-recurring shapes; while the arbitrary, sporadic, accidental, and barocco, were excluded. still, it is possible that we have not succeeded in giving a general view of the group of pottery and vessels. readers who desire to pursue their studies further are referred to the special works and periodicals dealing with this subject. b. metal objects. (utensils.) utensils are very various; and an exhaustive treatment of them is quite impossible within the scope of this handbook. beside this, decoration is quite excluded in many cases. still, definite divisions of this group have been created by the fact, that their representatives in certain periods have received artistic treatment; and hence thev may be reduced to a system. although, on the one hand, a number of utensils have found no place on the plates devoted to this group: we have, on the other hand, been able to form a number of subsidiary divisions, each com- plete in itself. thus, for example: chapterr — will deal with the interesting subject of utensils for illumination, chapters — with the utensils of ritual, chapters — with the utensils of war and hunting, chapters — with those of the table, and chapters — with a variety of household and toilet utensils, tools, &c. a. utensils for illumination. utensils of illumination, both for religious and household uso, are extremely numerous. great attention and artistic finish have been lavished upon them in all styles; and especially in the antique. we need only mention the candelabra of the antique and the renas- cence, greek lamps, the chandeliers of the middle ages, &o. the candelabrum- the forms and the finish of the different utensils have changed along with the radical changes which the mode of illumination has undergone in the course of time. oil, lamp-light, candle, torch-light, gas-light, and our latest achievement, the electric light, all demand special, different forms of bearers, and apparatus. the predominant material would seem to bo metal; and, next to this, clay, and glass; while imflammable materials like wood are, by their very nature, almost excluded. here, too, it is proper to call attention to a difference which must be borne in mind between antique and modern illuminating utensils. the difference is this: that whereas the antique with all its artistic perfection, is very defective from a practical point of view; modern apparatus, while surpassing the antique in the matter of technical adaptation to its purpose, scarcely ever reaches the antique beauty, and generally falls below it. we will consider the candelabrum, the antique lamp, the different kinds of standard, hand, and bracket candlesticks, hanging lamps, lanterns, chandeliers, and modern lamps; taking them in this order. the candelabrum. (plates — .) the candelabrum (from candela = candle) was, as its name in- dicates, originally intended to carry a candle. but as candle-light, like the illumination by means of torches and pitch-pans, gradually receded before the use of lamps in antique times, and was more and more reserved for the purposes of ritual; the antique cande- labrum came to be employed as a lampstand or lampad.iriun.. hence it comes that the upper end of a candelabrum is furnished sometimes with a bowl, sometimes with a pricket or socket to receive the candle, sometimes with a fiat disc, and, sometimes with project- ing clips and hooks to hold the lamp or to suspend it from. the last is the most frequent form. the great state-candelabra, for religious observances, have bowls; and are made of marble. the shaft of such a roman candelabrum of conventional form is given on plate , fig. . candelabra for household use were made of bronze. in height: they are of two different dimensions, according as they were meant to stand on the ground, or on a table. the former are of an extremely slender construction (plate . ), of an average height of feet toy ft. ins. the form of the latter class (candelabrum humile) is less slender (plate . and ), and the extreme height is . about ft. ins. the design of the antique candelabrum is either of, architectonic character, or,free and natura- the candelabrum. c listic. we have already mentioned, in chapters — , that in the former caso: the base, shaft and bowl, are generally decorated. the second class includes standing and sitting figures, behind which the shaft of the candelabrum rises, or by which it is borne (plate and ); or of bearers in the form of trees, beneath which figures or groups are seated (plate . ). occasionally examples are found so arranged that thoy can be taken apart and adjusted to different heights (plate . ). the majority of the antique bronze cande- labra which have been preserved to us are of etruscan origin. i'late shows seven different examples selected from the copious material. plate . the antique candelabrum. . antique, bronze stand from "which to suspend lamps (lyehnucus, lampadarium), found in pompeii, berlin, museum. . etruscan, bronze, bibliotheque national, paris. . antique, bronze, found in chiusi, (menard et sauvageot). . antique, bronze, found in herculaneum. . antique, bronze, to hold a candle or torch, (menard et sauvageot). . antique, (candelabrum humile), bronze, museum, naples. . antique, bronze, adjustable to different heights, found in her- culaneum. tho candelabrum was revived at the time of the renascence along with the tradition of antique art. it accepted the form; but remodelled it in its own fashion. since that time the candelabrum occurs in countless modifications, both for state and use, in religious and secular buildings. it is no more a lampstand, but bears a candle in a pricket or, more rarely, in a socket. the roman catholic ritual, in particular, the services of which require lighted candles, has given an impetus to the new forms of candelabra in metal, and carved wood set-off by painting and gilding. the finest examples of this kind aro to be found in the churches and palaces of italy. plate . the renascence candelabrum.' . altar candlestick, church of the benedictines, villingen, wood, gilt and silvered, late german renascence, ft. ins. high. . bronze, end of the th century, italian. . altar candlestick, certosa near pavia, th century, italian,' (musterornameote). . medicean chapel, san lorenzo, florence, italian, renascence, . bronze, italian, renascence, bargello, florence. metal objects. plate . the antique candelabrum. the renascence candelabrum. plate . the antique lamp. . the antique lamp. (plate .) the antique lamp (lychnus, lucerna) is, strictly speaking, a combination of holder and pourer; and might with equal propriety have been included in the group of vases. the fundamental form, which was retained down to the latest times, is found in early egyptian household utensils; and is created by adding a handle, a funnel for filling, and a spout with an opening for the wick, to a spheroid body, figures and . in greek and roman lamps: the body becomes flattened, the funnel contracts to a simple orifice, and the round handle is either replaced by a straight one or combined with it, (figs. and ). very frequently the lamp has several wick-openings (dimyxos, tri- myxos &c.) instead of only one, (figs. , and ). clay and bronze are the materials almost exclusively employed. the clay lamps are mostly plastically decorated, more rarely painted. the decoration is most conspicuous on the handle and the spout; the upper part of the body is often treated with figures in bas-relief, (fig. ). bronze lamps are decorated with figures, with covers fastened by hinges, wick-trimmers, &c., (fig. ). and it was the bronze lamps which were especially arranged to be suspended from lampa- darii. small lampstands, in the form of low tripods, are also not scarce (figs. and ); occasionally tripod and lamp are combined, as in the example shown in fig. . by the side of examples techni- cally constructed, we find freer forms, imitating human figures, animal shapes, human feet, &c. in some cases these may be considered as "happy thoughts"; in others they are simply an aberration of style (figs. and ). the early days of christendom show reminiscences of the an- tique, e. g. the lamp in fig. , which also bears the monogram of christ. in later periods: the decoration degenerates, although the fun- damental form has been retained till the present time, in the east, for household lamps; the design of the modern lamp from jerusalem (fig. ) is of the simplest possible description. in the west: the old form is gradually dying-out, since the introduction of the glass cylinder, which enables the illuminating gases to be more thoroughly consumed. plate . the antique lamp. — . egyptian, clay. s. antique, painted clay, (menard et sauvageot). . antique, red clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, red clay, with two spouts and vertical ring handle, united collections, carlsruhe. metal objects. the antique lamp. plate the antique lamp. — the candlestick. . antique, with cover and ring handlo, red clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, bronze, with high stand, the missing cover was evidently a human mask, louvre, paris. — . antique, hronze, on small tripods (candelabrum humile). . antique, bronze, with three spouts, the figure serves as a handle for the cover, a wick-trimmer is attached to it by a chain, found in herculaneum. . antique, bronze, with two spouts, found in herculaneum. museum, naples, / of original size. . antique, bronze, for suspension, (formenschatz). . early christian, bronze, with the monogram of christ, for suspension, from the catacombs, rome. j . modern, oriental, clay, from jerusalem, united collections, carlsruho. the candlestick. (plates — .) the candlestick is the candle-bearer of the middle ages, th.^ renascence, and modern times. it is distinguished from the cande- labrum, if a distinction can be made at all where the forms thus blend with each other, bj its smaller dimensions and simpler forms- and it is chiefly used for secular purposes. the principal materials besido brass, iron, copper, tin, c., are clay, porcelain, and glass. in the middle ages; it was usual to stick the candle on a conical pricket; our modern times prefer the cylindrical socket. the design includes base (often tripartite), shaft, and socket, as in the case of the candelabrum. the upper end is furnished with a saucer or bowl, to catch the- droppings. the saucer is sometimes looso, so that it may easely be taken-off and cleansed, in which case it is termed a "save-all". often the upper part is furnished with a number of arms to receive several candles. as regards decorations: the principles laid down for the candelabrum, in the chapter on supports, hold good. the seven-branched-candlestick, of the temple at jerusalem, is histo- rically celebrated; fig. of plate reproduces this from the repre- sentation of it on the triumphal arch of titus. the fundamental form of it has been retained, to this day, in jewish ritual. high candlesticks, of simple form, made of wrought-iron, are not rare in the middle ages (plate . ). richly - finished examples, in wrought-iron and bronze, were created in the renascence, (plate . , and . ). the japanese and chinese bronze candlesticks the candlestick. — the hand-candlestick. have a certain similarity to the romanesque ecclesiastical candlesticks of the same material, (plate . — ). modern productions in clay, glass and porcelain have scarcely any artistic importance; all the more must we praise modern art for recurring to the old models in metal work; and thus producing very gratifying results, (plate . , , , and plate . and ). plate . the candlestick. . romanesque, bronze, th century, dugu collection, (viollet-le' due). . romanesque, bronze, cathedral, hildesheim. . romanesque, bronze. . ancient chinese, bronze. . brass, th century. . modern, bronze, (gewerbehalle). . modern, bronze, gewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . modern, bronze, by prof. schick, carlsruhe, (gewerbehalle). plate . the candlestick. . the seven-branched-candlestick of the temple at jerusalem, arch of titus, rome. . wrought-iron, s. peter's, tarrosa, spain, th century, (l'art pour tous). . wrought-iron, for candles, th century. . wrought-iron, modern. . wrought-iron, with several arms, by c. zaar, (gewerbehalle), the hand-candlestick. (plate .) the term hand-candlestick includes any kind of portable can- dlestick; and it assumes the existence of some kind of handle to hold and carry it. the hand-candlestick is always of modest dimensions; and it is generally low in height, as in our flat candlesticks. it may be constructed on an immense variety of plans, so that a number of different forms occur. candlesticks frequently recur of the form shown in fig. , in which a screw thread enables the height of the socket to be adjusted. tho middle ages and the renasconoe exhibited great ingenuity in the invention of such arrangements (fig. ). as the hand-candlestick is liable to gutter: the "save-all* has here undergone a special developement, that in a certain class of plate . the candlestick. the hand-candlestick. - the candle-bracket candlestick it consists of a broad dish out of' which rises a shaft with a socket-bowl at the end' (figs. . , , ). often an extinguisher is combinet with the candlestick, especially when the latter is of wrought-iron; as shown by the original example, fig. ; of late years match-holders have also been included. the material is the same as for other candlesticks.' there is nothing special to say as regards the decoration. pate . the hand-candlestick. — . wrought-iron, th century. — . modern, wrought iron. . modern, by p. faure of paris, (gewerbehalle). . modem, brass. . modern, brass. the candle-bracket. (plate .) candle-brackets are fixed or movable bearers attached to vertical surfaces, e. g. columns, pilasters, &c. in the middle ages and the renascence they were chiefly used for torches and candles; at the present time they are employed for candles and gas. their form naturally differs from that of the upright candlestick. curved scroll-work and consoles of metal (for this material is the one almost exclusively used) bear on their free end the prickets, or the sockets, or the burners and globes, which last are employed to diffuse the glaring light and soften the sharp shadows. a primitive method of connecting the bracket with the wall is by hook and eye (fig. ); in articles ol better finish this is done by means of rosettes or wall-plates and car- touches (figs. , , , ). the bracket may be used for one or more lights. in the latter case: several prickets or sockets are placed on a common disc (fig. ); or, which is artistically better, the main branch divides into a number of subsidiary arms (fig. ). the bracket on a large scale, is used for street-lighting, for churches, theatres, halls, mansions, palaces, restaurants, &c.; and on a smaller scale, for pianofortes, &c. in designing brackets for gas: care must be taken to provide for the gas-pipe. the modern adjustable brackets, being mostly without decoration, need not be considered. plate . the candle-bracket. — . german, renascence, wrought-iron, national museum, munich. . rococo, for candles, bronze gilt, milan museum, (raguenet). — . modern, by m. weinholdt, munich, (gowerbehalle). — . wall-plates, to , and . plate . the candle-bracket. plate . the pendant-lamp. the chandelier. —the modern lamp. and bronze, along with glass (venetian chandeliers), and of late years cheap cast-iron, and zinc, axe the chief materials. original and uni- que in design is the mermaid chandelier consisting of female half- figures terminating in fish-tails, and furnished with antlers to carry the candles (fig. ). the slender chains by which these mer- maids, and other lamps and lanterns, were suspended, are replaced in modern chandeliers by a tube which also serves as a gas-pipe. in the former case the chain was carried over pulleys so that the light could be shifted higher or lower; in modern chandeliers the adjust- ment is effected by means of a stuffing-box with balance weights (fig. ). very frequently the lower end of the chandelier terminates in a ring, to facilitate the change in height. in addition to the globes round the flames, guards are often placed over them, to protect the ceiling from heat and soot. each burner must be connected with the main gas-pipe by means of a separate pipe. where the chandelier is intended for electric lights; the latter may be bent downwards instead of upwards, so that the frames for the globes will cast no shadow. the plate gives a number of ancient and modern chande- liers, partly in half profile, the foreshortened arms, which interfere with the drawing, having been omitted. a regular arrangement, of , or arms, is the rule: more or fewer arms occur more rarely. in the case of chandeliers with a great number of lights: each arm is arranged after the fashion of a bracket with several candles. plate . the chandelier. . modern, style of the german renascence. . german, renascence, hemispherical, for candles. — . modern, bronze and wrought-iron. . modern, french, by the sculptor villeminot, (l'art pour tons) the modern lamp. (plate .) the principal value, of the modern lamp, lies in the technical completeness, and adaptation to its purpose. there is, it is true, no such wealth of artistic fancy as is shown by antique lamps; but still some good examples may be found among the two or three fundamental forms of the paraffin-lamp, with which we have mostly to do. metal, glass, porcelain, and majolica, again appear as materials. as a general rule we have a profiled foot, on which the oil-receiver rests, from which latter the burner, chimney, and globe rise, (figs. and ). more richly finished examples have a masked receiver, the latter being enclosed by a vase (figs. , and ). attempts have lately been plate . the candelier. metal objects. . . the altar. — the tripod. common with those of the antique; and they do not full within the scope of our work. plate . the altar. . assyrian, triangular sacrificial stone. . assyrian, round sacrificial stone. . assyrian, sacrificial slab, from a relief in the british museum. . boman, three-sided altar, like a number of examples, differing little from one-another, in the museums in london, paris, &c. . roman, three-sided altar, used as the base of a candelabrum. — . boman,- various altars, fig. with the masks of deities, and the signs of the zodiac, (menard et sauvageot). the tripod. (plate .) the name tripod is applied to any three-legged support, what- ever the use to which it may be jrat. more accurately, the tripod is a construction in three parts: the top part being a bowl, dish, or slab. the antique tripod played an important part both in religious rites and in daily life. originally an article of practical use, for cooking, &c., its form is simple; when it was elevated to an utensil of religion, to bear the sacrificial pans and the consecrated offerings for the deities, or to be the prize of victory in th. games: it assu- med conventional forms, and received an artistic finish. the material was generally bronze, except for the great, monumental state-tripods, which were of marble. the greek, roman, and etruscan tripods differ characteristically from each-.other, in their detail; but have this in com- mon, that they are supported by three smooth, rod-like legs, which are terminated at their lower end in animals' claws; and are connected together by rings (fig. ), or struts (figs. and ); and at the top are either connected directly with the dish (figs. and ), or with a ring intended for the reception of a loose dish (fig. ). for the sake of greater convenience, handles are sometimes attached to the dish (fig. ); the legs may be adjusted to different heights (figs. and ); or the tripod may be so arranged that it can be taken to pieces. these antique tripods, of which some of the simpler examples are given on the plate, afford us, better than anything else, an insight into the antique art of bronze-working. , the middle ages and the renascence have also transmitted to us numerous tripods. their principal, use is in households as stands for washing-basins, &c.; and they are generally of wrought-iron (figs. , , ). after the art of working in wrought-iron had been revived in modern times, we find them as stands for washing-apparatus, trays for visiting-cards, stands for wine-coolers, (fig. ), c. plate . the altar. metal objects. the tripod. plate . the tripod. — the censer. plate . the tripod. . antique, bronze, found in pompeii, about museum, naples. ins. high. . romanesque, bronze, (menard et sauvageot). . etruscan, bronze, berlin museum. . mediaeval, bronze, pierrefonds castle, (viollet-le-duc). — . italian, th century, wrought-iron, about ft high, (l'art pour tous). . modern, wrought-iron, for wine-cooler, by the architect zaar, (gewerbehalle). the censer. (plate .) one of the oldest ecclesiastical utensils is the censer or tbu rible, in the use of which the rising clouds of incense are a sym- bolical representation of prayer ascending to heaven. the material is silver, bronze, iron, copper, or brass. the lower part consists of a dish with foot, containing the fire-pan. the pierced cover is kept in its place by means of the three chains which pass through the three holes made for the purpose. these three chains hang from a small plate with a ring. the cover is fastened to a fourth chain, which also terminates in a chain and may be drawn up through a hole in the plate (fig. ). the decoration is frequently symbolic, and in- scriptions are also used. the romanesque and gothic censers often exhibit an architectonic design of domes and towers (figs. , , ). the renascence prefers the strict form of a vessel (figs. , and ). modern art avails itself of ancient models, without having anything independent to show. an appendage of the censer, in a certain sense, is the censer-boat, or incense-holder, usually an elliptical dish with a partition and two hinged covers. the incense is conveyed from the incense-boat to the censer by means of a spoon. plate . the censer. — . romanesque, bronze, th and th centuries, each ins. high, collection of antiquities, grand-ducal court, mannheim. . romanesque, bronze, french, beginning of the th century, /, ins. high, (viollet-le-duc). . — . gothic, from stone statues, cathedral, chartres, th century, (l'art pour tous). . gothic, with tower shaped cover. — . renascence. . renascence, south kensington museum, london. the censer. plate . the censer. — the crucifix. the crucifix. (plate .) the crucifix (fjoru crucifixus = nailed to the cross) does not appear in christian ritual until after the abolition of the shameful punish- ment of crucifixion. the oldest crucifixes may be dated about the th century. in the course of the following styles: it underwent a variety of transformations. the older examples often represent the crucified christ as clothed (fig. ), while in later times the body is more frequently nude, with the clothing restricted to the cloth round the loins. the older renderings of christ show a straight stiff atti tude, and a calm expression; while later periods exhibit a more life- like conception, and the expression of pain. at first: each foot is pierced by a separate nail, later the two feet by one nail only; so that the four nails are reduced to three. a nimbus appears above or behind the head; and over this a roll with the letters i. n. r. i. (iesus nazarenus rex iudaeorum). the arms of the latin cross are often terminated in four quatrefoils containing symbols of the four evangelists (figs. , ). purely ornamental terminations of the arms and decorations at their intersections are also not uncommon (fig. ). when the crucifix is intended to stand upright on the communion- table: it is furnished with a candelabrum-like base (figs. , , ). the bases are generally of similar style to the accompanying candle- sticks. the materials are chiefly metals, wood, and ivory, the body of christ and the cross being often of different materials. plate . the crucifix. . italian, , silver gilt, the inlaid plates of the cross are roct crystal, poldi pezzoli collection, milan, (kunsthandwerk). . italian, bronze, certosa near pavia, ft. ins. high, renascence, (musterornamente). . italian, bronze, renascence, evidently of earlier, date than the base. . modern, carved wood. the crozier, and the monstrance. (plate .) the crozier or pastoral-staff has been the badge of episcopal dignity since the earliest period of the middle ages. in the west: it had the shape of a crutch up to the th century; and it has re- tained this form in the east up the present day (fig. ). afterwards the upper end was curved spirally. the curved end and the staff itself are separated by a knob. in the middle ages: the curve is decorated with crockets and inscriptions; and its centre bears figures. in nzr.j cases the war of the church against the evil one is sym- g the crozier, and the monstrance. bolically represented by the fight with the dragon (fig. ). in the gothic period the knob below the curve is developed into an archi- tectonic lantern. the length of the crozier is to ft. the material is wood, ivory, and metal, usually contrasting in the different parts. the plate only reproduces the upper ends; as these alone are of importance by their decoration. the monstrance is a utensil allied to the ciborium and reli- quary. it is an expository vessel in which, since the institution of the feast of corpus christi by urban iv in , the consecrated wafer is shown and carried in processions in roman catholic churches. it possesses great varieties both of style and size, the height varying from ft. to ft. it usually has a slender hexagonal or octagonal foot, and a knob. from the foot rises a tower-like receptacle (turri- cula), or a "glory" with a disc-shaped glass box in which the wafer rests on the so-called eye. the material is gold, silver, or brass. the plate gives one of the numerous examples which have been preserved. plate . the crozier, and the monstrance. . romanesque, bishop gerard of limoges, t . — . romanesque. . transition period from romanesque to gothic, french, (i/art pour tons). . gothic, martin schongauer, end of th century, (wessely). . rococo, ivory. . monstrance, gilt brass, ins. high, hotzendorf. c utensils of war and hunting; weapons. utensils of war and hunting, in their most primitive forms at least, are as old as mankind itself. savages of the earliest as well as of modern times, show great skill, and a certain originality in the decoration of these utensils, as we may see in our ethnological collections. so long as these utensils continued to be made of horn, bone, and such materials: and also so long as they belong to the so- called "stone age", they are comparatively simple. they do not assume a richer form and finish till the introduction of bronze and iron. the great revolution which ensued on the transition from the "stone" to the "bronze age" finds a not less imposing parallel in the revolution wrought by the invention of gunpowder. utensils of war and hunting may be divided into two great sections: weapons of defense and weapons of offense. to the former belong shields, helmets and armour. the kinds and number of the shield. weapons of offense are far more manifold. swords, daggers, spears, pikes, lances, axes, maces, arrows, rifles, and' pistols, are the principal. it is unfortunately impossible, in this work, to give due consideration to every single form; still the chief representatives have been included, with the exception of firearms and armour, in which only the engraved or chased details are of decorative importance. . the most striking examples, in our armouries and museums, have lately been published, in numerous works; so that it is not difficult to obtain a general view of this section; monographs on wea- pons have also been published, among which we may specially men- tion boeheim's waffenkmdt (e. a. seemann, leipzig). the shield. (plate g.) the shield, which from the earliest times has been the usual weapon of defense against blows and thrusts, is generally a domed disc, the form of which has varied considerably. circular, elliptical, semi-circular, and kite-shapes, are found alongside others of richer out- line. the materials are wood, plaited osiers, leather, metal, and combinations of these.' the shield is held in the left hand by a handle, or slung on the arm by a strap. the size varies from ins. to ft. the antiquo shield was circular; and frequently ornamented with a boss in the centre. among tho ancient teutons, the form was large and square; in the middle ages, it was triangular. the standing-shields or pavises, of the th and th centuries, were very largo, and provided with feet, so that they would stand upon the ground, without being held. the tilting shield had a hole cut- awhv in which the lance was laid. with the introductions of fire-arms the shield became worthless, and disappears as an article of practical use; but it has continued to be employed for state - purposes dow n to the present time; and, from a decorative standpoint, these state- shields are~ of high interest. they offer to metal workers an except- ionally favourable field for the display of their art. the simple zonal divisions of the antique shield have given place to freer divisions and a richer decoration with figures and ornaments. plate g. the slileld. . koman, with buss, bronze partly-silvered, found near mainz, wies- baden, museum. j. etruscan, bronze, campann collection, (l'art pour tous). . mediaeval, time of the crusades, (viollet-lo-duc). + renascence, time of henry ii of france, hammered metal. the shield. plate . metal objects. the helmet plate the helmet. — the sword. — the dagger. . roman, bronze, louvre, paris, (menard et sauvageot). — . roman, bronze, for gladiators, different views, (menard et sauvageot). . mediaeval salade, iron. . mediaeval heaume, iron, the chain was hooked into the cross- shaped slit. . mediaeval tilting-helmet, iron. . mediaeval armet, iron. . mediaeval, iron, with barred vizor. . renascence, morion, etched iron. . renascence burganet, german. . state-helmet, th century, (l'art pour tous). the sword. (plate .) the sword is the most universally used of the offensive weapons. much as these weapons for cutting and thrusting differ from each other in size and finish; they generally consist of three principal parts: the blade, single or double-edged, tapering more or less towards the point, generally straight, but sometimes curved or waved, also sometimes fluted to save weight, only decorated by means of engraving, etching, damaskeening, &c.; the handle, with or without pommel, cup, or basket; and the scabbard or sheath, with or without a hanger. the two latter, the handle and scabbard, offer the most scope for decoration. the material of these is, in addition to iron, the other metals and alloys, wood, bone, leather, coloured stones, &c. here, also, from an artistic point of viewl we have to consider less the practical than the state-swords, on which the renascence, the following styles, and modern art, have found ample opportunity to exercise their artistic skill. plate offers a small selection from the copious material in our armouries and collections of weapons. plate . the sword, and its scabbard. — . assyrian, from reliefs. and . egyptian. . prehistoric, bronze, found in switzerland. — . mediaeval, and renascence. — . renascence. — . renascence, pommel, guard, and chape, by hans holbein tho younger, (formenschatz). the sword, and its scabbard. plate . the dagger. — the halberd. the daggek. (plate .) the dagger is a sword in miniature, in which the guard is either omitted or reduced in size. what has been said of the sword will apply to the dagger. the greatest artists of the renascence: holbein, diirer, cellini, and others, did not disdain, as the plate shows, to devote^ their artistic genius to this weapon, which was often worn more for fashion than for practical purposes. the "dance of death" (fig. } is a very popular motive in the decoration of the scabbards of daggers. considering the object of the weapon, a more pregnant and appro- priate decoration can scarcely be imagined. plate . the dagger, and its scabbard. . egyptian, blade of white bronze, handle of cedar wood, plated with gold and silver, tomb of queen aah-hotep, qurnah bear thebes ( b. c), bulak, museum. . egyptian, blade of gold, handle of cedar wood plated with gold and incrusted with red and blue enamel, (as no. ). . renascence, handle, end of th century, basel, (kunst im hause). . renascence, handle, end of th century, basel, (viollet-le-duc). . renascence, german, basel, (kunst im hause). — . designs, by hans holbein the younger, ( — ), (pormenschatz). . designs, by albrecht diirer, (pormenschatz). . renascence, german, blackened iron parcel-gilt, collection of napoleon iii, (l'art pour tous). . creese, from sumatra, wooden handle and sheath, united collections, carlsruhe. the halberd. (plate .) among the multifarious utensils of war of the middle ages and the renascence: we may specially mention the following: — the lance and the pike, wooden shafts with a leaf or awl- shaped iron spike. (fig. shows a pike-head of complicate shape). a small flag was often attached to the lance just below the head. the partizan is a pike with a flat blade and symmetrical lateral points (figs. , , and ). war-scythes and war-forks: the shapes of which are indicated by their names (figs. , and ). the battle-axe, and martel, are axe and hammer-shaped weapons, the halberd. — the spoon. with one side terminating in an axe or a hammer, and the other in a point (fig. ). the halberd is a combination of the pike or partizan with the battle-axe (figs. and ). the mace is a handle with a knob of various forms; when it is set with spikes, it is called a "morning-star", and when set with radiating blades, it is termed a quadrelle (fig. ). the war-flail is distinguished from the mace by the knob being fastened to the handle by a chain. and so on, in endless variety. so far as decoration is concerned: the first place is due to halberds and partizans; not only because the shape of the blade is frequently very varied and handsome, but also because the union with the shaft, by means of bands, nails, tassels, &c., gives an oppor- tunity for rich colour. the blades, elso, are often decorated by damaskeening, engraving, gilding, etc. plate . the halberd, &c. . partizan, richly-etched, german, th century, historical museum, dresden, (kunsthandwerk). . halberd, richly-etched, german, , artillery museum, paris, (l'art pour tous). . fauchard, richly-etched, german, , artillery museum, paris, (l'art pour tous). . partizan, richly-etched, german, th century, artillery museum, paris, (l'art pour tous). . partizan, richly-etched, german, , royal armoury, berlin, (kunsthandwerk). and . halberds. . combination of war-scythe and war-fork. . battle-axe, hindu, united collections, carlsruhe. . mace, so-called quadrelle, (viollet-le-duc). pike. (the shafts have been omitted, or only partially indicated). c. table utensils. the spoon. (plate .) the spoon is, strictly speaking, a dipper; and has already been alluded-to in the discussion of the group of vessels (comp. plate ). it is here treated in the group of utensils. as a table utensil the metal objects. ft the halberd, &c. plat* . the spoon spoon has been in use from the earliest times; its fundamental form has undergone very little alteration; although its style and size have varied in different periods. the form of the bowl is spherical, elliptic, or oval (in the last case the handle is usually attached to the broad end, more rarely to the narrow one). the handle has a cylindrical, prismatic or conical tapering form, or is spatulate. spatulate handles broaden out at the free end; and are decorated with cartouches or pierced work (figs. , — ). prismatic, cylindrical, and conical, handles usually terminate in knobs, busts, or little whole-length figures (figs. — , and — ). the'handles of small antique spoons for eating shellfish, ac., often taper to a point to serve as openers. double-spoons, as shown in fig. , are rare. folding pocket-spoons, as in figs. , , and , are not infrequent in the middle ages, and the renascence. bowl and handle either lie in the same plane (figs. and ), or they form an angle at the point of junction (figs. , and ). as a rule: the decoration is confined to the handle; where the bowl is decorated, it is with some kind of flat work (engraving, or enamelling). the materials are the precious metals, alloys, tin, bone, horn,' wood, &c.; very often, the handle and the bowl are of different materials. plate . the spoon. t. egyptian. — . antique, bronze, (ligulae), pompeii. — . mediaeval, hammered copper, th century, ili ins. long, pierrefonds castle. — . mediaeval, tin, th century, '/ ins. long. mediaeval, chased and hammered brass, */ ins. long, pierrefonds castle. . folding pocket-spoon, th century, '/s ins. l°ng. cluny museum, paris, (vipllet-le-duc), . renascence, south kensington museum, london. . renascence, silver, terminating in a madonna, / ins. long, cluny museum, paris. . german, folding pocket-spoon, th century, ins. long, dziatinska collection. . renascence, folding pocket-spoon silver, '/s ins. long, cluny museum, paris. . renascence, bowl of agate, handle of copper gilt, s /s ins., cluny museum, paris. (l'art pour tous). . double-spoon, bronze, germanisches museum, nuremberg. metal objects. the spoon. plate . 'the spoon. — the knife, and the fork. . persian, from an inkstand, th century, '/ ins. long, duhousset collection, (l'art pour tous). . persian, th century, / ins. long, duhousset collection, (l'art pour tous). . german, tin, inscription: "trink und is, gott nit vergis", united collections, carlsruhe. . modern, french, (gewerbehahe). . modern, silver gilt and enamelled, by the architect f. o schulze, (gewerbehahe). . modern, silver, by f. seitz. the knife and the fork. (plate .) knives and forks, unlike spoons, are of comparatively latn introduction as table utensils. although it is probable that they were in use at a very early period as kitchen utensils for carving food, still they did not attain the rank of a recognised dinner set until the art of eating had reached a certain refinement. it has been maintained that knives and forks appeared on dinner tables towards the close of the roman empire. in our own country it can be proved that they did not come into general use until-the th or th century. this may be explained by the circumstance that in the earlier period of the middle ages, as at the present time in the east, food was carried to the mouth with the fingers or with a spoon, after having undergone the necessary division into small portions in the kitchen. cleanliness was ensured by frequently washing the hands during dinner. as regards form and material: what has been said of spoons, is also true for knives and forks. the handles are similarly shaped, to secure uniformity in the whole set; the bowl of the spoon is replaced by the two, or more prongs of the fork, or by the blade of the knife. the handle is made of wood, ivory, &c., and it is comparatively stronger as it must possess a greater power of re- sistance because the tang or prolongation of the blade, which is always made of steel, must be let-into it. as the plate shows, the shape of the blade has passed through many changes in the course of time. to cut the "consecrated bread" the middle ages employed peculiar knives, the blades of which were engraved with mottoes and musical scales. plate . the knife, and the fork. — . mediaeval, ( th— th century), wooden handle inlaid with silver. the knife, and the fork. — the paper-knife. — the soisiors. — . gothic, th century, the prongs of alloy, the handle of ivory mounted with silver, /s ins. long, garneray collection. . mediaeval, copper gilt, ins. long, garneray collection. . renascence, ivory, leon bach collection, (l'art poor tous). . renascence, south kensington museum, london. . renascence, bach collection, (l'art pour tous). . renascence, bach collection, (l'art pour tous). . barocco period, south kensington museum, london. — . renascence, dresden, (musterornamente). — . ditto. — . modern, silver gilt and enamelled, by f. . schulze, (ge- werbehalle). . modern, silver gilt and enamelled; by f. . schulze, (ge- werbehalle). the paper-knife. (plate .) paper-knives are an invention of modern times. as the name implies, they are used for cutting paper, the edges of books, news- papers, and letters; and they find a place on every desk. the form is usually that of a one or two-edged knife. as the blade does not require to be very sharp, it is generally made of the same material as the handle, and in most cases of ivory, wood, or brass. the decoration is generally confined to the handle; the blade is at most decorated with flat enrichment. plate . the paper-knife. . modern, brass. — . modern, ivory or wood, by dir. g. kachel, (gewerbehalle). — . modern, wood carving, by j. eberhardt, heilbronn. . modern, pierced metal. the scissors. (plate .) scissors, intended primarily for use in ladies' work, and after- wards applie'd to a variety of other purposes, are mostly met-with in iwo different fundamental forms. the earlier form (french: forces), which held its ground up to the end of the middle ages, has a spring hoop which unites the two blades (fig. ). the later form (french: ciseaux), which begins to appear sporadically as early as the th century, has two separate blades moveable round a central the sciasors. — the hand-bell. pivot, and terminating at one end in the blades and at the other in handles with ring-shaped eyelets to receive the fingers (figs. , , . ). the shape is usually symmetrical. variations, like fig. , are rare. not infrequently, the scissors are provided with a chain by means of which they may be suspended, either alone or with other articies, from a chatelaine. the points are sometimes protected by a guard (fig. ). the decoration is generally confined to the handles, and frequently consists of pierced work; the blades are plain, or decorated by inlaying, &e. where handle and blades are not of the same metal, which in this case can only be steel, the handles are often of brass or silver. between these two extremes are gilt, silvered, and nickel led handles. the renascence gratified its luxurious taste to the full, in the matter of scissors; in modern times, the plainer and simpler forms are preferred. the length of the blades varies, according to the purpose; but the size of the handles remains the same, beidg governed by that of the human hand; hence the pro- portions between the two are very various. among scissors which jro intended for special purposes, and depart from the usual form: may be mentioned snuffers, and "lazy-tongs" (fig. ). plate . the scissors. . renascence, sonth kensington museum, london. . renascence, blades etched, handles gilt, august i of saxony, royal historical museum, dresden, (kunsthandwerk). — . persian, th century, /s ns. an(l / ins. long, duhousset collection, (l'art pour tons). . renascence, south kensington museum, london. . renascence, german, dresden, (musterornamente). . renascence, handles silver gilt, german (kunsthandwerk). . snuffers, in bird form. . lazy-tongs, united collections, carlsruhe. the hand-bell. (plate .) in thoso utensils of which it may be said that as a rule they are artistically decorated beyond what is wanted for practical purposes, we may reckon the hand-bell. during the middle ages and the renascence: the hand-bell seems to have been chiefly used in an official capacity in council-chambers and for ecclesiastical puqioses; and its introduction into ordinary households, to summon the atten- dants did not take place till later. in our own times, so prolific of parliamentary and other meetings: the hand-bell is indispensable. the necessary parts are: the resonant cup, the clapper suspended in the the scissors. plate . the hand-bell. riatc . the door-knocker. these latter objects in particular, a much more extensive collection might have been made if the allotted space had permitted. there is scarcely a tool or instrument which did not occasionally receive an artistic finish during the renascence. the introduction of the so- called "master-pieces" into the guilds, naturally led to* the result that unnecessary labour was sometimes expended on the most ordinary things. but still we shall offer sufficient to give the reader the necessary view of the entire section. the door-knocker. (plate .) although the door-knocker was in use in antiquity, as proved by an example (the head of medusa with ring) found in capua: still the strict period of the door-knocker is in the romanesque, gothic, and renascence epochs. in modern times: it has already become a historical object, having been ousted by bellpulls, c. it is made almost exclusively of bronze, and cast or wrought iron. its dimensions are variable, like those of the doors and gates them- selves, to which it must bear some proportion. we may distinguish three principal classes. the first has the form of a ring, usually suspended from a lion's jaws; in which case it is at the same time a door-handle (figs. — ). the second has the form of a hammer moveable on a primitive hinge. the third class, which arose in italy in the best days of the renascence, shows figures, animals, &c (figs. and ). in all three classes the requisite noise is produced by the moveable part falling on a metal stud. in the third class the plate by which the knocker is affixed to the door is of subsidiary importance, while in the two former classes it is often the principal feature of the design. the gothic period devised richly-decorated plates of pierced - work. this motive was often retained by the re- nascence (fig. ), or replaced by doable-headed eagles and the like (fig. ). the plate gives different examples, selected from the copious material. plate . the dooh-knocker. . romanesque, bronze, north portal of the cathedral of puy-en-velay, th century. . mediaeval, /s ins. square, soyter collection, augsburg. . renascence, / ins. square, museum, berlin. . transition from gothic to renascence, /j ins. square, s. peter's, strassburg. . renascence, wrought-iron, german, national museum, munich. . renascence, (guichard). the door-knocker plate . the door-knocker. — the key. . mediaeval, bronze, th century, / ins. high, east portal of the cathedral of noyon. . renascence, wrought-iron, dutch, /s ins. high, vermerch col- lection. . renascence, bronze, italian, . /j ias. high, david with the head of goliath, house in ferrara, (vorbilder fur fabrikanten und handwerker). . renascence, bronze, italian, , south kensington museum, london. . renascence, bronze, italian, austrian museum, vienna, (gewerbe- halle). the key. (plate .) it is not the task of this handbook to follow the developement of the lock through its various stages from the antique up to the present day. it would also carry us too far if we were to attempt to go into the decorative details of the case of the lock; one plate, however shall be devoted to the key; while the escutcheon will find its place in the group of frames. apart from such special designs as that shown by fig. , the key usually consists of- three parts: the bow, the stem, and the bit. keys may be divided into two classes, according as the stem is tubular, or is solid. the stem is generally cylindrical, or profiled; more rarely angular, or prismatic. the bit, which projects as a rectangular plate at the end of the key, is divided by notches into wards. the decoration is applied to the bow. the pompeian key, shown in fig. , is an exception, the bow beiug smooth and the bit and stem prettily ornamented. keys are made of iron and bronze, the stem being frequently of iron, and the bow of some other metal; the bow, and indeed the whole key, is often gilt. the palmy days of keys were the middle ages and the re- nascence; compared with these, our modern keys are on the whole smaller, simpler, and, if less beautiful, are certainly more practical. finally we may mention those colossal examples which were formerly made to serve as signs; and are even now met-with. plate . the key. . antique, pompeii, (blumner: das kunstgewerbe im alterthum). . roman, bronze, found on the hohenkrahen, united collections, carlsruhe. . romanesque, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. — . renascence, (kunst und gewerbe). — . renascence, museo medio evo e rinascimento, rome, (ge- werbehalle). the hand-mirror. plate . the fan. on the subject of history and style, the following may be said: the fixed fan is the oldest and most primitive. its natural model is a leaf on a stalk, just as savages at the present time make their fans of dried palm-leaves or of plaited work in the form of leaves (fig. ). the feather may also be regarded as a natural model, and hence its frequent application to fans of every kind. the pennon fan is the least practical, its domain is the middle ages and the early renascence, together with certain parts of the east (india, turkey, morocco, tunis, &c.). the radial fan was also in use in the middle ages (with a long handle), and down to the present time in certain parts of italy, persia, china, and japan. the lamellar and the folding fan are of later date. their introduction is contemporaneous with the general use of the fan in europe ( th century). after the period of tfie lamellar fan in the th century, follows the golden age of the folding fan in the rococo period. the folding fan is also the predominant form in modern times. egyptian mural paintings and assyrian reliefs frequently show fan - bearers, with larger or smaller fly - flappers, in the retinue of. the kings. the most common egyptian forms are given in figs. and , the assyrian in fig. . scarcely any vestige has been pre- served of antique fans. judging by the pictures on vases, &c., the greek fan consisted of a leaf, cut to a palmette - shape, on a long handle. the roman ladies were somewhat luxurious in the matter of fans, which they either managed themselves or had carried by slaves; and under the emperors the men were also. in the middle ages, the fan entered into the service of the church; deacons and ministrans kept-off flies from the consecrated host by means of the flabella, which often took the form of six-winged seraphs. when the fan became popular for secular purposes, its use was given up in churches. as already observed, the renascence passed from the fixed, to the lamellar and folding fan. the lamellar fan offered numerous opportunities for carved and pierced work in ivory, horn, tortoiseshell, filigree, and enamel work. the folding fan offered an unlimited field for decoration by painting; and painters, like boucher, watteau, and others, devoted themselves to fan-painting (pastoral scenes &c.). during this period the "puzzle-fan" was invented, which shows differ- ent pictures according to the way it is folded. lace fans, fans with mirrors, monograms, and autographs, and the bespangled empire-fans, complete the category. the modern ball-room fan is a large folding fan generally decorated with naturalistic paintings of flowers. but all possible forms ara occasionally used. france, china, and japan supply the fan market. heinrich frauborger, who has written a most valuable monograph on the fan*, maintains that the latter countries • h. frauberger: "die geschichte de* fachers." leiptig: k. schouze the fan. — various tools. alone manufacture between them about »/, of the million fans which are annually made on the globe. finally we may briefly enumerate the materials which are prin- cipally used in the manufacture of fans. they are: bamboo, palm- leaves, wood, bone, horn, ivory, tortoise-shel], mother-of-pearl, metal, paper, straw and other plaited material, silk, lace, gelatine, mica, leather, feathers, &o. plate . the fan. . egyptian, fly-flapper, feathers, handle omitted. . egyptian, feather-fan. . assyrian, fly-flapper, from a relief, british museum. . modern, fly-flapper, plaited palm-leaves, south caroline is- lands, (franberger). . modern, fly-flapper, plaited palm-leaves, united collections,' carlsruhe. . modern, palm-leaf, cut and bound at the edge. — . modern, japanese, bamboo and paper. . modern, printed paper with silk fringe and gilt wooden handle. . modern, siamese, handle of whipped wood, centre of paste- board, decorated with rosettes and bordered with peacock feathers, united collections, carlsruhe. . modern, hindu, handle of wood, centre of pasteboard covered with silk, braid, and butterfly wings, bordered with peacock feathers, (frauberger). . mediaeval, radial-fan, french, (viollet-le-duc). . modem, folding-fan, wood and grouse feathers. . modern, folding-fan, wood, painted silk, and gold. various tools. (plate .) among the tools and instruments which only occasionally or accidentally receive an artistic finish we may mention: hammers, tongs, compasses, cocks, pestles, hour-glasses, and clocks, along with many other things. no attempt can be made here to treat these articles in detail. but it may be said that, in general, the highly-decorated examples have been specially made for state-occasions, o. g. the hammer (fig. ), with which pope julius iii inaugurated the jubilee year ( ) by knocking three times on the walled-up main- portal of s. peter's, as a sign that it should be opened. plate exhibits a number of such objects. meyer, handbook of ornamant. plate . various tools. furniture. furniture, in its biuader sense, is a collective name for all kinds of household goods and chattels. it is more strictly confined to such objects as chairs, tables, wardrobes, &c. but even in this narrower sense the examples of furniture are so numerous that it is not possible to give a detailed description and discussion of each indivi- dual article on the plates which are devoted to this group. and it .is the less necessary to do this as our object is only to give a view of the application of decoration to furniture in general. we show a series of the more important articles, while others, such as pianos, and wardrobes, have been omitted. they have been so grouped that plates to contain the different varieties of chairs, while the following plates are devoted to tables, cabinets, bed- steads, cradles, &c. the examples have been chiefly taken from tht antique, the renascence, and modern times; while the middle ages, the barocco> and rococo periods h.ive only occasionally been taken into account. that particular attention has been paid to the german renascence, is based on the fact, that this period is specially distinguished for its achievements in the field of richly;decorated furniture. this chapter might seem to offer an inducement to give a historical account of the development of tectonic form in the different periods of art. but to do this, with any thoroughness, would also require us to abandon the conciseness we have hitherto maintained: and furniture. we will therefore only refer the reader to the details in semper: "der stil", and to the highly-interesting work by georg hirth: "das deutsche zimmer der gothik und renaissance, des barock-, rokoko-, und zopfstils" (g. hirth, 'munich and leipzig). the necessary in- formation about the furniture of the egyptians, assyrians, greeks, and romans will be found in menard et sauvageot: "la tie privie des anciens"; and about the middle ages in viollet-le-duc: "die- tionnaire baisonne" du mobilier francais"; from both of which works we have taken numerous examples for our plates. besides these, there is such a number of cyclopaedic works on this subject that it is impossible even to name them all here. a. scats. as regards seats: the fundamental form has generally been depen- dent on the special purpose, and on the ever-varying mode of life; while the details have been influenced by the artistic taste of the time, and by the material used. definite fundamental types often recur by the side of new and arbitrary special forms; and we hive attempted a classification according to these fundamental forms. the simplest and most primitive form, although for many pur- poses the least comfortable, is that of the taboret or ottoman, which is without a back. the chair is more comfortable because of the addition of the back; and it becomes still more so, when arms are added. to this group belongs the throne, which in view of its pur- pose is more monumental in form, and richer in material. revolving, folding, and rocking chairs meet the demand for special purposes. the stall, and the "prie-dieu" also have peculiar accessories, due to their being used for other purposes than sitting. the bench and the couch offer a seat or repose for several persons simultaneously. in spite of the variety of forms, one feature is common to nearly all, namely, the height of the seat in order to sit comfortably, the feet should just reach the ground, and the height of the seat is there- fore from ins. to ins. the depth of the seat shows greater va- riations, from ins. to ins. the height of the back varies from ins. and more; the fact having to be taken into consideration that the. head, when it is leant back, should have a proper support. the upper surface of the arms should be about ins. above that of the seat. straight, upright backs are less comfortable than curved lines adapted to the vertebral curve. similarly: flat, horizontal seats are not so suitable as those which slope downwards towards the back. the principal materials are wood, cane, and metal; stone, terra- cotta, &c., are rarer. as it is unpleasant to rest against a hard the chair. material for any length of time, recourse is had to cane, or flexible seats, skins, cushions, and upholstering. in course of titno, chairs have become more comfortable with the progress of comfort in general. it may be specially emphasized that the handsomest and most richly- decorated seats are not usually the most practical; further remarks are reserved for the discussion of the different forms. the chair. (plates — .) the chair is a stool with a back to it. the most usual form has four legs. sometimes the legs are connected-together by braces or ties, which are called foot-rails. the seat generally has the shape of an oblong, a square, or a trapezium. circular and polygonal seats are less common. hexagonal and octagonal seats, with a corresponding number of legs, begin to appear in the th century; and certain wooden chairs of the renascence have seats in the form of regular or semi-regular polygons (plate . , , ). the legs are prismatic or turned, frequently with claw feet, while the top of the back terminates in knobs, animal-heads, or masks (plates . ; . ; . , , ). instead of legs, the seats of the wooden chairs of the renascence are sometimes supported by perforated and carved boards, either at the two sides or in front and behind (plate . , , ). where the back is carved out of a single piece, as is the case with many renascence and modern chairs, the two hinder legs have the same form and height as the front legs (plates . , ; . ). very often the back is treated as a frame (plate . , , ), or is bent into a cylindrical plan, as in the greek "klismos" (plate i. , ), and its imitation, the empire chair (plate . ). openings for the hand are made in carved wooden backs for convenience in moving (plate . , , ). where the top of the back is hori- zontal, it is often crowned with a cornice or an ornament (plates . ; . ). where the seat, alone or in conjunction with the back, is of woven cane-work or padded, the chair is termed a "cane" or an "upholstered" chair. sometimes not only the padding but also the entire structure of the chair is upholstered in some material, just as, on the other hand, chairs may be made entirely of cane or rushes. the seats and backs of upholstered chairs are covered with leather, or textiles (plate . ). the'overlaying of wood with metal occurs in the assyrian style, and occasionally in later periods; the state- chairs of the middle ages, especially the byzantine, are not infre- quently decorated with coloured stones; a similar treatment may be observed in the renascence example (plate figs. , and ). in addition to the decoration by carving (which will always bo the chief furniture. ' the cbair. plate . . furniture. plate . the chair. the throne, and the arm-chair. — the stall. . roman arm-chair, found in herculanenm, museum at portici, (itaguenet). . antique terracotta, representing an arm-chair in the form of the hollowed-out body of a sphinx, (l'art pour tous). . chair of s. peter, wood with ivory reliefs iilustrating the story of hercules, s. peter's at rome, (menard et sauvageot). plate . the throne, and the arm-chaih. . norwegian stall, th century, from b , telemark. . mediaeval arm-chair, with foot-stool and draped back, (viollet- lo-duc). . king david's arm-chair, th century, from relief, portal of cathedral, auxerre, (viollet-le-duc). . frame of mediaeval arm-chair, iron, the drapery omitted, (viollet- le-duc). . mediaeval polygonal chair, painting, chapel in toulouse, (viollet- le-duo). . mediaeval arm-chair, metal, the drapery omitted, th centurv, (viollet-le-duc). . mediaeval arm-chair, decorated with fringe, end of the th cen- tury, bas-relief, stalls, amiens, (viollet-le-duc). . english arm-chair, th century, wood, upholstered. . arm-chair, louis xvi style, wood carved and gilded, (williamson). . modern arm-chair. . modern arm-chair. (raguenet). the stall. (plate g.) the rows of seats along the north, west, and south sides ot the choir in chapels, &c., are termed stalls. they have a peculiar con- struction corresponding to their special use. in the earliest period of the middle ages the single seats to the right and left of the bishop's chair were built into the wall of the chancel, at a later period they were replaced by moveable seats; and these again, from about the th century onwards, were replaced by stalls, strictly so-called; the seats being united in a continuous row, with an architectonic character and construction. there are generally two rows, one behind the other, and the hinder row is a little elevated. partitions divide the seats from one another; and serve as arms. between the partitions are the seats. these are either fixed or arranged to fold back. in the latter case a console-like projection is attached to the underside of the seat, to serve as a kind of rest when the seat is folded-back; thus, out of pity for the aged monks, rendering it possible to rest furniture. late . the throne, and the arm-chair. the stall — the stool. while appearing to stand; hence the significant name of these sup- ports, "miserere" the backs of the hinder row of seats form a screen; and are usually decorated with carving, intarsia, &c.; and are furnished with a canopy. in front of the seat, there is generally a kneeling-stool. where there are several rows of seats, the prayer- desks of the one row serve at the same time as the backs of the next lower row. when the front rows are interrupted by passages leading to the hinder rows, the stall-ends are richly decorated. a large number of magnificent stalls of the gothic, and still more of the renascence period, have been preserved in england, germany, france, italy, and elsewhere, to. enumerate them all would take too long. enormous pains have frequently been lavished on these works. rich ornamental and architectural motives alternate with represen- tations from bible history and the legends of the saints; secular and satirical compositions are also no rarity; so that stalls are altogether of high importance for the history of art as well as of civilisation. to exemplify what has been said, the plate gives a few examples, which are far from being among the most sumptuous. plate . the stall. . sta. maria novella, florence, decorated with intarsias, by baccio d'agnolo, end of the th century, (teirich). . side-view, and section of above. . laurentian library, florence, beginning of the th century, said to be by michelangelo, (gewerbehalle). . side-view, and section of the central row, great church, dortrecht, dutch renascence. . modern french, convent of elisabeth, fourvieres near lyons, ar- tect leo, (raguenet). the stool. (plate .) the simplest seat is the taboret or stool, which .is the chair without a back. as our plate shows, , it has been in use from the earliest times. the most primitive, and at {he same time the most stable, is probably the round seat with three legs; the egyptian example, (fig. ), may be regarded as the prototype of the modern cobblor's-stool. the plasterer's-stool, which has only one leg, is in deed still simpler; and bears some resemblance to our modern walking- stick camp-stools. the four-legged taboret is generally square, and possesses the samo features as the lower part of a chair. it is made with or without upholstery, and with or without foot-rails. here, plate . the stall. the folding-chair. — the bench. the" folding-chair may be a stool, a chair, or an ann-chair. sometimes it can be folded-up as it stands, like our iron folding- chairs for use in the open air; sometimes it must be taken to pieces before it can be folded-up, like the chair shown on fig. . the most suitable material is metal (bronzo or iron). folding-chairs of wood are very often so constructed as not to fold at all, but are merely imitations with the purpose overlooked (fig. ). the seat is fre- quently of bands, either textile or leather. where the seat is not flexible, it must be arranged to be moveable by means of hinges. thrones have been sometimes made like folding-chairs. we may also mention: the camp-stools for tourists, sportsmen, painters, &c. the principles of decoration are sufficiently elucidated by the figures of the plate. plate . tiie folding-chair. . egyptian, tomb of chambali, th dynasty. . antique, (diphros okladias). . greek, tomb of an agonothetes, found in krissa, (delphi). . antique. . mediaeval, nonncnberg, (mothes). . mediaeval, miniature painting, representing king nabuchodonosor, th or th century, (viollet-le-duc). . mediaeval, bronze gilt, throne of dagobert, restored. . mediaeval, bronze, th century, (viollet-le-duc). . renascence. . french renascence, sens cathedral, (raguenet). the bench. (plate .) the bench is an elongated seat, usually intended for several per- sons. in its simplest form, as a board with four legs, it was already known.in antiquity. in the middle ages and the renascence, it was in general use; and was employed not only as a seat, but as a table, as is shown by such terms as "work-bench", &c. the bench-seat was afterwards furnished with a back and arms, the back being fre- quently formed like the canopy over stalls (fig. ). it was uphol- stered with cushions and draped with textiles. the material is gene- rally wood; but in public buildings there are also benches made of stone. this latter material and iron, frequently combined with wood, are the-most suitable for benches in the open air. a further variety is formed by the double-bench, with a back in the middle; this back is moveable, as shown in the example (fig. ). as the bench, in most cases, is intended for every-day use, it is generally undecorated. those of the middle ages are more the furniture. the bench. plate . * the bench. — the sofa, and the couch. work of the carpenter than that of the cabinet-maker, but the re- nascence, especially in italy, has created some finely-decorated examples. plate . the bench. , , and . middle ages, (viol «t-ie-duc). . mediaeval, double with moveable back, for use in front of the fireplace, (viollet-le-duo). . renascence, with arms, (ducerceau). . renascence, with canopied back, church at flavigny, french, (viollet-le-duc). — , renascence, with podium, italian, (teirich). the sofa, and the couch. (plate .) the sofa and the couch are among upholstered furniture what the bench is among wooden furniture. by the side of forms which are nothing more than elongated chairs, occur others which have more the character of the bed. the intention of these pieces of furniture is therefore to be found in their availability for both lying and sitting. according as the one or the other object becomes predo- minant, the symmetrical form (figs. — ), or the unsymmetrical form with strongly marked head (figs. and ), is employed. in accordance with the double object, the arms are frequently treated as cylindrical cushions (fig. ), or upholstered with cushions (fig. ). although furniture of this nature was. not unknown to the an- tique, as shown by the roman examples (figs. and ), these articles cannot be said to have come into common use before the last three centuries; and now-a-days the sofa is found in every middle-class household. what enormities our modern times have perpetrated in this direction is evidenced by-the s-shapcd ottomans for two persons, which are sometimes to be found in our saloons. we may here briefly mention the transitional form which is found in waiting-rooms, and public vehicles; and the circular otto- man with centre-piece for flowers, which occupies the centre of the floor in galleries. plate . the sofa, and the couch. . roman bedstead (leclus cubicularis) in the form of a sofa, (menard et sauvageot). . ditto. . mediaeval bench, with cushions and drapery, (viollet-le-duc). — . modern forms of the sofa, (gewerbehallc, &c.'). . modern couch. the sofa, and the couch. plate . the table. j decoration to be properly seen. where the top is decorated, tho orna- mentation is flat, consisting of intarsia-work, incising, painting, &c. the size of the table varies according to the purposo for which it is intended; its height, on the contrary, is subjeet to little varia- tion, and is about ft. / ins. for ordinary tables. tables, with legs which could be adjusted to varying heights, were in use in tho antique period, being required by the social life of that time; a similar arrangement may also be seed on some modern artists' tables, which can not only bo adjusted to different heights, but also allow the top to be slanted. the following remarks are from the point of view of 'history and style. the egyptian, assyrian, and persian tables, chiefly known to us from the representations of altars, have legs terminating in claws. this motive was also popular among the greeks and romans, with the difference that the latter nations permit the claws to rest directly on the ground, while the former support the claws upon small circular plinths. the legs of antique tables are frequently of bronze; they have a similar form with those of the tripod; and like them are adjustable, as already observed (fig. ). the table-tops are often of stone or wood. large rectangular tables with stone supports of rich workmanship, and round tables with three legs of marble, a considerable number of which are given on plates and , are well known to us from the excavations at pompeii. they were not dining-tables but state-tables which stood in the tablinum and atrium of roman houses. dining-tables of the modern form were unknown to the antique; even in the early greek period, while it was still the custom to sit at dinner, each diner had his own separate table; and the same custom continued in the later period when meals were taken in a recumbent posture. these little tables were lower than ours. we also find them in similar forms among the romans (fig. ), along with larger banqueting-tables, around three sides of which the sofas were ranged as shown | |. the late roman period was one of lavish luxury; we are told, for example, of tables with legs of silver and ivory, and with table-tops of rare woods, &c. in- credible prices, up to £ , , were paid for a single choice top. the tables of the middle ages were generally rectangular or semicircular, rested on posts or trestles, were plain, and rather cumbrous. it is said of charlemagne, however, that he possessed three of silver, and one golden (?) table. beautiful and richly-designed tables of very different kinds have been preserved from the time of the renascence. of particularly frequent occurrence, are richly-carved side-trusses (fig. ), simpler forms of which were already in use in the gothic period (fig. ). in the barocco and rococo periods, the legs are curved, and the tops are of bold, arbitrary design (fig. ). the console-table is an invention of this period. it was also at this furniture. plate . the table. the table. — the writing-table. time that the dumb-waiter, came into general use. as far as art is concerned, our modern tables are mostly copies of old models. plate gives a small selection from the copious material. plate . the table. . antique, bronze, museum, naples, (raguenet). . antique, bronze, (menard et sauvageot). . roman, (kantharos of ptolemy). . mediaeval, chronicle of louis xi, (viollet-le-duc). . late gothic, municipal collection of antiquities, freiburg, (schau- insland). . renascence, with turned legs, french, castle of bussy - rabutin, (c te d'or). . renascence, with carved side-trusses, french, (ducerceau). . french, th century, garde-meuble, paris, (raguenet). . modern, renascence style. . modern. . modern, french, paris, (raguenet). the writing-table. (plate .) the peculiar construction of the writing-table removes it from the category of ordinary tables. in a certain sense it .forms the transition to the cabinets, in the form in which it is now manu- factured. the writing-table is a product of modern civilisation. in earlier times, when writing was the privilege of the select few, the common table evidently served the purpose. it is also true that the old caligraphers, used special writing apparatus, either desks which could be rested on the knees (fig. ), or small tables, an example of which is given in fig. . but it was reserved for our much-writing modern time to invent special furniture for business and private use. the writing-table must not only serve for writing, but also as a receptacle for stationery, correspondence, writing-materials, &c. hence it is furnished with cupboards, drawers, pigeon-holes, and shelves. it is often furnished with side-cupboards below the table-top having a space between them for the legs of the writer. where the table has an upper part, which admits of a variety of constructions, as may be seen from the few examples of the plate, it is usually of lesser depth than the surface of the table so as to leave the no- cessary room for writing. the same end is attained by leaving a space equal to the whole depth free between it and the table-top, as shown by fig. . the table-top is often covered with some textile material or with leather, to afford a soft surface for writing-upon plate . the writing-table. i'late . the cabinet. plate . the sideboard. furniture. plate . the hanging-cabinet. the desk, &c. — the clock-case, &c the beginning of the middle ages. they are made of wood, or metal, or of both combined. we distinguish between single and double desks. the lectern is frequently supported on the back of an eagle with outspread wings, a design which is supposed to contain a reference to the evangelist s. john, whose symbol in the eagle. ecclesiastical desks eiter have a fixed position in the choir or chancel, or they are moveable. these latter were sometimes like a saw-horse and could be folded-up; in which case the slope was replaced by bands (fig. ). the upper part of fixed desks frequently revolves, and is furnished with sconces for lights. the easel is a sloping frame with three or four legs. the front and rear are often connected by hinges to enable the angle of the slope to be altered at will. the front is provided with a small board, which can be adjusted to different heights by pins or other mechanism. it is an invention of modern times; and in its usual undecorated, form is employed by painters, sculptors, ac . but it is often made as a decorative piece of furniture of superior finish, to hold pictures, portfolios, &c. the decoration in this case may consist of the sym- bols of art, as shown in fig. . plate . the desk, &c. . gothic, th century, base of wood, slope of wrought-iron, eagle and ball gilt, dragon painted green, s. siraphorien, nuits, (viollet- le-duc). . mediaeval, san stefano, "venice, (mothes). . renascence, marble, pisa cathedral, italian, (kunsthandwerk). . mediaeval, double-desk with revolving shaft, end of th century (viollet-le-duc). . mediaeval, upper part of double-desk, (viollet-le-duc). * . renascence, folding stand, cathedral, s. gimignano, italian, (kunst- handwerk). . modern decorative easel, architect durm, (gewerbehalle). the clock-case, &c. (plate .) the clock-case, as a piece of furniture, is of comparatively recent date, for the invention of the clock with a train of wheels is itself not old; and for some time after their introduction clocks were manu- factured without cases or, at any rate, without cases of artistic importance. in the th century, cases for protecting the works against dust and for giving the clock a more pleasing aspect, begin to appear. the forms at first manufactured were chiefly two. the first is that of the old-fashioned tall hall-clock, something like the toilet-stands (figs. and ), the upper part accommodating the clock furniture. mate . the clock-case, &c. the clock-case, &c. — the bedstead, ana the cradle. . toilet-stand, german renascence, , town-hall, ueberlingen, (gewerbehalle). . toilet-stand, various coloured woods, german renascence, (formen- schatz). the bedstead, and the cradle. (plates — g .) from the earliest to the present time, the bedstead has passed through many changes. in the egyptian and assyrian styles: we find metal bedsteads imitating the forms of animals (plate . , ); and sometimes arranged to fold up like a camp-bed (plate . ). those of the greeks and romans, which served partly as beds, and partly as couches, are of manifold forms. in addition to tho four-legged bench (plate . ), we have benches with a head-board (plate . ), with head and foot board (plate . ), the latter being usually lower than the former, and others with head, foot, and back boards, like our modern sofas (plate . ). the materials are wood and metal, sometimes more precious materials, ivory, <tc., as wo learn from the examples found in pompeii. the same fundamental idea may bo seen in the bedsteads of the earlier middle ages, which show traces of byzantine influence, and have richly-decorated, turned posts, and carved sides. the front was often furnished with an opening to allow of getting into the bed (plate . , ). at a later period the bedstead was furnished with canopied hangings suspended from special rods fixed to the wall. the renascence considerably enlarged the size; placed it on a podium; raised the head-board; and carried the legs higher to receive the tester or canopy-frame, which was then adorned with drapery and hangings. examples of this period have been preserved (plate . and ). in the barocco and rococo periods: textile materials pre- dominate, and the wooden frame is neglected. then the so-called "parade-beds" (plate , ) became fashionable. modern times again have generally simplified the form. the , commonest is that with high foot and head-boards (the latter often to excess), and low sides. tester-bedsteads have passed out of fashion. the cradle seems to have been an invention of the middle ages. by means of pins the little box or trough - shaped bedsteads were fixed in a frame in which they were moveable; or the legs of the bedstead were replaced by curved battens which admitted of rock- ing (plate . and ). the cradles of the renascence are of similar form, often with raised end-boards, and rich carving. owing to sanitary objections, cradles have almost gone out of use. some- jplate . the bedsslcncl, &c. d. frames, &c. the term "framework" is a very inclusive one. every edging, border, and every rim of a plate, belongs to this group; but the follow- ing ten plates will contain only those features in which the frame is, to a certain extent, an end in itself, and a definite, characteristic whole. framework is useful in every branch of applied art; it is used in an immense variety of materials, and is treated in many different ways. plates — contain some important subdivisions selected from the entire group: these are frames of architectural character; frames (strictly so-called) for pictures, mirrors, &c., tablets, typo- graphical borders, and the borders of dials, plates, &c. it is highly interesting to pursue the rise of framework on an architectural basis, its gradual transformation and its adaptation to the products of art industry. for this, however, we refer the reader to the remarks of semper (der stil, §§ et seqq.). we will only make the following observations from the point of view of style: framework, in the sense in which it is here understood, only occurs rarely and sporadically in the older styles, the antique and the middle ages. it was reserved for the renascence to cultivate this field, and to attain the highest possible results. it cannot, however, be denied that occasionally it was exaggerated and illogical. a frame must, above all things, have some relation and proportion to the object to be framed. to make a frame, and put it where there is nothing to be framed, is illogical. and yet we find in the late renascence, and in the barocco and ro'coco periods, countless examples which, so far as their application goes, have no other object than the de- coration of empty spaces. the architectural frame. the architectural frame. (plate — .) by architectural frames we mean those which are used in architecture, and those which, although applied in other branches, such as furniture, show an architectural derivation. these are: the framings of doors, windows, panels, tablets, medallions, niches, soffits, ac. in furniture they are the border-like ornaments which serve as a framing to panel-ornaments; but which are also very often used merely as decoration, without having any object to frame. there are two classes of frames: one which is mon-axia), with external or- naments at the top and bottom, to emphasize the vertical attitude; and one which is bi axial, for application on horizontal surfaces. in the former class: the lower ornament has the general shape of a suspended triangle. this expresses the idea of supporting like a console; and is a free-ending down-wards. the other of these has the general shape of the erect triangle; making a cresting feature, and is the free-ending npwards. frames of this class are shown on plate , figs. , , , and . in the second class of framos: the space to be enclosed, be it a circle, square, or oblong, is surrounded by an ornament which is symmetrical on all sides without regard to top and bottom. frames of this class are shown on figs. — of plate , and figs. , and of plate . these two principles are not always so strongly marked as in the examples given; and sometimes they are combined; but as a rule the one or the other will always pro- dominate. plate . the architectural frame. . gable-opening of a dormer-window, rouen, french, th cen- tury, (l'art pour tous). . tablet, modern, in the style of the italian renascence. . pedestal, italian renascence, genoa, (owen jones). . door-panel, (architektonisches skizzenbuch). . stove-tile, castle of wulfingen near winterthur, th cen- tury, (kunsthandwerk). . desk in s. giorgio maggiore, venice, italian, renascence. . coffer, cupola of the dagobert tower, baden-baden, german, renascence. — . pulpit, magdeburg cathedral, german, — , (gewerbe- halle). . door of cabinet, in the style of the german renascence, (formenschatz). . door of a sideboard, louvre, pari?, renascence. the architectural frame. plate . plate . the architectural frame. frames. plate . xle mirror-frame, &c. plate gg. the strap-work frame.' the strap-work frame. — the typographical frame. work, heraldry, jewelry, the decoration of books, &c., and the minor arts in general. the arrangement is usually symmetrical; but this was abandoned in the rococo period in favour of unsymmetrical and picturesque arrangements, as shown in plate c , fig. . plate . the strap-work frame. — . renascence, bronze tablets, cemetery of s. john, nuremberg, (gewerbehalle). — . renascence, th century, french, (l'art pour tous). — . renascence, new castle, baden-baden, — . . renascence, national library, paris, (raguenet). . modern, french, book ornament. plate . the strap-work frame. . renascence, french. . renascence, from "civitates orbis terrarum", published by p. von brackel, cologne, , (ysendyck). . rococo, louvre, paris, (raguenet). . rococo, french, corner of a wall, (raguenet). . rococo, french. — . modern, by dir. kachel, carlsruhe. . modern, french, -(li^nard). . modern. the typographical frame. (plates — .) we find numerous framework - motives in the decoration of books and documents; and though they have become more general since the invention of printing, we find them in the manuscripts of the middle ages. the title-pages were framed or bordered; it was also a favourite practice to border the headings; initials are some- times treated in this way; and printers'-marks, and head and tail- pieces are often designed with strap - work. old books are often richly decorated with such things; and artists of the highest rank often lent their aid to this style of decoration. after the sobriety which ruled in the first half of this century, our modern times have devoted increased attention to this branch. breaches of taste are still committed in this direction, principally because factory-made blocks, borders, and rules, are combined without judgment in typography. not only books, but also diplomas, addresses, ball-pro- grammes, dinner and business-cards, labels, book-plates, and similar things are furnished with artistic borders. the principles of decoration, and the motives employed, are very varied; and great freedom is al- plate ' . the typographical frame. frames. the strap-work tablet. plate . the strap-work tablet, border, and margin. . metal mounts for the cover of an album, modern. . wrought-iron escutcheon, german, th century, national museum, munich. . centre-piece of bookbinding, by dir. c. graff, dresden. the strap-work border, and margin. (plate .) to those products of art, which frequently receive an additional exterior border or margin, must further be reckoned plates and dishes. so far as they are included under pottery, the border usually has a smooth unbroken edge; the material scarcely admitting of a freer treatment of the rim. it is different when the object is of metal; in this case, the rim may be decorated with pierced-work; and the outlines may undergo a richer and more vigorous treatment (figs. and ), in which the framework forms a free-ending outwards. plate . the strap-wohk border, and margin. . renascence, majolica, gewerbemuseum, berlin, (gewerbehalle). . renascence, majolica, italian, (racinet). . renascence, limoges, by pierre raymond, th century, (racinet) — . modern, by placido zuloaga, eibar, spain, (gewerbehalle). e. jewelry. the love of personal adornment is as old as mankind itself; as is proved by the relics which have been preserved from the earliest times. personal adornment, broadly taken, is a somewhat extensive domain; it includes the painting and tattooing of the body, clothing, as soon as this exceeds what is required to meet practical needs, armour, &c.; but this section will be confined to adornment by jewelry. the following plates will deal with this group so far as their chief representatives are concerned. these are: pins, buttons, finger-rings, chains, necklets, bracelets, belts, clasps, and buckles, the various kinds of chatelaines, and ear-rings. the plan of this book requires that we should chiefly direct our attention to the decorative aspect of these objects; but we will here offer a few general observations on the subject. trinkets, which are not indispensable, but rather an object of luxury, are closely connected with dress and costume; and like them, subject to fashion. this explains the different transformations which trinkets have undergone in the course of centuries. on the other hand, technical considerations have also played a part: the art of working the materials has passed through various stages of deve- lopement in- the different periods; so that the form and finish were governed not only by the fashion, and taste of each period, but also by the technical skill of the workman. the principal materials of trinkets are the precious metals. from the state iu which the metals are found in nature, it is easy to see that the first metal to come into geui'ial use would be gold, which jewelry is found in a pare state almost all over the world; and is easy to work. it can easily be beaten into plates, and drawn out into wire; and the earliest style is consequently that of plate-gold and filigree work. this is abundantly proved by the objects belonging to prim- itive times whether they are found on greek, oriental, scandinavian, or american ground. the common metals, and bronze, are also oc- casionally used as well as gold and silver. among non-metallic ma- terials, we have: gems, and other valuable stones, pearls, enamels, amber, shells, mother-of-pearl, &c. in addition to the arts of punching and hammering metal pla- tes, and filigree work, the latter consisting chiefly of soldering-toge- ther wire and beads, there arose, in process of time, the further arts of: casting, chiselling, niello, enamel, damaskeening, inlaying, gilding, silvering, oxidising, and die-sinking. for other than metallic ma- terials, the principal processes are: cutting, facetting, setting, the pro- duction of tints, and foils, and the engraving of gems, and cameos. as it is impossible here to go into details of the history or technique of these processes, we will refer the reader to the special works on this subject, among them: semper, der shi, hauptstuck xl metalln- technik; luthmer, der goldschmuck der renaissance (from which excellent work we have taken a number of our figures); bucher, geschichte der technischen kiinste; mathias, der menschliche sckmuck. taken on the whole, trinkets are an article of womans' toilet, nlthough certain objects have also been worn by men, either at all times, like the finger-ring, or only at certain periods and among certain nations, like the bracelet. on the other hand, there are cer- tain objects of personal adornment, like orders, badges, and medals, which are a speciality of the male sex. trinkets which presuppose an injury of some part of the body, such as ear and nose-rings, are a relic of barbaric manners. an excessive indulgence in adornment is usually characteristic of the primitive stage, and of the decay of the civilisation of a nation; while the golden ages of civilisation and style are marked by restraint in the quantity of trinkets, and by a chaste moderation in the use of the effects of bright gold and cut gems — "the later empire (roman), byzantium, the entire early period of the middle ages, swim in gold" — says semper. the best periods of personal adornment are the antique and the renascence: but it is impossible to praise too highly the attempts which are being made, at the present time, to improve the style of goldsmith's-work and jewelry, by a recurrence to the models of those times. for the rest, certain traditional and standard forms of trinkets have been preserved for centuries, in some national costumes, such as those of switzer- land, italy, sweden, and elsewhere. the pin. — the button. . modern, french, filigree work with pearls and brilliants, (gewerbehalle). — . antique, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. — . etruscan, gold. . etruscan, spiral-brooch, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. . modern, (gewerbehalle). the button. (plate .) the objects, which we have here classed as buttons, serve va- rious purposes. they appear as pendants to necklets and similar things, as bullae (an antique pendant like an amulet with symbolic signifi- cance), as ornaments of belts, garments, harness, &c, and as buttons, in the strict sense of the term, for fastening garments. according to its uses, the button takes the form of the sphere, the hemisphere, or the disc as a pendant it resembles a drop with the character of a free-ending (fig. ). one end is then furnished with a ring by which it may be suspended or sewed-on. the double-buttons or links, shown in figs. , and form a special subdivision. the principal materials are again the metals, enamelled, damaskeened, set with gems, or as filigree-work. buttons are also manufactured in ivory, mother- of-pearl, amber, glass, and similar materials; discs of wood are covered with silk, and metal threads, adorned with gold-foil, &c standard examples are furnished by the antique, the renascence, and many modern national costumes, while the modern wholesale factory-made button has scarcely any artistic value. our examples have been taken from the periods named above; and are mostly the same size as the originals. prate . the button. . antique, double-button, gold, united collections, carlsruhe. — . etruscan, gold with gems and pearls. , , , , , , , , , , , , and . buttons and double - buttons of various origin, of metal, with filigree- work, enamelled, &c in the possession of prof. mare rosenberg, carlsruhe. — . renascence, gold, enamelled and set with pearls, regalia, berlin, (luthmer). . renascence, from a belt . is. modern, filigree. . renascence, enamelled, national museum, munich and . buttons by a frankfort maker of the th century, in the collection of mr. j. werneck, frankfort, silk, gold- thread and foil, (kunsthandwerk). the ring. plate . the ring. — the chain. . pompeian. . ancient italic. • and . so-called "jewish wedding-rings", th and th cen- turies, collection of the late architect oppler, hanover (luthmer). . renascence, with cnt onyxes, collection in cassel,(iiuthiner). . gothic, th century, (mothes). . renascence, enamelled, representing the fall of man. . renascence, with clasped hands. . renascence, from a picture, dated , museum, cologne. . renascence, museum, sigmaringen, (luthmer). — . renascence, from pictures at gotha and darmstadt, (luth- mer). . renascence, from a picture, germanisches museum, (luth- mer). and . renascence, private collection, mainz, (luthmer). . renascence, hildesheim, with niello-work, (luthmer). , , , and . renascence, (hefner-alteneck). and . renascence, after hans mielich, middle of the th century. the chain. (plate .) chains are an interesting chapter in ornament. the task of art here is to treat the stubborn metal in such a way that it will pro- duce flexible, easily-moving forms, which shall still be absolutely unyielding to tension. this is done by the system of links. rings, perforated discs, balls with an eye, c., are linked together in appro- priate ways to form a whole. in the common chains of everyday use, nothing but strength and flexibility are expected; in ornamental chains, attention must be paid to the artistic effect this is sought to be attained, less, by lavishing care on the single link, than by an elegant rhythmic sequence of links of different kinds, by effective alternations of form, size, and treatment-(comp. semper ii, p. ). chains used for personal adornment, at least as far so they are of artistic consequence, are almost always like a band. all the figures of the plate belong to this class, with the exception of figs. , , , and . the arrangement may be such that the chain, held horizontally, is neutral, that is, of the same design upwards and downwards, right and left (figs. , , , , ); or it m.ay have an *up and down" (figs. and ); it may also have a lateral direction, in which case it is chiefly used to suspend objects (figs. , , and ). chains are sometimes made tapering towards the end, which is done by making each successive, link smaller than the preceding. the ends of chains terminate in hooks, eyes, rings, &c., according the chain. plate . the necklace. plate . the necklace. — the bracelet. to find several necklets of different circumferences worn one obove the other; and producing a good effect. metal, precious stones, pearls, &c., play the chief part in necklaces. plate . the necklace. . egyptian, with enamelled pendant, (menard ct sauvageot). . egyptian, with golden flies (symbolic), (menard et sauvageot). . antique, with stamped sheet-metal ornaments, found in rhodes, (menard et sauvageot.) . egyptian, (menard et sauvageot). . etruscan, gold, campana collection, paris, (l'art pour tous). . oriental, gilt silver filigree, (l'art pour tous). . old italic, neck-ring, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. . barbaric, neck-ring, iron, from the white nile, united collections, carlsruhe. . from portrait, henry vi, of england. . from portrait, , municipal museum, cologne, (luthmer). . filigree. . modern, (gewerbehalle). the bracelet. (plate .) the bracelet, which is now exclusively an articlr of feminine adornment, was formerly worn by men also, not merelj on the wrist as at the present day, but on the arm too. but even the antique considered this custom, and that of wearing bangles on the ankles, to be a relic of barbaric times. bracelets are either closed rings or bands (figs. and ); or they are open on one side (figs. , , , and ); or rolled spirallv (figs. and ); or, finally, the bracelet may be a closed chain with a greater or lesser number of links (figs. and ). another division is formed by the twisted example (fig. ). as the bracelet is an object of some size, it is, more fre- quently than other ornaments, made of silver rather than of gold; the antique shows a preference for bronze. plate . the bracelet. . egyptian, pierced - work, (menard et sauvageot). . assyrian, bronze, louvre, paris, (bliimncr). — . roman, found in pompeii. . antique, (menard et sauvageot). . bronze, found near ladenburg, united collections, carlsruhe . spiral wire, united collections, carlsruhe. . bronze, united collections, carlsniie. the bracelet. plate . the bracelet. — the girdle, the buckle, and clasp. . bronze, found near ladenburg, united collections, carlsruhe. . from portrait, th century, gotha, (luthmer). . venetian, th century, (mothes). . javanese, black wood, united collections, carlsruhe. — . modern egyptian, silver, grand ducal landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . modern, (gewcrbehalle). . modern, by dir. a. ortwein, granz, (gewerbehalle). the girdle, the buckle, and clasp. (plate .) the girdle was originally used by men to suspend weapons from; and by women to confine the clothing at the waist; later-on, it was worn merely as an ornament, or to carry pouches, fans, scissors, &c. its form is either that of the chain-girdle (comp. plate ), or bands of leather or textile material are decorated by ornaments of metal sewed or threaded - on. particular attention is usually given to the fastening, which is generally a clasp or buckle (figs. , , and ). the agraffe (lat. agrappa) or hook, and the buckle are applied to other purposes besides fastening girdles; the former are used as fastenings for garments; the latter on the straps of weapons, harness, &c. the buckle is complete in itself, consisting of a ring or hoop with a movable pin; and the fastening is done by pushing the pin through a hole in the leather or textile band (figs. , and ). the clasp consists of two parts, generally symmetrical, one -of which can be hooked into the other (figs. — ). clasps and buckles are both old inventions; and are found in very early times. as they are objects of practical use rather than ornament, they are more often made of the common than of the precious metals. the terminations of clasps are mostly designed as free - endings, which gives them a certain similarity with decorated hinges. plate . the girdle, the buckle, and clabp. . greek girdle, gold nnd hyacinths, tomb in ithaca. . ancient italic or roman buckle, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. . roman clasp, silver, (menard et sauvageot). . alemannic, buckle, bronze, found near mosbach, united col- lections, carlsruhe. . mediaeval buckle, scandinavian, (weiss, kostumkunde). . gallic girdle, st. germain museum, (l'art pour tons). . gothic buckle, th century, from a picture, municipal mu- seum, cologne, (luthmer). jewelry. the girdle, the buckle, ami clasp. plate . heraldry. — tinctures, and division* of the shield. freih. yon biedermann, with illustrations, in the zeitsrhrifl des munchener kunstgeiverbevereins, ; and the eatechismus der heral- dik by dr. ed. freih. von sacken. these works have been followed in this chapter, and our illustrations are taken from them. heralds have invented a special language of their own, that is always usi-d in blazoning, which is the technical description of a coat of anns; and it should always be as correct and concise as possible, so that the coat may be drawn from it. this language will be used, as far as possible, in the explanations of the following plates. finally, we may observe that anyone, who has to deal practically with heraldry, will scarcely ever succeed in satisfying all those who have laid-down and still lay-down rules on the subject. although, on the one hand, it seems advisable that on the whole a certain order should be maintained and arbitrariness excluded, still, on the other hand, a good deal of antiquated rubbish might be eliminated from the rules without doing any harm. on this point real heralds like warnecke are all agreed. the safe path is in the middle; that ar- tistic freedom is quite consistent with observance of heraldic rules is shown by the masters of the renascence: diirer, burckmair, and others. for our present purpose: the most suitable sources for the study are the drawings of these masters; and next to them: old seals, windows, and monuments. heraldic ornaments may be applied to thousands of things; in architecture, in mural painting, on furniture, in textiles, in documents, on harness, &c. but they should only be applied where they have a representative character; and then only with mo- deration and purpose, and in due proportion to the object. tinctures, and divisions of the shield. (plate .) in the good old days of heraldry there were six tinctures, which were almost exclusively used, two metals and four colours. the metals are gold (or), and silver (argent); which for practical reasons were often replaced .by yellow, and white. the original colours are red (gules), blue (azure), black, (sable), and green (vert). full, strong shades were employed: vermilion or minium for red, cobalt or ultra- marine for blue, paris green, emerald green, or some other striking shade for green. the original scale of colours was afterwards enlar- ged, by the addition of the so-called "proper" or natural colour of the object, purple (purpure), ash-gray (which is not used in english heraldry), blood-colour (murrey), and tawny (tonne). natural objects, men, animals &c. were represented "proper", that is, in their natural tints; whereas the older heraldry depicted these objects in one of the nearest original tiuctures: e. g. the lion was golden, or red, the eagle was black or red, and so on. purple is not used on the shields, tinctures, and divisions of th'e shield. — shapes of the shield. the shield sometimes bears a smaller shielj. the large shield which bears the smaller is calm the escutcheon. the smaller shield in the centre is termed the lnescutcheon. the inescuteheon some- times bears a third shield which is then said to be "sur le tout du tout". the smaller shields have the same shape as the large shield. the chief and the dexter side of the shield are the most honourable parts; and preference is given to the angle of the dexter chief or canton. in blazoning a coat: the description always starts from this point. shapes op the shield. (plate s .) the shape of the shield is very varied; and is chiefly deter mined by the period in which it originated. the oldest shape is the triangular or "heater-shaped" shield (fig. ). it was in use in the th, th and th centuries. dn seals, it is first one-half and at a later time one-third the height of a man; the ratio of its height to its breadth is about : . in the th century shields straight at the top and rounded at the bottom (we may term them half- round) began to appear; and after them shields pointed at the bottom (fig. ). this shape, and the th century shapes which were deve- loped from it (figs. — ), were probably never actually borne; but are merely heraldic. at the end of the th century the tilting- shields begin to make their appearance, their shape being based on that of the shields used in tournaments (figs. — ). the indenta- tions in the sides of these are suggested by the "bouche" or place for the lance on shields intended for actual use. the tilting- shield is considerably smaller than the triangular-shield; it is about one-fifth the height of a man. at the end of the th century the old shapes disappear, and make way for the german or strap- work shields. these latter were never in actual use, but are orna- mental inventions mostly based on the tilting shield. figs. — give a number of such shields belonging to different periods of the renascence epoch. shapes like figs. and are very common in italy at that time. elliptic, circular, and almond-shaped shields are not rare, especially in the barocco period, a time in which heraldry was treated in a somewhat arbitrary fashion. of shapes that are specifically modern, we may mention: figs. and , the former of which was used for the arms of great britain & ireland; and of france; while the latter is the best adapted for the blazoning of complicated coats. the lozenge - shape (fig. ) is especially the shield of ladies; in france, where it has been common since the th century, it is frequently surrounded with a knotted twisted girdle. ordinaries. . or, a fesso gules. . argent, a barrulet sable. . per pale; the dexter half argent, the sinister half per fesse azure and or. . per fesse; the upper half per pale sable and gules, the lower argent. . quarterly, or and azure. . cheeky of nine, vert and argent. . cheeky of twenty, or and gules. . quarterly: the st and th per pale, argent and gules; the nd and rd or. . per fesse, gules and argent, a pale counterchanged. . per pale, barry of five, or and azure, counterchanged. . paly of six, argent and sable, a fesse counterchanged. . or, a cross gules. . argent, ,a dexter canton sable. . azure, a chief point vair. . per bend, or and vert. . per bend sinister, argent and azure." . or, in the dexter chief a triangle sable. . argent, in the sinister base a triangle gules. . or, a bend gules. . bendy sinister of six, azure and argent . per sal tire, vert and argent. . per hend, the dexter half argent, the sinister per bend sinister, vert and or. / . per bend sinister, bendy of six, sable and argent, counter- changed. . lozengy, argent and . azure. . fusilly, argent and azure. . or, a pile azure. . azure, a pile argent, issuing from the sinister side. . oyronny of four, argent and gules, issuing from the dexter chief point . or, a chevron vert. . chevronny of six, azure and argent. . party per pale and saltire, gules and argent. . oyronny of eight, or and azure. . argent, a gyron azure, moving from the dexter side. . per pall, sable, argent and gules. . per pall reversed, or, argent and azure. . argent, a pall gules. . pily barwise, argent and azure. . per fesse angled, argent and gules. . per fesse escartely, azure and or. ordinaries. — charges. . or, a pile indented sable, also per chevron indented, or and sable. . per bend indented, azure and argent. , . per pale potented, argent and azure. . per fesse potented, or and gules. . per fesse dentilly, gules and aregnt. . per fesse nebuly, azure and argent . sable, a chief engrailed or, also per fesse engrailed, or and sable. . argent, a pale raguly. . or, a bend indented. . argent, a bend sinister wavy azure. . azure, a cross engrailed or. . gules, four wolfs teeth argent, moving from the sinister side. . azure, a gurge issuing from the sinister base. . argent. charges. (plates — .) the second class of heraldic representations are charges. we distinguish natural, imaginative, and artificial charges, according as they belong to the kingdoms of nature, the heavenly bodies, phe- nomena of nature, or to fantastic forms; or again to art, trade, mechanics, ac. contrary to the ordinaries, whose outlines usually touch the edge of the shield, the charges usually stand free in the field, at any rate, on two or three sides, and fill the field as much as possible. the charges are all more or less conventionalised; and show conventional forms agreeing with the style of the times. atten- tion must he paid to this point, so that the unity of style may be preserved between shield and charges they are mostly shown in profile, and vigorously drawn and outlined. the tinctures, at least in older heraldry, are not those of nature, but one of the nearest heraldic tinctures, so that the idealisation extends not only to the form but also to the colour. complicated objects are often comparatively sim- plified; trees, for example, appear with few leaves and fruits, some charges, such as the lion and eagle, are of extremely fre- quent occurrence; others the following are rarer. among animals the following are represented: — plate . . the lion (rampant) with open jaws and protruding tongue; the body lean, especially towards the hinder quarters; the tail curled upwards, natural or split, but not arbitrarily; the teeth, claws, &a. are gules on metal, or and argent on colors; the entire figure is generally or or gules, more rarely sable, and still more rarely azure. charges. . the leopard, a lion walking (passant), the head frequently turned to the spectator (guardant); the tail curled over the back, (see also plate ). . the ibex jumping (salient), the horns large, and (like the claws) of a different colour to the body, which is usually sable. . the horse (rampant), mostly without saddle and harness; mane and tail flying; generally sable, argant or gules. . the boar (rampant), bristles erect, and (like the tusks and claws) of a different tincture to the body. . the dog (rampant), generally with a collar, with ears erect. — . the eagle (displayed), the talon spread; the head usually tur- ned to the dexter side, the beak open; the tongue protruding; frequently barbed; the tail is sometimes ornamentally treated; generally sable, gules, or or, (see also plate ). . the goose (like the swan) with reverted neck, generally ar- gent, or sable. . the martlet (which is a swallow without beak and feet,) the two upper are passant, the lower one is displayed. . the dolphin (rising), often with dorsal crest and ornamental tail. . two dolphins (rising and respecting each other), with open mouths. . the serpent (nowed), generally argent, azure, or vert. other animals of frequent occurrence are the stag, bear, wolf, pox, bull, cock, raven, dove, stork, crane, pelican, crab, whelk, c. parts of animals are also not infrequent, such as the wings, head, and claws. both the entire human body and its several members are used in heraldry; we may mention as examples: . the triquetra, legs with bent knee, conjoined, and regu- larly disposed round a point; a badge on antique shields in greek vase-paintings, and the arms of isle of man. . the moor's-head, with ear-rings and crown. . the monk with extended arms, the arms of munchen. in addition to the above: arms, hands, legs, trunks, clasped hands, &c.; also angels, saints, deities, fools, maidens^ knights, kings, savages, c. among plants are: . the lime, uprooted, with few leaves, (also fruit-trees, the oak, fir, &c.). . the oak-branch, gnarled, with few fruits and leaves, (alst withered branches, or logs, c.). helmet trappings. plate , figs. — ); if the blazoning is with ordinaries: these are repeated on certain objects selected as crests. the principal of these objects are: horns, in pairs, curved as a crescent or a lyre, in later times broadened ont at the. ends like a mouthpiece, painted with the tinctures or ordinaries of the coat, surmounted with branches, &c. (plates . , . and ). wings, natural or artificial, singly or in pairs, displayed, or in profile; painted with the tinctures or ordinaries of the coat (plates . and ; . ). cushions and screens, round or square discs, painted with the blazoning of the coat, hung and surmounted with tassels, bells, and peacock's feathers (plate . ). caps, pointed and turned up, showing the colours and blazon- ing of the shield, the tips decorated with coronets, plumes, &c. (plate . ). quivers, cylindrical or conical 'tubes, painted with the colours of the shield, crowned with coloured feathers (plate . ). human beings, animals, and all kinds of artificial objects; the former often depicted as half-figures. we must refrain from entering into detail into the various relations, often full of meaning, between the crest and the shield; as an example we may refer to plate , , where the blazon of crossed arrows and pitcher on the shield are repeated as a quiver and a goblet in the hands of the maiden who forms the crest. the mantling is the connecting-link between the helmet and the shield. in the oldest times it was formed of cloth: at a later date covers of stiffened material, leather, metal-plate, &c., were used, the edges being cut-out into ornamental shapes. the same materials were also employed for the crest. during the renascence period: the mantling was cut into ribbon-like strips, each strip being treated independently like an artificial - leaf. the wreath is interposed between the crest and the helmet, (plate . , , ). it rarely has more or less than two tinctures. where the crest is directly connected with the helmet: the tinctures of the shield are correspondingly continued on the wreath. the mantling shows the tinctures of the coat counterchanged in such a way that the colour is usually visible outside, the metal inside. if it have four colours: the chief ones are on the dexter, the others on the sinister side. it should corre- spond in style with the rest of the arms: salades and heaumes require simple edges (plate . ); while tilting and vizored helmets require jagged or scalloped edges. heraldic accessories. plate , g. writing, printing, &c. (ornamental letters.) the invention of writing dates back thousands-of years before our era. to which nation it is to be assigned, cannot at present be fixed with any certainty. greek writing was developed from the phenician; and served, in its turn, as a basis for roman writing. from the roman writing, arose the occidental and scandinavian writings, as well as the runic. the latin script was introduced into germany contemporaneously with christianity. the early middle ages treated the shapes of letters in a some what arbitrary manner. by the side of the majuscles (or capital letters) appear the minuscles (or small letters, produced by the contraction and simplification of the former), (compare the letters e and m in alphabet on plate ). by the side of the upright and angular capital letters, appear the uncial letters with their -round and freer shapes (compare e, m and u in alphabet on plate ). alongside of the perpendicular letters, the more convenient slanting or cursive letters begin to be employed. beside the uncial writing, the gothic period brought test-hands into use (plates , , and ). by this time the gradual trans- formation was so far advanced that at the first glance it is often im- possible to recognise the original connection. the more complicated the text-hands became, the more difficult they were to read; so that it must be, considered a happy circumstance that the renascence period strove in many ways to simplify the texts, and to revive the old latin alphabet, ( on plate ). the invention of printing in the year had an important influence on the developement of the shapes of letters. the period of the decadence of the renascence writing, printing, &c. brought with it the decadence in the forms of letters, which is most clearly seen in the middle of the th century. since then, and especially in recent days, a gratifying progress has been made to some- thing better, although it cannot be said that every attempt at im- provement has been successful. it must not be forgotten that prac- tical needs should be considered, quite as much as aesthetic aspirations, especially in a domain of such great and general importance as letters. it should always be borne in mind that the first requirement is easy reading; and that' this is dependent on simplicity and characteristic shape in the letters. as regards the decorative effect, for in this work we have chiefly to deal with decoration, it has first to be observed that the antique did not recognise the principle of ornamental writing, either because no one thought of the possibility of ornamenting writing, or because they intentionally preferred the greater legibility, or for some other now unknown reason. at a later date almost all civilised nations and periods have occupied themselves more or less with the decorative effect of writing. this may take two different directions: either the letter may be decorated in its component parts, whicli eventually leads to the extravagance that fishes, birds, human forms, &c, in all imaginable contortions, form the outline of the letters; or the letter in its ordinary form may receive a decorative finish by means of decorative accessories, by being set in a frame which theen appears as a free ending, or as a picture. the second treatment is especially suitable for initials; and has led to very ingenious com- binations; e. g. the hackground will frequently be an illustration of the subject of the chapter which the initial begins, (fig. , plate s). both kinds of decoration may be combined. the first mode of decoration frequently leads to the loss of the real character of the letter; in the second-mode it not infrequently happens that the letter cuts the picture, or vice versa, in an unpleasant manner. colour is an important factor in the decoration of writing. gold, silver, and a great variety of colours, but above all, gold and red, along with black, play an important part in writing in the miniature painting of the calligraphists, as well as in typography. in the present work we are unhappily compelled to leave this aspect out of consideration. in the middle ages: it was principally monks and nuns who devoted themselves to the art of writing; from the th century onwards, it was also practised by laymen. a long series of celebrated calligraphists might be named. calligraphy retrograded gradually with the introduction of printing; but. on the other hand the best artists of the renascence, such as holbein and others, did not disdain to design initials and other letters for printers, as may be proved from a countless number of old books. as christianity was intro- duced into germany by the irish, northern influences may also be s' v plate . old german letters. ornamental letters. befgf^ijf lmtnop<}-rfstibpn> sbc € € modern text. plate . ornamental letters. loman initials. plate . roman lettera. — constructions, numerats, and monograms. plate . roman letters. . modern. . modern. . renascence italic, gottlieb munch, ordnung der schrift, . . renascence lower-case italic, michael bauernfeind, nuremberg , (hrachowina). plate . constructions, numerals, and monograms. . roman capitals. . . german text, and large gothic uncial letters. — . arabic numerals, th and th centuries. , , and . modern monograms of two and three letters, (raguenet). . modern monogram, dir. g tz. . monogram of a name: "laugier", (raguenet). . monogram of christ; formed of the greek initials qf the name of christ, found in the catacombs. ii is frequently combined with the letters ii, in allusion to rev. xxii. : "i am alpha and omega" (compare plate . ). of later date is the monogram ihs, the first three letters of the name jesus, ihz y , when written with greek letters, which was afterwards selected by the jesuits as the badge of their order. it has been variously explained as meaning: "jesus hominum salvator" (jesus the saviour of men); "in hoc salus" (in him is salvation); "jesus habemus socium" (we have jesus for our companion); or: "in hoc signo vinces" (in this sign thou shalt conquer). index. eothon: . krater: . kyathob: . kylix: , ( . *). label: . lace: . lachrimatory: . ladle: . lamp: . „ , pendant: , ( . isl „ , table: . lance: . lantern: . laurel: , ( . o). lazy-tongs: . leaf band: . „ , (natural): . lectern: . lectus cubicularis: . leg, (furniture): . lekythos: . letters: . link border: . lion, (heraldic): . „ , (natural): . „ , head: , ( . »,io). lizard: ( . l). lock-escutcheon: ( . ). lotus: , ( . i), ( . - ), ( . ), ( . , ). lozenge, panel: , ( . , ), ( . ). „ , subdivision: . lunette, panel: . lynx, head: ( . s). mace: . maeander: see fret. mantling, (heraldic): . maple, leaf: ( . . ). margin: see . mars' head: ( . ). martel-axe: . mask: . match-holder: . medallion: , ( . , , s). medusa, head: . mermaid: ( . ). metal objects: . minerva, head: ( . , ). mirror-frame: . mirror, hand: . miberere-seat: . mitre: ( . n—«). monogram: . monstrance: . morion: . mosaic: . motto: . mouldings, enrichments of: . . mug: . mural painting: . natural foems: . nautilus-shell: ( . ) necklace: . neck-ring: ( . , ). needle-case: . network: . numerals: . oak, leaf: ( . , ), ( . ), s\ objects, decorated: . oblong, panel: . „ , subdivision: . octagon, subdivinion: . oinochos: . olive: . olpe: . order, (heraldic): . ordinary, (heraldic): . ornament applied to ?ea- tures: . oval, construction: . ovolo, enrichment of: . ox, head: ( . ). painting: see mural painting. palrnette band: . palm, leaf: . panels: . panther, (heraldic): ( . ). „ , head: . papcr-knife: . papyrus: . university of michigan-flint library lilli i i hi university of kichigan-flint library a history of ornament west front of reims cathedral, - history of ornament ancient and medieval by a. d. f. hamlin, a.m., l.h.d., a.i.a. professor or the history of architecture in columbia university with illustrations new york cooper square publishers, inc. copyright, , by the century co. publish**, octobtr, originally published reprinted by permission of genevieve karr hamlin published by cooper square publishers, inc. fourth avenue, new york, new york international standard book number - - - library of congress catalog card number - printed in the united states of america to my students in grateful recognition of their interest and de- votion which for thirty- three years past have made teaching for me a continuous pleasure preface books on ornament are so many that to add to their number may seem at first sight a wholly superfluous task. yet in all the long lists of the bibliographies of the subject there appears a singular lack of systematic treatises on the history of the various styles which have marked the growth and progress of decorative .art. elaborate compendiums of ornament grouped by styles or by other categories are not wanting; the splendid "grammar of ornament" of owen jones, and "orna- ment polychrome" of racinet; the "ornamentenschatz" of dolmetsch, the "handbook of ornament" of franz sales meyer, speltz's "styles of ornament," and the excellent plates of "historic ornament" published by the prang educational company, are examples of such collections of ornament, all meritorious in various ways, and all highly serviceable to students and decorators. but in the whole catalogue of the avery library of co- lumbia university—the richest collection in this coun- try of works on architecture and the allied arts—i have found but two titles of systematic histories of ornament, one in french and one in german; neither available for those who read only english, and neither of them, even for those who can read french or german, exactly suited to the needs of the average english or american student of architecture or decoration. i have for years felt the need of some such text-book vii preface for students in my own courses in columbia university in the history of ornament. of the many works in eng- lishj french or german, mentioned above, which to any extent recognize the historical element in the styles of ornament, some are too expensive for student use; some are too brief or too superficial in their text, some inade- quate in their illustrations. in response to many ap- peals from teachers in other institutions, from their stu- dents and from my own, and with a view of meeting my own needs in teaching, i have ventured on the task of attempting such a systematic history of ornament. this volume represents the first half of the work which i hope to complete by a second volume, if this one shall meet with the favor of the public. it is, however, complete in itself, as it covers the ancient and medieval styles, leaving the styles of the renaissance, of modern times and of the orient, for the second volume. the predominance of illustrations from architecture is due not merely to the fact that these chapters are based on lectures to architects; but also to the fact that the styles are most clearly exhibited in the progress of architecture as the "mistress art." it is hoped that the "books recommended" will enable the reader to supply for himself the illustrations from the other arts which he finds lacking in this work. with regard to the illustrations, i may say that the majority are either from my own drawings or reproduced directly from photographs. as they are presented purely to illustrate the subject and not as models of draftsmanship, i trust they will not be too severely criticised on the technical side. the extreme small- viii preface ness of many of them has been made necessary by the desire to keep the volume within modest limits of size and price. for the same reason the number of plates in color had to be restricted. larger plates, larger cuts and more of them, would have made the book bulky and costly beyond measure, at least for student use. i beg herewith to make my acknowledgments to all who have helped me in preparing these illustrations: especially to a number of my students, whose names will be found in the list of illustrations; to messrs. chapman and hall for the use of several illustrations from ward's "historic ornament"; to messrs. long- mans, green & co. for the use of a cut of capitals from my "history of architecture"; to the prang educa- tional company, for the use of a number of illustrations in color from their "plates of historic ornament"; to the publishers of the "architectural record" for several cuts from various issues; to the "american architect" for permission to use a number of my own illustrations in various issues between and ; to the metro- politan museum of art, new york, for permission to reproduce a number of the museum's official photo- graphs of casts and models in the willard architectural collection; to the house of bruno hessling for permis- sion to reproduce a number of illustrations from meyer's handbook of ornament, and my fig. from speltz, styles of ornament; to my daughter genevieve for two drawings; and to the officers of the avery library for much valuable assistance cheerfully rendered. i have tried to give credit, in my list of illustrations, for all such assistance, and to indicate the sources of the il- ix preface lustrations as far as possible. some of them, however, were drawn so long ago, or have come into my posses- sion from sources so long forgotten, that i have not been able in every case to do this. i trust i have not tres- passed on any one's proprietary rights in any case. many of my own drawings are re-interpretations of sub- jects appearing in other works; in such cases i have, where possible, indicated the source by the words "after" so-and-so. there are two classes of figures besides the plates i to xxii: those in the text, and those gathered into pages distributed through the text. to aid the reader in finding the references to illustrations, i have in the text referred to all of the first class,—those in the text— by the abbreviation "fig." or "figs."; while the word "figure" refers always to illustrations grouped in pages; the page-reference is sometimes added. i desire to express my appreciation of the cordial and generous cooperation of the century co. in the prepa- ration of this work. i commend this fruit of my labors to the kind con- sideration of teachers and students of architecture and decorative design, and to designers generally, with the hope that it will be found to meet their needs and prove useful both in the class-room and the studio. a. d. f. hamlin. christmas cove, maine, august , x contents chapter page i introductory ii primitive and savage ornament .... iii egyptian ornament iv chaldea and assyria v west asiatic ornament: phrygia, lydia and persia vi pre-hellenic ornament: jsgean and asiatic vii greek ornament, i viii greek ornament, ii ix etruscan and roman ornament, i . . . . x roman ornament, ii xi pompehan ornament xii early christian or basilican ornament . . xiii byzantine ornament xiv romanesque ornament: i, italian and french xv romanesque ornament: ii. anglo-norman, german, spanish and scandinavian . . . xvi gothic ornament: structural xvii gothic carving and industrial and accessory arts xviii particular schools op gothic ornament: i. french and english xix particular schools op gothic ornament: ii. german, spanish, italian index list of illustrations in the following list, the sources of the illustrations are indicated wher- ever possible. a number of them, however, have been made from drawings, tracings or engravings in the author's possession from sources he has been unable to identify. all illustrations not otherwise designated are from original drawings by the author. wherever these have been based on or suggested by illustrations in other works, the fact is expressed by "a. after" followed by the source from which the drawing has been derived or on which it is based. many cuts are from drawings by students of columbia uni- versity; these are indicated by the initials c. u., followed in some cases by the student's name. it has not been possible to trace the source of all these drawings. other abbreviations and references are as follows: a. = author; a. c. h. = haddon, evolution in art; a. m. n. h. = american museum of natural history, new york; arch. rec. = architectural record (n. y.); a. p. t.=>l'art pour tous; bond = introduction to english church architecture; colling = gothic foliage, gothic ornaments; f. & l. = furtwangler und losehke, mykenische vasen; f. p. = flinders-petrie, egyptian decorative art; hauser = styllehre der architektonischen formen des mittelalters; loftus = researches in chaldaa, etc.; met. mus.t=imetro- politan museum of art, new york; meyer == meyer's ornamentale formenlehre; o. j. ==. owen jones, grammar of ornament; p. d'a. = prisse d'avennes, l'art egyptien; p. & c. = perrot et chipiez, histoire de i'art dans i'antiquiti; pho. = photograph; jl list of illustrations paqi . carved foliage: porte de la vierge, notre dame, paris ....! . orange border, semi-naturalistic (a. after ill. in journal of the royal society, )! . persistence in ornament: trilobe lotus motives, egyptian, greek, roman, gothic! . convergence and reversion: the anthemion motive, greek, roman, byzantine i . anthemion motives, greek and byzantine . accidental convergence: a, egyptian flower; b, byzantine cy- presses . primitive dagger-handle, neolithic s . new zealand tiki-tiki pattern: a, carved; , stamped .... . maori spear-head: eyes and tongue . papuan manhood-belt: face motives (a. after a. c. h.) ... . typical basketry forms . peruvian grass-cloth: animal motive, toucan . peruvian orass-cloth: animal motive, dog . savage carvings: a, new zealand; , hawaiian . brazilian "fish" and "bat" patterns (a. after a. c. h.) . . . . scratched ornament on maori flute (a. after a. c. h.) ... . brazilian and new zealand face motives . tusayan (mexican) jar (in a. m. n. h.) . chiriqui alligator motives (a. after a. c. h.) . maori paddle: detail so. javanese war-drum head (a. after a. c. h.) . a, pueblo jar; , spiral from vase in pi. ii, ; c, prehistoric jar from budmer, bosnia . mexican jar, in a. m. n. h . detail from sarcophagus of menkaura (a. after p. & c.) . . . . slate palette in louvre (a. after capart) . dish of fruit, from a tomb (a. after f. p.) . the lotus: a, natural; b, c, conventionalized . lotus forms: a, full flower; b-c, trilobe forms . lotus border, from a tomb (a. after o. j.) . lotus border, from a tomb (a. after p. d'a.) . lotus rosette . lotus and spiral pattern (a. after p. d'a.) . the papyrus plant . detail of campaniform capital . lotus or aquatic plant . detail of campaniform capital, from luxor . painted campaniform capital, karnak . . . s. . painted papyrus-head cap (a. after p. d'a.) . spiral all-over, with rosettes (a. after p. d'a.) . fret, or key-pattern, with rosettes . zigzags and lozenges . spiral waves and rosettes xiv list of illustrations page . intersecting circle pattern . spirals on scarab seal (a. after f. p.) . palmette with tabs (a. after w. h. g.) . palmettes; a, jewel, th dynasty; b, painted (a. after w. h. g.) . palmette-and-bead necklace . vulture, painted on ceiling (a. after p. d'a.) . winged globe, cornice (a. after p. & c.) . uraeus cresting, ptolemaic (from an engraving) . feather ornament (a. after f. p.) . decoration by lines, imbrications and chevron . typical egyptian cornice . three columns; a, b, e, upper part and plans; d, lower part of clustered shaft (a. after meyer) . . . three egyptian capitals (a. after meyer) . osirid pier (a. after p. & c.) . mosaic wall-pattern (a. after loftus) . assyrian motives: a, lotus; , palmette; e, rosette (after meyer); d, imbrications (after o. j.); t, winged disk or globe (after layard); f, guilloche (after p. & c); h, pomegranate; i, pome- granate-palmette scratched on ivory (a. after a. c. h.) ... . a, b, pine-cone lotus border, carved: c. part of sacred tree (after ward) . assyrian volutes . a, ivory palmette terminal ornament; , palm-tree, from relief at koyunjik . assyrian winged monster or griffin (a. after. p. & c.) . . . . . details from phrygian tomb-facades: a, of "midas"; , doghanlou (a. after p. & c.) . capital from neandreia: proto-ionic . doorway from persepolis . persian details: a, architrave and cornice from a tomb; . palm ornament; c, stairway parapet; d, column-base, all from per- sepolis (a. after p. & c. and ward) . volutes from persepolitan capital . ahuri-mazda, from a relief . cretan column . cretan frieze ornament . cretan painted ornament: rosettes and vitruvian scroll (a. ufter p. & c.) . fret or key pattern, knossos . late minoan vase (a. after engraving) . marine plants, from a sarcophagus found at gortyna (a. after p. & c.) . ornaments from cretan terra-cotta ossuary (a. after p. & c.) . upper part of column, tholos of atreus . mycenaean bowl; basketry motives . mycenaean frieze ornament xv list of illustrations pagi . mycenaean nature forms: plants, squid, dolphin . mycenaean pottery spirals tb . cuttle-fish, from a vase . scale ornament from tiryns . mycenaean motives: a, b, heart forms; e, branched spiral (a. after f. l.) . o, current scroll, tiryns; , vase ornament, mycenae .... . plant forms, mycenae pottery (a. after f. l.) . squids, mycenae pottery . a mycenae button . detail from wall band, tiryns (a. after p. c.) . a, gold inlay, spirals on sword; , from bronse stele: both from mycenae . a, mycenaean vase; , from bronze tripod, athens . mycenaean ornament in alabaster (a. after p. c.) .... . rosettes: a, tiryns; b, mycenae (a. after p. c.) . a, mycenaean plant; , egyptian palmette . ivy band, mycenaean pottery . from a phenician silver platter . from a mycenaean silver cup . phenician silver: palmettes and griffins . a, e, phenician palmettes; b, greek vase ornament . cypriote oenochoe" (a. after w. h. g., in arch. rec.) .... . detail from cypriote sarcophagus from amatbus, in met. mus. . . cypriote lotuses (w. h. g. in arch. rec.) . cypriote bronte stele (a. after w. h. g.) . cypriote stone stele in met. mus . cypriote lotus, checkered (w. h. g. in arch. rec.) . cypriote ornaments . phenician vase from jerusalem (a. after p. c.) . detail, cypriote vase from ormidia, in met. mus. (a. after p. c.) . cypriote vase ornaments; nature forms, a, goose and lotus; , astarte (?) and plants; e, fantastic flower (a. after p. c.) . lotus-and-bud borders from rhodian and melian vases ... . greek vase, fine period, in royal museum, naples (pho.) . . a. carved anthemion band, from erechtheion, athens (pho.) . . greek palmette ornament; early vth century b.c. (a. after lau.) . anthemion band, typical linking by spirals, compared with typi- cal assyrian linking . typical geometric ornament elements . typical nature form-elements . typical architectural forms . carved rinceau, temple of apollo at didyme, near miletus: from base of column (a. from pho.) . types of greek vases: a, aryballos; , lekythos; c, rhyton; d, alabastron; i, i, hydria; /. krater; e, g. amphora; h, ointment box; k, kylix (a. after meyer) xvi list of illustrations page . geometric or dipylon vase, from museum of sevres (a. after j.) . rbodian vase, sevres museum (a. after jacquemart) .... . single and double frets . guiuoche, from painted molding a. wave or current scroll . anthemion with branding scrolls » . types of anthemion patterns . types of anthemions . types of the lotiform motive . vine pattern, from vase . elementary rinceau on pottery . lotus-and-bud origin of egg-and-dart motive . apulian vase; sevres museum (a. after jacquemart) .... . detail from handle of apulian vase . painted molding ornaments . painted ceiling panel from parthenon, (g. k. h. after meyer) . . ill . carved egg-and-dart and water-leaf . details from north door of erechtheion: a, cantilever or bracket; , rosette . corinthian capital, temple of zeus, athens . triple guilloche on torus of an ionic base . foliage capital, from aegte . branching scroll and covering-leaf; from erechtheion . . . . . painted terra-cotta anteflx; athens . acanthus (or aloes?) on steles . acanthus and burdock leaves . acanthus: a, a. mollis; b, a. spinosus . corinthian capital from basse (phigalaea) . corinthian capital from "tower of the winds," athens . . . . . detail of etruscan terra-cotta cresting (a. after a. p. t.) . . . details from terra-cottas in campana collection, louvre (a. after a. p. t.) . . borders or edgings of "campana" terra-cottas (a. after a. p. t.) . part of an etruscan terra-cotta pilaster; lilies (a. after kachel) . etruscan pilaster cap. (a. after dunn) . bronze mirror and jewels (a. after meyer and ward) .... . roman decorative system: hall of baths of caracalla (denk- maler der kunst?) . roman arch and columns, from arch of titus . niche cap from baalbek (a. after durm) . scroll from temple of vespasian, in villa aldobrandini .... . typical roman moldings . ionic capital with corner volutes . corinthian capital, temple of mars ultor (a. after d'espouy) . . composite capital in lateran museum . two pilaster caps (meyer) . a modillion xvii list of illustrations . restoration of cornice-of basilica ./emilia (from photograph of original drawing by r. h. s my the) . order of temple of castor and pollux; photograph of cast in metropolitan museum. new york . restoration of arch of constantinej photograph of model in metropolitan museum, new york . two standing acanthus leaves . varieties of acanthus leaf detail (a. after dunn) . . . . . pilaster scroll nests: a, late roman, from an old french litho- graph; b, fragment in villa medici, from cast in columbia university . roman rinceau and scroll nest, from forum of trajan, in lateran museum (a. from pho.) . candelabrum in vatican (meyer) . two rosette types . rinceau from temple of sun (a. after a french drawing) . . . three roman anthemion ornaments . ceiling panels from arch of titus, baths of caracalla, and basilica of constantine . dolphins, from an etruscan terra-cotta (meyer after kachel) . . . bucranes and festoon or swag (meyer) . stucco relief from tomb in via latina (pho.) . stucco relief from house exhumed in , now in museo delle terme, rome (pho.) . mosaic floor pattern, from pompeii . detail of floor mosaic from villa italica near seville (a. after pfeifer) . roman marble vase in naples museum (pho.) . roman marble vase, from cast in metropolitan museum, new york . details from a bronze vase and jewelry, perhaps etruscan . . . under side of a vase in the "hildesheim find," now in berlin ("workshop") . roman grotesque; detail of relief from forum of trajan in lateran museum (a. from pho.) . pompeiian ionic capital (a. after watt) . pompeiian moldings (a. after mazois and zahn) . carved rinceau, from a tomb in pompeii (a. from pho.) . . . . painted wall, third period (pho.) . painted wall, fourth period (pho.) . stucco relief from stabian baths (pho.) . pompeiian floor mosaics (a. after zahn) . mosaic fountain in casa grande, pompeii (pho.) . marble table supports from house of cornelius rufus, pompeii (pho.) . candelabrum and table leg (a. p. t. and meyer after botticher) . end of a sarcophagus in s. apollinare in classe, ravenna (c. u.) . interior (detail) of s. lorenzo fuori, rome (pho.) xviii list of illustrations page . floor mosaic in s. m. in trastevere (from a french drawing) . . . byzantine veined wainscot (journal of r. i. b. a., ) . . . . apse-head mosaic in s. clemente, rome (pho.) . ornaments in mosaic: a, from st. john lateran; b, sta. maria in trastevere . pulpit detail from sta. maria in ara coeli, rome (ward) . . . pulpit details from s. lorenzo fuori, rome (racinet) .... . detail of cloister arcade, st. john lateran, rome (pho.) . . . . mosaic on annular vault of sta. costanza, rome (pho.) . . . . detail of order, tomb in palace of diocletian, spalato . . . . . capital with impost block, san vitale, ravenna (a. from pho.) . corinthianesque capital, s. apollinare nuovo, ravenna (a. after dehli) . basket capital, s. apollinare nuovo (c. u.) . byzantine surface carving: above, from hagia sophia; below, from st. sergius ("kuchuk aya sofia") . frieze from st. john studios (emir akhor j ami) . byzantine acanthus molding, from an abacus . anthemion ornament from ravenna . anthemion cornice from st. mark's, venice (v. e. macy) . . . . byzantine crosses and anthemions: above, left, from hagia sophia; right, from civic museum, venice; below, from ra- venna . acanthus leaves and rinceaux, from bishop's palace, ferentino . vine border from carved pluteal in san vitale, ravenna . . . . detail from fig. . peacock openwork panel, torcello (pho.) . carved interlace from spalato (pho.) a. carved interlace from st. mark's, venice . openwork panel in san vitale, ravenna (pho.) . basket capital from st mark's, venice (pho.) . guilloche pattern from hagia sophia (meyer) . end of a sarcophagus in s. apollinare in classe, ravenna (c. u.) . openwork window filling, sta. maria pomposa (pho.) . . . . mosaic, detail from tomb of galla placidia, ravenna (pho.) . . . ivory throne of bishop maximian in cathedral of ravenna (pho.) . the crown of charlemagne (ward) . fabric in bamberg museum (bayet) . syrian carving: a, from tourmanin; , from bakouza .... . russian (georgian) and armenian carving, chiefly from a litho- graph by gagarin . details of marble inlays on flank of cathedral of pisa .... . mosaic altar front from ferentino (pho.) ....... . detail from facade of san michele, lucca (pho.) . false window, san stefano, bologna (pho.) . lintel of a door, san guisto, lucca (pho.) . pavement detail from baptistry of florence (pho.) . interior of cathedral of monreale (pho.) xix list of illustrations page . capitals from cloisters of cathedral of monreale (pho.) ... . painted cuflc inscription, palermo (gen.) . detail from bronze doors of cathedral of monreale by bonnano . arcaded cornice from s. martino at palaia (a. from pho.) ... . wheel window of church at altamura (pho.) . portal of church of san zeno, verona (pho.) s . lombard carved "monsters": above, capital from church at aurona; middle, symbols of st. john and st. mark on pulpit in s. stefano, bologna; below, from san ambrogio, milan (a. after osten and de dartein) . one bay and detail, st paul-trois-chateaux (a. after revoil) . . portal of church at carrenac (pho.) . portal st. jean of cathedral of rouen (pho.) . capital from cathedral of angouleme (pho.) . shafts and figures, west portal of chartres cathedral (pho.) . . . caps and arch carvings, st. pierre d'aulnay (pho.) . double capital, st martin des champs, paris (pho.) . . . . . romanesque iron knocker (pho. of cast in trocadero museum, paris) . baseo with spurs . late french romanesque capital (c. u., zetsche) . carved rinceaux, from mantes (above) and vaison (below) . . . acanthus leaves from portal of church at avallon . carved rinceau, avallon . double rinceau, notre dame, paris (a. after v.-le-d.) . . . . romanesque ornaments (hauser) . carved anthemion bands, church of st. aubin at angers (a. after cahier et martin) . . . grotesque, from church of notre dame, poitiers . leaf motive on a tile, st. omer . corinthianesque capital, lincoln cathedral (c. u.) . capital from st. peter's, northampton (c. u.) . ornaments from doorway of iffley church, oxfordshire (rick- man) . beak or bird's-head molding . interlaced arches (hauser) . anthemion ornaments: above, from- st. savior's, southwark; be- low, from hereford cathedral . celtic initials: q, from an italian periodical; o, from lindisfarne gospels (o. j.); s, from book of kells (a. after sullivan) . . . various interlaces (racinet, etc.) . cover of st. patrick's bell (ward) . one quarter of cover of molaise gospels (ward) . capital from gernrode . capital from church in wurttemberg (gen.) . doorway from abbey of heilsbronn (hauser) . capital from tarragona (gewerbehalle) . capital from tarragona (gewerbehalle) xx list of illustrations page . norwegian carving: . a, from church at stedye; , unidentified <gen.) . norwegian chair or choir stall (gewerbehalle) . details of candelabrum in milan cathedral (ward) . . . . . chandelier at hildesheim, detail (a. after illustration in archi- tectural record) . romanesque gold cup in museum at bergen (workshop) . . . . three french gothic capitals: a, from sainte chapelle, paris; , from notre dame, paris; c, from north spire of chartres cathedral (a., from his history of architecture) . decorative gable over window, cologne cathedral (hauser) . . a clustered pier, plan and elevation (c. u.) . romanesque capital from bayeux cathedral, and gothic capital from st martin-des-champs, paris . gothic clustered bases, from cathedral of halberstadt (hauser) and rouen (raguenet) . gothic pier-arch moldings from chartres, le mans, and st. mac- lou (rouen) (a. after simpson) . enriched cornice molding, notre dame, paris (hauser) . . . . vaulting boss, french (hauser) . vaulting of apsidal chapel, beauvais (c. u.) . tierceron vaulting: chapter house of wells cathedral; exeter nave; lincoln, lantern (pho.) . a, nave of winchester cathedral; , fan vault, henry vii's chapel, westminster (pho.) a, plate tracery, etton church , bar tracery, meopham church; c, perpendicular tracery, north- fleet church (a. after brandon and others) . cusps in tracery . french rayonnaut balustrade (c. u. after v.-le-duc) . . . . . french flamboyant balustrade, chateau de josselyn (c. u.) . . a, a french early gothic crocket (hauser); , a french flamboyant crocket, evreux cath. (c. u.) . a gothic cresting (meyer, after jacobs thai) . french flamboyant tabernacle canopy, house of jacques coeur, bourges (pho.) . gargoyle from notre dame, paris (pho.) . capital, st. martin-des-champs, paris (c. u., c. s. haight) . . . corner leaf, notre dame, paris . french rayonnant capital (c. u., zetsche) . capitals, chapter house of southwell cathedral (a. from pho.) . crocket, wells cathedral (c. u.) . capital from salisbury cathedral (c. u., j. j. ide) . tudor flower (a. after colling) . arcade of kings, amiens cathedral (hauser) . tympanum, porte de la vierge, notre dame, paris (pho.) . . . . reliefs from portal of notre dame (pho.) from cast in trocadero museum) xzi list of illustrations paoe . tomb of st stephen, abbot of aubaxine (pho. from cast in trocadero museum) . the last judgment, central west doorway of notre dame (pho.) . rood screen, alby cathedral (pho.) . a miserere, beverley cathedral (a., after bond) . xlvth century pew end, winthorpe church (c. u.) . detail from wrought-iron screen in st benin, toulouse . . . . "penture" or false hinge, central doors of notre dame, paris (pho.) . iron screen in bourges cathedral (pho.) . two french tile patterns (a. after meyer) . manuscript ornaments, xvth century (spelts) . a french medallion window, chartres (arch. kec.) . a part of jesse window, chartres cathedral (arch. rec) . . . . upper part, canopy window from cologne (a. after hasak) . . c upper part, canopy window from york (a. after glazier) . . . german grisaille windows, from cologne cathedral (above) and altenburg (below) . leading of a xihth century french window, "the wedding in cana" (arch. rec.) . upper part of a french figure window in chartres cathedral (arch. record) . part of pulpit in strassburg cathedral (pho.) . church of st. maclou, rouen (pho.) . detail, carving on front of sens cathedral . capital from sainte chapelle, paris (c. u, zetsche) . detail from cornice of notre dame . detail from cornice of church at norrey, near caen (a. after nesfield) . oak leaf cornice of sainte chapelle, paris (hauser) .... . late gothic molding, choir enclosure of notre dame, paris . . . rosette-boss from sainte chapelle . vertical carved rinceau, notre dame, paris (a. after v.-le-duc) . reliefs from base of portal of notre dame, paris (gewerbehalle) . early gothic grotesque, chartres cathedral (pho.) .... . part of late gothic choir screen, amiens cathedral (pho.) . . . two figures from portal of amiens (pho.) . . xlvth century ivory triptych in municipal library, amiens (pho.) . half of western rose window, chartres cathedral (plate tracery) . early french tracery, from reims cathedral . "lanterne des morts," avioth, brittany (pho.) . flamboyant detail, church of st jacques, reims (from a french lithograph) . rayonnant tracery carved on wood, from a church door (pho.) . flamboyant tracery, church of st. pierre at louviers (pho.) . . . a, one half of spandrel carving, church at stone, kent; , capital from lincoln cathedral; c, from ely cathedral (from engrav- ings in monumental news) zxii list of illustrations page . early english capitals (casts in metropolitan museum, new york) (pho.) . triforium of "angel choir," lincoln cathedral (pho.) .... . wreath capital, beverley cathedral (?) (from engraving in monvi- rmntal news) . a, finial, chapter house of wells cathedral; , crocket from beverley minster (c. u., scott, bartberger) . molding ornaments, early, decorated and transitional (rick- man) . carved spandrel, church at stone, kent (c. u.) . detail, diapered triforium, arcade of westminster abbey (rick- man), and detail from diapering of main arcade . detail, wooden screen in manchester cathedral, xvth century (c. u., wilson) a. curvilinear period carved wooden panels (a. after colling) . . . carved "poppy-head" from a pew-end in st. mary's, bury st. edmunds . plate tracery, lillington church, northants (a. after bond) . . . geometric tracery, e. window, raunds ch. (rickman) ... . curvilinear tracery; a, ithlingboro, northants; , over, cambs; e, little addington, northants (rickman) . perpendicular window, beauchamp chapel, warwick (rickman) . hammer beam "open timber" roof, trunch church (rickman) a. open timber roof, lavenham church (bury) . porch of church of st. lawrence (lorenzkirche) nuremberg (pho.) . north side portal, freiburg cathedral (pho.) . general view, freiburg cathedral with open work spire (pho.) . central portal, strassburg cathedral (pho.) . north side portal, strassburg cathedral (pho.) . altar-piece or reredos, church at esslingen (hauser) .... a. carved pew end, german middle gothic (gewerbehalle) . . . . late german gothic carving (gewerbehalle) . shrine or reredos in church at braunau (arch. rec.), and details from west portal, freiburg cathedral (pho.) . interior of "new" cathedral of salamanca (pho.) . patio (court) of the infantado palace at guadalajara (pho.) . . . interior of chapel of the condestabile in burgos cathedral (pho.) . mudejar detail (gewerbehalle) . part of flank of cathedral of florence (pho.) . part of front of orvieto cathedral (pho.) . details from lucca cathedral: sculptured shaft and marble in- lay (gewerbehalle) . capital from a tomb in church of santa chiara, naples . . . . wall-tomb in san antonio, padua (c. u.) . tomb of can mastino ii scaligero, verona (pho.) a. tomb of giovanni scaligero, verona (pho.) . facade of sienna cathedral (pho.) . twisted shaft and marble inlay, campanile, florence (pho.) . . xxiii list of illustrations page . tracery, or san michele, florence (pho.) . front of a gothic palace in venice . detail from altar canopy, or san michele, florence (pho.) . . . detail, painted wall in a chapel of santa croce, florence (pho.) . carving from arch of "mandorla" door, cathedral of florence . detail, choir stalls of molfetta cathedral, now in museum (pho.) . capitals from lower arcade of doge's palace (c. u.) . . . . zxiv a history of ornament ancient and medieval a history of ornament ancient and medieval chapter i introductory definitions. the history of ornament is the record of the origins and progressive developments of decorative design. by decoration is meant the adornment or embellish- ment of an object by purposed modifications of its form or color. when decoration is effected by the repetition or combination of specific form-elements according to a predetermined scheme, the form-elements are called motives. collectively they are denominated ornament, and when combined or repeated according to some defi- nite geometric system, they are said to form a pattern. thus on page , figure is an ornament; so is figure , which shows a geometric pattern formed with the mo- tive aa. pure ornament is that in which the decorative purpose wholly dominates the design, as distinguished from decorative painting and decorative sculpture, in which the decorative purpose is subordinate to the pic- torial or sculptural representation of a fact, event or idea. a history of ornament thus in the parthenon the sculptured pediments, metopes and frieze, representing episodes and scenes from greek mythology and legend, are examples of decorative sculpture; while the triglyphs, antefixae and painted moldings are examples of pure ornament. there is a large field of decorative design which par- takes somewhat of the character of both pure ornament and pictorial or sculptural representation. such are symbolical and grotesque figures, masks, lions' heads and much floral ornament, all of which are at once decorative and representative. each example of such decoration must be classified according to its predomi- nant purpose. thus, although figure plainly pic- tures a grapevine, its formally artificial arrangement shows it to be intended as an ornament and not a picture. there are, however, many cases in which the purposes of representation and decoration are so evenly balanced that they may be with equal propriety assigned to either category. classifications. pure ornament may be classified according to any of several principles: e.g., according to— a. its way of covering space. b. the manner and means of its production. c. the method or principle of its design. d. the object to which it is applied. e. its relation to structure. a. according to the way in which ornament covers space it may be divided into linear, all-over, and radiat- ing ornament. each of these may be subdivided into introductory continuous and discontinuous ornament. in linear ornament the motives are arranged in sequence along a single line, to form bands or borders, as in figure , in which a and b are continuous linear patterns, and c dis- continuous. in "all-over" patterns the units are ar- ranged along two or more intersecting systems of lines so as to cover a broad surface (figures , , ). in radi- ating patterns the surface is covered by units radiating from a central point (figures , ). in each of these cases the ornament may be continuous, each unit being connected with its neighbors (figures , a, b; figure , page ) or discontinuous as in figure , c or figure . continuous "all-overs" forming a mesh of two sets of intersecting lines are called quarries (from the french carre = square). discontinuous all-overs are called powderingsj more rarely they are said to be spangled (figure ). when isolated units are powdered or spangled in the meshes of a quarry, the combination is called a diaper. figure is a powdering; is a quarry; a diaper pattern. b. according to the means by which the ornament is produced, it is classified as plastic or chromatic. plas- tic ornament is such as depends on light-and-shade for its effect, being produced by raising or depressing the surface in various ways, as by molding, carving, hammer- ing, stamping, etc. (figures , , ). chromatic orna- ment is all such as depends on color (including black and white) for its effect, as in figure representing a painted band. certain classes of textile ornament, like lace and embroidery, in which open-work and relief are depended on to produce the pattern, are included under a history of ornament plastic ornament. chromatic ornament comprises all painted ornament, enamel, inlay, stained glass and mosaic, and all such textile ornament as depends upon effects of color, whether produced by weaving, printing, needle work, or otherwise. c. according to the source and principle of its de- sign, ornament is divisible into the three categories of conventional, naturalistic, and conventionalized-natural ornament. conventional ornament is in general that which is the product of fancy or definite rule working upon pure form, and is for the most part geometric in character. zigzags, frets, spirals and all geometric patterns fall under this head (figures , ). natural- istic ornament comprises all decorative forms derived from nature directly and with little or no change, such as flower and leaf forms, lion's heads, and the like, as in figures , . when, however, natural forms are subjected to purposed modifications to adapt them to decorative effect, they are said to be conventionalized; and this class of ornament constitutes more than half of all the ornament of nearly all the historic styles. the acanthus leaf (fig. ), and a whole world of floral motives in both classic and medieval art, belong in this category (figures , , , , on page , and b, , on page ). the nature-form is subjected to one or more of the operations of regularization of details that in nature occur irregularly or unsymmetrically; suppression or abstraction of features that occur in nature but are repugnant to the desired decorative effect; exaggeration of minor details; multiplication of what occurs only once or at rare intervals in the natural ob- introductory ject; and combination, or the union in one design of ele- ments that do not in nature occur together. d. according to the object to which it is applied, ornament is divided into architectural ornament, applied to or executed in or upon fixed structures, and industrial ornament, which adorns movable objects. capitals of columns, friezes, gargoyles, finals, cornices, and balus- trades are examples of architectural ornament; vase- decorations, furniture-carving, silverware, jewelry, laces, book-covers belong technically in the field of industrial ornament. there is a large class of decorative works that may be placed in either category, such as pulpits, choir-stalls, monumental candelabra and the like. e. ornament may again be divided into two cate- gories according to its relation to structure. structural ornament is that which belongs to, grows out of, or strongly suggests, the structural framework and consti- tution of the object ornamented: such are capitals, cornices, balustrades, window-trims, tracery, moldings, paneling, metal scroll-work and the like. applied orna- ment is that which is added to an object already complete structurally; such as painted ornament, mosaic, inlay, paper-hangings, tapestries, etc. significance of classifications. all these classifications are devices for convenience in the discussion and criticism of ornament, and are important only as they serve this purpose. they cor- respond to real differences of design, process and pur- pose, but there is always a wide borderland in which a history of ornament classification is not easy, and perhaps not important. each classification covers the entire field of ornament, so that any decorative design may be assigned its place in all five classifications. thus the carving in the spandrels of westminster abbey (fig. ) would be (a) a diaper, (b) plastic ornament of (c) convention- alized-natural flowers, (d) architectural and (e) either structural or applied, as one may prefer to consider it. a fret-border embroidered on an altar-cloth or painted on a vase, would be a linear, chromatic, conventional, industrial, applied ornament. these classifications depend upon one's critical judgment, especially in c, d and e, so that differences in the classifications of the same ornament by different writers are frequent and unimportant, especially where a design combines ele- ments from different categories of the same class, as when carving and color are combined, or natural forms blended with purely geometric or conventional elements. meaning of history. decorative design appears at first sight to be so entirely a matter of the designer's unhampered fancy, that a history of the art might seem an impossibility; for how can there be a history of millions of indepen- dent, unrelated fancies? but as a matter of fact no designer is or ever has been wholly free. in the first place, he knows but an infinitesimal fraction of the world of possible decorative forms—those, in short, which he has been taught or has seen, or has learned by experi- ment. he is hampered by the traditions of his art, by the taste of his age and the demands of the market, by the a history of ornament tools and materials he uses, by his own mental and artistic limitations. by reason of common limitations and en- vironment, the designer of any one place and time tend to work alike in certain respects, and those character- istics which are common to their work constitute the style of that time and region. the history of ornament is, then, the record of the origin, growth, decay, succes- sion and inter-relation of the various styles of decorative design. the historic styles. "style" is distinctive character or quality. the his- toric styles of ornament are the distinctive ways, methods and systems of decorative design which have prevailed in different countries at different times, and are desig- nated usually by the names of the peoples who have practised them and by the age, century, period or reign in which they have flourished: as, for example, the roman imperial style, the french gothic, italian early renaissance and american colonial style, etc. each historic style is seen to have passed through the successive stages of infancy and early growth, maturity and decline, after which it disappears, usually giving place to a new style, either derived from some other civilization, or growing up out of the declining style by the introduction of some new germinant principle of de- sign. of the great variety of ornament-forms produced in any one period, a few find favor and are constantly re- peated, while the others disappear. a tendency thus as- serts itself in a given direction, and by countless in- finitesimal changes of these familiar forms along the line introductory of this tendency the style is developed and then gradu- ally transformed. the historic styles are phenomena of growth, of racial and epochal environments, not sud- denly occurring phases due to chance. no man and no coterie of men can create a real and living style; for style depends not alone upon the designer, but also on his inheritance and environment. the "biology" of styles. the development of styles presents many analogies to biological phenomena. transmission by inheritance, persistence of type, occasional reversions towards the primitive type, exceptional forms analogous to the "sports" that occur in nature—all these are met with in the history of ornament, as well as the constant evolu- tionary progress from simple to complex, from the rudimentary to the highly organized. there is also observable in the development of ornament a phenom- enon which may be called convergence, in which two lines of development from different sources approach each other and finally coalesce. the resulting form or pattern resembles somewhat both its ancestors, though constituting a new type in itself. it is therefore often impossible to assign a single origin to an ornament-type; and much of the discussion and controversy about dis- puted origins might be avoided by recognizing the orna- ment in question as derived by convergence from both or all of the several sources to which the disputants assign it. in figure , page , a, b and c suggest the pos- sible evolution of the "trilobe lotus," c from its simplest a history of ornament painted form, a in egyptian ornament, while d, e and / illustrate the persistence of this motive in greek, roman and gothic ornament respectively, the whole covering a period of nearly years. in figure a greek vase ornament of anthemions is shown at a, followed by a roman derivative modified by acanthus-leaf details. the three lower examples are byzantine acanthus leaves which have converged towards the anthemion type to such an extent that they may with equal propriety be called anthemions or acanthus leaves. figure (in which b is an enlargement of c in figure ) further illustrates this convergence of the byzantine acanthus towards the greek anthemion-type, though this latter was probably quite unknown to most byzantine artists. in figure we have a curious example of accidental reversion towards an ancient type: the left-hand form a being an egyptian representation of some water- plant, while the two anthemion-like forms at the right, b, are late byzantine conventional representations of the funereal cypress tree! prehistoric, primitive and savage ornament. it remains to consider briefly the relation to historic art of those early forms of ornament which were pro- duced before the dawn of the historic cultures, as well as of the ornament of savage and barbarous peoples that have remained outside the currents of modern civiliza- tion. so far as the arts of the cavemen of the palaeolithic and neolithic ages are concerned, there is no traceable connection between them and the earliest his- toric civilizations—those of egypt and chaldea: the in- introductory termediate links have perished absolutely. with re- gard to savage ornament, the fact that it is contempo- raneous with civilized and even modern cultures, makes possible an influence from the latter upon the savage art which establishes certain occasioned resemblances be- tween the two. but there is no evidence as yet discov- erable of the unaided development of savage art into civilized and progressive art. the essential character of savage art is that of arrested development. it is often interesting and effective, but seems incapable of further progress. it is sterile, and as a subject of study, quite outside the field of the historic styles. primitive ornament, on the other hand, is ornament in the earliest stages of its development. the term may therefore be applied to the beginnings of historic art or of particular styles, as well as to that of the stone age and prehistoric times. primitive ornament is fre- quently uncouth, while savage ornament is often highly elaborated (see plates i and ii); but the latter has ceased to advance, while primitive ornament often re- veals the promise and potency of indefinite life and growth. the one is a dwarf, the other an infant. six propositions. the history of art seems to bear out the following propositions: i. the earliest known historic ornament belongs to civilizations already well advanced. ii. the primitive origins of this earliest known his- toric ornament have yet to be discovered and identified. prehistoric remains in egypt are being studied, and a history of ornament have thrown some light upon the earliest stages of art in that most ancient of known civilizations; but the prob- lem has not yet been by any means fully solved. iii. savage or aboriginal ornament has never yet been known to develop unaided into a civilized and pro- gressive art. iv. the ornament of every historic style is found to be chiefly derived from that of some older civilization, until we reach back to the earliest historic art of egypt and chaldea, beyond which its sources have not yet been traced. v. each historic culture has imposed upon the decora- tive art thus inherited or borrowed a development and form of its own, either by blending with the borrowed forms others of its own invention, or by progressive modifications of detail, or by both together. vi. in these modifications of the imported or in- herited ornament-forms, their original use and signifi- cance are in time lost sight of or ignored. magical forms become mere symbols, symbolic forms mere orna- ment; and structural forms are applied where the con- struction does not demand them, so that they become in time motives of architectural decoration pure and simple. value of the study of ornament styles. the importance of this study lies in its value not only to the designer, in enabling him to design consistently, either by following a given style closely or by diverging from it intelligently; but also to the archeologist and the student of history. for the style of a work of decora- introductory tion is frequently a more reliable, index of its date than written documents, which have more than once been proved to be incorrect or to have been misinterpreted, by the evidence of decorative style in the work under discussion. the character and relations of the ornament of different countries, peoples and times have often af- forded valuable suggestions, confirmations or corrections as to the historic movements and relations of these peo- ples, and an index of their advancement in civilization. the history of ornament is thus an important division of the general history of civilization. method of this history. the history of ornament may be treated according to either of two methods. by one of these the origin and development of the dominant motives of ornament are taken up in succession, each of these being traced through all of the styles in which it is formed. by the other, which is followed in this volume, attention is di- rected to the origin and development of the historic styles of ornament, all the various motives, kinds and types of ornament of each country and period being considered in discussing the style of that time and re- gion. in this volume we shall treat of the styles of ancient and medieval art, leaving the oriental and mod- ern styles to be treated in another volume. summary of the sequence of styles. geographically as well as chronologically, this study i this is the method followed by mr. g. a. t. middleton in his "motives of ornament" (new york, ) and by myself in a series of papers on the "de- velopment of decorative motives" in the "american architect," - . a history of ornament begins with egyptian art in the nile valley. the art of early chaldea in the valley of the tigris-euphrates, though rivaling that of egypt in its antiquity, is less im- portant in the domain of ornament than the egyptian, and less important also than that of assyria, which de- veloped later in the same river basin. greek art both inherited and borrowed from both these arts; little, per- haps, directly, but much through the intermediate arts of phenicia and of the early mediterranean cultures in crete, mycenae, and other ^egean centers. all these borrowed elements were completely transformed in greek art, whose developed forms passed into roman art and were again transformed by the roman genius. greek and roman art have tinged that of all subsequent ages among the european and western nations. the growth of christianity after the fall of rome developed new centers of civilization and new conceptions in art, giving rise to byzantine art in the east and to roman- esque and gothic art in the west. for a thousand years the forms of roman art appeared to be forgotten, except for faint reminiscences of them in italy. yet like the egyptian wheat, buried with a mummy but springing to life after a score of centuries in the tomb, the vital elements of roman art revived with the renaissance of classic studies in the fifteenth century in italy, and have largely dominated western art ever since. meanwhile in the orient other ideals have prevailed, and although the mohammedan nations have in each case founded their art on that of the christian peoples they have conquered, they have developed it under the introductory dominion of their own ideals into something quite apart from western art. china and japan have also their own independent though related styles of decoration; while the decorative art of the non-moslem hindus rep- resents another group of styles remote in character from those of europe. the problem of early american art in peru, central america and mexico is one of great uncertainty and the subject of no little controversy. the art of these countries offers one of the richest as well as most diffi- cult fields for architectural exploration and study. the expeditions conducted by professor bingham of yale university have added much to our knowledge of the monuments; but the subject has not yet entered the domain of precise history, and must lie outside the scope of a manual like this. books recommended. [the bibliography of ornament is so extensive, and includes so many works of doubtful value to the student, that an ex- haustive list of books on the subject of each chapter of this work is out of the question. the lists of "books recom- mended" have been made to include the most important works of reference generally available in the larger libraries of cities and educational institutions, as well as text-books and hand- books of a more popular character, in english, french and german (besides a few in italian and spanish). in such a selected list it will inevitably happen that some titles will be omitted which, in the reader's judgment, ought to be included, and others included which might well have been omitted; for individual judgments must differ in many cases. the author and the publishers will welcome suggestions for the improve- ment of these lists in future editions.] . on general theory of ornament: bourgoin: theorie de vornement (paris, ).—w. g. colungwood: philosophy a history of ornament of ornament (sunnyside, ).—h. pfeifer: formenlehre des ornaments (stuttgart, ).—goblet d'alviella: the migration of symbols (westminster, ).—a. c. haddon: evolution in art (london, ).—a. d. f. hamlin: devel- opment of decorative motives (in american architect, new york, — ).—j. haüselmann: studien und ideen über ursprung, wesen und stil des ornaments (zürich, ).— f. e. hulme: birth and development of ornament (london, ).—j. ranke: anfänge der kunst (berlin, ).—alois riegl: stilfragen; grundlegungen zu einer geschichte der ornamentik (berlin, ).—g. semper: der stü in der technischen künsten, oder praktische aesthetik (munich, - ).—g. sturm: animals in ornament (london, ). . general handbooks and collections. dolmetsch: der ornamentenschatz (stuttgart, ; also an english edition, london, ).—ebe: die schmuckformen der monumental- bauten aus allen stüepochen (leipzig, ).—l. gaucherel: exemples de decoration appliquse etc. (paris, ).—r. glazier: manual of historie ornament (london, ).— gropius und lohde: archiv für ornamentale kunst etc. (ber- lin, - ).—e. j. b. guillaume: histoire de vart et de vornement (paris, ).—d. guilmard: la connaissance des styles de vornementation (paris, ).—a german edition of the same under the title geschichte der ornamentik (berlin, ).—j. haüselmann: die stylarten des ornaments in den verschiedenen kunstepochen (zürich, ).—j. e. jacob- sthal: grammatik der ornamente (berlin, ; with large wall-plates for class use).—owen jones: grammar of orna- ment (london, ; new edition, smaller size, london, ). —f. k. klimsch: ornaments (london, n. d.).—mechin: dic- tionnaire de l'art ornemental de tous les styles (paris, — ). —f. s. meyer: ornamentale formenlehre (leipzig, ): english edition under title handbook of ornament (new york, ?).—r. newberry: gleanings from ornamental art of every style (london, ).—r. pfnor: ornementation usuelle de toutes les epoques (paris, - ).—a. racinet: l'ornement polychrome (paris, — ).—h. shaw: en- cyclopaedia of ornament (london, ).—j. b. waring: il- lustrations of architecture and ornament (london, ).— introductory j. ward: historic ornament (london, ). —g. e. wes- sely: das ornament und die kunstindustrie in ihrer geschicht- liche entwickelung (berlin, ). in the above list the grammar of ornament of owen jones and ornement polychrome of racinet are monumental collec- tions of decorative designs in color, veritable encyclopaedias of ornament of all kinds except the architectural, of which there are only a few examples in owen jones, and none in racinet. the dolmetsch collection, second only to the above two in rich- ness and elegance of presentation, contains a fair proportion of illustrations from architecture. meyer's handbook of ornament is another standard collection, arranged not by styles but by topics and categories of subjects. glazier's manual of historic ornament is excellent as far as it goes, but its modest size makes impossible a complete presentation of any of the styles. speltz's styles of ornament is the most compre- hensive of all the smaller collections, covering all the styles both of architectural and industrial ornament with a wealth of illustrations in black-and-white. the new edition, revised by r. phene spiers, of london, is especially recommended. the prang educational company publish an excellent series of plates of historic ornament, in color, based on a series orig- inally edited by the late professor w. r. ware. chapter ii primitive and savage ornament the origins. when and how did decorative art first begin? the question can never receive a final and complete answer, since the oldest extant specimens of ornamental art, dating back to the palaeolithic age, betray a skill which points to beginnings in a still more remote past. the dagger-handle of carved reindeer bone in figure , representing a wounded fawn, is a surprisingly skil- ful adaptation of naturalistic representation to decora- tive use; it dates from the neolithic period of the stone age. chipped flint knives and remarkably life-like sketches of animals engraved on bone, including the prehistoric mammoth, found in strata of great antiquity, likewise suggest long antecedent periods of training. the answer to our query is generally sought by anthropologists in the work and processes of modern savage tribes. the most generally accepted theory is that which derives the earliest ornament from primitive superstitions. the savage—and presumably primitive man did likewise—instinctively animates or personifies all the forces and most of the phenomena of nature. i consult however the query raised by dr. talcott williams in a paper printed in the "report of the smithsonian institution" for entitled, "was primitive man a modern savage?" primitive and savage ornament he fails to distinguish clearly between the real and the imagined, the animate and inanimate, and ascribes to fancied resemblances the qualities of the thing re- sembled. hence he seeks to portray, imitate or suggest whatever force or thing he wishes to have or control, as- cribing to these caricatures the powers of their originals. an eye painted on a canoe gives the canoe and its owner the power to steer a safe course; a bird on the stern gives it speed (see plate ii, ); a human face with a mouth full of fierce teeth imparts fierceness and cour- age to the bearer of the weapon or other object on which it is carved or painted. figure , page , illustrates the head of a mangaia (new zealand) ceremonial spear to be borne by a chief: it represents, inverted, a tongue protruding from a mouth set with sharp teeth beneath two huge eyes. the protruding tongue signifies defi- ance; the teeth, ferocity; the eyes, keen vision; together they constitute a powerful amulet, magically endowing the chief with bravery, ferocity and far-sightedness. but it will be noted that the entire representation is dec- oratively effective; indeed, the decorative purpose quite overmasters all idea of naturalistic portrayal. a like purpose is observed in the papuan "manhood belts" (figure ), on which the scratched patterns of human features are fetishes imparting to the wearer the manly qualities they symbolize. such a representation is called a fetish, and the super- stition to which it is due, fetishism. it is one manifesta- tion of what is generically known as animism, of which another form is totemism. among certain tribes, as in alaska, each family or clan has its own animal or other a history of ornament object not merely as a heraldic symbol, but as a posses- sion conferring its qualities on the whole clan: such a symbol is called a totem. an alaskan totem-pole, like the quarterings of a coat-of-arms, portrays the pedigree and relationships of the occupants of the tent or tepee before which it stands. according to the animis- tic theory, therefore, primitive and savage ornament is believed to have grown up out of the carving or painting or weaving of fetishes and totems primarily for the sake of their magical use. this practice in time awak- ened the rudimentary decorative instinct; and this in- stinct asserting itself with constantly increasing force has led to the progressive modification of the original semi-naturalistic forms until they are often no longer recognizable as such, as in figures , and (page ); figure showing patterns derived from the head of the frigate-bird. the technic theory. another theory attributes the awakening of the decorative instinct to the processes and results of primi- tive industries, especially pottery, basketry and weav- ing. in these industries there occur inevitably cer- tain rhythmical repetitions and alternations of form or color which are in themselves decorative. thus in grass-weaving and basketry, if grasses of two colors are alternately plaited or woven together a checker pattern results, while simple variations in the plaiting produce plaids, quadrangles, stepped triangles and crosses (figure ). the awakened decorative instinct seizes upon these effects and develops them purposefully. it tirsayan jarcmexio) chiriqui jndian/llligatohbrms. a*-&>r& ess isftimtme dagger-handle. lbj ew £oland\ikiiild"molive.itj aori sp^>rhead.id-bpuanface-nwliiei . daskelry forma sto.ut. fkrmian animal motivei. , maori andhawaiian carvings. bra- zilian qmss<hfhpatterns. a,rxpuonfrigatebird'foms j aori'flultcmam«nt. mmbiaxij- a history of ornament then begins to appropriate for decorative use fetish and totem forms (figures , , , ) and adds to these other nature forms, which it eventually uses as pure ornament, with little or no regard for magical intent. figure shows in a an apparently conventional orna- ment thus derived from the new zealand totem-figures of women shown in b, which represent the pedigrees of new zealand chiefs in the female line. the technic of wood-notching has converted these figures into the orna- ment known as the tiki-tiki-tangata. it seems likely that both theories are measurably cor- rect and must be jointly invoked to explain the begin- nings of ornament. the discovery and development of motives originating in technical processes and the de- velopment of nature-forms through animistic impulses have probably been concurrent. it seems quite clear that nearly all spirals, zigzags, plaids, lozenges, and many other geometric motives, have originated in the processes of weaving, plaiting and string-lash- ing. even the fact that modern savage tribes call these motives by the names of animals, winds, etc., does not prove their fio. . detah prom maori paddlb animistic origin. thus in plait i, i. in yigure the indians of central brazil call a the tunny-fish pattern, b the liz- ard pattern, and c and d bat-patterns! all four patterns were probably technomorphic in origin, and received these names as afterthought explanations of their origin primitive and savage ornament and meaning. for primitive man is always a myth- maker, who seeks to explain everything by a story or by some theory of magic; and the widely different names given to the same form by different tribes suggest that their several explanations are invented after the fact, not handed down by tradition from still more primitive ages. character of savage ornament. its artistic quality is often of a high order, revealing a keen sense of decorative propriety, a wise choice and proportioning of means to ends, and great skill in space- filling (plates i and ii). in boldness and effectiveness of design it often surpasses the work of more civilized peoples. if lacking in subtlety and the higher graces of line and movement, it is often rich, well distributed, and executed with singular patience and skill. structural ornament, in the strictest sense, hardly exists at all; nearly all savage ornament is pure surface-decoration. it consists largely of patterns of small motives indefi- nitely repeated by painting, stamping or weaving, or by surface carving, so as to cover the whole or a major part of the object. (figures , , , - ; plate i, nos. , , , , , , .) here and there appears a caricature of the head or body of a bird or beast (plate ii, , ); or even the grotesque head of a man, as in fig. . the south sea islands. among the most interesting developments of savage decorative art are those of certain polynesian peoples, particularly in new guinea in the north and new zea- primitive and savage ornament originating in polynesia, and carried to high perfection both in new guinea and new zealand. some of the tattoo-patterns appear to be purely decorative, conform- ing to the facial modeling; others have a definite signifi- cance as fetishes or as totems. primitive american ornament. basketry, weaving and pottery are the chief indus- tries of the primitive and ancient peoples of south and central america, mexico and the southwestern regions of the united states. the pottery of these countries is particularly abundant and interesting. as peru, central america and mexico were the seats of a highly developed civilization centuries before the spanish con- quest, the art of those ages has no place in a discussion of primitive and savage ornament. while the begin- nings have been made in the working out of the mayan and aztec chronologies, we must await the decipherment of their written records before we can write the history and chronology of the peruvian, mexican and central american art of antiquity, many of whose monuments have long been known, and others more recently discov- ered by the yale expeditions under professor bingham. until these problems have been worked out it will be impossible to determine the historical relation of such advanced decorative art as is shown in plate ii, , and , to the more modern pottery shown on the same plate. both the mexican and the zufii and pueblo pot- tery show great fondness for the spiral (figs. , ; a history of ornament plate ii, , , ). according to w. h. holmes this is due to the derivation of all american pottery from primitive processes of building up the vessel with suc- cessive spiral coils of clay "rope," which process in turn is derived from coiled basketry (see plate ii, , a washoe basket-bowl). this theory is borne out by the occurrence of many basketry patterns in bolivian and other pot- tery. but the peruvian spirals in plate ii, , may be derived from the coiled snake (ii, ). the spiral is common in pueblo pottery; fig. a shows an example, which curiously resem- bles an ancient jar (re- versed) from budmer in bosnia, illustrated in hoerner's "urgeschichte." the spiral b is an enlarged detail from the jar in plate ii, . in the same plate the illustra- tions and offer curious analogies to early greek pottery-omamentation. such resemblances, probably wholly fortuitous, have given rise to many specula- tions as to the origin of the ancient american civiliza- tions. the modern american indians, especially those of the » all of the illustrations in plate ii are from sketches made in the ameri- can museum of natural history in new york, which possesses a superb collection, in its anthropological section, of examples of primitive art, both american and foreign. fio. . a, pueblo jab; b, detail fbom plate ii, ; c, pbehistoric jab fbom bosnia. primitive and savage ornament southwest, are clever potters and particularly skilful in basketry. the blankets, baskets and beadwork of many other indian tribes are rich in decorative sugges- tion, and will be increasingly val- ued as these arts tend to disap- pear with advancing civilization. the examples shown in these figures and plates can by no means adequately illustrate the richness and variety of savage and primitive ornament; they can only suggest its general character. every tribe has its own special products and pat- terns; to some extent they fl°- w- mexican jab. mingle and overlap through commerce and migration. they seem to have been but little modified in style by the contact of civilization, though this contact is apt to result in the disappearance of the native art and the substitution of manufactured foreign products. summary of characteristics. the main characteristics of savage art may be briefly summarized as follows: i. geometric ideals control generally both the distri- bution and details of the decoration. ii. natural forms are invariably of magical signifi- cance. they converge towards the technomorphic treatment because the savage cares nothing for accuracy of representation, provided the type is recognizable; and a history of ornament exaggeration and caricature resulting from the influ- ence of materials and tools do not destroy the type. the technomorphic geometrization of details is a natural re- sult of the processes of their production. iii. of many motives it cannot be determined whether the origin is animistic or technomorphic. na- tive identifications and explanations of form are by no means always trustworthy. iv. the zigzag, quadrilateral, fret and spiral ap- pear in nearly all savage styles, though the coil and spiral are wanting in certain defined districts in the south seas. v. savage ornament is almost wholly surface orna- ment, in which general effect is the chief concern and is produced by a disposition of parts almost always judi- cious and artistic. it is usually composed of minute motives, more or less crowded. the higher qualities of grace, refined curvature and rhythmic movement, and highly organized and complex composition, are gener- ally wanting. in short, the pursuit of an unattained ideal and the progress that results from it, do not ap- pear in savage art, which remains content with its past which it reproduces with variations but without con- sistent advance. books recommended. as before, the general collections of dolmetsch, glazier, owen jones, racinet and speltz.—also, h. balfouk: the evolution of decorative art (london, ).—a. c. haddon: evolution in art (especially for polynesian art: london, ).—j. ranke: anfdnge der kunst (berlin, ).—h. stolpe: evolution in the ornamental art of savage peoples so primitive and savage ornament (trans. rochdale literary and scientific society, ); stur- dier i americansk ornamentik (stockholm, ).—e. b. ty- lob: primitive culture (london).—consult also w. h. holmes: origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art in fourth annual report, bureau of ethnology (washington, ). chapter iii egyptian ornament "egypt is the oldest daughter of civilization"; "a lighthouse in the profound darkness of remote an- tiquity." land and people. the valley of the nile was the birthplace of historic civilization, so far, at least, as extant evidence can de- termine it. the history of chaldea carries us back, it is true, six or seven thousand years, but the oldest monu- ments of egypt point to a long precedent development, the beginnings of which are lost in the mists of antiquity. it is, however, outside of our purpose to study this twi- light age of egyptian art. of the thirty dynasties enumerated by manetho, the first reigned in memphis in lower egypt at a date variously estimated at from to years b.c., over a well organized kingdom possessed of cities, a priesthood, established grades of society, and other features of a developed civilization. hemmed in between the wall-like cliffs of the nile val- ley, this kingdom flourished for some thousands of years the one civilized nation in a vast world of barbarous nations, developing unaided her own arts and supported perrot & chipiez, "history of ancient art"; vol. i, page . renan, quoted by perrot & chipiez; ibid., page . egyptian ornament by the inexhaustible f ertility of the nile mud. herodo- tus rightly called egypt "the gift of the nile," which became to the egyptians a source of endless symbols and cosmic-religious ideas. within this valley the egyptians were long untouched by foreign influences, and the ap- parent changelessness of egyptian art is one of its most striking characteristics. the government of egypt was an autoc- racy, and society was divided into castes, with the priest-caste at its head. to this caste belonged the king, who was deified after death. the re- ligion, grossly idola- trous in its lowest pop- ular form, and polytheistic in its highest phases as un- derstood by the educated priest-caste, possessed many lofty spiritual conceptions underlying its externally complex mythology. particularly important were its solar deities amen or ra, identified with the sun; osiris and his sister-spouse isis or hathor, and horus their son. the ideas of death and immortality were con- spicuous, making sepulchral art the most important detail op sarcophagus op menkauea. a history of ornament branch of design next to temple architecture. primitive fetish-conceptions never wholly disappeared; maspero declared that "every egyptian ornament was a talis- man," and symbolism characterized every detail of decorative art. the tombs, designed to be inviolable so far as the intention of their designers was concerned, and hermetically sealed against the entrance of the liv- ing, were internally decorated with pictures of scenes, objects and pursuits which, it was believed, would be- come realities to the ka, the shadowy "double" or half- spirit of the deceased, who could thus enjoy the pleasures of feasting and the chase while imprisoned in the tomb, awaiting final release by the judgment of osiris and his forty assessors. it is from these tombs and from the sarcophagi (fig. ) and mummy-cases found in them that a large part of our knowledge of egyptian life and decorative art have been derived. influence of climate. except during the short rainy season the egyptian sky is cloudless, the sun intensely brilliant. mists, half- lights, soft gray tones and delicate tints such as northern lands and artists know and love, are here unknown. in the blazing sun and black shadows delicate relief and subtle modulations of surface would be lost. hence strong and bold relief are necessary out of doors: while both there and in the dim interiors color is essential for decorative effectiveness. egyptian ornament is pre- eminently an ornament of color. the dryness of the air and the absence of frost result in a permanence which cannot be secured in other climates. wood and cloth si egyptian ornament seem in egypt as imperishable as stone and bronze. hence an influence towards slowness of change, towards permanence both of types and details, which exists no- where else. materials. there is almost no timber in egypt, and where stone was lacking, or was unsuitable or too costly, mud or clay served as the building material, often with a frame- work of reeds or stiff papyrus-stalks bound together to form posts and beams. the palm was the principal tree, with the sycamore for occasional use in cabinet-work. the painted representations of framed woodwork al- ways show long and narrow panels, such as could be framed with long thin pieces from the palm-trunk (fig. ). marvelous was the decorative art which grew up under these limitations. pottery, glass, enamel and metal-work in copper, bronze and gold were all known to the egyptians from an early age, and weav- ing of "fine twined linen," embroidery and the tanning of leather were also practised. historic periods. without going into details, we may divide the history of egyptian art into six periods. i, the prehistoric age. ii, the old or first empire, comprising the first ten dynasties; this is the age of the great pyramids and of the earliest tombs, from b.c. to b.c. ill, the middle or first theban empire, two dynasties, s these dates are those of breasted. some other authorities assign much earlier dates to the old empire. a history of ornament to b.c. iv, the new or second theban empire, the th- th dynasties inclusive, - b.c. this is the great age of egyptian history, the most splendid in its temples and tombs, as well as in war and conquest. it followed a period of two centuries of artistic sterility under five foreign dynasties called the hyksos or shepherd kings. v, the saitic and persian period, comprising the dynasties to inclusive, and the persian rule which began in b.c.: from to b.c. vi, the revival or ptolemaic period, under the macedonian ptolemies and the roman dominion: b.c. to a.d. the first half of this period was one of revived artistic activity after a long decline. prehistoric ornament. it is only within recent years that the pre-pharaonic art of egypt has become known by a sufficient number of examples to permit of assigning any dates or se- quences of style. discoveries at koptos, nagada and aby- dos since have unearth- ed the products of long ages before the first dynasty— crude painted statuettes of earthenware, ivory pins and combs, spoons and rings, flint fio. . prehistoric slate pa- knives with ivory gold- i*tte in tins lotm*. plated handles, vases of pot- egyptian ornament tery and slate palettes or ink-mixers (fig. ). in none of these is there evidence of a developed decorative style, zigzags and a few crude patterns derived from basketry being almost the only pure ornaments. there is, however, considerable imitation of nature, more and more realistic and correct as one approaches historic times. religion and magic account for much of this naturalism. the slate palette from the louvre shown in fig. is in its motive so like many "sacred tree" compositions from assyria in which a tree is flanked by erect monsters or human figures, that some authorities refer it to prehistoric chaldean influence. on the other hand, the entire asiatic series of figures of beasts facing a central tree or shaft may have originated in egypt. on the whole these finds throw little fight on the origins and early development of the historic orna- ment of egypt. historic ornament; general survey. the historic ornament of egypt may be dated as ex- tending from about b.c., the date of the earliest examples in the collections, down to the christian era. from the old empire the remains are almost wholly of sepulchral and industrial art—scarabs (fig. ), mummy-cases, jewelry, furniture and tomb decorations. the middle empire has bequeathed us a few examples of its architecture, but the great architectural age is that of the new empire, though the ptolemaic is also rich in this field. the middle and new empire periods have also left us many examples of sepulchral art. this entire body of decorative art, covering a period of be- a history of ornament tween three and four thousand years, shows an ex- traordinary continuity and uniformity of character and spirit, in spite of the progress observable when it is closely studied. egyptian art is marked by a highly developed decorative sense which rarely fails to employ both form and color in the most effective and appropri- ate manner. the influence of symbolism and of sur- viving traditions of magic is everywhere observable, though the symbolic significance of the forms used was probably by no means always a controlling influence in the design. in many cases it may not have been at all consciously present in the mind of the designer. sources and motives. the egyptians employed both geometric and natural forms, the latter always more or less conventionalized. the geometric motives were no doubt chiefly of technic origin, the natural forms magical or symbolic. the con- ventionalizing tendency was always strong, even m purely pictorial and representative paint- ing and sculpture, largely from the influ- ence of heiratic formulae and traditions in sepulchral and temple decoration. in ornament there is rarely any attempt to picture natural objects realistically. thus the lotus (figure , page ), which ap- pears in nature as at a, is usually depicted fig. . in side-elevation, greatly simplified, as at b a op and c; and a dish of fruit is shown partly in plan and partly in elevation, the two combined in one representation (fig. ). human figures are drawn egyptian ornament with the head in profile, the shoulders in front view, and the legs and feet in side view, both feet planted squarely on the ground, one behind the other. besides the classes of ornament above described, there is the important category of architectural ornament. this consists largely of conventionalized nature-forms, with only a comparatively limited list of really structural motives. general character. egyptian ornament is characterized by a certain rigidity and formality of character, which permitted of only a very slow and gradual evolution; there is no such marked change of style, previous at least to the ptole- maic age, as marks for instance the development of greek or of gothic ornament. but there is an ex- traordinary variety of detail in the treatment of a some- what limited stock of fundamental motives. it is pre- dominantly an art of surface-decoration by color: the range of structural and architectural forms is very narrow. color was largely depended upon for the decoration of buildings as well as of movable objects, and color was used with admirable judgment for decora- tive effects. the colors chiefly used were red, yellow, blue and green, with black and white occasionally as foils; these colors are seldom the pure colors of the spectrum or their nearest pigment analogies, but "re- duced" tones or shades, the red verging towards the red- brown; the yellow a warm tone such as is produced by tinging yellow ochre with burnt-sienna; the blue com- monly of a dark shade, the green ranging from a sap- a history of ornament green to a dark olive. there are of course exceptions, especially in enamels and glass, but they only emphasize the prevailing sobriety and richness of the color in other works. the use of gold in decoration was very sparing. nature forms. both plant and animal forms were used in egyptian ornament. the animal forms—chiefly the vulture or hawk, and the uraeus or cobra, together with wings and feathers—were almost invariably religious or sym- bolic. so also was probably the lotus and perhaps also the papyrus among vegetable forms; most of the other plants and flowers that occur seem to have been used for purely decorative reasons. the lotus. this has been called the sacred flower of egypt (figure ); it was the largest and most beautiful of flowers known to that land, and figured prominently in both royal and religious ceremonies. as a product of the life-giving, wealth-bestowing nile it was symbolic both of that river and of the solar divinities which ruled the river's inundations and imparted to it its fertility and life-renewing powers. it is shown in the hands of kings and gods; laid as an offering on altars and tied to the tops of posts and columns. it figures in the capitals of columns and is made the basis of endlessly varied borders and all-over patterns. professor goodyear in ♦ flinders petrie, however, denies its sacred and symbolic significance ("egyptian decorative art," page ). egyptian ornament his "grammar of the lotus" has endeavored to prove that all egyptian ornament is based on the lotus and that since all classic ornament can be traced back ultimately to egypt, and most later styles to the classic, the lotus must be considered to be the parent of nearly all historic ornament. this is surely carrying the thesis too far, but it is undeniable that a very considerable part of egyptian ornament is of lotus origin, while many forms not lotuses at all, converged towards the lotus type, so that the lotus influence is traceable far beyond the area of actual lotus derivations. the egyptian lotuses used in decoration were the nymphcea lotus and the nymphcea cerulcea—respec- tively the white and blue lotus. the rose lotus (nelum- bium) was probably not known till a late date. the nile lotus is a large water-lily, with four green sepals and a corolla of white or blue petals surrounding the yellow central group of stamens and pistils (figure , a). it was represented usually in side-elevation, showing three sepals and usually six petals. the bud was shown with only two sepals visible, and sometimes with no division of sepals at all. the outline of" the open flower was either trumpet-shaped, bell-shaped or rectilinear. a derived form was the trilobe, in which the petals were omitted, and the two lateral sepals curled over into volutes; but by a decorative inconsistency, a second set of sepals frequently adorned the trilobe (fig. , c,e). as a border ornament, the lotus was alternated with the bud, usually in a pendant position, perhaps in imi- a history of ornament tation of, or convergence towards, fringes of tassels; and with these alternating forms were combined round dots, loops and other details whose meaning is not ob- vious (figure ). in late work the lotus-bud is often replaced by bunches of grapes or by nondescript forms generally recalling the oval outline of the bud (figures , ). the lotus was also frequently used as an isolated fig. . lotus forms; a, full floweb; b-e, tbilobe fobms. motive, as on paddles, vases and other objects; and as a terminal ornament, e.g., to adorn the prow or stern of a boat (figure , c), or to form the capital of a column (plate iii, , ). many writers consider egyptian rosettes in general to be representations in plan of the open lotus, or even of the seed vessel of the flower, but flinders-petrie has shown that many rosettes are plainly representations of other flowers, and that others are probably of technic origin. some rosettes are, however, unmistakably lotus rosettes (figure , page ). the lotus figures in many all-over patterns in associa- tion with the spiral (figure , page ). the archi- tectural uses of the lotus are discussed later. • "egyptian decorative art," page . egyptian ornament fio. . the papyrus in nature. other plant forms. the papyrus (fig. ) is the most important of these. its straight, stiff triangular stem with four root-leaves wrapping its slightly swelling base, is imitated in the clustered shafts of many col- umns (plate iii, ), and painted as a decoration on walls and on bell- capitals, often alternating with con- ventional lotuses (figures , , fig. ). the stem bears a bunch of tiny flowers, forming with their stems a group of green filaments with reddish tops, growing out of a calyx of four leaves or bracts. these supply the suggestion for many bell-shaped forms in ornament (figure ), including the great cam- paniform capitals of huge col- umns like those of the karnak hypostyle hall (figure ; plate iii, ). the daisy, convolvulus, grapes, and thistle occur in ornament; also other plant forms not always recogniz- able. many rosette and leaf forms are probably mere conventional ornament types, not intended to portray particular plants. the spiked ornament of figure «in the "grammar of the lotus," prof. goodyear claims as lotus-forms a host of ornament motives and pictorial representations plainly derived from the papyrus. there are, it is true, many forms in which, by convergence, the two types are blended in one. fio. . campaniform cap- ital, karnak. a history of ornament is identified by flinders-petrie as well as goodyear, as a lotus with the central sepal exaggerated. this does not seem convincing: it is too persistent and uniform a motive in late art, and too unlike the lotus to warrant this explanation without strong proof, and may repre- sent some aquatic plant not now existent in the nile valley. the palm appears in capitals during and after the xviiith dynasty, and is frequent in ptolemaic and roman work (fig. , c, page ; plate iii, ). animal forms. the vulture, with widespread wings, symbolizing pro- tection and maternal care, is a frequent and a splendid decoration of temple ceilings, and appears in many other applications (figure ; plate iii, , ). the wings alone, with the sun-disk significant of ra, are still more frequent, especially over the gateways or entrances of temples (figure ). the urceus or cobra is a symbol of death, hence of the royal power of life and death, and hence of royalty itself. it decorates the winged disk (figure ), the royal head-dress, and the cornices of certain buildings; especially in the ptolemaic age, of the front screen-walls of the hypostyle halls (figure ). the scarabceus or beetle is rarely a purely ornamental mo- tive, but appears isolated on mummy- cases and elsewhere, as a symbol of crea- tion and life, and was the commonest of amulets (fig. ). it is occasionally found in late all-overs, as in plate iii a. the head of hathor was used as a sym- fio. . scara- bceus a mulet (reverse). egyptian ornament bolic decoration on columns, especially in the ptolemaic age (plate iii, ). the sphinw, a symbolic compound of lion's body with human head (an- drosphinw) or a sculptured ram (criosphinx), was employed to line the dromos or avenue leading to a temple, and is occasionally found executed in bronze, basalt or diorite, of small size, perhaps as an amulet. but the sphinx belongs rather to sculpture than to ornament. feath- ers appear not only in representa- tions of great fans or royal insignia, but in the form of scale-like ornament or imbrications (fig. , b; plate iii, , ), which may be derived from the actual use of feathers in cloth- ing. figure may represent fans, or highly conven- tional lotus forms. fig. . zigzags; b, imbrications; c, chev- rons. conventional or geometric motives. these are of the greatest variety, and are used with consummate skill, sometimes alone, very often in com- bination with flower-forms, especially the lotus. fig. a illustrates one of many effective examples of the decorative use of simple straight lines. the zigzag occurs with great frequency; it is used often to repre- sent water on the nile, but may not always have had this significance. associated with the zigzag is the chevron (fig. , c). opposed zigzags produce lozenges or diamonds, and occur in simple all-over patterns (figure ). it is quite likely that all these are primarily of a history of ornament technic origin, from basketwork and weaving. plaids and check-patterns are undoubtedly technomorphs. in the tombs of ti and of ptah hotep at sakkarah, mat- tings of plaited rushes or straw are plainly represented as filling the panels of the walls, with patterns of great variety in checks, quarries and zigzags. the circle was the basis of a great number of patterns, and intersecting circles forming four-petaled flowers or stars are very common (figure ; plate iii, , ). rosettes are found in unlimited variety. it is impos- sible to affirm in every case whether they are purely geometric and conventional, or floral, or technomor- phic: nor is their origin important except as affecting theories of esthetics and psychology. in many designs they are clearly floral: a beautiful rosette is formed by four spreading lotuses alternating with lotus buds about a common center (figure ). the spiral, though not as important in egyptian ornament as later it became in greek art, was much used both in linear and all-over patterns. its earliest occur- rence is on scarabs or seals of the very early dynasties, where it appears merely as a decorative space-filler (fig. ) or border. it is not frequent on large ob- jects until the xviiith dynasty; it is one of the com- monest decorative motives thenceforward, until the decline. it appears occasionally as a current scroll or "greek wave" (figure ). its most frequent use is in all-over patterns on textiles (or painted represen- tations of them), and on ceilings in the tombs. quarries are formed by four (rarely three) lines winding spirally about each of a series of dots arranged in diagonally a history of ornament intersecting rows. the angles are often filled with lotus-blossoms, and the quadrilateral spaces with ro- settes, lozenges or other motives (figures , ; plate iii, , ). a variant pattern is formed by series of c- shaped links or volutes in horizontal and vertical pairs. another variant is seen in patterns of opposed vertical rows of s-scrolls forming lyre-shaped spaces as in figure and plate iii, . fret patterns are the angular or rectilinear counter- parts of spiral patterns, though the quadruple con- vergence on the points of a mesh is rare (figure , which is the counterpart of figure ). the fret is but rarely met with as a border-pattern. it will be noted that the pattern in figure is formed by two intersecting line-motives, and that it produces a series of "swastikas." there is no evidence, however, that the swastika, as a separate motive or as a symbol was used or even known in egypt. its occurrence in these pat- terns is purely fortuitous (plate iii, , ). the palmette. this is the name given to an ornament which occurs in egyptian, assyrian, phenician, cypriote and greek art, in almost countless variations, and of which the greek anthemion is the direct derivative. it consists (figures , , ) of a group of diverging leaves or petals springing from between two spirals; it is pre- dominantly used as an isolated or terminal motive in egyptian art. an early example is a gold jewel from the ivth dynasty (figure , a); later examples are shown in figures , b, . the origin and significance egyptian ornament of this ornament are not fully determined. all author- ities agree that it is a lotus-motive, but how the particular combination of a species of semi-rosette with a trilobe lotus came about and what it meant are not wholly clear. one theory makes it a half-plan of the flower above an elevation of the same (see ante, fig. ); another sees in it the symbol of the rising sun or horus, over the lotus or nile. the spiked flower-motive in figure may perhaps be a variation of the palmette rather than of the lotus or of an unknown aquatic plant. it is not to be confounded with representations of ceremonial royal fans, though somewhat resembling them. pecu- liar horn-like volutes in some examples (figure ) are probably representations of the third and fourth sepals of the lotus-calyx. the oval or semicircular object nesting between the voluted front sepals is probably the core-body or pericarp of the flower seen between its sepals; it becomes an essential feature of all the later and derivative forms persisting through greek art and, indeed, through all the ages to our own. architectural forms: piers, columns and cornices. the architectural forms of egyptian ornament were comparatively few and simple. there was no system of uniform orders like the greek and roman; but one type of cornice, the cavetto cornice, was universal (figure ; plate iii, , ). this was usually orna- mented with vertical flutings, perhaps as reminiscences of primitive papyrus-stalk framing, and with a torus at i f. p., op. ext., page ; also goodyear, "grammar of the lotus," pat- rim. a history of ornament fio. . types op columns. its base, plainly derived from a bundle of reeds bound together. this torus was frequently carried down the corners of pylons and other enclosing walls. a winged disk invariably adorned the central part of the cornice over all temple door- ways (fig. ). columns had shafts of three types: the circular or cylindrical, the clustered, and the polygonal or proto- doric (plate iii, , ; fig. , a, b, c). the fisrt two tapered upward in most cases, and sometimes had a slight swelling or convexity at the base (fig. , d). the clustered shafts consisted of four or eight members (or rarely even more), which were sometimes cylindri- cal, sometimes formed with an arris or edge (fig. , d). the so-called "proto-doric" columns had from eight to thirty-two sides, flat or slightly concaved; they are chiefly found in rock-cut tombs and a few scanty temple-ruins of the middle empire (fig. , c). the capitals of columns were of the greatest variety, but divisible into a few main groups: the bud capital, single or clustered (fig. , a, b; plate iii, ); the bell-shaped or campaniform, single or compound (fig. , a, b; also figure and figure ; plate fio. . egyptian ornament iii, , ); the palmiform (fig., , c; plate iii, ); and the hathoric (plate iii, ). the bud-capital was the most common; the campaniform appears chiefly in the central aisles of hypostyle halls, as at karnak and the ramesseum; the compound campaniform, the palmiform and the hathoric belong chiefly to the ptolemaic age, which produced also various exceptional forms of which those in plate iii, and are ex- amples. the bell capital was adorned with painted petals around its lower part, and with rows of flowers on erect green stalks. these are apparently survivals or elaborations of the green filaments of the papyrus-head from which this type of capital is probably derived (figures , , ; fig. ; plate iii, ). indeed, many other features of the egyptian columns point to the influence of papyrus origins. every shaft, even when cylindrical, is bound by five or more bands at the top, a detail evidently derived from the bind- ing of clustered supports such as bundles of papyrus stalks; the clustered shafts often have an edge or arris, like the triangular stem of the papyrus; the slight swelling at the base, swathed in leaves, with the upward taper, is a marked characteristic of the papyrus stalk (see fig. ); the prof. goodyear in his "grammar of the lotus" and elsewhere sharply dis- putes this view, contending that this capital is derived from the seed-vessel of the rose-lotus. his authority is weighty, but his arguments not convinc- ing. see ante, page , note. fio. . osikid pier, luxor. a history of ornament bound stalks of the bundle-molding plainly point to the structural use of papyrus stalks in primitive times; and the bell-shaped cap, striped with green vertical lines rising from a calyx of leaves, and with its red lip, is the appropriate architectural interpretation in stone of the spreading papyrus-head of green filaments rising from a pseudo-calyx of leaves, and bearing small reddish tops or heads. the combination of all these features is more easily and naturally explained by the papyrus origin than by any other theory. but there is probably con- vergence towards familiar lotus-types: it is always dangerous to attempt any narrow and exclusive assign- ment of origins to decorative forms. the shafts of simple cylindrical columns were gen- erally covered with bands of incised and painted hieroglyphics and pictures, serving both to adorn them and to give scale to their simple masses (plate iii, ). osirid piers. besides the columns there occur in several temples square or rectangular piers, often fronted with colossal sculptured figures of osirid holding a scourge and a "nile key" or "key of life" (fig. ). industrial arts. fig. . painted pectoral our a the egyptians practised mummy-case. the ^ qf ^ goldsmith and jeweler; not only have we in our museums gold jewelry of very great antiquity—rings, bracelets, pen- egyptian ornament dants, brooches and necklaces (figures , a, ;—but we have on mummy-cases and in pictures representa- tions of necklaces and pectorals of great splendor (figure ). in all these the lotus, bud, and palmette are constantly recurring motives. the art of enamel- ing was understood and practised with skill, especially for amulets. glass was known, was used for vials and small ob- jects, and was highly prized. small objects like spoons and perfume-boxes were carved in wood, often in highly artistic designs (fig. ; plate iii, ). textile art was highly developed, linen being the chief material. the figured stuffs, hangings, etc., have per- ished, but the tomb paintings show us the designs once employed: some of these have already been illustrated (figures , , ; plate iii, - , - . pottery and earthenware were produced in large quantities, and were articles of export, but the product did not compare either in grace of form or in decoration with the later ceramic work of the greeks. enameled earthenware was used for the finer bowls, platters, etc., and enameled tiles were early used in architecture, as around a door in the stepped pyramid of sakkarah, but apparently not in buildings after the hyksos period. amulets and small ornaments were made of enameled earthenware, of cloisonne enamel on metal (gold or copper), of bronze, fig. . cabved wooden spoon. a history of ornament and of diorite and other hard stones. of these amulets the scarabcei are the most numerous; one side being modeled to represent the scarabaeus beetle (an emblem of life after death), the other side, flat, having incised hieroglyphs and spiral or scroll ornaments. not much furniture has been preserved, but the few extant examples, of sycamore wood, and the very numer- ous sarcophagi and mummy-wraps and cartonnages, furnish almost countless examples of painted ornament. carved spoons and perfume holders were often highly elaborate (fig. ; plate iii, ). books recommended: flinders-petrie : egyptian decorative art (london, ). —w. h. goodyear: grammar of the lotus (london, ).— perrot and chipiez: histoire de vart dans vantiquite: egypte (paris, ); also english edition, history of ancient art m egypt, trans. w. armstrong (new york, ).—prisse d'avennes: vart egyptien (paris, ).—rosellini: i monumenti del egitto e della nubia (pisa, - ). chapter iv chaldea and assyria the valley of the tigris and euphrates rivers was the cradle of a civilization second only to that of egypt in antiquity. indeed, it is believed by some scholars to reach as far back as that of the nile valley, though its origins are buried in obscurity. the two civilizations early came into contact with each other, and there are traces of reciprocal influences between them. the material remains of chaldean art are far less rich and important than those of egyptian art, and the most important among them, from the point of view of deco- rative design, belong to a period when egyptian art was already in its decline. early chaldean art lasted from a date reaching back or years b.c. to b.c., when the assyrian power attained the ascendancy. the assyrian empire was overthrown b.c. by the second chaldean or babylonian empire, and this in turn suc- cumbed to the persians b.c. the most important monumental art of these three periods is that of the sargonidae of assyria, from to b.c. recent excavations by the germans at babylon have brought to light many remains of both the earlier and later chaldean empire: but our chief concern is with the prod- ucts of the assyrian dominion. a history of ornament land and materials. from the high table-lands and hills of northern mesopotamia to the persian gulf, the country is almost flat, a vast alluvial plain, abounding in clay, extremely fertile under irrigation, but lacking both stone and timber. all building was consequently of brick, either sun-baked or kiln-burned, and chiefly the former. timber from the distant mountains or from syria was costly and was used but sparingly; fuel was expensive and burned brick therefore also expensive. thin slabs of alabaster or of limestone were the only forms in which stone could be used, except in rare instances. these limitations made all architectural art based on stone construction impossible, and confined decorative art within narrow limits. ceramics in the form of bricks and enameled tiles and pottery; textiles, especially rugs and hangings, and bronze in small amounts, were the principal media of artistic expression, although sculp- ture, chiefly in the form of carving in low relief on alabaster, was also practised with a skill which is re- markable when one considers the scarcity and costliness of stone. of wood carving there are hardly any ex- amples. early chaldean art. the remains of decorative art from ancient chaldea are not numerous. abundant cylinders and inscribed bricks, ruins of temples and palaces, a few statues of kings or deities carved in stone obtained from abroad, some pottery and a few objects in bronze, make up the chaldea and assyria bulk of the product of the excavations carried on in niffer (nippur) the sacred city, in warka, mugheir, in babylon, and in other places be- longing to this em- pire. the plastic arts were appar- ently not in gen- eral highly devel- oped. the most ancient examples of its architectural ornament known are the walls of warka (erech), formed with ver- tical reedings and panels, and covered with a simple mosaic (fig. ) formed of cones of terra cotta driven into their sun-dried brick facings. the flat exposed bases of these cones, enameled in various colors, form patterns of lozenges and zigzags, apparently derived from familiar mattting- patterns. flat tiles may have been used in other cases, but they have all perished. assyrian ornament: origins and motives. assyrian decoration depended largely on naturalistic representation: human figures, bulls, lions and other animals appear frequently, not merely in the great sculptured pictures on the alabaster wainscot of palace halls, but in the subordinate decoration of buildings and fig. . wall-mosaic, warka. a history of ornament in the ornament of minor objects. there was also a large group of motives derived from egyptian art, greatly modified oftentimes in treatment but still recog- fio. . assybian ornament motives. nizably egyptian. another class of motives are in dispute, but two facts seem clear: first, that the as- syrians originated little in the way of decorative motives; and, secondly, that whatever they borrowed underwent a transformation into something that is purely assyrian in character. the lotus (fig. , a); lotus-palmette (b), and chaldea and assyria winged disk or globe (e) are undeniably derived from egypt. the rosette (fig. , c) and the guilloche (/) are common to both egyptian and assyrian ornament, but it is not demonstrated that they were not indepen- dently invented by the chaldeans from whom the as- syrians probably received them. the chevron (fig. , g) and imbricated or scale ornaments (d) are peculiarly assyrian, but as they are also found in egyptian art, they belong with the rosette and guilloche in the doubtful class as to origin. the so-called "pomegranate" (fig. , h, i) is probably chaldean. the pine cone (fig. , a) is an assyrian form, but as it conforms in outline and in its occurrence to the lotus-bud, it may be claimed as a lotus derivative. the stepped-pyramid, used as a parapet ornament, seems to be purely chaldean. but if the assyrians borrowed freely from egypt they as freely modified what they borrowed. the lotus was carved in low relief with sharply pointed, gracefully curved petals and sepals (figs. , a, , a), and was given a wholly new calyx, the three sepals being evi- dently looked upon as petals; the bud was likewise given an extra calyx and carved sometimes with three instead of two sepals showing (fig. , b). it was alternated with buds and with pine-cones, and combined into elab- i prof. goodyear quotes oppert for proof that under gudea ( b. c.?), the chaldeans imported stone from egypt during the fourth dynasty; points out 'that under the xviiith dynasty assyria was a province of egypt, and calls attention to the later assyrian conquests in egypt and syria and to the importance of phenician commerce between assyria and both egypt and syria ("grammar of the lotus," page , note). it must be remembered that the phenicians not only carried egyptian products to asia, but themselves counterfeited or imitated them, so that egyptian forms and motives were greatly multiplied and widely disseminated. a history of ornament orate rosettes (plate iv, ). the lotus-palmette (fig. , b) was often substituted for the lotus (plate iv, ) and used in borders; as an isolated terminal ornament (fig. , a); as the chief detail of the sacred tree (fig. , c; plate iv, ), and in many other ways, carved in alabaster-re- lief, painted on plaster, enameled on bricks, cast or engraved in bronze. in all borders, the units were connected by vo- luted bands, often curved into semi-circles or semi- ellipses (figs. , a, ) and frequently fastened together by links. this is a purely assyrian de- fio. . a, b. fine and lotus . j ,, bobdeb; c, detail or sa«ed vice, and the organic lmk- tree- ing of the units—no longer merely strung along a straight line as in most egyptian examples—marks a decided decora- tive advance. whether the frequent use of branch- ing and opposed double volutes (fig. ), so com- mon in assyrian decoration, was derived from the vo- lutes of the egyptian trilobe lotus and lotus-palmette, or from the curled-over ends of the linked bands, is not clear and perhaps not important. the discussion as to whether the palmette in assyrian art "is" a lotus or a chaldea and assyria palm-tree also becomes unimportant if one simply ad- mits that the decorative motive was derived from or suggested by the egyptian lotus-palmette, but was treated in detail by the assyrians in a manner plainly suggesting a conventional palm-tree (fig. ); an example of decora- tive convergence which has scores of parallels in the history of ornament motives and symbols. in the sin- gular "sacred tree" which so often occurs in assyrian reliefs (fig. , c), the intention is unquestionably to represent or symbolize the palm; in that sense the palmettes which compose it "are" palm-tree forms, while in decorative type and origin they "are" lotus-palmettes. the so-called pine-cones referred to above may represent, as believed by e. b. tylor, the inflorescence of the male date-palm, or it may be what it appears to be, a pine-cone. the rosette is used with such frequency as to deserve to be called the assyrian motive par excellence. it ap- pears in every branch of assyrian decoration, and in every possible material. the pomegranate is more exclusively assyrian but less conspicuous by its fre- quency. all-over patterns are rare; of architectural or at least of genuine structural forms there are very few. columns appear only in the form of colonnettes; a few bases and capitals have been found, and the reliefs from assyrian vo- lutes. a history of ornament the palaces show how they were used, as mullions and as supports for pavilions. in these, as also in furniture, coupled volutes are favorite devices, and undoubtedly furnish the first step in the de- velopment of the ionic capital (fig. ). living forms. the human figure, grotesques or monsters, part man and part beast, and representations of animals, all play a large part in assyrian decorative art; not merely in the great pictures in low relief which wainscoted the lower parts of the interior walls, but in more purely ornamental fio. . a,tehmixalpalm-and symbolic compositions, ette; b, palm-tree, from sometimes carved in relief in ala- baster, sometimes in flat color on tiles or plaster. the huge symbolic "portal guardians" —winged monsters with human heads and bodies of bulls—that flanked the arched gateways of the palaces and fortifications, are genuine decorative compositions of extraordinary power and remarkable execution. the details are highly conventionalized; five legs are shown, two appearing in front elevation and four in the side view; the hair and beard are curled into closely coiled spirals and the muscles exaggerated (plate iv, ). the winged lion and winged bull, as well as winged human figures representing deities, appear frequently chaldea and assyria in enameled earthenware tiles. the griffin (fig. ), a monster with a lion's or panther's body and the head and wings of an eagle, plays an important part in this decorative system of religious symbolism. it probably originated in chaldea, and spread thence through west- ern asia, to appear in greek and roman art in later fig. . griffin or monster, from a relief. years. in naturalistic pictures the forms and action of animals were rendered often with surprising realism; but these belong in the field of pictorial relief sculpture rather than of ornament. colors and technic. the assyrian technic in the representation of nature never fell into the absolute rigidity of hieratic conven- tion observed in egypt. within its far narrower field* it was excellent in execution, but less rich in variety of motive and pattern of ornament. the gamut of color was restricted: green, blue, yellow, black and dark red were the colors chiefly employed. the use of black in a history of ornament chevrons as a detail of the decoration is particularly noticeable (fig. , b, c, g, h). not many examples of painted ornament have been preserved; a few frag- ments of plaster show patterns like those of the enameled tiles. bronze was used for jars and bowls, for furni- ture and probably also for covering gates and some- times other architectural features; but very few ex- amples of this application of bronze to architecture have been preserved. the gates of balawat in the british museum, dating from the time of shalmaneser ii ( th century b.c.) were decorated with strips or bands of sheet bronze bearing repousse reliefs of the campaigns of that king. the recent german excavations in baby- lon have uncovered the palace with its gate of ishtar, whose towers were adorned with plates of bronze which have disappeared. in these excavations it was also found that the babylonians, lacking stone and alabaster, faced their gateways with enameled bricks bearing large compositions in color, each brick being separately molded and colored to produce its own small fraction of the design. this style of decoration was later adopted in persia: it is probable that babylonian artists were imported to susa to execute the persian bricks and to teach the art to the persians, among whom decorative ceramics have been an important art ever since. books recommended. botta and flandin: monument de ninive (paris, - ). —perrot and chipiez: histoire de vart dans vantiquite: chal- dee et assyrie (paris, ); also english translation by w. armstrong, history of art in chaldcea and assyria (london, ).—place: ninive et vassyrie (paris, - ). chapter v west asiatic ornament phrygia, lydia and persia the northern half of asia minor, west of the river halys, was occupied, during the centuries from the tenth to the sixth b.c., by the phrygians, originally from fig. . a, part of facade of "tomb of midas"; , detail from tomb at doghanlou. thrace; whose empire was overthrown early in the sixth century by the lydians of the extreme western littoral. along the asiatic shore south of lydia were the cary- ans and lycians. in all of these several domains there a history of ornament developed a material civilization which has left numer- ous remains, chiefly of tombs, though excavations now being made at sardis and others that are still in the future may supply us with products of other arts as well as of architecture. the prin- cipal examples of ornament thus far to hand occur in the rock-cut tomb-facades, some of which, like the so-called tomb of midas (fig. , a) and a tomb at doghanlou ( ) suggest textile fio. . capital fbom design. this region has from neandbeia. ° _ ° great antiquity been noted for the weaving of rugs; other ornaments are clearly de- rived from wood-construction, while others again show assyrian, persian and iegean influences. several capitals and fragments of capitals (fig. ) found in asia minor, with branching volutes and with recurved petals, furnish the probable prototypes of the greek ionic capital and of certain details of the persian capitals. persian ornament. the art of asia minor bears no comparison in splen- dor and variety with that of the great medo-persian empire of the achasmenid kings—cyrus, cambyses, darius, xerxes and their successors. this empire, which began its conquering career in under the mede cyaxares, and fifty years later attained greatness under cyrus ( - ) and his successors, developed a grandiose architecture of palaces, halls, gates and phrygia, lydia and persia tombs in which egyptian and assyrian motives were blended with others derived from wooden construction and from the early art of the ionian greeks of asia minor. this brilliant and showy art expired with the fall of persia before the macedonian armies of alex- ander ( b.c.); but the art instinct of persia, though under an eclipse for several centuries, was destined to revive under the sassanian rule, and in still later cen- turies to affect profoundly the development of moham- medan decorative art. architectural ornament. the ruins of persepolis, pasargadae and susa reveal a remarkable develop- ment of columnar archi- tecture of stone with wooden ceilings and roofs. the walls were of stone, or of brick with stone dressings to the doors and windows. these have banded architraves with pa- pyrus-bundle moldings and cavetto cornices, evidently derived from egypt (figs. , , a). ~ fio. . doorway, persepolis. stone was used for embankment walls and stairs, for the great palace terraces, for the window-dressings just mentioned, and for the columns; the walls were chiefly of sun- a history of ornament dried brick, though at susa enameled bricks were used with extraordinary effect, to produce huge wall- pictures in low rounded relief, and bands of elaborate decoration, all in rich colors enameled or fused upon the surface of the bricks (plate iv, , ). decora- tive relief-sculpture in stone was employed, based primarily on assyrian models, but treated in a taste peculiar to the persians, and always highly decorative. the most striking feature of persian architecture was the columns with forked capitals representing the fore parts of bulls set upon an elaborate composition of double scrolls, upright and inverted bells, and carved beads (plate iv, , ). these are typical of persian eclecticism; one recognizes the egyptian bell capital (see fig. ); the assyrian and phenician double scrolls (fig. ); the asia minor recurved leafage (note the astagal or necking in fig. ); and the primitive wooden forked post which has been used from im- memorial antiquity, in media and phrygia, to support the timber roofs of peasant huts. the shafts were finely fluted, and rested on elaborate molded bases, often bell-shaped (fig. , d; plate iv, ) carved with elaborate leaf-patterns. the slender proportions of the shafts, their small flutings and molded bases, all point to a common origin with that of the greek ionic column which came to its full develop- ment a century later than the persian column. both probably had their origin in asia minor, though the remains of their prototypes thus far discovered are scanty. the same is true of the banded architrave and the phrygia, lydia and persia dentils of the ionic order; they are found both in per- sian (see fig. , a) and lycian architecture, in both of which they plainly reveal their origin in tim- ber construction. persian ornament motives. these were chiefly de- rived from egypt and mesopotamia; the lotus, lotus-palmette and rosette are those most frequently employed, but treated with details which differentiate them clearly from the egyptian, assyrian or chaldean forms. in linear bands of lotus-palmettes and buds the units are con- nected by nearly semicir- cular loops instead of the flattened links of the as- syrian style (plate iv, ). plate iv, , and fig. , b, show the lotus palmette on a stem like that of some palms which grow by successive pairs of leaves rising one out of the fio. . pebsian details. a, architrave and cornice from a tomb; b, rosettes and palm; e, stair parapet; d, column-base, persepolis. a history of ornament other; evidently, therefore, not intended at all for a lotus, but as a purely conventional plant-form, perhaps even a palm-tree. spiral and voluted forms are also common, both in flat ornament (see plate iv) and in the mighty grouped vertical volutes of the capitals of columns (fig. ). the assyrian stepped parapet also appears in the decoration of the platforms and stairs of persepolis (fig. , c). from egypt were de- rived the fluted cavetto cornice (fig. , a) and the winged disk, converted into a winged ring encircling the figure of a god, ahuri-mazda (fig. ). the sculp- tural representations of warriors, winged lions and winged bulls were based on assyrian prototypes. the wood-constructions of media and asia minor gave the suggestions for the forked capital, the banded architrave and the dentil. the leaf ornaments on the bases (fig. , d) and the shorter leaf-ornaments resembling eggs and darts (fig. , c) are possibly remote deriva- tives from the lotus bud and from lotus bands; more directly, however, derived from assyria, as is also the stepped-pyramid para- pet. the bead-and-reel molding, which occurs in some fio. . volutes op a capital, persepolis. phrygia, lydia and persia capitals, is possibly derived from the papyrus-bundle molding. the torus, which appears in the column bases, the bead-and-reel, the shaft-fluting, the decorated col- umn-base, the banded architrave, were all destined to be- come important elements in the architectural decoration fig. . ahttri-mazda from a relief. of the greeks. whether their origination is to be cred- ited to the persians, or, as is more likely, to the ionian and other races of asia minor, is not clear; but the per- sian was the earliest developed architecture in which they were systematically employed. persian ornament is of interest partly on account of its own splendor, partly on account of its relations on the one hand to the semitic art of mesopotamia and on the other to the aryan art of greece. it stands inter- mediate between the two, alike in time, place and char- acter. it is an eclectic style, borrowing freely from every source, but profoundly modifying whatever it adopted, and displaying a genuine creative originality, as well as a remarkable power of ingenious adaptation, a history of ornament in its use and development of what it borrowed to new purposes and in new combinations. books recommended. dieulafoy: l'art antique de la perse (paris, ).— fellows: account of discoveries in lycia (london, ).— flandin and coste: voyage en perse (paris, - ).—pek- kot and chipiez: histoire de vart dans vantiquité: perse; phrygie, lydie, carie et lycie; sardaigne et judée (paris, - ).—the same in english: history of art in persia; history of art m phrygia, lydia, caria and lycia; history of art in sardinia and judcea (london, - ).—texier: description dev arménie et la perse (paris, - ). chapter vi pre-hellenic ornament . sgean and asiatic intermediate between the art of egypt and meso- potamia on the one hand, and the distinctively occi- dental art of greece on the other, stands the group of styles that developed in the islands and along the shores of the iegean and the mediterranean seas during a period of thirteen to fifteen hundred years previous to the first olympiad ( b.c.). the cradle of the civi- lization represented by these styles was the island of crete—crete "of the hundred cities," as it is called in the homeric poems. the cretan civilization, as made known to us by the discoveries of evans and others at knossos, phasstos and in other parts of the island, beginning in a remote past in the third millennium b.c., had attained a high development by the end of the xxth century b.c., and reached its culmination in the xvith and xvth centuries. this progress was interrupted by repeated catastrophes which mark its division into periods, and was finally overwhelmed, about b.c., by a foreign invasion, perhaps of pelasgi or achasans from greece. i first, middle and late minoan eras, each subdivided into periods. the name minoan is derived from that of the more or less legendary king minos. a history of ornament the influence of the cretan culture—which though contemporary with the middle and new empires in egypt seems to have borrowed but little from that coun- try,—dominated that of prehistoric greece and asia minor. out of this influence was developed the art of mycenae, tiryns and troy (ilios, ilion), commonly called mycenaean, which flourished from to b.c, and after two centuries of decline was in turn ex- tinguished by the dorian migration of b.c. artis- tic activity, however, continued in certain islands like melos and rhodes, while assyrian art was flourishing in asia ( - b.c.), and while the phenicians were distributing and imitating the art-products of both egypt and assyria and making them known through- out the whole mediterranean basin. on the island of cyprus all these various currents of art-influence con- verged into a singularly mixed product, which partakes by turns of the characteristics of each of its components, and in its later phases also reflects the influence of early greek art. cretan ornament. the excavations at knossos, phaastos, hagia triada and other cretan sites have disclosed the remains of a well-developed civilization with an art vigorous and full of character, which strongly influenced that of the whole iegean and eastern mediterranean. of its architecture nothing is left but foundations of extensive palaces and fortifications, fragments of a few columns and archi- traves, and bits of painted plastering on walls. the columns (fig. ) tapered downward and bore sim- iegean and asiatic pie heavy torus capitals. a notable architectural mo- tive, frequently recurring in mycenaean art, is that shown in figure (page ) composed of a pair of semi-rosettes flanking a vertical rectangle. its significance and origin are uncertain. on plaster and on pottery the circle, rosette and spiral wave or "vitruvian scroll" are frequent, in various combina- tions (figure ); also a heart-shaped mo- tive which was carried into mycenaean decoration. the elaborate "key" or fret- pattern of figure is from a plastered wall at knossos. fig. go. of cretan pottery comparatively little coi^'"(^ m has survived, but the elaborate late minoan vase from knossos shown in fig. reveals a highly developed pattern of conventional leaf-forms. fig. from a sarcophagus found near gortyna, shows a curi- ously conventionalized portrayal of marine plant-life. figure shows two all-over patterns from a large pot- tery ossuary; one resembles a common egyptian pat- tern (see figure ); the other is peculiarly cretan. the interior of the same ossuary is decorated with representations of waves, fishes and shells. mycenaean ornament. the art-products of the my- cenaean culture include those from tiryns, troy, argos, fio. a*. late minoan vase. nauplia, menidi and other sites, ^gean and asiatic as well as from mycena? proper, besides specimens found in rhodes, cyprus and other islands, which were obviously imported from mycenaean centers. this culture was especially proficient in the minor arts, in pottery, goldsmith's work and bronze. it was less no- table relatively in its architecture, although the great tomb known as the tholos of atreus, and the lion gate, both at mycenae, attest the power to produce a certain amount of architectural splendor. the ruins of troy, tiryns and mycenae show extensive stone structures of a somewhat primitive character. figure shows the upper part of one of the columns of the tholos door- way, with a capital and downward-tapering shaft evi- dently derived from cretan prototypes. of sculpture there is very little, no free statues having come down to us; but the so-called "island stones" or carved gems exhibit a high degree of artistic skill, and there are fragmentary reliefs showing intelligent study of nature. mycenaean ornament displays many motives from cretan art (e.g., that in figure from a frieze), and is itself continued in many works of cypriote, rhodian and phenician art. each has its own characteristic forms, but connected more or less by common motives. pottery and metal work were the fields most success- fully cultivated, and the ruins of tiryns have also re- vealed much clever decoration on plaster. primarily growing out of cretan art, mycenaean ornament displays frequent traces of egyptian influence, and in addition exhibits a considerable amount of indigenous design, both naturalistic and technomorphic. the example in a history of ornament \^}ji\^jj y^ ^\ figure shows pat- vsa^ terns derived from vs^) l^s' y^^v. /^n. t>asketry, singularly like ffis l /^^si^ ^"sj<»/ many found on south v^y p ^ ^ ^ american pottery; while {^) ^a^^f^^ in figure , a, b, c, and h fumm/wl representa' |j *tvs>y/ l\ tions of marine plants and animals reveal an fio. . mycenjean pottery, spirals „ , instinct i or the observa- tion and imitation of nature, of which traces are found in cretan art, and which later, in greek art, flowered into the superb sculpture of the periclean age. besides the architectural forms already referred to, the motives characteristic of mycenaean ornament are the zig-zag (figure ), spiral (fig. ); the run- ning scroll; a heart-shaped motive (figure ) perhaps converging towards the cuttlefish (figure ); the rosette, both carved and painted (see figure ); the double-branched volute recall- ing the lotus trilobe (figure , c); a peculiar variant of the guilloche (or the current scroll?) shown in fig. , a and in the detail of figure ; and a number of unnamed mo- tives, e.g., the imbricated pat- tern from tiryns in figure . a somewhat similar motive in a linear repetition on vases, suggests an inverted egg-and-dart (figure , b). fio. . a, current scroll, tiryns; b, vase ornament, mycenae. aegean and asiatic figs. and show various na- ture-forms, apparently derived from marine life; fig. is a vase from ialyssos bearing a squid as its chief ornament. the cuttlefish squid, dolphin (?), and sea-weed are common, besides many forms like those in figure , d, figs. and , impossible to identify. on the so-called "mycenae buttons" —thin plates of gold stamped or repousss in low relief, appears the peculiarly mycenaean motive of a band winding in and out around fl°- . plant -fobms, h j j j. mrcenje potteby. small eyes or round dots, with ex- cellent decorative effect (fig. ). the lotus and the multiple scroll, so common in egyp- fio. . satrna, on mycenaean vases. tian decoration, appear frequently, as in a slab from a tomb-ceiling in orchomenos, in the band from a wall- * figured in p. & c, "histoire de l'art"; sturgis, "history of architec- ture," vol. i, ; tarbell, "a history of greek art," page ; marquand, "greek architecture," page . a history of ornament fio. . a my cenje button. painting in tiryns (figure ), the ornament from a mycenaean sword shown in figure , a, and the mycenaean stele b. the spiral also ap- pears in other forms, as in figure , page , on the base a and in the bronze work detail b (from a tripod in athens; its mycenaean origin is problematic). in figure we have rosettes from tiryns and mycenae obviously de- rived from cretan prototypes like those in figure . figure shows a mycenaean double-rosette frieze ornament in alabaster very similar to the tirynthian ex- ample of figure , both being nearly identical with the cretan example in figure . figures , and exhibit other mycenaean nature-forms. in figure , a is a common mycenaean plant form (see also fig. ) which it is interesting to compare with the egyp- tian lotus-pahnette b. phenician ornament. during the decline of iegean art, from b.c. on, the phenicians were developing and extending their commerce and industries. this presumably sem- itic people, occupying a narrow strip of the syrian coast, north of palestine, were the mercantile car- riers of the ancient world, with prosperous colonies along the mediterranean shores, of which carthage became the chief. they were traders and imitators rather than fio. . painted wall- pattern, tibyns. figxm \hg.w.cypriotejtvma sarcophagus fiojizq/prioti lotuses a history of ornament originators in art; they carried and exchanged, and freely counterfeited, egyptian and assyrian or babylonian wares and stuffs. the detail from a silver tbe. _ ■ tin . ifi mi.imm fio. . mycenae spiral all-overs; a, gold inlay on sword; b, bbonze stele. platter in figure is plainly an imitation of egyp- tian work. sidon was for a long period under egyp- tian rule. the phenicians were skilful weavers, dyers and bronze- workers. solomon's temple at jerusalem was largely of pheni- cian workmanship, and the ac- counts in i kings, vii, - and i chronicles iii, -iv, prove the phenicians of b.c. to have been capable of cast- ing large objects of "brass" (bronze), such as the columns "jachin" and "boaz" and the huge "laver" borne on twelve oxen. distinctive phenician ornament motives are few. fig. . cypriote stone stele. ^gean and asiatic the most characteristic is a species of palmette springing from the concave side of a voluted crescent (figures , , a, c), derived from the assyrian pal- mette with horns, converging with the phenician crescent, symbol of the goddess astarte. it persists into greek art of the fifth century b.c. appearing as a vase band-mo- fig. . cypriote lotus, from vase. <sye) tive (figure , ). cypriote ornament. cyprus was an important entrepot of phenician com- merce, and its art is peculiarly interesting because of the mingling of egyptian, iegean, phenician and early greek influences which it betrays. in general character it resembles sometimes the mycenaean, sometimes the phenician. its principal motives are fa the lotus, almost grotesquely trans- formed from the egyptian type (figure , also fig. ); the lotus palmette in several variant forms, one the phenician palmette with up- turned volutes (figure ), and others such as those in figure and figure , used as finials or cap for steles and pilasters. a curious de- sign, compounded of palmettes, trilobes and horns is that in figure from a sarcophagus in the metropoli- tan museum in new york, from amathus; in a variant form which may be a lotus and not a palmette, it ap- fig. . cypriote ornaments ok vases. a history of ornament fig. . phenician vase from jerusalem. pears also in fig- ure , appar- ently related to the assyrian sacred tree (see fig. , c). it will be ob- served that this entire composition recalls the primi- tive egyptian de- sign of fig. . the type con- stantly reappears in asiatic art. rectangles, lozenges, and checkerings applied even to the central sepal of the lotus betray the persistent influence of primitive basketry patterns (fig. , in which note also the swastikas). the lotus is always ungraceful in cypriote art. the recurved or voluted sepals in figure and fig. are closely related to the branching volutes in fig. , the lower ornament in which— a four-petaled flower —is probably, like the checkers, lozenge and triangle of fig. and figure , a reminiscence of primitive pottery and basketry (see chapter ii). fig. . detail from cstriote vase from ormidia (met. museum, n. y.). aegean and asiatic this survival appears also in the splendid phenician vase from jerusalem (fig. ) and the cypriote vase from ormidia (fig. )—the latter in the new york metropolitan museum. animals, human figures and plant forms appear on vases—the horse, goose (fig. , a) and bull, and caricatures of the human form (fig. , b). the swastika or fylfot appears occasionally as a minor detail, probably as a solar symbol, as in fig. . the affronting s compare the queer plants beside the figure (is this astarte?) with those from mycenae, in fig. and figure . a history of ornament fig. . lotos-and-bird borders ox rhodian and melian vases. of two opposed birds or beasts on either side of a central shaft or column, as in figure , preserves or repeats a common asiatic (assyrian, my- cenaean, hittite, pheni- cian) symbolic motive, of which probably the earli- est examples is the prehis- toric egyptian slate-carv- ing shown in fig. . whether the goose, horse, swastika, etc., are solar symbols, is a question not yet certainly answered. fig. , c, from a cypriote oenochoe in the metropolitan museum, illustrates the sin- gular mixture of lotus and other forms frequently met with in cypriote art. the ornament of rhodes (kameiros, ialyssos, etc.) and of melos, is a later development from the my- cenaean, less mixed with egyptian and assyrian forms than the cypriote. it is found chiefly in pottery re- mains, covering the period from the ninth century b.c. down to historic greek art, thus supplying a connecting link, though a slight one, between the hellenic and pre- hellenic cultures. examples are shown in fig. of a rhodian lotus-band (above) and a melian (be- low), the latter an almost exact duplicate of that on the cypriote vase from ormidia shown in fig. . comparison of both with the mycenaean jars of figure and fig. sufficiently demonstrates the inter- relation of these three phases of pre-hellenic art. aegean and asiatic books recommended. a. p. dt cesnola: salammia, cyprus (london, ).—m. collignon: archeologie grecque (paris, ), also an eng- lish edition.—furtwangler and loschke: mykenische vasen (berlin, ).—mitchell: history of ancient sculpture (new york, ).—perrot and chipiez: histoire de vart dans vantiquite, la grece arcjia'ique (paris, ).—h. schlie- mann : mycenae and ilios (new york, ). chapter vii greek ornament, i introductory. the hellenic peoples were gifted with an especial endowment of the artistic faculty. while their geo- graphical situation brought them early into contact with the older civilizations of egypt, the mediterranean basin and mesopotamia, their own esthetic aptitudes enabled them to assimilate all that they borrowed, and in transforming it, to endow it with a wholly new ele- gance and refinement. two characteristics are con- spicuous in all their intellectual and artistic activity:— their attitude of persistent inquiry in the presence of every fact and phenomenon of their experience; and their recognition and pursuit of ideals. the greek asked why? whence? how? where other peoples had simply acquiesced unquestioningly in nature's order or the teachings of tradition, and he strove unceasingly after unrealized perfections in every undertaking. the progress of greek civilization stands therefore in sharp- est contrast with the slow advance and slow decline of egyptian art bound by ancient and sacred traditions, and with the stagnation of assyrian art. it was from the earliest stages progressive, and in this respect breathes the modern spirit and appeals to modern tastes. greek ornament, i greek art in its keen observation of nature, its vivacity, charm and grace, its refinement of proportion, its deli- cacy combined with vigor, and its artistic restraint, is not only vastly superior to the arts that preceded it, but at its best, and within certain clear limitations, un- surpassed by any that have succeeded it. the people. the greeks were not a nation, but a group of small states, bound together by a common language and re- ligion, and by certain common ethnic traditions. greece proper was the center and focus of their culture, but greek colonies established themselves in southern italy, crete, cyprus, rhodes, the iegean islands, while a large part of asia minor was inhabited by ionian greeks. in spite of this division into small states, often rivals and even enemies in war, the greek culture was fundamentally one: all greeks called themselves hel- lenes, and the rest of the world barbarians, and all the states took part in the quadrennial olympic games. the dorians and ionians were the leaders in the de- velopment of greek art, and their names have been given to the two principal "orders"—originally distinct styles—of greek architecture. the other two chief constituent races of the hellenes were the achasans and ieolians. periods of greek art history. between pre-homeric art, discussed in the last chap- i for a concise summary of the historical beginnings and race movements of the greeks, consult w. m. west's "ancient history," §§ - (allyn & bacon, boston). a history of ornament ter, and that of historic greece there is a noticeable hiatus. dorpfeld, it is true, derives the doric style of architecture directly from the palace architecture of mycenae and tiryns, but there are grounds for ques- tioning this derivation. in any case, the ornament of that age seems to have died with the civilization to which it belonged, and historic greek art differs in quality and spirit as well as in its forms from that of the iegean culture. dated greek history begins with the first olympiad, b.c. it is customary for convenience to divide the history of greek art into six periods. the first or archaic may be considered as lasting from the first olympiad—or from b.c. when the earliest doric temples known to us were begun—to b.c. (some writers prefer to specify an early and a late archaic period, divided at b.c. and lasting until b.c., the date of the persian invasion.) the next or tran- sitional period, beginning at (or at ) b.c., lasts until the middle of the fifth century, and ushers in the great age of greek art, commonly called the periclean, which followed the final victories over the persians in b.c. this occupied the second half or the last two- thirds of the fifth century b.c., and was followed by the decline of the first half of the fourth century. a bril- liant revival manifested itself during the last half, which constitutes the alexandrian age. a further decline en- sued, more rapid and complete, lasting until the roman conquest in b.c.: this we may designate as the post- alexandrian period. but even in its decline greek art produced many noble and beautiful works; while after greek ornament, i the roman conquest, greek artists wrought for roman masters and infused a new artistic element into the roman taste and art; so that a complete sketch of greek ornament must take into account works produced as late even as the time of the antonines. all these periods are but vaguely denned, for historic greek art was continuously progressive; the change of style was gradual and constant. hence they are to be considered merely as arbitrary devices for facilitating the grouping and classifying of the works of different times and styles, and for marking certain well-defined stages of development. some general characteristics. whereas in egyptian ornament color predominates over form, it plays a subordinate part in greek orna- ment, in which plastic form, as expressed and revealed by outline and light and shade, is the controlling element. the greeks seem to have been the first people to delight in pure beauty of form and of line-movement apart from symbolism and representation, and it was their constant reaching out after an ideal perfection of form that gave to their works their immortal freshness of beauty and vitality of interest. the greeks cared little for mere patterning; there is no characteristic greek all-over ornament. but in every work of greek decoration the idea of structure is present; not necessarily of the structural framework of the object decorated, though this is generally recognized; but an organic and logical relation between the object and its decoration, and between the various parts of the fig. & elementaryrinceauon vase fig. wmetesof lolifommotive greek ornament, i decoration. this quality also appears in the way in which the ornament itself is designed and its elements put together; they are never merely strung together; they are organically united into a coherent design (figure ). this structural quality is by no means confined to architectural ornament, though it is there most conspicuously in evidence; it appears in the paint- ing of a vase or the composition of an anthemion band as truly as in the ornament of the erechtheion. com- pare, for example, the monotonous and inorganic string- ing together of lotuses and buds in egyptian bands, or even the stiff linking of assyrian forms, with the or- ganic structural combination of alternating motives in the greek anthemion bands figured in plate v and figure . another unfailing quality of greek ornament is its artistic restraint. the greek artist knew when to hold his hand, when to leave a surface plain, when not to elaborate a motive or pattern. these qualities of plastic beauty, grace and vivacity of rhythmic movement, structural fitness and artistic reserve, impart to greek ornament a distinction which sets it apart from all other decorative styles, unless it be that of the early gothic period in france. the examples of greek decorative art that have come down to us consist chiefly of two classes: architectural ornament, for the most part carved, though often en- hanced by added color; and pottery, for the most part painted. but so marked is the architectural feeling in the vase decoration, that many motives were carried from pottery into the architecture; while not a few of a history of ornament the architectural details were executed in terra-cotta and painted, much like the vases. the motives. these constitute an alphabet of only moderate extent. jararajhjhjl fio. . geometric elements. the greatness of greek orna- ment lies in the variety and originality of the combina- tions of these few funda- mental forms, and the ele- gance of the results, rather than in the number of the primary motives. so nearly endless are the variations of these, that instances of exact reduplication of any orna- ment on different objects are almost unknown. even such forms as the doric capital, or the egg-and-dart molding, are never exactly alike on two different build- ings. in framing any list of motives, it is difficult to draw the line between re- lated forms and to deter- mine when it is proper to distinguish them as really separate motives, and when not. with regard to certain nature-forms, also, there may be differ- ences of judgment as to whether they should be ac- counted as ornament or as sculpture or painting. we fio. . nature-forms. greek ornament, i group the motives listed below into three groups— geometric, natural and structural. the geometric motives (omitting simple dots, circles and parallel lines) are six: the fret or meander; the wave or vitruvian scroll; the spiral, both single and branched; the s-curve or " line of beauty"; the rosette and the guilloche (fig. ). the principal natural forms are: the lotus and lotus- bud, the palmette or anthemion, the vine, and the acanthus leaf, from the vegetable world (fig. ); and from the animal kingdom human heads or masks, heads of animals, paws, wings, griffins or chimeras and sphinxes (plate vi, , , , ). festoons of flow- ers and fruit (called the "swag" in english books), ox- skulls (bucrania) and fluttering ribbons also occur in late greek art, usually on altars, with symbolic signifi- cance. purely pictorial representations of men, horses and beasts, whether painted or carved, are ex- cluded from the list, as belonging to pictorial art rather than to pure orna- ment. the chief architectural motives not included above are seven (fig. ): moldings; flutings or channelings; dentils; the egg-and-dart and its derivatives; the bead-and-reel; the star which occurs in rare instances may be considered as a variant of the rosette. tnt fio. . architectural elements. a history of ornament scales and imbrications (also used in painted ornament; not shown in the figure), and the rinceau or branching scroll (figure ). the swastika or fylfot has been omitted from these lists, although occurring on early vases, because it is there used rather as a symbol than as a systematic orna- ment, and was early dropped from greek art. the guttoe of the doric order might perhaps be added, though their use is very restricted, and they do not form a motive capable of variation and combination into mani- fold patterns. of all these motives three, the lotus (bud and blos- som), the palmette, and the egg-and-dart, are clearly traceable to egyptian origins. four others, the fret, guilloche, rosette and wave, occur in egyptian orna- ment, but it cannot be proved that they came into greek art from egypt, though this may quite possibly be the fact. the spiral has been the common property of all decorating races, and it was the greeks who first dis- covered the real beauty of its combination with the s- curve and developed it into the most important single contribution to the art of pattern-design made by any people since the egyptians first discovered and exploited the value of contrasted alternation in their lotus-and- bud bands. in the adaptation of the acanthus leaf to carved ornament they further increased the debt of sub- sequent ages to greek art. the rinceau (figure ), which is a combination of the s-line, the spiral, the vine- motive and the acanthus leaf, was developed during the alexandrian age into an ornament which has contributed greek ornament, i a most important element to the splendor of roman, medieval and modern art. pottery decoration. a brief sketch of the historic development of greek pottery is essential for the intelligent discussion of its decoration. the potter's art was transmitted from the pre- homeric to the post-homeric civilization without inter- ruption, and practised in various centers of which rhodes, melos, athens, corinth, coere in etruria (though the majority of the vases found in etruscan tombs were of greek and not local manufacture), and in the post-alexandrian period apulia and campania in southern italy, were the most important. burnt clay, though fragile, is an almost imperishable material, and tens of thousands of vases have been preserved to our day, for the most part in ancient tombs, from as far back as the seventh century b.c, and covering the entire period from that time to the christian era. all these vessels were made on the wheel and painted, chiefly in black and red. very few of these were modeled in relief, notwithstanding the greek predilec- tion for sculpture. the greek potters preferred the simplicity of a pure and refined silhouette to the more complex effects of relief-modeling (figure , fig. ). the same reserve was shown in their long-time preference of the simple black-and-red decoration, with s note that the dates given above exclude from consideration the archaic mycenaean and other pre-homeric pottery, of which some of the earlier examples are crude vessels molded free-hand and not turned on a wheel. a history of ornament only occasional and sparing use of other colors, to the more showy effects possible with a varied palette, such as became fashionable to a limited degree in and after the alexandrian age. thus their pottery decoration was in sober colors, while in their architectural ornament they employed brilliant reds, blues, green and gold. this is in striking contrast to the modern taste which prefers sobriety of coloring in its architecture and brilliant tones for pottery and porcelains. changes of style. the earliest pottery was of a light red color, with decorations in black and dark red or brown. in the sixth century b.c. the color of the earthenware of the vases was often a yellow-red, nearly orange, and the decorations almost exclusively in black, while the forms were more refined, profiled with more subtle curves than formerly. in the early fifth century or second archaic period, the ware was of a darker red, and the black slip employed in the decoration—really a black paint covered with a thin slip or glaze—became very perfect and was used as a solid background, the decora- tions being left of the natural dark red of the ware. this change of technic led to a complete change in the character of the ornament, as will later be shown. dur- ing the fourth century a further change occurred; the ornament became complex and overcharged, varied colors were added to the black and red to brighten the effect; the vase-profiles lost their earlier refinement, and modeling of figures and details in relief became more or less common, especially in apulian and other italo- greek ornament, i greek vases, which were often jof great size. the art declined rapidly under roman rule; as bronze, marble, fig. . types of greek vases: a, arybaixus; b, lekythos; c, rhyton; d, alabastron; e, g, amphora; /, krater; h, ointment box; i, hydria; k, kyxix; i, hydria. * alabaster, glass, gold and silver came more and more into use for the finer vessels, the plain clay earthenware ceased to be a medium for artistic expression. the grace and beauty of the greek vases of the th- a history of ornament th centuries b.c. are due, first to the innate artistic spirit of the people; and secondly to the use of terra cotta vases as gifts and prizes. they were regarded as works of art, and the painters who decorated them were proud to sign their works. the decoration of these vases was executed with a bold, free hand which the published illustrations generally fail to reproduce. special care and attention were bestowed upon the form, proportions and silhouette of these vases, in spite of their humble material. a singular elegance of shape characterizes nearly all of the greek pottery; the profiles are composed of exquisitely subtle curves harmoniously blended. the chief among many types are the amphora, a tall two-handled (or three-handled) jar for wine (fig. , e, g); the oenochoe, a large-bodied wine-vessel;thehydria a wide-mouthed water-jar; the lekythos (b), a small slender-necked vase for per- fumes or for votive and funereal uses; the somewhat similar alabastron, usually of alabaster (d); the krater (/); a cup or jar with a spreading mouth; the kylix (k), a broad, dish-like ves- sel (these two types merge into one another); the rhyton (c), a drinking horn, shaped often like an animal's head; the aryballos (a), and various other forms. fio. . geometric vase, seyms. greek ornament, i development of motives. in an important group of early archaic vases the deco- ration consists of successive bands alternately of orna- ment and pictures (e.g., the dodwell vase, a in fig. ). another group, in the so-called "geometric" style, are adorned with bands of parallel lines, zigzags, curious frets, concentric circles, stars or flowers, swas- tikas irregularly disposed, and checkered patterns imitated from basketry or textiles (fig. ). in others, mostly from the islands or from asiatic greek factories, oriental influences are evident; lions, sphinxes and gazelles, horses and the solar goose are pictured upon them, and in the ornament proper the lotus and lotus-palmette are common (fig. ; this may pos- sibly be a rhodian vase). as the potter's art advances, the fret, wave and an- themion are increasingly used and developed into the greatest possible va- riety of forms. the fret occurs in several varying types; the sim- ple fret as in figure , a (page ), the compound fret, formed by two intersecting lines of alternate fl eaklt vase; rhodux? "keys" and "humps" crossing to form a series of swastika motives (ib., b); the rosetted fret in which the key-motive alternates with * called also "dipylon style," "dipylon vases," because of the number of vases in this style exhumed near the dipylon gate in athens. a history of ornament a square or round rosette (plate vi, , ); the oblique fret, and the double fret (figure , c). all these were drawn free-hand, usually in such manner as to serted, a representation of water, and hence always placed at the foot of the vase: it was used as a border alike above and below the picture or vase-painting, as a variant of the fret, from which it was probably de- rived (plate vi, , ; fig. a). the anthemion. the anthemion is the most important and most beauti- ful of all greek ornament motives. its origin can be clearly traced back through phenician and assyrian forms to the egyptian lotus and lotus-palmette. its resemblance to the blossoms of the honeysuckle, recog- nized by the greeks in its name woifuov, is a fortui- tous resemblance or an afterthought, more noticeable in the late examples than the earlier, and is not an explana- tion of its origin. in the assyrian lotus-and-palmette borders (see plate iv), the units are connected by linked voluted bands; the greeks substituted for these the double-curved or s-scroll (figure ), introducing thereby a wholly new element of grace and rhythmic movement into the composition (see plates v and vi). they also curved the "petals" of the palmette in vari- o for an exhaustive discussion of this derivation, cf. goodyear, "grammar of the lotus" (london, ). make the black stroke and red background of. about equal thickness. fio. a. the spiral wave was not, as has been frequently as- greek ornament, i ous ways, elaborated the connecting scrolls, and refined their forms and combinations in an extraordinary variety of ways, creating out of the somewhat monotonous and lifeless oriental pal- mette an entirely new and exquisitely beauti- ful ornament (figs. , ). fig. represents diagram- matically a few of the principal types of greek anthemion bands—single and double, opposite and alternate, vertical and oblique; the anthemion open as in a, c, d or framed as in b, e, almost always alter- nating with a contrasting motive derived from the lotus, fig. . anthemion with vomtted scrolls; from a vase. fio. . types of anthemion patterns. a history of ornament which we may call the lotiform motive (figure ). figure illustrates a number of typical treatments in detail of the anthemion proper, which springs from a triangular-shaped spot or nucleus (or rarely a simple dot) set between opposed spirals or volutes. in figure are shown a few of the variants of the lotiform mo- tive. very admirable is always the skill with which the ornament is distributed and the spaces occupied. the change in the fifth century from the black- on-red to the red-on-black technic led to a change in the character of the anthemion patterns. to economize the labor of painting-in the black background, the spaces between the leaves or other elements of the design were reduced, the ornament became more crowded and richer in effect, and the hair-like lines of the black-on-red type were omitted or replaced by broader lines of red (figure , e). some of the anthemion patterns of the late fifth and of the fourth centuries are remarkably rich and elaborate; they were made in the later vases to cover large areas on the body of the vase, taking the place of a picture on one side of the vase, especially in the apulian pottery (plate v). next to the fret and anthemion, the vine is the most important motive in pottery decoration (figure ; also plates v and vi). it occurs sometimes with a straight stem, sometimes with a wavy stem, and may represent in different examples the laurel, ivy or grape- vine. the laurel crown of victory in athletic and literary contests is symbolized by the laurel "vines" on vases intended as prizes or honorary awards; while the ivy and the grapevine were both sacred to dionysos, greek ornament, i and naturally figured on vases for wine as well as on those presented as gifts in token of good fellowship. the type of vine in which a wavy stem throws out its leaves alternately on either side to fill the hollows of the waves (figure ), furnished one of the most impor- tant elements in the development of the rinceau. the substitution of branching scrolls (already common as a subordinate detail of certain anthemion patterns in the periclean period, see fig. ) in place of the leaves and berries, produced the elementary rinceau of figure . the guilloche. this is found in its simplest form in both egyptian and assyrian ornament (see fig. , /); but was de- veloped by the greeks into a richer band-pattern by doubling and even trebling the rows of "eyes" and braided interlacings. only the simpler forms are, how- ever, common on pottery (figure ). other forms. the "egg-and-dart" appears frequently on the lips of vases, and both it and other u-shaped and scale-like imbrications (plate vi) are used on the bodies. these related forms are probably derived from the lotus-and- bud, as suggested in fig. ; but it is equally likely that the scale-ornament was derived from the use of feathers, scales in armor, or other like industrial im- brications. • this derivation was first pointed out in "comptes-rendus de la soci&e' centrale d'architectes" for , and later elaborated by professor w. h. goodyear. greek ornament, i tant, and modeled heads and figures were often intro- duced into the decoration. fig. illustrates one of these italo-greek vases, and in plate vi and figure (page ) are shown some of the complicated details com- mon in this pottery. architectural ceramics. painted terra-cotta orna- ments were long used on build- ings of stone or wood, though stone and marble displaced them on the more important buildings from a very early date. moldings, especially crown-moldings on cornices, antefixae, acroteria and ridge- tiles were the chief of these ceramic ornaments. they display many of the motives and patterns of pottery- decoration, in modified form and richer coloring, in which green and yellow were used as well as red and black: frets, anthemions, the egg-and-dart, guilloche and scale- motive are the commonest decorations. similar orna- ments were later painted on marble and formed an im- portant element in greek architectural ornament. books recommended: list follows next chapter. fig. . apcliak vase; sevres museum. chapter viii greek ornament, ii architectural decoration. in the application of the arts of decoration to architec- ture, the greeks attained an extraordinary degree of perfection within a comparatively narrow field. the artistic reserve was even more noticeable in their archi- tecture than in their pottery. accordingly we find a sparing use of ornament upon their buildings, but its scale and distribution were determined by the most judicious taste, and its execution was as nearly perfect as the artist's utmost skill would permit. in the doric buildings the ornament proper is chiefly painted and confined to certain well-defined members—ceiling- panels, moldings, capitals and the like (plate vi, - ). the most important decorative effects depended not upon the ornament but upon sculpture—pediment groups, metopes and friezes. the plastic ornament of doric buildings, as distinguished from the sculpture and the painted details, consisted chiefly of the moldings, triglyphs, mutules and guttae, the antefixae ranged along the edge of the cornice, the lions' heads serving as spouts at each end of the long horizontal lateral cornices, acroteria at the angles of the pediments, and the flutings and very simple capitals of the columns. most of these no greek ornament, ii are shown in the lower part of plate vi. of the bronze gates, grilles, lamps and other adjuncts of these build- ings we have no remains. the painted ornament of architecture comprised (a) molding ornaments (figure , page ); ( ) ceil- ing-panels (fig. ); (c) solid color applied to tri- glyphs (blue), metopes (red) (plate vi, ), and sometimes to walls and pos- sibly columns; (d) the painting of the woodwork of the interior ceilings; (e) mural pictures on the in- terior walls. of d and e no remains are extant- fig. us. painted panel, ceiling we do not certainly know op pu, ma> parthenon. the exact tones of the colors used in a, & and c, owing to the faded condition of such vestiges of color as still ex- ist. modern restorers usually represent them as some- what brilliant (plate vi, - ): perhaps they were less intense than these representations would indicate. with the development of the ionic style in the sixth and fifth centuries, carved ornament assumed greater importance and took on increased richness and variety, which reached the highest point of splendor in the alex- andrian age, especially in asia minor, and gave birth in the fourth century to a variant form, the corinthian, in which the capital of the column was the most impor- tant and ornate feature (plate vii, ). the carved egg-and-dart and "water-leaf" molding ornaments in a history of ornament and some of its details betray the influence of early pro- totypes in wood. its distinguishing features are the slender columns adorned with twenty-four flutings separated by narrow fillets and standing on molded bases, bearing capitals formed by spiral volutes con- nected by a horizontal band; the doubly or triply banded architrave, unbroken frieze, and cornice without mu- tules, often (especially in asia minor) adorned with dentils and invariably crowned by a cymatium (plate vii, ). as already remarked, carved ornament took the place of painted ornament on the moldings and on other parts, although color was still used as a subordi- nate element to enhance the decorative effect. the carved anthemion was used with fine effect both on flat bands and on the high cymatia of the cornices (plate vii, , ). carved rosettes, "cantilevers" or brackets (figure ) and other enrichments also occur. the style reached its highest magnificence in such splendid asiatic monuments of the fourth century as the apollo temple at didyme near miletus, the artemision (temple of diana) at ephesus and the mausoleum at halicarnassus. in the variant form known as the corinthian, which was in time, especially under the romans, developed into a distinct order, the column was made still more slender, and the capital, more than a diameter in height, was composed of one or two rows of acanthus leaves under coupled volutes which supported the corners or homs of a molded abacus (figure , page ; plate vii, , ). employed at first only for small decora- tive structures like the choragic monument of lysicra- greek ornament, ii tes, it was later applied to propylaeas (eleusis), shrines or treasuries (epidaurus), and later even to the colossal temple of zeus at athens ( b.c.). carved orna- ment was in these buildings carried to the furthest limit of elaboration known in greek art, as in the three- branched finial of the lysicrates monument ( b.c.), shown in plate vii, ; the capitals from eleusis ( b.c.), the rinceaux on column-bases at didyme (fig. , page ), and later under roman rule, the frieze and cornice of the temple of zeus at aizanoi. painted details. in the decoration of moldings with color, the object in view was to emphasize the profile by means of re- peated motives of the general character of the egg-and- dart or u-motive, modified in outline to suit the profile (figure ). flat surfaces, such as the corona of a cornice or the edge of a doric abacus, were often painted with a fret, though the wave, the guilloche and the anthemion-band were also often used, both on terra- cotta and on marble (plate vi, , ). the an- themion also figures in beautiful symmetrical patterns in gold on a blue ground in the ceiling-panels or coffer- ings of the pteroma or peristyle of the parthenon and other buildings (fig. ), recalling by their grace and freedom of line the finest of the black-on-red vase decorations. acroteria, antefixae and stele-heads were in the earlier examples painted, in the later ones carved; the anthemion was the almost exclusive ornament used on all these, sometimes combined with the acanthus-leaf as a subordinate detail (plate vii, , , ). a history of ornament carved details. in nearly all the carved ornament we may trace the imitation and elaboration of painted ornament derived primarily from pottery-decoration. let us first con- sider the moldings. five chief motives occur in their decoration by carving: the bead-and-reel for small bead-moldings; the egg-and-dart on convex profiles; the first and fourth are carved elaborations of the painted molding ornaments described above as them- selves derived from pottery-motives, or from pottery directly; the bead-and-reel is an importation from asia minor and may have been derived, via asia minor and persia, from the egyptian papyrus-bundle molding. all these carved ornaments were designed and executed with extraordinary skill and care, and their beauty and perfection have seldom been approached and never sur- passed in later ages. apart from the beauty of their decoration, moreover, the greek moldings are remark- able for the refinement of their profiles, composed of curves as subtle and delicate as the silhouettes of the the "water-leaf" on cyma-reversa moldings; the guil- loche on torus moldings (fig. ); and the an- themion on the fro. . carved triple gutlloche on torus of ionic base. high ionic cyma- tium or crown- molding. all but greek ornament, ii greek vases. it was the greeks, indeed, who first dis- covered and developed the artistic possibilities of mold- ings in architecture. the unvarying egyptian com- bination of the bundle-torus and cavetto or gorge was effective but monotonous, and neither in assyrian nor in persian architecture is there apparent any sense of the beauty of effect inherent in moldings of varied pro- file artistically combined. the ionic capital. the origin of this peculiar architectural feature, with its twin spiral volutes and lateral "bolsters," set above a carved echinus and supporting a molded abacus, has been a subject of much controversy. as in so many other cases, it was probably the result of convergence of more than one line of development. the volutes can be traced back to the branching voluted forms of as- syrian (see ante, fig. ) and iegean art, and finally to the trefoil-lotus of egypt. this seems to have blended with reminiscences of primitive "bracket" caps used on asiatic wooden columns, and a wooden origin is further suggested by the slender proportions of the shaft and its setting on a well-marked base. the oblong voluted bracket cap was apparently combined with what seems to have been originally an independent form of capital—a crown of one or two rows or rings of leaves like "oves," clearly derived from nature and not from the egg-and-dart motive, toward which, however, it con- icf. w. h. goodyear, "grammar of the lotus," and his article in the "architectural record," vol. ill, no. , "the lotiform origin of the ionic capital." also in perrot and chipiez, "histoire de l'art dans fantiquetev' vol. vii, seq. a history of ornament verged to form the carved echinus of the ionic capital. one form of this foliated capital, shown in fig. , is probably a prototype of the high bell or basket of detail. the high necking adorned with a carved an- themion is peculiar to this one building (plate vii, ). the carved anthemion. this was, next to the capitals, the most characteristic motive in ionic decoration. its origin in the anthemion bands of painted vases has already been explained. the technic of carving brought about a number of modifications of detail, such as the ridging and furrow- ing of the stems, leaves and scrolls, the elaboration of the "lotiform" motive (plate vii, ), and the intro- duction of the acanthus leaf (or in some cases apparently the leaf of a thistle or aloe) to mask the junction of fluted scrolls where they branch (figure ). the most celebrated example of the carved anthemion is that which adorned the north and west sides of the erech- theion, and which is much like that on the neckings of the columns (figure a; plate vii, ). the commonest application of the carved anthemion band was to the high cymatium of the ionic cornices. the later-developed corin- thian capital. fig. . cap from aeg.e. the fully developed cap- itals of the erechtheion are among the most elegant forms in classic architecture, and were executed with extraordinary perfection of greek ornament, ii there are many fragments of such carved cymatia of great beauty. one of these on the acropolis at athens shows a bird perched upon its scrolls—an almost isolated instance in greek art of a purely naturalistic represen- tation in the midst of a bit of formal ornament. another and quite a different use of the carved an- themion is found in carved marble antifixa? and acro- teria which replaced the earlier painted terra-cotta and painted marble. plate vii, , illustrates a marble antefix (or possibly a ridge-cresting unit) from the parthenon, which may be compared with fig. , a painted acroterium or antefix of terra-cotta, and the stele-heads in plate vii. stele-heads. closely related to the acroteria and antefixae are the stele-heads, i.e., the upper ends or finials of memorial, sepulchral or votive stones. apparently the earliest sepulchral steles were topped with a gable- formed finish suggesting the end of a sarcophagus, and adorned with a painted anthemion springing from a nest of acanthus leaves. this combination perhaps recalled an ancient prac- tice of planting an acan- fio. . painted tebba-cotta thus or similar plant a"im' no a history of ornament (aloe?) on the flat top of a square or round stele (fig- ure , page ). with the increased vogue of carved decoration the painted stele-heads disappeared and the carved type was elaborated into a remarkably beautiful design, especially in the fourth century, to which belong the fine examples in plate vii, , . the acanthus. the acanthus is a common plant in greece and italy, related to the common burdock (fig. ). the variety known as the acanthus spinosus of- fers, by its formally regular growth and its crisp, crinkly and prickly leaves, excel- lent suggestions for decorative convention- alization (figure , fio. . acanthus leaf (above); &). the date of its bukdoc* (below). first appearance m greek ornament is uncertain; it began to be quite fre- quently used, however, by the latter part of the fifth century b. c, as a covering leaf to mask the branching scrolls of carved anthemions, as in the example from the erechtheion (figure ). these earlier examples suggest the thistle and the aloe quite as much as the acanthus; but this may be merely fortuitous resem- blance. another early example is shown in fig. , probably the earliest type of the corinthian capital— found in the ruins of the apollo temple at phigalaea greek ornament, ii (bassae) in attica, but now lost. with the develop- ment of carved ornament the leaf was more and more highly elaborated, almost always in association with volutes or spiral scrolls, chiefly applied to one or an- other of four decorative uses: the anthemion-band, the corinthian capital, carved stele-heads, and the carved rinceau. the last three were executed with especial richness of detail in the alexandrian age. the corinthian capital this, the richest of all capital-types, developed only gradually into the final form which the romans adopted fig. . early corinthian capital fio. . capital from "towbb op from ba &£. the winds," athens. and made their own. contemporary with the over- elaborate "lysicrates" example in plate vii, , we find the much simpler form from the "tower of the winds" shown in fig. . a capital from the tholos of epidauros shows an approach towards the later form from the temple of zeus at athens (figure ), which dates from b.c., and furnished the prototype for the a history of ornament roman corinthian. in this, sixteen volutes spring in branching pairs from eight caulicoli or leaf-nests, to meet in pairs under the centers and corners respectively of the hollow-curved and molded abacus, each caulicolus rising from between two upright acanthus leaves of the upper or second of two rows of eight leaves each which encircle the bell or core of the capital. the plain bell- type of fig. suggests a possible imitation of egyp- tian palm-capitals; but its late date makes this explana- tion of its form less probable than that of derivation by simplification from the more elaborate contemporary type of epidaurus or the lysicrates monument. very complicated variations were produced in eleusis, while at didyme near miletus, at priene, and in some other examples, piers or pilasters were capped with the curi- ous form shown in plate vii, . the greeks never developed any type of modillion cornice for the corinthian entablature, which remained essentially ionic in character. the rinceau. the foliated scroll known by this french name does not appear, at least in carving, until the alexandrian age. its origin in painted ornament has already been suggested (see ante, page ); in carved ornament it appears to be an extension of the branching scrolls which accompanied the anthemion on some ionic cymatia, on the anthemion band of the erechtheion (plate vii, ) and on the more elaborate types of stele-heads (fig. ; plate vii, , ). in these examples the scrolls branch only twice or thrice in diminishing repetitions. greek ornament, ii on the gable of one of the splendid sarcophagi from sidon in the museum at constantinople, twin scrolls branch symmetrically from the center to form not a subordinate feature, but the entire decoration, of the pediment (plate vii, ). the choragic monument of lysicrates was capped by a superb finial of triple branching and interlaced scrolls, springing from three scroll-arms which spanned the flattened dome of the roof, and supporting presumably the prize tripod awarded to the choir-leader lysicrates (plate vii, ). it was an easy and natural step from these to a con- tinuous line or band of equal branching scrolls, with an acanthus-leaf wrapping and partially masking the several branchings. the base of one of the colossal columns of the didymseon near miletus (the temple of the didyma?an apollo) bears a superb carved rin- ceau, the earliest and almost the only example of a com- plete continuous rinceau in greek architecture (figure , page ). the greek rinceau generally lacks the reversed calyx or cup-flower at each branching that char- acterizes the roman type; the acanthus-leaf is simple, thick and rather flat; the scrolls end in a sharp point in- stead of a rosette or flower, and are formed by deeply channeled bands and not by round stems like the roman. it was reserved for the romans to develop and elaborate this type, as will appear in a later chapter. but al- though the rinceau as a continuous band-motive is rare in greek carved ornament, it appears frequently as a limited motive after alexander's time, and several elaborate examples of its use are in the british museum from eleusis. a history of ornament other carved motives. carved scales representing tiles adorned the dome- like roof of the monument of lysicrates, and the gabled cover of the great "alexander" sarcophagus (so-called) from sidon, now at constantinople. the latter also has a finely executed frieze of a grapevine with a con- tinuous waving stem. the carved fret appears occasion- ally, as on a marble funereal monument in the form of a vase, in athens. lions' heads are carved to decorate the spouts for discharging roof-water through the cymatium, as on the parthenon (plate vii, , ), the temple of apollo at delos and other examples. the griffin was carved in the round as an acroterium orna- ment, and in relief on either side of a central tree or vertical motive—an oriental device already referred to (see ante, page ). beautifully executed examples of these grotesques or monsters adorned many of the capitals of the temple of apollo at didyme. the fine marble table-supports found in pompeii were very probably of greek workmanship, but will be noticed later under the head of pompeiian ornament (see page ). relation to roman ornament. greek ornament may be said to have finally passed over into and been absorbed by roman art. with the conquest of the greek states, greek artists became the servants of roman wealth and power with all the roman love of magnificence, and contributed greatly to the decorative beauty and refinement which are so often greek ornament, ii present in roman works. in asia minor the greeks retained in considerable measure their independence of taste under roman rule; the remarkable crocket orna- ment from the frieze of the temple of zeus at aizanoi, of the time of the antonines, as well as many other de- tails of this and other temples and tombs in asia minor, exhibits the greek originality of design. the capitals of pilasters of the arch of hadrian at athens («>. a.d.) reveal something of the same originality, crispness and independence of the imperial formalism. southern italy and sicily abounded in works and prod- ucts more greek in style than roman; and the entire decorative system of pompeii, in all its branches, dis- plays a grecian delicacy, fancifulness and charm, which are due either to the employment of greek artists, or to the large element of greek blood in the popula- tion of all magna graecia. doubtless the walls of pompeii represent the last corruscation of the greek mural painter's art, and they are the only examples which have come down to us. books recommended: anderson and spiers: architecture of greece and rome (london, ).—baumeister: denkmaler des klassischen altertums (berlin, - ).—botticher: die tektonik der hellenen (berlin, - ).—chipiez: histoire critique des orders grecs (paris, ).—durm: antike baukunst (in handbuch der architektur series, darmstadt, ).—l. fen- ger: dorische polychromie (berlin, ).—a. flasch: die polychromie der griechischen vasenbuder (wiirzburg, ). —furtwangler and reichhold: griechische vasenmalereien (munich, ).—j. i. hittorff: restitution du temple d'empedocle a selinonte, ou l'architecture polychrome chez les grecs (paris, ).—g. kachel: kunstgewerbliche vorbuder a history of ornament aus dem alterthum (karlsruhe, ).—a. maeauand: greek architecture (new york, ).—lau: die griechischen vasen (leipzig, ).—m. meurer: die ursprungsformen des grie- chischen akanthusornamentes, etc. (berlin, ).—stuart and revett: antiquities of athens (london, ); also french and german editions of the same.—tarbell: history of greek art (new york, ).—l. vui/liamy: examples of ornamental sculpture in architecture . . . greece, asia minor and italy (london, ).—w. r. ware: greek ornament (boston, ).—j. c. watt: examples of greek and pom- peiian decorative work (london, ).—j. r. wheeleb and h. n. fowler: handbook on greek archaeology (new york, ). chapter ix etruscan and roman ornament, i the roman genius. with roman ornament we enter upon a new chapter of the history of art. roman art grew up under condi- tions almost the opposite of those under which greek art developed. instead of a group of rival and fre- quently hostile states, allied only by race, religion and language, we have in the case of the romans a single state comprising peoples of many races, languages and religions, welded together into a powerful and highly organized military empire. lacking the prevailing artistic and philosophical instincts of the greeks, the romans possessed on the other hand a remarkable genius for organization and administration, and a spirit at once practical and progressive. with the growing wealth and power which followed upon their long career of conquest, the romans developed, somewhat late in their national life, a taste for luxury and splendor. the arts which flourished under the direction of these tastes were chiefly of foreign origin, though they took on in time a distinctively roman character. the romans became a nation of mighty builders and engineers, and architec- tural decoration and all the decorative arts that are concerned with personal comfort and luxury were car- a history of ornament fig. . etruscan terra-cotta cresting. ried to a remarkable, and in some cases an extraordinary, degree of elaboration and splendor. sculpture, on the other hand, was never a characteristic medium for the fig. . etruscan details. etruscan and roman ornament, i expression of the roman genius. roman ornament lacked somewhat of the refine- ment and restraint of the greek, but was more varied and more flexible. it was eminently adapted to the purposes which it had to serve, and is well worthy of study for its elegance and versatility of design. etruscan ornament. before the conquest of the fios. us and . emus- greek states introduced greek can teria"c tra borderb- art into roman life, the romans depended mainly upon the etruscans for such forms of art as their modest requirements called for. this singular people, whose race-origin and early history are still shrouded in ob- scurity, possessed an architecture of their own betray- ing a certain remote kinship with the greek, but crude and undeveloped artistically. their frequent use of the arch, and the character of their ornament, so far as it appears in their works in bronze and gold, sug- gest an asiatic influence, chiefly phenician, possibly via carthage. their ceramic art, especially in its later phases, was based on greek models. the campana collection of terra-cotta reliefs in the louvre, belonging to the first century b.c, show much technical cleverness in adapting greek pictorial subjects, and even the painted scroll ornaments on late greek and campanian vases, to modeling in relief. the ornamental borders a history of ornament fig. . detail of a pilaster. of these reliefs retain a curiously asiatic character (fig. ). in figs. - a number of typical etrus- can forms are shown. painted terra-cotta ornaments, such as were used on the wooden superstructures of their temples, are preserved in the museums of italy; they strongly resemble others found in pompeii and southern italy, which are very likely of etruscan work- manship. these represent the highest development of etruscan architectural decoration, but plainly exhibit their greek derivation. the cap shown in fig. illustrates the crudity of native etruscan details and etruscan and roman ornament, i strongly suggests a phenician or ori- ental influence. the etruscans were skilful bronze- founders, and ap- pear to have prac- tised also at an early period the art fig. . etruscan pilaster cap. of spheirelaton or sheet-metal hammered into relief on a base of carved wood. the fine bronze chariot in the metropolitan mu- seum at new york appears to be a product of etruscan work of this sort of the seventh century b.c. etruscan jewelry and filigree were often of great beauty— brooches, pendants, chains, etc., of gold sometimes set with gems. some of it is possibly, however, of greek manufacture (fig. ). the pottery of etruria was un- important compared with that of greece. the most interesting of its products were black vases fio. . a history of ornament modeled in relief (bucchero nero), but these display lit- tle pure ornament except flutings on the body. it ap- pears to have no relations with the prehistoric black pottery of the so-called terramare and villanova pe- riods. the greek conquests. the conquest and absorption of the greek colonies in southern italy and sicily in the late third century b.c., and of the states of greece proper, ending, with the fall of corinth ( b.c.), in the establishment of the greek province of achaia, not only made the roman cam- paigners familiar with the marble magnificence of the greek cities and the beauty of greek art, but brought to rome itself countless treasures of that art and hosts of greek artists and artisans. roman architecture un- derwent a gradual transformation, which accompanied and expressed the change in the roman taste. mum- mius, the conqueror of corinth, was in all matters of art a boorish ignoramus; sulla, who sixty years later captured athens in the course of his final campaign against mithridates, was a cultivated admirer of literature and art. as a result of this process of education and growth in refinement of taste, the etruscan city of rome, built of brick, terra-cotta and timber, was transformed into a greco-roman city of stone and marble. the greek orders, radically modified in detail, were adapted to new uses, in combination with etruscan forms of column and etruscan types of plan and the etruscan arch and asiatic vault, and entirely new decorative forms and effects devised in connection with new constructive ma- etruscan and roman ornament, i terials and processes. sculpture, mostly by greek artists, received new decorative applications; the arts of the bronze-founder, the modeler in stucco and the mural painter were developed rapidly to a high pitch of excel- lence ; and the modest alphabet of greek ornament-forms was expanded into a remarkably rich and varied system of decorative devices. in all these arts it is not always possible to distinguish between true greek handiwork and that of the roman imitators, who were probably in many cases etruscan by race. the decorative system. the romans created for architecture wholly new requirements, applications and uses. to meet these they devised equally new methods and processes of con- struction, employing combinations of brick, rubble, cement, concrete, stone and marble never known before. the roman genius for organization and system asserted itself in the erection, by means of the vast armies of unskilled labor at their disposal, of ingenious and stu- pendous structures, massively built of coarse materials, and producing novel effects of scale and grandeur made possible for the first time by the use of the arch and vault. this massive construction of coarse materials re- quired a decorative skin or dress, both internally and ex- ternally, of finer material, such as stucco, mosaic, marble wainscot or veneer, or facings of cut stone, with mold- ings, panels, friezes, cornices, carving, sculpture and the like, besides such structural features and adjuncts as columns, porticoes and porches, which must be wholly made of the finer materials. this system was funda- a history of ornament mentally different from that of egyptian or greek ar- chitecture, in which stone or marble was the only ma- terial, and temples the chief subjects of architectural design. in these the decoration, other than painting and free sculpture, was of necessity an integral part of the construction, or at least incorporated in it or exe- cuted directly upon it. with the roman system, a large part of the ornament was, equally of necessity, ap- fiq. . tepidarium, baths of caracalla. plied ornament, executed after the completion of the massive structural frame or core of the building (fig. ). this is the system which has prevailed, and must prevail, in all styles and in all regions in which the chief building-materials are coarse or undecorative in them- selves, or in which, even where stone and marble abound, the exigencies of building require the use of the com- moner and coarser materials for the main fabric of the edifice. it is the system in general use in modern prac- tice, and is entirely reasonable and artistically proper, in spite of the objections raised against it by certain etruscan and roman ornament, i critics who assail it as "false" and "illogical," because the construction is not identical with the decoration but is concealed by it. but solid masonry of cut stone or of brick and terra-cotta, and in some cases wooden or steel construction, afford the only opportunities for the greek or gothic system in which construction and decoration are, or may be made, inseparable; and even with these the interior must in most cases be concealed by plaster, wainscot, tiles, ceilings and the like. the analogy of the skin of human beings and animals affords a justification from nature, of the roman, byzan- tine and modern system, in its decorative concealment of the internal organism and construction, revealing only the general masses of the structure. by the roman system, the unskilled labor of hordes of slaves, soldiers and peasants could be turned to account in the heavier work of construction, and great numbers of vast buildings be erected with comparative rapidity, leaving the decorative work to be later executed by artists and artisans, upon this structural core. the roman genius for organization and adaptation, guiding and directing these artists, who were chiefly foreigners, at least in the earlier periods, developed new forms of decoration, in which conventional ornament took the place of figure sculpture. the principal types of decorative work thus developed were: ( ) the decorative use of architectural features, such as columns, entablatures, pediments, moldings, panels and ceiling-coffers; ( ) carved ornament in ex- traordinary variety; ( ) figure-sculpture, such as groups in pediments, free statues on columns or entablatures in a history of ornament certain classes of structures, and reliefs in panels, spandrels and other defined spaces; ( ) the chromatic effects of colored marbles and granites in columns, wainscoting and pavements; ( ) mosaic of glass or marble in floors and ceilings; ( ) stucco- relief in delicate patterns, often com- bined with ( ) mural painting in brilliant colors, and ( ) bronze work on ceilings, in grilles and doors, and in decorative adjuncts like tripods and candelabra. architectural features. fio. . roman arch (abch of titus). rpjjg remarkable variety of the roman buildings and structural devices lent itself to a corresponding variety of decorative ef- fects in which the purely decorative use of various structural features played a prominent part. pilas- ters and engaged columns with their entablatures, pedi- ments over doors, windows and niches, recessed arches and deep ceiling-panels were the chief elements of this pseudo-structural decoration. the combination etruscan and roman ornament, i of the arch—adorned with its archivolt and keystone —with engaged columns carrying entablatures (fig. ) was the most important of these decorative de- vices, and has been in more or less constant use ever since roman times. in the later imperial age, and particularly in the provinces, as at spalato in dalmatia fig. . niche-cap, baalbek. and in syria at baalbek and palmyra, there was, under the antonines and later emperors, a remarkable increase in the variety of these decorative applications of archi- tectural features. curved and broken pediments, colonnettes on brackets, spirally fluted columns, and niches with shell hoods are among the features most widely used. some of these works have a singularly modern look, as if of the palladian renaissance, which, indeed, independently re-invented many of these devices thirteen hundred years later (fig. ). i this use of structural forms as mere decoration has been condemned as "sham" and "false" design by certain purist critics, who contrast it un- favorably with the "truthful" architecture of the greek and gothic builders, a history of ornament conventional ornament. in developing the details of this system the romans were obliged to employ greek artists and to begin with greek models for the most part. the greek orders, the greek fret and anthemion, molding-ornaments, rosette, acanthus-leaf and rinceau, were appropriated, but not without radical modifications. with such stupendous fig. . fragment from temple of vespasian, in villa aldobbandixi. aggregations of buildings as the romans raised in their cities both in italy and abroad—structures often many- storied and of vast dimensions—figure-sculpture was out of the question as the chief decoration, not so much on account of its enormous cost as because it would have been wasted and ineffective. carved conventional ornament, on the other hand, with its repeated units, (fig. ) enriches such buildings without requiring but even in greek architecture there are analogous "shams," like the pseudo-structural paneling of the greek pteroma-ceilings, while the useless false gables and the rich wall-traceries of gothic art are perfect examples of the purely ornamental use of forms primarily structural. the fact is that in all advanced stages of art the structural forms of earlier stages have been similarly turned to decorative account etruscan and roman ornament, i that semi-isolation and that nearness to the eye which are essential for the best effect of figure sculpture. plastic ornament was carried by the romans to the highest perfection of appropriate design, of rich effect, and often of exquisite execution. moldings were combined and profiled with the greatest care, though the profiles were generally less subtile than those of the greek moldings. in monumental buildings nearly all fig. . roman moldings. a, simple water leaf; b, enriched water leaf; c, d, acanthus leaf enrichments. the moldings were enriched by carving, the ornamenta- tion being more elaborate than in the greek prototypes —sometimes, indeed, too minute for the best effect, but almost always appropriate and beautiful (fig. ). the general effect of all this decoration was one of great dignity and splendor. the striving for magnifi- cence sometimes led to offenses against good taste, and the execution is occasionally coarse, but such offenses are rare, and beauty, refinement, delicacy and charm frequently characterize even the grandest works. a history of ornament the orders. the most conspicuous adornment of roman buildings was effected by the use of columns and pilasters with their entablatures, in one or more of the so-called "five orders"—the tuscan, doric, ionic, corinthian and composite (plate viii). in reality there are but fig. . roman ionic capitals. three, the tuscan and doric being mere variants of one type and the composite and corinthian of another. upon their so-called doric column, which was really an enriched and refined form of the etruscan (tuscan) column, the romans placed an entablature derived from that of the greek doric order, with its triglyphs and mutules. the ionic was but slightly varied from the greek ionic type of asia minor. the capital occurs in two forms: one following the greek model, but with a straight band between the volutes, on the front and etruscan and roman ornament, i rear faces, instead of a depressed curved band (see plate viii, ); and the other with four double volutes at the angles of the abacus, in order to make the four faces of the capital alike; this is sometimes called erroneously the "scamozzi ionic" (fig. ). the corinthian, an elaboration of the greek corinthian but fw. . corinthian capital, temple of mars ultor. with a special type of cornice, is the really distinctive roman order. with the greeks it had been a mere variant of the ionic; the romans developed its capital into a type generally recognized as one of the most beau- tiful ever devised. in its most perfect examples, as in that of the pantheon, the temple of castor and pollux and the temple of faustina, it consists of two rows of erect acanthus-leaves surrounding and concealing the lower two-thirds of a bell-shaped core on which rests a a history of ornament molded abacus with concave sides. the upper part is concealed by sixteen spiral volutes which spring in branching pairs from eight caulicoli or leaf-nests, set between the eight leaves of the upper row. these volutes meet in eight pairs under the four corners of the abacus and under rosettes at the centers of its four sides (fig. , figure ; plate viii, , ). the details of this type are endlessly varied; in late examples ani- mals and human figures sometimes take the place of the fig. . modillion. corner volutes. the composite capital, having volutes only at the angles, and larger than in the corinthian, may be considered an inferior variant of the corinthian, though sometimes very splendidly carved (plate viii, , ; figure ). it somewhat resembles a four-faced ionic capital placed upon the lower part of a corinthian capital. pilaster caps show a greater variety of design than capitals of columns (plate viii, ; figure ). to these improvements upon the greek order they added that of a special type of base, an elaboration of the attic base, consisting of two tori separated by two fig. .—composite capital (lateran museum, rome) fig. .—restoration or cornice, basilica ^emilia (from drawing bt r. h. smtthe) , a history of ornament scotias and a single or double bead. in late examples these moldings were all carved, reproducing at the base something of the elaborate richness of the capital (plate viii, , , ). but the romans not only perfected the greek corin- thian capital and base; they developed also a new type of cornice which completed the corinthian as a distinct order (figure , page ). this was accomplished by the simple but epoch-making device of introducing modillion brackets beneath the corona and above the bed- mold of the typical ionic cornice. the modillion (fig. ) was a completely new architectural in- vention. the recently excavated fragments of the basilica iemilia ( b.c.) show a primitive form com- posed of a mutule decorated on the under side with a reversed scroll (figure ). the modillion of the maison carree at nimes ( a.d.) somewhat resem- bles this type; the more perfect type is shown in plate viii, . variety in the roman orders. it is frequently asserted that the romans reduced their orders to a purely mechanical system of mathe- matically formulated dimensions for each part. this assertion springs from a blind acceptance of the rules laid down by vitruvius (or of the later formulae of vignola and other italian renaissance writers) as if they represented the actual historic practice of the romans. in reality nothing could well be further from the truth. there are no two examples of any of the this appears to have been used over an ionic order. etruscan and roman ornament, i orders from different buildings that are alike, either in general proportions or details. the roman doric is at least as varied as the greek doric, and the variety in corinthian capitals and entablatures is simply aston- ishing. there was, no doubt, throughout the imperial age a tendency towards uniformity in certain general features and proportions, but this never hardened into cast-iron formulae, and the beauty and vitality of roman ornament are largely due to the variety and individual- ity of the designs of different buildings, and of different times and places. decorative uses of the orders. in roman architecture columns were not only used for their original function as true structural supports in porticoes and colonnades, but also, with their entab- latures, for decorative purposes, by engaging them in the walls, which were thus architectually divided into bays and stories. in arcaded structures the columns, apparently engaged into the piers between the arches, were in reality parts of the piers themselves, acting to that extent as buttresses; but their chief function in such buildings was esthetic, not structural. they were expressive as well as decorative, emphasizing to the eye the lines of vertical support and of concentrated thrust of the building, while indicating externally the internal structural divisions. at the same time they broke the surface of the edifice into rectangular panels or units, outlined by strong lights and shades, in which the arches were effectively framed. the romans also invented the pilaster, a flattened a history of ornament replica of the column, used as a wall-decoration, and as a respond behind free-standing columns, as in tri- umphal arches and forum walls. over columns so placed in front of pilasters the entablature was made to project in a salient block, while between the columns it was set back nearly to the wall-face, thus producing the much criticized ressaut or "broken entablature." when this projecting block and the column below it together serve as a pedestal for a statue, as in the arch of constantine (figure ), they serve at least a real esthetic function. in other cases the order thus used becomes a purely factitious decoration, unexplained to the eye, as it supports nothing even in appearance. the shafts of columns and of pilasters were sometimes fluted, sometimes smooth. when monolithic shafts of polished granite or marble were used, as was general in the later imperial age, the decorative splendor of the colored material took the place of enrichment by fluting, as a characteristic roman practice. the use of pedestals, by means of which an order of smaller-scaled parts could be used for a given height of story, was another distinctively roman device to add to the flexibility of the orders (figure ). books recommended: see list at end of chapter x. chapter x boman ornament, ii carved ornament. in this field roman art surpassed all previous styles in the variety and splendor of its achievements, and originated types which have persisted through all the centuries since. the beauty of the corinthian capital and entablature has already been alluded to, as well as the richness of the roman carved moldings. roman fig. . typical acanthus leaves. friezes, bands and panels were adorned with a like rich- ness of conventional carving. practically the whole of this ornament was based on greek prototypes—the an- a history of ornament themion and rinceau supplying the motives for the greater part of it. if we add to these the rosette, festoon or garland, and the use of symbolic and grotesque forms, and note that the acanthus-leaf in an endless variety of modifications, was worked into every possible detail, we have the key to the greater part of this ornament. but with these few fundamental motives the roman artists developed a quantity and variety of designs which for richness and appropriate- ness of effect and extraordinary flexibility of application have never been surpassed. some of it is heavy and over-wrought; but the beauty and refinement of the great majority of examples entitle them to high praise. the acanthus. this constitutes a type rather than a particular form of leaf. as compared with the greek type, it is less massive, less pointed, more minutely modeled; it suggests a larger, thinner, more flexible and more complex leaf, with well-developed "eyes" at the bases of the lobes and "pipes" or ribs curving from these to the base of the leaf (fig. ). the stand- ing leaves in the figure may be compared with the natural acan- thus mollis in figure , a (p. ). there are many leaves in nature which are divided in much fro. . types op acanthus. i or "swag," as it is often called by english writers. roman ornament, ii the same way, and the romans varied the carved type almost ad infinitum, so that it recalls various leaves, and modern writers have given them fanciful names accord- ingly—the "olive," "palm," etc.—though in each case we have a purely conventional variation of the type. fig. shows a few of these variants. the acanthus was used (a) as a standing leaf in capitals and on some moldings; (b) as a molding orna- ment (fig. , c, d); (c) as a nest or bunch of leaves from which to start a rinceau (plate ix, , , ; fig- ure , fig. ); (d) as a caulicolus or wrapping- leaf to mask the branching of the scrolls (plate ix, ; figs. , ); (e) as an ornament around the stems of candelabra and the bellies of vases (plate x, ; fig. ); (f) as a conventional plant to alter- nate with or replace the anthemion (plate ix, ), and (g) to form the petals of a rosette (fig. ; plate ix, ). all these applications may be studied in plates viii, ix and x. the rinceau. the origin and development of the rinceau have al- ready been traced in greek ornament (pages ). the roman version of it became the most important of all roman motives, and has been perhaps the most pro- lific of all historic ornament-forms except the lotus. a round stem, springing from a nest of acanthus-leaves (figs. , , ), branches into scrolls alternately winding upon one and the other side, each terminating, not in a point as in the greek type, but in an elaborate flower or bunch of leaves (figure , page ). each a history of ornament branching is concealed by an elaborate caulicolus or wrapping-leaf, which springs from a calyx-like cup- flower at its base. such spaces as would otherwise be fio. . rinceau, fobum op trajan. left bare are often filled with subordinate scrolls and tendrils, and in rare instances animal life is introduced in the form of birds, mice and insects (plate ix). fio. . rinceau, from temple of the sun. while some examples of the rinceau are heavy and overcrowded, as in the example from the temple of the sun (fig. ), others are remarkable for their deli- roman ornament, ii eately handled relief and exquisite details (fig. ). there is the greatest possible variety of effect both in the composition and detailed treatment. the rinceau was used (a) for friezes and bands; (b) for pilasters, either single, filling the whole width of the pilaster-panel, or doubled symmetrically on either side of a central axis (figure ); (c) on flat surfaces or panels of almost any form symmetrically repeated on either side of a vertical axis. examples are shown in plate ix. the anthemion. the preceding examples illustrate the applications of the acanthus listed under c and d (page ); fig. and plate ix, , illustrate a group of forms based on the anthemion. while some examples resemble quite closely the greek carved anthemion, others depart widely from the type, constituting a new and original ornament form. ceiling decoration. the wooden ceilings of the basilicas and private houses have perished. vaulted ceilings were decorated in either two ways: by stucco ornament, modeled in re- lief and painted, or by paneling in deep "coffers" or "caissons." these were derived originally through greek architecture from wooden ceilings framed with intersecting beams. in the pantheon they appear to have been hewn out of the solid brick masonry of the dome, long after its original completion, its rows of panels fitting but indifferently over the eight-fold a history of ornament divisions of the architec- ture below. an early and elegant example of vault-paneling is seen in the soffit of the arch of titus ( a.d.). the panels were in most cases simple geometric forms— squares, octagons, "loz- enges," etc.; the sides of each caisson were molded and the fields of the pan- els adorned with splen- didly carved rosettes or with mosaic patterns, or else left plain (fig. ). ceiling decoration in stucco is treated in a later paragraph (page ; see figures and ). figure sculpture. figure sculpture played a far less important part in the decoration of roman buildings than in the greek monuments. the reasons for this have been already touched upon (page ). nevertheless the splendid decorative value of the figure was not ignored, but was availed of in many decorative reliefs of high artistic excellence. the romans were especially successful in the sculpture of symbolic grotesques and of infant fig- fio. . roman carved anthemi- ons. roman ornament, ii ures (genii and amorini). by a grotesque is meant an artistic combination of heterogeneous nature-forms, as in fig. , where an infant figure is provided with wings, and terminates in a superb acanthus scroll in place of legs. the festoon or "swag" and garland, bound with fluttering ribbons representing sacrificial i fro. . fillets (figure ; plate viii, , ); the bucrane or ox-skull, likewise a sacrificial symbol (plate ix, ); the dolphin and steering-paddle symbolizing neptune and water (figure ); the imperial eagle, and trophies of arms and armor, are common in roman decorative art. the most beautiful of roman relief decorations are perhaps the charming reliefs modeled in plaster on the ceilings and walls of houses and thermae, as noted in a later paragraph. a history of ornament wall decoration. three methods were employed: marble veneer, paint- ing and stucco-relief. both in the richer private houses and palaces, and in the thermae, basilicas and temples, the lower part at least of the interior walls was wains- coted with slabs of variegated marble, so set as to pro- duce symmetrical patterns of veining. this practice was probably introduced from asia minor, where marble abounds, although it has been contended with a good deal of force, that it came from alexandria together with the sort of mosaic called opus alexan- drinum. the origin is less important than the result. a special emporium was established on the tiber for the traffic in marble, of which enormous quantities were required for columns, wainscots and pavements. the ancient wall-incrustations have mostly disappeared, torn away to supply materials for medieval and even renais- sance buildings. one important example, however, remains; the interior wall of the pantheon, up to the main cornice, still retains for the most part its original lining, in perfect condition. this style of decoration has survived in the early christian basilicas and byzan- tine churches (see chapters xii and xiii). stucco relief. it was the romans who first, with the aid, most prob- ably, of greek artificers, developed the artistic possibili- ties of work in stucco for interior decorations, especially of vaulted ceilings. this art had evidently reached see "transactions of the royal institute of british architects," vol. ill, new series; . fig. .—stucco relief, from a roman house (in museo delle terme) roman ornament, ii a high state of perfection by the middle of the first century a.d. the substructions of the golden house of nero (who died a.d. ), and of the baths of titus, built in on the same site, together with numerous examples in pompeii, which was overwhelmed by the eruption of a.d., afford abundant proof of the bril- liance, delicacy and originality of the roman stucco- work of this time. the roman stucco, made in part with pounded marble and thoroughly slaked lime, was extraordinarily fine and durable. it was applied only as fast as it could be worked into decorative form, and molded partly by mechanical means, partly freehand, while still wet. the area to be decorated was laid off in panels of various geometric forms, outlined by mold- ings of delicate profile, often enriched with eggs-and- darts, leaves or other ornaments. the panels were then adorned with paintings, with glass-mosaic (as in the baths of caracalla), or more frequently, with relief arabesques or figures modeled in the stucco; and it is in these last that the highest skill was manifested. the exquisite charm of this work, its delicacy of low relief, the freedom and dash of its execution indicate artistic ability and taste of a very high order (figures , ). important examples of various handlings of this material are: at rome, tombs on the via latina, the substructions of the baths of titus and of nero's golden house, ruins on the palatine and fragments in the musec delle terme from a house uncovered in near the villa famesina, in excavations for the new tiber embankments; at pompeii, the baths of the forum (the tepidarium), stabian baths and a few a history of ornament examples in private houses. the great majority of these date from the first century a.d., after which a more robust and monumental decoration of walls and ceilings appears to have gradually displaced this charm- ing but minute and intimate form of art. the ornaments of stucco in low relief were often com- bined with painting, on walls as well as ceilings. the labyrinth of piers and vaults under the ruins of the baths of titus on the esquiline (part of them belong- ing to the golden house of nero) are doubly interest- ing because they furnished the models from which raphael drew his inspiration for his remarkable painted stucco-relief decorations in the loggie of the vatican, and less directly, giulio romano and giovanni da udine for those in the villa madama. painting. the above examples, especially those from the house uncovered in , and others in the villa of hadrian at tivoli, and in the so-called casa di livia on the palatine, prove the substantial identity of style of the mural paintings in the capital with those at pompeii, with only such differences of quality as one might expect between the capital and a provincial town, somewhat hastily rebuilt after the earthquake of . this phase of roman ornament will be treated in the next chapter, devoted to pompeii, on account of the great number and importance of the pompeiian examples. pavements. the floors of all important buildings were of marble roman ornament, ii fig. . detail, floor, mosaic, in villa italica, seville. or mosaic. marble was used in large panels of various colors in circles, squares and simple geometric forms; but as with the wains- coting, most of these pavements have dis- appeared to provide materials for the floors of christian basilicas. that of the pantheon may be in part original, and fragments of the floor of the basilica julia have also been preserved. mosaic floors were paved with minute tesserae or roughly squared fragments of colored marble, tile or other ma- terial, set in patterns usually of a plain field with a decorative bor- der in the larger rooms, though in smaller rooms all-over patterns were not uncommon (plate xi, , , ). outside of rome, in asia minor and in other remote provinces as well as in pompeii, elaborately pictured floors were executed in tesserae of variously colored marbles. the most fa- mous example from the house of the faun in pompeii is now pre- fio. . ornaments, bronze and gold. a history of ornament served in the naples museum (see page ). figure illustrates a floor pattern of "swastikas" from a house in pompeii. there are some fine examples in the museum of constantinople. fig. shows a detail of the mosaic floor of a roman villa near seville, spain. furniture and utensils. whatever furniture was of wood has perished; but the more important and permanent objects in the equip- fio. . under side of silver vase, hildesheim treasure. ment of houses were of marble and bronze, and of these, together with the smaller utensils and furnishings in bronze, we have many examples in the various museums. as, however, the great majority of these are from pompeii, they will be briefly discussed and illustrated in the following chapter on pompeiian art. plate x and figures , and figs. , show illustrations fia. .—roman vase (from cast in metropolitan museum, new york) roman ornament, ii of pedestals, candelabra and vases, mostly in the muse- ums of the vatican and of the capitol at rome and in the museo nazionale at naples. large vases of marble, elaborately sculptured, were used in the decoration of villas, presumably in the gardens, serving most probably as vases for the planting of flowers, vines and small trees or shrubs. in these, roman decorative art reached a high degree of excellence and supplied models which the renaissance artists of italy and later of france imitated with success but hardly surpassed. the museum of the louvre possesses a colossal marble vase with spiral flutings and figures in relief, and other ex- amples are found in the capitoline and vatican museums at rome and the nazionale at naples (figures , ). convex and concave flutings, acanthus-leaves and guilloches, the vine and grotesques are the most com- mon adornments of these fine vases, the grace of whose outlines is fully equal to the splendor of their decoration. goldsmith's work and jewelry. skill in jewelry was shown by the etruscans, who may have furnished the greater part of the jewelers even in imperial times. the character of the later jewelry—bracelets, brooches, pendants and pins—does not differ essentially from that of the earlier etruscan work except in greater variety of form. the bronze and silver mirrors deserve notice for the beauty of the handles and backs. the famous hildesheim treasure, discovered in at hildesheim, germany, com- prising gold and silver bowls, platters and other vessels magnificently decorated with figures, vines and orna- a history df ornament ments in relief, reveals the same excellent taste and fine workmanship observable in roman works in bronze and marble (plate x and figure ). fig. . books recommended: as before, anderson and spiers, baumeister, jacobsthal, kachel, vulliamy. also, f. albertolli: fregt trovati negli scavi del foro trajano (milan, ); ornamenti diversi an- tonini (milan, ); manuale di varii ornamenti . . . e fra- menti antichi (rome, - ).—j. bxtehlmann: the architecture of classical antiquity and the renaissance (new york, ).—g. p. campana: antiche opere in plastica (rome, ).—j. durm: baukunst der etrusker; baukunst der romer (darmstadt, ).—g. ebe: die schmuckformen roman ornament, ii der monumentalbauten (leipzig, ).—h. d'espouy: frag- ments de varchitecture antique (paris,' - ).—p. gus- man: l'art decoratif de rome (paris, ).— s. hessel- bach: vergleichende darstellung der antiken ornamentik, etc. (wiirzburg, ).—j. de marta: l'art etrusque; archeol- ogie etrusque et romaine (paris, n. d.).—strack: baudenk- maler roms. (berlin, ).—c. h. tatham: etchings (london, ).—taylob and cresy, antiquities of rome (london, ).—thierry: klassische ornamente.—c. uhde: architecturformen des klassischen altertums (berlin, n. d.); also an edition in english (new york, ). consult also various volumes of the engravings of pibanesi (to be found only in the larger libraries); the volumes of l'art pour tons (paris, —) ; and the printed transactions of various archaeological societies, for valuable material. chapter xi pompeiian ornament the decorative art of pompeii was a provincial phase of roman art differing from that of the capital in cer- tain aspects, precisely as in dalmatia, in syria and in north africa, local conditions modified the detailed forms of decorative expression while the roman impress was nevertheless over all. it is pervaded by a spirit of grecian delicacy and refinement, due to the strong greek element in the population of southern italy; but there are details on the other hand which smack of the etruscan. the importance of pompeiian art is due to its wonderfully complete preservation by burial under the scorice after the eruption of vesuvius in a.d. its progressive excavation since has laid bare the aspect, life and art of a provincial south italian city of the first century, while all other roman cities (except herculanum, still buried) have suffered complete trans- formation by successive rebuildings through eighteen centuries. two facts must be kept in mind in all study of pom- peiian art: first, that the majority of houses and many of the temples and public buildings were, at the time of the eruption, newly built to replace those destroyed by the earthquake of a.d.; and that in consequence pompeiian ornament of the earthquake they were mostly low buildings, un- like the more lofty and monumental architecture of most other cities; secondly, that they represent the relatively early roman art of the first century, previous to the time of domitian, and not of the later and more splendid imperial age. yet in the matter of decoration there is less difference of style than one would expect from the work of the same age in the capital (e.g., the fig. . ionic cap, corner volutes. house of livia and the frescoes in the museo delle terme) or even of a later period as seen in the villa of hadrian. the ornament of pompeii will be discussed under four heads: ( ) architectural detail; ( ) mural decora- tion; ( ) mosaic; ( ) furniture and utensils. it will be seen that in all these divisions, while the motives are essentially roman, there is a freedom, a lightness of touch and delicacy of treatment, which suggest greek workmanship, and which are probably due to the per- sistent strain of hellenic blood in the population of all southern italy. a history of ornament architectural detail. the orders were handled with great freedom, whether executed in cut-stone, or, as more frequently, in rubble or brick finished in stucco. the doric order was often of the greek rather than of the roman type; the ionic capital usually had doubled corner-volutes and a very slight projection or width as compared with both greek and roman types (fig. ), and the corinthian capital was considerably varied, both in the number and character of its leaves. the roman type of acanthus is not found, a more bluntly crinkled leaf being pre- ferred. the doric columns had no bases, those of the other orders often lacked plinths; the moldings differed from the roman, in having profiles more varied and delicate, with an almost feminine refinement (fig. ). the entablatures have for the most part perished. the few fragments that remain intact show the same characteristics in varying from the fashions of rome and in refinement of detail. a common pompeiian feature was the filling-up of the lower part pompeiian ornament of the flutings of stuccoed columns, to prevent the chipping and marring of the fragile arrises; sometimes a convex "flute" or bead inserted in this portion protected without quite filling the fluting, and this has become a common decorative device of modern architecture. all this pompeiian architecture of rubble and stucco was embellished with color, of which traces still remain. even capitals were painted and the carved and molded details were adorned in like manner. one house is known as the casa dei capitelli colorati, the house of painted capitals, because of the perfect preservation of the color on its stucco or cement capitals; but it was originally but one of hundreds so adorned. figure illustrates the elegance of detail in a carved rinceau in stone. mural decoration. in this field the pompeiian remains are unrivaled. the chief means of decoration was by painting on stucco; the use of rich marbles, whether for construction fig. . carved pompeiian rinceau. a history of ornament or wall-incrustation, although increasingly common in rome for at least a half century before the destruction of pompeii, was not common in the provincial town. the surprising thing is that within less than sixteen years after the destructive earthquake of a.d. , this town should have been rebuilt with such elaboration of elegance in its painted decorations as the remains have exhibited. many of the paintings have been trans- ferred to the royal museum at naples, but the wealth of decoration still remaining in place is astonishing, in quality as well as quantity. some of the more recently excavated houses—that of queen margherita, of the vettii, and others, equal or surpass the splendors of the museum (figures , ). four well-marked periods or styles (for doubtless they overlap independently of period-limits) are recog- nized. the first, supposed to be etruscan or cumaean, and dating as far back as b.c., is that of walls simply divided into panels of different colors with occasional painted imitations of marble wainscot. the second, called the greek, supposed to have been introduced about b.c., is distinguished by the earliest use of pictures copied from greek originals, or reminiscences of them, the subjects being mostly taken from greek mythology. a very simple type of painted archi- tectural embellishment accompanies many of these pic- tured decorations: painted columns, bases and entab- latures serving to mark off the wall-divisions. the third and fourth styles are roman or pompeiian; both are found in the houses rebuilt after the earthquake, and both are characterized by a light and fantastic archi- pompeiian ornament tecture painted in a conventional perspective, with slender columns as of gold, with extraordinary entab- latures, pediments and balconies, giving vistas of the clear sky above, and enclosing pictures of varied sub- jects, sometimes of large size, or simpler colored panels in the centers of which float airy figures of nymphs, cupids and other mythological beings, in the fourth or florid style this "dream" architecture is still more complex, attenuated and fantastic than in the third, and the simpler and more obvious wall-decorations of friezes and arabesques play a smaller part in the scheme. in the painted details, apart from pictures and the architecture, there is a great variety of conventional patterns for bands of ornament; a remarkably elegant treatment of the rinceau motive, in varied colors on black or red (plate xi, ); and a corresponding inter- pretation of carved pilaster-arabesques in painted arabesques of yellow and other colors on a red, green or dark background (plate xi, - ). much of this decoration has the character of mere artisanship, but it is extremely clever artisanship, and one has no right to call for the higher qualities of art in the decorations of ordinary houses. the technic of the painting has been much discussed; but it is now quite generally believed to have been executed in true fresco on the wet plaster, at least in the majority of examples; and then touched up and many of the details worked over, in the finer examples with encaustic painting. in this last process the pig- ments were mixed in melted wax on a hot metal palette a history of ornament and applied with a hot iron instrument instead of a brush. stucco relief. this form of mural decoration, as applied both to walls and ceilings, has already been touched upon (see ante, page ). a comparison of the examples from rome and pompeii respectively, discloses no funda- mental difference of style or even quality between the work in the two cities. the most notable examples in pompeii are those in the two chief baths—the thermae of the forum and of stabii. in these we have a rinceau frieze, delicate panel-moldings, ideal or mythological figures, tritons, winged figures, dolphins and the like, and free-hand arabesques, all treated with an animation of design, a freedom from mechanical repetition and hardness, and a delicacy of handling, worthy of greece and of the capital, and surprising to find in a relatively small provincial city (figure ; plate xi, , ). this and the roman stucco-work ought to be fruitfully suggestive to modern decorators, for its effects are full of charm, and yet not unduly costly or difficult to pro- duce. besides these interior decorations in low relief, there should be mentioned the decorations of the exteriors of buildings by stucco details molded upon a rough core of rubble or brick, and also the use of stucco for columns and capitals in place of stone. it is easy to criticize adversely this substitution of a fragile for a monumental i in the metropolitan museum of art at new york there are several sec- tions of wall from a villa at boscoreale, with decorations of the third period,—mostly landscapes of buildings and farms. fig. .—pompeiian stucco relief; from the stabian baths pompeiian ornament material in exterior ar- chitecture; but given a scarcity of marble and of good building stone with an abundance of soft tufa and of "pozzolana" for the making of cement- stucco; given also the ne- cessity of a rapid re- building of almost an entire town after the earthquake of , and it would be hard to imagine a more artistic and satis- factory result than the pompeiians produced in a few short years with rub- ble, stucco and paint. mosaic. fio. . mosaic floor patterns. mosaic floors were al- most all of opus grecanicum, laid in small tesserae of marble and other stone or even tile, in patterns which frequently suggest rug-designs. each floor has a bor- der and either an all-over patterned field (see fig. ), a central medallion, or a spangled field (fig. ; plate xi, , , ). the swastika appears in some of these. the chained dog with the inscription cave canem ("beware the dog") was a common decoration of the prothyrum or vestibule. the finer houses boasted elaborate pictures in color, made with very small tesserae, a history of ornament and in some cases, no doubt, copying parts or the whole of celebrated greek pictures. genre pictures and ani- mal subjects were common. the greatest and finest of fig. . table-leo (marble) and bronze candelabrum details. naples museum. all mosaic pictures was found in the house of the faun and transferred to the naples museum; it represents presumably the battle of issus, in a panel measuring pompeiian ornament over by feet, and probably reproduces some cele- brated greek painting in alexandria, from which city, after pompey's victory in b.c., a strong hellenic in- fluence was exerted on roman art. the portrait of alexander is unmistakable; the light and shade, fore- shortening, drawing and color are remarkable and the execution extraordinarily fine. mosaic was employed on walls as well as floors, though sparingly. a singular freak or novelty of design was the occasional combination of stucco-relief and mosaic. another use of mosaic was in the decoration of the entire visible surface of various edicules, such as shrines and niche-fountains (figure , p. ), upon which the most brilliant colors of blue, red and green were applied by the use of glass tesserae, and varied effectively sometimes by scallop-shells inserted in bands or lines. furniture and utensils. the excavations at pompeii and herculanum have thrown a light on the more intimate details of roman life not elsewhere to be obtained; not only by the paint- ings of scenes from daily life and by the sgraffiti or scribblings on walls, but even more by the great wealth of utensils, implements and furniture of metal and marble exhumed from the ruins and for the most part transferred to the naples museum. everything of wood and cloth was destroyed by the eruption, but marble and bronze and even iron were preserved by their burial in the volcanic ashes, and we have set before us the marble tables that adorned the atrium and peri- style, the fountains and marble vases or basins, the a history of ornament bronze couch-heads and frames, the candelabra and tri- pods of bronze, the braziers, water-heaters, mirrors, lamps, hair pins, fibulce or clasps, and innumerable other objects of metal. here again the greek refinement appears in all the details. grotesques are sculptured with consummate skill (fig. ); especially notice- able are the lion's paws terminating in human or in beasts' heads (plate x, , ) and the winged monsters on table-supports. the lightness and grace of the bases and fluted standards of tripods and candelabra suggest that from them in part came the inspiration for the fantastically slender columns of the wall-paint- ings (fig. ). it is interesting to compare these slender candelabra and tripods with the massively splen- did forms of roman candelabra in bronze and in marble in the vatican (see plate x). the pompeiian tombs and altars compared with the roman show a somewhat similar contrast in the detail, though less strongly marked; there is more reserve, less monumental bold- ness in the composition and in the detail. books recommended: mau, trans, by kelsey: pompeii (new york, ).— mazois: hes mines de pompeii (paris, ).—niccolini: he case ed i monumenti di pompeii (naples, - ).—presuhn: die neueste ausgrabvmgen zu pompeii (leipzig, ).— zahn: ornemens de pompeii (berlin, ); ornamente aller klassischen kunstepochen (berlin, ). chapter xii easly christian or basilican ornament it would be hard to point to two successive styles of architecture and ornament further apart in spirit and detail than those of imperial rome and early christian rome, yet they form no exception to the rule of style- development by gradual transition. this transition is for us obscured first by the widespread destruction of early churches in the east during the moslem conquests and in the west during the persecutions under dio- cletian, and also by the fact that the beginnings of chris- tian symbolic art in europe were made in the catacombs and not above ground, and were thus humble and incon- spicuous. but the christian artists were romans, working upon the basis of roman art traditions which, up to the legalization of christianity by constantine in a.d., were applied alike to secular and religious buildings. it was the predominance after that date of religious art employing a wholly new symbolism that most effectively differentiated the christian from the pagan imperial style. christian art began, then, nowhere as a consciously new art, but everywhere in syria, asia minor, egypt, italy and greece—as a phase of the existing local art. in the eastern empire, with constantinople as its center, a history of ornament religious architecture and decoration diverged rapidly under greek influence from the style of the west to become what we call the byzantine. in italy, with rome as its center, they took on the development com- monly called the early christian, or latin, or—from the resemblance of the churches to the secular basilicas of the empire—the basilican style. early christian art sepulchral. the beginnings of christian art are not, however, to be looked for in architecture. until the edict of con- stantine legalizing chris- tianity, its rites were, at least in the west, prac- tised in private, largely in secret, and the language of symbols took on in- creased importance where persecution so often fol- lowed open speech. upon the walls of the cata- combs, which served not merely as places of sep- ulture but also as meet- ing-places for worship, were painted scriptural scenes and symbolic com- positions: the good shep herd as a young man ^o.s . sarcophagus end, ravenna. carrying a lamb on his shoulder, in evident reminiscence of the classic herakles kriophoros; the fish, the letters of fig. .—detail, san lorenzo fuoki le mura fig. .—apse mosaic, san clemente basilican ornament which word in greek ox***) form an acrostic of the greek words for "jesus christ, son of god, savior"; the vine, in allusion to christ's saying, "i am the vine," and other like representations. later many other forms were added: the laharum—the standard borne by con- stantine's army after his victory of the milvian bridge, in both forms * and ;the letters i h s, the first three letters of the greek ihsoys, later taken to signify both iesus hominum salvator and in hoc signo (vinces), the words heard or seen by constantine in his vision at the milvian bridge; the cyress-tree, symbolic of the cemetery and hence of death and burial and finally baptism, which was regarded as the burial of the sinful nature; the emblems of the four evangelists —the ox for matthew, the lion for mark, the head of a man for luke, the eagle for john; angels and cherubs, funereal wreaths and festoons and finally the cross itself, equal-armed after the greek fashion, or with a long standard after the latin. sheep to represent the flock of the church; the paschal cup, the peacock and other emblems of various significations were little by little added to the list, and appear both in latin and byzan- tine art. it is somewhat remarkable that the cross does not appear until late; hardly at all before the latter part of the fifth or the early sixth century. many of the christian emblems were already familiar forms in roman pagan art. angels were but roman winged genii endowed with a new significance; the vine, origi- nally a bacchic emblem, became a christ-symbol; the wreath and festoon were transferred from the service i romans vii, . a history of ornament of roman sacrifices to that of christian burial. most of these forms were used at first with purely symbolic intent, having significance only for the initiated. in time, however, the symbolic intent, as always in the evolution of decorative art, because subordinate to the decorative: the symbol became a common ornament, multiplied and endlessly varied in the decoration not merely of sarcophagi (fig. ) and funereal chapels, but of churches, baptisteries, oratories and tombs. all the resources of mosaic, painting and carving were en- listed in their representation. figure sculpture alone remained for centuries undeveloped, largely in conse- quence of the hatred of pagan idolatry with which it was so generally associated in the popular mind. architectural ornament. early christian art in the west made little of archi- tecture. two types of building predominated, the basilican church and the baptistery. the first was a simple three-aisled hall with a wooden roof, a semi- circuliar apse for the clergy at the further end, and a transverse porch or narthex across the entrance-front. the two rows of columns which separated the broad cen- tral aisle or nave from the side-aisles, supported each a clearstory wall rising above the roofs of the side-aisles and carrying the lofty central roof: these walls were pierced with windows to light the nave. in the larger basilicas there were double side-aisles, and in some in- stances a transverse aisle, called the transept, as high and nearly as wide as the nave, crossed it directly in front of the apse. the arch forming the front of the apse basilican ornament was generally called the triumphal arch, though in tran- septal basilicas the name is applied to the great arch by which the nave enters the transept. excepting the half- dome over the apse, no vaulting was employed in these churches. the columns were taken from pagan ruins, and so indifferent were the churchmen to architectural regularity that the columns of the same row often dis- play a great variety of sizes and even different orders of capitals (figure ). this was partly due to the poverty of the churches during the gloomy centuries fol- lowing the fall of rome, but all the evidence points to a strangely prevalent indifference to architecture as an art, which the three great basilicas of st. peter, st. paul and sta. maria maggiore (all three originally built be- fore the final fall of rome) only emphasize by contrast. the builders of basilicas were chiefly engrossed with the applied decorations of their churches. even in this field, roman art remained almost stationary for centu- ries, depending largely upon byzantine artists for a part of this decoration. elements of latin ornament. the architectural ornament consisted of the following elements: (a) pavements of colored marble and hard stone, in a combination of opus sectile and opus alex- andrinum;* (b) marble sheathing or wainscot on the lower walls; (c) mosaic on the apse and its arch, on the« triumphal transept arch, and on the clearstory walls; rarely, in late examples, on the exterior of the front or hereafter s. and sta. will be used for san, santo and santa. * sectile = cut to shape; alexandrinum — of small geometric units. a history of ornament narthex and on cloister arcades; (d) the ornamentation of the fixed furniture of the church; and (e), the decora- tion by painting or otherwise of the wooden ceilings of nave and aisles. a. floor pavements. dates and periods are hard to fix and signify little in this field of design, as the style remained practically un- fio. . floor mosaic, san clehekte, rome. changed for centuries. the nave floor was commonly divided into rectangular panels by broad bands of colored marble in which were set guilloche patterns (fig. ) in opus sectile combined with alexandrinum. the panels were filled with field patterns of alex- andrinum surrounding discs or slabs of solid color (see plate xiii, ). porphyry, verd-antique, ser- basilican ornament pentine, and white and yellow marble were the usual ma- terials employed, and the resulting effects were rich and yet sober, indestructible, and soft in color-harmony. the round disks were cut from antique columns sawed into slices, and all the ruins of antiquity were a quarry for paving materials. this form of floor-decoration is probably the most effective ever devised. the contrast of the solid dark red or green of the disks with the sparkle of the minute patterns of alexandrinum and the sweeping curves of the huge guilloches surrounding them, produce a decora- tive ensemble in every way admirable. splendid ex- amples survive in the churches of sta. maria in trastevere, sta. maria maggiore, san lorenzo, san marco and san clemente. floors of this description were in vogue throughout the entire middle ages, in rome and its neighborhood and even in remote italy, as in the floor of the byzantine st. mark's church at venice, dating from the th century. b. marble wainscoting. this system of wall decoration, often called incrusta- tion, was inherited from ancient rome, but was used more extensively in the eastern than in the western churches. the roman basilicas have moreover been so often remodeled that nearly every vestige of their in- crustations has disappeared. exceptions are found in sta. agnese and in sta. sabina; in the latter the arch- spandrels are inlaid with formal conventional patterns. usually the practice was followed of symmetrically pair- ing slabs having similar veinings, as is shown in fig. a history of ornament fio. . byzantine wainscot. , a byzantine example from constantinople. this practice is common to the basilican and byzantine styles. c. mosaic. in this art, at least in that branch of it in which small cubes or tesserce of glass are employed to form pictures and patterns on walls and vaults (opus grecanicum), it is impossible to distinguish sharply between the byzan- tine and basilican or latin styles. greeks from con- stantinople doubtless were often employed to execute mosaics in rome, and were probably the originators of basilican ornament this form of christian art. by means of minute tessera? of glass "paste," pictures and patterns can be formed of any desired combination and gradation of colors, gold and silver effects being produced by gold- or silver-leaf imprisoned between two layers of glass paste fused to- gether. the deep blues, from lapis-lazuli to a soft green-blue, the rich reds, soft yellows and greens and brilliant gold and silver of this sort of mosaic made pos- sible a splendor of color far transcending any form of painting, and unrivaled in depth and intensity except by the later invention of stained glass. its magnificence appealed strongly to the taste of the early christian cen- turies, and its adaptation to pictorial representation fitted it to express that symbolism which the mental habit of the times demanded. accordingly there is more of picturing than of pure ornament, which is con- fined chiefly to narrow borders, often simulating jewels set in gold. it remained for the byzantines to develop the possibilities of mosaic in the field of pure ornament. the most important mosaics were in, or on, the apse- vaults, and represented such subjects as the kingdom of god by the symbolism of the shepherd and twelve sheep, or some like composition. similar subjects, with angels, adorned the spandrels by the apse arch, and the trium- phal transept-arch. the clearstory often bore pictures of saints, angels and apostles, and biblical scenes. among the finest of all latin mosaics are those of the apses of sta. pudenziana and sta. maria in trastevere, the apse and triumphal arch of st. paul without the walls (s. paolo fuori le mura) recovered from the ruins of the original basilica and incorporated in the modern a history of ornament reconstruction; of sta. prassede and sta. sabina, all at rome; and of the two san apollinare churches at ravenna (sixth century). of later date is the superb rinceau decoration in the apse-head of san clemente ( - ): an exceptional example of conventional ornament in mosaic in a basilica (figure ). apart from such applications of the rinceau, there were few distinctive ornament motives in the mosaic decora- fio. . early christian mosaic borders. tions. fig. shows two examples of mosaic bor- ders, a from the palace of st. john lateran, a mosaic of the eighth century; from the facade of santa maria in trastevere, both in rome. d. ecclesiastical furniture. the chief elements in the fixed furniture of the churches were the ciborium or baldaquin—the canopy over the altar and tomb of the saint; the altar itself; the choir-enclosure; and the two pulpits or ambones, affected respectively to the reading of the gospels and of the epistles, the former being adorned with a basilican ornament columnar candelabrum. the seats for the clergy were orig- inally simple steps of marble set around the apse, and the bishop's throne was apparently of very simple design. later the clergy- seats were removed from the apse or bema and the altar placed there in their stead, though the ciborium remained in its original position to mark tke tomb of the martyr or saint. all this fixed furniture was of marble, usually built up of flat slabs inlaid with opus alexan- drinum. the ciborium was a structure of four columns with a pyramidal roof; the altar a simple rectangular box or table of marble; the choir-enclosure a paneled marble parapet about three feet high; the am- bones, elevated reading-desks on either side of the choir reached by flights of steep stairs. the decoration of these simple forms was often very rich, especially of the pulpits and altar frontals (fig. ). it consisted of inlaid patterns of opus alexandrinum combined with disks and guilloches of sectile, in principle like the floor- mosaics, but finer in scale and execution. in the later work, the geometrical units of the alexandrine mosaic— triangles, squares, circular segments, etc.—were often of glass paste, producing much more brilliant effects than fio. . ara coeli, rome. a history of ornament the marble and porphyry units of the earlier works. it appears to have been first used in the spiral flutings of the gospel or easter column. this brilliant form of alexandrine work, whatever its origin, became espe- cially common in southern italy, and was practised there and in rome as late as the thirteenth century. it is found in the cloisters of monreale (twelfth century), fig. . mosaic details, pulpit in sax lorenzo fuori. in sicily, and in those of san paolo fuori and st. john lateran at rome (thirteenth century). rome became the center of an important school of marmorarii and of a great industry in' marble mosaic, and its artists traveled far to execute orders for church furniture and cloister- arcades. the family of the cosmati (from cosmatus or cosmas, grandson of the founder of the school), were especially noted for several generations, and their name is often applied to the combination of sectile and alex- andrinum which they used and developed (figs. , from ara coeli and san lorenzo rome. see chapter xiv). basilican ornament in the cloisters above mentioned, in the easter columns, and frequently also in the ambones (fig. ), twisted shafts or spiral flutings were used. the introduction of this form of column, theoretically inap- propriate for a support, into italian art, may be traced to the rich but ugly twisted column now in st. peter's at rome, brought in the sixth century from jerusalem, where it was believed to have been a part of the "gate beautiful" where st. peter healed the lame man (acts iii, - ). it belongs probably to the decline of roman imperial art, much later than st. peter's time. e. ceilings. not one of the ceilings of the earlier basilicas remains to us in its original form. it is unlikely that in churches resplendent with marble and mosaic the ceilings were as bare and barnlike as are to-day most of those which have not been entirely remodeled in comparatively re- cent times. we are, however, left to speculation as to their precise treatment. the painted open-trussed ceilings of several medieval churches of the eleventh and twelfth centuries (messina, monreale, san miniato near florence) show a somewhat similar treatment though belonging to different styles, which points to the existence of a strong ancient tradition (see chapter xiv). it is likely also that in some cases the trusses were concealed by a decorative ceiling of wood, paneled in coffers with rosettes, after the fashion of many greek and roman ceilings, and richly painted and gilded. but no such ceilings remain to our day. it may be, * destroyed in the earthquake of . a history of ornament however, that the splendid ceiling of sta. maria mag- giore is a reproduction or imitation of the original of the fifth century. vaulted ceilings were chiefly confined to baptisteries and tombs. the earliest of these are the dome over the central space and the annular vault over the encircling aisle of sta. costanza at rome, erected by constantine presumably as the tomb of his daughter constantia, but from early times used as a baptistery. the decorations of the dome have perished, but among the well-preserved mosaics of the aisle-vault are vintage scenes (figure ), apparently pagan, but here transferred to the service of christian symbolism; and geometrical pat- terns combined with small figure subjects. but in nearly all domical and vaulted buildings after the fourth century the latin and byzantine styles are one and the same, and the ornament of such buildings will be taken up in the chapter on byzantine art. from the preceding paragraphs it may be rightly in- ferred that the early christian builders were singularly lacking in architectural inventiveness. there is not a single structural form, not an architectural innovation, not an ornament of purely architectural character, that can be credited to their initiative. their art was sta- tionary and unprogressive, and contrasts surprisingly with the rapid progress and splendor of achievement of the contemporary byzantine art in the eastern empire. books recommended: bunsen : die basiliken des christlichen roms (munich, n. d.). —essenwein: ausgdnge der klassichen baukunst (in hand- buck der architektur, darmstadt, ).—a. l. frothing- fig. .—mosaic in vault of sta. costanza basilican ornament ham: monuments of christian rome (new york, ).— gerspach: la mosa'ique (paris, ).—gutensohn and knapp: derikmale der christlichen religion (rome, - ). —hubsch: monuments de varchitecture chretienne (paris, ).—portheem: uber dem dekorativen stil in der altchrist- lichen kunst (stuttgart, ).—von qttast: die altchrist- lichen bauwerke zu ravenna.—de rossi: la roma soter- ranea christiana (rome, - ).'—n. h. j. westiake: history of design in mural painting, from the earliest times to the th century (london, ). chapter xiii byzantine ornament in striking contrast to the architectural poverty of the latin or western ornament of the early church stands the architectural richness of the decorative art which grew up in the east roman or byzantine empire, and which was founded upon and largely dominated by the architecture. with the decline and fall of rome, the lamp of civilization passed to constantine's eastern capital on the bosphorus and into the hands of the byzantine greeks of thrace, macedonia, asia minor and syria. these greeks, largely asiatic, borrowing freely and impartially from classic greek, roman and asiatic sources, developed with singular rapidity in the fifth and sixth centuries new types of vaulted construc- tion and a system of decoration of remarkable original- ity and beauty, in which the oriental love of brilliant color and surface ornament was blended with the occi- dental appreciation of logical construction and pure form. this byzantine art culminated under justinian ( - ); invaded italy, especially after the byzantine conquest of ravenna; and spread through the entire extent of the byzantine empire. the decline that set in soon after the brilliant reign of justinian was a slow decline, so that we find this art still productive in the byzantine ornament eleventh and twelfth centuries. indeed, st. mark's at venice, one of its most brilliant works, dates from , while offshoots from the parent stem throve for cen- turies in the ecclesiastical buildings of russia and armenia, and later in the impressive mosques of the ottoman turks. leading characteristics. the byzantine system of design and decoration was in fundamental prin- ciple like the ro- man in its use of a decorative skin or veneer of marble, mosaic, or other fine material upon a structural mass or core of brick, con- crete or like coarser material. the chief difference, structur- ally, was in the use of the dome on pen- dentives in place of groined vaulting; fw- - detail raom spalato. and decoratively, in an entirely new and original treat- ment of detail. for the classic roman play of light and shade by means of relief carving and architectural features the byzantines substituted a system of decora- tion in color and surface-etching, reducing all surfaces as nearly as possible to unbroken planes or curves, sup- a history of ornament pressing all avoidable projections and recessings. mar- ble incrustations and pavements were used with even greater splendor than in rome, and all vaults covered with superb mosaics, or, when means were lacking for the more splendid adornment, with pictures in fresco on plaster. architectural ornament. such details of architecture as were inherited from classic roman precedent were subjected to a flatten- fio. . impost cap, s. vitale. ing process by which they lost all their strong reliefs, high lights and deep shadows. this process had begun as far back as a.d. in the palace of diocletian at spalato (fig. ), in another part of which one also byzantine ornament observes arches carried directly on columns, as in byzantine buildings. in the spalato entablature, by changes of profile and proportion the architrave has been exaggerated, the frieze reduced to a mere molding, the corona to a fillet, and the general profile of the cor- nice almost to a ° splay. in hagia sophia, the masterpiece of byzantine art, we find a similar treat- fio. . coainthianesaue cap, s. apollikare nuovo, ravenna. ment of cornices and moldings, while capitals, shafts, archivolts and all other features depart in an equally striking degree from roman models (plate xii, , ). impost blocks. the byzantines invented a new feature, the impost- block, to replace the bits of entablature which the a history of ornament romans in their vaulted buildings interposed between the capital and the spring of the vaulting. the byzan- tine impost-block, shaped like the inverted frustum of a pyramid (fig. ; plate xii, ) was decorated with monograms, crosses, lambs or other symbols, or sur- fio. . "basket" cap, s. apollinabe nuovo, ravenna. face-carving. the capital proper sometimes retained a semblance of the corinthian (fig. ) or ionic type; but was in other cases greatly simplified in mass and covered with lace-like or basket-like patterns, some- times deeply undercut—the basket type fig. ; figure , page . these occur alike in ravenna, parenzo, constantinople, salonica, venice and syria. in the magnificent capitals of the great columns of hagia sophia the impost-block is dispensed with (plates xii, byzantine ornament ; xiii, ), and the vigorous but graceful mass of the capital, with its corner volutes and surface carving of flat acanthus-leaves, performs adequately its true function of carry- ing the heavy arches that rest upon it. a frequently occurring - type with central and gggg ggggg corner ridges (fig. ) may have been suggested by uncut or roughed-out corinthian caps, blocked-out in this way for the subsequent detailed cutting of the central rosettes and volutes and the corner volutes, cau- licoli and leaves. shafts. shafts are of polished marble, granite or porphyry, sometimes, as in hagia sophia, ringed with a number of astragals or annulets, a treatment detrimental to the best effect. spandrels and soffits. the soffits were decorated either with mosaic, as in s. vitale at ravenna and the upper arcades of hagia i this ingenious and plausible suggestion seems to have originated with the late professor w. r. ware. iergiu fig. . above, carved spandrel from haoia sophia; below, frieze from st. serqius. a history of ornament sophia, or with marble, which was sometimes carved in bands of lace-like patterns as in the lower arcades of hagia sophia. the archivolt was marked by small moldings (plate xii, ). spandrels were commonly incrusted with marble without other ornament, as in st. mark's; sometimes mosaic or fresco was used in either pictorial or arabesque patterns (plate xiii, ), or surface-carving was executed on the marble incrustation (fig. ). the nave of hagia sophia shows both of the last two treatments. carving. in all byzantine decorative carving, figure-sculpture, high relief and indeed true relief of any kind are singu- larly lacking. in their place the byzantine artists de- fio. . frieze, st. joux studios, constantinople. veloped a system of carving by incision, the entire pat- tern lying in one plane, so designed that the background formed a series of isolated pits or depressions, the total effect being rich and highly decorative in spite of its flat- ness. the patterns were chiefly based on the acanthus and rinceau (figs. , , ); but the leaves and stems were flattened, the lobes made pointed, the pipes suppressed, the calyx-flowers and caulicoli of the rinceau byzantine ornament obliterated, and the points of the leaves so disposed as to touch the concave sides of the stems of their neighbors, or to meet each other point to point, forming innumer- able triangular or quadrilateral pits or spots of back- ground. the leaves were channeled with v-section channels, and the whole produced an effect as of stone lace work applied to a flat background (figs. , ). the origin of this peculiar treatment of classic motives has been variously explained. viollet-le-duc credits fig. . acanthus anthemions. fig. . it to syrian, and chiefly to jewish influence. early christian and pre-christian tombs in palestine show a somewhat similar style of dry and flat surface-carving, with frequent use of the vine-motive which is also com- mon in byzantine ornament. in central syria inter- esting remains from the third to sixth centuries also dis- play kinship with byzantine work (fig. ). on the other hand, the same tendencies are visible in the palace at spalato (see ante, fig. ) in dalmatia, and to some extent in works of constantine's time. the a history of ornament most probable explanation of the genesis of the style, so far as its decorative art is concerned, is found in the influence of the asiatic greeks, who would most natu- rally combine the asiatic love of surface decoration in minutely detailed all-over patterns, with the traditional motives of greek classic and roman art. it was the rise and preeminence of constantinople in the sixth cen- fio. . anthemion frieze, st. mask's, venice. tury under justinian, that gave to this nascent style its first great impulse. the artificers in mosaic, ivory- carving, enamel and other arts from constantinople, many of whom had, during the preceding century, found their chief employment in italy and other foreign coun- tries, were now abundantly and constantly employed in their home capital. under justinian's strenuous and splendor-loving rule, the arts of design were developed with an almost feverish activity. the flat surface-carv- ing harmonized better with the flat color-decoration in marble and mosaic than the more vigorous relief of the byzantine ornament roman and greek prototypes; and architectural light- and-shade was treated in a wholly new spirit, and the old types of capital and entablature gradually disappeared. moldings. the profiles were weak; effect was sought by enrich- ment rather than pro- filing; and splay faces covered with acanthus- leaves frequently occur (fig. and plate xii, , , ). the most characteristic molding was the so- called billet molding, cut into small blocks or dentils, often in two rows in which the blocks of one are op- posite the spaces of the other, as appears in the lower part of in plate xii. this molding was especially used for framing the slabs of marble veneer, and contributed strongly to the general effect of a sparkling play of minute spots of light and shade which the byzantine artists loved. bands and borders. the fret, anthemion, vine and rinceau of classic art all appear in byzantine borders and friezes, but in fig. . crosses and anthemions. a history of ornament modified forms, often exhibiting a singular reversion towards earlier, long-forgotten types in greek pottery. the artists of the sixth to twelfth centuries could hardly have known or even seen any antique greek vases, and it is hard to explain how and why this reversion took place; it most probably came about through roman ver- sions of the anthemion and other vase ornaments, sur- viving in roman carvings and mosaics (compare fig. with fig. ). what makes this rever- sion the more interesting is that most of these byzantine anthemions are really acanthus leaves in disguise, as may be seen by comparing them with unmistakable acanthus leaves like those in figs. and . the byzantine carvers, by flattening the leaf and altering its lobes, gradually worked it into a quasi-anthemion form, and then under a similar decorative impulse did fig. . acanthus leaves (above); and rinceau fbom bishop's. b byzantine ornament with it much as the greek pottery-painters had done with the anthemion and palmette, nearly or quite a thou- sand years earlier. the binceau. this has already been alluded to. the friezes from st. sergius (fig. ) and st. john studios (emir akhor jami) at constantinople (fig. ), are fine examples of the typical byzantine continuous rinceau- movement uninterrupted by calyx-flowers, and the merging of stem and caulicolus into one flat, flowing leaf design; while in fig. , b it is seen in its most de- generate form, in a carved slab from the bishop's palace at ferentino. the vine also occurs frequently, espe- cially in italy, singularly recalling painted vine-patterns on greek vases (fig. ). symbols. symbolism played an important part in the carved decoration as well as the mosaics of the byzantines. the vine, already alluded to, is often represented as springing from the paschal ~~ cup or chalice (plate xii, ); the cross often studded with jewels and always with spreading ends (figs. , a, b; and plate xii, , ); the cypress-tree, symbol of the grave, and hence of the mystic burial of baptism (see ante, page ), and in this sense carved on baptismal fonts and plutei and elsewhere in baptisteries (fig. ) in a form fiq. . vine border, s. vitale. a history of ornament singularly like an anthemion; the peacock, as the symbol of the soul (figure ; plate xii, )— these are the most frequently re- curring symbols. an effective decoration for square or circular panels was devised by making the four arms of the cross frame four acanthus-anthemions, as in fig. , a from hagia sophia. in later work, especially in italy where lombard influence may account for it, monsters and grotesques sometimes appear. it is curious to note how often pea- cocks (as in figure ; plate xii, ), lions or monsters, even griffins, as in the exam- ple from sta. maria pomposa (figure ) are placed symmetrically at the base of a cross or tree, recalling a favorite device of greek and roman art, derived origi- nally from assyrian and hittite prototypes. guilloches and interlace. the byzantine artists expanded the ap- plications of the greek guilloche-motive into a whole system of interlaced patterns, in which squares, lozenges and circles, large and small, are combined with great variety and ingenuity. the more elab- fio. . detail of cross in fio. . fig. a. see figure and cf. goblet d'alviella, "the migration of symbols," pages - . byzantine ornament orate examples belong to the later developments. some of the most complex designs are found in ar- menia, where they almost rival the celtic interlaces (see page ). whether these are due to celtic manuscripts carried into armenia, or whether the celtic interlaces were themselves descended from byzantine sources is not clear (fig. a; figures , ; plate xii, ). perforated panels were a special delight of the italo- byzantine designers; they are found chiefly at ravenna, serving as parapet-panels. figure shows a detail of one of the most splendid of these remarkable works (see also plate xii, ). floors and incrustations. the rich and varied marbles of the east supplied abundant materials for decorative pavements and wall- veneers. in principle these resemble those of the latin buildings; guilloche-patterns or borders frame large circles or rectangles of marble, porphyry and verd-an- tique in the floors; while thin slabs of veined marble set so as to form symmetrical veining-patterns, encrust the walls up to the spring of the main arches and vaults (fig. ; plate xii, ). the monotony of their smooth surfaces was broken by the billet-moldings with which the slabs and bands were framed. the composition of this wall-paneling was not always good; the apse of hagia sophia, for example, is a jumble of panels with little or no organic system in their arrangement. the general effect, however, of this veneering in veined marbles is always rich and yet sober; and in st. mark's at venice it reached the highest perfection of internal harmony. a history of ornament fig. . from haoia mosaic. the crowning splendor of byzantine decoration was in its mosaics. these at first differed in no wise from the latin (see page ), which were, indeed, probably executed in many cases by byzantine ar- tists. but the domes and vaults of the east gave special oppor- tunities for the application of this noble form of decoration, and these were freely availed of. conventional ornament was made to play a far more im- portant role in the byzantine sophia. than in the basilican churches, though figure-subjects and pictures still form the chief decoration. hagia sophia and the kahrie mosque (once a byzan- tine church called mone tes choras) at constan- tinople and the two churches of san apolli- nare, the episcopal pal- ace and san vitale at ravenna offer the finest examples of this art, the cubes or tessera? of glass being very small, espe- f,g - ^^*ec°™agus elfd' fig. .—from sta. maria pomposa fig. .—mosaic, tomb of galla placidia fig. .—ivory throne of bishop maximian, ravenna byzantine ornament daily in the first-named. one of the earliest examples of the application of glass mosaic of this type to vault- ing is the tomb of galla placidia, the daughter of theo- dosius, at ravenna; the barrel-vaults of the cross arms and the rude dome of the central lantern being adorned with remarkably effective pictures and patterns, some on a blue and some on a gold ground (figure ). the gold ground predominates in hagia sophia and in some other examples and imparts a richness of effect not otherwise attainable (plate xiii). in many byzantine mosaic pictures there appear rep- resentations of shrines, niches and other architectural subjects derived from sarcophagi, church furniture and minor structures of which no trace has survived. simi- lar forms are seen in manuscript illuminations and in ivory carvings and sarcophagi (fig. ). church furniture. few examples remain of this branch of decorative design for which the byzantines were so celebrated. the accounts of the furniture of hagia sophia given by paul the silentiary describe an almost incredible splendor of jewels, gold and silver. the most impor- tant work of this sort in metal now extant is the "pala d'oro" or silver-and-gold altar-piece of st. mark's in venice, by constantinople artists of the twelfth cen- tury (but much altered in more recent times). plate xii, , figures the end of an italo-byzantine silver chest in florence. of works in marble there exists in the basilica of s. apollinare in classe at ravenna a by- zantine baldaquin or ciborium, and in venice the much a history of ornament later ciborium of st. mark's, besides a fine octagonal canopy and pulpit in the north aisle. in the cathedral of ravenna the ivory throne of bishop maximianus is carefully preserved (sixth century, figure ). ivory carving, indeed, was one of the special arts of byzan- tine civilization; book-covers, diptychs and triptychs in this material exist in museums and private collections. ivory was a precious material in the middle ages, and the art displayed in these small works combined the pictorial composition of the manuscript illuminators with the technic and the ornament of the marble-carvers, but with more freedom in the relief. the cross, pictorial scenes and grapevine borders of the throne of maxim- ianus just referred to, are precisely in the style of the diptychs, though on a larger scale. in many of the minor works of church equipment and furniture enamel was used with or without the accom- paniment of gems in elaborate settings, to impart rich color to the object decorated. the field of each color was slightly hollowed out in the metal—silver, gold or copper—and in this shallow pool the separate colors were fused in the furnace. this process, called champleve enameling, was carried in the path of byzan- tine trade to france where, at limoges, an important center of this art-industry was developed in the twelfth to fourteenth centuries. fig. represents the crown of charlemagne, a fine example of late byzan- tine goldsmith's work of the ninth century. there are in various libraries highly ornate book-covers in gold, enamel and precious stones of the ninth to twelfth cen- turies. byzantine ornament textile ornament. the arts of weaving and embroidery were highly de- veloped by the byzantine civilization, which delighted fig. . the crown of charlemagne. in splendor of official apparel. byzantine stuffs, fabrics and embroideries are found in many museums, mostly those of the later phases of the art (ninth to twelfth centuries). fig. shows an example from the museum of bamberg. manuscript illumination. christianity has been called the religion of a book. in no other religion has the written word played so important a part. long before the final fixing of the canon of the new testament, individual books—gospels, epistles, writings by the early fathers—were being a history of ornament multiplied by skilful scribes and widely circulated by missionaries. the development of monasticism stimu- lated the production of books and led to the establish- ment of schools of calligraphists and miniaturists or illuminators. with increasing veneration for the sacred writings there came increasing splendor in the manu- scripts, which were embellished by pictures, illuminated initials and decorative borders. in this new art the by- zantine greeks showed the highest skill, and the result was the final domination of the byzantine taste and style in this field, as in the closely allied art of mosaic picturing and ornament. the initial letters of chapters or books were made into ornamental designs covering a considerable por- tion of the page, and painted with brilliant red, blue, green and gold, often with accompaniments of an archi- tectural character with or without figures. illustrations of scriptural scenes and allegorical compositions were often introduced, covering an entire page. in these the drawing and coloring followed the formulas that governed the design of like figures in mosaic and fresco decorations of the churches; formulas that became hieratic and were finally written down in inflexible rules that have survived to modern times in the monasteries of mt. athos, and in the icons of the russian churches. this stiff and conventional style of painting was the parent of italian religious painting in the middle ages; and indeed of all christian medieval painting, architec- tural as well as in manuscripts. for the byzantine manuscripts were scattered through the monasteries and » cf. crowninshield, "mural painting." carvings from church&s ct fiokhctaans chouamta; georgia. fiq. .—georgian and armenian cabvino byzantine ornament :::::::::::::: ? ::::::c:::::: fio. . byzantine fabric, bamberg. ern myths, even those of pagan origin, to supply motives for elaborate in- terlaces in borders and in- itials. syrian christian ornament. in syria, christian art took on a special form in the absence of the brick, timber, marble and glass on which latin and by- zantine art so largely de- pended for artistic ex- pression. the buildings of central syria show a churches of western as well as eastern europe, and formed the models from which both the celtic and scandinavian | schools of manuscript decoration took their ear- ly inspiration. in these interlace, which is a sub- ordinate element in the eastern models, became a dominant feature, though it made use of the north- fio. . syrian carving. byzantine ornament books recommended: byzantine as before, essenwein, gehspach, hubsch, von quast. also, bayet: l'art byzantin (paris, n. d.).—h. c. butler: architecture and other arts in northern central syria (new york, ).—a. dehli: selections of byzantine ornament (new york, ).—diehl: manuel de vart byzantin (paris, ).—g. g. gagabin: sbornik bisantiskikh i drevnerusskikh ornamentor (st. petersburg [petrograd], ).—moscow museum of abt : histoire de vornement russe du xme au xvi " si^cle d'apres les manuscrits (paris, ).—ongania: la basilica di san marco (venice, - ).—r. p. pulxan: on the decoration of basilicas and byzantine churches (papers of the r. i. b. a.; london, - ).—salzenberg: die alt- christlichen baudeukmale von constantmopel (berlin, ).— n. simakov: l'ornement russe (st. petersburg [petrograd], ).—texier and pullan: byzantine architecture (lon- don, ).—vioi/let-le-duc: l'art russe (paris, ).— de vogue: syrie centrale (paris, - ). s chapter xiv romanesque oenament . italian and feench a strictly chronological treatment of ornament his- tory might be held to require taking up at this point the beginnings of mohammedan ornament; but a due re- gard for continuity prescribes rather the following of the current of european christian art through the mid- dle ages before taking up the diverging art of the mos- lems, which will therefore be reserved for another vol- ume. the name romanesque has been so widely applied to the various phases of european art in its transition from the latin and byzantine phases to the so-called gothic, that it will be retained in this discussion. it is, indeed, not an inappropriate term, since the art of italy and western europe from about the ninth to the thirteenth century sprang from roots easily traced back to pri- mary sources in the art of classic rome. the romanesque period. throughout all europe, except in parts of the byzan- tine empire, the centuries from the fall of rome to the twelfth constituted a period of chaos, upheaval, and gradual evolution. war, famine, and pestilence re- fig. . detail from front of san michele, lucca fig. .—false window, san stefano, bologna a history of ornament for which constantinople was famous, manuscripts, ivory-carvings, ecclesiastical goldsmith's work and em- broideries. mosaic, however, was never in demand in the west; form rather than color dominates roman- esque art, and the resources of the abbeys and parishes were bestowed upon large and spacious edifices rather than upon such costly adornments as that of mosaic. italian romanesque ornament. italy being not a state but a group of states and prov- inces, there appear at least five more or less distinct styles in her early medieval art; the basilican or latin in rome and its neighborhood; the byzantine in venice, ravenna and on the east coast generally; the tuscan in etruria (tuscany) from pisa to florence and even siena; in the south, especially in sicily, the siculo- arabic, a compound of arabic, byzantine, latin and norman elements; and in the north the lombard, in which the germanic spirit of the race which overran northern italy in the seventh century expressed itself in new forms and combinations. but while these may be properly called distinct styles, they so frequently overlap and mingle that it is not always easy, nor indeed reasonable, to classify a given building definitely in one of these categories. the unity of the church, the migrations of monks and other ecclesiastics and especially of builders and carvers, con- tributed to a constant blurring of the boundary lines of these styles. the basilican and byzantine styles have been already discussed, but in many examples from the other styles romanesque ornament their influence is clearly seen in various details. more- over, these two styles in their later manifestations un- derwent developments and changes, from the influence of western art, which differentiate them from their ear- lier phases. basilicas of the latin type continued to be built until the thirteenth century, and the art of the mosaicist in opus alexandrinum was developed in great splendor by successive generations of the cosma family and their apprentices, in altars, pulpits, and other archi- tectural applications, so that this sort of inlaid geometric mosaic is commonly known as cosmati work. roman artists carried it into southern italy and sicily, where it mingled with the siculo-arabic work. the ex- amples referred to in chapter xii, and illustrated in figs. - , may be compared with the altar-front from ferentino in figure and the columns from monreale in figure . in florence especially, ex- amples of the persistence of this art may be seen in va- rious details of the cathedral and giotto's campanile (figure ). tuscan romanesque. in pisa, lucca, pistoia and the neighborhood there was developed in the llth- th centuries an ecclesias- tical style based on the basilican plan but dressed in an architectural apparel of black and white marble in stripes, adorned with purely decorative arcades; re- cessed arches springing from pilasters against the lower- story walls, and superposed tiers of free arches on columns in the upper stories of the front. inlaid pat- terns, chiefly geometric, adorned the tympana and a history of ornament spandrels of the lower arches (fig. ). carving was sparingly used, but the capitals were carefully carved on classic models, and the shafts sometimes carved with rinceaux of equally classic character (ca- thedral and baptistery of pisa, eleventh century). in lucca the cathedral and the later church of s. mi- fig. . ixlaid patterns, pisa cathedral. chele (figure ) show rich inlays of black on white, with fantastic grotesques, due perhaps to lombard in- fluence which is also seen in some of the columns, and in the lions or monsters which serve as bases to columns in many churches. some of the carving at lucca sug- gests byzantine influence. the use of striping in dark marble and of inlay is seen as far east as in bologna. figure shows a window of the baptistery of s. stefano, where byzantine influence appears in the inter- laces of the perforated panels set in the striped wall. the richly carved lintels of doors in the church of s. giusto, lucca (figure ), show the mixture of influ- ences which impinged on art in tuscany. in florence and san miniato, paneling in black and white takes the place of striping—a less correct treat- romanesque ornament ment structurally though more decorative. in some churches, especially in the baptistery at florence and in san miniato, the pavements show inlaid patterns in black and white which could hardly be surpassed for decorative beauty (figure ). altar and altar-rail at s. miniato are treated with inlays of the same sort. the style was occasionally imitated in remote cities, as at troja in southeast italy, where the cathedral is decorated with recessed arcades after the pisan manner. the siculo-arabic style. the arab conquest of sicily and the subsequent ex- pulsion of the mohammedans by the crusaders, with the establishment of a norman kingdom, and the persist- ence of byzantine tradi- tions, all combined to de- velop a singularly mixed but effective style of decora- tion. the arabic pointed fro. . cunc decoration, arch, inlaid marble wain- pa"rmo- scot with a serrated parapet-cresting after the fashion of cairo, byzantine glass-mosaic on the upper walls and occasional vaults, are conspicuous in such edifices as the cathedrals of monreale (figure ), the martorana and palatine chapels at palermo, and others. latin or "cosmati" mosaics inlaid in twisted shafts adorn the cloisters of monreale (figure ; see also figure ), and some of the pulpits and altars. the open-timber ceilings are richly painted and gilded; cufic inscriptions a history of ornament appear in these (fig. ) and arabic geometric interlace in the pavements. the bronze doors are by north italian artists (fig. ), and here and there even lom- bard details occur. color appears ev- erywhere, in ori- ental profusion. except in the cap- itals, many of which are antique, carving is little used, but some of the cloister capitals at monreale are fine examples of decorative sculpture, showing both norman and byzantine influences (figure ) .* it was a brilliant, confused, and short-lived style. lombard. this style was not confined to lombardy; it prevailed through emilia and as far east as verona, and south even into calabria and apulia. the lombards, a ger- manic race by origin, introduced into italian art an entirely new note of solemnity and somber humor, ex- pressed in the rugged massiveness of their churches and the grotesques in their carving. they contributed to architecture decorative forms and devices which spread i the spiral and zigzag flirtings shown in figure were originally filled with cosmati-work of inlaid mosaics. fio. . detail from bronze doors, monreale cathedral. romanesque ornament into western romanesque art. among these were the arcade cornice (fig. ), long pilaster strips—flat, semi-cylindrical, or spirally twisted; the round or wheel- window (figure ), the col- umn resting on a monster's back; the splayed doorway adorned with many columns in the jambs and with successively recessed or stepped arches above the door-lintel (figure ). the open arcade under the fig. . arcaded corn- eaves of many lombard s. m*™, paiua. churches is a part of the architecture rather than orna- ment. many of these features are common in the french and germanic romanesque, though they origi- nated in italy. there was a constant interchange be- tween the benedictine monasteries of these countries; the crusades brought western hordes into italy, and such commerce as there was aided the dissemination of architectural ideas as well as of commodities. more- over the mcestri comadrii, the skilled masons and carvers organized into guilds of traveling artisans, were almost wholly recruited from the north italian country, and they carried their art into remote regions of italy and into other lands. grotesques. the medieval "bestiaries," of which copies have come down to our day, prove the symbolic significance of many of the grotesque sculptures, each beast and part of a beast having a specific meaning, so that each com- a history of ornament bination of heterogeneous parts to form a grotesque monster, signified a particular combination of definite ideas, as in a symbolic language. but the medieval sculptors of lom- bardy, with imagi- nations saturated with the medieval superstitions which peopled air, earth and sea with count- less invisible be- ings, mostly mal- efic, loving to blast and blight every perfect and beauti- tiful thing, but which could be di- verted by charms, incantations and symbols, and even by marring in ap- pearance the seem- ing perfection of a human work — these germanic italians of the north treated with a species of humor- ous decorative art the wild and fantastic symbols and this superstition survives in a real but attenuated form in the jettatura of italy and the "evil eye" of the eastern mediterranean. fig. . cap from aubona; symbols of evangelists on a pulpit; centaub from san ambrot.io, milan. romanesque ornament talismans which grew out of this superstition (fig. ). other forms. not a little of the italian ornament of the roman- esque period is hard to classify under any particular style-name, being the product of local or of conflicting influences. thus the wheel-windows show considerable variety. the marble perforations of the cathedral of troja suggest oriental prototypes, while the traceries of those of s. pietro and of sta. maria at toscanella are designed on quite different principles. certain italian manuscripts of this period betray the hand or influence of irish scribes. this variety of style in italian romanesque art presents an interesting contrast to the impressive unity of general effect in western, es- pecially french, work of the same period. the french romanesque general character. french romanesque ornament is completely domi- nated by the monastic architecture. previous to about architecture in france was extremely crude, ex- cept in provence, while roman traditions still imparted a certain elegance to ecclesiastical buildings. by a. d. the feudal system on the one hand, and the monastic on the other, had attained coherent form, and were domi- nant over the developments of the nascent civilization. architecture was chiefly military and monastic, and while the feudal lords built strong castles, the monks 'consult revoil, "architecture romane du midi de la france:" plates. a history of ornament = f' r t ti 'j^l* *j • j l*j * ^j ^^i* ll^ij ^*jji' l^.* l'*j? i sm i in sunn>y>i>w%-iriif&>wa'cv»: were learning to build stone churches with vaults. in the absence of antique ruins to serve as quarries of ready- made decorative material, and without either models or trained artisans for the pro- duction of mosaic, carving and inlay, the arts of decora- tion had to be created anew. the art that slowly emerged from this destitution was a struggling art, at first crude in design and execution. to its earliest phase the french give the name of carolingian art. the architecture was massive, thick-jointed, spar- ing in ornament except about fo, ^™l°rhthe doorways, at which the builders' highest art was be- stowed. as the eleventh century advances, this art be- comes finer, richer, more knowing, still vigorous but bet- ter in technic; the accessory arts multiply and grow in perfection. there developed a certain unity of general style throughout france, controlled to a remarkable ex- tent by a rigid logic of construction. more than in any previous style in any land, the forms not merely of the structure proper, but also of its decoration, were deter- mined by the special exigencies of materials and struc- tural science. although provincial schools appear in romanesque ornament the architecture (provence, charente, auvergne, bur- gundy, normandy, ile-de-france) the decorative de- tails do not vary greatly. true, the byzantine influ- ence is more clearly traceable in some districts, the clas- sic in others, especially in provence (fig. ), but it requires a closer discrimination to detect these pro- vincial variations in the ornament than in the architec- ture, in the details than in the composition, and far more than is required to classify italian ornament of the same period. this is due to the dominance of the great mon- astic orders, especially of the benedictines; uniformly skilful artists, they tended to develop a common style wherever they established their abbeys. architectural ornament: columns and capitals. the french romanesque column is a descendant from the classic column, modified by its new uses as a mem- ber of a compound pier or as a jamb-shaft or nook-col- umn in a door or window. lombard or comacine influ- ences seem to have had a share in its development. the shaft is straight, without en- tasis or taper (figure ); sometimes, in late doorways, richly carved with geometric patterns (figure ). the base is of the attic type, often with corner-leaves fio. . baseo with (figure ). the capitals spum- are generally of the corinthian type, but with a heavy abacus added, and the proportions and details modified in innumerable ways (figure ; plate xiv). at a history of ornament moissac they have a decidedly byzantine character. the introduction of grotesques, both human and bestial, gave rise to new types (figures , ). occasion- ally a species of cushion capital is used, especially in normandy, the upper part square, with a heavy abacus; later the chisel comes into more general use, and the established types are greatly varied by the introduction of figures, jewel-studded bands, and foliage of new types. in plate xiv, , , , the corinthian tradition is clearly shown in all the capitals. carving; bands and panels. the classic acanthus-leaf, rinceau, and even anthe- mion appear constantly in various modifications, and in ♦ consult article "sculpture" in v.-le-duc "dictionnaire raisonnd de l'archltecture." fig. . late romanesque capital, paris. the lower part scalloped or convex-fluted once or more times on each face. a very beautiful double capital is pre- served in the museum at tou- louse (plate xiv, ). an- other double cap is number in the same plate, from chalons-sur-marne. the con- trast in style illustrates the difference between the carving of provence, with strong by- zantine tinge, and that of the ile-de-france in the north. some of the earlier work is hewn out with the mason's-ax; a history of ornament fio. . ac- anthus leaves fbom avallon. entire design is carved in high relief and sometimes deeply undercut (figs. , hjflsj ). the double rinceau sometimes ap- pears, enclosing the large leaves in ovals or in heart-shaped openings (fig. ). in almost all cases the rinceau represents the grape-vine and its ecclesiastical sym- fin| im^sj holism is obvious. the framed anthemion, so common in byzantine carving, hardly occurs in french romanesque friezes or bands. towards the end of the twelfth century, however, we find in its place, and evidently descended from it, an ornament consisting of broad fluted triple or five-lobed leaves enclosed by branching leaves often adorned with jewels. sometimes the central leaf of the trilobe is carried up under the fram- ing leaves and curled over it (fig- ure ). this motive seems to have come in from germany, and is frequently found in painted orna- ment, both on walls and on manu- scripts. in certain regions along the paths of byzantine and lombard influ- ence, beasts and human figures are shown twined into the convolutions of the rinceau (plate xiv). ar- cading as a decorative external fea- ture never attained in france the . rinceau, avallon. romanesque ornament importance it achieved in northern italy. the two most noted examples are the fronts of notre dame at poitiers and of the cathedral of angouleme (about ). these be- tray italian and byzan- tine influence; the arches are not free as at pisa, but attached to (or re- cessed in) the wall, fram- ing statues, windows or reliefs. internally, how- ever, wall-arcades occur frequently, especially as decorations of the side- aisle walls under the win- dows; such arcades are called arcatures. in normandy the arches are sometimes interlaced, and this device was later adopted in england and is common in anglo-norman churches. moldings. with the new types of building a new art of molding- profiles begins to appear. whether its origin is in the lombard doorways or is local, its development was con- trolled by that logic of structure to which allusion has fro. . double rinceatt, notre dame, paris. a history of ornament already been made, and which specially distinguishes french romanesque architectural art. all arches being stepped, and their square edges, as already described, cut into roll-moldings between chamfers, there resulted in doorways and pier-arches an alternation of plane, hollow and convex surfaces which proved extremely ef- fective (figures , ). out of this simple treat- ment was developed a more elaborate system of varying hollows, rolls and flat surfaces, which the english gothic artists were to carry in later times to the highest per- fection (see chapter xviii). in contrast with the classic tradition, according to which all important mold- ings project from the general surface, the medieval builders developed the contrary system of moldings cut into the surface. the exception is in the projecting drip-moldings which defined the extrados of the arch on exterior walls, especially over doorways. doorways. as a general rule the outer step or "order" of a series of stepped doorway-arches was brought down upon an inpost carried by a column set flush with the outer face of the wall, or upon the square pier formed by the wall itself. sometimes, however, it was returned into the wall, as in figure , or abutted into projecting members, as in figure . each "order" of the series of diminishing arches was carried by its own distinct supports, whether columns (jamb-shafts) or piers, as in figures , . the various orders were either plain, with roll-moldings, as already explained, or carved with enrichments often of great splendor of ef- romanesque ornament feet. it was upon the church doorways that the monastic artists lavished their richest ornaments. in the north, geo- metric motives were especially promi- nent, and among these the zigzag was particularly favored in normandy (d in fig. ), cut into the face of the arch, or into the soffit, or both; the "broken-stick" ("bdtons-rompus"), the lozenge and dog-tooth or pyramid (i) are also common. byzantine influence is discernible in the billet (e, fig. ), and in the flat treatment of figure-re- liefs in the tympanum as at carrenac (figure ). imbrications (g), checkers (&), "nail-heads," foliage- forms and grotesques are also of fre- quent occurrence. figures , from st. pierre at aulnay, and from rouen cathedral (porte st. jean) show the extraordinary richness of some of these romanesque doorways. the rouen example belongs to the early th century and is therefore early gothic, but it is still full of the spirit, and shows many of the details, of the romanesque. horizontal moldings receive but little emphasis in french romanesque ornament, and there are no dis- tinctly typical horizontal moldings, except those of the attic bases of the columns already mentioned. hori- zontal bands, however, are not uncommon, richly carved, often with anthemions or palmettes (fig. ) which betray the ever-present byzantine influence. in place fio. . ro- manesque or- naments. a history of ornament of the classic cornice the monastic builders had only the lombard arcaded cornice, or the more elab- orate corbel table. in minor posi- tions the simplest copings with one or two moldings suffice. corbel tables. these may have originated in the classic modillion-cornice, or they may have been evolved out of fw. i. carved bands, the necessity of providing a pro- fro* sx. aubik, anoers. jecting shelf at the top of the wall. in provence (southern france) the first is doubtless the correct explanation, as the corbel-table of the gable over the porch of st. trophime at aries has corbels carved with the acanthus in evident reminiscence of classic modillions. in central and northern france the corbels are usually grotesques of masks or monsters. in some cases they are found in conjunction with the lombard arcaded cornice, particularly in auvergne and in southern france. corbels for other purposes than the support of a corbel-table were of varied forms, often resembling capitals with a "drop" or "cul-de-lampe" at the bottom, formed either of foliage or of figures or gro- tesques. figure sculpture. it was during this period that the french began the development of that wonderful art of decorative sculp- ture which they carried to so marvelous a height of artis- romanesque ornament tic beauty in the portal-sculptures of their gothic cathe- drals, at chartres, amiens and reims. at first they were contented with reliefs in the portal tympanium (figure ) but free statues were later set in the deep jambs of the portals, representing saints and apostles and martyrs: this practice appears to have begun about fio. . fbench romanesque grotesque. the middle of the th century (figure ). by- zantine and classic influences and traditions dominate in the earlier sculpture (plate xiv, , ); but the french soon impressed upon all their sculpture, whether of stat- ues, reliefs or grotesques, the stamp of their own orig- inal genius (fig. ; plate xiv, ). both in tech- nical execution and in appropriateness to its architec- tural setting, these later romanesque sculptures mark the opening of a new chapter in decorative art. painted decoration. the scanty remains of the painted decoration in a history of ornament french romanesque churches indicate a prevailing sim- plicity, marked by effective composition with rather crude coloring and execution. the painted ornament was generally restricted to certain well-defined portions of the edifice, such as the apse and chapels. wall sur- faces were marked with conventional masonry joints or simple quarries, spangles or diapers in red ochre and black; sometimes the effect was varied by painted wall- arcades and representations of wall-draperies with con- ventional folds. columns were striped or painted with chevrons or zigzags in red, dark green and yellow or gold, and the capitals were enriched in the same colors. figure painting was rare; when employed it was strongly byzantine in character, like the contemporary manuscript pictures, as at st. ceneri, or ste. rade- gonde, poitiers. leaf-forms were sometimes used for borders and narrow bands. accessory arts. in iron-work, tiles and wood-carving the french mo- nastic artists executed works of considerable merit, em- ploying generally forms akin to the architectural orna- ment or else inspired from byzantine models; but they f«>. . leaf pattern, there was a flourishing school of tile, st. omeb. workers in enamel by the cham- by no means equaled the variety and richness of the italian deco- rators. figure shows a door knocker of the th cen- tury, from a cast in the troca- dero museum. at limoges romanesque ornament plevé process. in this work, as in the other minor arts, the byzantine influence is prominent. fig. is a characteristic leaf-detail from the red-and-brown tiling in the cathedral of st. omer. the tile floors of chan- cels and chapels of the late romanesque period were often of great elegance, in simple and effective patterns in buff, red, brown and black. books recommended: as before, hubsch. also: baum: romanesque architecture in france (london, ).—cahiek and martin: mélange» d'archéologie (paris, ).—cattaneo: l'architecture en italie (venice, ).—courajod: leçons professées, etc. (paris, ).—cummings: a history of architecture in italy (boston, ).—de dabtein: etudes sur varchitecture lombarde (paris, ).—dehio and bezold: die kirchliche baukwnst des abendlandes (stuttgart, - ).—f. m. hessemer: arabische und alt-italienische bauverzierwngen (berlin, ).—lecoy de la marche: les manuscrits et la miniature (paris, ).—e. molinier: l'orfèvrerie civile et religieuse du ve à la fin du xesiècle (paris, ).—musée de sculpture comparée du trocadéro (paris, no date).—f. osten: bauwerke in der lombardei (frankfort, n. d.).—h. rÉvon.: architecture romane du midi de la france (paris, ).— rohault de fleury: les monuments de pise (paris, ).— e. e. viollet-le-duc: dictionnaire raisonné de varchitecture française, etc. (paris, ). chapter xv romanesque ornament ii. anglo-norman, german, spanish and scandinavian anglo-norman ornament. previous to the norman conquest of england in , the architecture of that country was of the crudest description, and, the ornament of the style, the so-called saxon, was so rude and scanty as hardly to deserve men- tion. with the incoming of the new and foreign ele- ment, however, there hegan a remarkable development, both architectural and decorative; and, as is so often the case, the result of the blending was in some respects more brilliant than even the stronger of the parent styles. while the norman (more properly "anglo-norman") architecture derived its chief inspiration from french norman models, it rapidly diverged from them into a strongly national style in which carved decoration was very liberally employed. this anglo-norman orna- ment is remarkable for its vigor, variety and effective- ness. its fundamental elements were comparatively few, and chiefly of french origin, but it was more abundant and varied in its details and applications. norman columns. the bases, of the attic type, have spur-leaves some- times but not always; the shafts are usually plain, but romanesque ornament sometimes carved with zigzags, spiral flutings, or large quarry-patterns (as at durham). the capitals are rarely of the corinthianesque type (fig. ; plate xv, ), except in late instances under french influence. the prevailing type is the cubic or cushion type (fig. ); next the foliated or corinthianesque, and the least frequent are the grotesque capitals. sometimes two fio. . capital from lincoln cathedral. fio. . capital from st. peter's, northampton. types are combined side by side, as in plate xv, . the abacus is heavy, molded, sometimes carved with saw- teeth, zigzags or other ornaments. the scalloped cushion type is also very common (plate xv, ). cor- bels are either plain or grotesque. doorways, arches and moldings. the doorways are often extremely rich, especially after . the zigzag is the ornament most fre- quently used; it is carved on each of several arch-steps and sometimes carried down the jambs in lieu of nook- a history of ornament fig. . ornaments from ifflby church. shafts, as at iffley. zigzags on the face and soffit of an arch are ar- rayed to produce al- ternate pyramids and lozenge-shaped holes; al- ternate zigzags are con- vex and concave in section. saw-teeth, star- flavers, pyramid-jewels, moldings (fig. ). round jewels or "nail- heads" are applied in hollow moldings, and rosettes or flowers are not uncommon. another characteristic ornament is the beak-head,—a grotesque bird's head with enormous beak, applied to the voussoirs of an arch, the beak pointed in- wards, and sometimes inp spanning several mold- yj/i ings (fig. ). gro- |i tesques occur in arch or- naments, but rarely. the' billet-molding also oc- curs occasionally, but usu- ally with round billets in- stead of square. the effect of the crowded ornament of the anglo-norman doorways is often extremely rich, fio. . beak-head molding, iffley church. romanesque ornament the multiplied points of light on projecting details show- ing brilliantly against the dark shadows. famous ex- amples of such doorways are those of iffley church, barfreston church and the prior's door of ely cathe- dral, and many others. arcatures are of frequent occurrence, usually with in- terlaced arches. these are found sometimes even on the exterior, though more usually employed for interior walls (fig. ). other carved ornament. free figure sculpture is almost unknown, but figures in relief are sometimes seen, and grotesques, both human and animal are very frequent. foli- age is rare, and when it occurs is highly conventional and very simple. the anthemion motive is not uncom- mon (fig. ); it is obviously of byzantine derivation by way of the french romanesque. interlace is oc- casionally met with, probably due to ■* xv x'iu. sid. iflxu- celtic influence. laced arches. painted ornament appears to have been occasionally used in the chancels and wooden roofs of churches, but extant examples are very rare. that of the east end of st. cross church, near winchester, discovered late in the last century and restored, shows simple conventional pat- terns in red ocher and black. the ceiling of peterboro' reproduces the painted lozenge-pattern of the original which it replaces. that of ely is also a modern decora- tion based on norman precedents. a history of ornament fonts; metalwork. a few "saxon" or pre-norman fonts have been pre- served, all of crude workmanship, the more elaborate among them suggest- ing an effort to copy byzantine details. the norman fonts are of better work- manship, cut in stone or cast in lead, usu- ally in the form of a square or round bowl on a short shaft (or several shafts) and base, and quite frequently adorned with figure subjects, poorly executed. the byzantine influence is often evi- dent in the norman fonts, some of which resemble fig. . celtic mss. initials. fio. . carved anglo-norman an- themions: from st. savior's, south- wark (above); hereford cathedral (be- romanesque ornament venetian-byzantine well- curbs. metal work does not appear to have been carried to an advanced degree of perfection in this period. the celebrated bronze can- dlestick of gloucester ca- thedral is evidently of for- eign, probably of italian,- workmanship. it is of an alloy of bronze and silver. (but see below.) 'mm f. ♦ < fio. . cover or shrine for st. patrick's bell. fio. . celtic interlaces. celtic ornament. the artists in the irish monasteries de- veloped a remarkable skill in certain depart- ments of decorative art, notably and fore- most, in manuscript il- lumination; almost to an equal degree in ecclesiastical metal- work. interlace of an extraordinary in- tricacy is a character- istic of their art in both fields. in this they display a close kinship of spirit with a history of ornament scandinavian art, in which the representation of the great tree yggdrasil, whose branches cover earth, heaven and the underworld, are interlaced with the convolutions of the serpent or dragon nithhoggr. whether these interlaces originated in the north or were developed from byzantine interlace it is difficult to de- cide. fig. illustrates various forms of celtic inter- lace initials; fig. shows carved interlaces and the curious spiral ornament called the "trumpet pattern." fig. is the famous shrine or cover of the iron bell of st. patrick, decorated with jewels and inter- laced filigree of flat silver wires; while fig. shows one quar- ter of the cumdach or case made for the molaise gospels, of sil- ver on bronze with jewels and fro. . quar™ the grotesque symbolic lion of op cover of molaise st. mark. this is dated about . the bell shrine is later. the celtic crosses serving as grave stones—particu- larly the so-called "high crosses" present the best ex- amples of irish stone-carving. the cross-arms are con- nected by a circle, and the angles between them cut into by curved notches; the flat faces and often the sides of the stone are covered with patterns (rarely with figures as at monasterboice) in low relief; the patterns show the characteristic interlaces, often very complex and elabo- rate. such a cross is shown in plate xv, . romanesque ornament german romanesque ornament. in germany, as in france and england, architectural decoration may be said to have its real beginning in the eleventh century, the earlier works being crude and al- most bare of ornament. the architectural awakening began in saxony, but its most brilliant and prolific fio. . capitals from gernrode. achievements were in the rhine provinces, where a truly splendid style of church architecture grew up in the llth- th centuries, in which the ornament is remark- able for its admirable propriety and its force and rich- ness of design. it would be hard to find better capitals in any of the medieval styles than those of these rhenish minsters, and the carving of grotesques fully equaled that in any other country. the decorative forms are all of foreign origin, french, lombard and byzan- tine, but combined with remarkable skill and wealth of fancy. the medium of transmission of these vari- romanesque ornament church-front of almost pure italian or lombard design. the arts of metal were practised with skill. both wrought-iron and cast bronze were employed for grilles, gates, hanging lamps or crown-lights and for candela- fio. . portal from heilsbronn. bra and church vessels. gold, silver and enamel were also employed for richer and finer products (of which an early example, perhaps of real byzantine manufac- ture, at aachen was illustrated in fig. ). manu- script illumination reached a high pitch of development in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and stained glass in the thirteenth; the former following purely byzan- tine models, the latter retaining its romanesque charac- ter in the face of the growing gothic influence. in all a history of ornament these arts germany was influenced both from the west and the east, france, italy and byzantium contributing to the final result. examples of some of these various phases of german art are illustrated in plate xvi. spanish romanesque ornament. the spanish peninsula was the field of successive in- vasions, conquests and internal struggles through the fio. . tarragoxa. fio. . tabkagona (?). entire middle ages, and there was little chance for the development of any independent national style. the few great churches erected in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries show a dominant french influence (zamorra, avila, tarragona, salamanca, barcelona, compo- stella); and while the composition is vigorous and effec- tive and the ornament well disposed, it presents no strik- ing novelty of detail (figs. and illustrate two romanesque ornament capitals which are thoroughly german in style). a re- markable characteristic of this style is its absolute free- dom from moorish details or influence, although the eleventh and twelfth centuries witnessed the culmination pa fia. . norwegian carving: left side, from stedye church; right side, unidentified. fio. . choir seat, norwegian. of that brilliant art. this exemption was doubtless due to the hostility between the christians and moslems. scandinavian ornament. the decorative art of the north of europe, in the scandinavian peninsula especially, took on a special character, the precise origin and relations of which to byzantine art on the one hand and to celtic art on the other, are still subjects of controversy. as in celtic ornament, elaborate and complicated interlace is the dominant characteristic; and as in the celtic manu- a history of ornament fig. . details of candelabrum, scripts, the interlace is based largely on the convolutions of a dragon or serpent, nithhoggr, with the branches of the great earth-covering. tree yggdrasil. the most characteristic exam- ples of this art are in the wood-carvings of doors and doorways of ancient churches, some dating from the eleventh or even the tenth century (fig. ). as these are of later date than many masterpieces of irish manuscript or- nament, some of which belong to the eighth and possibly to the seventh century, it seems likely that this scandinavian art is, in part at least, rooted in irish art, though milan cathedral. this doubtless derived its first inspiration from constan- tinople and byzantine church fittings, ivories and gos- pels. fig. shows a norwegian chair (or rather stall romanesque ornament from a choir) of perhaps the twelfth century, in which the character of the earlier art still appears. romanesque metal work. it is difficult to assign precise national limits to some of the phases of metal work of the romanesque period, fig. . detail, chandelier at hildesheim. especially in the line of ecclesiastical gold and silver and silver-gilt copper. some of this work found in western churches was undoubtedly from the constantinople workshops—e.g., the famous pala d'oro or jeweled golden altarpiece of st. mark's, venice. the byzan- tines taught the art to the artisans of italy, france and germany, and figs. - illustrate some of the most famous examples of this work. fig. shows two details of the magnificent bronze candlestick in milan cathedral. a very similar candlestick, at least as to its base, is among the treasures of reims cathedral. fig. is from a bronze candlestick at hildesheim. the fine chalice in fig. is a part of the treasure of a church at bergen (norway), and illustrates the use of a history of ornament filigree with jewels, which was a characteristic byzan- tine form of the goldsmith's art. a very similar chalice is, or was, in the treasury of reims cathedral. fig. . gold cup, beroen. the architectural styles, thus grouped under the gen- eral name of romanesque, gradually passed over into what are called the gothic styles. the transition was not sudden, but the change though gradual, was a real one: not alone a change of details or of structural prin- ciples, but of spirit and character. the gothic styles romanesque ornament expressed the new order which came in with the final establishment of settled institutions, religious, political and social, throughout all western christendom. books recommended: as before, dehio and bezold, hubsch. also, bond: in- troduction to english church architecture (london, ); cathedrals of england and wales (london, ).—dahl- erup, holm and stork: tegnvnger af aeldre nordisk architek- tur (stockholm).—forster: denkmaler deutscher baukunst (leipzig, - ).—j. t. gilbert: facsimiles of national manuscripts of ireland (dublin, ).—a. hartel: archi- tectural details and ornaments of church buildings, etc. (new york, ).—hasak: die romanische und die gotische bau- kunst (stuttgart, ).—t. kutschmann: romanesque architecture and ornament in germany (text in german; new york, ).—c. mollinger: die deutsch-romanische architektur (leipzig, ).—h. otte: geschichte der romanischen baukunst in deutschland (leipzig, ).—t. rickman: an attempt to discriminate the styles, etc. (lon- don, ).—e. sharpe: churches of the nene valley; orna- ments of the transitional period; the seven periods of eng- lish architecture (london, various dates).—e. sullivan: the book of kells (new york, ).—w. r. ttmms: the history, theory and practice of illuminating (london, ). for spanish romanesque, consult the fine work of lamperez y romea, historia de la arquitectura cristiana espanola, etc., also the incomplete series entitled monumentos arquitectonicos de espafia, to be found in a few of the larger libraries. chapter xvi gothic ornament: structural gothic architecture was the result of the development which took place in the effort to solve the problem of constructing a vaulted cruciform church of stone, with a clearstory to light the central aisle or nave. all the special forms and details of this architecture are more or less directly incidental to this development: vault- ribbing, buttresses and pinnacles, clustered shafts, pointed arches, moldings and tracery, were all evolved in this process of working out the above problem. the greater part of the ornament of the medieval churches, chapels and even secular buildings, consisted of the adornment of these structural features. whatever dec- oration was not structural, either in function or origin, was symbolic or pictorial. the sculpture and the stained glass of the great cathedrals constituted an illustrated bible which even the most illiterate could in a measure understand. this style-development took place first of all in france. other countries borrowed from france both the general composition and the details of their gothic architecture* england alone among them retained a large measure of independence, developing her own gothic style freely along national lines from germs gothic ornament: structural brought over from france, grafting upon the foreign plant their own original additions. germany copied french models much more closely in some cases, while manifesting in others an originality verging on caprice. spain and portugal borrowed from all three, though mostly from france; belgium was hardly more than a province of france in her architecture; while the italians developed no truly gothic style, but grafted gothic decorative details, much altered, on structures in which the gothic principles, both of construction and compo- sition, were wholly ignored. periods. it is convenient to divide the history of the style in all the above countries except italy into three periods— those of development, culmination and decline, or early, fio. . gothic capitals: a, early french, from the sainte chapelle; , th century cap from transept of notre dame; c, flamboyant, from north spire of chartres. developed, and florid. these correspond to the so- called early french, rayonnant and flamboyant phases of gothic architecture in france, and the lancet, decorated and perpendicular in england; these names being derived from the form and tracery of the windows. a history of ornament in the english styles these phases belong roughly to the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, respect- ively: in france they appear from twenty to fifty years earlier: in germany somewhat later. the ornament of the early period (in france to or ) is the simplest and most vigorous, the imitation of natural forms least literal. in the developed period design and execution are finer, ornament more profuse and more naturalistic, and window tracery (and in england vault-ribbing also) became more important elements in the decorative scheme. in the florid period the styles diverge considerably in the different countries, but in all, the ornament is more complex and often overloaded, and also often more thin, wiry and dry, technical cleverness and minute detail taking the place of restraint and vigor of artistic design. the orna- ment oscillates between the extremes of realism and con- ventionalism. this sequence is illustrated in the three capitals of fig. . structural ornament. every important struc- tural feature was either made ornamental in itself, like the clustered shafts, capitals, tri- forium-arcades, window-tra- ceries, roof-balustrades and water-spouts; or adorned with carved adjuncts and de- fio. . decorative gable over a window, cologne. gothic ornament: structural tails, like the crockets, finials, gablets and tabernacles of pin- nacles and buttresses, or the foli- age and flowers on enriched mold- ings (see plate xvii). in the developed and florid periods, by the operation of a never-fail- ing law of decorative evolution, certain forms and features orig- ;([! inally structural came to be used !f as pure ornament. thus gables,!!; originally used only at the ends of gabled roofs, came to be used j ;j as purely decorative features, adorned with surface or open- work tracery, over doors and win- dows where no such roofs existed (fig. ); in england the vault- ribs, serving in earlier buildings as a framework upon which to build the fillings, became finally fig. . clustered a mere patterning in relief on gothic pieb. the vault-surface; in germany the spire, at first a steep roof over a bell tower, became a gigantic ornament of open tracery and not a roof at all. piers, shafts and columns. except in some of the earlier french and later bel- gian and dutch churches, all the piers were clustered, i see pages , , and note for other examples of this law of devel- opment, and comments upon it. a history of ornament slender shafts being grouped around a central core, sometimes joined to it, sometimes quite separate. these shafts were usually circular, but sometimes pear- shaped, springing from bases at a common level, except in the later examples and carrying elaborate foliated capitals (fig. ). sometimes, in england espe- fio. . romanesque and gothic capitals; a, from bayeux cathedral, , from st. martin des champs, paris. cially, the shafts are belted at intervals with molded bands. vaulting shafts are often sprung from carved corbels high up, instead of bases on the ground, or set on the caps of the main piers. gothic shafts are never carved, but are sometimes painted. capitals display a a great variety of designs, usually employing foliage as their chief adornment. the earlier french capitals generally recall the corinthian type by their bell-shaped core, square abacus with the corners cut off, and volute-like corner crockets, but the abacus is always massive in proportion to the cap and shaft, and the development of the type from the romanesque is gothic ornament: structural evident (fig. ). later capitals have the foliage more complex and more naturalistic in detail (fig. ); the abacus is octagonal or round; in england the plain molded bell-capital without foliage occurs fre- quently, and the corinthian type is lost in the convex wreaths or bunches of foliage in the foliated caps. in the florid period capitals are often omitted, and when i mm ulfil p fio. . gothic bases: early type, fbom halberstadt; late type, fbom rouen. used are often poor in design; they vary between extreme naturalism and capricious convention (figure c). bases show a very interesting progressive develop- ment. the simple attic type of the romanesque styles survives for a while but first loses its corner spurs, then changes gradually, the plinth taking on a constantly in- creasing importance until it becomes a high pedestal, with the moldings above it much reduced and simplified. the lower torus also becomes higher and larger, assum- ing the later phases an ogee or pear-like profile. the corners of the plinth were cut off in many roman- esque bases; in the gothic the plinth (i.e., each member of a complex base) is almost always frankly an octagon a history of ornament or semi-octagon in plan (fig. ). in the later period of the style it is often in two stages, constituting a pedestal rather than a simple base. moldings. the simple roll molding of the romanesque styles is replaced by increasingly complex profiles, in which pear- shaped sections frequently alternate with deep hollows, producing effective contrasts of multiplied narrow lines of light and shadow. in the first two periods the pro- fio. . french pier-arch moldings of three periods. files are sharp and vigorous, and in the pier-arches the grouping of rounds and hollows conforms more or less closely to the stepped profile of the arch-construction. in the florid period the steppings of the arch-section generally disappear in a generally splayed effect. the profiles in this period are less vigorous than in the pre- ceding, the hollows being broad and shallow, the convex moldings smaller, and fine fillets are multiplied, giving at times a thin and wiry appearance to the grouped pro- files (fig. ). enriched moldings are more frequent in english than in french work, though they occur in all the periods in france (especially in late work), england, germany gothic ornament: structural cornice-molding, notre dame, paris. and spain. convex moldings are rarely enriched, but the hollows between them are adorned with leaves, crockets, ball-flowers, and in early english work with pyramid-flowers or "dog- tooth" ornaments. in place of a cornice or corbel-table, the wall (especially in france) was often crowned with a high, deep cavetto filled with standing leaves (fig. ). in the florid period, the french sometimes filled the broad hollows between the finer members of a molding-group with ex- quisitely carved naturalistic vines. this treatment oc- curs in english examples (e.g. the portals of southwell chapter house) in the decorated period. in the fol- lowing (perpendicular) period in england the hollows were more often enriched with widely spaced square rosettes. in both france and ger- many moldings of different profiles were made to cross and intersect in work of the latest phase of the gothic, the intri- cate cutting of their intersec- tions giving occasion for that display of technical cleverness which characterizes that period. vaulting. gothic vaulting is based upon the principle of a framework of ribs supporting the fillings of masonry of fio. . boss: carved vault french. a history of ornament small stones. the rib framework is simple in the early work of all countries, the only ornament being the mold- ings of the ribs and sometimes a carved keystone or boss at their intersections (figure ). in france this simplicity persists nearly to the end (fig. ). in fio. . vaulting, apsidal chapel, beauvais. england the ribs were multiplied by the addition of tier- cerons (figure ) and of subordinate connecting ribs or hemes, and combined into highly ornamental pat- terns ("star" and "net" vaults), with carved bosses at each intersection. this patterning developed finally into "fan vaulting," in which the ribs were purely decora- tive moldings cut in the stones of the inverted semi- conoids of the vaulting (figure , b; a sump- tuously ornate form of stone ceiling, but without that exeter cathedral . lincoln cathedral; half of tower vault fig. gothic ornament: structural clear expression of structure which marked the earlier vaulting. in germany and spain the vault-ribs were, as early as the latter part of the developed period, built to fit predetermined conventional patterns, in which the lines were not always, as they always were in england, true plane curves. the builders in these two countries de- lighted in tours-de-force, displays of cleverness in creat- ing and solving difficult problems of vault-rib construc- tion; but the results are neither so rich nor so pleasing as in england. window tracery. this was one of the most decorative and characteris- tic features of gothic architecture. its development may be followed from the romanesque coupling of win- dows under a discharging arch through successive stages in which the separating pier became a column or a slender chamfered or molded pier of cut stone, while the spandrel above was perforated with a cir- cle; then treated like a thick plate of stone with decoratively cusped or foiled openings cut fig. a. plate tracery, ettoit through it (plate tracery chdbch" fig. a). then the window was further divided into three, four, or more lights by slender molded or shafted mullions, and a history of ornament the space between their pointed-arched heads and the main window-arch filled with circles or geometric pat- terns of stone work, the interest of the design being now transferred from the shapes of the openings to the shapes of the stone work (bar tracery. fig. b). towards the end of the middle period the circular arcs and circles of this type of tracery (which was carried to the highest perfection in the great east and west windows of eng- fio. . bar tracery, meopham church; e, perpendicular tracery, northfleet. land and the great wheel-windows of france) reverse curves were introduced, giving a swaying movement to the lines. in france this is continued through the next period, giving it the name of flamboyant from the flame-like forms of the very intricate tracery patterns used both in arched and circular windows. in england on the contrary there supervened, from about , a rapid change, leading to the perpendicular style of tracery; huge windows being filled with a very mechan- ical, though structurally excellent, system of vertical bars, sometimes crossed by transoms on small flattened gothic ornament: structural arches (fig. c). in germany there was less uni- formity, but a general resemblance to the french flam- boyant forms. these various developments are illus- trated in fig. and plate xxi. noticeable in all developed gothic tracery is the intro- duction of cusps, separating or enclosing foils, also the branching of the moldings, so arranged that the main mullions and circles have a section composed of the ag- gregate of all the subordinate arch—or mullion—mold- fio. . vabieties of cusps. ings which came together in them. the several com- ponent groups of moldings are called orders. cusps may consist of only the inmost molding widened into a point, or of a molding or complete order branching off so as to form a small triangular opening (fig. ). sometimes one of the outer moldings of the arch of a door or window was pointed with cusps terminating in small finials (plate xvii, , shows this treatment ap- plied to a flying buttress-arch in germany). wall and gable tracery. during the course of the developed period the deco- rative richness of the window-tracery led to the repeti- tion of like forms on certain wall-surfaces, upon which they formed ornamental panels framed in the lines of the gothic ornament: structural circles, triangles and quadrilaterals with closed or open cusps predominating. such balustrades are used at the lower edges of roofs as well as for balconies, tower-para- pets and (rarely) stairways (fig. , plate xvii, , ) • they became as complex as other features in the florid period (fig. ) especially in germany, where they often formed veritable geometric puzzles. pinnacles, crockets and pinials. these are as characteristic of the gothic styles as is the tracery. the buttresses—both the clearstory wall- buttresses and the outer buttresses external to the fiide- aisles—were commonly terminated by a tall slender pyramid, square or octagonal in plan, rising from gab- lets crowning two or four faces of the buttress-top, or from minor pinnacles at the corners (plate xvii, , , ). these pinnacles were adorned along the hips or edges with crochets (plate xvii, )—outward-curl- ing leaf-like or flame-like protuberances richly carved; —and terminated in a finial, composed usually of a cen- tral stem ending in a ball or bud and branching out be- low this into four or more crockets, forming a remark- ably effective terminal flower or ornament (plate xvii, , ). crockets (fig. ) are also used to fret the salient edges of the saddleback copings of gables; along the hips of spires; as ornaments to the outer drip-moldings of arches, especially in the florid period; and (rarely) between the clustered shafts in doorways and triforiums. finials, of like character with those on pinnacles, are the usual termination of the summits of gables, and of ogee- a history of ornament arches in late gothic design (plate xviii, ). in early work the crockets, alike those of the finials and of gable-edges or spire-angles, invariably curl outwards, a b fig. . cbockets: a, eably french; b, flamboyant. like the curled-up volutes of fern in the spring (fig. a). later they took on more elaborate foliage- forms with complex, wavy outlines, often in the last period of the style losing all decision and character in their mass and detail (fig. b). crestings of stone, of cast-lead, of terra-cotta were employed to deco- rate the ridges of most of the roofs, on which the covering fio. . gothic cresting. was usually of lead, copper or slate. they were customarily of rather sim- ple design, ending against finials of metal of a more elaborate sort (fig. ). tabernacles. not strictly structural in themselves, these were em- gothic ornament: structural bellishments of structural features or parts, chiefly of buttresses and of the jambs of deep doorways. they consist of a niche or recessed arch to hold a statue, a corbel to support it, and a decorative gable or canopy over it, the canopy often running up into an elaborate spire. the decorative function of the whole was that of breaking up the bare mass of a vertical strip or but- tress, or of a wall, or of the doorway jambs with a deep shadow and the brilliant lights of the statue, and to emphasize the vertical movement of the lines of the whole composition. the canopy was made increasingly elaborate as the style progressed, and in late examples was composed of a bewildering intricacy of minute arches, pinnacles and traceries, the whole forming an extraordinarily rich decoration (figure ). corbels were of frequent occurrence in all the gothic styles, as supports for statues, for vaulting-ribs, for vaulting-shafts and for columns; they were not used, as in romanesque buildings, to support a cornice or corbel- table. they were almost invariably carved with foliage, after the general fashion of the capitals, though some- times in england made very long vertically (e.g. lich- field nave). grotesque heads and human figures ap- pear in the third period; they are rare in the two pre- ceding. a late french corbel and crocket are shown in plate xviii, , . gargoyles. gothic eaves-spouts and those also which projected from the buttresses were invariably carved into the sem- blance of long-necked, vomiting monsters, called gar- soi a history of ornament goyles (plate xvii, ). remarkable skill was dis- played in the composition and anatomy of these gro- tesque monsters. they are among the most striking examples of the decorative-symbolic treatment of purely utilitarian members (figure ). books recommended: as before, bond, dehio and bezold, hartel, violi,et- le-duc. also, g. l. adams: recueil de sculptures gothiques (paris, ).—baudot: la sculpture francaise au moyen-age et a la renaissance (paris, ).—enlart: manuel d'archeologie francaise (paris, ).—a. l. froth- ingham: a history of architecture, vol. iii, iv (new york, ).—l. gonse: l'art gothique (paris, n. d.).—hasak: die romanische und die gotische baukunst; der kirchen- bau; einzelheiten des kirchenbaues (stuttgart, ).—a. hauser: stillehre der architektonischen formen des mit- telalters (vienna, ).—k. a. heideloff: ornamentih des mittelalters (nuremberg, - ).—t. g. jackson: gothic architecture (london, ).—klingenberg: die ornamentale baukunst, etc. (leipzig, n. d.).—c. martin: l'art gothique en france (paris, ).—c. moore: de- velopment and character of gothic architecture (new york, ).—nesfield: specimens of mediaeval architecture (lon- don, ).—pakker: introduction to gothic architecture; glossary of terms in gothic architecture; companion to glossary (london, - ).—a. n. w. pugin: glossary of ecclesiastical ornament and costume (london, ).—m. schmidt: meisterwerke der dekorativen sculptur, xi—xvi jahrhundert (stuttgart, — . this is a german edition of the work listed after chapter xiv under the title musee de sculpture comparee du trocadero).—e. schmuzer: gothische ornamente (berlin, ).—g. g. ungewitter (tr. by mon- icke): gothic model book (london, ); sammlung mit- telalterlicher ornamentik (leipzig, ). chapter xvii gothic caeving and industrial and accessory arts decorative carving and sculpture: foliage. the tradition of the classic acanthus and of its by- zantine modifications, clearly evident in all romanesque carved foliage, gradually disappeared in gothic art. in the second half of the th century the french carvers began to turn for inspiration and suggestion to the com- mon vegetation about them, and developed an entirely new category of foliage-forms. this change was due to the formation of guilds of free or non-monastic ma- sons and carvers who traveled from one site to another to ply their art, untrammeled by the monastic traditions. they were the counterpart in france of the maestri comacini of italy, and their appearance was synchro- nous with the cathedral-building movement in france, to which was chiefly due the impulse toward progress and innovation which produced the gothic style. as viollet-le-duc has pointed out, these artists first con- ventionalized the simple forms of the earliest sprout- ing spring herbage, thick and crisp, suggestive of the new life and energy of nature. the crocket, de- scended no doubt from the corinthian corner-volute, was carved like a thick flattened shoot bearing a globular bunch of uncurling leaves (fig. ). like the cor- i article "sculpture" in "dictionnaire raisonn*" (toi. till), a history of ornament inthian volute, it was the dominant feature of capi- tals, as in fig. ; see also plate xviii, , , . the other leaves were massive and concave in modeling, and all the foliage was made to grow out of the capital fio. . capital, st. mabtin-des-champs, pasis. or other member which bore it (fig. ). as the carver's skill increased, the stiffness of the early conven- tionalism disappeared, and a beautiful type of foliage was evolved, still conventional and thoroughly archi- tectural, but with grace and delicacy of detail, and varied by a closer study of particular plant-types (plate xviii, ). this study led to an increasing natural- ism, to a more and more realistic copying of more com- industrial and accessory arts fig. . corner leaf fbom notre dame, paris. first stage of develop- ment is hardly at all represented. the crocket from wells cathedral (fig. ) is an exception in its resemblance to early- french models. the early english capitals, crockets and corbels of the th century show instead an extraordi- narily beautiful han- dling of minute curl- plex and more mature leaf- types from shrubs and trees, and these were wreathed about the architecture in- stead of seeming to grow out of it (figs. b and ). by the end of the th cen- tury this tendency was being carried to extremes, though with remarkable technical beauty of execution, and thereafter the design oscil- lates between dry conven- tionalism and excessively minute realism (figs. c and ). in england the fig. . french rayoxnaxt capital. a history of ornament fio. . capitals, chapter house of southwell cathedral. ing trefoils, often highly intricate and of marvelous ex- ecution (fig. ). the naturalistic stage is seen in innumerable late thirteenth and early fourteenth cen- tury churches, in which, as in france, the flowers and foliage are applied to the architecture in wreaths and bunches, as in the re- markable doorways of southwell chapter-house (dr. ; fig. ). foliage is scanty in perpendicular work, and the mechanical form of the tudor rose (fig. ) is the most characteristic floral adornment. in crocket, germany there is no systematic de- velopment of foliage design, though there is much very beautiful foliage; it is, however, in great measure copied or imitated from french models. fio. . wells cathedral. industrial and accessory arts figure sculpture. figure sculpture applied to the decoration of build- ings had become almost a lost art during the dark ages, fio. . capital, salisbury cathedral. and the monastic builders of the eleventh century and the first half of the twelfth had only partially and sporadi- cally renewed it. we have already seen, however, that in occasional instances the french sculptors had dis- played great skill in such works as the porches of st. trophime and st. gilles at aries (plate xiv), and the west portal of chartres (figure ), and the widespread use of grotesques had developed both technical and artis- tic ability in the use of the chisel. in the cathedral and church arch- itecture of the gothic period— to —and particularly during fig. . tudor flower. a history of ornament the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the free develop- ment of art which succeeded the monastic period brought into being an entirely new phase of decorative figure- sculpture. the french cathedrals were people's churches quite as truly as bishops' churches, and their builders made them into picture-bibles in stone. the portals were especially rich in plastic representations of saints and angels, kings, prophets and martyrs, and the figures were modeled with fine regard for their archi- tectural setting. the deep jambs and the central door- pier were adorned with standing figures, often of heroic size, sometimes of great beauty. the great tympana over the doorways bore reliefs of christ or the virgin enthroned amid scenes of life of the virgin, of the last judgment or equally solemn subjects (fig- ure ). the cavernous arches were studded with con- centric ranks of throned and adoring angels. an arcade high up on the facade was filled with figures of crowned kings of france or of judea (fig. ), while from tab- ernacles on buttresses and rood-screens and transept- fronts angels and saints looked down upon the throngs below. the earlier sculpture is the most architectural in character: as the thirteenth century advanced the treatment was more realistic, with more of positive beauty of pose and feature (figure ) reaching its fig. . part of "gallery of kings," amiens cathedral. via. .—reliefs from portal op notre dame fra. .—tomb op abbot stephen op aubagine a history of ornament ency toward minute ornamentation grew, through the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and as such minute decoration was better adapted for works of less monu- mental scale than for the churches themselves, these minor works became more and more the characteristic masterpieces of the stone-carver's art. the intricacy of the canopy-work with its bewildering network of arches, cusps and pinnacles is only equaled by the perfection and delicacy of the execution. verbal descriptions can give little idea of the marvelous detail of some of these works, and even the illustrations fail to convey a complete im- pression to which the works themselves give rise. the most beautiful of these works are generally the french, though the germans at times press them closely (see figure ), and some even of the french works, as the rood-screens at bourg-en-bresse and alby, are at- tributed to german artists (figure ). wood-carving. choir-stalls offered a specially rich field for the wood- carver's chisel. each seat was provided with a high back usually terminating in a projecting canopy, which in turn was finished with gablets, pin- nacles and a high and complex spire. the arms separating the seats were richly carved, and the f,ot . a m,serere, beverley hinged seat, when cathedral. folded back, dis- industrial and accessory arts closed a grotesque cor- bel, called the "mise- rere" (fig. ). in the later gothic the choir stalls were extra- ordinarily elaborate. other specimens of wood carving are found in the pew-ends of eng- lish churches, with elaborate finials (fig. ); in the bosses and hammer beams of eng- lish wooden ceilings (see fig. ); in chests and furniture for the sacristy, and in the details of half-timbered houses in england, france and germany; as well as in domestic furniture (chests, ta- bles and chairs), espe- cially of the th and th centuries. the details are all derived from the contemporary stone architecture and carving, though modi- fied to suit the material. fig. . pew end, winthobpe church. a history of ornament metal work. iron was costly in the middle ages, and, except for clamps and chainages, and in italy for tie-rods in the vaulting, was rarely used for primary construction. its chief uses were for nails and bolts, for hinges and door-fit- tings, for gates and grilles, and for locks, latches, keys, armor and arms. cast-iron was rarely employed, although a late gothic example is shown in plate xviii, . the medieval wrought iron, especially of france, italy,' ger- many and flanders, shows marvelous skill in forging, decorative effects being produced by splitting, twisting, welding and riveting the bars by scroll-work, rosettes, and repousse or hammered work in sheet metal (fig. ; figures , ). lead was used for crestings and for covering spires and dormers. bronze, brass, copper and silver were handled with skill in the movable furnishings of the church, candelabra, pyxes, monstrances, chalices, cro- ziers, pastoral staves and the like. enamel and jewels fio. . crestino of iron grille, st. sebkin, toulouse. industrial and accessory arts were employed to heighten the richness of these objects. the goldsmith's and silversmith's art derived most of its origins from byzantine art, but departed rapidly from it and developed a style wholly western and gothic. textile ornament. the remains of medieval embroideries, laces and tap- estries are not abundant. there was little richness of dress or textile furnishings except in ecclesiastical dress and among the few who were rich and powerful in church and state, and to a remarkable extent the ec- clesiastical robes and embroideries have disappeared, though they were undoubtedly often of great beauty and even magnificence. those preserved to this day are mostly of the fifteenth century, except a respectable number of spanish and sicilian embroideries and silk damasks of the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries which show a strongly oriental inspiration. tiles. fine pottery was an almost unknown art in western europe in the middle ages except among the moham- medans of spain and sicily. ceramic tiles were, how- ever, used in floors, especially about the altar in france, fig. . french tile pattebns. industrial and accessory arts both for the color scheme and the details, but with much freer handling and frequent use* of foliage and of free abstract design in flourishes, scrolls and interlaces. gold was used with fine effect though sparingly. the name of jean fouquet stands conspicuous in the bril- liant french school of the late fifteenth century. the most notable production of the flemish school was the grimani breviary, now in venice; but every consid- erable collection of manuscripts possesses beautiful ex- amples of the various schools in breviaries, books of hours, psalm-books, chant-books and secular works— chronicles, histories and editions of the classics. fig. fig. . a french medallion window. a history of ornament illustrates a few details of this brilliant and fascinat- ing phase of medieval design; other examples are shown in plate xx. stained glass. of all the arts allied to gothic architecture, that of the stained glass win- dows is the most char- acteristic as a special product of the style. from timid begin- nings in the roman- esque buildings it de- veloped rapidly as the size and splendor of the traceried windows increased. the depth and brilliancy of color attained by the glass- makers of the thir- teenth century pro- vided a new decorative resource for the church-builders and window-designers; a richness and intensity of blues, reds, yellows and greens rivaling the splendor of mo- saic. the mechani- i the germans claim an active production of mosaic glass as early as a.d. at tegernsee (meyer, "ornamentale formenlehre"). fig. . german grisaille. above, from cologne; below, from altenbubo. s , industrial and accessory arts cal imperfections of the early glass made it only the more sparkling, while the heavy leading employed gave a suitable foil to the glowing colors by its black lines which tended to harmonize as well as separate oth- erwise crude juxtapositions of color. the early windows were arranged in medallions, each containing a picture in mosaic, as it were, made up of small units of color separated by the lines of the leading (fig. ). the spandrels between the medallions were filled with quarry- work or foliage in grisaille (lines of a semi-opaque brown pigment fused onto -flif» o-lncc of a nnm plo- . leading op an early french me glass at a com wlnd ws the marriage at cana. paratively low tem- perature). a border of leaves or other conventional units framed the whole. a few such windows have come down from the th century (the earliest stained glass extant is at st. denis, said to be of ), and they continued to be used through the greater part of the thir- teenth century. "jesse-tree" windows and medallion windows entirely composed of foliage, conventional or- nament and grisaille were also common through this century (fig. ). the invention of the yellow stain (stannic oxide) led then to the making of "canopy" win- dows, with large figures standing under elaborate trac- industrial, and accessory arts clasm of the puritans and the havoc of wyatt in the early nineteenth century have left but scanty remains of the old glass. canterbury and york possess fine glass and there are a few good pieces still left in salis- bury cathedral. very late examples are to be seen in king's college chapel, cambridge, and in st. jacques at liege. the best german glass is in the cathedrals of cologne, altenburg and strassburg (fig. ). figs. and illustrate the leading of the early glass,—a most important element in the decorative effect of the window. with the later years of the fifteenth century the gothic style approached its extinction by the rapidly- spreading art of the renaissance. but while it had reached the final limit of structural development, and architecture was sensibly declining, the arts of ornament were still at the highest point of richness and of technical perfection (figures , ). this splendor of minute decoration, of complex tracery, realistic pictorial sculp- ture, sumptuous embroidery and showy furniture was, however, the final coruscation of an expiring flame. the decorative details of the style long resisted the in- vasion of the renaissance style from italy, in france, england, germany and spain. but the new style was more than a fashion; it was but one symptom of a funda- mental change of spirit of the artistic point of view, of civilization and ideals, and by the middle of the six- teenth century gothic art had passed away. chapter xviii paeticulae schools of gothic ornament i. french and english in the general discussion of gothic ornament in the last two chapters, while the chief attention was given to the developments in france, many references were made to the diverging practice of the english, german and spanish schools. this chapter and the following will be devoted to a more detailed treatment of the several national styles or sub-styles of gothic decorative art. french gothic ornament. the gothic style in france may be considered as lasting from the beginning of notre dame at paris in , to the accession of francis i in . it is cus- tomary to divide this period into three divisions or periods, the early french, from to or there- about; the rayonnant, to , and the flam- boyant, to . these are somewhat arbitrary divisions, as the progress from one stage and phase of development to another, whether in window-tracey, carv- ing or stained glass, was continuous and gradual. through all this development french gothic ornament was marked by certain characteristics which distinguish it from the english and other national styles. schools of gothic ornament finials, vaulting-bosses and the like (fig. ). surface- carving is seldom employed. the rinceau survives in early work in occasional pilaster-like vertical bands and horizontal lintels (fig. ), but passes out of use very early in the thirteenth century. figure sculpture. fig. . carved vertical rinceau, notre dame, paris. fic. . boss from vault of sainte chapelle. the free figure- sculpture of the great portals of cathedrals has already been al- luded to (page ). the throned angels in the portal arches, the standing figures of apostles, martyrs and saints in the deep jambs (figure ), the reliefs on the pedes- tal courses of the jambs (fig. ) constitute a combination of deeply significant and artistically appropri- ate sculpture never elsewhere equaled, be- fore or since (see a history of ornament ante, page and figure ; also figs. , ). grotesques often mingle effectively with carved foliage, as in figure from chartres cathedral. very striking and nobly decorative also are the colossal angels standing in the pinnacled tabernacles surmounting the but- tresses of reims cathe- dral. the culmination of minute realism, alike in statues and reliefs, came in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, in choir-en- closures like those in amiens cathedral (figure ) and chartres, and in choir- screens and tombs, as in the famous examples in the brou church at bourg- en-bresse. in no other country did figure-sculpture play so important a part in the decorative system. equally appropriate and decorative with these archi- tectural sculptures was the minor decorative figure- work in wood and ivory, as evidenced, for example, in the beautiful ivory triptych from the municipal library of amiens, of which figure illustrates the central panel. tracery. in the early french period the tracery was at first fio. . reliefs from base of postal, notre dame. fig. .—two figures from portal, amiens cathedral fig. .—ivory triptych, in amiens library french, xvth century schools of gothic ornament to affect the design of window-tracery, by the substitu- tion of flowing and waving lines for the simpler geo- metric combinations of circles, pointed arches and cusps which had hitherto satisfied all requirements for over a century. the "ogee" arch was substituted for the arch formed by simple circular arcs, and the flame-like forms which result from dividing a circle through the center by a wave-line, became almost the dominant motive in the tracery-design. the resulting style of design, though less logical structurally than the earlier geo- metric types of tracery, was more flexible and capable of a greater variety of combinations. it dominated the entire architecture of france from to , and covered the exteriors of churches with an extraordinary wealth of traceries, both of openwork and of blind or wall-tracery (figures , , ; figs. , ). it was especially effective in the rose windows, as in the front of st. ouen, rouen, the fronts of rouen cathedral, the sainte chapelle, paris, tours, amiens, and reims cathedrals, and the transepts of beauvais. in several cases these flamboyant roses were inserted in earlier facades (amiens, sainte chapelle). the front of rouen cathedral, long unfinished, but com- pleted within recent years, is the most elaborate and splendid example of this flamboyant design; next to it stands the exquisite little church of st. maclou at rouen; while the north spire of chartres cathedral, and the charming little church at louviers (figure ), are others among many examples of the marvelous rich- ness and delicacy of which the style was capable. the origin of this change in tracery design is gen- a history of ornament erally now ascribed to english influence. a considerable part of northern france was in english hands in the four- teenth century, and (as will be later shown) the english had before the middle of that century developed their "flowing" or "curvilinear" tracery. while they soon ex- changed this for the more rigid "perpendicular" tracery, the french developed the suggestion of the wavy line to its utmost possible results of decorative splendor. stained glass. the development of the art of stained glass was so closely associated with the progress of gothic architec- ture that fergusson, in his "history of architecture," claims it as the one exclusively distinguishing feature of the gothic style, which might properly be called "the stained glass style." the romanesque churches, with their thick walls and small windows, offered little scope or suggestion for pictured windows. the gothic style, with its concentrated supports and gradual reduction of wall areas, developed a progressive increase in the size and loftiness of its windows, and this progress stimu- lated the art of pictured and decorative glass by giving it greater opportunities. indeed, the larger the win- dow, the more necessary became colored glass to reduce the excessive glare; while the more splendid the glass and the deeper and richer its tone, the greater was the tendency to enlarge the windows. the structural progress of the french gothic style was thus closely associated with the progress of window decoration by colored glass. while the french led in this, as in so many other branches of decorative art, and while more fig. .—flamboyant tracery, church of st. pierre, louviers a history of ornament and it is likely that not a few were painted blue with gilt stars. from vestiges of the original painting dis- covered in the sainte chapelle at paris a complete in- terior decoration in color was carried out in that chapel about . the result is gorgeous, but the opaque colors of the brilliantly painted walls suffer under the glare of transmitted color through the windows, and this b fig. . early english carving, a, from church at stone, kent; , lincoln cathedral; c, ely cathedral. probably explains why interior coloration was not more general after the th century. the essays in color- decoration by viollet-le-duc in the chapels of notre dame are far less brilliant, but also less interesting. in conclusion, it should be noted that the french handling of decorative detail of all kinds was in general more logical, more strictly architectural, than in other countries, with the possible exception of england. ele- gance and propriety of design are combined in an eminent degree in nearly all french gothic ornament. schools of gothic ornament fig. . decorated capital: beverley cathedral. english gothic ornament. the english work of the first two periods, as com- pared with the french, shows a general predominance of decorative over structural £ conceptions, but without sacri- fice of structural propriety. it displays less of severe logic, but often more of charm; less vigor, but often greater delicacy and richness. english cathedral in- teriors, while far less lofty and majestic than the french, are generally more ornate, richer in the play of light and shade, often more beautiful. all the details are on a smaller scale, and re- markable effects are produced by mul- tiplied repetition. the moldings are finer and more num- erous, the shaft-clus- terings more com- plex, the carved orna- ment more varied and abundant (plate xx, -; figures , , ). on the other hand, the exteriors were far less ornate than the french; the figure- mill fig. . a, finial, wells chapter house, b, crocket, beverley. s s schools of gothic ornament fig. a. "curvilinear" panels in wood. richly adorned with figures in niches, as at exeter and canterbury. very rich in fig- ure-sculpture were also some of the great th-century reredoses of english cathed- rals, as those of winchester, st. saviour's at southwark (cathedral), and some others. mention has already been made in chapter xvii of the "angel choir" of lincoln, il- lustrated as to its sculptured triforium-spandrels in fig- ure . woodwork of all sorts the english excelled in, especially in the th and th centuries. fro. . "poppy head." a history of ornament fw. . plate tracery, lil- linoton, northants. the wooden choir-screens, choir-stalls, pew-ends, font- covers and the like, were often of great beauty (see ante, fig. ), with elabo- rate surface-tracery, can- opy-work, and carved gro- tesques. very character- istic are the "poppy-head" finials to the pew-ends. fig. illustrates part of a carved wooden screen, of which there are many in english parish churches; fig. a, th-century surface-paneling in wood; fig. a poppy-head finial. but the greatest glory in the later woodworkers was the oaken ceilings of halls and churches; these will be discussed later. moldings were generally richer, more minute and more varied than the french, more subtile in profile, and more often enriched, as al- ready explained fig. ). the english composed their groups of gothic moldings so as to produce successions of deep undercut hollows contrasting with boldly pro- jecting roll-moldings or bow- tels. there was continuous increase in richness and com- plexity until , after which there is observable a fig. . east window, raunds, northants. schools of gothic ornament falling-off in vigor and effectiveness: the hollows are flatter and broader, the rolls and bowtels less vigorous in their contrast with the hollows. the bowtel—a roll- molding with a slightly salient lip or fillet, giving it an almost pear-shaped section—is peculiar to english archi- fio. . flowing or "curvilinear" tracery; a, ithlingboro', northants; b, over, cambridgeshire; c, llttle addinoton, northants. tecture. another noticeable english feature is the label or drip-molding over the pier-arches in church in- teriors, as well as over exterior arches, doors and win- dows; the french confined this feature wholly to ex- teriors. the english never affected the intricate inter- secting moldings of late french and german gothic art. schools of gothic ornament long pendants (retro-choir of peterboro; cloisters of gloucester; king's college chapel, henry vii's chapel at westminster, etc.). the decorative splendor of the fig. a. open-timber ceiling, lavexham church, suffolk. english vaulting is of the highest order, and nothing equal to these vaults is found in any other school of gothic design (figure ). no less remarkable are the superb oaken ceilings borne on huge arched trusses, of which the highest de- velopment is the hammer-beam type as illustrated in the schools of gothic ornament books recommended: as before, dehio and bezold, fbothingham, moose, parkeh, simpson. also for english gothic, architectural association sketch book (london).—atkinson and atkin- son: gothic ornaments selected from various cathedrals and churches in england (london, ).—f. bond: gothic architecture in england; cathedrals of england and wales; wood carvings in english churches; fonts and font covers; screens and galleries in english churches; westminster ab- bey; introduction to english church architecture (oxford and london, — ).—brandon: analysis of gothic archi- tecture (london, ); open timber roofs of the middle ages (london, ).—t. t. bury: remains of ecclesiastical woodwork (london, ).—j. k. colling : english mediaval foliage; details of gothic architecture; gothic ornaments (london, - ).—e. a. freeman: an essay on the origin and development of window tracery in england (lon- don, n. d.).—c. moore: the mediaxal church architecture of england (new york, ).—paley: a manual of gothic mouldings (london, ).—t. rickman: an attempt to dis- criminate the styles (london, ).—e. sharpe: mouldings of the six periods; treatise on the rise and progress of win- dow tracery in england (london, ).—spring gardens association sketch book (london).—consult also monographs on particular churches and cathedrals. s chapter xix particular schools of gothic ornament ii. german, spanish, italian german gothic ornament. cleverness of technical execution and a tendency towards displays of skill rather than purity of design mark the german gothic work. there is much borrow- ing from french models and cologne, the greatest of all gothic cathedrals, is clearly modeled after amiens and beauvais. most of the german gothic details of the first two periods are based on french types. in the naturalistic rendering of the leaves of the oak, maple, vine, etc., the german cleverness of technic found free scope, and in the th century began to show independ- ence of french models. there is abundant use of the grotesque, in which a very germanic broad humor often takes the place of the french artistic refinement. the moldings generally resemble the french. in the florid period intricate intersections of moldings of dif- ferent profiles seem to have given special delight to the german stone-cutters and wood-carvers because of the technical difficulty of their execution (figures , , ). i it is difficult to distinguish between some of the french, german and flemish work of the late gothic period. the strassburg pulpit may be either a french or a german work. fig. .—vaulting, cathedral of salamanca schools of gothic ornament burg, etc. in principle german glass is like the french, but with much more of grisaille, foliage and geometric patterning, and less of figures until the th century, when a pictorial style came in with much painting in place of mosaic or pot-metal coloring, and a very frequent use of figure-sub- jects. in the minor arts—wood-carv- ing, metal-work, etc.—the ger- mans produced much that is in- teresting, generally marked by the same qualities of fantastic ca- price, quaint humor and technical excellence, to which attention has already been called in other de- partments of art (figs. , ; figure ). spanish gothic ornament. medieval christian art in spain was subject to diverse influences, which prevented a homogeneous organic development of style, but helped to impart to it a highly picturesque character. the con- temporary moorish art stimulated the tendency towards surface ornamentation, while german, french and even english characteristics occur in not a few cases. the spanish fondness for unrestrained exuberance of orna- ment overrode the structural logic of gothic design and fio. . german late gothic cabvino. a history of ornament produced, in the fifteenth century especially, composi- tions of extraordinary and fantastic richness (figure ). spanish gothic ornament is especially rich about the doorways of churches and in the arcades of cloisters and patios of the th and th centuries. tabernacle work, tracery and cusping of great complexity, and heraldic escutcheons form the chief resources of such decoration as is not directly inspired from foreign models. the traceried spires of burgos suggest german work; the general decorative details of the facade suggest both amiens and ratisbon. the in- fio. . mudejar decoration. terior decoration of this and other churches is hard to classify or formulate, it is so varied and so capricious in character, though almost always effective (figure ). vault decoration fol- lowed in spain no well-defined principle, but in its use of multiple ribs resembles the german rather than the eng- lish gothic. the rib-patterns though often designed as abstract decorations rather than as a structural frame- work (figure ), are nevertheless always true ribs, not mere moldings carved out of the masonry as in eng- lish fan-vaulting. an occasional admixture of moor- ish details with the gothic (fig. ) produces what is called the mudejar style. window tracery is of less importance in spain than fig. .—patio (court) of palace op the infantado, guadalajara fig. .—interior of chapel of the condestabile, burgos cathedral schools of gothic ornament in more northern countries because of the small size of windows required in a hot climate; on the other hand, tracery as a surface decoration is carried to the extreme of elaborate complexity. a striking characteristic frequently met with in span- ish decorative work is the effective way in which the most fanciful and overwrought ornamentation is brought into close contrast with the most severely plain surfaces, and minute detail with grandeur of scale. italian gothic ornament: the system. the principles of design that dominated the gothic styles of western europe never found acceptance in italy. the structural logic of the french and eng- lish builders and their system of ribbed vaulting, isolated supports and external buttresses were foreign to italian traditions and ideals. the opportunist methods of the italian romanesque builders and the persistent tradi- tions of roman design, with its pilasters, round arches, cornices and acanthus leaves, were more in accord with italian taste. when the intercourse between french, german and italian chapters of the benedictine and cistercian orders began to make the splendid church architecture of the west known to the italians, the re- sult was only a very inadequate attempt to add some of the superficial details of that architecture to buildings constructed after the traditional romanesque fashion. pointed arches, steep gables, pinnacles, finials and crockets, and tracery strangely modified or travestied, were applied to buildings wholly italian in design, with- out reference to the principles underlying the design and a history of ornament use of these details in the west (figure ). each building was conceived of as a walled enclosure—some- times vaulted, sometimes roofed with wood—upon which to spread decoration, not as an organic structure to be made decorative in itself. the form and outline of a church facade had no necessary relation to the form of fio. . detail from portal or cathedral, lucca: carved rijtceau and marble inlay. the church behind it; it was a screen, a surface to be ornamented like a frontispiece (figure ). the flanks might or might not be similarly adorned. the interior provided areas for mural paintings. the ma- terials for exterior decoration were round and pointed windows, gables, pinnacles, pilaster-strips, panels, sta- tues, colored marble, inlays, mosaic, anything that would produce patterns in light and shade, form and color (plate xxii). the facades of sienna cathedral ( ) and orvieto ( ), and the flanks and east end schools of gothic ornament of the duomo at florence ( - ) illustrate this conception of the relations of architecture and ornament. the superb campanile at florence ( - ) by giotto, gaddi and talenti, is its most perfect embodiment in the admirable harmony of the ornament with the struc- fig. s . capital from a tomb in sta. chiara, naples. tural lines and mass (plate xxii). polychromy rather than light and shade was the chosen medium of decoration; the use of gothic forms was a concession to fashion which prevented a truly rational development of style. in the works just mentioned and countless others, black, red, green, yellow and white marbles, in panels, stripes and inlays, are mingled with pseudo- gothic and half-classic details. the roman tradition refused to die (fig. ), and corinthian capitals (fig. ), the attic base, round arches with archivolts, acanthus leaves, rinceaux and moldings of roman pro- a history of ornament file, are used with no sense of their incongruity with pointed arches, twisted shafts, crockets and tracery. architectural details. all the gothic forms are capriciously varied. the most notable single feature is the spirally twisted shaft, fio. . tomb in san antonio, padua. frequently used as a mullion in subdivided openings, and as a jamb-shaft in recessed doorways. it is clearly a survival from romanesque practice (fig. ; plate xxii, , ). mosaic and inlay the italians could never give up, and as their gothic decoration was pre- eminently a decoration of surfaces, inlaid bands and panels of colored marbles in geometric patterns appear perfectly in place alongside of gothic pinnacles and trac- ery (figure ). the tracery was rarely—except in venice and in a few churches built by foreign artists— designed as a structure to be built up in stone after the true gothic fashion; it was rather a surface of stone to be schools of gothic ornament perforated and carved, as in the duomo windows and the or san michele at florence (figure ). in venice, however a remarkable and more truly structural type of tracery was de- veloped in the th cen- tury in secular build- ings; first in the majes- tic arcades of the doge's palace, and then in pri- vate palace facades, in a style singularly vigorous and original (fig. ). the triforium tracery of san martino (cathe- dral) at lucca ( ), has much of the western character. that of milan cathedral ( —) is presumably of german design. minor works. in these the italian decorative genius found its most congenial expression. tombs, altars, chapels, shrines, ciboria, choir-stalls, fountains and pavements afforded free scope for italian fancy and love of color. in these inlay and mosaic, cosmati-work (see ante page ) and surface decoration were perfectly appropriate. the al- tar of the church of or san michele, florence, by orcagna (figure ); the tombs of the scaligers in verona (figure ); wall-tombs and canopy-tombs in venice and elsewhere, are not surpassed by works of like purpose anywhere. a history of ornament decorative fainting. the remarkable schools of painting which arose and flourished in florence in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and in sienna in the fourteenth, fall outside the field of a history of ornament, except as to the sub- ordinate details of their mural decorations. the cul- mination of this school is seen in the frescoes of giotto ( - ), especially in the church of s. francesco at assisi, and of his followers, the gaddi, etc. the decorations of vault-ribs and of borders of pictured panels on walls and vaults show a mingling of classic survivals with geometric details evidently inspired from cosmati work and geometric inlays (fig. ). the persistence of classic rinceaux and acanthus leaves ap- pears often like a foretaste or an- ticipation of the renaissance, in- stead of a lingering reminiscence of traditions never quite lost since the days of the roman empire. carvings like those on the man- dorla door of the florentine duomo (cir. ; fig. ) are evidences of the vitality of those traditions, which the foreign gothic fashion could not wholly drive out. other painted decorations, as in s. anastasia, verona and s. andrea, vercilli, and the cloisters of the fig. . detail from the mandorla doob. florence cathedral. fia. .—carved traceby, ob san michele, florence fig. .—detail, painted wall and vault, santa croce, florence schools of gothic ornament spanish chapel of sta. maria novella at florence, are of a more distinctly gothic character. the upper chapel of sta. maria in the palazzo pubblico at sienna is another noted example. wood and metal. choir-stalls and furniture offered abundant oppor- tunity for the decorative skill of the italian wood-carv- ers, who often combined wood-inlay or intarsia with their carving. but so many of these medieval wood- carvings were removed to be replaced in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the works of the renaissance fig. . capitals, doge's palace, venice. a history of ornament artists, that this phase of italian medieval art is less im- pressive than some others. a single example is shown in figure from molfetta; it shows a curious survival of earlier tradition in the almost romanesque aspect of the animal reliefs. there are a number of fine medieval iron grilles in italian churches, and the grilles surround- ing the tombs of the scaligers (figure ) are elegant examples of this form of art. the foregoing paragraphs have sketched only in the barest outline the gothic ornament of italy. the whole country is a vast museum of decorative art of all periods, —for its people, from the days of ancient rome to our own, have always been decorators first of all, and an encyclopaedic volume would be required to treat ade- quately the history of their achievements in the decora- tive arts. conclusion. with the closing years of the fourteenth century in italy, and a century later in western and northern eu- rope, the gothic style began to be extinguished by the rapidly-developing and widely-spreading art of the renaissance. architecture had already reached the final limit of its structural development under the gothic system, and was sensibly declining in power and grandeur. but, as we have seen, a splendid decorative flowering accompanied this decline in structural origi- nality, and reached its highest level of richness and tech- nical perfection in the fifteenth century, in france, eng- land, germany and spain. this splendor of minute decoration, of complex tracery, realistic pictorial sculp- fig. .—detail, altar in ob san fig. .—detail from stalls, michele, florence molfetta cathedral schools of gothic ornament ture, sumptuous embroidery and showy furniture was, however, the final coruscation of an,expiring flame. in italy, meanwhile, the new flame of the renaissance had been kindled and had been growing in brilliancy and spreading as it grew brighter. the western arts long resisted the italian invasion; they refused to kindle from this new flame, to copy the new fashion. but the new style was more than a fashion; it was the expression of a fundamental change of spirit, of a new artistic point of view and attitude, of a new civilization and new ideals. the old order was passing away, and by the middle of the sixteenth century gothic art was dead. books recommended: as before, adamy, dehio and bezold, hasak, frothing- ham, ungewitter. also, for the german gothic, boisseree: histoire et description de la cathedrale de cologne (munich, ).—foerster, denkmale deutscher baukunst (leipzig, - ).—hartel: architektonische details and ornament der kirchlichen baukunst (berlin, ).—rlingenbebg: die ornamentale baukunst (leipzig, n. d.).—e. ausm werth: kunstdenkmaler der christlichen mittelalters in den rheinlan- den (leipzig, ).—for the spanish gothic, lamperez y romea: historia de la arquitectura cristiana espanola, etc. (madrid, - ).—monumentos arquitectonicos de espana (madrid).—d. robebts: sketches m spain (london, ).—smith: sketches m spain (london, ).—g. e. street: gothic architecture in spain (new ed., london, ).—waring: architectural studies in burgos (london, ).—waring and mac uoid: examples of architectural art in italy and spain (london). for the italian gothic, cummings: a history of architec- ture in italy (boston, ).—gbuneb: terra-cotta archi- tecture of north italy (london, ).—king: study book of mediaeval art (london, ).—nesfield: specimens of a history of ornament mediaeval architecture (london, ).—schultz: denkmaler der kunst des mittelalters m unteritalien (dresden, n. d.).— g. e. street: brick and marble architecture in the middle ages in n. italy (london, ).—waring: the arts con- nected with architecture in central italy (london, ). list of plates i. savage ornament: polynesian . carved window-head, new zealand (after pho. in a. m. n. h.). . detail, new zealand paddle-handle (after o. j.). . detail, new zealand canoe (after racinet). , . hawaiian stamped cloth (after o. j.). . detail, new zealand paddle-handle (after o. j.). . tattooed mummy-head, new zealand (after o. j.). . samoan grass cloth, string decoration (a. m. n. h.). . new zealand grass cloth (a. m. n. h.). . new zealand club (racinet). . scratched pattern on a tongan club, new guinea (after a. c. h.). . hawaiian stamped cloth (after o. j.). . new zealand club (after glazier). -. from a new guinea spatula (after a. c. h.). . detail, handle of new zealand paddle of ; faces and figures. . new zealand club (a. m. n. h.). . frigate-bird ornament, new guinea (after a. c. h.). . frigate-bird scrolls. new guinea (after a. c. h.). . samoan fan (a. m. n. h.). . new zealand stamped cloth (after o. j".). . blade of new zealand ceremonial paddle (after o. j.). . scratched ornament on pipe, new guinea (after a. c. h.). . carving from new zealand canoe (racinet). . painted eaves boards, new zealand (after pho. in a. m. n. h.). ii. savage ornament: american . bolivian cloth. . from temple of uxmal, mexico (racinet). . mexican terra-cotta head. . indian basketry patterns. . ancient mexican pottery border. . bolivian hanging jar. . sculptured stele or pillar, uxmal. . mexican jar with spiral. . mexican serpent jar. . neck of mexican jar: pseudo-antliemions. . mexican bowl; spirals and zigzags. . washoe basket (after print in yale neict). . mexican duck jar. i t. peruvian gold disk. . mexican platter with grotesque. . peruvian platter with snake ornaments. . carving from a mexican "throwing stick." . peruvian cloth, toucan pattern. . mexican pipe-bowl, carved stone. . prow of alaskan war canoe. . stern of alaskan war canoe. all the above, except and , are original sketches from ob- jects in the american museum of natural history- new york; by miss g. k. hamlin; the rest by the author. iii. egyptian ornament - . painted lotus borders from tombs (chiefly after p. d'a.). - . all-over patterns from tomb ceilings (after p. d'a. and p. & c). . hathoric capital and entablature, temple of nectanebo, phila? (after p. & c). . column, campaniform type. . lotus-bundle column, temple of thothmes iii, karnak (after p. & c). - . all-over patterns from tomb ceilings (after meyer and p. d'a.). . floral capital, ptolemaic, from phila; (after p. d'a.). , . circle all-over patterns (after p. d'a.). . palm capital, temple of edfu (after o. j.). . lobed lotus capital from the theban oasis (after o. j.). . vulture with plumes of royalty; from ceiling of a hypo- style hall (after p. d'a.). , . imbri patterns (after dolmetsch). . vulture or hawk in gold and enamel (p. & c). . enamel rosette for inlay (in metropolitan museum). . carved perfume-spoon of wood (meyer). . scarabeeus or beetle. piate ffil egyftcam ornamkmt iiia egyptian' ornament . various lotus and other borders from tombs (chiefly after prisse d'avennes and dolmetseh). . campaniform column, from ramesseum. . lotus-bud clustered column, luxor. . all-over patterns painted in tombs (after dolmetseh, prisse d'avennes and perrot and chipiez). . ptolemaic capitals, hathoric and floral from phil* (after prisse d'avennes and owen jones). . ptolemaic capitals, lotus and palm, from theban oasis and edfu (as above). . feathers as insignia (after owen jones). , . imbrications (dolmetseh). . floral ornaments (after c. h. walker). . furniture, in part from tomb paintings (after meyer). . wooden shrine (dolmetseh). . detail from facade of tomb (after perrot and chipiez). . utensils and jewelry. illustrations not otherwise designated are from original draw- ings by the author. v. greek ornament, painted: chiefly on pot- tery . anthemions, black on red. . dish, geometric or dipylon period (p. & c). , . palmettes, black and brown on red. . framed anthemions red on black. . palmette or framed anthemion and "lotus" motive: black and brown on red. . hydria, early fifth century (art pour tous). . oblique anthemions, black on red. . anthemions and fruits. . double palmette-and-lotus band: red on black. . anthemion pattern, from an apulian vase in new york. , . vine bands, red on black. . ivy band, black on red. , . small vertical laurel and ivy bands. . painted terra cotta antefix (incorrectly labeled as of mar- ble), athens. . hydria, fine period. . painted marble antefix. . framed anthemions, red on black. . foliated scroll or rinceau, on a late apulian vase. . anthemions, black on red. . vertical vine band. the above illustrations are from various sources: owen jones, kachel, art pour tous, lau, and original sketches from the object. vi. greek ornament, painted: pottery and architecture , , . "vitruvian" waves and scrolls. , , , . various fret or meander bands. , . anthemions, red on black. . imbrications. . flower band (lotuses?). . lotus-bud band. , . plant and vine ornaments. . egg-and-dart and laurel band. , , , . anthemions and palmettes, black on red. , , , , . anthemion bands, red on black. , . large anthemion ornaments, black on red. , . late painted decorations, apulian. , , . pairyted guilloches on terra-cotta strips and moldings. , - . polychrome decorations of architectural members. nos. , , , , , are from drawings by the author after owen jones and kachel; , , from drawings by the late prof. m. k. kress of columbia university; is from perrot and chipiez; the rest from the late prof. w. r. ware's "greek or- nament." vii. gbeek ornament, architectural . carved pediment rineeau, from one of the "sidon" sar- cophagi at constantinople. . marble antefix. supposedly from the parthenon. . carved finial of choragic monument of lysicrates, athens: restored. . typical carved lotiform motive, from the erechtheion. . carved anthemion on an ionic cymatium. . doric order of the parthenon. . ionic capital from the erechtheion. . moldings from the erechtheion: water leaf, bead-and- reel, and egg-and-dart. . ionic order of the erechtheion. . capital from eleusis (after meyer). . anta-cap from the erechtheion (meyer). . greek corinthian volutes. , . stele heads from athens, fourth century. . corinthian capital from the choragic monument of lysic- rates: restored. all the figures on this plate are from original drawings by the author except and which are taken by permission from meyer's "handbook of ornament"; and , from an unidentified source. viii. roman ornament, the orders . doric order, thermse (baths) of diocletian. . composite order from the arch of titus. . ionic order from the temple of fortuna virilis. . corinthian order, temple of castor and pollux. . middle band of architrave, temple of castor and pollux. . greco-roman corinthian order of temple of "vesta" (so- called) at tivoli. . composite capital, thermae of caracalla. . unidentified corinthian pilaster capital; late greek or greco-roman. . enriched attic base in capitoline museum (after meyer). . enriched corinthian base in baptistery of constantine (after meyer). . enriched corinthian base from temple of concord (meyer). all the figures on this plate are from original drawings by the author, based on various authorities ( is after a photograph), ex- cept which is taken directly from meyer's "handbook of orna- ment." plate vml ix. roman ornament, carving . taenia molding, arch of the silversmiths. , . moldings between architrave bands, temple of vespasian (from photographs of french restorations). . semicircular panel in court of mattei palace, rome, with rinceaux and rosettes; its source is unknown (after vulliamy). . detail from border of a silver platter (after kachel). . rinceau, from temple of vespasian. . bucrane, from an altar (after tatham). . fragments from forum of trajan in lateran museum (after a photograph). , . details from so-called "florentine tablet" (after kachel). . enriched ove, temple of vespasian (after an old french lithograph). . pilaster fragment in villa medici, rome (from cast in co- lumbia university). . oak-leaf and rosette band (unidentified; after an old french lithograph). . pilaster fragment with double rinceau, in palazzo fano, rome. all the above illustrations are from drawings by the author. the sources of and cannot be verified. x. roman ornament, minor arts . cinerary urn in british museum (after glazier). . silver crater from hildesheim (meyer, after kachel). . silver patera from hildesheim (after kachel). . marble hydria from pompeii (after photograph). . bronze saucepan, naples museum (meyer). . cinerary chest and urn in vatican museum (after piranesi). . bronze-tripod in berlin museum (after meyer). . marble support or stand in villa borghese, rome (aftev piranesi). !). bronze tripod, naples museum (after meyer). . candelabrum on triangular pedestal in vatican museun (after piranesi). , . marble table legs, vatican museum (after meyer). . bronze candelabrum base, naples museum (after engrav- ing in "the workshop"). all the illustrations on this p'ate are from the author's drawings, based on the sources indicated. xi. pompeiian ornament . detail from temple of isis (r. paufve after zahn). . from a painted wall in naples museum (r. paufve, after niecolini). . from house of marcus lucretius (h. w. haefele, after niecolini). . painted border (r. paufve, after zahn). . from house of the vestals (author, after zahn). . frieze in temple of isis (author, after zahn). . fragment of stucco relief from excavation near villa farnesina, rome (author, after photograph). . from a wall not now extant, in pompeii (h. w. haefele, after niecolini). . detail of pompeiian floor mosaic (r. paufve, after zahn?). . figure in stucco relief, from excavation near villa farne- sina, rome (author, after photograph). , . details from pompeiian floor mosaics (h. w. haefele). xii. byzantine ornament, carved . capital, impost, mosaic and marble paneling, hagia sophia, constantinople. . spandrel with surface carving in marble, hagia sophia, constantinople. . "basket" capital and impost block, san vitale, ravenna. . pier and cap in front of st. mark's, venice, from st. john of acre. . inlaid capital and impost block, st. mark's- venice. , . details from bronze doors of the vlth century, hagia sophia. constantinople. . italo-byzantine silver chest in museo n'azionale- florence. . puteal (perforated parapet), san vitale, ravenna. . panel from crypt of st. mark's, venice; xth century. all the above illustrations are from photographs or photo-prints. xiii. byzantine ornament, mosaic . mosaic detail, hagia sophia, constantinople. . spandrel and capital, gallery arcade of hagia sophia, constantinople. , . details of mosaic from hagia sophia, constantinople. . detail of mosaic in st. george, salonika. , , , . details of mosaic from hagia sophia, constantinople. , , . mosaic details from san lorenzo fuori le mura, rome. , . details of floor mosaic in san marco, rome. of the above illustrations nos. i, , - a're from student- drawings by s. y. ohta, after prang and salzenberg; and from student-drawings by h. j. burke; , , and are repro- duced by permission from prang's plates of historic ornament; and is are from measured drawings by the author. xiv. romanesque ornament, french . double capital from la dalbade, toulouse, in the toulouse museum. . double capital from church of notre dame at chalons- sur-marne. , . details from central portal of church of st. gilles, near aries. . capital from church of st. pierre-le-moutier. . carved rosette, from portal of church at moissac. . carved tympanum from a house at reims. . rosette (unidentified). . detail from porte ste. anne, cathedral of notre dame, paris. . fragment of frieze from portal of church of st. gilles, near aries. . carved monster from portal of church at moissac. all the illustrations on this plate are reproduced from photo- graphic post cards of casts in the museum of comparative sculpture of the trocadero, paris. ratem romaneswe oejmament french. idoubk q^^. ^ ibadetmk>ux.(ktuioustmuseam) zdoutte&ptmmrdomcdecholoia jurmome. fbrchojsgihatfrla) -f (fatal from srerrek/ioutier. fbith ofjt.gilles (atk& xv. anglo-norman and celtic ornament . voluted capitals from harmston church, lines (after bond). . grotesque and scrolls, shobdon church, herefordshire (after rickman). . "scalloped"-type capitals, new shoreham church (after bond). . anglo-norman anthemion ornament (unidentified). . capital, canterbury cathedral (after rickman). . peterboro choir, two bays (illustration by author in van rensselaer, "english cathedrals"). . zigzag arch-ornament from malmesbury abbey (after parker). . star-flower on an arch in romsey abbey (after rickman). . anglo-norman cushion capital (unidentified; c. u. student' drawing). . billet or checker molding from winchester cathedral (after parker). . anthemion ornament from hereford cathedral. . initial p, from book of kells (after sullivan). is. detail from celtic cross at ruthwell, ireland (after champreys). . interlace from cross at mugle, ireland. . interlace border from an irish ms. (after racinet). . the south cross at aheny, ireland (after champreys). all the above illustrations are from the author's drawings ex- cept , which is an unidentified student's drawing. xvi. german romanesque ornament . carved pier in church at st. jak, hungary (from a draw- ing by stein). . twelfth century capital from cathedral at nauniburg (c. u. student-drawing). . twelfth century capital from gelnhausen (from hauser- "stillehre . . . des mittelalters"). . double ca])ital, minster at limburg-on-the-lahn (hauser- "stillehre"). . detail of bronze ornament, aachen. . rosette from hciligcnberg near vienna (meyer's "hand- book" etc.) gelnhausen. . german romanesque capital (from an unidentified engrav- ing)- . twelfth century bronze knocker (meyer). !). rosette from cathedral of bale (meyer). . anthemion band from church at hersfeld, saxony. . acanthus molding from munzenberg, hesse ("gewerbe- halle"). . anthemion band from fulda, hesse-cassel (after prang). . romanesque stained glass from heiligenkreuz (hauser, "stillehre"). i t. carved band from liebfrauenkirche. halberstadt (after "klingenberg, mittelalterliehe ornamentik"). . anthemion frieze from south germany (after prang).. . carving from tomb in st. thomas', strassburg. . carved band from anhausen-an-dem-brienz, s. germany ("gewerbehalle"). illustrations not otherwise attributed are from drawings by the author. plate xvso (gewmam etdfmmesqiuietemmemto xvii. gothic structural ornament . buttress pinnacle from notre dame (hauser). . flying arches, sta. barbara, kuttenberg (hauser). . decorative gable, cologne cathedral; middle period tra- cery (hauser). . crocket from st. urbain, troves (hauser). . buttress pinnacle, notre dame, paris (c. u. student draw- ing)- . early french finial. . french gothic vault rib (hauser). . english pier arch moldings (hauser). . late gothic crocket, rouen (hauser). . wall traceries, transept of meaux cathedral (c. u. stu- dent drawing). . finial cathedral of troyes (hauser). vz. half-plan and elevation, clustered pier, notre dame, paris (c. u. student drawing). . pier cap and arch moldings, chartres cathedral (hauser). . early gothic or transitional balustrade (c. u. student drawing). . detail from transept of notre dame, paris (c. u. stu- dent drawing, after lassus and v.-le-duc). . flamboyant balustrade, chateau of josselyn (c. u. stu- dent drawing). . early gothic balustrade, notre dame, paris (c. u. stu- dent drawing). plate xvc gothac orhamemt. steuctomal plate x¥ml gothic ornament. caiwmsaiemqhi. ct st. urtxun. troves xix. gothic ornament, stained glass . border, window in bourges cathedral (prang). . border, jesse window in chartres cathedral (h. w. miller). , . figures from chartres jesse window (h. w. miller). . border, window in bourges cathedral (author, after owen jones). . grisaille, window in bourges cathedral (owen jones). . border, window in bourges cathedral (owen jones). . border, window in york cathedral (owen jones). . border from window in church of st. thomas, strass- burg (author, after owen jones). . window detail from st. denis (prang). plate ml gmmkommahen btamquss border.bourges t thomas church. strassbung t denis-e rfyxb?'c xx. gothic ornament; painted, ceramic and mss. decoration . painted molding, ely cathedral. . painted knriched molding, beverley cathedral. , . painted decorations from brunswick cathedral. . painted decoration from reims cathedral. c. painted decoration, salisbury cathedral. . painted decoration, winchester cathedral. , . tile units from french churches. . painted decoration from church of the jacobins, toulouse. . painted decoration from ranworth church, norfolk. . prom west walton church, norfolk. . french tiling, xhith century. , , , - . ornaments from manuscripts of the xllth and xhith centuries. , . borders from manuscripts of xlvth and xvth centuries. of the above illustrations, nos. to inclusive and , , are from prang's "plates of historic ornament-" by permission, nos. and to inclusive are from owen jones, "grammar of orna- ment." xxi. english gothic ornament . one bay, salisbury cathedral. . one bay, choir of lincoln cathedral. . one bay, lichfield cathedral, nave. . detail from king's college chapel, cambridge. . perpendicular wall tracery. . lancet windows, warmington church. . plate tracery, carlisle cathedral. . geometric tracery, rippington church. . geometric tracery, chapter house, york cathedral. . curvilinear tracery, st. michael's, warfield. . perpendicular tracery, beauchamp chapel, warwick. . curvilinear tracery, oxford cathedral. . transept rose, westminster abbey. . capital from lincoln cathedral: early english. . capital from beverley cathedral: decorated. . cresting ornament, arundel church: perpendicular. . "decorated" finial. . "decorated" crocket. . "decorated" capital, beverley cathedral. . carving from trull church. . one unit of a diaper decoration. . a "perpendicular" doorway and door paneling. nos. , , and are reproduced by permission from the au- thor's drawings in van rensselaer's "english cathedrals" (the century co.). no. is from part of an illustration in simpson's "a history of architectural development" (longmans); is from speltz, by permission; - are by the author; - are from gwilt's "encyclopedia"; , by the author after speltz; - are from drawings by columbia students, from unidentified sources. xxii. italian gothic ornament . detail, portal of cathedral of messina. . open tracery, venetian style. . central doorway, cathedral of messina. -. traceried window, from a town hall. . twisted columns, from niche in facade of church of or san michele, florence. . detail from upper story of campanile, florence. . porch of cathedral of amalfi. . gothic detail in terra-cotta, bologna. . capital, lower arcade of doge's palace, venice. all the above illustrations are from photographs or photographic prints except , which is from a student's drawing. nos. , and are from photo prints published in the magazine stone, reproduced here by permission. index index a aachen, palatine chapel, acanthus: in byzantine o., , ; in french romanesque o., , ; in greek o., , ; in italian gothic, ; in roman o., /egean culture and art, aq. ahuri-mazda, , aizanoi, , alaska, ; totem poles, alby, cathedral, , alexandria, , alexandrian and apulian pottery, altenburg, american indians, "museum of natural his- tory, not* m ornament, primitive, amiens cathedral, , , , , , "triptych in library, angel choir, lincoln cath., , anglo-norman: anthemions, ; arches, corbels, doorways, mold- ings, ; carved ornament, ; fonts and metal work, ; or- nament in general, ; painted decoration, angouleme, animal forms in egyptian o., animism in primitive o., anthemion in anglo-norman o., ; in byzantine o., , ; in french romanesque o., ; in german o., ; in greek o., , , ; greek types of, ; in roman o., antioch, golden church at, applied ornament defined, apollo temple, didyme, ; phig- alaea (basse), apulian pottery, , , , ara coeli (santa maria in), rome, arcatures, , arch: of constantine, ; of ha- drian at athens, ; of titus, , arches: anglo-norman, ; french romanesque, ; gothic, architectural ceramics: greek, ; etruscan, ; pompeiian, architectural motives in greek o., architectural ornament: denned, ; byzantine, ; early christian, ; egyptian, , , ; gothic in general, ; greek, ; pom- peiian, ; roman, ; roman- esque, in general, aries, ; st. trophime at, armenia, , ; ornament of, artemision (temple) at ephesus, asia minor, , , , , , , , , , assist, assyrian: lotus, , ; ornament, origins and methods of, ; sa- cred tree, , , ; stepped parapet, ; volutes, , athens, , , , , aulnay, st. pierre at, auvergne, avallon, avila, b baalbek, babylon, ; gate of ishtar at, index balawat gates, bale cathedral, balustrades, gothic, bamberg, baptistery: florence, ; of s. stefano at bologna, barcelona, barfreston church, bases: gothic, ; greek, , ; roman, ; romanesque, basilican ornament, sq. basilicas, christian: sant' agnese, ; san apollinare at ravenna, , , , ; ara coeli, ; san clemente, , ; st. john lateran, , ; san lorenzo fuori le mura, ; san marco, rome, , ; santa maria mag- giore, , ; santa maria in trastevere, , ; st. paul with- out the walls (san paolo fuori le mura), ; st peter, ; santa prassede, ; santa pudenziana, ; santa sabina, basilicas, pagan: iemilia, ; julia, basse (phigahea), basketry, , , , baths: of caracalla, ; at pompeii, , ; of titus, , battle of issus, mosaic, "beau dieu" of reims, beauvais cathedral, belgium, , benedictines, , , bergen, golden chalice at, biology of styles, bologna, baptistery of s. stefano, books recommended (see end of each chapter). bosnia, jar from, bourg-en-bresse, brou church, , bowtels, english gothic, brazil, central, brou church, , budmer in bosnia, jar from, byzantine details: acanthus, , ; anthemions, , ; bands and borders, ; carving, ; church furniture, ; floors and incrustations, ; guilloches and interlace, ; moldings, ; mosaic, ; mss. illumination, ; rinceau, ; shafts, byzantine influences, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , byzantine ornament, sq.; archi- tectural ; chief characteristics of, ; textile, calabria, campania, , campanile, florence, , canopy windows, , canterbury cathedral, , , capitals: anglo-norman, ; by- zantine, , ; egyptian, ; etruscan, ; gothic, , , ; greek, ; from neandreia, ; persian, , ; pompeiian, ; roman, - , , ; romanesque, , , carolingian art, carrenac, portal of church, carved ornament: anglo-norman, ; byzantine, ; english gothic, ; french gothic, ; french romanesque, ; gothic in general, ; greek, ; ital- ian gothic, ; italian roman- esque, , ; roman, , sq. casa dei capitelli colorati, casa di livia, castor and pollux, temple of, cathedrals: alby, , ; alten- burg, ; amiens, , , , , , , ; bale, ; can- terbury, , , ; chartres, , , , , , , , ; cologne, , , , ; index romanesque, ; gothic in gen- eral, ; roman, fiji islands, fr finials, gothic, flamboyant period, , , , , ; tracery, , , flanders, , flinders petrie, note, , note florence, , , , , ; bap- tistery of, ; campanile, , ; duomo, , , ; or san michele, ; santa maria novella, florid period in gothic o., , , , , "flowing" tracery, , foliage: english gothic, ; french gothic, ; gothic in general, fonts, anglo-norman, france, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , freiburg cathedral, , french gothic ornament: carving, ; figure sculpture, ; foli- age, , moldings, ; painted decoration, ; rose windows, , , , ; stained glass, , ; tracery, french influence in spanish roman- esque o., french romanesque ornament: arches, ; carving of bands and panels, ; classic influence in, , ; corbel tables, ; door- ways, ; figure sculpture, ; general character, ; moldings, ; ornaments, ; painted decoratfcn, fresco, in pompeiian art, fret or meander: egyptian, ; greek, , , friendly islands, frigate bird, furniture: egyptian, ; pompeiian, furniture, ecclesiastical (see church furniture) g gaddi, , gargoyles, gothic, gates: of balawat, ; of ishtar at babylon, ; lion gate at my- cenae, gelathi, armenia, general character of: byzantine o., ; egyptian o., ; french ro- manesque, o., ; greek o., general survey of egyptian o., geometric or dipylon pottery, , geometric motives: in egyptian o., ; in greek o., , geometric tracery, georgian byzantine carving, german: branch tracery, ; gothic moldings, ; gothic* or- nament, general, ; minor arts, ; moldings, ; mss., ; ro- manesque o., ; spires, ; stained glass, , ; tracery, germany, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , gernrode, giotto, , , gloucester cathedral: candlestick, ; cloisters, golden house of nero, , goodyear, w. h., , note, , note, note, note, note gothic: architecture denned, ; architectural periods, ; balus- trades, ; bases, , ; capi- tals, , , ; carving, , ; crestings, ; crockets, , , ; cusping, , ; dec- orative painting, , , ; figure sculpture, , , ^ finials, ; foliage, , ; gargoyles, ; minor architec- ture, ; metal work, ; mold- ings, ; mss. decoration, ; piers, shafts and columns, ; pinnacles, ; stained glass, , index ; the system, ; tracery, , ; wood and metal, italian romanesque: carving, ; cosmati work in, ; general, ; grotesques, ; inlay and striping, ; lombard style, ; mss., ; siculo-arabic style, ; wheel windows, italy, , , , , , , , , ivory carving, byzantine, ivory throne of maximian, j "jachin and boaz," java, war drum head, jean fouquet, jerusalem, , "jesse tree" windows, k kahrie mosque (mone tes choras church), kameiros, rhodes, karnak, hypostyle hall, kelat seman, syria, knossos, crete, , , l label or drip moldings, english, lancet style, leading characteristics of byzan- tine ornament, lichfield cathedral, , liernes, , limoges enamels, , lincoln cathedral: angel choir, , ; circular windows, lion gate, mycenae, living forms in assyrian ornament, loggie of vatican, lombard doorways, lombard style, ; influence of, , lombards, the, lombardy, lotiform motive, greek, lotus: assyrian, , ; egyptian, - , , , , , , , ; trilobe lotus, , , , louviers, church of st. pierre, lucca, ; san guisto at, ; san martino at, lycian architecture, lydia, lysicrates, choragic monument of, , , , m maestri comacini, , maison carree, nimes, mandorla door, florence cathedral, mangaian ornament, manuscript illumination, , , , , martorana, la, at palermo, maximian, ivory throne of, meaning of history of ornament, meaux, cathedral, medallion windows, melos, melian pottery and o., , , metal work, gothic, method of this history, metropolitan museum of art, n. y., vii, , , note mexican pottery, milan cathedral, , miletus, , , minor architecture, gothic, minor arts, german, modillion, the roman, moissac, mokheta, georgia, molaise gospels, molding ornaments, gothic, , moldings: anglo-norman, ; by- zantine, ; drip or label, ; egyptian torus, , ; english gothic, ; french gothic, , index architecture, , , ; rin- ceau, - ; stucco relief, , ; wall decoration, , roman genius, the, romanesque, english (see anglo- norman) romanesque, french (see french romanesque) romanesque, german (see german romanesque) romanesque metal work, romanesque ornament: italian in general, ; lombard, ; tus- can, ; scandinavian, ; span- ish, romanesque period, the, rose windows: english, ; french gothic, , , , rosettes: assyrian, ; cretan, ; egyptian, ; gothic (vaulting bosses), ; greek, ; myce- naean, ; persian, ; roman, , , rosheim, alsace, rouen: cathedral, , ; st. maclou, st. ouen, rouheiha, syria, , russian byzantine ornament, s sacred tree, assyrian, , , sakkarah, tombs at, sainte chapelle, paris, , , , salamanca, salisbury cathedral, salonica, samoan islands, san andrea, vercelli, san apollinare churches at ra- venna, , , , san francesco, assisi, san lorenzo fuori, rome, san marco, rome, , san martino, lucca, san paolo (see st. paul) san miniato, , , san stefano, bologna, san vitale, ravenna, , sant' anastasia, verona, santa costanza, rome, santa maria in ara coeli, rome, "" maggiore, rome, , "" novella, florence, m " pomposa, "" in trastevere, rome, , santa prassede, rome, santa sabina, rome, sardis, savage ornament, characteristics of, , saxony, scaligers, tombs of the, (ill'n); scandinavian ornament, scarabaeus in egyptian ornament, , sicily, , , , siculo-arabic style, , , sidon sarcophagi, , sienna, , , ; cathedral, significance of classifications, six propositions on history of o., solomon's temple, sources and motives of egyptian o., south sea islands, southwark, st. saviour's, southwell chapter house, , spain, , , , , , , spalato in dalmatia, , , , , spanish: chapel of santa maria novella, florence, ; gothic ornament, ; romanesque style, sphinx in egyptian art, spirals: iegean and pre-hellenic, , ; egyptian, ; greek, ; in savage ornament, , index st. ceneri, st. denis, , , st. gilles, near aries, , st john lateran, rome, , st. maclou, rouen, st mark's, venice, , , , , , st omer, cathedral, st. ouen, rouen, st. paul without the walls (san paolo fuori le mura), rome, , st. paul-trois-chateaux, st pierre, louviers, st. saviour's, southwark, st. trophime, aries, st. urbain, troyes, , stained glass, , ; english, ; french, ; german, ste. radegonde, poitiers, stepped parapet: assyrian, ; persian, strassburg, cathedral, , , , structural ornament: defined, ; gothic, stucco relief: pompeiian, ; roman, , styles: "biology" of, ; historic, ;-summary of sequence of, ; value of study of, summary: of characteristics of savage ornament, ; of sequence of styles, sun disk on egyptian buildings, susa, , , swastika: in cypriote ornament, , , ; in egyptian o., ; in greek o., ; in pompeiian mosaics, ; in roman o., syria, , , , syrian christian ornament, system: of italian gothic orna- ment ; roman decorative, t taixnti, architect of campanile, tarragona, technic theory of origins of orna- ment tegernsee, earliest stained glass, note temples: of apollo at didyme, , , , ; of apouo at phi- galaea (basse), ; of castor and pollux, rome, ; of egypt, , ; of erechtheion, athens, , , ; of faustina, rome, ; of parthenon, athens, , , ; of zeus, athens, textile ornament: byzantine, ; gothic, theories of origins of ornament, , tholos: of atreus, mycenae, ; of epidauros, , throne of maximian, tiercerons, , tiles: chaldean and assyrian, , ; romanesque, ; gothic, tiryns, , , , , titus: arch of, , ; baths of, tombs; of abbot of aubazine (ill.), ; at doghanlou, ; of galla placidia, ravenna, ; "of midas," , , ; persian, ; at sakkarah, ; of scaligers, verona, , ; on via latina, toscanella, churches at totemism, totem poles, alaskan, totems, new zealand female, toulouse, capitals in museum of, tourmanin, syria, , tours cathedral, , tracery, gothic window: english, ; french, ; german, ; italian, , ; spanish, trilobe lotus, , , , triptych in amiens library, trocadero museum, paris, , troja, , index troy, , , troyes: cathedral, ; st. urbain at, , tudor rose, tuscan order, tuscan romanesque style, u ulm, minster at, uraeus (adder) in egyptian orna- ment, v vauje of study of styles, variety in roman orders, vatican museum, , vaulting: english gothic, , ; german, ; gothic in general, vaults and ceilings, english, venice, , , , , , ; doge's palace at, ; st. mark's at, , , , , , ; tracery, , vercelli, san andrea at, verona, , , vignola's rules for the orders, vine in byzantine ornament, ; in greek o., viollet-le-duc, ; his restoration of chapels in notre dame, vitruvius, w wall decoration: byzantine, ; pompeiian, ; roman, , wall and gable tracery, wall mosaic at warka, ware, w. r., note warka (erech), wells cathedral, , , , westminster: abbey, ; hall, ; henry vii's chapel, wheel windows: french, ; italian, winchester: cathedral, , ; st. cross at, window tracery (see tracery, gothic window) wood carvings, gothic, wood and metal in italian gothic art, woodwork, english, , y yogdhasil, york cathedral, , , z zamohra, zigzags: anglo-norman, ; egyp- tian, ; french, ; german, ; savage, , zufli pottery, a history of ornament lavaro of santa maria novella, florence, ry giovanni della rorria, . history of ornament renaissance and modern by a. d. f. hamlin, a.m., l.h.d., f.a.i.a. professor of the history of architecture in columria university with jjg illustrations and ts plates new york cooper square publishers, inc. copyright, , by the century co. originally published reprinted by permission of genevieve karr hamlin published by cooper square publishers, inc. fourth avenue, new york, new york international standard book number - - - library of congress catalog card number - printed in the united states of america to the memory of william robert ware founder of architectural education in the united states, my first pre- ceptor in architecture, and fob twenty years my sympathetic and inspiring colleague and chief in columbia university preface six years have passed since the appearance of my first volume, "a history of ornament, ancient and medieval," when i announced my intention of following it with a history of renaissance, modern and oriental ornament, which i hoped to complete in two years. not only have the two years been extended to six on account of the vast amount of material to be studied, digested, selected and put in shape, but it has been clear since early in those operations that the rich and extensive subject of the oriental styles could not possibly be in- cluded in the projected volume without swelling it to quite unwieldy proportions, and putting its cost quite beyond the reach of the average student. him (and her) i have had in mind from the outset; and by "stu- dent" i mean any and every one who seeks to gain real knowledge and not merely to be amused by pictures. the subject-matter of this book differs in a funda- mental way from that of my preceding volume. it deals not with the works of dead and buried civilizations, but with those of a civilization of which our own is the direct heir, or even, as some would have it, a part; and with the works of our own times, that is, of the nine- teenth and twentieth centuries. it covers a period of almost exactly years, whereas the chronology of the previous volume extends from b.c. to a.d., or exactly ten times the length of the period we are now vii preface to study. but because these five centuries are so near to us, and because since the middle ages both the area and the populations included in our survey have so vastly increased, the production of ornament,—that is, of every kind of decorative work other than pure paint- ing and sculpture—has correspondingly increased. moreover, a much greater proportion of this product is still in existence than of the works of antiquity or of the middle ages, while the ornament of the last century and of our own surrounds us on every hand. thus the material that is available for study is enormous, and the books that treat of it are numbered by the thousand. the writer of a history of the modest dimensions of this volume must, therefore, pick and choose, and must ex- clude far more than he can include in its pages and illustrations; and the greatest possible compression must be resorted to, to cover even this restricted field within reasonable limits. i therefore make no apology for the manifest omis- sions of this work. my readers may differ with me as to the excellence of the judgment shown in choosing what to keep and what to leave out, and no one's choice can possibly please all. but on the question of the amount to be omitted or included i was under inexorable necessity. what this book seeks to do is not to present a com- pendium of all the arts and forms of ornament produced since , but rather to sketch the general historic movement of the arts of decoration; the genesis, evolu- tion and succession of the various styles that have pre- vailed; and to analyze, describe and illustrate them in viii preface such fashion that the reader may be led to an intelligent understanding of their character and some mastery of their dominant characteristics. and whereas in the previous volume but little space could be devoted to the allied and minor arts, because the remains in these arts from antiquity and even from the middle ages are rela- tively so scanty compared with the architecture, in the present volume a much larger proportion of space is allowed to them, although architecture is still treated as the mistress of all the decorative arts. another important consideration deserves notice. the arts of antiquity and of the middle ages belong to times so remote, and to cultures so different from our own, that recourse to them in modern design partakes somewhat of the nature of archeeology. the arts of the renaissance, on the other hand, sprang from a civiliza- tion which we have inherited, and from which we are separated in time rather than in character, culture, and sympathy. we fall naturally into ways of thinking and ways of designing taught us by the whole movement of the renaissance. the ornament of that age, therefore, is full of suggestion, inspiration, and examples for our use. it is of far more practical availability for us than that of remoter ages. a word is in order regarding the illustrations. the selection of subjects is far different from what it would have been if material had been available in all cases in a form suitable for reproduction, and if there had been no limitations of either time, space, or expense to restrict their selection and preparation. about of those finally selected are line-cuts printed with the text, for iz preface convenience of immediate reference. over others are half-tones, printed on separate folios of plate paper and bound in with the text. the confusion and lack of sequence in the numbering which this introduced in the previous volume have been avoided in the present volume by numbering the half-tones independently of the line- cuts, and referring to them by the word "figure" fol- lowed by bold-faced numerals, while the text-cuts are referred to by the abbreviation "fig." followed by numerals in ordinary type. at the end of the volume, as in the previous work, are a series of full-page plates, of which five are in color. i have given credit wherever possible to the authors or publishers of illustrations not drawn by my own hand, and have generally indicated the sources of drawings made by myself otherwise than from my own original sketches. many of these draw- ings, however, were made so long ago that in many cases i have lost the memoranda of their sources, and am therefore unable to give the desired credit. i desire to make grateful acknowledgment of the assistance given me during these six years by many persons: to those of my students who have permitted me to use their drawings; to the officers of the avery library of columbia university for many courtesies; to miss starrett, of the avery library, for valuable as- sistance in the typing of several chapters of my manu- script; to mr. talbot f. hamlin for several drawings and for valuable criticisms; to charles scribner's sons, to the american architect co., to the publishers of "good furniture," to messrs. byne and stapley and the hispanic society, to messrs. hessling, now of x preface montreal; and to b. t. batsford and messrs. chapman and hall of london, for permission to copy or repro- duce illustrations in works published by them; to the metropolitan museum of art and the hispanic society for permission to draw or reproduce illustrations of ob- jects in their collections; and to the century co. for the promptness, efficiency and sympathy of their coopera- tion in the publishing of this work. if i have inadver- tently omitted from this list the name of any who have helped me or to whom credit should be given, i must ask their pardon and will, if informed of the omission, remedy it in any future reprintings of the book. since the foregoing paragraphs were sent to the printer, the valuable and kindly aid given me by several of my students in the final preparation or completion of a number of drawings inadvertently or unavoidably left to the last, has placed me under a special obligation of grateful recognition. i trust i have omitted none of the names of these helpful volunteers in the follow- ing list: messrs. l. albright, c. f. deam, r. gottlieb, s. r. moore, v. rambusch; misses a. m. chapman, m. brandt and m. c. hills. it should be added that illustrations credited to "student's work" or "student's drawing" are taken from drawings made in the regular course of required work in the school of architecture of columbia uni- versity, and that in the case of those which have no name appended, the author's name has been lost. the source from which the student derived his illustration i have not attempted to trace. a. d. f. hamlin. xi contents chaptel fact i the renaissance in general ii the early renaissance in italy .... iii the early renaissance in italy, ii—archi- tecture and accessory arts iv the middle renaissance v italian baroque ornament vi the renaissance in france, i vii the renaissance in france, ii viii renaissance ornament in spain .... ix renaissance ornament in the netherlands . x renaissance ornament in germany . . . xi renaissance ornament in great britain . . xii renaissance and colonial ornament in amer- ica xiii the modern revivals and nineteenth cen- tury xiv the nineteenth century in america . . . xv the twentieth century: europe and amer- ica list of plates index list of illustrations (figs.) explanation of references those whose source is not otherwise indicated are from original drawings by the author. the word "after" followed by a name indicates a drawing by the author derived from or based upon the source named. eaton: handbook of modern french sculpture. ewerbeck: die renaissance in beu "amer. architect": american archi- tect and architectural review formerly "american architect and building news" (fortnightly, n. *.). "arch'l record": the architectural record (monthly, n. y.). "arte della stampa": a book on printing published by ongania, venice. bankart: the art of the plasterer. blomneld: a hiitory of renais- sance architecture in england. bode: italian furniture. "bulletin metrop. mus.": monthly, issued by the metropolitan mu- seum, new york. byne and stapley: spanish archi- tecture of the sixteenth century (and other books on the spanish renaissance: see bibliographies). cervetto: / gaggini da bissone. champeaux: le meuble. daly: motifs historiques d'architec- ture et de sculpture. deck: la faience. de vinne: notable printers of italy during the xv century. de vries: plusieurs menuiseries. durm: baukunst der renaissance in it alien. gien und holland. f. s. m. (franz sales meyer): handbook of ornament. garner and stratton: domestic architecture of the tudor period. gewerbehalle: die oewerbehalle (a german art monthly long extinct). geyrouller: die architektur der re- naissance in toscama. glazier: manual of historic orna- ment. good furniture: good furniture (monthly trade magazine). gotch (gotch and brown): early renaissance architecture in eng- land. griggs: italian and sicilian orna- ment. guerinet: decorations d'architecture et de sculpture (miscellaneous photo-prints). gurlitt: oeschichte des barockstiles in it alien. hispanic museum: the museum of the hispanic society, new york. jewitt: ceramic art in great brit- xv list of illustrations kelekian: catalogue of the kelekian collection (textiles). letarouilly: edificet de rome mod- erne; also, le vatican et la basi- lique de st. pierre. odds and ends: a series of illustra- tions formerly published by the american architect. odom: a history of italian furni- ture. ortwein (a. ortwein and others): deuttche renaissance. owen jones: grammar of ornament. prentice: renaissance architecture and ornament in spain. r. and d. (rouyer et darcel): l'art architectural en france. raguenet: matiriaux et documents d'architecture. reymond (marcel reymond'): le* delia robbia. rlcci: baroque architecture and sculpture in italy. rouyer: la renaissance de fran- cois ler a louie xiii. saglio: history of french furniture. schubert: oeschichte des barock in spanien. sherrill: a stained glass tour in italy. vacher: fifteenth century italian ornament. vogt: la porcelaine. ward: historic ornament, vol. ii. ware (w. rotch ware): the georgian period. wiebeking: analyse architecturale de 'europe (a miscellaneous col- lection of engravings of architec- ture). workshop: the workshop (a ger- man american periodical of in- dustrial art published in new york - ). figs. *aob . painted details from san francesco, assist is . bronze candelabrum, strozzi chapel, san andrea della valle, rome (after an old engraving) . florentine or venetian "marriage coffer" in south kensington museum (glazier) . rinceau from tomb in sta. maria del popolo, rome .... . flat relief ornament, marsuppini tomb in sta. croce, flor- ence (f. s. m.) . pilaster-scroll, town hall of verona ("workshop") .... . festoon of olives, sta. maria della pace, rome (after f. s. m.) . two renaissance rosettes (one after f. s. m.) . pilaster detail, san giobbe, venice (after photo) .... . griffin from tomb in san domenico, maggiore, naples (after photo) . entablature, porch chapel of pal. pubblico, sienna .... . mascaron, pal. fossombroni, arezzo (after geymuller) ... . scroll, pazzi chapel (after photo) xvi list of illustrations pigs. page . fruit border by luca delia robbia, from medallion in pal. quaratesi, florence (after photo in reymond) . rinceau from mandorla door, cathedral, florence (after photo) . "putti" and festoon, tomb of ilaria del carretto, lucca (after photo) . two candelabrum-shafts . pilaster arabesques by b. da majano and p. lombardi (after f. s. m.) . pilaster detail from venice (after photo) . top of doorway to library, sienna cathedral (from an italian periodical) . two "cantilever" brackets . capital from courtyard, gondi palace, florence (after photo) so . (a) pilaster cap, naples; (b) corbel, fiesole (after geymuller) . four capitals from sienna, cortona, gubbio, bologna (after f. s. m., geymuller, and photos) . (a) pilaster cap, venice (after f. s. m.); (b) pier cap, bo- logna (after photo) . column in san zaccaria, venice . three types of pilaster treatment . pilaster, venice ("workshop") . column from spello (after geymuller) . four entablatures, from riccardi, strozzi and gondi palaces, florence, and palazzo pretorio, lucca (student's work) . . . entablature of shrine, madonna del sasso, bibbiena .... . typical florentine arch-pediment s . standard of holy water font, badia fiesolana . spandrel from a chapel in genoa cathedral (after cervetto) . s . acanthus decorations, venice and bologna (after photos) . . acanthus from sarcophagus of marsuppini, sta. croce, flor- ence (after photo) . acanthus from tomb of piero di medici, san lorenzo, flor- ence (after photo) . acanthus from torch-bracket, sienna - . nine varieties of acanthus . arabesque panel, "giant's stairs," doge's palace, venice . . . flat relief ornament from a tomb dated . two arabesques: (a) san francesco di rimini; (b) badia fiesolana (after photos) . panel, altar in orvieto cathedral (after cast in ecole des beaux- arts, paris) . arabesque, villa salviati, florence (after geymuller) ... . arabesques from venice and urbino xvii list of illustrations figs. hoe . anthemions: (a) tomb of count ugo, badia, florence (after f. s. m.); (b) sgraffito decoration, florence (after geymul- ler) . detail of frieze over door, ducal palace, urbino (after photo) . anthemion from a cast in florence (after f. s. m.) .... . detail, chimneypieee in doge's palace, venice . typical lyre motives from piers in court of pal. vecchio, florence (after photo) . detail from tomb of cassandra misata, naples . detail from fossombroni palace, arezzo (after geymuller) . festoon, base of pilaster in sta. maria dei miracoli, venice . . fruit, from albertoni monument, sta. maria del popolo, rome (after photo) . "putti" and wreath, doorway of pazzi chapel, sta. croce, florence (after photo) . (a) "putti" and shield, archbishop's palace, florence; (b) de- tail from tomb at folleville, france, by ant. tamagno (traced from cervetto) . mascaron and arabesque from a column of tomb in san do- men ico maggiore, naples (after photo) . grotesques from library of san lorenzo, florence, attributed to michelangelo (after f. s. m.) . grotesque, pal. del magnifico, sienna (after f. s. m.) ... . flat relief ornament, sta. maria dei miracoli, venice ... . ceiling detail, church at bironico (from a book advertisement) . (a) ceiling of pazzi chapel, florence ("workshop"); (b) ceil- ing of sta. maria dei miracoli, venice (student's drawing) . ceiling, cortona cathedral . ceiling, santo spirito in sassia, rome . frame of doorway, pal. doria, genoa (after photo) .... . florentine door panels (wiebeking) . arched window, urbino . niche and statue, tomb in fiaschi chapel, genoa cathedral (after cervetto) . seven types of baluster . balustrade, la scala hospital, sienna (student's drawing) . . acanthus corbel, stalls in pal. del comune, pistoia (after photo) . shrine, hospital of san francesco, gubbio . holy water font, pisa cathedral (after photo) . holy water font by ant. federighi, sienna cathedral (after photo) . detail of inlaid floor, sienna cathedral (after photo) ... xviii list of illustrations pigs. pag« . detail of intarsia by b. da majano in pal. vecchio, florence (f. s. m.) . detail of intarsia on harpsichord in bardini collection . . . . oriental motives from ceramics and textiles, and three details from italian textiles . two textile motives framed in a mesh . painted textile pattern in picture by crivelli (after s. vacher) s . four textile motives: (a) florentine, xvth century; (b) blue and white wool on linen; (c) pattern from painting by guido da sienna; (d) venetian velvet: (after s. vacher and kelekian) . north italian needlework (after fischbach) . three lace patterns (racinet) . venetian punta-in-aria (after "bulletin metrop. mus.") . . . two fifteenth century initials ("arte della stampa") ... . typographic ornament, venice, (after de vinne) ... . four orders of architecture . ionic order, pal. pietro massimi, rome (after letarouilly) . . columnar arcades: (a) pal. pompei, verona; (b) basilica, vi- cenza (student's drawings) .' . window, pandolfini palace, florence . typical "thumb-moldings" from furniture . painted rinceau, loggie of the vatican (after letarouilly) . stucco relief, loggie of the vatican (after photo) .... . stucco relief, villa madama (after photo) . examples of florentine sgraffito decoration (after geymuller) . two ceilings from farnese palace (w. h. schanck, after letarouilly) . half-plan of a church ceiling in venice . "curl-over" detail, ceiling of sala del senato, doge's palace, venice (after photo) . stucco relief, facade of spada palace, rome (after photo) . . lower half of door in vatican palace ("workshop") ... . doorway and door, pal. pietro massimi, rome . italian renaissance bed-post (after odom) . italian renaissance foot-board (after odom) . florentine mirror-frame (after photo in bode) . three gaines: (a) from a florentine cabinet; (b) from villa papa guilio, rome; (c) canephora, caprarola gardens (after photo) . florentine sgabellone (after bode) . escutcheon with montefeltro arms (after ricci) . iron light-bracket, citta di castello (after f. s. m.) . . . zix list of illustrations fios. riau . plate with portrait from vienna museum ("workshop") . . . border pattern from plate, florence or urbino . majolica border detail (after f. s. m.) . urbino plate in germanic museum, vienna ("workshop") . . . two details, top and border of tapestry by raphael in vatican chasuble, th century, sturgis collection (after photo) . . . an italian renaissance window (after sherrill) . top of gateway, villa falconieri, frascati (after gurlitt) . . twisted column, confessional in san andrea, vercelli (after ricci) . voluted buttress, cathedral of syracuse, (after ricci) . voluted buttresses, sta. maria della salute, venice .... . gateway of seminary at milan (after durm) . pilaster detail, caprarola . "vermiculated" and "congelated" rustications . escutcheon and tympanum, san girolamo, rome, by dom. castelu (after ricci) arms of urban viii, (after ricci) three escutcheons from verona . half-wreath and palms, san giovanni laterano, by galilei (after ricci) . gaine or sheath-figure, sacristy of certosa, pavra (after ricci) . gaine from a gateway of villa alabani, rome (after f. s. m.) . one-quarter of a stucco ceiling, pal. mattei, rome (o. j.) . . baluster, cernetto palace, bitonto (after ricci) . wall decorated in classic revival or louis xvi style (old engraving reproduced in "good furniture") . italian brocatelle, th century (after griggs) . traditional motive, blue wool on cotton . wall hanging, applique and needlework (after kelekian) . . s . venetian lace, th century, in metropolitan museum, new york (after "good furniture") . venetian th century bronze knocker (after photo) ... . half of a th century plate ("workshop") . corbel from verneuil (raguenet) . end elevation, tomb of children of charles viii, tours (student's drawing) . end elevation, tomb of francis ii, duke of brittany, nantes (o. j.) . one bay of court facade, north wing of blois (w. t. par- tridge) . pilaster and entablature, chambord (after r. & d.) . . . . . upper part of a francis i doorway, toulouse (after daly) . xx list of illustrations figs. noi . upper part of a francis i dormer . typical francis i s-scroll . candelabrum-shaft from toulouse (after daly) s . carved rinceau, chateau de pagny (after photo) . stucco enrichments, gallery of francis i, fontainebleau (after daly) . panel from wainscot, gallery of francis i, montainebleau (after photo) . a francis i chair (after "good furniture") . doorway at clermont-ferrand (after r. & d.) . chimney-top, chateau d'anet (after r. & d.) . wainscot and bahut, chateau de cheverny (after r. & d.) . . table, style of charles ix-henry ii (after rouyer) ... . panel of cupboard by sambin (after saglio) . shrine for heart of francis i (after photo in eaton, "french sculpture") . panel from a door, cluny museum, paris . panel from so-called chamber of henry iv, louvre, paris . henry ii bronze door-pull ("odds and ends," american architect) a. door-knocker from narbonne (after photo) . enameled plate by penicaud (speltz) . colossal order of hotel lamoignon, paris . brick and stone architecture, detail (after daly) . . . . . bull's eye window, house in toulouse (after daly) ... . typographic ornament by theo. de bry (o. j.) a. louis xiii painted nielle, chateau of cheverny . facade, church of st. paul-st. louis, paris ("american archi- tect") . three louis xiii over-doors (after daly) . louis xiii cradle (after f. s. m.) . louis xiii cabinet (speltz after "l'art pour tous") ... . decorative treatment, galerie d'apollon, louvre (after r. & d.) . molding, galerie d'apollon, louvre (after r. & d.) . . . . . ceiling-cove, versailles (after daly) . door-panel, church of st. louis-en-l'isle, paris (after photo in guerinet) . arch impost, hotel de lauzun, paris (after daly) .... . ornament by lepautre (o. j.) . cabinet by boulle (ward) . louis xiv "fauteuil" or easy-chair (champeaux) .... . louis xiv table (champeaux) * xxi list of illustrations figs. pioi . iron balcony railing (after daly) . gate, choir of st. ouen, rouen (after r. & d.) . vase, menard le chateau (after photo in guerinet) .... . point d'alencon lace (ward) . (a) french lace, xvii century (after "good furniture"); (b) needlework, velvet bed-lambrequin . detail from a th century brocade or velvet (after waring) . keystone decoration, versailles (after daly) . corner of panel in hdtel soubise, paris (after daly) ... . louis xv shells on a bracket . ceiling cove, versailles (after photo in guerinet) .... . commode by caffieri (ward) . balustrade by heret, nancy (after raguenet) . rustication and paneling, arch at chalons-sur-marne (after photo) . louis xvi window-head, house in rue du temple, paris (after daly) . two console brackets, louis xvi (after daly) . louis xvi picture frame (from an advertisement) .... . louis xvi commode (champeaux) . louis xvi chair, mobilier national (champeaux) .... . louis xvi candlestick . louis xvi iron gate (spelu) . early french faience (a), (c), oiron ware; (b) palissy ware (deck and speltz) . top of doorway, san clemente, toledo (after photo) ... . tomb in capilla real, granada (byne and stapley) .... . casa monterey, salamanca (after photo) . heraldic escutcheon, escueslas menores, salamanca (after photo in byne & stapley) . candelabrum-shaft, casa de zaporta, saragossa . capital, alcala de henares in madrid museum (after photo in byne & stapley) . bracket capital, guadalajara . part of facade of convent of san marcos, leon (after pren- tice) . decorative rustication, alcala (after byne & stapley) ... . artesonado ceiling, university, salamanca . cornice of lonja, saragossa (after byne & stapley) ... . detail, retablo in poblet monastery (pedlar after prentice) . . detail from reja, segovia cathedral (student drawing after byne & stapley) xxii list of illustrations pi . . detail from provincial hospital, seville (after photo in byne & stapley) * . upper part, facade of san jorge, la coruna (after schubert) . portal of san andrea, valencia (after photo) . a spanish th century table (after photo in hispanic museum) . detail of church book-rest (after photo in hispanic museum) . details of "chip-carving" on spanish furniture . arabic and moorish "lily" motives; (a) (b) from cairo; (c) from alhambra . patterned tiles (l'albright after a french color-print) ... . single motive or one-color tiles . iron window grille (after byne and stapley) . embroidered wall-hanging, red on white, toledo town hall (after byjie & stapley) . detail from municipal standard of la guardia in hispanic museum; gold and silver on red velvet . red velvet stole in hispanic museum; gold and silver appli- qu£ and embroidery . altar rail from church at leau, belgium (after ewerbeck) . . wooden panel, audenarde (after ewerbeck) . . flemish chest and credence (f. s. m.) . flemish table (f. s. m.) . nielle ornament from furniture (after ewerbeck) .... . brussels point lace, th century (ward) . gable ornament, leyden (after ewerbeck) . dormer, leyden (after ewerbeck) . carved "jewels" arched doorway, leyden (after ewerbeck) . . bed-post gaine by paul v. de vries (after de vries) ... . doorway decoration by paul v. de vries (after de vries) . .. . typographic ornaments by elzevir, (elzevir) .... . delft tiles, xvii century (speltz) . delft faience, plate and ewer (deck) . part of facade, otto heinrichsbau, heidelberg (ortwein) . . . columns from portals of rathaus, miinden. and castle of aschaffenburg (ortwein) . carving on lower half of column, bevern (ortwein) . . . . gable, state pharmacy, saalfield (ortwein) . dormer, hamelschenburg castle (ortwein) . window, house at dinkelsbtihl ("workshop") . "strapwork" or "applique" ornament, marienkirche, rostock (ortwein) . carving, stalls of chapel in mayence cathedral (ortwein) . . xxiii list of illustrations figs. faoh . carving, portal of gymnasium (school) at coblenz (ortwein) . carvings from nuremburg, ; leadwork, th century ("workshop") . tower-toppings (l. albright, after photos) . german gaines: from a mantel in lubeck; heidelberg castle; monument at pforzheim; national museum, munich (f. s. m.) . lower part of an etched bowl, th century ("workshop") . . (a) etched tin plate, th century; (b) iron chest, xvi century ("workshop") . carved ivory dagger sheath . late th century silver goblet ("workshop") . two fanlights; from nuremburg town hall and salt house at frankfort (ortwein) . grille from eperecs, hungary (ortwein) ....... . door-lock, bamberg museum (ortwein) . earthenware stove, mondsee, austria (ortwein) . earthenware jug ("workshop") . tyrolese platter, germanic museum, vienna ("workshop") . . sideboard and cabinet, late th century, vienna ("work- shop") . th century chair, dresden museum (after f. s. m.) . . . . german text initials, th century (speltz and f. s. m.) . . . initial by killian of augsburg (speltz) . typographic ornaments (f. s. m.) . terra cotta relief, head of coesar, hampton court (v. ram- busch) (facsimile after r. blomfield) . doric chimney tops, lacock priory (rambusch, facsimile after gotch) . doorway, hatfield house (s. morgan, student drawing) . . . ceiling pattern, great yarmouth (garner and stratton) . . . ceiling pattern, llanfihangel, wales (garner and stratton) . . pendant, ceiling in crewe hall (s. morgan, student's drawing) . elizabethan and jacobean details (b. irby, student's drawing) . "folden linen" or linenfold panel, elizabethan . entrance bay, bramshill house (author's ill'n in century dic- tionary) . jacobean gables (a. f. deam) . detail, chimneypiece in aston hall (student's drawing) . . . entrance, morden college, blackheath, (london "archi- tect") . carved door-head, clifford's tnn (glazier) . carved panel from st. mary's, by wren (glazier) .... zxiv list of illustrations fios. faob . steeple of bow church (st. mary-le-bow) london by wren . . ceiling plan of st. mary's woolnoth (bankart) . one bay of dome decoration, radcliffe library, oxford, by gibbs (bankart) . architectural details, adam style (speltz) '. . . two adam ceilings (speltz) . detail, iron gate at hampton court (s. r. moore) .... . silver fire-dog, knole park (ward) . silver wine urn, (ward) . detail, elizabethan oak chest (after "spring gardens sk. bk.*') . chimneypiece, worcestershire (after "spring gardens sk. bk.") . the "great bedstead" of cromwell (speltz) . a chippendale chair ("good furniture") . a hepplewhite chair ("good furniture") ....... . a sheraton chair (m. brandt) . staircase detail, house in chichester ("arch'i. record") . . a toft platter (after jewitt) . a bow vase (ward) . a wedgwood tea-pot (vogt) . crown derby cup and saucer (ward) . church facade, chihuahua, mexico ("the continent," ) . . confessional, cathedral of mexico, mexico city ("american architect") . detail, overhang of house, farmington, conn. (demolished ) . door of house in newport, r. i. (student's drawing) ... . scroll-pediment, window of hancock house, boston (demol- ished; after photo) . central bay, vassal-craigie or longfellow house, cambridge, mass. (saxe, after photo) . decorative urns and gate-post, salem, mass. (ware) ... . two colonial spires; christ church, philadelphia, and st paul's, new york . gate to cowles mansion, farmington, conn. (m. c. hills, after sketch by author) . chimneypiece, phillipse manor, yonkers, n. y. (ware) ... . upper part of doorway, gunston hall, va. (ware) .... . detail of declaration chamber, independence hall, philadelphia (ware) . detail, ionic order, doorway of cary house, batavia, n. y. (ware) . detail, interior cornice of homewood, baltimore (mixsell) . . detail of stairway, lee house, marblehead, mass xxv list of illustrations rioa. not . details, morris-jumel mansion, new york (methven after don- ald millar) . upper part of door, mappa house, trenton, n. j. (ware) . . carved details of chair-back, william and mary style (adver- tisement in "good furniture") . empire pilaster, chair, sphinx and footstool (f. j. woodbridge, student's drawing) . empire ornaments: (a) from bed in grand trianon, versailles; (b) from a table (t. f. hamlin) . cornice and frieze, pal. de justice, paris (f. j. woodbridge) . details, pal. de justice, paris with (a) inset of pilaster cap.; (b) console, west front (p. barnum and raguenet) . . . detail, stair balustrade in pal. de justice, paris . detail, tomb in pere-la-chaise, paris . details from houses in paris (raguenet) . an "eastlake" sideboard ("workshop") . details of paris street architecture, th century (raguenet) . detail, city bank, ladyhill, by collcutt, ("academy archi- tecture") . a scotch town hall by r. sandilands (architect's drawing) . a french floral wall-paper ("gewerbehalle," ) .... .' . a german floral plate-border ("gewerbehalle") . detail from a german cabinet in berlin, ("workshop") . . german communion wine flagon, ("gewerbehalle") . . . details from old court house, , n. y., by frazee (archi- tect's drawing) . carved detail, albany state capitol library, by richardson . . carved detail, harvard university law school, by richard- son (t. f. hamlin after "monographs of amer. architec- ture") . lady's jewelled comb by lalique (after "good furniture") . . window by v. horta, brussels (m. c. hills, after photo) . . . detail f hotel, champs elysees, paris ("arch'l record") . . . balcony railing, louis xvi style ("workshop") .... . lower part of schiller building, chicago, by sullivan ("amer. architect") . upper part of schiller building, chicago ("arch'l record") . . part of facade, roman catholic church, fall river, mass., by r. a. cram ("brickbuilder") . two typographical ornaments (advertisements in "good fur- niture") . typographical borders (advertisements in "good furniture") . . decorative initial ("the craftsman," ) xxvi list of illustrations fios. % nsi . commercial furniture advertisement ("good furniture") . . . american drapery, "canterbury" pattern (after advertisement in "good furniture") . detail from an american ingrain rug . curtain of machine net (after advertisement in "good furni- ture") . outside stair railing, chicago ("odds and ends," "amer. architect") . "peasant" ornament: chest from bethlehem, pa. (t. f. hamlin) . "peasant" ornament: standard from polish spinning wheel . peasant ornament: polish wall-tile, navaho blanket, polish stained egg (t. f. hamlin) xxvii list of half-tone illustrations (figures) all half-tone illustrations not otherwise credited are from photographs in library of school of architecture, columbia university, or in author's collection. the following arc taken by permission from the good furniture magazine (dean-hicks company, grand rapids, michigan): figures , , , , - , , , . figure is from a measured drawing by r. h. smythe. figure is reproduced from a bulletin of the metropolitan museum of art, new york; from an italian periodical, mowwmenti storici. figures to inclusive are taken from french post-cards, except e, g, and h, which are from gu£rinet. figure is taken from illustrations in ward, historic ornament, and deck, la faience. figure is from byne and stapley, architecture of the sixteenth century in spain. figures - arc reproduced from k. o. fritsch, denkmaeler der deutschen renaissance; and from ortwein's renaissance und barock- stil; from a book advertisement. figures and are from bankart, the art of the plasterer; and from ware, the georgian period; and from the brochure series (bates & guild co., boston); from a. e. richardson, monumental classical architecture in great britain; and from odds and ends, published by the american architect. lavabo of santa maria novella, florence, by giovanni della robbia, frontispiece rigs. paol . the baptistery, florence . east doors of baptistery, by ghiberti . tomb of ilaria del caretto, lucca cathedral . cantoria by luca della robbia . central part, facade of certosa near pavia . porch of santa maria dei miracoli, brescia . tomb of bishop federigo benozzi, by luca della robbia . . . . pulpit in santa croce, florence . lunette by luca della robbia (reymond) . altarpiece by andrea della robbia . tomb of piero di medici in old sacristry, san lorenzo, flor- ence "stone" xxiz list of half-tone illustrations pios. rial . festoon or "swag," sistine chapel, rome . detail from pulpit in santa croce, florence iv font in baptistery of san giovanni, sienna (r. h. smythe) . . facade of pazzi chapel, florence . ceiling, sacristy of san spirito, florence . window from casa caracci, bologna . ceiling of sala del consiglio, palazzo vecchio, florence ... . ceiling, sala regia, vatican, rome . ceiling, library of cathedral, sienna . ceiling, sala del cambio, perugia . tomb of lionardo bruni in santa croce, florence .... . tomb of ascanio sforza in santa maria del popolo, rome . . door, san andrea, mantua . door, san michele, venice . detail, facade of palazzo rucellai, florence . detail, facade of palazzo vendramini, venice . ceiling, palace at caprarola . stucco detail, villa madama, rome . stucco detail, court of palazzo vecchio, florence . fountain in grotto, villa reale di castello, florence (attributed to donatello) . fountain at messina by montorsoli (destroyed in earthquake of ) . stalls in palazzo pubblico, sienna .... . detail, stalls of san pietro casinense, perugia . panel, stalls in san severino, naples . italian renaissance table . (a) half of th-century credence (b) half of mirror, and th-century table . fanlight grille, north italian (barbantine monastery) . . . . pedestal and statue by b. cellini, florence . italian renaissance armor, metropolitan museum, new york . . balcony railing, ticino . portia pia, rome, by michelangelo . baldacchino, st. peter's, rome, by l. bernini . ceiling, sala di giove, pitti palace, florence . door, palazzo negrone, genoa . stucco details, palazzo negrone, genoa . tomb of cardinals of amboise, rouen . tomb of louis xii, st. denis . (a) door, cathedral of aix (b) detail from house of francis i, paris xxx list of half-tone illustrations figs. fasi (c) fireplace, salon d'honneur, blois (d) pilaster from tomb of cardinals of amboise, rouen . . . (e) wooden molding (f) stair-tower, north wing of blois (g) francis i s-scrou (h) carved panel from ehfiteau of bonnivet . dormer, chateau of blois (modern restoration) . pendant from jube of cathedral of limoges . grotesques from choir-inclosures, cathedral of chartres . . . . panel from tomb of philippe de commines, louvre .... . henry ii wainscot and fireplace, blois . chapel screen, cathedral of rodez . doorway and door, hdtel de vogue, dijon . frame, style of henry iv . panel, style of henry iv . entrance-gate, luxemburg palace, paris . (a) chateau de balleroi (b) henry iv panels (c,d) henry ii metalwork . louis xiv chest of drawers . detail, chambre du conseil, versailles . detail, front of chapel of st. louis, rouen . . . ... . . . money-cabinet by schlodti and goudreaux ( ) .... . fountain of "grosse horloge," rouen . detail, "cabinet de travail de louis xvi," versailles ... . illustrations of french ceramics . entrance to university of salamanca . entrance to archbishop's palace, seville . silleria, choir of cathedral of jaen . ceiling, ayuntamiento viejo, granada «. upper part of reja, choir of seville cathedral . detail of window-grille, casa de pilatos, seville . gate to university library, salamanca . hotel-de-ville, ghent . town hall, hoorn . dutch chest-table, embroidered cover . dutch or flemish walnut cabinet, inlaid . flemish oak cabinet, th century . painted dutch wardrobe bureau, th or th century ... . door in "golden room" of schloss buckeburg . doorway of castle (fiirstenhof) at wismar . ceiling detail, schloss heiligenberg ( ) . entrance-pavilion of zwinger palace, dresden xxxi list of half-tone illustrations figs. pafll . headpiece of horse-armor, vienna museum . iron gate, university of breslau . silver book-cover, th century . oval window-grille, st. nicholas, breslau . plaster ceiling, new river offices, london, - ... . carvings by grinling gibbons: (a) st. james, piccadilly. . . (b) hampton court .... . facade of la merced church, lima, peru . facade of el posito church, guadalupe, mexico . parlor door, shirley, virginia . detail of doorway, annapolis, maryland . mantelpiece, ladd house, portsmouth, new hampshire . . . . detail, fireplace, brockiss house, germantown, pennsylvania . . (a) part of paneled chest of drawers, dutch influence, - (b) american chippendale mirror, - (c) american mirror of - , adam or louis xvi deri- vation s (d) american sconce, , louis xvi style . (a) half of an empire credence; (b) empire table ... . door of st. george's hall, liverpool . details, academy, athens . midland hotel, london . albert memorial, london . opera-house, paris, grand stairway . regnault monument in ecole des beaux-arts, paris .... . american th-century furniture: sideboard by d. phyfe, clocks, piano . greek revival doorway, south fifth ave., new york . . . . gothic business building, boston (cir. ) . four capitals by p. b. wight for academy of design, new york (demolished) . part of public library, woburn, massachusetts, by richardson . carved newel of grand stairs, state capitol, albany, new york hi. eight examples of american metalwork th and th centuries . peasant ornament: (?) norwegian weave; (b, c, d) pennsyl- vania pottery; (e, f) russian tables xxxii a history of ornament renaissance and modern a history of ornament renaissance and modern introduction a history of renaissance and modern ornament is a record of the origin, development, culmination, decline and succession of the styles and movements which have dominated decorative design since the close of the mid- dle ages. such a record, if all-embracing and ex- haustive, would require many volumes and might, in- deed, fill a considerable library. in the fifteen chapters which follow, a more modest task has been undertaken, by limiting both the field to be covered and the scope of its treatment. in the first place it has seemed wise to exclude from this survey the whole field of oriental ornament, as a subject so vast, and on the whole so distinct from that of the art of europe and america, as to require separate treatment in another volume (see preface, p. vii). secondly, as this is a history of orna- ment, rather than of decorative art in its broadest sense, the field of decorative sculpture and painting— that is, of such painting and sculpture as exist for their own sakes as pictorial and sculptural representations per se—has also been excluded. the distinction between such sculpture and painting on the one hand and sculp- a history of ornament ture and painting incidental and subordinate to schemes of ornament on the other, is explained in chapter i, pp. , of the first volume of this series, "the history of ornament, ancient and medieval." the purpose of the present volume, as of its predecessor, is to meet the needs of those students and workers in the decorative arts who wish to understand something of the origin, history, and characteristics of the various styles of orna- ment with which they have to deal in their work and studies, without being compelled to search through innumerable volumes in various languages in the public libraries; volumes treating each of some particular and limited phase of the arts they wish to study. the student, therefore, will not find in this book a com- pendium, atlas or encyclopedia of all the ornament of europe and america produced in the last five hundred years; but rather a survey, necessarily concise and in many respects superficial, of the genesis, progress, and relations of the various styles of ornament comprised within the chosen field, with only such illustrations as may serve to explain and illuminate the text. the treatment adopted here, as in the first volume, is historical rather than analytical or topical. that is to say, instead of taking up successively each of the decora- tive arts—architecture, woodwork, textiles, ceramics, metalwork, glass, jewelry, etc.—and tracing its history from the middle ages to the present time, the purpose is to follow the general historical movement of the deco- rative arts as a whole, with such notice of particular developments in the various arts as may help the reader to understand the movement as a whole, or as are inci- introduction dental to the general discussion of a style. but in order to make the discussion clear and specific, it has been necessary to consider the ornament of particular coun- tries or groups of countries in separate chapters. it has seemed to the writer that for practical purposes such a treatment is far more serviceable, alike to the student and to the practical designer, than to divide the subject, for instance, by centuries. for each country or group has developed its own art along lines peculiar to itself, giving rise to certain national or regional styles, which should be studied each as a whole, rather than in sections scattered through a dozen period-chapters. the student will observe that about half of the volume is devoted to italian and french ornament; and that of these two subjects, italian ornament occupies double the space devoted to the french. there is good reason for these seeming disproportions. the italian styles were the parent-styles of all renaissance ornament, and of much the greater part of modern ornament. next to italy, france has exerted the greatest influence on the decorative arts of europe and america. moreover, the mere amount, to say nothing of the quality, of the prod- uct of italian and french art during the last five hundred years has been so vast that it outranks in wealth of suggestion and in variety of exemplars all the other styles that have grown up meanwhile. in general artistic quality, moreover, in beauty of line and move- ment, in charm of light-and-shade and relief, in refine- ment of form and execution, the ornament of no other nation of europe or america can rival that of italy and france, unless perhaps in a limited measure that of a history of ornament spain of the first half of the sixteenth century, called the plateresque. accordingly we find the museums, on both sides of the ocean, that make a feature of the in- dustrial and decorative arts, generally richer in ex- amples of italian and french art than in those of any other land outside of their own. as we come down the centuries toward our own time, the amount of material available for study naturally increases. we are completely surrounded by the prod- ucts of our own national art, and by those of our own time imported from abroad. these objects are at hand, familiar and abundant, and their quantity is constantly increasing: the student can examine and compare and analyze them for himself. it is, therefore, less important, in a history like this, intended for practical instruction, to devote to this later art as extended a discussion or as much space as to the earlier historic phases of the sub- ject. moreover, the historian is too near the subject to be able to judge fairly of its relations and importance; he requires a certain perspective, a certain distance from the objects or events discussed, to have or to inspire confidence in his judgments. accordingly these later developments of the history of ornament have been treated in a somewhat summary way, and the number of illustrations greatly restricted. the object has been rather to explain the movements and conditions out of which modern styles in ornament have been developed than to present anything like a complete survey of the endless varieties and phases of style in modern decora- tive design. what the modern designer and the student of styles alike need is a background of knowledge of introduction how the modern styles have come into being; a solid historic foundation of acquaintance with the work of preceding ages, an understanding of the incalculable wealth of our inheritance from those ages, a developed power of critical discrimination and appreciation de- rived from the study of the masterpieces of design be- queathed us by the past. the examples shown in the illustrations are intended to be suggestive, not exhaustive. they are offered not as models to be copied, but for their value in helping to reveal the secrets of the glory of historic art; as ex- emplars by the study of which we may be able to pene- trate to their true inner quality and thereby be helped to impart to the decorative art of our own time some- thing of those qualities that have been given a perma- nent life, a species of immortality to the works of past ages and other lands. for students who wish to carry their study further than the elementary surveys in this volume, the bibliographies supplied on pages - and at the end of each chapter offer a suggestive guide to some of the authorities. the literature of the subject is so enormous and so constantly augmented each year, that these lists cannot pretend to exhaustiveness, but they will be found helpful. the student will notice three classes of illustrations, referred to in the text in three differing manners. the line-cuts in the text are referred to by the abbrevia- tion "fig." followed by numerals in ordinary type. the half-tone illustrations, printed on plate-paper but bound in with the text, are referred to by the word "figure" followed by numerals in bold-faced type. a history of ornament the plates at the end of the volume are referred to by the word "plate" or the abbreviation "pi." followed by roman numerals, while the constituent illustrations of each plate are designated by arabic numerals in ordinary type following the roman numerals. each class of illustrations is separately numbered. general bibliography of renais- sance and modern ornament this list includes only those works which treat of several periods or styles. those which discuss only a single period or style are listed among the "books recommended" at the end of the chapter dealing with that style or period. the bibliography of renaissance and modern orna- ment is so voluminous that only a small part of the whole can be listed in a book of the character and dimensions of the present volume. the student wishing to search further into the vast literature of the subject will find in the subject-catalogues of the larger libraries many other titles equally important with those listed here and at the ends of chapters. nearly all of the works so listed are to be found in the avery architec- tural library of columbia university. no attempt has been made to refer to articles in periodicals, however interesting and important. the student will find in the volumes of the architectural and technical magazines a great wealth of information on the subject matter of this book, and for modern and recent art these periodicals are especially important; but to attempt the culling of references, hundreds in number, from them would overload the lists and expand the book unduly. even the art-trade magazines are valuable; and i may cite as the best of these in the a history of ornament united states for this purpose two: good furniture published by the dean-hicks co., grand rapids, mich.; and the current series of issues by the atlantic terra-cotta company of new york and atlanta, ga. . general manuals of ornament. c. blanc: grammaire des arts dscoratifs (paris, ).— h. dolmetsch: the historic styles of ornament (batsford, london, ).—r. glazier: a manual of historic ornament (batsford, london, ).—gropius und lohde: archiv fur ornament ale kunst (berlin, ).—w. h. l. gritner: speci- mens of ornamental art (mclean, london, ).—d. guilmard: la connaissance des styles de i'ornementation (guilmard, paris, ).—j. hauselmann: die stilarten des ornaments in den verschiedenen kunstepochen (zurich, ). h*. havard: la dicoration (delagrave, paris, ).—e. herdtle: flachenverzierungen des mittelalters und der re- naissance (hanover, ).—owen jones: grammar of orna- ment (day & son, london, ) ; (a smaller edition published in ).—f. s. meyer: handbook of ornament (hessling, new york, ).—h. pfeiffer: formenlehre des ornaments (kroner, stuttgart, ).—a. racinet: l'ornement poly- chrome (morel, paris, ).—g. semper: der styl in den technischen und tektonischen kiinsten (bruckmann, munich, ).—h. shaw: encyclopaedia of ornament (pickering, london, ).—a. speltz: styles of ornament (hessling, new york, ; batsford, london, ).—e. e. viollet- le-duc : de la decoration appliquee aux edifices (morel, paris, ).—j. e. wessely: das ornament und die kunstindustrie (berlin, strieker, ). for further references on ornament in general, consult the commented bibliography in introduction to my vol. , "his- tory of ornament, ancient and medieval," pp. - . general bibliography . on interiors and furniture in general. e. bajot: encyclopedie du meuble du xv sitcle jusqu'a nos jours (schmid, paris, ).—r. brock: elements of styte in furniture and woodwork (brock, london, ).— a. de champeaux: le meuble (bibl. de l'enseignement, etc., paris, ).—c. r. clifford: period furnishings (clifford & lawton, new york, ).—w. a. dyer: handbook of furniture styles (century co., new york, ).—h. d. ererlein: practical book of period furniture (lippincott, philadelphia, ).—h. havard: les arts de vameublement (delagrave, paris, ).—f. a. parsons: interior decora- tion; its principles and practice (doubleday-page, garden. city, n. y., ).—g. c. rothery: ceilings and their deco- ration (stokes, new york, n.d.). . for ironwork in general. hefner-alteneck: eisenwerke (keller, frankfort, ). —w. w. kent: architectural wrought-iron, ancient and modern (comstock, new york, ).—f. s. meyer: hand- buch der schmiedekunst (seemann, leipzig, ). . for textile design in general. bezon: dictionnaire general des tissus anciens et modernes (lepagnez, lyons, ).—dupont d'aurerville: art in- dustriel; vornement des tissus (lib. gen. arch., paris, ).— o. v. fame: decorative silks (helburn, new york, ). —fischrach: die geschichte der textilkunst (selbat, frank- fort, ).—g. l. hunter: decorative textiles (lippincott, philadelphia, ).—d. rock: textile fabrics (chapman & hall, london, ).—tissus anciens (paris, n.d.).—j. b. waring: examples of weaving and embroidery (day, lon- don, n.d.). . for lace in general. s. goldenrerg: lace, its origin and history (new york, ).—f. morris: antique laces of american collectors a history of ornament (helburn, new york, ).—e. muntz: tapisseries, brode- ries et denteu.es (lib. de l'art, paris, ).—mrs. palliser: history of lace (london, ).—j. seguin: la dentelle (rothschild, paris, ).—g. whiting: a lace guide for makers and collectors (dutton, new york, ; includes en exhaustive bibliography on lace). . for ceramics in general. th. deck: la faience (quantin, paris, ).—c. d. e. fortnum: majolica (scribners, new york, ).—a. jacquemart: histoire de la ceramique (paris, ).—l. jewitt: the ceramic art of great britain (virtue, london, ).—marryatt: collections towards a history of pottery and porcelain, th to th centuries (london, ).—g. vogt: la porcelaine (imp. reunies, paris, ). a history of ornament renaissance, and modern chapter i the renaissance in general meaning of the renaissance. the renaissance or renascence (called by the ital- ians rinascimento or risorgimento) is the name given to the great movement which displaced the ideals and intellectual habit of the middle ages in favor of the new ideals and mental processes on which modern learn- ing and civilization are founded. this movement em- phasized the intellectual freedom of the individual, his right to free inquiry and to the results of his own reason- ing, as against the right of either church or state to dictate in these matters. the revival of classical learn- ing, and the emancipation of art from the almost ex- clusive control by and service of the church, formed but one phase of this movement. the plastic arts took on a new direction because their emancipation from ecclesiastical control and the new spirit of free inquiry opened up to the designer new fields of activity and new sources of inspiration. the growing indulgence of personal luxury called for the building and adornment of palaces and gardens; civic pride and personal vanity stimulated the erection of splendid tombs and monu- a history of ornament ments; the public and private life of the great and high- placed took on a wholly new magnificence in costumes and furniture and trappings; all the arts of design were stimulated to an unexampled activity. but all this was the accompaniment of the new intellectual life of italy, with its eager questioning of the past and its ventures into new fields of inquiry. modern scholarship and modern science find their sources in this new and inde- pendent attitude of the italian mind toward authority, toward the past, toward nature and the universe. the precursors. the renaissance began in italy because in the city- states, in the municipalities and in the guilds of northern and central italy the spirit of independence and a grow- ing individualism had long been preparing the way for such a movement. it was no sudden upheaval; its origins can be traced far back in the middle ages, and no date can be set for its exact beginning. not only in italy, but elsewhere also in christian europe, there had been, long before the fifteenth century, individuals who had thought for themselves outside the categories of ecclesiastical teaching. as far back as the twelfth century there had been a wide intellectual awakening, both in and outside of the monasteries, then the chief centers of learning in europe. the travels of marco polo in the thirteenth century were an early prelude to the modern geographical conquests. niccolo pisano, who died in , found inspiration in roman sarcoph- agus-reliefs for his pulpit-sculptures in pisa and sienna. indeed, through the entire course of italian renaissance in general medieval decorative art there is traceable the unex- tinguished tradition of roman forms in capitals, arches and carved moldings. the exterior decorations of the florentine baptistery, dating from the end of the th century, with their round arches, their pilasters and entablatures (figure ); the nave of sienna cathedral, substantially com- pleted by , with its round arches, its classic archivolts, its cor- inthian capitals and ever - present acanthus leaves (some of these, however, being renaissance addi- tions in stucco), and a hundred other less conspic- uous examples be- tray this classic tradition. the re- awakened interest in antiquity, never wholly extinct in literature any more than in art, in the middle ages in italy, is conspicuous in the writings of the immortal trio, dante ( - ), boccaccio ( - ) and petrarch ( - ). giotto, who died in , may with justice be called the first painter of the renaissance, and many of the ornaments framing his frescoes in the church of mail fio. .—painted details from san francesco, assisi. a history of ornament st. francis at assisi seem to anticipate the rinceaux and acanthus leaves of the renaissance (fig. ). periods. it is customary and convenient to divide the history of the renaissance into periods. any such division must, however, be considered as a purely arbitrary device; for the movement of artistic evolution, growth, progress, culmination and decline is continuous when not interrupted by some great cataclysm. while in each period it is easy to recognize a character different, on the whole, from that of other periods, the change is gradual, not sudden. any historian of art is at liberty to make as many divisions as he pleases, where he pleases, and writers on the renaissance are not even agreed as to the time of its final extinction. some con- fine the term to the period previous to about ; others extend it to cover the whole seventeenth century; still others include even the eighteenth. the fact is that the intellectual movement of the renaissance has never come to an end, but is still vital in thought and learning, notwithstanding even the frightful upheaval of the great war. with its art the case is somewhat different, for the political revolutions of the end of the eighteenth century and the industrial and social revolu- tions of the nineteenth first checked the progress of art and then radically changed its direction. in this work i propose to use the term "renaissance" in its broadest sense, to cover the entire history of ornament from about to about or ; and to use the term "modern" for all the art of the g renaissance in general th and th centuries including that of the empire period and style in france. this being understood, it will be convenient to treat of renaissance ornament in four periods, dated as follows for the italian developments; all period-limits being taken as more or less elastic as one style-develop- ment gradually passed into the next: i. the early renaissance: to or ; the period of development and growth (the quattro- cento of the italians). ii. the middle oe high renaissance: or to about ; the period of increasing classical correctness and technical perfection (the cinquecento). iii. the baroque: to or later; the period of struggle between classical formalism and fantastic license, with increasing corruption of taste. iv. the decline and classic revival: to ; in which with declining taste and invention the baroque gave way to a cold and unimaginative copying of roman forms. periods iii and iv are not clearly separated, and might be merged into one gradually-changing decline. general character of renaissance ornament. in all phases of art the italians of the renaissance were preeminently decorators. in their painting as well as in their architecture, the decorative ideal is ever present. they were the finest craftsmen in europe in nearly every department of design; they were excellent builders, of remarkable resourcefulness in construction; but decorative effect in form and color was their a history of ornament supreme preoccupation. never in any other land .or age was there such an extraordinarily prolific produc- tion of beautiful objects, both for use and adornment, as in italy during the th and th centuries. buildings, gardens, church furniture, house furni- ture, textiles of every description, armor, bronzes, sculpture in all its forms, jewelry and every sort of object capable of receiving beauty of shape or of adornment, were designed with a sense of artistic fitness and values, with a discriminating taste, with a refine- ment of detail and execution, that have never before nor since been surpassed and rarely even approached (figs. , , , , ; figures , , ; pi . ii-v). the museums and palaces of the world have been enriched by thou- sands upon thousands of these works, yet the museums, churches and palaces of italy are still extraordinarily rich in masterpieces of this age. cities like florence, venice, sienna, are veritable treasuries of renaissance decorative art. civic, religious and private life seem to nave shared equally in this splendor of decora- tive equipment. a distinguishing characteristic of all the earlier renaissance ornament is the feeling for beauty of line and movement which it displays, and in which it sur- fig. .—b iohzi candelarrum, strozzi chapel, san andrea della v a l l e , rome. renaissance in general passes even its antique prototypes, both greek and roman. the handling of delicately modulated sur- faces, the patterning of light and shade, the space-filling fro. .—florentine or venetian marriage coffer, south kensington museum, london. and distribution of detail, are all dominated by a highly developed sense of the intrinsic beauty of rightly com- bined or contrasted curves, of the harmonious rhythm fig. .—rinceau from tomr in santa maria del popolo, rome. and swing and onward movement of the lines of the pattern (figs. , , ). this is a purely esthetic quality, a kind of sensuous beauty quite independent a history of ornament of symbolism and of any esoteric or recondite sig- nificance. in this it differs fundamentally from gothic ornament, which owes so much of its interest to its sym- bolism and to its religious and sentimental associations. gothic ornament was religious and ecclesiastical in its origin and character; renaissance ornament chiefly secular. yet there is also, especially in its sculptural decoration, much renaissance ornament that is full of pure and beautiful sentiment (see figures , , ). fio. .—flat relief ornament, marsuffini tomr in santa croce, florence. it is an unmerited reproach upon this age to regard it, as ruskin and some of his followers have done, as wholly given over to selfish luxury and irreligion, for the church was still the chief patron of art, and religion was still a mighty force in all departments of life. but there is no denying the growth of private luxury and of free-thinking along with the increasing liberation of the individual consciousness. this brought both gains and losses; but among the gains was the vital stimulus it gave to artistic activity and original creation. espe- cially noteworthy also is the growth of civic liberty, of the civic spirit, resulting in a remarkable advance in the beauty of cities. in comparison with florence, renaissance in general pisa, milan, venice and naples the great cities of france and england seemed only half-civilized, and their manners rude and coarse. architectural character. nearly all forms of italian ren- aissance ornament were primarily architectural, at least in origin, though they also occur, more or less modified, in many other of the decorative arts. this predom- inance of architectural character appears in the wood-carving and wood - inlaying of choir - stalls, tables, cabinets, cassoni or mar- riage-chests (see pi. iii); in the metalwork of candelabra, mast- bases, grilles, reliquaries and gold- smiths' work (see pi. iv and fig- ures - ); in painted ornaments and stucco embellishments (pi. tt\ j. • . cio. !>.—i'll.aster scroll, ii); in typographic ornaments, in town hall of verona. tapestries and many other forms of textile art. this is not surprising when we consider that well into the th century there was no sharp dividing line between architecture and the other arts of design. the early renaissance artists were architects, gold- smiths, sculptors, tarsiatori or woodvinlayers and painters as well as designers of buildings. raphael designed buildings, wood-carvings and stucco-decora- tions although preeminently a painter; peruzzi was an a history of ornament architect and a decorative painter; michelangelo an architect, engineer, sculptor and decorative painter. this close association of the various arts with archi- tecture was the occasion of both the strength and weak- ness of italian renaissance decorative art, or perhaps rather the explanation of certain defects in its archi- tecture and at the same time of the extraordinary merit of its decoration. for the italians decorated like archi- tects and designed their buildings like decorators, sacri- ficing sometimes structural expression and logical propriety to superficial beauty of decorative effect; as in many church facades treated as mere decorative screens for the body of the church behind them (figure ). this, however, was a practice not peculiar to the renaissance period; many of the italian medieval church-fronts were designed with similar disregard of the form of the church they screened. on the other hand, the architectural quality of renaissance decorative art in other fields of design is almost with- out exception an element of excellence, imparting to it the order, balance, rhythm and propriety which belong to architecture. italian renaissance ornament thus stands in in- structive contrast to moslem ornament; especially to the moorish and hispano-moresque, in which the archi- tectural decoration is dominated by the traditions of oriental rug-design and textile art. study of nature. one element of italian ornament in which it sur- passed its antique prototypes is its recourse to nature, renaissance in general which afforded a new inspiration to its designers and imparted a delicacy of detail, a freshness and charm to fig. .—festoon of olives, santa maria della pace, heme. their work, deserving of more notice than it has gener- ally received. while there was not much of out-and- out naturalistic representation of plant-forms, these, fig. .—two renaissance rosettes. even when conventionalized, are always handled in a manner indicating a keen appreciation of the laws and forms of plant-growth (figs. , , , ). human a history of ornament figures, dolphins, lions' heads, birds, wings and feathers, to whatever extent conventionalized, are always true to the character and structure of the life from which they are de- rived (figs. , , , , , ; figures , , ; pi. ii-iv). italian renaissance ornament is generally distinguished by a keen sense of decorative pro- priety, especially in scale or the relations of dimension between the various elements of the com- position, and between those ele- ments and the whole; space-fill- ing or the artistic distribution of the motives of decoration over the space to be decorated; beauty of movement in lines and masses; and, in plastic ornament, the handling of relief, with its varied play of light and shade (fig. ; figures , ). fig. illustrates the sym- pathetic treatment of animal form, and the swing and grace of line-movement characteristic of italian decorative design. %m fio. .—pilaster detail, san giorre, venice. classic origins. while the ornament of the italian renaissance was founded upon the study of roman decorative art, it was renaissance in general never an art of mere copyists or imitators. nearly every distinctive ornament-motive in the plastic arts of the renaissance in italy can be related to a roman prototype, but it is almost impossible to find a direct copy of a roman motive, except in the sixteenth-cen- tury reproductions of the roman corinthian order and certain architectural forms whose use had never wholly fio. .—griffin from tomr in san domenico maggiore, naples. ceased in italy after the fall of rome. even in employ- ing these forms the italians departed widely from the roman practice, altering the details and proportions, and devising wholly new combinations by which they produced decorative effects entirely original with them- selves. the acanthus-leaf, the anthemiort, the rinceau, the egg-and-dart, the dentil and modillion, which one can trace uninterruptedly from the days of ancient rome through the entire middle ages to the renais- sance in italy, were all endlessly varied and trans- formed into new shapes. the grotesques and symbolic a history of ornament forms of antique art were likewise revived, their pagan significance being ignored, or new meanings attached to them. infant forms—the "genii" of roman sym- bolism—became the amorini and putti of the renais- fio. .—entarlature, porch chapel of palazzo purrlico, sienna. sance, and were modeled with great charm of realism (figs. , ). the festoons and wreaths of flowers and fruit carved on roman temples were transferred from their pagan sacrificial significance to christian funereal symbolism, or used purely as decorations. griffins, sphinxes, masks or "mascarons," and other renaissance in general "grotesque" forms, symbolic in pagan art, were em- ployed freely, sometimes perhaps symbolically, more often purely*as ornaments, for their intrinsic decorative value {e.g., the griffins in figs. , , the masks and grotesques in figs. , , , ). trophies of arms and armor were imitated from roman models for use on tombs of warriors. to these were added many \akez .q fio. .—mascaron, palazzo fossomrroni, arezzo. motives of christian origin and significance, such as the winged cockle-shell, the symbol of life's pilgrimage, the cross, the agnus dei, the winged cherub-head,.and later the palm-branch of the martyr and the victor. the personal factor. all the art of the renaissance is intensely personal. a history of its architecture is a history of the works of particular architects, and the "schools" of renaissance painting are the groups of pupils and imitators of one and another great master. so is it with the more im- portant, at least, of the works of italian decorative art; each is the work of a master or of a group whose names have come down to us, and each master has his peculiari- ties of conception and treatment which distinguish his a history of ornament work from others of the same class. this emphasis of personality had for centuries been more or less an italian characteristic as compared with the medieval art of western europe, where the individual artist was lost in the corporate entity of his monastery or guild, and where style was corporate, local or provincial rather than personal. the ren- aissance movement, which insisted on the rights of the individual, emphasized this tendency of italian art to- ward personal expression, and communicated it to the other countries to which it spread from italy. the beginnings in florence although the roots of the renaissance penetrate far into the middle ages, it was in the th century that the movement became insistent, fro. i .-sc.oxx, pazzi cha«l. seneral and controlling, first in florence, as the most artistic city in italy and the one animated by the most intense and independent civic and intellectual life. great works and great men, early in that century, gave opportunity in florence for a splendid efflorescence of the new taste and ideals. the powerful personality of brunelleschi ( - ), asserting itself in the colossal dome of the duomo and revealing the results of his renaissance in general years of study of the roman monuments in the details of the pazzi chapel (fig. ; figure ) and other works, stamped its impress upon the architecture of his time. lorenzo ghiberti ( - ) in his second pair of doors for the florentine baptistery—those for the eastern entrance (figure )—exhibited the influence of the new taste in a com- plete change of style from that of his earlier pair for the northern doors of the same build- ing. luca della rob- bia ( - ) exe- cuted for the porch and for the dome of brunel- leschi's pazzi chapel decorative reliefs in enameled terra - cotta, of great charm in a style full and free, as far removed as possible from that which had prevailed during the preceding half-century; and the kind of decorative work in terra-cotta which he origi- nated and which his nephew and grand-nephews de- veloped, employed in its ornamental details a combina- tion of forms derived from the classic with others drawn directly from nature (figs. , ; figure ). luca's and andrea's handling of fruit and foliage in the frames and borders of their medallions and lunettes is especially noteworthy. fig. .—faurr border ry luca dei.la rorria, from medallion in quaratesi palace, florence. a history of ornament thus the study of nature went hand-in-hand with the study of the antique. the progress of this latter study may be seen by comparing, for instance, the architec- tural designs of michelozzi (e.g., the riccardi palace) with those of alberti [e.g., the rucellai palace). they were contemporaries, but alberti's study of the antique was far more detailed than michelozzi's. during the second half of the th century florence and the neigh- boring cities and villages of tuscany produced an ex- traordinary group and succession of masters of decora- tion—sculptors, goldsmiths, inlayers and woodworkers —gifted with a surpassing sense of decorative effect, with remarkable skill in workmanship, and with a refinec taste which seldom erred, whose tombs, shrines, choir- stalls and pulpits are a priceless legacy to art, and an inspiration to designers of our own day. these quattro- centisti as they are called, although taking their inspira- tion from antique art contented themselves with a very free rendering of roman models, combining and varying them in original and almost always charming ways (figs. , , - ; pi. i). their most successful works were those in which decoration and not construc- tion was the essential consideration. in the more severe and monumental forms of architectural design they were less successful; least so in church facades, though some of these are so beautiful as to excuse in a measure their lack of structural expressiveness (figure ). the cinquecento. the masters of the first half of the th century, the cinquecentisti, developed their style of decoration 'miclielozzo michelozzi, - ; leo battista alberti, - . renaissance in general along more strongly architectural lines than their pre- decessors. while raphael was primarily a painter and michelangelo a sculptor, both were also architects. bramante, peruzzi, the san galli, vignola and the venetian sansovino were primarily architects, though peruzzi was also a painter and sansovino a sculptor. architecture was developing as a distinct art, and the architects were bestowing more care than their pre- decessors upon the composition and architectural membering of their buildings, basing them upon a more detailed and minute study of antique models. the classic orders and the roman type of arcade came into more general use (see p. ); ornament was less minute and less exuberant: scale was better understood; while stucco-relief combined with painting supplied new re- sources for interior decoration. the loggie of the vatican, the camera della segnatura and the borgia apartments in the vatican, the villa madama, the palazzo del te at mantua, the farnesina at rome, furnish superb examples of the architectural decoration and ornament of the golden age of the italian renais- sance (figure ; pi . ii). the later phases. the second half of the th century witnessed the culmination and the beginnings of the decline of this phase of italian art. a growing impatience of the restrictions and grammar of the antique roman models led to bold and sometimes unhappy innovations in the effort after originality. palladio, michelangelo— whose long career began in the late quattrocento and a history of ornament extended into the early baroque; maderna, bernini, the brilliant baroque sculptor-architect, and borromini, the most extravagant exponent of the new taste, led in this movement of retrogression, to which the fatal facil- ity and cheapness of stucco lent its constant temptation to sham splendor and meretricious display (figures - ; pi. vi). the jesuit order, officially consti- tuted in , grew rich and powerful during the suc- ceeding century, and by the erection of many churches marked by a pretentious and often deceptive mag- nificence, exercised a disastrous influence on ecclesi- astical decoration. the name of baroco or baroque has been given to this development of style, which gradually merged into the classic revival of the th century. it exhibits at times certain admirable notes of ingenuity, vigor, original and effective combinations of form and a striking play of light and shade. but there is also so much that is cheap, vulgar and gaudy that it is generally considered as marking the extinction of the artistic spirit which made brilliant the first century and a half of the renaissance (see chapter v). the classical reaction. during the th century there was a notable reaction from the extravagance of the baroco. designers, alike of architecture and of ornament, returned to the study of the antique and produced a number of works of considerable merit, marked by dignity and severity of design after the classic manner. but the springs of artistic invention seem to have been well-nigh exhausted, figure . tomr of ilaria pel caretto, luca cathedral. fioure . cantoria ry luca dei.la rorria. renaissance in general and these works are generally as cold as they are correct, and singularly lacking in vitality. spread of the style. the renaissance in the arts of decoration began in florence, spread slowly thence through northern italy and eastward to venice between and ; south- ward at the same time to sienna and rome, producing in sienna and pienza a number of important works about . its first appearance in rome dates from about , and about the same time florentine and other north-italian artists carried the movement to naples and later to sicily. by the new style was established throughout the entire peninsula. florence, venice and rome may be considered the three most important centers of this development and spread; milan, pavia, sienna, bologna and verona come next to these in importance. the movement entered south germany, austria and bohemia through the medium of works by italian artists during the closing years of the th century; invaded france as a result of the italian campaigns of charles viii, louis xii and francis i, but at first only through sporadic works by imported italians. it was francis i who made the foreign fashion the official and royal style of france, but in a form so changed as to create a wholly new and peculiarly french version of the style ( - ). the spaniards carried back with them from the battle of pavia a fresh impulse to stimulate the movement of the new style which had for twenty years been gathering momentum and volume a history of ornament at the hands of both italian and native artists; while henry viii took back to england torregiano and john of padua and new ideas of architecture and decoration. there, however, the renaissance movement was chiefly promoted by german, dutch and flemish artists, as we shall later see, holland having herself received the impulse from germany, and flanders from italy and france. it was not till or perhaps even that the last vestiges of gothic design dis- appeared from northern and western europe. russia, greece and turkey remained outside of renaissance influence for a century longer, and never wholly aban- doned their national styles; but the th-century baroque crept even into these countries and set its modifying stamp upon the local art. books recommended: w. j. anderson: the architecture of the renaissance in italy (batsford, london, ).—j. blrckhardt: the ren- aissance in italy (holt, new york, ); der cicerone (seemann, leipzig, ); also an edition in french.— j. durm: die baukunst der renaissance in italien (bcrg- strasser, stuttgart; also later edition pub. by gebhardt, leipzig, ).—galland und rosenkranz: italienische renaissance (lemmc, leipzig, ).—t. j. jackson: the renaissance of roman architecture (univ. press, cambridge, ).—g. scott: the architecture of humanism (hough- ton, boston, ).—schutz: die renaissance in italien (strumpcr, hamburg, ).—j. a. stmonds: the renais- sance in italy: the fine arts 'holt, new york, ). chapter ii the eahly renaissance in italy the precursors. the real beginnings of renaissance art are to be sought, as we have already observed, in many scattered manifestations of a new spirit in design in the fourteenth and even the thirteenth century. the classic traditions o f shaft and capital, round arch and hori- z o n t a entablature, acanthus leaf and rin- ceau had never lost their vitality in italy (figure ; fig. ). the definitive recourse to antique models for inspiration in sculpture had been foreshadowed by niccolo p i s a n o ( - ); and giotto ( - ) had for- saken byzantine types for the study of nature in his paintings. in the pseudo-gothic "mandorla" doorway fig. .—rinceau from mandorla door, cathedral op florence. a history of ornament of the florentine duomo ( ) the acanthus-moldings and almost classic rinceau are an earnest of the coming renaissance in decorative detail (fig. ). the italian gothic style had been always a foreign fashion modified and adapted to serve as a dress for buildings designed after the old romanesque tradition, itself descended from the roman; it was an interruption to the natural process of the evolution of italian architecture along its own national and racial lines. to turn to the antique was merely to resume more actively this partially in- terrupted evolution. between the th-century decora- tions by talenti of the east end of the cathedral of florence and brunelleschi's work around the base of the dome there is no such discrepancy of style or method as the names of gothic and renaissance would seem to imply. early renaissance masters. three architects—brunelleschi, michelozzi and al- berti—have already been mentioned; also two sculptors, luca della robbia and ghiberti; to whom, if we add donatello, we have the sextet of great men who gave form and direction to the new movement. second only to these was giacopo della quercia ( - ), whose work, however, is not found at florence but at sienna and lucca (figure ; fig. ). the labors of these seven enriched italy during the middle quarters of the th century with a number of epoch-making master- pieces. in architecture we have, for instance, besides the colossal dome of the duomo at florence the lovely "donato niccolb di betti bardi, - . early renaissance in italy pazzi chapel ( - ) in the court of santa croce (figure ); the two renaissance basilicas of san spirito and san lorenzo; the foundling hospital or innocenti, and the beginning of the vast pitti palace, all by brunelleschi; the church of the annunziata and the noble riccardi palace ( ) by michelozzi and the rucellai palace by alberti, all these being in florence; the great church of san andrea at mantua and the much smaller church of san francesco (cap- pella malatestiana) at rimini, by alberti; and a large number of lesser works of great beauty. in decorative sculpture the east doors of the baptistery of florence by ghiberti ( - ) clearly mark a new era by their complete change in style from the north doors which ghiberti had not yet finished when he received the com- mission for these (figure ). the charming terra- cotta decorations by luca della robbia for the porch of the pazzi chapel, and numerous lunettes and medal- lions in the same medium by luca and his successors, are in the full spirit of the renaissance in their refined naturalism and complete absence of medieval tradition- alism and stiffness (figures , , ). della quercia's lovely monument to ilaria del caretto in the cathedral of lucca is adorned with a series of nude infants sup- porting huge festoons or swags, a motive frankly de- rived from the antique and interpreted with naive simplicity and excellent decorative effect (fig. ; figure ). a like naive naturalism appears in the sculptures of the two cantorie or balconies for singers by della robbia and donatello, formerly in the cathedral, now in the opera del duomo at florence a history of ornament (figure ). in these one observes a still incomplete mastery of classic details: a phenomenon to which we may presently recur. the latter part of the century witnessed the wide expansion of the style, as well as the appearance of a new generation of decorative artists of great ability, many of them florentines, or at least tuscans, who worked in vari- ous towns of northern italy, in rome and even in naples. among these men two brothers were oonspicuous— giuliano and benedetto da majano as architects and decorative de- signers, working in florence, naples and elsewhere. bernardo rossellino was active in rome, sienna and pienza as an architect of the school of alberti. desi- derio da settignano and mino da fiesole worked as decorative sculptors and architects in florence, fiesole and elsewhere; matteo civitale in like manner at lucca; the family of pietro lombardi at venice as •giuliano baglioni da majano, - ; his brother benedetto, - ; bernardo di matteo (gambarelli) rossellino, - . •desidcrio da settipnano, - ; mino da fiesole, - . 'matteo civitale, - ; pietro lombardi (solari), - . fio. .—"putti" and festoon, tomr of i laria uel caretto, lucca. early renaissance in italy architects; at pavia a group of artists which included omodeo, borgognone and about thirty pupils and assistants. andrea della robbia ( - ), nephew of luca, and his sons after him, continued the tradi- tion of glazed terra-cotta sculpture established by his uncle and elaborated it with new colors and effects in altar-pieces and architectural embellishments. an- drea's work is equal to luca's in beauty and as full of the spirit of religious devotion (figure ). an- tonio (averulino) filarete ( - ?) at milan, benedetto di briosco at milan and pavia, agostino di duccio ( - ) at perugia and rimini are others among the great host of artists who blended architecture, sculpture and the minor arts in works of remarkable beauty throughout italy, especially north- ern italy. the renaissance in lombardy. the province of lombardy contains the cities of milan, pavia, cremona, brescia, bergamo and mantua, all of them interesting to the student of renaissance architecture and ornament. the renaissance move- ment seems to have reached these cities about the middle of the th century; it rapidly effloresced into full splendor. the abundance of clay and the general use of terra-cotta and brick encouraged profusion and minuteness of ornament, and the superb facade of the certosa at pavia (about - ) is the most ornate facade produced during the renaissance in italy: the work of a whole school of artists including ama- 'giovanni antonio omodeo or amadeo, - . a history of ornament deo, formentone, borgognone, bambaia, brambilla, cristoforo lombardo and others (figure ). it is, like so many other italian church-facades, an archi- tectural screen, an illuminated frontispiece, having little relation to the gothic church behind it, and displaying curious inconsistencies of scale. but every detail is in itself so perfect, the execu- tion so exquisitely wrought in fine marble, the color har- mony so pleasing, that it dis- arms criticism. the semi- gothic brick and marble fa- cade of the great hospital at milan ( ) by an- tonio filarete; the over-or- nate facade of the miracoli church at brescia (cir. - , figure ); the col- leone chapel at bergamo by amadeo; the court and por- tal of the stanga palace at cremona (the portal re- moved to the louvre mu- seum at paris), are among the buildings which best ex- emplify the richness, delicacy and charm of lom- bard ornament. the early works of bramante and his pupils at milan (east end and portal of santa maria delle grazie, and the sacristy of san satiro), • donato i<azzari, surnamed bramante, - . fio. .—two candelarrum shafts. early renaissance in italy como (east end of the cathedral by rodari), lodi (church of the incoronata) and other works, reveal the progress of lombard decorative art in archi- tectural propriety and a maturer and more classic vigor of detail. a -striking feature of lombard architectural orna- ment is the frequent use of a form of decorative support derived from the classic candelabrum-shaft of bronze or marble (fig. ). the most ornate of these shafts are those which serve as mullions in the great double windows of the certosa front (figure ). in the stanga palace portal massive candelabrum-shafts take the place of columns to carry the entablature, and certain of the columns in the miracoli church at brescia are treated like candelabrum-shafts. slender shafts of the candelabrum type adorn the pilasters of the exterior of the east end of santa maria delle grazie at milan. it was in imitation of these examples, which greatly impressed the soldiers of charles v and francis i, that the spaniards, and after the battle of pavia the french also, began to introduce the candelabrum shaft into their own renaissance decoration (see pp. and , ). emilia and venetia. parma, piacenza, modena, bologna and ferrara are the chief cities of emilia which, lying between lom- bardy and venetia, received the renaissance seed at the same time as lombardy but matured the fruit rather more slowly. like lombardy, this province abounds a history of ornament in clay and its cities are largely cities of brick and terra- cotta. the earliest decorative work of the renaissance fio. .—pn-aster araresques ry b. da majano and p. lomrardi. in this province was probably the remarkable cap- pella malatestiana or church of san francesco at early renaissance in italy rimini by alberti and di duccio, dating from about . it is a gothic structure revetted with a classic exterior and remodeled internally also in the new style with classic details and much delicate relief- carving; the interior largely by agostino di duccio. most of the renaissance work in the early style at bologna and ferrara is of late date ( - or thereabout), and much of it is in terra-cotta. the front of the little church of san spirito is an example of unregulated composition, confused scale and pic- turesque charm. the street arcades offer many bits of charming detail in terra-cotta, and in that material or in marble are interesting window designs and a few good doorways; e.g., the palazzo bevilacqua at bo- logna; pal. dei diamanti and pal. roverella at fer- rara, and others (figure ). to venice the new style was brought by a family of lombards, the solari, more commonly known as the lombardi. the earliest, martino, probably came from lugano about , and may have been the designer of the choir of the church of san zaccaria; but this is a semi-gothic work, and it was not until about that his son pietro ( - ), a consummate decorative designer, with the assistance later of tullio his son (died ), established the new style as the dominant fashion by a remarkable series of architectural works of great decorative beauty. in this movement antonio rizzio (sometimes called bregno) and later barto- lommeo buon, called bergamasco (d. ), also took part, while in near-by padua another lombard, andrea a history of ornament briosco ( - ), executed bas-reliefs and tombs and candelabra in the renaissance style. verona was enriched by fra giocondo with a beautiful town-hall, the palazzo del consiglio, about ; but the stucco enrichments which now adorn it are a modern adapta- tion, though based on the original decorations. apart from the architectural com- position of the venetian works, which does not directly concern us, they are remarkable for the combined dignity and richness of their decorative carv- ing. pilasters and friezes of door- ways and tombs, projecting fireplace hoods, altar railings and reredoses, all display the venetian taste for splendor and refinement in carvings in which varied relief is most effect- ively used (figs. , , a, ). the railings and altar decorations of the exquisite little church of santa maria dei miracoli by pietro lombardo ( ), with their grotesques, ara- besques and symbolic dolphins and tridents; the carved panels of the piers flanking the giants' stairs in the court of the doge's palace; the doorways of san giobbe, santa maria del orto and other examples; the facade of the scuola di san marco (with perspectives carved in relief, of doubtful taste by modern standards), the exquisite painted interior of san giorgio dei schia- voni, and innumerable tombs, altar-pieces, wellcurbs vfnice- fio. .—pilaster de- tail from venice. early renaissance in italy (vere di pozzo) and like works of minor art, tes- tify to the rapid progress of the style between and . a decorative practice peculiar to venetian archi- tecture is the use of marble veneer for both internal and external embellishment, as in the miracoli church, the casa dario and other examples. the practice was in- herited from the preceding gothic style, which in turn derived it from venetian byzantine art as seen in st. mark's and the fondaco dei turchi. tuscany outside of florence. omitting for lack of space special mention of the numerous works of the early renaissance in the marches and umbria—except to note the confraternita di san bernardino at perugia, with its charmingly sculptured facade by di duccio ( ), and in the same city the delightful sala del cambio, to which reference will be made later (see p. )—the principal center of early renaissance activity in tuscany outside of florence was sienna. the movement in this home of a well developed gothic style hardly made its appearance before , with the accession of aeneas silvius piccolomini to the papal throne as pius ii. the archi- tectural details of the early renaissance palaces and loggias are strongly florentine; so also the minor works like the baptismal font in san giovanni under the east end of the cathedral (figure ); various altar-pieces and the earlier woodwork of stalls in the palazzo pub- blico. the richest decorative work comes a little later, nearly in the transition to the middle renaissance: e.g. a history of ornament the fine marble doorway and doors to the library of the cathedral by lorenzo marina (fig. ) and the stalls in the cathedral. at lucca and prato there are important examples of early renaissance work in tombs, pulpits and metal-work; some of these will be later described or illustrated. fio. .—top of doorway to lirrary, sienna cathedral. to other parts of italy—to rome about the same time as to venice and sienna, to naples and southern italy somewhat later—the renaissance style in archi- tecture and minor works was carried by tuscan artists: e.g. porta capuana and arch of alfonso of arragon, both at naples, the latter by giuliano da majano. while the architecture took on various forms in these cities there are scores of minor works in them all of great richness and beauty, of the same general style as early renaissance in italy in florence, which it would be vain to try to enumerate. these cities differentiated their own styles of decora- tion chiefly in the middle and baroco periods, as will be later shown. the leading motives. in the domain of plastic art the leading motives of renaissance ornament, both early and late, were, as we have seen, derived from antique roman art, modified by a new naturalism in many details. there was com- paratively little of surface-patterning except in textile art, which was strongly affected in tapestry by the pictorial art of painting, and in woven fabrics, such as velvets and brocades, by oriental and especially persian stuffs and ceramics imported through venice and sicily. spanish textiles and ceramics, in a style derived from the hispano-moresque also influenced italian textiles and, by way of the balearic isles, italian ceramics also (see p. ). under these influences were developed a wide range of decorative motives, a few of which are briefly dis- cussed below. treatment of classic detail. what first attracted the italian artists in the remains of antique art was its decorative detail, especially its architectural moldings, capitals and carved arabesques, and the vases, candelabra and bronzes which were be- coming objects of eager quest for museums and studios. for the most part they had as objects of study only fragments of that art. no effort was made to recon- stitute the ancient buildings from their ruins, most of a history of ornament which had been during the middle ages incorporated into the structure of houses and fortresses. archae- ological study was not yet a science, and for nearly a hundred years the italians contented themselves with an uncritical and free but sympathetic imitation of the decorative details of the antique fragments. this imita- tion was, however, as already remarked, never a literal copying; it was a free and original interpretation. it would be more correct to say that the details of this early work were suggested by the antique than that they were copied from it. thus we find no textual reproduction of the roman orders even in the work of brunelleschi or of alberti. it would be hard to find a "correct" corinthian capital or entablature in any italian work before , and rarely even then. the cornice of the riccardi palace (fig. a) is roman in character, but it is a copy of no roman example; the same is true of the others shown in that illustration. the quattrocentisti understood the character of the roman entablature and employed it in tombs and altar- pieces and palace fronts, but it was no new conception to them in the th century. the tradition of the com- bination of architrave, frieze and cornice had never been wholly lost in italy, and the quattrocentisti used this familiar combination with the utmost freedom and variety of treatment. a catalogue of the forms thus revived out of a rather neglected but still vital tradition, or discovered in roman fragments and freely varied, would include the classic pilaster and column with the entablature; the round arch framed in a banded and molded archivolt; early renaissance in italy roman types of molding and molding-ornaments; and roman types of carved arabesques, especially the single and double rinceau or foliated scroll; and the anthe- mion type of frieze decoration. the modillion was de- veloped into the bracket (or "cantilever" as it is some- times called; fig. ). the roman keystone and the fio. .—two cantilever brackets. classic pediment were not common before the end of the th century, and the free-standing column rarely appears except in the arcades of courtyards and loggias and to separate the aisles of churches, and occasionally to flank the arches of doorways and tombs. the roman candelabrum became the parent of numerous variations in supporting-members or standards for vases, fonts and fountains, and even for mullions and columns (figs. , ). capitals. the favorite type of capital was a free modification of the corinthian (figs. - ), differing, however, in a history of ornament essential particulars from the classic and hence com- monly called the corinthianesque. instead of the six- teen acanthus leaves in two rows of the prototype it usually had only four tall and broad leaves set at the "corners" of the capital, occasionally with a small inter- mediate leaf on each face (fig. b, d). there were usually but four instead of eight pairs of volutes; these fio. .—capital from courtyard of gondi palace, florence. supported the "horns" of the abacus and formed the terminations of s-scrolls, of which the lower ends met in the centers of the faces of the capital and gave rise to anthemion-like ornaments filling the spaces between them. the caidicoli of the roman type were thus wholly wanting, and the whole capital was simpler and more open in design and perceptibly shorter than the 'this description applies only to the complete capital on a free column. pilaster-caps and corbels of this type show only two of these leaves and two pairs of corner-volutes (figs. , a). early renaissance in italy classic corinthian. corbels were designed much like pilaster capitals. the varietjt with which this general type was treated, and the great beauty of the capitals thus pro- duced testify to the creative originality of their designers (figs. - ; pi. i, , ). fig. a shows a cap- ital of the ionic type; b and c, composite types, and d a bolog- nese corinthianesque capital with uncut leaves. the doric order was never widely used during the renais- sance, least of all in the early period; a rare example is shown in pi. i, . the ionic appears occasionally, in wide variations from the classic type; sometimes with vol- utes showing on front and back and bolsters or rolls at the sides, as in fig. a; sometimes with doubled corner volutes, after the four-faced late fio. .—pilaster capital, naples; correl, fiesole. fig s fig. .—four capitals from sienna, cortona, gurrio, bologna. fig. .— (a) pilaster capital, venice; (i>) pier capital, bologna. fig. .—pilaster, venice. fig. .—column from spei.lo. fig. .—four entarlatures, from riccardi, strozzi, and gondi palaces, florence, and palazzo pretorio, lucca. j early renaissance in italy roman type, often erroneously called the "scamozzi" capital. the composite capital—or at least its much- varied derivatives—occurs quite frequently, coming next to the corinthian type in frequency (fig. b, c; pi . , ). bases and pedestals. bases of columns and pilasters were almost always of the attic type, with a scotia between two tori above a square plinth. they were rarely enriched by carving. ornamented pedestals or pedestal-blocks were some- times used, as in the miracoli church at brescia, where the corners of the pedestal are adorned with acanthus leaves. a highly original and beautiful device is seen in the columns of the choir of san zaccaria at venice (about ), in which a high octagonal pedestal is so blended with the shaft of the column as to form a single composition (fig. ). the result is so beautiful and so logical that one wonders that it was never repeated or imitated elsewhere, except once in spain (see p. ). shafts. pilaster-shafts (fig. ) were sometimes left plain, more often they were fluted, occasionally with the lower third of the channels filled with convex beads, as in the tomb of lionardo bruno in sta. croce at florence by bernardo rossellino (cir. ), and in the interior of sta. catarina at sienna (pi. i, ). still oftener the pilaster-shaft was treated as a long panel in a frame of delicate moldings and decorated with carved rin- ceaux, single or double, or with delicate arabesques a history of ornament (figs. , , , , ). this treatment, of which there were but few roman prototypes, became one of the most beautiful and characteristic elements in the architectural decoration of the early renaissance, and persisted through the middle renaissance. □ □□□ fio. .—column in san zaccaria, venice. fig. .—three types of pilaster treat- ment. the shafts of columns were always left plain in arcades of courts or churches, and sometimes in porches and doorways. they were sometimes, though not very often, fluted in minor works, such as tombs and pulpits, early renaissance in italy where the columns are generally engaged and not free- standing: e.g. the beautiful pulpit in sta. croce at florence (figure ). a characteristic and not in- frequent treatment for free or engaged columns is to carve the lower part of the shaft in relief, with arabesques, festoons and other ornaments, leaving the upper two thirds plain or fluting it, as in the over-rich porch of sta. maria dei miracoli at brescia (figure ). some- times the whole shaft is covered with carv- ing, as in the exam- ple from spello (fig. ); but this is exceptional. unjltuuuuullulfuuu entablatures and moldings. the classic type of entablature with architrave, frieze and cornice had never passed wholly out of use in italy during the middle ages. it appeared with increasing fre- quency as the th century drew near, and during that century the classic types were more closely fol- lowed. the modillion cornice was used to crown palace- fio. .—entarlature of shrine, ma- donna del sasso, blbbiena. a history of ornament facades, as in the magnificent example on the riccardi palace ( ) and the later strozzi palace ( , fig. ); but in neither case are the roman proportions fol- lowed. in the rucellai palace alberti patterned his cornice after the upper cornice of the colosseum at rome (figure ), but this long remained an isolated instance of such close imitation. on smaller buildings, and on porches and minor works such as tombs, the modillion cornice is not common, the denticular type being generally preferred (figs. , ; figure ). on the other hand these minor works display an extra- ordinary richness of decoration in their entablatures, almost every molding being carved, and the face of the corona frequently enriched with vertical flutings, as in the upper part of the porch-chapel of the palazzo pubblico at sienna by federighi (about ; fig. ), and on many tombs. the corona of the riccardi palace is similarly ornamented. the molding-enrichments are the usual roman ornaments of beads, bead-and-reel, egg-and-dart, water-leaf and acanthus leaf, but treated with great freedom: the oves or "eggs," for instance, often showing nearly the whole oval, and being made much wider than in most roman examples (see figs. , , , and pi. , , ). the florentine pediment. until the high renaissance developed the monu- mental use of roman features, the classic triangular pediment was seldom employed except over doorways and tombs, and rarely over these in florence. the florentine designers preferred to place over them a early renaissance in italy wall-arch, framed in a richly-decorated archivolt and enclosing a tympanum or "lunette" adorned with a medallion or with figure sculpture. at the spring of the archivolt were often two small rosettes over the projecting ends of the cornice (fig. ). this device was frequent in lom- bardy as well as florence, and was carried by lom- bard artists to venice in the second half of the th century; but it was there soon replaced by semicircular and seg- mental pediments even to crown principal facades, as in the churches of san zaccaria, sta. maria dei miracoli and the scuola di san marco. in milan, como and perugia are a num- ber of semicircular arched canopies over church doors. an unusually elegant example of the triangular pedi- ment of almost classical correctness of proportion and detail is shown in figure , from the church of san michele, venice. but such examples are rare before . candelabrum forms. the use of the candelabrum motive in lombardy has already been referred to (see p. ). derived from roman candelabra in bronze and marble, and from representations in roman reliefs, it was used in fio. .—typical florentine arch pediment. a history of ornament a great variety of ways, not only in lombardy but in other parts of italy as well. its essential feature is the vertical stem, swelling upwards from the bottom and then contracting in a graceful curve, the lower part often swathed in acanthus leaves and springing from a spreading acanthus nest. in very slender form it appears in the central stem of pilaster ara- besques; in more massive form it is used for actual supports such as mul- lions or even columns (see ante p. , fig. ); and in shorter and still more massive proportions, to carry fonts, holy water stoups, even pulpits (fig. ). in the high renaissance it suggested the balustrade, as will be later shown. arches and spandrels. fio. .—standard .or holy water the quattrocento treated arches r ont, badia ^ fiesolana. with great freedom, using the classic banded archivolt only in the more monumental forms of architecture (fig. ), and not always then. in tuscany, at least in florence and sienna, the rusticated arch was common in palace facades (see also pi. i, ). in lombardy and emilia the prevalent use of terra-cotta induced the habit of minute ornamentation of archivolts in relief. in minor works throughout all north italy there was great variety in the decoration of archivolts, which were sometimes radially fluted and adorned with enriched early renaissance in italy moldings on both intrados and extrados. especially characteristic of the early renaissance was the decora- tion of archivolts with wreaths or bands of fruit fio. .—spandrel from a chapel in genoa cathedral. (figures , ), or with laurel bands as in fig. (see also fig. ). the soffits were usually plain, though sometimes paneled and rosetted. figs. , and illustrate a few of the varieties of this decoration. a history of ornament spandrels of arches were seldom left plain. in ex- terior architecture medallions were the most common ornament, sometimes sculptured, sometimes exe- .. -.. cuted in della-rob- bia ware. in minor wo r k s sculptured figures, heads, rin- ceau motives and ar- abesques appear (figs. , ). the acanthus; ara- besques. throughout the middle ages the italians had never ceased to use the acanthus leaf, either in carved or painted ornament. italian gothic foliage never followed the french forms, but was al- ways modeled after the type of the clas- sic acanthus (see ante, fig. ). the renaissance naturally gave fresh vogue to this most adaptable of all foliage forms; but it is worthy of notice that the early artists seldom or never copied the roman leaf textually; they modeled their acanthus foliage after fig. .—acanthus decorations, and bologna. venice figure . lunette ry luca della rorria. figure . altarpiece ry andrea della rorria. early renaissance in italy their own fashion, with delightful^ freedom and variety. whether in their corinthianesque capitals or in the details of their foliated scrolls or rinceaux and arabesques, it is treated with the same delicacy and fro. .—acanthus from sarcophagus of mar- suppini, santa croce, florence. variety of relief as all the other motives of their carved ornament (fig. ). two of the most notable examples of the acanthus appear on sarcophagi of tombs. the first (fig. ) decorates the tomb of marsuppini in a history of ornament fio. .—acanthus from tomr of piero di medici, san lorenzo, florence. the church of santa croce at florence, by desiderio da settignano; it dates from about , the second forms a part of the bronze enrichments of the tomb of piero di medici in the "old sacristy" of san lorenzo in the same city (fig. ; figure ); it is by ver- rocchio, dated about , and is a decoration of ex- traordinary splendor and vigor of design and ex- quisite execution. certain bronze torch-holders set in the walls of siennese palaces are also masterly examples of the decorative use of the acanthus (fig. ). fig. shows nine varieties of the renaissance acanthus, * andrea di cione, nicknamed verroechio (true-eye); florentine gold- smith and sculptor, - . fig. .—acanthus from torch bracket, sienna. selected from the scores or hundreds of variant treat- ments to be found in both the architecture and the minor arts of the early renaissance. • the examples of the acanthus leaf in fig. are but a few among the almost innumerable italian variations of the motive. they are taken from a variety of works in stone and marble, bronze and wood. professor moore in his "character of renaissance architecture" disparages the in- ventiveness and the feeling for natural beauty of the italian renaissance artists in comparison with the greek, as shown by the greek and italian acanthus respectively in the illustrations he presents. it is of course easy to select in any style one or two details inferior to corresponding details a history of ornament while painted arabesques word arabesque itself belong fio. .—araresque panel, "giant's stairs," doge's palace, venice. and the invention of the properly to the th cen- tury, the early artists made free use of the carved arabesque, especi- ally for panels (fig. ) and pilasters, preferring this treatment of pilasters to the more formal fluting of the shaft. in the pilas- ter-arabesques there was generally the combination of a central stem or axis composed of vases, can- delabrum-forms and fan- ciful stalks, with symmet- rically-diverging acan- thus leaves, as in fig. , or with branching foli- ated scrolls to flank them on either side, the whole treated in a light, grace- ful and fanciful manner (figs. , , , b). examples from the pazzi chapel at florence in another style. but comparing the italian examples as a whole .with the greek as a whole, one must, i think, admit that in variety, flexibility of adaptation, beauty of movement and delicacy and suavity of modeling the italians far surpassed the greeks. this is, indeed, not surprising, for the italians inherited the acanthus from the romans, who had carried its development far beyond the point at which the greeks had left it to them. (see my hist, of orn., i, - .) early renaissance in italy ( - ) and san francesco at rimini ( ) show the inexperience of early efforts (figs. , ); the de- tails are thin and tight. the carvers of tuscany and lombardy very soon acquired skill and developed the exquisite technic of carving already described. as time went on there was an increasing use of grotesques— griffins, harpies, and other animal and human figures, often ending" in acan- thus leaves and scrolls (figs. , , , ). the rinceau. this is the french name—for which there is no exact equivalent in english —for a branching foliated scroll in which a continuous waving stem throws off alternately on either side spiral branches terminating in rosettes or bunches of leaves, each branching being concealed by a wrapping acan- thus leaf or caulicolus. the whole composition generally springs from a vase, a monster's tail, an infant's torso, or a large and elaborate nest of acan- thus leaves (figs. , b, , ). the rinceau is the most prolific, the most persistent and the most adaptable of all decorative motives. it can be traced through the whole history of m the history and origin of this very characteristic roman ornament are briefly recited in my "history of ornament, ancient and medieval," i, pp. , , , . fio. .—flat re- lief ornament from a tomr dated . a history of ornament medieval and renaissance art, and appears even in oriental art, especially that of india. in fig. it was shown in italian pre-renaissance ornament of the th century; figs. , and in my "history of or- fio. .—two araresoues: (a) san francesco di rimini; ( ) badia flesolana. nament, ancient and medieval" illustrate its appear- ance in italian and french romanesque ornament. in the italian renaissance, both early and late, it was ap- plied to the greatest possible variety of uses in architec- tural carving, in painted ornament, in woodwork, metal- early renaissance in italy work, embroidery, laces and ceramics, and treated with a sensitive appreciation of relief, detail and distribution. fio. .—panel, altar in orvieto cathedral. as a vertical running ornament, symmetrically doubled on either side at a central stem, it was the favorite fio. .—araresque, villa salviati, florence. pilaster-ornament; on friezes it commonly extended both ways from a central motive; as a restricted pattern, it was used as panels of any and every shape. figs. , early renaissance in italy , , , , , - illustrate a few of these applications; others will be recognized in many later illustrations. the anthemion. next in importance to the rinceau as a frieze decora- tion was the anthemion-motive. as used by the renais- sance artists this varied all the way from close approxi- mation to the roman type as in fig. and in the . io. .—detail of frieze over door, ducal palace, urrino. smaller frieze in fig. , to wholly novel versions like the example from urbino in fig. , or that from florence in fig. , in which only the fundamental principle of the anthemion remains, the classic honey- suckle-like motives being replaced by sprays of wheat and other plant forms, highly conventionalized. it must be understood that by the anthemion-motive is meant not merely the greek ornament derived from a history of ornament the palmette, but the entire combination of two con- trasting forms set vertically and linked by reversed curves or voluted bands; the one originally derived from fio. .—anthemion from a cast is florence. the palmette, the other from the lotus; the one often framed in an oval, the other never so enclosed. the basic idea of both features of the combined motive is a fio. .—detail, chimneypiece in doge's palace, venice. central vertical stem springing from between voluted scrolls, and flanked on either side by diverging leaves, which may be of any desired form taken from any sort of plant real or imaginary (figs. , ). separate u see my "history of ornament, ancient and medieval," pp. - , , , and figs. , , , . early renaissance in italy anthemions were often enclosed between, or sprung from, two reversed-curve scrolls forming a "lyre" or heart-shaped motive, as in fig. , from the stucco decorations of a pier in the court of the palazzo vecchio at florence. a variant of this is shown in fig. , from a tomb in naples. renaissance anthemion-ornaments occur not only in carved ornament but also in wood-inlay, painted decorations and textiles (pi. v, , ). the rosette. this occurs in nearly all the his- toric styles of ornament, and may represent almost any of a great fio. .—typical lyre motives from piers in court of palazzo vecchio, florence. fig. si.—detail from tomr of cassandra^ misata, naples. variety of flower-forms. in renaissance practice it is so conventionalized as generally to defy identification with any particular plant, and varies from such simple five-leaved blossoms as those shown in fig. to the a history of ornament most elaborate compositions of acanthus leaves or of anthemions as in fig. . the festoon or swag. this, as already explained (p. ), was in roman art a sacrificial emblem, carved only on altars and temples, to represent festoons of fruit, flowers and leaves suspended between ox-skulls or bucrania sym- fio. .—detail from fossomrroni palace, arezzo. bolizing the victims of previous sacrifices, and bound with ribbons or fillets with fluttering ends (hist, of orn., i, fig. ). this motive the renaissance trans- ferred to christian funereal symbolism, omitting the bucrane, and supporting it either from rosettes or from the shoulders of infants, as on the tomb at lucca of ilaria del caretto (fig. , figure ). usually com- posed of continuous "ropes" of fruit and flowers (fig. ), it was sometimes made up of separate bunches of these, or of sprays of leaves and berries, as in figs. early renaissance in italy and and figure . the motive thus originating in symbolism soon passed into purely decorative use as a pure ornament. there is no sharp distinction between fro. s .—festoon, base of pilaster in santa maria dei miracom, venice. those of the quattrocento and of the early cinquecento. the beautiful isolated swags on tombs by sansovino in sta. maria del popolo at rome and on the screen in the sistine chapel have all the charm of the early renaissance with the assured technic of the th century (see figure ). fruit and flowers. the early renaissance artists represented fruit and flowers with sympathetic naturalism, combining them more or less conventionally with a keen and unerring sense of decorative values. the della robbias, as we have seen, modeled them with consummate art in the borders to their lunettes, altar- pieces and medallions (see figure and fig. ). the fio. .—fruit from alrer- toni monument, santa maria del popolo, rome. a history of ornament festoon or swag, both in the early and middle renais- sance, always displayed a careful study and conscien- fig. .—"pirn" and wreath, doorway of pazzi chapel, santa croce, florence. tious modeling of fruit, flowers and foliage. in the anthemion patterns generally, floral and foliage forms were treated in con- ventional rather than naturalistic fashion. figure swilpture. while pure figure sculpture, as such, does not properly be- long in the category of pure ornament, the use of the human figure as an ele- ment of a decorative scheme and not as an independent work brings it within that category. the ital- ians of the renais- sance, with their newly awakened love fig. .—arove, "putti" and shield, archrishop's palace, florence; relow, detail from tomr at folleville, france, ry ant. tamagno. early renaissance in italy of natural beauty could not fail to discover and employ the nobly decorative forms of the human figure in both carved and painted ornament, and they studied it with passionate enthusiasm. here, as in other details, they took their inspiration primarily from roman art, but developed their ideas independently. they were especi- ally fond of the infant form, which they han- dled with great sympa- thy and charm (figs. , , , , ). the putti or bambini by andrea della robbia on the facade of the foundling hospital at florence, and luca and andrea della robbia's lunettes and altar decorations (see figures , ), are early examples of this charm of treatment; but it is displayed in countless carved deco- f" - .—mascaron and araresque from a column of tomr in san domenico rations ot later date, maooiore, naples. and appears even in works of the baroque period. the adult figure also occurs frequently, and both human and animal forms are carved with careful regard to anatomical propriety, even in grotesques (figs. , , ; pi. iv, , ). in all this sculptured decoration one recognizes an al- a history of ornament most unerring sense of beauty of line and surface and of decorative propriety in the composition. grotesques. in its applications to panels of various shapes as well as to figures the rinceau motive was frequently asso- fig. .—grotesques from lirrary of san lorenzo, florence, attriruted to michelangelo. ciated with grotesques, as in roman ornament. the word "grotesque" is used in two different significations: originally by the italians to designate the fanciful arabesques imitated from roman ruins on the esquiline hill called "the grottoes"; more generally in a technical sense to-day to designate any combination of hetero- early renaissance in italy geneous parts or features of animals, human figures or plants into an artistic whole. infant forms were made to terminate in acanthus-nests from which issued the stem of the rinceau (fig. ); the tails of griffins or chimeras, of lions or other beasts, and the beard and hair of grotesque faces or sjx r pulpits, etc. (see pi. iii, , , ; pi. iv, ), the dolphin combined with acanthus leaves (fig. a), purely fantastic dragons or nameless monsters, like that in fig. and pi. iii, , , , and the human torso ending in acanthus leaves u both ruskin in his "stones of venice" and moore in his "character of renaissance architecture" inveigh against the renaissance grotesques. ruskin calls them "ignoble"; each selects as evidence for his condemnation a single example, as if one could thus argue from the particular to the universal. the renaissance grotesques, it is true, lack the power and the symbolic significance of the medieval monsters; on the other hand many from such combinations with foliated scrolls the grotesques oftenest em- ployed were the cherub- head, the chimera or griffin, the winged lion- paw, the mascaron or grotesque mask, the sphinx (or rather the fore-part of a winged sphinx), especially on bases of candelabra, masks, were made its starting-points (figs. , , ). apart fig. .—grotesque, palazzo del mao- nifico, sienna. (fig. ; pi. iv., ). a history of ornament treatment of relief. in nearly all the early renaissance work the relief is handled with remarkable delicacy and charm of effect. certain details are carved in moderately high relief, with rounded masses producing emphatic spots of light and shadow, while the subordinate elements of the de- sign are kept low, and the minor details almost melt fig. .—flat relief ornament, santa maria dei miracoli, venice. away at the edges into the background. thus the de- sign shows its salient masses at a distance, and the lesser features come into view progressively as one comes nearer; while the contrasts of low and medium and high relief produce an effect of great elegance and refine- ment. all the early carving is small in scale, and there are no hard and sharp lines and undercut edges such as one sees in greek carving (figs. , , , , , , - , etc.). of them are of great beauty of outline and modeling as pure ornament, and it is purely as ornament that they generally appear. they are usually subordinate elements in a decorative scheme, not independent features existing for their own sakes, as in most medieval examples. there are poor grotesques in renaissance ornament, as there are inferior examples of any motive in any and every style. but in general the renaissance grotesques, "monsters" and mascarons fit admirably into the decorative scheme and possess intrinsic beauty of line and modeling. early renaissance in italy on the other hand, these same designers could pro- duce charming effects by the judicious use of flat low relief, in which the decorative pattern, preferably flat and without modeling, stood in the lowest possible relief against a finely-tooled background, as in figs. , , . the principle of "varied relief," as it is called, may have been in part derived from the study of roman fragments, though it is by no means universal even in the best roman carving. it is characteristic of the roman stucco-reliefs, but these were not known to the early renaissance carvers, and its general adoption by the italians is probably due in a measure, at least, to the fact that so many of them were trained to the gold- smith's art. such minuteness of detail and delicacy of relief are natural and characteristic in works in gold and silver. the purpose of the architects, carvers and goldsmiths in their handling of plastic ornament, both in composi- tion and detail, was to produce a decorative play of light and shade and a harmonious movement of line which by their richness in contrast with plainer surfaces should appeal to the esthetic emotions through the eye. as in greek ornament, this appeal was that of sensuous beauty rather than of symbolism or of any recondite significance; it was esthetic rather than intellectual, and should be judged accordingly. in frankly pur- suing this aim, the italians of the early renaissance sometimes overstepped the mark, at least in their minor works, losing the advantage of contrast by an excess of decoration on all parts of the object decorated. a history of ornament but even in these cases the beauty of the ornament itself and the refinement of its execution compel admiration. books recommended: as before, anderson, durm, gannand und rosenkranz, schutz.—also, consult list at end of chapter iii. m ruskin, in his "seven lamps of architecture" (chap. i, § is), declares that "ornament cannot be overcharged if it be good, and is always over- charged when it is bad." this is one of his characteristically misleading maxims, defensible only when special meanings are assigned to the adjec- tives "good," "bad" and "overcharged." it is absurd to contend that there can be no excess in the use of ornament that is good in itself when used in moderation. moreover ornament that is thin, scanty, meager, cannot be called "overcharged," however bad in itself. figure . fa ade of pazzi chapel, florence. figure . ceiling, sacristy or san spirito, florence. figure . window from casa caracci, bologna. chapter iii the early renaissance in italy, ii architecture and accessory arts the orders of architecture. so far we have been dealing with motives of general application, without reference to their occurrence in works of major or minor architecture or the allied arts. it remains to discuss briefly certain features of their use and application in these arts. the early renaissance made no sudden break with the architectural practices and traditions of the th century. not only was the italian gothic architecture full of reminiscences of ancient roman forms and ideas (see p. ), which the renaissance had only to take up and develop; the new renaissance architecture was also characterized by the persistence of many concep- tions and ideas of medieval origin. in both styles in italy there was a blending of antique and medieval elements, but in differing proportions; in the early renaissance the decorative features of roman art, freely varied, were applied to the traditional types of construction inherited from the trecento. many of these motives we have already discussed, but only brief allusion has been made to the use of the classic roman "orders." a history of ornament of the five roman "orders," the architects of the quattrocento, at least until about , used by prefer- ence only freely-modified versions of the corinthian (see p. ; pi. i, , ). a species of ionic appears occasionally, and capitals of the composite type also occur; but the important point to notice is that none of the orders was at first used with classical "correctness." in other words the roman models were not copied with exactness, but were taken as suggestions for design and varied with the utmost freedom. even the most cur- sory comparison of the columns and pilasters of the quattrocento with the roman prototypes must make evident the independence and originality of the renais- sance designers. particularly noteworthy is the fact that not a single colonnade was built in italy during the th century. the roman arcade—the character- istic roman combination of the open arcade with en- gaged columns carrying the entablature, as in the colosseum—did not come into general use before , and the few examples occurring before that date are experimental and exceptional. the earliest example of the engaged column on a palace facade is that of the vendramini palace at venice, dated or (figure ). ceilings. throughout the entire renaissance the italians bestowed particular care upon the decoration of their ceilings. while vaulting was still frequently used in churches and in court-arcades, the horizontal ceiling was generally preferred, especially in palaces and private early renaissance in italy, ii domestic architecture. it was of course constructed of wood or plaster upon a timber framework, and was almost always paneled or deeply coffered and enriched with carved rosettes, with sculptured heads or other de- vices, or more rarely with paintings. in all the earlier ceilings, and generally throughout the quattrocento, the paneling or coffering was upon the simplest possible geometric scheme. thus in the hall of the two hun- fio. .—ceiling detail, church at bironico. dred in the palazzo vecchio, and in the riccardi palace, both in florence, as also in the ceiling in fig. from the parish church at bironico, we have ceilings of uni- form square coffers; in fig. and figure the cofferings are also composed of squares; in the academy at venice and the reggio gonzaga at mantua they are in the form of circles with small "lozenges" between. in the corridor of the sacristy of san spirito at florence, the barrel-vault is paneled with circular coffers connected by intersecting bands; it is by andrea sansovino (figure ). the frames a history of ornament of the coffers in all these and other examples are profiled with enriched moldings; the centers of the panels are ornamented with rosettes or paintings; blue and gold predominate in the color scheme. the vaulting of the porch of the pazzi chapel at florence is in rosetted panels of della robbia ware (glazed and colored terra- fig. .— (a) ceiling of pazzi chapel, florence; ( ) ceiling of santa maria dei miracoli, venice. cotta; fig. a). the wooden barrel-vault-shaped ceiling of the miracoli church at venice has a rich and elaborate system of large shallow square panels with rounded corners, and smaller rectangles, with pictures in the larger panels, the whole decorated in color (fig. b). the simple and dignified square-paneled ceiling of sta. maria maggiore at rome gilded about with the first gold brought to italy from the new world (such at least,is the legend), is of course of early renaissance in italy, ii fio. .—ceiling, cortona cathedral. earlier date, but when it was built, and whether or not it reproduces an antique design, is apparently not cer- tainly known. in nearly all these ceilings the "beams"— fio. .—ceiling, santo spirito in sassia, rome. the soffits of the coffer-frames—were ornamented in relief, either with bands of leaves of oak or laurel or with running ornaments, and small rosettes were com- a history of ornament monly placed at their intersections. the tendency was towards over-decoration and loss of contrast between frame and panel. later, more elaborate geometric patterns came into vogue, as can be seen in figs. , ; but simple elements still predominated—octagons, circles, squares, rectangles, crosses and oblong hexagons. doorways, doors and windows. doorways with either arched or square-headed open- ings were framed in enriched moldings, usually flanked i ^ by pilasters and capped fio. .—frame of doorway, palazzo doria, genoa. by an entablature, a tri- angular pediment or a "florentine" pediment (see p. ); but they display the greatest va- riety of treatment, and cannot be reduced to a formula covered by any general description. engaged or detached columns, usually of the corinthianesque or composite type, sometimes took the place of pilasters. in some cases the doorway was enclosed by a richly molded and carved architrave crowned by a cornice or pediment, without pilasters (fig. ; figure ). in a few cases candelabrum- shafts take the place of columns. only in a few church fronts do we find the doorway preceded by a porch with free columns as in the certosa at pavia (figure ) and in sta. maria delle grazie at milan. early renaissance in italy, ii the doors themselves, if of wood, are usually square- paneled (fig. ); if of bronze, \hey are paneled and richly sculptured. ghiberti's second or east doors for fio. .—florentine door-panels. the baptistery at florence (figure ) are the most celebrated; they date from - or later. those by antonio filarete for the basilica of st. peter at rome ( ) are pre- served in the present st. peter's; those of pisa ca- thedral are almost equal- ly noted. figures , and illustrate a few among the endless va- rieties of the early re- naissance doorways. windows belong more properly to architecture than to ornament; but their decorative detail enters within our field. the early renaissance, however, seldom fio. .—arched window, urrino. a history of ornament lavished much ornament upon windows, except in lom- bardy and emilia. one example from urbino is shown in fig. ; one from bologna in figure ; the cele- brated lower windows from the certosa at pavia are illustrated in figure . the cathedral of como pos- brlr^^s!^ " tommaso rodari (about niches to contain statues were almost invariably capped with a fluted shell (fig. ). the origin of this feature in renaissance practice is not easy to determine. it is rarely if ever found in ancient roman architecture, except in baalbek and palmyra in syria, which were unknown to the italians of the th and th centuries. sesses nave windows of un- usual elegance of design by fig. .—niche and statue, tomr in fiaschi chapel, genoa cathedral. ). they are unusual in having flanking pilasters with arabesques surmount- ed by dwarf pilasters car- rying a delicately molded pediment. it was not un- til the transition that pilasters and columns came into general use to flank window openings and to carry a pediment above the opening. the windows of the ducal palace at ur- bino are exceptional in having entablatures above fluted pilasters. early renaissance in italy, ii balusters. the balustrade in the various forms with which we are familiar was an invention of the italian renaissance. roman antiquity knew nothing of the balustrade; in its place the romans had-only either the solid parapet or railings framed of intersecting bars of wood or bronze. the gothic architects of western europe employed miniature arcades or panels of open tracery fio. .—seven types of baluster. as parapets along the edges of church roofs or for stairways. the earliest renaissance balustrade is that which crowns the pitti palace at florence (fig. a); it is probably by brunelleschi, and consists of a row of colonnettes supporting the rail ( - ). who it was that first conceived the idea of the "double-vase" type of round baluster (fig. b, c, d), i do not know; it appears frequently in the latter part of the th century. it consists of two opposed vase or candelabrum-units connected by a scotia or two scotias and a torus or bead or by a bead alone; the top and bottom each resemble a rather thick doric capital a history of ornament (fig. &). sometimes the "vases" or candelabrum- stems are enriched with acanthus leaves on the belly, and the more slender part of the stem with flutings (fig. mc.d). the "single vase" type of baluster, the one most familiar to modern eyes (fig. e, f, g) was a creation of the middle renaissance, and probably first used by vignola ( - ). the disad- vantage of the double-vase type is its slenderness in proportion to its height. in order to secure a more robust support for a broad stone rail, vignola devised the form which from that time forward was increas- ingly employed, with a single vase- like body, set, in the earlier examples on a small pedestal, in the later ones on a low block or plinth. it has no prototype in classic architecture, and the various forms assigned to it in vignola's and other books of the "orders," respectively for the tus- can, doric, ionic, corinthian and composite orders are the purely in- dividual fancies of the authors. modern designers space these balusters more closely than did vignola, for example, around the fountain of the villa lante near viterbo, and with better decorative effect. later archi- tects found in the balustrade an effective crowning decoration for use above the cornices of church and fio. .—balustrade, la scala hospital, sienna. early renaissance in italy, ii palace facades—a practice initiated by brunelleschi in the pitti palace as has already been noted on page (fig. a). we have by no means exhausted the list of early renaissance ornament-motives of an architectural character; but those we have briefly reviewed cover the greater part of the decorative work of importance belonging to this period. minor architecture. while a distinctly architectural quality is observable in italian renaissance ornament generally, the italians were on the whole decorators rather than designers of construction. in their architecture, as already observed (pp. , ), they made of construction not the mistress but the servant of decorative effect, with the result that in some cases the sacrifice of structural expression was carried too far, and the design appears iu consequence superficial and lacking in substantial logic. in minor works, in which the decorative purpose is less likely to be hampered by structural questions, the italians were preeminently successful. tombs, pulpits, choir-stalls, shrines, altar-pieces they designed with a propriety, a mastery of decorative effect, a refinement of detail and a beauty of execution never surpassed in works of the same class elsewhere. the same genius for producing beauty of mass, line, surface and detail is seen in all their work in the accessory arts: in carving and inlaying of woodwork, in metalwork—mast-bases and candelabra of bronze, chests of silver, goldsmith's work of all kinds, gates and grilles of iron; in their embroideries, laces, a history of ornament brocades and velvets. they touched nothing in the equipments and appurtenances of life that they did not adorn. tombs. among the hundreds of beautiful early renaissance tombs in the italian churohes, the earliest and one of the most beautiful is that of ilaria del caretto in the cathedral of lucca, by giacopo della quercia, which dates from about . it is of the floor-tomb type, a sarcophagus after the roman fashion set upon the floor and bearing the recumbent efligy of the person buried in the tomb (figure ). in the beautiful tomb of bishop federigo benozzi in the church of san francesco di paola near florence, the tomb proper is set in a square niche or recess, bordered by an exquisite colored terra-cotta frame of flowers and fruit. it is one of luca della robbia's masterpieces (figure ). the most frequently occurring type is the wall-tomb, in which the sarcophagus, with or without the sculptured recumbent figure of the deceased, is set on a pedestal within an arched or rectangular niche flanked by pilasters or columns carrying an entablature, or sur- mounted by either a classic or a florentine pediment (figures , ). all the resources of carving and sculpture in marble and bronze, aided by inlays and panels of colored marble or of della robbia terra-cotta (figure ), were lavished upon these tombs. the variety of detailed treatment of this general type is endless, and the number of notable examples far too early renaissance in italy, ii great to permit of even a summary mention. as ex- amples, however, of the general type one may cite the salutati monument in the cathedral at fiesole, by mino da fiesole; the bruni monument by rossellini in santa croce at florence—the earliest of this type, dated (figure ); the splendid marsuppini tomb (detail in fig. ) in santa croce by desiderio da settignano, a superbly executed but somewhat over- ornate example of later date, badly imitated in the tartagni tomb in san domenico at bologna; a number of fine tombs in churches at naples chiefly by giovanni da nola, others in the frari and santi giovanni e paolo at venice; several at rome, especially an early example in sta. maria del popolo, and in the sacristy of that church two very elaborate and imposing tombs by andrea sansovino, in the style of the transition to the middle renaissance ( ; figure ). two beautiful floor-tombs also deserve mention: that of ilaria del caretto already referred to, and the much later and richer, but hardly more beautiful tomb of pius ii in st. peter's at rome. in a category by itself is the transitional tomb of gian galeazzo visconti in the certosa at pavia, a two-storied canopied structure of great magnificence begun in by romano and briosco but not completed until . while the sculpture and the ornamental details are admirable, the lack of restraint and of contrast in its composition renders it less satisfying than the simpler earlier works of the same class. another type is seen in the beautiful tomb of piero di medici (figure ) set in a bronze- grilled arch in the old sacristy of san lorenzo at a history of ornament florence, the work of andrea verrocchio in (see also fig. ). pulpits and music balconies. among the many beautiful pulpits of the early renaissance two are especially worthy of mention and of study. the first is that by benedetto da majano built against a pillar of the nave of santa croce, florence, a masterpiece both of composition and of decorative detail. the design of the supporting corbel and of the radiating brackets or cantilevers that support the octagonal body is in every way admirable, and the appropriateness and beauty of every detail of the orna- ment, exquisitely carved in white marble, justly elicit one's admiration (figures , ). the other example is the outdoor pulpit at one corner of the cathedral of prato, designed by michelozzo, with sculptures by donatello, a charming work of the very early renais- sance ( - ). two balconies for singers originally intended for the cathedral of florence, but now preserved in the museo del duomo, are by donatello and luca della robbia respectively; they have already been alluded to (p. , figure ). in these the sculptured panels of singing and dancing children are the most important features. the architectural details and ornament of the balcony by della robbia are superior to those by donatello ( - ). a later music-balcony in the sistine chapel shows highly ornate balusters of the "double-vase" type. similarly ornate balusters decorate the rich marble stairway added in by bernardino di giacomo to early renaissance in italy, ii niccolo pisano's gothic pulpit in the cathedral of sienna. sedilia and choir-stalls. the decorative skill of the early renaissance artists of italy was nowhere more brilliantly displayed than in the choir-stalls of churches and sedilia of officials in town-halls and public offices. they lavished upon these a wealth of artistic effort and a disregard of labor which render absurd ruskin's charge that the artists of the re- naissance were "un- happy" in their work. enthusiasm and lov- ing care appear in every detail in hun- dreds of examples of this minor architec- ture. the high back or screen was divided by pilasters or colonnettes into narrow bays for the seats; above, an overhanging cornice or entablature was richly sculptured; the spaces between the pilasters were carved in low relief or inlaid with marquetry (intarsia); the arm-rests were boldly carved, and the lower seats of the front rows were made to carry out the decorative scheme of the higher seats behind. in such works a fio. .—acanthus correl, stalls in palazzo del comune, pistoria. a history of ornament greater freedom of treatment and a richer and minuter decoration were permissible than in more formal and monumental architectural works. the carving of this woodwork is technically almost faultless, generally dis- playing the most perfect finish, but remarkably vigorous and bold in details that suggest strong support, as in the fine bracket-acan- thus from sedilia in the palazzo del comune at pistoia (fig. ). the details of these stalls and sedilia are too varied and complex to be here described or discussed, and we cannot here even list the more important ex- amples. a few details are shown in pi. iii, , , . shrines, fonts, altar-pieces, etc. the numoer of these in the churches of italy and in european museums is extraordinary. there are also in american and private collections a considerable number of original works of this class, while casts of many others are to be found in our museums of the first or second rank. most of the examples that date from the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries are of great fig. .—shrine, hospital of san francesco, gurrio. early renaissance in italy, ii beauty, whether adorned with figure sculpture or only with conventional or symbolic ornament. shrines for the sacred oil or for the consecrated elements of the fio. .—holy water font, pisa fio. —holy water font ry cathldral. ant. federighi, sienna cathe- dral. mass were often set in the wall and adorned with miniature pilasters and pediments and with sculptured angels, cherub-heads, and the like (figs. , ). the number of such works—altar-pieces, shrines, lunettes a history of ornament over church doors, etc., by the della robbias is as ex- traordinary as their beauty (figures , ). others in terra-cotta and in marble by donatello, mino da fiesole and benedetto da majano abound in italian churches and in public and private museums on both sides of the atlantic. holy-water stoups and baptismal fonts were commonly supported on a stem somewhat like a baluster or massive, short can- delabrum-shaft (see ante, p. , as in figs. , and fig- ure ). one of the richest of these is that in the cathedral of sienna, attributed to antonio fede- righi (about ); it is' supported on a carved pillar sur- f, . ts.-dktai^^lklan, fu.oe. slekna rounde(j {om fig. ures, and is adorned with every device of christianized roman symbolism (fig. ). the finest of all baptismal fonts is that in the undercroft or baptistery of the same cathedral, shown in figure . it is the work of giacopo della quercia, and dates from - . altar-pieces or pre- delhis were of marble, della robbia ware (figure ), or carved and gilded wood. they consist of a picture or relief set in a framework of architectural mem- bers. early renaissance in italy, ii marble inlay; intarsia. the art of mosaic passed into partial eclipse with the middle ages, to be revived only in the later years of the th century. inlaying generally took its place, especially for floor pavements. the most important and splendid of these, the floor of the nave of sienna cathedral, be- longs in large measure to the early th century, though a part was of earlier date. a detail from the later portion is shown in fig. . it is by beccafumi ( - ), and in spite of its late date the lightness and grace of its design are in the full spirit of the quattrocento. an important branch of the art of the quattrocento was the decoration of all kinds of wood- work by the inlaying of decora- tive patterns, sometimes of pic- tures, in light woods on a darker wood, or the reverse. this art, called intarsia, was practised by a guild of artists or artisans called tarsiatori, many of whose members rose to fame as architects and decorators. the inlaid patterns comprised all sorts of architectural motives and classic ornament details, especially the acanthus, anthe- mion and rinceau, together with foliage, festoons and floral and fruit forms executed in woods of two or three tones (pi. iii, , , ; figs. , ). in the fig. .—detail op in- tarsia >y b. da majano in palazzo vecchio, florence. a history of ornament scoff ale or clothes-presses in the sacristy of sta. maria delle grazie at milan, the painter bernardino luini was employed to paint ornaments of the same character fio. .—detail of intarsia on harpsichord in bariuni collection. as those of intarsia, but these remain an almost unique example of this exceptional treatment. furniture. the furniture of the early renaissance was compara- tively limited in range of variety, but its variety in- creased as time went on. cassoni or chests, benches, tables and chairs, with four-post beds set on a platform, constituted the entire equipment of a palace. not until the middle renaissance did the italians make use of sideboards and elaborate cabinets with drawers and doors, while sofas, couches and upholstered furniture generally, did not come into use until the th century, and were then quite generally imitated from french models. the cassoni, commonly called marriage-chests, were long enough to hold a dress without folding. the early renaissance in italy, ii earlier examples were of simple rectangular form with molded lid, corners adorned with colonnettes or pilasters, and the panels of front and ends painted with pictures on gesso (tempera painting on a kind of hard thin stucco), or directly on the wood. by the end of the th century carving in relief had generally displaced painting on these chests (fig. ; pi . iii, ). each province developed its own style of design, recogniz- able by experts though not always obvious to the ordi- nary student. benches were often merely chests with a high back and arms, of stately design in the finest examples. chairs were few, and it was in venice that they were made of richest patterns; but with all their carving and gilding they were hardly comfortable according to modern standards; and broad and easy fauteuils with arms and upholstered seats and backs were not in use until a very late date. tables were solid and heavy objects of one or two principal types: round or polygonal on a central sup- port, and oblong on two heavy carved end-supports connected by a bar at the bottom. four-legged tables were rare, at least until foreign fashions invaded italy in the th century. when they occur in genuine early italian work the legs are usually massive supports, turned, with swelling vase-like or baluster forms, and almost invariably connected by cross-bars near the bot- tom, making a perfectly rigid construction of the whole. all this furniture was richly carved, and being intended to "stay put," was far heavier than most of our modern movable furniture. the further development of furniture design, and a history of ornament the general subjects of ceramics and textiles are re- served for a later chapter. accessory arts. all forms of the minor and industrial arts were practised and developed with enthusiasm throughout the whole duration of the renaissance. decorative beauty was sought in every craft, in every department of human design and production. the modern separa- tion between design and production was not dreamed of; the artist both designed and executed, and so highly developed was the decorative taste of the artists of the early renaissance and so broad their training in the fundamentals of artistic invention that they could turn their hands equally well to work in widely different fields and materials. their versatility was astonishing. goldsmiths became sculptors; sculptors and painters designed great buildings; architects executed mural paintings; wood-inlayers designed tombs and altar- pieces, and brocades were woven from patterns by great masters. thanks to this phenomenal versatility all the allied and minor or industrial arts of the early as well as of the middle renaissance display a unity of spirit and a distinction of style which make their products precious acquisitions for museums and collectors, and unsurpassed models for the study and inspiration of modern designers. the furniture, woodwork and intarsia of the early renaissance have already been briefly discussed, and the metal-work in bronze mentioned incidentally in speaking of the tomb of piero di medici (p. ). early renaissance in italy, ii among the most famous masterpieces of the bronze founder's art in this period are the three magnificent mast-bases in front of st. mark's at venice, one of which is shown in pi. iv, . they are the work of alessandro leopardo, and date from about . very fig. .—oriental motives from ceramics and textiles (above), and three details from italian textiles (below). beautiful grilles were produced in both bronze and iron, and candelabra and ecclesiastical vessels in gold and silver and bronze of great elegance of outline and delicacy of detail (pi. iv, , . ). the great age of work in metal was, however, yet to come in the follow- ing period. to that period also belongs the chief de- velopment of the art of the ceramist, although the art of glazed and enameled pottery had its beginnings a history of ornament about the middle of the th century. this branch of decorative art will therefore be reserved for later dis- cussion (see pp. - ). textile art is the most important topic still remain- ing to be noticed. both weaving and the various forms of needlework were actively and brilliantly developed fig. .—two textile motives framed in a mesh. during this period. especially worthy of note are the figured fabrics which it produced, particularly the vel- vets and brocades. the most interesting factor in the development of their design was the great expansion of commerce with the east. genoa and venice had long maintained close commercial relations with the byzantine empire, and the venetians had even cap- tured constantinople in and held it for fifty-nine years. the great tower built by the genoese colony in that city in the th century is still a dominant early renaissance in italy, ii feature in its silhouette. by way of constantinople italy received not only byzantine silks and embroid- eries but also the products of the persian looms and potteries, and even to some extent chinese and indian fabrics and other wares. the oriental influence also entered italy from spain, and sicily had long before the th century learned from the arabs and moors the art of making encaustic tiles and of weaving rugs and wall-hangings with oriental patterns. it is not therefore surprising that nearly all the patterns of the th-century brocades and vel- vets betray their oriental inspi- ration (figs. , ). even be- fore the th century the italian — especially the venetian — painters had been accustomed to dress the madonna in robes fig- ured with oriental patterns (fig. a, c). the entire system of all-over pattern- ing of the early renaissance fabrics is based on oriental, chiefly persian, precedents. the majority of these fabrics were diapered with floral units enclosed in the meshes of a quarry system (figs. , d). the pat- tern in fig. from the madonna's robe in a painting by crivelli in the national gallery in london, is ex- ceptional in owing nothing to oriental suggestion. the flower motive in these patterns may be simple or com- plex, but it always recalls persian prototypes, as may a history of ornament be seen by comparing them with the patterns in fig. . the network of the quarry may be generated by the contact of decorative framing-lines surrounding each flower, or may form an independent system into fio. .—fol'r textile motives: (a) florentine, fifteenth century: ( ) blue and white wool on linen; (e) pattern from painting ry guido da sienna; (d) venetian velvet. which the flowers are set (figs. , ; pi. v). pow- dered or spangled patterns are also of frequent oc- currence, the flower motives being distributed over the surface without an enclosing mesh ( a, b, c). the fabrics were usually two-toned, the pattern in one early renaissance in italy, ii color appearing on a background of another color, or, as in the case of velvets, of another tone of the same color. three tones sometimes occur, produced by the contrasts of the long pile, a short pile, and a background sheared close. the weaving of multi- colored brocades was a later development, but combina- tions of cotton or linen with wool were not unknown, producing patterns in ^ two colors. needlework was an important branch of tex- tile art, employed gener- ally where minute and complicated detail in va- ried colors was desired, as in church vestments, costumes of state and the like. while the western church never rivaled the oriental in the gorgeou^ness of its vestments, and while on the whole those of the renaissance may have been less magnificent than the finest medieval examples, there was much splen- dor at least in the copes, chasubles, stoles and miters of the higher clergy and bishops. the beautiful patterns on these, worked in brilliant colors and silver and gold thread with the needle, show a mixture qf details derived from architecture and from manuscript illuminations; but it was not till the th century that these were developed to their fullest perfection (see fig. ). the beginnings of the art of lace-making belong to fio. .—north italian needlework. a history of ornament this period, though this art also was chiefly developed in the th century. its earliest form consisted of the filling-up of decorative embroidered openings cut in fine linen, with ornamental net-patterns worked with the needle. the natural tendency was to multiply and enlarge the openings to form richer openwork patterns and at the same time to elab- orate the filling-patterns. bobbin lace, worked on a pillow with a multitude of threads on small bobbins, was a still later development. fig. .—three lace patterns. fig. .—venetian punta-in-aria. the technic of the art in its final phases is too compli- cated to be set forth in a work of this kind; the am- bitious student is referred to the article on the subject in the "encyclopaedia britannica" and to special technical books on lace (figs. , ). typographical ornament also had its beginnings in this period, the invention of printing with movable types having occurred in . for some time the decorative initials of chapters in printed books were still inserted early renaissance in italy, ii fio. —two fif- teenth-century initials. by hand and illuminated, in some cases, in color. the engraving and casting of typographical ornaments developed slowly, and while many of the finest examples belong to the middle renais- sance and will be referred to later, dec- orative initials of great beauty were produced between and , es- pecially in venice, where radoldt, pan- nartz, sweinheim, renner and other germans were active after , and where aldus manutius established his celebrated press as early as (figs. , ). manuscript-illumination was by no means at once displaced by the invention of printing. some of the most splendid ex- amples of this art belong to the th cen- tury, and even to the second half, the art having greatly profited by the ad- vance in painting. french and flemish masters rivaled the italian, and the pic- torial miniatures were often of extraor- dinary beauty. architectural forms and classic details were increasingly em- ployed in the decorations, initials and borders, and suggestions were borrowed from other arts, especially that of jew- elry. the two examples nos. and in plate v are from a ms. by capella fio. .—typo- graphic orna- ment, venice, . a history of ornament in the bibliotheque nationale at paris, illuminated by the florentine attavanti. no. is also a florentine th-century example; no. is of the beginning of the th century, to which belongs also the "book of hours" of arragon, from which nos. and are taken. books recommended: as before, anderson, galland und rosenkranz, schutz. —also: j. baum : baukunst und dekorative plastik der renais- sance in italien (hoffmann, stuttgart, ).—l. beltrami: la certosa di pavia (hoepli, milan, ).—a. f. butsch: die biicherornamentik der renaissance (hirth, leipzig, ). —e. calzini: urbino e suoi monumenti (cappelli, rocca san casciano, ).—g. s. davies: the sculptured tombs of the fifteenth century in rome (murray, london, ).—g. and f. durelli: la certosa di pavia (civelli, milan, ).—j. durm: die baukunst der renaissance in italien (gebhardt, leipzig, ).—geymuller und stegman: die architektur der renaissance in toscana (briickmann, munich, - ). —w. griggs: portfolio of italian and sicilian art (griggs, london, ).—a. guerinet: la renaissance italienne, recueil d'ornements, etc. (guerinet, paris, ).—j. kinross: details from- italian buildings (waterson, edinburgh, ). —c. laspeyres: die bauwerke der renaissance in umbrieii (ernst & korn, berlin, ).—c. magenta: la certosa di pavia (bocca, milan, ).—a. marquand: luca della robbia (univ. press, princeton, ).—m. meurer: italien- ische flachornamente der renaissance (wittwer, stuttgart, ).—montigny et famin: architecture toscane (didot, paris, n. d.).—g. morandi: uarte della decorazione italiana (moretti, milan, ).—h. j. nicolai: das ornament der itauenischen kunst des xv jahrhunderts (bleyl, dresden, ).—g. j. oakeshott: detail and ornament of the italian renaissance (batsford, london, ).—paoletti: l'archi- tettwra e la scultura del rinascimento in venezia (.ongania, ven- ice, ).—t. g. paravicini: die renaissance-architektur der lombardei (gilbers, dresden, n. d.).—m. reymond: let early renaissance in italy, ii delia robbia (alinari, florence, ).—e. stegmann: orna- mente der renaissance aus it alien (voigt, weimar, ).—v. teirich: ornamente aus der bluthezeit italienischer renais- sance (intarsien) (holder, vienna, ).—thomas and fallon: northern italian details (amer. architect co., new york, ).—tosi and becchio: altars, tabernacles and tombs (giroux, lagny, n. d.).—a. t. tuckerman: details from the italian renaissance (comstock, new york, ).— s. vacher: fifteenth century italian ornament (textiles) (quaritch, london, ). ill chapter iv the middle renaissance general character. the dawn of the th century witnessed the begin- nings of a change in taste which was to transform the whole character of italian art. this change was in some respects a retrogression; in others, and on the whole, a notable advance. architecture and the decorative arts lost something of their naivete, of their early exuberance, of their minuteness and delicacy of detail; something also of their spontaneity. they gained, on the other hand, in breadth and stateliness of scale and composition, in variety and mastery of technic, in a certain expression of knowledge and power. three factors are especially noteworthy in this development. the first is the progress and wider diffu- sion of learning, stimulated by the development of printing. the classic authors were studied, commented and printed; classic art and culture were better under- stood; the architectural remains of antiquity were care- fully measured and drawn, and the principles of roman architecture were analyzed and discussed. alberti's "de re aedificatoria"—the first modern book on architecture—had been printed in ; it may be called the modern vitruvius, and like its ancient prototype the middle renaissance it assumed to set forth the ideal proportions of the orders. architecture became more scholarly and began to emerge as the work of men who made it their life- profession, wholly distinct from painting, intarsia, gold- smith's work and all the other allied arts; a subject of book-knowledge as well as of artistic inspiration; it was the dominant decorative art. the second factor was the phenomenal progress of painting. from an art of restricted purpose and range employed chiefly for religious instruction and the decoration of churches it became a universal art, no longer based on medieval traditions, but drawing in- spiration from the study of nature and the desire to represent objects and scenes and persons in as close an approach to realism as possible. the study of anatomy, the working out of the laws of perspective, and the discovery and development of oil-painting were power- ful influences in the advance of the art, which became the most important and magnificent element in interior decoration. the third factor was the emergence of an extra- ordinary galaxy of architects and decorative designers, all men of learning and of distinguished talent, some of them men of ^cal genius. bramante, peruzzi, the elder and younger antonio di san gallo, the two sansovini, sammicheli, galeazzo alessi, serlio, vig- nola, palladio and michelangelo among the architects— the last-named equally great as sculptor and decorative painter—; raphael and his three pupils giulio romano, giovanni da udine and perino del vaga among a host of lesser decorators; the universal genius lionardo da a history of ornament vinci; the immortal venetians titian, tintoretto and paolo veronese; benvenuto cellini the sculptor and goldsmith, with others only less noted than these, gave to the middle renaissance a luster which entitles it to be called the golden age of the italian renaissance. to these three factors should be added the steadily increasing wealth and magnificence of the roman pontificate. the popes, with their nephews and the other princes of the church became the richest patrons of the arts, not alone in the building of st. peter's and other great churches, but also in the erection and decora- tion of splendid palaces, villas and fountains, and in the accumulation of rich collections of antiquities of art. the center of art activity was thus transferred from florence to rome, where the influence of the classic ruins and of the collections of roman antiquities stimu- lated the increasing classicism in all the arts of design. while painting was the art which in this period de- veloped most rapidly and reached the highest perfec- tion, architecture still remained the mistress art, taking painting into its service and employing it in a new style of mural and ceiling decoration of extraordinary nobility and beauty. in this decoration, which derived much of its inspiration from remains of ancient roman work, chiefly through the influence of raphael and his pupils, relief-ornament molded free-hand in stucco was combined with painting of ornaments of a fanciful character in arabesques of marvelous delicacy and charm (pi. ii). along with this decoration of walls, vaults and ceilings there went a corresponding change in architectural forms and in carving both of wood and the middle renaissance stone. the orders, whether as columns or pilasters, the framework and dressings of windows and doorways, the arcades of churches and courtyards, were all treated with closer conformity to antique precedent, with greater severity as to ornament, with greater dignity of scale, with more vigor of relief, than in the preced- ing period. this more stately and more scholarly architectural spirit dominated all the decorative arts. furniture, both fixed and movable, was conceived on architectural lines; intarsia gave place to carving in relief; tombs, whether more or less ornate than those of the quattrocento, were more imposing architecturally. metalwork, ceramics, laces, tapestry and all forms of textile work alike underwent the stimulating effect -of this new development of taste and were designed and executed with astonishing fertility of invention and perfection of technic. it was an age of increasing re- finement and elegance of life and manners; of greater luxury and display; an age of increasing materialism but also of increasing intellectual inquiry, as in the opposed tendencies of protestantism and jesuitism. it was during this brilliant period that the renaissance in art spread to france, spain and germany, the netherlands and england, although it had been fore- shadowed in france and spain by sporadic works in the later years of the fifteenth century. the orders of architecture. the early renaissance designers, as we have seen, made little effort to combine and proportion their columns, pilasters and entablatures according to the a history of ornament canons of antique roman practice or the rules of vitruvius. it was the middle renaissance that de- veloped these canons into definite formulas which varied as to details, but were all based on the general propor- tions of the vitruvian canon and measurements of extant roman examples (see pp. , ). five orders fro. .—four orders of architecture. were recognized: the tuscan, doric (in two forms, one having mutules, the other dentils under the corona), ionic, corinthian and composite. fig. presents the first four of these in elevation (the middle portion of the shaft being omitted) : the composite is omitted, as its proportions are identical with those of the corinthian. in this figure d represents the lower diameter of the shaft. it will be observed that (a), the total heights of the columns in the four orders are respectively , , the middle renaissance uuujuuuuij c and diameters; (b), the height of each entablature is one-quarter of the height of the column; (c), the three divisions of the entablature—architrave, frieze and cornice — measure in height respectively %d for the tus- can; % and %d for the doric; % and %d (approximately) for the ionic, and %d, %d and d for the corin- thian and composite; and (d), the base is in height in all cases. the cinquecento archi- tects gradually aban- doned the corinthian- esque capital and other free variations common in the quattrocento, and used with increasing con- formity to roman prece- dents the doric, ionic (fig. ) and corinthian orders, and sometimes the composite; the tus- can very rarely. the tuscan shaft was never fluted; the doric rarely; the other orders were often, though not invariably, fluted; never when of polished marble, granite or porphyry. the fluting and inlaying of polished shafts was an fio. .—iovic order, palazzo pietro massimi, rome. a history of ornament innovation of the baroque period, as in della porta's interior of sta. annunziata at genoa. the orders as decoration. during the quattrocento the orders, as we have seen, were used as wall-decorations both for exterior facades and for tombs, pulpits and minor architecture generally. the rucellai palace at florence ( ) was the earliest example of a facade divided into bays by superposed pilasters (figure ), and the vendramini palace at venice ( ) the first in which engaged columns took the place of pilasters, and in which the columns were coupled for greater solidity and richness of effect (figure ). alberti had used engaged columns on the facade of san francesco at rimini, and pilasters on that of san andrea at mantua. brunelleschi had em- ployed pilasters internally in the pazzi chapel, in the aisles of his two churches at florence, san spirito and san lorenzo, and in the interior also of the badia fiesolana. while the propriety of using pilasters as features of wall-decoration has been questioned and even denied by purist critics, their serviceableness and beauty as decorations have been generally conceded, as they serve both to divide the wall into bays or panels, and to provide for the satisfaction of the eye a visible system of vertical supports for the horizontal lines of the entablature (pi. i, - ). the artists of the cin- quecento certainly felt no scruples of the artistic con- science against using not only pilasters, but engaged columns as well, to divide and decorate both external and internal walls. while it is by no means true that the middle renaissance architecture now became merely a matter of design with the orders, it is true that these were now used with greater freedom and variety of application than at any previous time. they were employed singly and coupled, with and without pedestals, often in combina- tion with arches after the roman fashion, as in fig. a, fio. .—column ar arcades: (a) palazzo pompei, verona; ( ) basilica, vicenza. especially in church interiors and courtyard arcades, sometimes in the combination called the "palladian arch," in which the arch springs from the entablature of a smaller order set between the rather widely spaced columns of the main order, as in the exterior arcaded galleries added by palladio to the basilica at vicenza the propriety of the roman combination of arch and order has been denied by some purists. a brief discussion of this question will be found in my "hist, of orn.," i, p. . a history of ornament (fig. b). palladio was not, however, the inventor of this combination; the first to use it was giacopo sansovino, in his magnificent facades of the libreria san marco (or reale) at venice, in , over twenty years earlier than the date of the vicenza arcade. in venice, verona and vicenza the orders were used with es- pecial richness and variety of design on facades of palaces and churches. towards the end of the period the "co- lossal order" came into use —the column or pilaster run- ning through two stories and carrying an entablature, which, being proportioned to the columns, was thus made large enough to crown the facade adequately (pi. i, ). this avoided the di- lemma of the superposed or- ders, the upper entablature of which is either too heavy for the upper order which carries it, or too small in scale to crown the whole facade. in this decorative use of the orders the architects were led to a careful study of scale, of the proportioning of all spaces, voids and solids and features of the design, and of the profiling of the various moldings and belt- courses for artistic effect. the result is seen even in compositions without columns, for many of the roman fio. .—window, pandoi.fini palace, florence. figure . detail, facade of palazzo rucellai, florence. figure . detail, facade of palazzo vendramini, venice. the middle renaissance facades are astylar. the proportions of stories, the spacing, size and shapes of the openings, were studied with the greatest care, producing an artistic rhythm and harmony of effect which owe nothing to carving or other ornament than the moldings, belt-courses, dressings of doors and windows and cornices of the facade. a wholly new use of the orders as decoration came in when they were applied as architectural frames for windows, as in the bartolini and pandolfini palaces at florence by baccio d'agnolo and raphael respectively (fig. ); later in the two upper stories of the farnese palace at rome (about - ), and quite generally thereafter. meanwhile the candelabrum-shaft, the carved or arabesqued column and the florentine pedi- ment (see ante,, p. ) disappeared from architecture, both because they had no classic warrant and because they did not fit in with the more sober and monumental aspect of the architecture of the time. moldings. there was less variety in the moldings of the middle renaissance than in those of the quattrocento, but a closer adherence to antique models. the egg-and-dart, the water-leaf, the bead-and-reel and the vertical fluting of the corona were the chief and almost the only mold- ing-ornaments in use by the cinquecento architects. all these typical moldings are shown in the entablature of fig. . the profiles of the cyma recta, cyma reversa, ovolo, bead and fillet and combinations of them were 'baccio d'agnolo baglioni of florence, - ; raffaele santi d'urbino, - . a history of ornament mmmm. lid uriah credence roman table: conformed to the ancient practice and studied with the greatest care as to their proportioning and grouping. in this careful study peruzzi attained the highest suc- cess, with antonio da san gallo the younger, giacopo sansovino and vignola following him closely in reputa- tion for the refinement and beauty of their details. in furniture and woodwork the va- riety both of profile and ornamentation of moldings was much greater, as be- fitted the material and the objects de- signed. especially important was the ™« "thumb molding," a convex profile adorned with carved fiutings or "thumbs," usually con- vex themselves but sometimes concave; this type of molding was chiefly used for chest-covers, table-edges, shelves and the like (fig. ). narrow fillets and un- dercutting also occur frequently in the profiling of the woodwork, rarely in architecture. rustication. a few of the earlier facades of this period have the basement story rusticated (cancelleria palace, rome, - ; massimi palace, ab. - ; pompei palace, verona, pi. i, ), but for the most part rusti- cation was restricted to the portals (farnese palace, fio. .—typical "thumr-moldings" furniture. the middle renaissance ), and to "chains" or vertical strips, and quoins or "long-and-short" work at the corners (bartolini and larderel palaces, florence). oc- casionally, however, even columns were rusticated, as in some of sammichele's city gates at ve- rona (pi. i, ) and the rear fa- cade of the pitti palace at flor- ence by ammanati (about ). sansovino in the zecca or mint at venice and palladio in the val- marano palace at vicenza intro- duced an unhappy innovation in columns having the alternate drums square instead of round, an ugly and wholly indefensible device. interior decoration: stucco and fresco. the discovery by morto da feltro in of the perfectly- preserved stucco decorations of the piers and vaults of the baths of titus and golden house of nero on the esquiline hill—or rather of the combined sub- structions of these two buildings—attracted the atten- tion of raphael, ever alert and eager for fresh sug- 'giacopo tatti sansovino, pupil of the sculptor andrea sansovino, h - . fio. —painted rin- ceau, loooie op the vatican. a history of ornament gestion and inspiration. in the unrivaled loggie (arcades) of the court of san damaso of the vatican he, with the aid of his pupils giulio romano * and giovanni da udine, applied the results of his own study viua mapama fio. .—stucco-relief, loggie of the vatican. fio. .—stucco - relief, villa madama. of these remains to the decoration of the piers and arches of the arcades, with triumphant success. the exuberant fancy and decorative richness of his ara- besques, modeled in low relief and painted in bright colors (figs. , ; also pi. ii, - ), have been justly admired, in spite of certain discrepancies of scale * giulio pippi romano, - ; giovanni ricamatori da udine, - . the middle renaissance in some of the details. his two pupils, more or less under his direction or with his aid, executed decora- tions in stucco in the same general style in the two loggias of the farnesina villa or palazzetto at rome, in the villa madama just outside the city (fig. ) and in the palazzo del te at mantua. from this time on (all the above works are dated between and ) stucco modeled in relief and painted became a resource of increasing popularity, not merely for interiors but even for exteriors in works of the less monumental sort, like villas and garden structures. later there set in an abuse of this easily-worked material, of which we shall take note in the chapter on the baroque style (pp. - ). plate ii illustrates details from this period, from the vatican loggie and stanze, and the pal. del te and ducal palace, mantua. painting, as already remarked, was the most bril- liantly developed of all the arts in italy during this period. as applied to the decoration of walls and ceilings, it combined purely pictorial decoration with a lavish use of conventional ornament. for the most part, especially in rome and generally outside of venice, the medium employed was fresco. true fresco or "buon fresco" is a difficult process, in which a slightly thickened water pigment is applied to wet or damp plaster. this necessitates executing a completely- finished portion of the entire design on a limited area of plaster, which must be freshly applied for each day's work; but the result is permanent. the purely conven- tional ornament was freely varied from, though based upon, the roman prototypes found in the baths of a history of ornament titus. it employed arabesques of the most varied character with grotesques of human and animal forms mingled with exuberant fancy and composed with con- summate skill and with unfailing grace of line and movement. raphael was the first great master of this art, but was followed by a host of capable artists throughout central italy and some parts of north italy. while decorative painting, as such, apart from its use of conventional ornament, lies outside the scope of this work, brief mention must be made of the extraordinary richness, beauty and abundance of the applications of pictorial art to the decoration of walls and ceilings, espe- cially in rome and florence, and later in venice. the sistine chapel, the "camere" and "stanze" of the vatican, the farnesina, and many other palaces and churches, are adorned on walls, vaults and domes, with allegorical, historical, scriptural and mythological paint- ings, each a masterpiece by an artist of consummate skill or by his pupils under his direction. early ex- amples of painted ceilings are illustrated in figures and , from sienna and perugia. the frames, borders and accessories of these pictures are generally admirable examples of the classic inspiration in ornament. of this, the culminating phase of decorative painting, the ceiling of the sistine chapel of the vatican, michel- angelo's masterpiece, is without dispute the supreme example. it was executed by the master's unaided hand between and . it is so purely a work of decorative painting that its relation to the history of michelangelo (or michelagnolo) buonarotti simone, - . the middle renaissance ornament is less important than that of many less notable works, except in one respect in which its in- fluence on later decorators was perhaps deleterious. the architectural divisions and ornaments which frame the mighty symbolisms of the design were painted in chiaroscuro? in a sort of false perspective as if to de- ceive the eye into the impression of actual relief (figure ). this was done with consummate skill; but it started michelangelo's followers on a false path, which resulted in the following period in much un- fortunate striving after theatrical and sensational effects. in venice oil-painting was developed as a means of both mural and ceiling decoration by the artists already named on p. and others, with a brilliancy and har- mony of resulting color effects unapproached elsewhere. pictures, often of great size, were executed on canvas and applied to walls and ceilings within frames of carved and gilded wood of great splendor, as in the doge's palace, the scuola di san rocco and many churches. sgraffito. during this period decoration in "sgraffito," originat- ing in the preceding century, was applied with increas- ing skill to the exteriors of palaces and even of more modest private houses. by this process a thin coat of fine white plaster spread over a ground-coat of dark brown plaster, is scraped away according to a more or 'chiaroscwo—"light and dark"; the technical name for monochrome painting which represents the lights, shades and shadows and modeling of relief by gradations of a single color of gray or brown. a history of ornament less elaborate pattern, uncovering the dark ground-coat to form either a decorative design in brown against the prevailing white of the wall, or the reverse. it is a species of etching on a monumental scale, whose only drawback is the necessity, even in the italian climate, of renewing the decoration from time to time, though fio. .—kxampi.es of florentine sgraffito decoration. at long intervals. in many cases—as in those from florence shown in figs. b and —the white was scraped away from the background, leaving the pattern in white against the brown of the wall. this kind of decoration seems to have fallen into disuse by the middle of the century. it is a charming and effective embellish- ment for stuccoed buildings, not unduly expensive to execute, and there seems to be no good reason why it figure . ceiling, palace at caprarola. figure . stucco detail. villa mamma, rome. figure . stucco detail, court of palazzo vecchio, florence. the middle renaissance should not be revived and used to-day in regions where the climate is dry and frosts unknown or rare. ceilings. four kinds of ceilings claim attention in this period: flat ceilings of wood or plaster; coved ceilings with fig. .—two ceilings from farnese palace. penetrations; vaulted ceilings (barrel vaults, groined vaults and cloistered vaults); and domes. flat ceilings were paneled or coffered; no longer, as a rule, with simple geometric forms like the square, octagon and circle as in the preceding period, but with a history of ornament more complex and varied forms, such as combinations of rectangles, crosses, t-forms and their derivatives, forming a definite pattern for the whole ceiling, usually about a large central panel (see ante, figs. , ; also figs. , ). the entire ceiling was treated as a single decorative composition, as in the two examples from the farnese palace in fig. , and in the later develop- ments of this system of treatment it will be seen that all suggestion of structural design was abandoned fig. .—half-plan of a church ceiling in venice. (figure ). this was in a sense more honest than the former practice of uniform geometric coffering, which simulated—like the greek stone cofferings of pteroma ceilings—a non-existent construction of inter- secting wooden beams. all these ceilings, executed sometimes in wood, sometimes—and perhaps more frequently—in plaster, were now frankly what they had always really been, decorative coverings to hide the joists of the floor above, or the trusses of the roof. many of the medieval basilicas of rome and some of the newer churches there and elsewhere were adorned the middle renaissance with such ceilings, usually of geometric design; while in venice in the doge's palace, the ceilings of the collegio, of the scrutinio and of the maggior consiglio were treated as compositions of elaborately carved picture-frames for the paintings of veronese, palma giovane and tintoretto. a frequent detail of these ceilings, as also of mirror-frames and decorative escutcheons of this period in general, is the use of voluted "curl-overs" (fig. ), the effect of which is fig. .—"curl-over" detail, ceiling of sala del senato, doge's palace, venice. often excellent, but the origin of which it is difficult or impossible to trace (see also p. ). coved ceilings were the most distinctive type of this period; the central portion flat or nearly so, surrounded by a large coving of quadrant section above the main cornice. this coving was usually penetrated by trans- verse vault-compartments enclosing semicircular tym- pana or lunettes in the plane of the wall, or the tops of open arches. these varied surfaces provided scope for every sort of decoration in relief and color; paintings in the lunettes, on the triangular vault-penetrations, and a history of ornament in the spandrels of the coving between them, as well as on the flat central ceiling-space (figures , ). it would take a volume to describe the various forms of ornament employed on these ceilings, or to enumerate fully even the more notable examples of them. we can only mention among the earlier examples: the ceiling of the piccolomini library attached to the cathedral at sienna, chiefly by pinturricchio, with paintings framed in wreaths of flowers and fruit; the ceiling of the beautiful sala del cambio at perugia by perugino; that of the loggia of the farnesina at rome by raphael and his pupils (about ), already men- tioned on p. . all these belong to the earlier stages of the middle renaissance. the vatican abounds in fine coved ceilings of the full middle renaissance, and others are to be found in nearly all the greater palaces of rome, florence, genoa and naples. many of those in the pitti palace at florence belong, however, to the baroque period and will be mentioned later. vaulted ceilings. these, whether groined or barrel-vaulted, whether of brick or stone construction or of lath-and-plaster, were ornamented generally in one of two ways: by paneling or by painting. of the first of these treatments the most important example is the nave-vault of st. peter's at rome; the earlier portion by michelangelo dates from about ; the later portion by maderna, from about . both are alike in general style, but differ slightly in detailed pattern. they are both composed pietro vanucci, called ii perugino, - . the middle renaissance of simple rectangular and cruciform units, and are rich and dignified in effect. a beautiful early example is that of the hall of the palazzo del te at mantua by giulio romano, of great refinement of treatment and excellent effect. very elaborate but less pleasing is the ceiling of the sala regia in the vatican, attributed to antonio da san gallo the younger (figure ). in all the ceilings of this class the gilding of the enriched moldings is relied on for much of the decorative effect, although color is applied to certain parts. sometimes the panels frame pictures instead of mere ornament. the finest example of this combination and one of the noblest ceilings in the world is that of the camera della segnatura in the vatican, in which the admirably de- signed decoration of panels and relief ornament frames four circular and four rectangular pictures, supple- menting the symbolism of the superb mural paintings on the walls. the entire decoration of this room is by raphael and his assistants. of the second system of vault-decoration, that by painting alone or by painting chiefly, the most impor- tant example, in some respects the grandest painted decoration ever executed, is michelangelo's masterpiece on the barrel-vaulted ceiling of the sistine chapel in the vatican, already described on pp. , . other ex- amples, mostly of much later date, abound in the vati- can, and in the palaces and churches of rome, naples and other cities; but they belong rather to the history of painting than that of ornament. more purely orna- mental are the charming decorations by raphael and his assistants in the square domes or cloistered vaults over a history of ornament each bay of the vatican loggie. the purely ornamental as opposed to pictorial painting of vaulted ceilings from this time through the century and well into the baroque period tended to develop the suggestions drawn from the roman examples referred to on page with the use of arabesques and grotesques handled often with charming grace and fancy: e.g., the groined vaults of the lateran court arcades, the ceilings of the hall of maps and of the library of the vatican, and ceilings in numerous villas, as for example in that of pope julius iii at rome, the circular court arcade at caprarola (about ), and parts of the vaulted ceiling of the villa madama at (near) rome. domes were the special contribution of the italian renaissance to church architecture. many of the early domes were left undecorated, except by ribs converging to the opening of the lantern at the top. in the middle renaissance they were more generally painted, often without architectural subdivisions; but the success of these efforts was far less than was attained in other fields of decoration. doubtless the greatest failure of all was the painting in the great octagonal dome of the cathedral of florence by giorgio vasari. some domes of this period are paneled or coffered. that of st. peter's, the finest of all, is decorated with pictures in mosaic framed in panels which form appropriate divi- sions of the vast surface. it was the work of giacomo della porta, vignola's gifted pupil and successor ( - ). "giorgio vasari of arezzo, - ; painter, architect and author of "the lives of the artists." the middle renaissance stucco decoration. the use of stucco, stimulated by the triumphant suc- cess of raphael's revival of roman methods and adap- tation of roman models, as already explained, was very rapidly extended and applied to exteriors as well as to interiors. the most noted and thorough-going example of pure stucco relief independent of painted ornament is the entrance-hall or "loggia" of the villa madama. pada palate.rome fig. .—stucco-kelief, facade of spada palace, home. this villa, whose plan is attributed to raphael, was never completed, but the "loggia" and some of the ad- jacent portions were finished after his death, and deco- rated with relief-ornaments in stucco by giulio romano and giovanni da udine, who had worked with raphael on the loggia of the farnesina and the loggie of the vatican. these stuccature of the villa madama are of great delicacy and wonderful variety and fertility of invention, and have been the objects of study by a history of ornament many generations of decorators, who have never been able to surpass them (fig. ). later, stucco-relief was used externally, especially on villas, as on the villa pia in the vatican gardens and the villa medici (about - ), and even on palace facades, as on both the street and the court facades of the spada palace at rome (fig. ). the roman climate is not unkind to this rather perishable form of decoration. in the fol- lowing period the use of stucco degenerated into abuse. even in this middle period the fatal facility of the material and the growing tendency towards sensational novelty of effect—bravura as the italians call it—led to its use in a sculptural fashion for which the material was ill suited. this misuse was especially common in church interiors; it seems to have begun in the last quarter of the th century. the stucco decorations in the church of the gesu at rome, built by vignola and della porta in - are, however, by a baroque artist of the th century. villas and gardens. the wealth and splendor of the papal court in this period gave rise to an extraordinary activity in the building of villas, not only in and near rome (tivoli, frascati, castel gandolfo, etc.) but also in and near florence, como, genoa, verona, the italian lakes and other places. in these villas and the superb terraced gardens in which they were set, the princes of the church and their relatives created a new style of archi- tectural and landscape design, dominated not by the formal stateliness of the classic palace, but by a spirit the middle renaissance of levity, of free fancy, of the desire for present enjoy- ment and esthetic relaxation. in the casino or house, in the minor buildings like belvederes, grottoes and loggias, in the balustrades and stairways, and above all in the ever-present water-architecture of cascades and fountains, the decorative fancy of the architect and sculptor found absolutely free expression. the use of stucco was carried to the limit of its possibilities; sculp- ture of gods and goddesses, nymphs and tritons, fauns and satyrs and dolphins was omnipresent, executed in stucco, stone, marble, lead and bronze; and mosaics and colored marble lent their added brilliancy to the decora- tions of hemicycles, grottoes and loggias. the orna- ment-forms used were those of classic roman art, freely varied, except the balustrades, which, as has been shown, were a purely renaissance invention (see p. and fig. ). the "single vase" type of baluster, invented by vignola, appears first in the central fountain of the beautiful villa lante at bagnaia near viterbo, dating from about , and soon after in the court of the villa- palace of caprarola, about . the game or sheath- figure, which he introduced in the lower court of the villa of pope julius iii a little later (fig. b), from this time on found increasing favor as a fanciful substi- tute for the pilaster and as an isolated stele or decorative pillar in gardens (fig. c). the fountain basins are often of extremely graceful form in this villa-decoration (figures , ). the design of fountains became, in- deed, almost a distinct branch of decorative art, develop- ing types which have served ever since as classic models in this field. a history of ornament woodwork and furniture. the perfected technical skill and the assured facility of the handling of decorative detail as well as of com- position, space-filling and relief in this period are well exemplified in its woodwork. an early example is the fig. .—lower half of door in vatican palace. series of carved panels in the stalls of the church of san pietro in casinense at perugia, attributed to raphael; the stalls in the choir of the cathedral of sienna are also famous, but no more beautiful than the stalls of scores of other churches and public buildings in italy (figures - ). the wooden doors of the camera della segna- tura in the vatican, the carved shutters of its great win- dows, and other doors opening from the loggie are of the middle renaissance about the same date as the perugiarr- stalls, but of more monumental design (fig. ). the very simple door- way and doors of the pietro massimi palace by peruzzi (fig. ), despite the lack of carving, are a model of exquisite proportion and refined detail. they are of about the same date as the vatican doors. carved furniture was both richer and fig. .—doorway and door, palazzo pietro massimi, rome. fig. .— itaijan ren- aissance bed- post. more varied than in the quattrocento. tables were more generally used (figure ) ; chests were heavier and more elaborately carved and in higher relief (pi. iii, ); armchairs came into use (pi. iii, ) and a history of ornament were sometimes upholstered in leather; and cabinets, credences and elaborate writing-desks were produced of extraordinary richness in carving and paneling, with figure-sculpture, gaines and other sculptural ornaments of great elegance of design (figure ). painting and fio. .—italian renaissance footroard. intarsia disappear almost entirely as decorations of fur- niture. the bedsteads of this period were of the four- post type, with carved posts, head-board and foot-board; often with carved side-pieces as well (figs. , ). mirrors were a venetian specialty, but the florentines excelled in the carving of frames for both mirrors and pictures (fig. ). innovations. by the middle of the century the severity of classical precedent began to be relaxed, and a new spirit of deco- rative fancy made its appearance in minor details both of architecture and furniture, especially the latter. the gaine or sheath-figure became the favorite form for vertical supports in woodwork (fig. a), and in the gardens at caprarola a row of gaines were set up to decorate the parapet of a terrace in place of the more classic canephorje (human figures crowned with bas- kets; fig. c). another detail of increasing fre- quency of occurrence was the spiral volute, which was figure . detail, stalls of san pietro casinense, perugia. figure . panel, stalls in san severino, naples. the middle renaissance introduced at every possible point, as in the sgabellone or pedestal in fig. , in which it occurs twenty times. fio. .—florentine mirror-frame. a third new feature, which was destined to become more important architecturally and decoratively than any other innovation of the time, was the cartouche or •the precise origin of this name as well as of the thing itself is a sub- ject of some controversy. derived etymologically from carta = paper, the word may have crept into decorative terminology either through the prac- tice of decorating or heading cartels (challenges) and important papers with the arms or escutcheon of the sender, or through the decorative quality of the great seals affixed to state documents, bearing the arms, crest or portrait of the monarch or prince, often with ribbons with which to tie the paper or parchment when rolled up. a history of ornament fio. .—three gaines: from a florentine carinet; from villa papa gidlio, rome; canephora, caprarola gardens. fio. .—florentine soa- bellone. decorative escutcheon, consisting of a medallion or shield, usually oval, set in a rich frame of com- plex outline, adorned with "curli- cues" and volutes, curious notch- ings and curled-over or square- ended tabs. the "curlicue" or voluted projection was probably suggested by the curling over of the ends or fig. . — escutcheon with montefeltro arms. the middle renaissance edges of rolled-up documents; the curious tabs may- symbolize or recall the ends of ribbons attached to seals or used in tying up the roll. as employed in cartouches these details are purely fantastic and conventional dec- orations (see details in fig. ; pi. iii, , ). ar- morial bearings of the first half of the th century, carved in marble as architectural decorations, seldom or never show these innovations: e.g., the montefeltro arms from urbino shown in fig. . metalwork. one of the greatest of all metalworkers of the renais- sance was benvenuto cellini, whose life practically spanned the middle renaissance, as he was born in and died in . his versatility was extraordinary; he was equally at home in the modeling of medals or golden salt-cellars and in the casting of colossal bronze statues. a consummate goldsmith and sculptor, a great roysterer and braggart, he was the incarnation of one aspect of the middle renaissance: its frequent combina- tion of artistic preeminence with utter lack of moral principle. he illustrated the creative versatility of the period which produced michelangelo, giovanni da bologna, benedetto da rovezzano, lionardo da vinci, vignola, palladio, the san galli, the post-raphaelesque stuccatori, and the giants of the venetian school. his works belong, however, rather in the domain of sculp- ture than of pure ornament, and many of them were executed in france. his most famous extant work, perseus slaying medusa, is in the loggia dei lanzi at florence, and its pedestal (figure ) is an admirable a history of ornament example of his decorative skill and of the amazing facil- ity and bravura of his design and execution. an important branch of this middle renaissance metalwork was the making of armor, in which kings, nobles and condottieri alike loved to display their splen- dor and the armorers their artistry and technical skill. casques, corselets and greaves were covered with deli- cate arabesques, repoussees in low relief or engraved and chased, combined with figure subjects of a mytho- logical or symbolic character in higher relief. the most celebrated product of this art was the suit of armor made for henry ii of france ( - ), but others nearly equal to it abound in the museums of italy, france, germany, austria and the united states. figure shows two examples in the riggs collection in the metropolitan museum at new york. in other departments the metalworkers produced equally notable works, ranging from those of gold- smiths and silversmiths, like the famous silver casket in the naples museum set with reliefs in rock-crystal, candlesticks of silver or of bronze (see ante, fig. , and pi. iv, ), and bronze door-knockers modeled with consummate sculptural art (pi. iv, ), to magnificent fountains of bronze in which sculpture and ornament are superbly combined, as in that of the villa lante at bagnaia, or the fountain by giovanni da bologna in the villa petraia at florence. even small objects bike "repousse = executed by hammering and blunt-punching from the back or reverse side, or sometimes by hammering and punching down the back- ground on the display-side. "giovanni (da) bologna called fiammingo (the fleming), born in flan- ders in ., died in italy. figure 'qjnomtmcr&knceji)kn tian table and mirror. j ^ qn(a the middle renaissance keys, vase-handles and drawer-pulls were treated as works of high art (pi. iv, , , , ). window- grilles and lamp-brackets of wrought-iron were also produced in great numbers (fig. ; pi. iv, , ); fio. .—iron lioht-bracket, citta di castello. and every branch of the bronze-founder's and iron- worker's arts displayed the prevalence of high decora- tive skill and excellent taste. other arts; ceramics. until the th century the art of pottery in italy was almost entirely confined to the coarser kinds of domestic earthenware, for which the clays of tuscany and the marches furnished abundant material. a few examples of enameled tiles from the th and th cen- turies show that there was some slight knowledge of fusible mineral colors, but it was not generally applied for purposes of decoration. it was not till after the a history of ornament middle of the th century that there was any system- atic production of majolica—that is, of earthenware glazed and decorated with fusible enamels. the name "majolica" is presumably derived from majorca, an island in the balearic group from which there was ap- parently a sufficiently important exportation of enam- fio. .—plate with portrait from vienna museum. eled pottery of this kind to have given its name to it. there is no evidence that potters from that island ever taught their art to the italians; but these in the course of time appear to have worked out for themselves the processes necessary for imitating the imported product. the principal factor in this development was the dis- covery of the secret of making opaque glazes with fusible earths containing salts of tin or lead, and it is the middle renaissance not known who first in italy discovered this secret. the discovery has been attributed to luca della robbia of florence, and its earliest application was made by him in the beautiful ceramic frame around the tomb of federigo, bishop of fiesole (figure ). whether or not he was the very first, he was certainly one of the earliest to use a stanniferous white glaze, with which he embellished and protected the terra-cotta reliefs which fio. .—border pattern from plate, florence or urrino. he, and after him andrea and other nephews, modeled for lunettes, altar-pieces and decorative medallions (figures , ). to this white glaze he added a blue glaze, chiefly for background to his exquisite groups in relief, and also occasionally, and in small quantities, green and yellow. luca was a sculptor, not primarily a ceramist; his decorative sculptures have been referred to on pp. , . his nephew andrea and andrea's five sons continued the production of decorative works of the same general character well into the th century; their works show greater elaboration of detail and a a history of ornament wider range of color than those of luca. among the hundreds of della robbia works in churches in italy and in museums throughout the world, one may men- tion the infant medallions on the foundling hospital at florence, the charming little lavabo in the sacristy of san spirito, both at florence; the frieze of the seven works of mercy on the ospedale del ceppo at pistoia, and a fine altar-piece in the metropolitan museum at new york. all these are, however, rather works of decorative sculpture than of ceramics, pure and simple. the pro- duction of decorated pottery, of plates, bowls, vases, ewers and druggists' vessels began only in the later years of the th century. nearly all the examples in the museums (there are of them in the louvre) date from after . by that date, however, the art and industry were firmly established in twenty or thirty towns, mostly in northern italy; of these the most im- portant were faenza in the marches (whence the word faience), caffagiolo, florence and sienna in tuscany, the middle renaissance deruta in the former papal states, and castel du- rante, gubbio, pesaro and urbino in the duchy of urbino. while the expert can generally distinguish between the products of these various potteries, it is impossible to specify their distinguishing characteristics in a man- fio. .—urrino plate in germanic museum, vienna. ner to make them easily recognizable by the general student. they possess certain common characteristics, such as an opaque creamy glaze and a predominance of blue and yellow in the color scheme. the great major- ity of the open ware—plates, platters, bowls and basins —is decorated in the center with pictorial subjects taken about equally from classic mythology, ancient history and scripture, copied for the most part from engravings a history of ornament of paintings, and often altered by the ceramist, not always wisely; sometimes with portraits as in fig. . the borders we're decorated with motives in like manner drawn from architecture and painted ornament, such as anthemions, rinceaux and the like (figs. , ), or from any other source that offered suggestions. the craftsmen who produced these wares were artisans, not great artists, and they did not always observe the law of fitness in adapting the borrowed motives to the form of the object decorated. besides the lighter blue and the yellow—which varies from light yellow through orange almost to brown—there was employed some- times a deep blue which gives great richness and dignity to the design. figs. - and pi. v, , , - illustrate a few of the varieties of decorative treatment with anthemions, scrolls, grotesques, portrait or fancy heads, and armorial bearings. textiles. the textile arts shared in the growing taste of the renaissance for artistic elegance and splendor. tapes- tries were woven from the designs of great masters, e.g. those in the vatican from cartoons by raphael. italian masters designed cartoons for the tapissiers of flanders (see chapter ix); mantegna and giulio romano both sent designs to brussels, and those of mantegna are particularly noted for the rich ornamental details of costumes, furniture and buildings in the historical com- positions which were his specialty. from the point of view of ornament the tapestries of this time are, how- ever, chiefly interesting for their borders, which borrow the middle renaissance their motives mainly from architecture, often suggest- ing frames in relief (fig. ). the laces, the church vestments, the velvets and fio. .—two details, top and fig. .—chasurle, sixteenth border op tapestry by raphael century, stubois collection. in vatican. stateliness of effect naturally brought about (pi. v, , , - ; fig. ). in the art of stained glass, as in that of tapestry de- sign, one observes the dominant influence of the paint- ers. these had raised pictorial representation to the a history of ornament highest perfection it had ever attained, and the glass- designers, like the tapestry-designers, lost sight of or deliberately ignored the special qualities and limita- tions of their material in the effort to produce trans- parent pictures with all the shadings and gradations of an oil- painting, rather than to develop to the ut- m o s t the brilliance and glow of which' glass is capable. even when the window was treated in a more purely decorative manner the details were handled as in a painting (fig. ). the color-scheme was generally sober, with ornamental motives or pictures set on a white ground, and the great decorative possibilities of the leading were singularly neglected. the less pictorial the design, the better is their decorative effect, and many of the windows of the middle renaissance possess charm in the harmony of their color-tones and the judicious balance of their composition. but they lack the depth and glow of the best medieval glass of western fio. .—an italian renaissance window. the middle renaissance europe, the architectural magnificence and decora- tive dignity of the great gothic windows of france, england and germany. even in the churches these italian windows have little of the religious or didactic character; they are ornamented windows, nothing more in most cases. although they sometimes display trans- parent paintings of religious subjects, they are more often designed with a few religious emblems mingled with conventional details of escutcheons, festoons, scrolls and the like, of a purely secular and even pagan character, and with architectural forms to frame and hold them together. it must, however, be remembered that in italy windows were generally small and far apart, of far less decorative importance than in north- ern and western europe, and generally quite subordi- nate to the rich interior color-decorations of painted walls and ceilings. books recommended: as before, durm, geymuller, kinross, montigny,paoletti, schutz, stegmann, thomas and fallon.—also: anony- mous: ornati del coro di san pietro casvnense (rome, n. d.).— bates and guild: ornament of the italian renaissance (guild co., boston, ).—w. bode: italian renaissance furniture, tr. by herrick (helburn, n. y., ).—cam- porese: loggie di raffaele nel vaticano (rome, n. d.).—a. colasanti: volte e soffiti italiane (arch. b'k. pub. co., new york, n. d.).—h. d. ererlein: interiors, fireplaces and furniture of the italian renaissance (arch. b'k pub. co., new york, ).—g. ferrari: lo stucco nell'arte italiana (hoepli, milan, n. d.).—m. p. gautier : les plus beaux edifices de genes (didot, paris, .)—w. h. l. gruner-.fresco decorations and stuccoes in italy etc. (murray, london, ).—g. l. hunter: italian furniture and interiors (hel- a history of ornament burn, new york, ).—p. letarouilly: edifices de rome moderne (gilbers, paris, ); le vatican et la basilique de st. pierre (morel, paris, ).—w. odom: a history of italian furniture, xiv-xtx century (doubleday, new york, ).—a. palladio: / quattro libri di architet- tura (franceschi, venice, ); also english translation (ward, london, ).—reinhardt: palast-architektur genuas (wasmuth, berlin, ).—w. f. schottmuller: furniture and interior decoration of italian renaissance (brentano, new york, ).—h. strack: die baudenkmàler roms des xv-xix jahrhundert (wasmuth, berlin, ).— i. triggs: the art of garden design in italy (longmans, london, ). a history of ornament example—of this restless striving after a novel and in- dividual expression (figure ). preeminently a sculptor, he designed in light-and-shade, modulating and breaking his surfaces to gain lines and spots of shadow. a colossus himself, both artistically and in- tellectually, he loved colossal orders, big details, and a certain restlessness and movement of lines and surfaces. his successors and imitators reproduced and exagger- ated his eccentricities and extravagances without his genius. they developed in time an architecture whose external composition and details, often ingenious and effective, are too frequently coarse and heavy, suggest- ing a labored striving after novelty rather than an easy mastery of effects and means. there seems to be a constant effort to surprise the spectator rather than to charm him; an appearance of ostentation in strong con- trast to the delicately-adjusted proportions and refined details of the works of a bramante, a peruzzi, or a vignola. the leaders in this tendency were carlo maderna, francesco borromini, and the great sculp- tor-architect lorenzo bernini. all three were men of decided ability, bernini distinctly the greatest of them. the time-limits of this period cannot be exactly de- fined, for architecture of a restrained and classic or middle renaissance character continued to appear well into the th century, while a reaction towards a se- verely classic treatment manifested itself before the end of the same century. in general use the entire seicento is considered as baroque in its decorative art; but the 'carlo maderna, - ; francesco borromini, - ; lorenzo bernini, - . italian baroque ornament name "baroque" or "baroco" is applicable rather to a quality than to any definite period of years. the word baroque itself is of italian origin, technically applied to pearls of unusual and irregular shape; hence to archi- tecture which defies the classical canons by singularities and unusual and surprising combinations and effects. the name "rococo" sometimes applied to works of baroque style is a misnomer, since it belongs more prop- erly to the interior decoration of the louis xv style and its german and italian imitations. the jesuit influence. the jesuit order, formally recognized and estab- lished by a papal bull in , grew so rapidly in wealth and power that before the end of the century it had become an important if not dominant factor in the prog- ress of church architecture. proceeding upon the prin- ciple that the masses should be attracted to the services of the church by any and every means that might most strongly appeal to their senses, the jesuits aimed to produce in their church interiors the utmost possible impression of decorative magnificence. colored marbles combined in violent contrasts, complicated architectural detail, sculpture of angels, cherubs and saints in striking and theatrical attitudes, painted perspectives, abundant gilding and every device that could amaze the beholder were employed lavishly to produce sensational effects of splendor. stucco was freely used for sculpture to replace the more costly marble, and for many of the architectural details, and "scagliola" (sham marble) was used in many places in imitation of the more costly a history of ornament varieties of colored and variegated marble, though these are not lacking in certain interiors, especially of chapels, and in tombs where the available funds per- mitted. since surprising effects were desired rather than the purer sorts of artistic excellence, the finer qualities of design tended to disappear, and the per- nicious influence of this theatrical art affected more or less all architectural design. architectural detail. effects of general composition belong to the field of architecture rather than of ornament, but the details of the architecture are properly part of our subject. the "orders," especially "colossal" orders extending through two or even three stories, were used with no essential change in their proportions or profiles, except that the "breaking" of the entablatures to produce multiplied planes and lines of shadow was carried to an extreme. in some instances, by setting the pedestals and capitals diagonally, especially to flank portals, the breaking-out of the entablature over them was made to produce novel and conspicuous effects of perspective and shadow. but while the pedestals, columns and entablatures were otherwise generally treated according to traditional rules, every sort of license was taken with both triangular and curved pediments. pediments were placed within pediments, the horizontal cornice of the pediment was broken back in the center or even cut away with the frieze and architrave below it, in order to receive the upper part of an arched door, niche or window. in other cases the apex of the pediment was italian baroque ornament broken back or cut away to admit a bust, vase or cartouche; curved pediments were likewise interrupted in the center, the two adjacent halves terminating in scrolls (fig. ). the earliest example of the pediment within a pedi- ment may be seen in della porta's facade ( ) to fio. .—top of gateway, villa falconieri, frascati. vignola's church of the gesu at rome. this fine church, the central church of the jesuit order, exercised a powerful influence on the later architecture of the order. its interior decorations in painted and gilded stucco do not, however, belong to the date of its erection; they were executed between and by antonio raggi and g. b. gaulli. the fashion of the scrolled curved half-pediment may have been set by michel- a history of ornament angelo's pedestals for the four reclining figures of his monuments to the medici in the new sacristy of san lorenzo at florence ( ); each pedestal being crowned with such a half-pediment. it is interesting to observe that the italians in many of these innovations on classic roman precedent were reproducing, without knowing it, combinations and de- tails employed years earlier by the syrians at baalbek (cf. my hist, of orn., i, p. , fig. ). as the italians of the seicento knew nothing of this syrian architecture, this example of identical recurrence is extremely interesting. nearly all the distinctive details of the baroque architecture can be traced to origins in works dating as far back as the period - . thus in the upper windows of the farnese palace, attributed to michel- angelo, the arches break through the horizontal entabla- tures into the tympana of the pediments. "colossal" pilasters were used by sammichele at verona, by pal- ladio at vicenza, by michelangelo on the facades of the palaces of the campidoglio at rome, and on a still more colossal scale in and on st. peter's at rome. other cinquecento germs of baroque details will be mentioned later. on the other hand, the baroque use of diagonally- placed pedestals and of entablatures broken out at degrees, the curving of facade wall-surfaces, and the hideous twisted columns of the baldacchino of st. peter's, were inventions of a later age, having no proto- types in the middle renaissance. italian baroque ornament twisted columns. a late roman twisted column of white marble, re puted to have been brought from the gate beautiful at jerusalem, where st. peter healed the lame man, is preserved in a chapel of st. peter's at rome. this richly-carved column, of a type which is essentially ugly and could only have been produced in an age of decline, was greatly admired by bernini, who copied it on a colossal scale in the huge baldacchino or altar-canopy of st. peter's, where its ugli- ness was magnified tenfold (figure ). from this time on the twisted column seems to have been accepted as a desirable bequest from classic art and christian his- tory, and was frequently employed for works of minor architecture, where it was, on the whole, less objectionable than in more monumental works (fig. ). the twisted column ("colonne torse") is not to be confounded with the spirally-fluted columns of the middle ages and early renaissance, which retain some rigidity of aspect and are generally used with dis- cretion. examples of the "colonne torse" abound; e.g. in a confessional at vercelli; in a fountain of the villa d'este at tivoli; on the sacristy cupboards of the church at macerata; in the flzeusgidrm fio. .— twisted col- umn, confes- sional in san andrea, ver- celli. 'cf. in the bible, acts iii, - . *cf. my "hist, of on.," i, figures , . a history of ornament chapel of the crucifix of monreale cathedral; in the altar of the annunciation of san ignazio at rome, this last dated as late as ; and many other instances could be given. in the same spirit of the quest of novel effects the architraves or framing-moldings of doors, windows and fio. .—voluted buttresses, santa maria della salute, venice. panels were complicated by multiplied crossettes, pro- jections, ears and tabs; rectangular brackets were treated like triglyphs, and gutta? were placed under all sorts of projections. consoles or inverted brackets, as well as brackets set upright (that is, with the large volute at the top), were designed with interrupted curves, as in the upper part of fig. . the huge and picturesque voluted console-buttresses of sta. maria della salute at venice (by baldassare longhena, ; c italian baroque ornament fig. ) are the most famous examples of this feature, which became the standard device for uniting the high central part of a church facade to the lower side-aisle fronts. rustication and carv- ing. rustication under- went a similar elabo- ration and experimen- tation in the search for variety and animation of effect. banded and rusticated columns had been used in a number of middle renaissance buildings .at verona (pi. i, , ), florence, venice and elsewhere. fig. shows an early baroque rusticated pi- laster, from frascati, with a rusticated arch; fig. the gate of the archiepiscopal seminary at milan; fig. a pilaster from caprarola; all illustrating the tendency to over-elaboration and the striving after ingenious novelties. vermiculations as in fig. , and in foun- tain-structures "congelations" or conventional repre- sentations of icicles or lime-deposits, symbolic of water, fio. .—gateway of seminary at milan. a history of ornament italian baroque ornament mm v&rmicolalwns c fio. .—"vermiculated" and "congelated" rustications. were among the common devices for producing a speckled play of light and shadow on masonry sur- faces. fio. .—three escutcheons from verona. shields, armorial escutcheons and cartouches were almost the only carved ornaments for exteriors to be a history of ornament added to the preceding list. in these, voluted forms and "curl-overs" were introduced wherever possible, especially in the elaborate papal escutcheons on church facades and ecclesiastical palaces. great ingenuity was shown in these compositions (figs. - ). palm branches as symbols of victory sometimes enter into fio. .—half-wreath and exteriors in favor of the larger, broader effects of the baroque facades. both the cartouche and the multiplication of volutes and of curl-overs occur frequently in the later middle renaissance, especially in furniture and other works of minor architecture and industrial art, as already ex- plained on p. . the florentine "sgabellone" of fig. is decorated with a cartouche of almost ba- roque character, and twenty volutes can be counted in various parts of the design. broken or "shouldered" curves appear both in the outer silhouette of this pedes- these designs, possibly a reflex influence from france, where they occur frequently under henry iv ( - ). the example in fig. , though of the th century, is thor- oughly in the baroque spirit. the carving of moldings was of little importance, and all the minuter and more deli- cate forms of carved ornament disappeared from the baroque palms, san giovanni la- terano, , ry galilei. heavier and bolder details re- quired by the larger scale and italian baroque ornament tal and in the cartouche, which may be compared with the baroque cartouche in fig. with the arms of pope urban viii, dated over years later. the curl-over scroll was a favor- ite device with the furniture-carvers of the second half of the th century. indeed, the cartouche with curl-overs occurs as early as in the stucco decoration of the vault of the scala d'oro in the ducal palace at venice, if the attribution of this work to ales- sandro vittoria is correct. the gaine. this feature, already referred to in the preceding chapter, became so impor- tant in the german, flemish and eng- lish renaissance as to deserve a para- graph to itself. its origin goes back to the ancient termini or boundary-posts set at the corners of fields. these were in primitive days wooden posts driven into the ground, the small end down, and the "butt" end above carved into a head of mercury, whose greek name, hermes, was frequently given to these posts. later they were imitated in stone, square instead of round in section and executed with high art, so that even in cicero's time greek hermes-posts were in demand for decorating roman villa gardens. the italians of the fio. .—gaine or sheath f i o v a e, sa- cristy of cer- tosa, pavia. a history of ornament renaissance revived the ancient custom and imitated the antique termini, elaborating them into such stately half-figure posts as those in the caprarola gardens shown in fig. c. it was perhaps from the furniture- makers that these garden decorators de- rived their suggestions for the use of half-figures emerging from a sheath. the architects of the seicento, ever in quest of new forms and combinations, seized on the gaine as a substitute for the pilaster in major works, finding it more decorative than the pilaster and capable of endless variety of treatment. figs. and , the latter from the villa albani at rome, are only two variant examples among a long list that might be cited: e.g. the tower of .san andrea delle fratte at rome ( by borromini); the madama palace, rome, where it is used to flank the win- dows; the doorway of the pallavicini palace, genoa; and a very early ex- ample by galeasso alessi on the muni- cipio or marina palace at milan, dat- ing from about . fio. .—gains from a gate- way or villa alrani, komi. interior decoration. while the exteriors of buildings were treated with a certain bigness of composition and scale and in a manner that demanded little of carved ornament, the italian baroque ornament interiors were often fairly riotous with showy decora- tion. columns, pilasters and panels were veneered with strongly veined and rich-colored marbles—black, brown, dark red, green and yellow, contrasting with capitals and moldings of white marble. above all, stucco was employed to an extent, and in ways, never dreamed of by raphael and his school. it was fio. .—one quarter op a stucco ceiling, palazzo mattei, rome. used for ceilings and for many architectural features, with an extraordinary profusion of rich details in panels, scrolls, enriched moldings, cartouches, gro- tesques and human figures (fig. ; figure ). the variety of these plaster ornaments is endless, and any effort to classify and enumerate them would be futile. an inartistic and indefensible abuse of the material is seen in frequent imitations of draperies, represented as held up over tombs, doors, canopies, etc., usually by infant figures, as in certain rooms in the vatican. a history of ornament sometimes a festooned bit of drapery takes the place of a "swag" of fruit or flowers, even as an ornament of an ionic capital. it would be hard to find any artistic justification for so absurd a detail. one is forced to the conclusion that true artistic invention declined as the pursuit of sheer novelty became more and more insistent. figure sculpture. a notable element in the baroque scheme of decora- tion is the important part played by the human figure, in churches and palaces alike. amorini or cupids, angels, genii and human grotesques, modeled with great technical skill and for the most part posed in sensational and acrobatic attitudes, were placed in every possible position, as if clinging to cornices, coasting down the archivolts of arches, peering over pediments, holding wreaths, shields or emblems, and adding to the restless- ness of the whole interior effect (interiors of st. peter's, of sta. maria della vittoria, of st. john lateran, all at rome; church of the scalzi at venice; church of the carmine and several others at naples; ceilings in the pitti palace, florence; several interiors in the vatican at rome, etc.; figures - ). but while much of this very theatrical sculpture is open to the severest condemnation, high praise cannot be withheld from the skillful and generally charming treatment of infant forms. they were modeled in gen- eral with singular sympathy and full appreciation both of infantile beauty and of decorative effect. even the colossal marble babes which hold the huge holy-water italian baroque ornament basins in the nave of st. peter's, though wrong in scale —for a gigantic babe is a contradiction of ideas and an artistic absurdity—are in themselves finely modeled, and on a smaller scale would be charming. villas, fountains and gates. the love of luxury and display found full and free expression in this age in the decoration of villa gardens, casini, grottoes, fountains and gate- ways. stucco, stone and bronze were molded into fantastic shapes, and a humorous grotesquery played its pranks in water-organs, trick-foun- tains and the adornment of garden- grottoes artificially created under the terraces. the gaine or sheath-figure appears frequently, as on the famous water-organ at tivoli, and later in the amusing hobble-skirted caryatides of the gate of the villa albani, a belated bit of baroque design of the late th century (fig. ). the gate of the archiepiscopal seminary at milan in fig. illustrates the use of rustication in a design which substitutes a polygonal for a curved arch to the gateway; such arches were not infrequent in the th century. balustrades. the simple and elegant forms of the baluster em- ployed by the early renaissance artists or developed by fig. iso.—balus- ter, cernetto palace, bi- tonto. a history of ornament vignola (see ante, p. and fig. ), no longer sufficed the restless innovators of the baroco. they varied the vignola types, cut them square instead of round, set them upside down, even alternated them upright and inverted (terrace of doria palace, rome), crowned them with ionic and corinthian caps, and oc- casionally substituted openwork parapets for balus- trades. fig. illustrates a square single-vase balus- ter of unusually elegant design. the classical reaction. no art based on eccentricity and sensationalism can long survive, and the inspiration of the quest for novelty must in time exhaust itself. such a quest is in itself an unmistakable sign of the decline of creative power, and to this the italian baroco was no exception. as the th century drew to its close, artistic production, both in architecture and in the allied arts began to diminish. the jesuit order could not forever continue growing richer and building more churches, and both the secular and the ecclesiastical nobility were at last well supplied with palaces and villas. the reaction towards classical simplicity appears first in bernini's time, in his colossal tuscan colonnades in front of st. peter's, which are totally destitute of ornament. in the th century this tendency became more pronounced and was marked by a deliberate effort to return to antique roman types, both in general composition and in decorative detail. in this century we meet the beginnings of classical archaeology as a distinct artistic and scientific pursuit. figure . ceiling, sala di giove, pitti palace, florence. figure . door, palazzo negrone, genoa. figure . stucco details, palazzo negrone, genoa. italian baroque ornament the discovery of pompeii in , the epoch-making rediscovery of greek architecture by stuart and revett in , wood and dawkins' exploration of palmyra and baalbek, and the marvelous engravings of roman antiquities by piranesi, directed the attention of de- signers to new sources of classic art. archaeological fio. .—wall decorated in classic revival or louis xvi style. correctness, the textual copying or close imitation of particular antique models, took in large measure the place of original invention and creative adaptation. meanwhile in palace and garden design there was a reflex influence from french art as exhibited in the palace of versailles, affecting both exterior and interior details, as for example in the palace, the decorations and the gardens of caserta near naples. the ornament of 'giovanni battista piranesi, - . a history of ornament this period is—so far as the exterior at least is con- cerned—for the most part dry, correct and uninspired. when, later in the century, interior decoration and furniture underwent the influence of the french louis quinze style, the italian rococo imitations of this style lacked the vivacity and spontaneity, and generally also the delicacy of the french originals. the facades of ua^^mwm^jr^^^m st' john lateran bv ^ s^ mr(ifa^^l galilei ( ), of santa ^jim maria maggiore by fer- dinando fuga ( ), of the trevi fountain by niccolo salvi ( ), all at rome; and of the palace of caserta al- ready mentioned, by vanvitelli ( ), are fair examples of this re- action: designs not with- out dignity but lacking in decorative interest. the further reaction to- wards simplicity and delicacy of detail which manifested itself in france in the style of louis xvi and in england in that of the adam broth- ers, found its reflection in many palace interiors in italy towards the close of the th century (fig. ). the way was being prepared for the various "revivals" of the nineteenth century. kig. .—italian brocatelle, seven- teenth centi-ry. italian baroque ornament fio. .—traditional motive, wool on cotton. blue minor arts: textiles, furniture, metalwork. there was no such no- ticeable change in style in the minor arts as in architecture in this pe- riod, but rather a grad- ual increase in splendor and variety of decora- tive treatment corre- sponding with the grow- ing love of display. all the textile arts were car- ried on with increasing elabora- tion of design. in church vest- ments, altar-cloths and robes of state one observes the departure further and further from the oriental types of motive which dominated the brocades and vel- vets of the preceding century. the oriental origin of these mo- tives is still traceable, but the elaboration of all motives gradu- ally transformed them from their original aspect. a comparison of the brocatelle pattern in fig. with even the most elaborate patterns of the th and th centuries reveals the greater complexity of detail in the later fio. . — wall-hanging, applioue and needle- a history of ornament example, though there is no change in the principle of the design. on the other hand the motive in fig. might have occurred in a th century fabric. there was a great increase in the use of applique, that is of patterns cut out of one material and applied upon an- other material of contrasting color. applique and em- broidery of great splendor were combined in patterns a predominantly architectural in derivation—rinceaux, vines, grotesques not unlike those used in architectural carving (fig. ). the art of lace- making was developed to high perfection in venice especially (fig. ); and tapestry- weaving continued to furnish opportunities for splendid combinations of pictorial and ornamental design, though these arts was passing to as will appear in a later fio. . — venetian lace, seventeenth century, in metropoi.itan museum, new york. in both flanders, preeminence france and chapter. it was in furniture that the baroque style asserted itself more than in any other of the allied arts, unless it were in metalwork. the architectural character necessarily belonging to the more important articles even of movable furniture, naturally brought them under the influence of the general movement of architectural style. this architectural character was especially marked in the high cabinets, imposing articles of furni- italian baroque ornament ture of a kind which had begun to come into use in the th century, but which did not reach its full develop- ment until the th. the wide or deep lower part con- tained drawers, sometimes concealed behind doors, and could serve as a desk; the upper part with its drawers and pigeon-holes was a useful receptacle for papers and accounts, as well as for jewels and other small objects. in those of this period there is much use of ivory and ebony for inlays and moldings, and even onyx, agate and fine marbles are sometimes found. the de- signs were strongly architectural; the upper part was flanked by pilasters, colonnettes or gaines and sur- mounted by a broken pediment, and even the smaller parts were framed within miniature columns and entab- latures and adorned with niches and other architectural features. the workmanship was admirable, even in those examples in which the decline of taste is most clearly evident. (figure .) with the increasing provision of cabinets, dressers and cupboards for the storing of many different kinds of household goods, the cassoni or chests of an earlier period lost their importance and ceased to be made, or at least to be made of decorative splendor. on the other hand the chair took on new importance and was made less as an article of ornament and more as one of use and comfort. chairs were provided with arms shaped with graceful curves and were given forms and propor- tions better adapted for comfort, and were sometimes upholstered, at first in leather, later with real cushions covered with brocades, velvet or tapestry. in these developments the germans, flemings and hollanders a history of ornament seem to have played an important part. it was they who taught the french furniture-makers of the reign of louis xiv ( - ). the style developed by the french out of this teaching —or rather the three styles of louis xiv, xv and xvi—in turn affected the work and fashions of the italian cabinet-makers and woodworkers in the second half of the th century and throughout the entire th century. the ironwork of this pe- riod calls for no special no- tice, except as the patterns used in grilles, window-guards and gates discarded the simpler forms of the middle renaissance and made use dkonzt kviilhc fio. .—venetian seventeenth- century bronze knocker. fio. .—half of a seventeenth-century plate. of more complicated curves and more intricate combi- nations (pi. iv, ). the same reversed, interrupted italian baroque ornament and broken curves that had come into use in the archi- tectural details of buildings appeared now not only in the ironwork but also in the silhouettes of candelabra, vases and other works of the gold- and-silversmith, jeweler and bronze-founder (fig. ; pi. iv, , ); in typographical ornament, in ceramic decoration (fig. ), and in the minor arts generally. books recommended: anonymous: deckenmalereien des ersten korridors der koniglichen galerie [the uffizi] zu florenz (wasmuth, berlin, ).—m. s. briggs: baroque architecture (unwin, london, ) .—a. charvet: reiche plafonds aus italienischen schldssern und paldste (claesen, berlin, n. d.).—gurlitt: geschichte des barockstiles in italien; also das barock und rokoko-ornament (ebner & seubert, stuttgart, ).—r. norton: bernini and other studies (macmillan, new york, ) .—c. ricci: baroque architecture and sculpture in italy (heinemann, london, ). chapter vi the renaissance in france, i character of the french renaissance. the italian renaissance was the natural and spon- taneous outgrowth of the forces that had been progres- sively molding the thought and life of the people for a century at least before the time of brunelleschi, dona- tello and della robbia. it spread to other countries partly as the result of changes in the ideas and senti- ments of their peoples, but more often by the contagious influence of the italian renaissance and its brilliant works, appearing in those countries as a foreign fashion rather than as a spontaneous and popular movement. to france it was brought by royal influence, and its early development was almost wholly due to three suc- cessive kings whose campaigns in italy had filled them with admiration for italian art. these were charles viii ( - ), louis xii ( - ), and fran- cis i ( - ), each of whom fought in italy in vindication of alleged dynastic claims to the throne of naples and the dukedom of milan; each of whom, at first victorious, was finally defeated, but each of whom on his return to france brought with him italian artists and sought in a new palace to reproduce something of the beauty and elegance of the foreign style: charles viii at amboise, louis xii at blois and francis i figure . tomr of cardinals of amroise, rouen. figure . tomr of louis xii, st. denis. renaissance in france, i at blois, fontainebleau and many other places. as mr. w. h. ward has happily phrased it in his "archi- tecture of the renaissance in france," "charles and his courtiers fell in love with italy, and when they brought her home with them, the renaissance was found in her train." from this time on the kings and their courts were the leaders in every movement in the arts of design, building palaces and churches which set the style for their time, and filling their palaces with furniture de- signed by artists of distinction which exercised a power- ful influence on all the decorative arts. hence the french are accustomed to designate the various phases of their renaissance art by the names of their kings, and they thus enumerate the styles of louis xii, francis i, henry ii, iii, and iv, louis xiii, xiv, xv and xvi, and finally that of the empire, that is of napo- leon bonaparte. these various styles might more properly be grouped somewhat as follows: (a) the transition, covering the reigns of charles viii and louis xii and extending into that of francis i, - ; (b) the valois period from to , covering the greater part of the reign of francis i (d. ), and those of henry ii ( - ), francis ii (to ), and charles ix (to ); (c) the bourbon period—a period of oscillation between classical and baroque tendencies, to about , covering the reigns of henry iii ( - ) and iv (to ) and the earlier years of that of louis xiii from to or thereabout; (d) the period of louis, - , cov- ering the reigns of louis xiii from to , louis xiv ( - ), louis xv ( - ) and a history of ornament louis xvi to the revolution in ; commonly sub- divided into the phases peculiar to each of these four reigns. the empire style belongs to the th century and will be discussed in chapter xiii. this multiplicity of styles and phases in the french renaissance is due to no fanciful and arbitrary classifi- cation; it reflects a fundamental and significant fact in the development of the art of that long period. this fact is the presence of two contrasted currents or tendencies, due perhaps to the composite make-up of the french people; two opposed tendencies which we may call the gallic and the latin; the first romantic, viva- cious, imaginative, impatient of rule and formula; the second classic, orderly, taking pleasure in the subjection of design to formal canons, to the demand of symmetry and monumental disposition. to the first we owe the vitality and originality of french art; to the second its restraint, its freedom from vulgarity and extravagance, its inherent good taste. throughout the renaissance the pendulum swung gradually now toward one, now toward the other end of its arc, except during the period when it oscillated uncertainly under the disturbing in- fluence of the italian baroque. unless we grasp the significance of these conflicting tendencies the variations of french style become utterly confusing and incom- prehensible. the transition: - . even before the reign of charles viii italian artists had found their way into france here and there, to execute minor works such as tombs, chapels, altars and renaissance in france, i the like, and it is highly probable that examples of the new taste in the accessory arts, in stuffs and embroider- ies, perhaps in typographical ornaments, had also been introduced. certain it is that a new enthusiasm for classical learning had begun to manifest itself at least as early as the reign of louis xi, revealing itself in the paintings of jean fouquet and the miniatures of etienne chevalier. the two counts of le maine, father and son, both known as charles of anjou, were en- lightened patrons of the arts, and about summoned luci- ano da laurana to le mans, where he later executed the tomb of the elder charles in the cathedral. he was employed by the son at marseilles, where he built the chapel of st. lazare, and at avignon, where, aided by tommaso of como, he executed a sculptured reredos in the church of the celestins. but until the th century was several years old the foreign fashion made but slow headway against the national style, the "flamboyant" gothic, which con- tinued to prevail in ecclesiastical work generally, and with diminishing strength in secular and domestic ar- chitecture and furniture. the portion of a turret- corbel in fig. shows the mixture of the two styles in its moldings. the influx of italian artists who came in fig. .—correl from verneuh.. a history of ornament with charles viii and louis xii made no perceptible impression on french architecture in general. but they at least taught the french carvers—the tailleurs de pierre—to execute scrolls and arabesques in the italian or "antique" manner, as in certain ornaments in the arcade-piers of the east side of the court of the chateau or palace of blois, and in the decorative details of the chateau de gaillon now in the court of the ecole des beaux-arts at paris. in the expense accounts of this work one pierre delorme signs his name with the addendum "tailleur [de pierre] a l'antique et a la mode de france"; that is, carver in both the renaissance and gothic styles. the beautiful tomb of the children of charles viii in the cathedral of st. gatien at tours is probably the earliest work wholly in the new style by a french artist; it is by michel colombe, the greatest exponent of the early french renaissance and a deco- rative sculptor of consummate skill ( - ). he was assisted in this, and perhaps also in other works, by an italian, geronimo da fiesole (fig. ). to colombe also are attributed the two great compositions which adorn the interior ends of the transepts of the abbey of solesmes, representing the entombment of christ and the life of the virgin. these sculptured groups are framed in architectural compositions in which the italian forms of pilasters and entablatures and arabesques are curiously blended with late gothic details. colombe also executed the splendid tomb of francis ii, duke of brittany (who died in ) in 'the chftteau de gaillon near rouen was built between and for the cardinal of amboise, and was demolished during the french revolution. renaissance in france, i association with a certain jean perreal; this work is in the cathedral of nantes and dates from (fig. ). in his panel of st. george and the dragon from gaillon, now in the louvre, the architectural frame is wholly in the new style. fig. .—end elevation, tomr or children or charles viii, tours. since the disappearance of the chateau de gaillon, in which the cardinal georges d'amboise embodied to the utmost his enthusiasm for the ideals of the renais- sance, the finest remaining monument of this period of transition is the cardinal's tomb in the cathedral of rouen: the masterpiece of roland or roulland leroux (figure ). this tomb was not erected until , but a history of ornament it is absolutely in the maturer style of the transition, in which we constantly find the medieval feeling and a strongly gothic composition, even when every detail is confessedly in the new style. rouen was the home of a particularly brilliant development or "school" of the fig. .—end elevation, tomr of francis ii, duke op brittany, nantes. flamboyant gothic style, and it here resisted for a long time the inroads of the italian or "antique" manner, except in subordinate details, in which the old and new styles are constantly and curiously mixed. but this mixture was by no means confined to rouen or to northern france; the door whose detail is shown in figure a is from aix in southern france. the style of francis i. under this monarch, after his disastrous defeat at pavia in , his imprisonment at madrid for a year and his release on payment of an enormous ransom, renaissance in france, i french architecture underwent a gradual but steady and complete transformation, covering the first half of the valois period. after it is almost impossible to find a gothic detail except in ecclesiastical works, and even in these the apparently gothic forms of taber- nacles, ribbed vaults and clustered shafts, are treated with purely classical profiles and details, as in the choir- screen of the cathedral of limoges, the doors of beau- vais cathedral, the entrance-portal of the chateau of azay-le-rideau, the vault of the chapel at tillieres and the whole interior of st. eustache at paris. francis i was an indefatigable builder of palaces and chateaux and an enthusiastic employer of italian artists. at different times during his reign of thirty-two years he summoned from italy the architects serlio and vignola, the painter-decorators primaticcio and ii rosso ("le primatice" and "maitre roux"), the sculptor and metalworker benvenuto cellini, the sculptor-ceramist girolamo della robbia, and several others of less note. except for medallions on the now-vanished chateau de madrid by the last-named, and decorations of the gal- lery of francis i at fontainebleau by primaticcio and ii rosso, their direct influence on architecture was almost nil. their indirect influence, however, was great; for although constantly overruled by the french master-builders in the general composition of the pal- aces on which they were employed, they taught the french the decorative value of the classic moldings and * sebastiano serlio of bologna, - ; giacomo bnrozzi da vignola, - ; francesco primaticcio of bologna, - ; giovanni bat- tista di giacopo, called ii rosso, of florence, - ; girolamo della robbia of florence, - . a history of ornament orders and planted the seeds of a new taste in decorative detail. the extent of the change which resulted may be gauged by compar- qjjlljlilililjljlfjlbjlil^jlijlijjlijijli j jng the francis i open staircase at blois (figure ), dating from about , with the court of the louvre begun in , a year before the death of francis i, by the courtier- architect pierre les- cot, or the tomb of the cardinal of am- boise with that of louis xii at st. denis (figures , ). intermediate between these two extremes are such works as the chateau of chambord, wholly gothic in feeling but without a trace of gothic detail, the hotel d'ecoville at caen, or the archbishop's palace at sens, this last late in date but not yet classical in character. characteristic features of the decoration of this pe- riod are the following: as to general composition, the fio. .—one bay of court north wino of blois. fa ade. renaissance in france, i "plaid" system of wall or facade design, with contin- uous vertical lines of pilasters flanking the windows, crossed by widely separated architrave and cornice moldings (fig. ); mullioned and transomed win- dows; high dormers and chimneys, and an animated sky- line of pointed roof-masses; openings usually square- headed or spanned by flat elliptical arches. there are no colonnades, and the stateliness and formality of classic architecture are wholly wanting. francis i details. in the details of this archi- tecture we observe first of all the utter freedom with which the orders were treated, partly through ignorance of the classic canons, partly through the persistence of the gallic lamg baj • •. m • j j j fio. .—pilaster and entarla- spint ot independence and turei chamrord. love of the picturesque. pilasters were almost always preferred to columns; they were with few exceptions of the corinthianesque type, and hardly ever fluted. they were given but slight projection, and their faces were either plain, pan- eled with circular or diamond-shaped panels (fig. ), or carved with arabesques (fig. ; pi. vii, ). a a history of ornament common treatment of the entablature was to run the architrave over the tops of the windows of one story and to separate it by a very wide frieze from the cornice, which was made to serve as a continuous sill for the win- dows of the next story (fig. ). cornice and archi- trave were little more than groups of moldings broken out over each pilaster, thus producing the "plaid" effect fio. .—upper part of a francis i doorway, toulouse. mentioned above. examples are seen in the francis i wing at blois and the chateau of chambord. engaged columns are rare, and free columns hardly occur at all except in arcades, as in the archbishop's palace at sens. a unique type of cornice, and one so beautiful that it de- served a development and perpetuation which it never received, is the arcaded cornice that crowns the court facade of the francis i wing at blois. arches are more often elliptical than semicircular renaissance in france, i (fig. ), especially over doorways, and are some- times molded in the soffit like gothic arches, though in other cases the soffits may be paneled like the pilasters with circular or diamond-shaped panels. doorways are commonly flanked by pilasters, and not infrequently fio. + .—upper part of a fig. .—typical francis i francis i dormer. s-scroix. adorned with surface-decoration of the wall-space above them in a manner suggestive of spanish influence (fig. ). dormers are a conspicuous feature of the style. they were usually flanked by pilasters and topped by gables of capricious outline or carried up into a deco- rative second story narrower than the lower or window- story, with pilasters and gables of its own connected with the lower stage by pseudo-flying-buttresses com- a history of ornament posed of an s-scroll abutting against a candelabrum- pinnacle (fig. ; pi. vii, ; figure ). tkey constitute a highly decorative element of the chateau exteriors, reminiscent of the high flamboyant gothic dor- mers of the late gothic and transi- tion periods, and persist through the whole reign of francis i. carved details of the style include, first of all, the heraldic salamander (figure b) of francis i and the f adorned with a crown (fig. ; fig- ure ); the shell adorning niche-caps and small semicircular pediments (fig. ; figure ); the s-scroll in manifold combination (fig. ; figure ; pi. vii, ); the candela- brum-shaft in an endless variety of forms, used as a pinnacle or as an or- nament against piers or pilasters (figs. , ; figure b, c; pl vii, ); paneling with circles, half- circles, "lozenges" or diamonds and half-diamonds as already explained; and arabesques of extraordinary deli- cacy and variety on panels and pilasters (fig. ; figures , ; pi . vii, ). the decorative candelabrum-shaft is a significant reminiscence of pavia and the french campaign in lombardy, where it was widely used (fig. ; see p. ). it is interesting to note its almost simulta- fio. .—candela- rrum shaft from toulouse. renaissance in france, i neous blossoming out in the architecture of france and spain (see p. ) after the battle of pavia, victors and vanquished alike having, so to speak, carried it back with them to their respective countries. the treatment of the carving in relief, based upon the arabesques derived from italy (fig. ; figures h, ), was frequently more delicate, certainly lighter and more minute, than the corresponding italian work. fio. .—carved rinceau, chateau de paony. the principle of varied relief, with its contrasting of strong rounded masses with subordinate details almost fading into the background, is often both brilliant and subtle, as in the examples from bonnivet and the tomb of philippe de commines (figures h, ). but it often errs by over-minuteness, suggesting silversmith's work or jewelry rather than architecture, as in the stair- case of francis i at blois (figure /). this tendency to minuteness is a survival from the late gothic and transition periods. it is less open to criticism in the choir-stalls and furniture of the period than in major works of architecture. a history of ornament capitals; balustrades. the corinthianesque was the only type of capital in general use until the time of henry ii, during whose reign the doric and ionic orders began to appear. the capitals of the francis i period show great variety of treatment, often a charming fancy, and in beauty of light-and-shade and relief fall little behind their italian exemplars (pi. vii, , ). the classic italian balus- trade was during this period replaced either by carved stone parapets or by fanciful and highly ornate balus- trades as at blois (pi. vii, ). interior decoration: ceilings. the favorite type of ceiling in the earlier half of the period was the "beam ceiling," with heavy timber girders where the span demanded them, and square beams set about two feet apart and richly painted. the wood or plaster ceiling-spaces between the beams and carried by them were also painted with arabesques or other devices, as at blois. in the francis i gallery at fontainebleau the ceiling between the girders is pan- eled in wood in an intricate geometrical pattern in place of the more usual treatment with beams. such paneled ceilings became increasingly common thereafter, but the panels were usually shallow and not deeply coffered as was later the practice derived from italy. (see pi. vii, .) vaulting in carefully-cut stone occurs in secular work chiefly over corridors and entrance halls, as at chambord, and is then often treated with square rosetted coffers. in ecclesiastical work various forms of ribbed vaulting are found, often highly ornate with renaissance in france, i elaborate pendants at the intersections as at tillieres, the chapel at rue and some other examples. these show a curious persistence of the influence of english fan-vaulting on the late french gothic, transmitted to the french renaissance architecture and interpreted with renaissance details. the vaulting of the great church of st. eustache at paris is a purely gothic ribbed vault except for its round arches and the profil- ing of its rib-moldings. the use of stucco enrichments was not general until a later period. fireplaces. with the increase in privacy and comfort in domestic architecture, fireplaces were provided in every room of importance and treated with elaborate decorations of carving and sculpture. they were of stone, the wooden mantelpiece being as yet unknown, and were built with projecting hoods, though these were much smaller than those of the preceding century. in some cases, however, the chimneypiece was set back into the projecting chimney-breast itself. those in the chateau de blois are chiefly modern restorations from fragments sur- viving from the demolitions and alterations of the eighteenth century, but they are no doubt fairly correct reproductions of the original aspect of these important features of the interior decoration of the age of francis i (figure c). woodwork and furniture. wainscoting in wood was a practice peculiar to the damp and well-wooded countries of northern europe. a history of ornament it never prevailed in italy and was not common in southern france, but was frequent in northern france. the most notable example is that of the francis i gallery at fontainebleau, where the de- cidedly bizarre and baroque character of the stucco decora- tions above the wainscot, by the italians primaticcio and ii rosso (fig. ) to some ex- tent influenced the carving of the wainscot panels. in these the ragged and curled-over es- cutcheons so dear to the italians appear for the first time in france (fig. ; pi. vii, ); they were destined to great pop- ularity during the next three or four reigns. other examples of wainscot design show more of the delicacy and charm of the francis i style, as in the ex- fio. i .-sru«o enrich- ample from st- vincent at men™, galimt or francis rouen (pi. vii, ) . the same i, fontainerleau. v' french refinement of taste ap- pears in various choir-stalls, wooden screens and carved doors of the period. with regard to the furniture, it must be observed that the french were behind the italians in the amenities and refinements of their social and civic life, and there was no such abundance and variety of sumptuous furni- renaissance in france, i ture in the french chateaux and palaces as in the ital- ian of that time. but though less varied and numerous, the examples of french furniture that have come down to us from the francis i period are often of great beauty of detail and execution. this is particularly fig. .—panel from wainscot, fig. .—a francis i. gallery or francis i, fon- chair. tainebleau. true of the chairs which, although uncomfortable and uncompromising in shape, with straight backs, legs and arms, are carved with shells, arabesques, s-scrolls and candelabrum shafts and finials, in a fashion which in- clines one to wonder whether the cabinet-makers derived their designs from architecture or the architects theirs a history of ornament from the furniture (fig. ). tables seem to have been but little used, and there have come down to us no type-forms of table-support, of bedsteads, benches, clothes-chests, cabinets or dressers from this period until its very close. this is the more remarkable when we recall the lavish display of costumes and jewels of this reign and the monarch's extravagance in castle- building. for the introduction of the other sumptuary arts the king depended entirely on foreigners, chiefly italians and flemings. the weaving of brocades and of tapes- tries was thus domesticated in france. ceramic work made little progress during this reign. the famous bernard palissy began his experiments in , but did not finally produce his white enameled and decorated wares until under henry ii. the later valois period. henry ii was a less enthusiastic patron of the arts than his father, but the onward march of the style con- tinued, and the italian queen catherine de' medici ("de medicis" as the french write her name) supplied what the king lacked in artistic zeal and greatly en- couraged the italian trend of taste and style. in archi- tecture three architects, whose careers had begun under francis i, achieved their most notable masterpieces during this reign:—pierre lescot the courtier and ama- teur, descended from the alessi of italy, in the new palace of the louvre; jean bullant in the chateau of ecouen; and philibert delorme, the first professionally •pierre lescot, - ; jean bullant, - ; philibert delorme or de l'orme, - . renaissance in france, i trained french architect, in tlje tomb of francis i at st. denis, the tuileries projected and partly built for the queen, and the chateau d'anet, of which only minor parts are now extant, and of which the entrance-bay was saved and re-erected in the court of the ecole des beaux-arts at paris. in these works, as in the chateau of ancy-le-franc, now known to have been largely de- signed by the italian serlio but long ago demolished, in the church at les andelys, the fountain of the inno- cents by lescot and jean goujon (taken down and re- erected in modified form in ), the classic forms of column, pilaster and entablature appear as essential features employed in the classic manner, though not always with classical correctness. in churches espe- cially, as at les andelys, the lingering tradition of gothic design still appears in details, though even these are gothic only in derivation, not in actual form. the change in style, and particularly in the use of the orders, may be gauged by comparing the tomb of francis i by delorme with that of louis xii also at st. denis, executed in by the two justes, or the facade of the louvre by lescot with chambord or the north wing of rlois (figure /). architectural details. resides the more classic proportioning, profiling and treatment of the orders in this period as compared with the preceding, a complete change occurred in the character of all the details. dormers were no longer made either as high or as ornate as formerly, and all the details were more strictly classic (pi. vii, ). a history of ornament instead of the salamander, the symbol of francis i, there appears the king's monogram, in some cases asso- ciated with the d as the initial of his mistress diana of poitiers, though ostensibly the two reversed d's were fio. .—doorway at clermont-ferrand. supposed to be two c's—catherine's initial—reversed against the uprights of the royal h (center of escutcheon pi. vii, ; see also fanlight in fig. ). the elliptical arch gives place to the round arch; doors and windows appear with entablatures or pediments above them; the circular and diamond-shaped panels renaissance in france, i disappear from the pilasters, and the candelabrum- shaft no longer serves as an architectural support or pilaster decoration. the escutcheon and cartouche with "curlicue" ornaments became established as decorative features in architecture both external and internal (see pi. vii, , ), testifying to the italian- fio. .—chimney-top, chateau d'anet. izing influence of the medicean queen. this also appears in the gcdne, of which an early example is shown in pi. vii, , from the hotel lasbordes at toulouse, and in the same plate no. , a doorway of the church of notre dame at chalons-sur-marne dating from the last years of henry ii, contemporaneously with its earliest use in italian architecture. a history of ornament in all this transformation of forms and details there is a corresponding change in the spirit and artistic character of the carving. it no longer exhibits the finesse, the minuteness of detail and delicacy of relief of the previous period, inherited from the expiring gothic. the relief is stronger, the forms more dis- tinctly classic and architectural, the combinations more formal and correct (figs. , ). interiors. the transformation of the interior ornament corre- sponded with that of the exterior. ceilings were coffered and paneled more after the italian fashion; though at fontainebleau and blois the combination of girders and flat paneling still continued in use. wainscoting was simpler, with plain rectangular panels (fig. ; figure ), and chimneypieces were more strictly architectural in design. the "mantel" or hood was flattened back to the chimney-breast or disappeared entirely (figure ). furniture and minor arts. the third quarter of the century (under henry hi and iv) saw a great and rapid increase in the variety of furniture commonly employed in fine houses: in chairs, tables, bedsteads, dressers and cabinets, all of which had begun to appear during the reigns of henry ii and charles ix in considerable number and great elegance of design, but were greatly multiplied and elaborated under their successors (fig. ). here also the influence of the florentine queen counted for renaissance in france, i much in assimilating the italian ^standards of court life in the furnishings and equipments of her own french environment; for she dominated the taste and life of the french court during the reigns of charles fio. .—wainscot and bahut, chateau de che^verny. ix and henry iii, dying in the same year as her grandson, . the furniture of these three reigns (francis ii reigned but a few months in - and may be dis- regarded) exhibits generally a strongly architectural a history of ornament quality in its composition and main lines (fig. ), combined often with a riotous profusion of carved and sculptured ornament. this ornament displays much more of figure-sculpture and grotesques than that of francis i; it is all in stronger relief, more crowded, more sumptuous in general effect, less well composed fio. .—tarle, style or charles ix - henry ii. and distributed (fig. ; figures , ), although superb in technical execution. the italian influence, transmitted in part indirectly by flemish cabinet- makers, is seen especially in the increasing use of gaines and of curlicued escutcheons, in the forms of tables and in the grotesques. this tendency may be recognized in the beautiful shrine or urn by pierre bontemps, serving as a receptacle for the heart of francis l though not precisely an article of furniture in the cm renaissance in france, i ordinary sense, in style and scale it may fairly be classed in this category (fig. ). the dominant per- sonalities in this field of design were j. androuet ducerceau and hugues sambin. of the two, sambin was the more prolific of executed works, but ducerceau, fig. .—panel of cuproard ry fig. .—shrine for heart of samrin. francis i. who executed little, and who on account of his religion— he being a huguenot—was twice driven from france, exercised a powerful influence on design by his books of engravings of buildings ("les plus excellens * jacques androuet, surnamed "du cerceau" ("of the circle" from a circle in tbe sign over his studio): architect, engraver and author, - ; hugues sambin, architect and sculptor of dijon, contemporary of ducerceau; dates of his birth and death not available. a history of ornament bastimens de france") and of decorative details and designs. his two sons jacques and batiste were prominent in the architec- ture of the following reign. in the works of father and sons we observe the growth of the italian baroque in- fluence, a tendency towards exaggeration, towards the bizarre and the fantastic. but a tasteful simplicity is sometimes met with in this period, as in the door-panel (fig. ), and the panel from the louvre in fig. . in the minor arts, tap- fio. is .—panel from a door, estry and needlework de- cluny museum, par is. i j a j . veloped to a moderate ex- tent, though the court depended for these chiefly on importations from italy and flanders. the atelier for fio. .—panel from so-called chamrer of henry iv, louvre, paris. tapestry-weaving established by francis i with flemish weavers does not seem to have long continued. neither renaissance in france, i could the french metalworkers as yet rival those of italy, and the famous suit of armor of henry ii was of italian make (see p. ). but much excellent work was done in smaller objects in iron and brass, such as fio. .—henry ii bronze fio. a.—door-knocker from door-pull. narronne. door-hardware, drawer-pulls and the like (fig. ; figure ; pi . vii, ). the beginnings of french ceramic art belong to this period, as its foundations were laid under francis i and its most significant early development occurred under henry ii and charles ix a history of ornament (fig. ). but for greater continuity of treatment the discussion of this branch of french decorative art will be deferred to the close of the next chapter. decorative sculpture. sculpture, which under francis i had been almost entirely subordinated to architecture, began under henry ii to assume independent importance, and to take on more of the classic and monumental quality in its associa- tion with architecture. it was developed under the hands of a remarkable group of sculptors who united great technical skill with exquisite artistic taste and a keen sense of architectural f». -enameled plate propriety. the greatest of these ry penicaud. men> an(j one gf the greatest decorative sculptors of all time, was jean goujon of rouen ( - ), like ducerceau and palissy a huguenot, who, however, succeeded in retaining the favor of the kings and of catherine, under whom he worked in association with pierre lescot on the louvre, and with philibert delorme on the chateau d'anet and other works. he designed the fontaine des innocents in its original form, the famous tribune des caryatides in the louvre, and the tomb of louis de breze in the cathedral of rouen. to him are also at- tributed the beautiful carved doors of the church of st. maclou at rouen. next to him in ability was germain renaissance in france, i pilon ( - ), who executed the sculptures of the tombs of francis i and of henry ii at st. denis and the exquisite decorative group of three female figures supporting the urn containing the heart of henry ii now in the louvre; these figures are carved in wood. other noted sculptors of the time were barthelemy prieur and pierre bontemps. to the latter is due the funerary urn of francis i (fig. ), also at st. denis. hugues sambin, already mentioned on p. , was chiefly occupied with designs of furniture. to sum up briefly the character of this period, which came to an end with the extinction of the valois dynasty at the death of henry iii in , we note first of all the final disappearance of the last vestiges of gothic tradition and detail before the growing classicalism of the age. this was due in part to the influence of catherine de medicis herself and of the italians whom she attached to her court; but it was quite as largely due to the training of the architects and sculptors, and in part also to the general progress everywhere of the "new learning" and of the public taste educated under its influence. at the same time, along with this italianiz, ing tendency towards the formal and the classic, towards carefully-ordered architectural stateliness and propriety, there are still traces of the refinement and freedom of the preceding style, and the orders are still employed with much license of detail, though with careful restraint in the matter of scale. the best work of this period pos- sesses great decorative charm by reason of these quali- ties, for it has neither the smallness and lack of force a history of ornament of much francis i work nor the baroque fantasticality and frequent heaviness of the next period. the bourbon period: - . this period of forty-six years or thereabout, cover- ing the reign of henry iii, the last of the valois kings, of henry iv the first bourbon king, and the first part of that of louis xiii, can hardly be other- wise characterized than as a period of oscillation between conflicting tendencies. on the one hand we have the palladianizing drift of arch- itecture, strongly reinforced by the advent of a new medicean queen, marie de medicis, henry iv's impe- rious florentine consort, who introduced a whole new train of italians into the french church and state. on the other we have the gallic spirit, impatient of formulas, independent and imaginative. between these two tendencies archi- tectural design oscillated now towards the extreme of baroque stiffness, as in the grande galerie of the tuileries ( - ), with its huge bare pilasters, alternating triangular and curved pediments and awkwardly broken entablatures, or the hotel lamoig- renaissance in france, i non (fig. ); now towards the extreme of fanciful and unregulated detail, as in the portal of the hotel de vogue at dijon (figure ), or that of the chateau des ifs. the french builders of the time seized upon the eccentricities of baroque detail and used them in their own way, with results which are rich and playful in effect, but often so illogical and bizarre as to merit fro. .—brick and stone architecture, detail. severe criticism. a frequent fault is the exaggeration of the voussoirs of arches, and of bossages or pro- jecting blocks interrupting the architectural lines (pi. vii, ). but the french builders of this period introduced one innovation of the greatest importance in the combina- tion of brick and stone in exterior design, which they handled with great skill. the stone-work forms the corners, the window-dressings and the cornice, in a system of rusticated "chains," usually of long-and-short work, with brickwork either plain or patterned for the flat wall-surfaces or fillings (fig. ), as in the places a history of ornament dauphine and des vosges, paris. in the chateau de beaumesnil the same system was employed although the wall-surfaces are of ashlar instead of brick. fig. .—bull's-eye window, house in toulouse. in the carved ornament of this period the cartouche became increasingly common, together with palm- branches, seldom of graceful design, and cansoles with broken curves, meaningless draperies and other baroque fio. ( .—typographic ornament ry th£o. de bry. features (fig. ). typographic ornament was in- fluenced both by dutch taste and by italian ceramics, as in the border by theodore de bry ( ) in fig. . renaissance in france, i interior detail. the beamed ceiling still continued to be used, but heavily paneled ceilings were more generally favored. chimneypieces were often overloaded with sculpture and carving. interior woodwork of wainscotings and doors was frequently painted in white with gilt moldings and painted arabesques or "nielles," in marked contrast to the heavy and overcharged detail of the chimney- pieces (fig. a). period of louis xiii. no clear dividing line can be traced between the styles of henry iv and louis xiii, but there is a gradual progress towards the monu- mental classicism that was to mark the reign of louis xiv, combined with fre- quent and singular exaggerations of baroque decorative detail. it would seem as though the independent gallic spirit wished to protest against the in- creasing domination of the classic ten- dency by greater extravagance in the use of scrolls and escutcheons, car- touches, palm-branches, heads, gaines and every device of non-structural, fan- tastic ornament to break up the monot- ony of plain surfaces, both without and within the building. the result was a baroque style quite different from the italian, but ani- mated by the same effort to surprise the spectator and fio. a. — louis xiii painted nielli, chateau of cheverny. a history of ornament to produce an effect of restlessness rather than of repose. this is seen in such examples as the facades of st. paul- st. louis and st. etienne du mont at paris, of the minimes at tours and ste. marie at nevers; and in inte- rior works at fontainebleau, especially in the* chapel of the trinity, as well as in many doorways and chimneypieces. at the same time there were built such dignified and classic edifices as the luxembourg palace by salomon de brosse for the dowager queen ma- rie, with almost no ornament but that of the rusticated or- ders, inspired from the garden front of the pitti palace at p ,« tj n „ florence (figure ), the fig. .—facade, church op \ o / > st. paul-st. louis, park. same architect's facade for the church of st. gervais, lemer- cier's pavillon de l'horloge in the louvre, and francois mansart's 'aile de gaston" or west wing of the chateau of blois for gaston d'orleans. doors and doorways. many of the louis xiii doorways, both interior and exterior, display in the over-door space or the arch- tympanum singular and even grotesque variations of •jacques lemercicr, j ~l ; francois mansart, - g ; both under louis xiii and xiv. renaissance in france, i the cartouche motive, which often ^takes on a meaning- less and sprawling form (fig. ). in some cases it is made to assume the likeness of a grotesque mask; in others a helmeted head or bust forms the central fig. '.—three louis xiii ovek-doors. motive. but these eccentricities disappear by the end of the reign. the doors themselves received very diverse treat- ment. main entrance-doors had in the previous period, a history of ornament especially under henry iv, begun to take on a definite type which has, with variations, persisted to the present day. with the progress of domestic architecture in cities the driveway-entrance into the court—the porte* cochere or coach-gate—took on greater importance (pi. viii, ). it was usually arched, with an ornately carved tympanum above the door proper. the latter was in two leaves, in one of which a smaller door was provided for the admission of pedestrians when the two leaves were closed. this smaller door provided a motive which was repeated in the other half, and the entire composition was decoratively treated with richly molded panels, colonettes, small pediments and carving of masks, scrolls and escutcheons. this decoration in- creased in richness and in crowded detail in high relief under louis xiii. the celebrated door to the chapel of the trinity at fontainebleau illustrates the heaviness and inappropriateness of much of this detail, in spite of its remarkably skilful execution. furniture. during the entire period of nearly one hundred years from the accession of henry ii to that of louis xiv ( - ), there was steady progress in the variety and richness of domestic furniture. under francis i the simplicity and scarcity of furniture had been, as we have seen, in singular contrast to the splendor of the architecture and the magnificence of the costumes and plate to be seen in palaces and chateaux. the contribu- tion made by the books of designs of hugues sambin and j. a. ducerceau to the art of furniture-making has renaissance in france, i been mentioned. to these should be added the name of nicolas bachelier of toulouse, a cabinet-maker, archi- tect and sculptor, to whom we owe the very ornate chapel-screen in the cathedral of rodez (figure ). thus dijon, the home of sambin, and toulouse, the home of bachelier, became important centers of furni- ture design, and southern france began to rival the north. the furniture of this entire period is marked in general by extreme richness, often excessive in its use of grotesques, gaines, escutcheons and human figures, all in high relief and crowded in composition. heads, female busts, deities and symbolic figures abound, quite unrelated to any special purpose of the furniture or to each other; beautifully carved and pro- ducing an undeniably sumptuous effect, but lacking in sobriety and restraint. many of the artists were foreigners from flanders, holland, germany and spain, and the flemish influence was particularly strong. "the impression resulting from an examina- tion of all this furniture of complicated structure and inordinate decoration ... is very much the same as that produced through studying the history of the manners of the time. french life under henry ii, charles ix and henry iii, all semi-italian princes, dominated by their talented mother the florentine catherine de medicis, was an extraordinary mixture of terror and luxury." the extravagance of the court and nobility knew no bounds and "was reflected," says saglio, "in the domestic furniture by the excess of "andr£ saglio, "french furniture," p. (batsford, london). a history of ornament ornamentation lavished upon it. . . . everything, must be alike costly and distorted." this verdict on the taste of the three reigns which closed the valois period is also valid for the reign of henry iv, the first bourbon king, and a large part of that of louis xiii, who succeeded him (fig. ). sons and descendants under louis xiv. the italian influence was reinforced by the jesuits who flocked to the french medicean court after the decree of expul- sion against them of was repealed. the most important changes in furniture design in this early bourbon period were in the shapes of chairs, in the increased vogue and variety of cabinets or "armoires" and dressers (fig. ), and in the intro- fio. .—louis xiii cradle. the foreign element com- pletely dominated furniture design, the spanish being par- ticularly strong, along with the italian and flemish, the german and the swiss; while the french artisans were en- couraged by henry iv to study their art in holland. a veritable school of furniture design was established in the grande galerie of the louvre by louis xiii under foreign masters, among whom was the swiss boulle, whose name later became famous in the persons of his french-born renaissance in france, i duction of ebony, whence the french word "ebeniste" for a cabinet-maker. chairs were now made with light frames, often with turned posts and braces or "rounds," and with curved arms. the legs were sometimes straight, either square or turned, sometimes curved, with elaborate carved details. under louis xiii began the upholstering of seats and backs with tapes- tries or brocades in- stead of wood and leather—the beginning of a concession to ease and comfort, and of a special application of textile art, destined to become very important in the next reign. four-legged tables now began to displace the italian type with two carved end-supports, probably as the result of the northern influences from flanders, germany and holland. the legs, like those of the chairs, were in some cases straight, in others curved, and the straight legs were sometimes turned, more often square and tapering. the curved or cabriole leg, a reflection of the baroque tradition, was to become a dominant and distinctive feature of later furniture. fio. .—louis xiii carinet. a history of ornament more monumental and costly than either tables or chairs were the various types of cabinets or armoires which came into vogue, a fashion imported either from italy or spain. the french name suggests an original use of such pieces of furniture for the safe keeping of small arms, which were often costly works of french, german, spanish or italian armorers, engraved, chased, carved and inlaid, and sometimes set with jewels (see p. ). in italy cabinets were also employed for the keeping of medals, coins and jewels. figure and fig. illustrate the type, which was more varied than the italian, quite as architectural in form and composi- tion, highly ornate but not as profusely adorned with "attributes," emblems, figures and grotesques as the furniture of the preceding period. figure shows a mirror-frame almost florentine in design. ebony was much used, its cost and hardness apparently commend- ing it in spite of its funereal and somber color, which absorbs light and shade alike and kills delicate relief. the minor arts: henry ii to louis xiv. woodworking has been sufficiently discussed for the limits of this book. metalwork was not extensively developed in this period, and the earlier examples now extant show no ornament forms differing greatly from those of- architectural carving and furniture design. pi. vii, , representing a keyhole-plate from the hotel d' assezat at toulouse is a fair specimen of the art, displaying the cartouche-motive, scrolls and grotesque heads which so abound in the architecture and furniture. during the reign of louis xiii, however, wrought renaissance in france, i iron came increasingly into favor for grilles, gates, window-guards and balustrades. this last was a new application of the art, in which, through the entire re- mainder of the bourbon period, the french excelled all others, in designs architecturally appropriate and artistically elegant. textile art was in this period, like metalwork, mainly dependent on foreign importation; needlework, brocades and velvet coming chiefly from italy, especially from genoa and venice; laces from italy and flanders, tapestries from flanders. such work as was produced in france in these arts was for the most part executed either by foreigners or by frenchmen under foreign direction and in close imitation of the foreign products. no distinctively french types of design had as yet been matured, and no forms of ornament are in evidence in the textile work made in france at this time that can be called peculiarly french. it was not till the th cen- tury had passed well into its second half that the french genius asserted its independence and created its own models and patterns in these fields of design. limoges enamels. limoges, which had been in the middle ages famed for its production of ecclesiastical vessels enameled on metal, revived this ancient art in the early th century after a long period of decline. the great names asso- ciated with this revival are those of penicaud, raymond, and leonard limousin; they executed painted enamels in which the fusible coloring-earths were applied with a brush to the metal, without previously cutting out a a history of ornament bed for each separate color. the designs were in- fluenced by italian majolica models; but a deep blue or violet generally formed the background of the design, and the pattern in white was enriched with high lights in gold and shadings in grisaille. fig. illustrates the style and general effect of these productions in a plate by pénicaud (see also pl. x, nos. - , - ). books recommended: a. berty: la renaissance monumentale en france (morel, paris, ).—blondel: architecture française (paris, ).—c. daly: motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture (ducher, paris, ).—j. a. du cerceau: les plus excellents bastiments de la france (lévy, paris, ); oeuvres, meubles etc. (baldus, paris, n. d.).—p. gélis- didot: la peinture décorative en france du xvie au xviii" siècle (schmid, paris, ).—h. v. geymuller: baukunst der renaissance m frankreich (bergstràsser, stuttgart, ).—a. guérinet: détails de sculptures d' ornements. renaissance à louis xv (guérinet, paris, n. d.).—w. lubke: geschichte der renaissance in frankreich (ebncr & seubert, stuttgart, ).—c. martin: la renaissance en france (morancé, paris, ).—c. t. mathews: the renaissance under the valois kings (comstock, new york, ).—h. morley: palissy the potter (london, ).— e. muntz: la renaissance en italie et en france à l'époque de charles viii (hachette, paris, ).—l. palustre: la renaissance en france (quantin, paris, ).—r. pfnor: le château d'anet (poupart-davyl, paris, ); le palais de fontainebleau (champollion-figeac, paris, ).—e. rouyer: la renaissance de françois i à louis xvi (baudry, paris, ).—rouyer et darcel: l'art architectural en france (noblet & baudry, paris, ).—a. saglio: french furniture (batsford, london, ).—c. sauvageot: palais, hôtels, châteaux et maisons de la france (morel, paris, ). —w. h. ward: architecture of the renaissance in france (batsford, london, ). chapter vii the renaissance in france, ii the age of the louis. the long period of years covered by the extra- ordinarily long reigns of louis xiv and his great- grandson louis xv was marked by an equally extraor- dinary development of french art. two styles, easily distinguished in their culminating works and yet passing gradually from the first into the second through a brief transitional period called the regence, are known by the names of the two kings, in french louis quatorze and louis quinze. the reign of the first was the period in which french art, so long tutored by foreign designers, at least in all the minor arts, at last emanci- pated itself from their control, and while it assimilated their teaching, dominated them completely and thor- oughly gallicized every foreign element. so completely was this accomplished that in the second half of the th century we find both italy and germany borrow- ing freely the french decorative elements, at least in interior decoration and furniture. character of the louis xiv period. louis xiv, small of stature, homely of countenance but filled beyond measure with the conceit of his own a history of ornament greatness and craving the most servile flattery, was nevertheless a great king and a great patron of the arts. the man who could say "l'fitat c'est moi" and who loved to be called the sun king (le roi soleil) knew how to surround himself with men of distinguished ability, and encouraged literature and the arts by lavish expenditures for the works of men of genius, and for pensioning the creators of those works. he was the greatest builder-monarch of modern times, surpassing francis i in the extent and cost if not in the number of his palaces. he was, moreover, a man of pronounced tastes in the fine arts, and while he employed a host of foreigners in the development of the minor and acces- sory arts, he entrusted his great building enterprises wholly to french architects. moreover in all the arts of decoration the foreigners were so dominated by the french taste that these arts took on an entirely new aspect and developed a new and purely french style, quite justly called by the monarch's name. the king's taste favored the formally classic, alike in literature, in painting, in sculpture and in architecture, but it was the antique as seen through french eyes and interpreted in a french manner. in interior decoration and furni- ture the independent gallic fancy and taste were given free rein, and while there was everywhere observed a certain stateliness in the general lines and more struc- tural features of the design, the details were treated with the utmost freedom and with increasing caprice of fanciful invention. louis xiv came to the throne in . in he established the academy of painting and sculpture. renaissance in france, ii in , on the death of mazarin, he assumed absolute and supreme power, and made himself the dictator in the field of art as in all else. "his taste must govern throughout his kingdom, wherever the power of his academie could reach. . . . his adulators proclaimed that louis was the only person in france who had taste. he was certainly the only person in france who could exercise his taste to the extent of his desires. le brun was the man selected by the king to administer to his taste. all painters, sculptors, architects, designers and decorators must receive their orders from le brun and obey them. in louis founded the "manufacture royale des meubles de la couronne," in a mansion which gave the name of its former owner, gobelins, to the establishment. this enterprise, due to colbert, the suc- cessor of mazarin, later developed into the greatest of all establishments for the weaving of tapestries, but was for a long time concerned with all forms of decorative art—furniture, metalwork, jewelry and textiles. the academie and the gobelins thus became great art centers, and the "eclat of these two establishments was so great throughout the whole of europe as to eclipse all other schools or to convert them into mere reflections of themselves. it is from this moment that the world- wide supremacy of french art really begins." architectural design. louis' love of the grandiose after the formally classic manner was expressed in the exterior design of a re- *d. cady eaton, "a handlwok of modern french sculpture" (dodd, mead & co., new york, ). 'andre saglio, "french furniture," p. (batsford, london). a history of ornament markable series of great buildings. the completion of the louvre with its magnificent colonnade, the vast hotel des invalides, the stately dome of the invalides added to the hotel, and above all the colossal palace of versailles with its gigantic gardens, were so many ex- pressions of this taste. it was by no mere accident that the commonplace design by the aged bernini, whom louis had invited from rome to design the east front of the louvre, was rejected in favor of the purer classic design of the frenchman claude perrault, the court physician. the italians had taught the french archi- tects how to use the orders, and from the italian baroque the frenchman had learned the stateliness of the "colossal order"—the column and pilaster of the full height of two or more stories—with the resulting big- ness of scale in all the details; but under the influence largely of the king's severer taste they had rejected the eccentricities, the curved wall-surfaces and fantastically- broken pediments and huge scrolls of the italian fashion. now also the crowded and meaningless detail and contorted cartouches of the louis xiii style were rejected—as indeed had already been the case with the work of men like de brosse, francois mansart and lemercier, who began their careers under louis xiii but who lived and worked during the first part of the reign of the grand monarque. these men, with louis levau, were succeeded by jules hardouin (surnamed mansart after his grand-uncle francois mansart), who had assisted bruant in the design of the place vendome and who was the architect of the greater part of the •louis levau, - ; j. h. mansart, - . renaissance in france, ii palace of versailles, the grand trianon, the dome of the invalides and the chateau de marly. j. h. mansart followed his grand-uncle in his general preference for "small orders," that is, superposed orders each of the height of one story, as in the dome of the invalides and the versailles palace; but in the grand trianon and the chapel royal at versailles he wisely departed from this general rule. in the latter part of the king's reign the colossal order appeared more fre- quently, as in the colonnade of the louvre and the hotel de ville at beauvais. in all these works the palladian or vignola proportions and details were faithfully followed. exterior ornament was severely pruned; rustication was used sparingly and discreetly; ressauts or broken entablatures were rarely resorted to, and the general effect of the exterior was more often cold and bare than over-decorated (figure ). the combination of brick and stone so popular under henry iv and louis xiii hardly appears except in the earlier parts of the versailles palace by levau. a severe stateliness was the effect generally sought. interior decoration. the metaphorical "battle of the styles" between the gallic and latin tendencies appears therefore to have resulted in a decisive victory for the latin, so far as the architecture of the exterior was concerned. in reality it was a truce, or a divided victory, for in the interiors, at least of palaces and mansions, the gallic tendency was increasingly dominant, and by the end of the period completely triumphant. the style or styles that de- a history of ornament veloped in the sumptuous interior decorations of the louvre, versailles, the trianon and some of the great mansions or lesser palaces of the royal family and fio. .—decorative treatment, galerie d'apollon, louvre. relatives, were thoroughly and completely french. the flemish and italian elements in it were so thoroughly assimilated and fused that it requires the most minute renaissance in france, ii critical analysis to discover and separate them. in the earlier part of the period the classic pilaster, round arch and regular entablature were still used as at maisons- lafitte (pi. viii, ) and versailles, and the larger lines of the decoration were formal and monumental, but the details were free, and the classic forms were varied in ingenious and often charming ways (figure ; pi. viii, , ). this severer phase reached its highest expression in the galerie d'apollon in the louvre. in this splendid apartment one sees in the wall-decoration none but rectangu- lar panels and classic moldings (fig. ). the crossetted panels, each framing a (modern) picture in tapestry, are adorned with tro- phies of arms, grotesque masks, acanthus-leaves and the like. but there are departures from classic precedent: the frieze is a new french adaptation of the triglyph; the brackets or consoles under the picture are curved and carved in a french rather than roman spirit; the mold- ings are carved with ornaments drawn from nature or from fancy (fig. ). in the second half of the period the gallic fancy played alike with the composition and the details. the wall was divided into panels above the square-paneled wainscot; the wall-panels were alter- nately broad and narrow, framed in gilded moldings a history of ornament with smaller moldings forming a repeat or echo of the larger frame enclosing it; tops and bottoms of these frames were curved, or if square-ended, had their corners cut off by concave curves; medallions of con- ventional ornament adorned the centers of the panels, and often their tops and bottoms also; and the details of the decoration in relief displayed the utmost freedom of fancy in the scrolls, wreaths, festoons and acanthus foliage. flat surfaces and ceiling-coves were often filled with a diaper or net- work in low relief, and all the relief was gilded upon a ground of white or very pale green or gray. in contrast to this elaborate splendor, wainscot and fio. .—ceiling cove, versailles, doors were treated with square panels with little or no ornament except the gilded moldings; but delicately- painted flowers and melles sometimes appeared on the panels. de cotte, the elder oppenord, girardon and berain were among the leading designers of this, the most purely french of all the french phases of deco- rative art. ceilings were coved and finished in richly molded plaster (fig. ), with decorative paintings filling the larger spaces. the barrel vault was used in some cases, decorated in like manner with molded ornament in relief and historic or allegoric paintings, as in the im- posing galerie des glaces at versailles and the magnifi- renaissance in france, ii cent galerie d'apollon in the louvre. the chimney- piece and chimney-breast were flattened closer to the wall. the painting of arabesques in a manner derived from the italian but more solid and massive in effect was frequently resorted to. tapestries were not hung loose but framed and permanently set in the wall-panels. fio. .—door-panel, church of st. louis-en-l'ile, paris. all this interior decoration was carried out with a truly french delicacy and freedom of invention. while the rinceau, the acanthus leaf and the rosette formed the basis of this detail, these forms were handled with playful disregard of classic and italian canons (fig. ; pi. viii, , ). orders, arches and moldings were treated often with great freedom of detail, as in fig. . the heavy cartouches and curlicues of the louis xiii style disappeared. curved and sweeping lines gradually displaced the severe rectangularity of the earlier phase of the style, especially in the consoles and shelves of the fireplaces. a new element in the a history of ornament decorative scheme is the gold-framed mirror of plate glass over the mantel-shelf (pi. viii, ). this, which became an indispensable feature of every salon, cabinet and boudoir, and which in the galerie des glaces at versailles gave the key to the entire design, cannot be traced to its origin. it was probably an indirect im- portation from venice, which had long excelled in the production of mirrors. the mirror, of large size as an adjunct to the bureau or desk-cabinet, had be- come common under louis xiii. it now was trans- ferred from an article of movable furniture into a fixture on the wall, serving to multiply by reflection „ ,„ . t~ „. . the sparkle and glow of the fio. .—arch impost, hotel de r o lauzun, paris. hundreds of candles in sconces and crystal chan- deliers, which were another italian feature domesticated under louis xiii. another new element in the decorative system was the increasing use of marble, especially of dark-hued marbles in panels and as wall-veneers in the more public parts of palaces, such as entrance-halls and stairways— an obvious derivation from the italian baroque practice (see ante, p. ). as the reign of the aged king matured towards its close in (although his death did not occur until renaissance in france, ii ), classic formality in palace interiors progressively disappeared. round corners and swaying curves dominated all interior design, and the dignified and monumental sumptuosity which had prevailed under the artistic dictatorship of le brun gave way to the less serious, sometimes frivolous, intimate fancifulness of the regence. the later o/nament of the reign is often not distinguishable from that of the regence and earlier louis xv period (fig. ). in all this transformation of architectural design, certain special influences must be noted. in the first place the triumph of the classical or latin tendency in exterior design as well as in the interior design of churches, and the banishment from these of the florid and baroque extravagances of the two preceding reigns, was largely due to the french academy at rome, estab- lished by colbert in . although architects were not sent to this academy until the th century, its influence was powerful through the painters and sculptors who were its pupils, and this was exerted al- ways in favor of the antique and against the decadent baroque of italy. to this must be added the personal influence of the king and of his art-dictator le brun, who with all his faults and deficiencies used his vast authority in favor of the monumental, the dignified and the grandiose in decorative art, and who had the wisdom to call forth the best and ablest artists in france to serve the national art, not merely in architecture but also in furniture and all the minor arts. nothing was slurred, nothing was cheapened or vulgarized under his domina- a history of ornament tion, and all the artistic resources of the realm were marshaled, organized and encouraged. another powerful influence was that of a number of consummate draftsmen, designers and engravers who published books of decorative designs that had a wide circulation. among these were varin. jean and daniel marot. berain, and the two brothers jean and antoine fio. .—ornamest by lepautre. lepautre. the volumes of designs by these artists are to this day precious possessions in the libraries of art of at least two continents. fig. is taken from lepautre, and illustrates the unrestrained fancy and inventiveness of this artist. w. h. ward in his admirable book "the archi- tecture of the renaissance in france" lias so well characterized the style of louis xiv that i cannot re- frain from quoting a part of his comments (in vol. ii, p. ): "meanwhile in decoration france turned renaissance in france, ii alternately to flanders and to italy for inspiration, but the flemish influence with its naturalism or its license, declined and the italian increased. the influence of italy was composite. on the one hand the ancient monuments and the palladian school helped the puristic current. but on the other, in contemporary italy the roman barocco school was predominant. the french under louis xiv did not follow this school in its con- tempt for classical traditions, but borrowed first some of its fire and bigness of conception, secondly a few decorative motives, and lastly that sense of unity with which, like all italian schools, it was animated. "both the strict and the free classic influences thus had in them something congenial to the absolutist, cen- tralizing trend of the age and something in opposition to it. on the one side was respect for law and to some extent severity, combined with diversity; on the other was lawlessness but splendor, majesty and unity. the third or rationalistic influence acted usually as a moder- ating force, but allied itself now with the one school in encouraging simplicity, now with the other in giving rise to bizarre forms." "the three points in which the growth of classical influence is most marked during the first louis xiv period are the more correct use of classical elements, the attempts to increase unity of composition, and the refinement of decoration" (p. ). these quotations refer primarily to exterior archi- tecture. le brun's influence on interior decoration the same author characterizes as resulting in "a free a history of ornament decoration within a severe architecture"; "he always used a well-defined geometric pattern or architectural framework as a foil for the riot of swirling lines and the movement of painting arid altp-rilievo" (p. ). "louis xiv decoration retains the sumptuousness and the massive character of that of louis xiii, with even increased scale but greater refinement in the profiles and enrichments, and it dispenses with its complications and intricacies, its multiplication of similar members and repeated breaks and ressauts. with the fatiguing fussiness the coarse and grotesque elements also disappear. . . . there is an intellectual quality, a spirit of order and organization in louis xiv decora- tion which is as characteristic as its pomp and sumptuosity." the student of this style cannot do better than to read carefully the whole of the chapter from which these excerpts are taken (chapter v in vol. ii), especially pages - and - . no better analysis of the style has been written either in english or in french. louis xiv furniture. the splendor and extravagance of the court life under louis xiv, as well as the extraordinary artistic activity fostered by the king and his great minister colbert under le brun's direction, are reflected in the furniture. in italy the development of furniture- design had been independent, spontaneous and provin- cial. in france it was national, royal, and dominated by a single mind. there were two groups of designers renaissance in france, ii under the royal patronage, one domiciled in the louvre, the other in the gobelins. many of the artists in both groups were italians or of italian origin, like domenico cucci and filippo cafreri, giacetti and the two migliorini; but these were all naturalized, as were also a number of distinguished flemings, especially among the tapestry-workers. with these was associated a brilliant galaxy of french artists—painters, sculptors, engravers, jewelers and "ebenistes"—some of whom have been already mentioned. nowhere else, in any land or age, have so many artists of consummate skill been employed upon the single task of producing the decora- tions, hangings and furnishings of the palaces of a single monarch. it is no wonder that this became the great age of furniture. in the production of the tables, armoires or cabinets, the bureaux or table-desks surmounted by a cabinet or small chest of drawers, the chairs and sofas, the clocks, andirons, candelabra and girandoles or sconces, the mirrors and the commodes, the master-mind was that of andre charles boulle ( - ), the son of an ebeniste jean boulle, probably of swiss origin. he first appears in the royal accounts in , and three years later was lodged in the louvre. he was assisted and succeeded by his four sons. while few of his own works are still in existence, those of his sons, who suc- cessfully continued the paternal tradition, have been preserved and are among the most precious objects at versailles and in the louvre, and they had many imi- tators. the boulles were makers rather than designers of furniture, working largely from designs by berain a history of ornament and lepautre, the greatest ornamentists of their time, and by le brun. second only to boulle in artistic rank was s. j. oppenord (sander johann oppenordt), a hollander, whose son later became famous as an archi- tect under louis xv. the characteristics of the royal furniture were in general a certain severity of mass and outline in the heavier articles such as cabinets and bureaux, while the lighter objects, such as chairs and fauteuils, were de- signed with easy flowing curves in legs, backs and arms, and were upholstered with specially woven tapestry seats and backs. the exposed framework was deli- cately carved, with no superfluous elements, and was often gilded. the heavier pieces, made of dark wood and designed with monumental simplicity of outline, bore little carving in relief. the symbolic sculpture, the grotesques, gaines and cartouches of the italian taste and of the preceding reign, were abandoned in favor of a rich surface decoration with inlays of marquetry, brass and tortoise-shell, and applied ornaments of gilded bronze (fig. ; figure ). it was in the elegance, the dainty perfection of modeling of these ornaments that the furniture-makers of this period displayed their highest artistic skill, as they displayed their consum- mate workmanship in the framing and finish of the woodwork. boulle was not the inventor nor by any means the sole user of inlays of metal and tortoise-shell, but his name has been given by an uninformed public •jean berain, - ; jean le pautre or lepautre, - :.'; (btniste, designer and engraver; often confused with his brother antoine ( j - ) the architect, and with his son pierre who was hardouin man- sart's chief draftsman at versailles. renaissance in france, ii to this entire style of decoration. metal inlays and the use of gilded bronze enrichments on furniture were in reality derived from florence, though never there used to nearly the same extent as by boulle and his followers. in the cheaper furniture of the bourgeoisie which imi- fio. .—carinet ry boulle. tated the royal furniture, gilded papier-mache and gesso replaced the cast and chiseled bronze; or the relief orna- ments were carved in wood, gilded and applied. but even in this cheaper product there is often much of the french elegance and decorative effect of the style. in the designing of chairs and fauteuils (easy-chairs), settees and sofas, the french in this period introduced a history of ornament entirely new types. disregarding the straight lines and rectangular framework naturally suggested by con- struction in wood, they curved the back and arms of the chair and the front of the seat-frame, and later the legs also, sometimes the front legs only, leaving the back legs straight; sometimes all four. the fautevil was often made wide enough for two or three sitters, and finally developed into the sofa. towards the end of the th century all the lines were curved. the arms and front legs were generally carved, but without excess of ornament (fig. ). seats and backs were upholstered with rich brocades, or with tapes- tries specially designed and woven to fit each piece of furniture, often from cartoons by artists like berain and marot, as in the fine set in the altman collection in the metro- politan museum, new york. tables, like the chairs, were made with curved legs, richly but delicately carved and either gilded or orna- mented with applied decorations in gilded bronze (fig. fio. .—louis xiv fauteuil or easy-chair. figure. ~faxitan of 'oroxxz tlorloge.", rouen trwai/'af jauomt. k?/s'*j renaissance in france, ii ). a sort of half-table permanently set against the wall came into fashion and was called a console. clocks set upon a stand were also in demand. other secular and ecclesiastical woodwork. of other woodwork than that of furniture the most important branch was that of doors, both internal and external. the carved moldings and ornaments of such fio. .—louis xiv tarle. doors as were not decorated exclusively by painting or by gilded ornaments in low relief, usually but not always upon a white ground, were identical in character with those of the wall-paneling, but somewhat larger in scale and heavier in relief. the general type of external doors developed under the two previous reigns remained substantially un- changed, but the details of the ornamentation reflected the general advance in classic refinement which marked the architecture of the period (pi. viii, ). there was a good deal of ecclesiastical woodwork a history of ornament produced for the churches erected in this period: stalls for the choir and armoires for the sacristy. this wood- work was paneled and carved with the same delicate moldings, the same rounded corners, flowing acanthus leaves, palm-branches and fanciful scrolls as appear in the secular and domestic wall-decorations; there was no special adaptation to its religious function further than fig. .—iron balcony railing. the introduction of occasional religious emblems. the choir-stalls in the cathedral of notre dame at paris, although out of keeping with the architecture of the church, are in themselves excellent examples of louis xiv decoration in its more sober and restrained mood (pi. viii, ). metalwork. the skill of the louis xiv bronze-workers was not confined to applied relief-ornament on furniture. it was displayed also in the hardware of doors and win- dows, upon which even the great cucci did not disdain renaissance in france, ii to bestow his skill; and in the sconces or light-brackets, the andirons and fireplace-utensils of the royal palaces. ironwork was a less important art, but the grilles, window-guards- and gates of this period show the same "swagger" of pom- pously dignified de- sign, the same flowing grace of line and care- ful execution observ- able in the other branches of decorative art (figs. , ; pi. viii, ). garden art. while the magnifi- cent style of garden- design introduced by the great le notre ( - ) and car- ried to its utmost limit of imperial grandeur at versailles does not properly fall within the province of orna- ment as such; and while the decorative details employed in it were for the most part sculptural or purely architectural, the monumental vases which served to accentuate the composition at important points were works of ornament of the highest interest. fig. .—gate, choir of st. ouen, rouen. a history of ornament they were often of great size, executed in stone, marble, bronze or lead, of forms based on roman precedents, and decorated sometimes in purely classic fashion (e.g. the vase medicis, ver- sailles, pi. ix, ) or in freer style like the example from menard-le-chateau in fig. . textile decoration: tapes- tries. it was under louis xiv that the leadership, if not the supremacy, in the art of tapestry-weaving so long held by the flemings, passed from brussels to paris, thanks to the devel- vase, mefn'ar^le-chateau opment of the establish- ment at the gobelins. while the greatest designers of tapestries in the th century had been italians, the majority of the most notable italian tapestries had been actually woven in flanders. as early as in marc de comano and francois de la planche, flemish tapestry-weavers, in- stalled their work-rooms on the bank of the bievre in paris, where later the gobelins were established, and received a royal patent in . the works of this atelier are known as "early gobelins." sixty years later there were five small ateliers of tapestry in paris, s see my hist, of orn. i, figures , . t renaissance in france, ii which le brun consolidated into the royal atelier of the gobelins. meanwhile in another atelier had been established by royal decree at beauvais under a certain louis hinart, who was later bought out by ph. behagle of tournai. the tapestries of arras in french flanders, which had been the most celebrated of all the flemish weaves and had given the name of the city to tapestries in general ("arras" in english and "arazzi" in italian), had long before this lost their preeminence. the gobelins tapestries were not the first to be woven in france. there is a tradition that the saracens had brought the art to france in the time of charles martel ( a.d.), but if this be true, the art did not long flourish among the half-civilized franks, although it was called in the th century "an immemorial in- dustry." francis i had attempted to domesticate the industry at fontainebleau, and the atelier there con- tinued to exist into the reign of henry ii, but it seems to have disappeared before the end of the th century. it required the immense resources of louis xiv and the energy and artistic wisdom of a colbert and a le brun to establish it on a firm foundation. the gobelins weavery has ever since continued to maintain its supremacy in the art. the royal tapestries woven at the gobelins were chiefly wall-hangings of great size in sets representing series of scenes and episodes from ancient history and mythology, from cartoons by the most distinguished painters, including le bmn himself. for the orna- mentist the most interesting feature of these splendid works is the treatment of the borders. these were for a history of ornament the most part of a distinctly architectural character, with cartouches, festoons, heraldic attributes, infant forms and grotesques in rich colors, reproducing as closely as possible the effects of painted decorations, such as were executed in connection with mural and ceil- ing paintings (pi. x, , , , , , , ). this is, indeed, the chief fault of all the th century tapestries; they sought to imi- tate painting with all its light and shade and perspective, and thereby lost the frank flat and "mural" quality of the flem- ish weaves of the th and th centu- ries. besides these huge and monumental picture-tapestries there were others woven of a more purely ornamental character, which, although they also imitated painted decorations—many of them from designs by berain, lepautre, etc.—were less open to the above criticism because of their more purely conventional and orna- mental character. from a decorative point of view they are admirable in the playful fancifulness of their design. with these may be classed the pieces specially woven to serve as seats and backs for chairs and sofas. they made free use of floral designs—bouquets, wreaths, garlands and festoons—too realistically repre- fio. .—poi.nt-d'ai.encon lace. renaissance in france, ii fig. a.—french lace, seventeenth century. sented, perhaps, for the truest art,^but so well designed for the forms and spaces they were to decorate and so completely in harmony with the entire scheme of in- terior decoration of the time that severe criticism of their naturalism is fairly disarmed. in the velvets, broca- telles and brocades of this period there was a similar emancipation from for- eign styles, whether flemish or italian. es- pecially rich were the bro- cades, both of velvet and of satin, in which on the one hand floral designs began to appear, and on the other the classicizing influence of le bran asserted itself indirectly in patterns and motives based on the acanthus and rinceau with little or no reminiscence of oriental models. the same is true of the needlework and laces. colbert introduced into the royal ateliers thirty lace-makers from italy, and thus inaugurated an art and industry which rapidly developed into great importance. the "point d'alencon" (fig. ) was employed in patterns of remarkable richness, and has fig. ls- b.—needlework, velvet lamrrequin. bed- renaissance in france, ii art; a throwing off of the formality and pompous dig- nity that had so long been-the rule. there began a great activity in the building of sumptuous mansions for the nobility, in which the rebound towards a gay and frivolous social life could find free expression. externally these mansions, such as the hotels biron, matignon, soubise and others, still exhibit a classical fig. .— keystone decoration, versailles. simplicity, even severity, of mass and detail. the "latin" tendency is dominant, but without the ostenta- tion of colossal orders and huge sculptured pediments, and here and there segmental arches and concave re- veals to the jambs of doorways appear, and bits of fan- tastic ornament on keystones or door-tympanums (fig. ). within the walls, however, a new freedom of gallic fancy finds expression, alike in the decoration of walls and ceilings and in the furniture. every vestige of classical formality disappears. the straight line and right angle are avoided wherever possible; a history of orxament swaying lines are everywhere; shells, palm-branches and a kind of ragged acanthus leaf are constantly recurring motives. the tops and bottoms of all panels are curved and the corners cut off with a concave curve and a leaf (fig. ). roman cornices and round arches are banished. panels of walls and doors are enclosed nished the subjects of this decorative painting, treated with consummate skill and great delicacy of technic. this was the age of the salon and the boudoir; the decoration was gay, trivial or charming; the revolt from the academic, the formal, expressed itself in every line and curve, parallel with the licentiousness and un- blushing immorality of the social revolt from the • antoine wnttenu, h - ; nicolas lancret. - ; francois boucher, - ; jean honore fragonard, - d. paris. hotel soublsfc fic. .—corner of panel in hotel sourise, paris. in two or three separate lines of moldings, the finer ones inside the heavier outer moldings (figure ). decorative painting aban- dons the field of history, war and classical mythology and allegory, under the influence of watteau and lancret and their successors van loo, boucher and fragon- ard. an affectation of pas- toral simplicity and an arti- ficial rusticity of shepherds and shepherdesses dressed in satins and brocades fur- renaissance in france, ii affected pietism of the later years of the louis xiv regime. the regency, - . it is customary to assign the name of the eight years' period of the regency of philip of orleans to a supposed definite style, distinct alike from those which preceded and followed. no such distinction really exists; every feature and detail of the ornament of this period can be found either in the louis xiv or the louis xv style. indeed the louis quinze style itself is little more than the accentuation and exaggeration of elements already existing in that of louis quatorze. the "style regence" is merely the transition from the relative severity and formality of the louis xiv work to the greater freedom and fancifulness of the reign of the grand monarque's grandson. the decoration of the closing years of the th century and opening years of the th, even before the regency, cannot be easily distinguished from much that was done after ; it differs more from the earlier louis xiv work than from that of louis xv. the regency may, however, be easily identified in its furniture, which has more grace and freedom of form than that which preceded, without the fantastic and contorted extravagance of that which followed. louis quinze details. except possibly for the shell (fig. ), usually with ragged edges, it is impossible to find an ornament which is new or distinctive. the peculiarities of the style are a history of ornament those of manner and degree. the coves and other spaces filled with network or basket-diaper, the curved tops and bottoms of panels, corners cut off by quad- g | fig. .—louis xv shells on a bracket. rants, interrupted moldings, repetition of panel mold- ings within moldings, the ragged acanthus and palm, occur in both louis xiv and louis xv work. but in renaissance in france, ii the latter style the curves dominate, the architectural framework is less classic, less formal; there is more of minute and delicate arabesque, the shells and foliage are more ragged than ever (fig. ). in f urniture the straight line is completely abandoned (fig. ); the silhouette is often torn and distorted beyond all reason; the last vestige of structural expres- sion disappears. a new element, though not a new form, shows itself in the use of lac- quer or "vemis mar- tin" as a finish for fur- niture. this received its name from robert martin (born ), who with his family received a patent from the king for making furniture after the chinese and japanese fig. .—ceiling-cove, versailles. fashions, and was later appointed official "varnisher to the king." the verms martin became extremely fashionable; it was applied in various colors in designs which imitated chinese landscapes and figures and were known as chinoiseries. pictures introducing monkeys in the place of human figures also caught the fancy of the jaded society of the day; they were called singeries. 'madame de pompadour is recorded as having paid martin , livrcs in a single year for work done to her order. a history of ornament both on lacquered furniture and on tapestry and needlepoint upholsterings and draperies these chinois- eries and singeries competed with the pastorals and affected rusticalities of the watteau school for aristo- cratic favor, and were even introduced into the panel- paintings and wall-arabesques of salons in the great houses and royal palaces, watteau himself not disdain- ing to furnish the sketches for some of them. fio. .—commode ry caffieri. in the design and making of furniture, apart from this superficial decoration, the dominant name is that of cressent, an artist of inherited gifts, the son of a sculptor and himself primarily a worker in bronze, noted for his "exquisite figures of women placed at the corners of furniture, chiefly on tables, to which the name of espagnolettes was given." among his pupils was j. a. meissonier ( - ), an italian by birth, who "charles cressent, - ; probably a pupil of boulle. *a. saglio, "french furniture," p. (batsford, i-ondon). renaissance in france, ii was responsible, more than any one else, for the extrava- gances of the later louis quinze works, both in furni- ture and in interior decoration generally. the name genre rocaille (rockwork style) has been given to this later phase of the style, and often been applied incor- rectly to the entire louis xv development. along with meissonier one should mention the two cafrieri, jacques and philippe, son and grandson of that filippo caffieri who worked for louis xiv in the gobelins establishment; and the three brothers slodtz. it must not be supposed that the vernis-martin finish was the only one employed. with the decline of the structural expressiveness that had never been lost sight of under louis xiv, and the growing taste for purely superficial decoration, there appeared a quite new effect in the use of decorative veneers, applied so as to form symmetrical patterns of veining. these were especially resorted to on the smooth bulging surfaces that char- acterized much of the furniture, such as cupboards, commodes, chests of drawers and the like. the relief ornaments of gilded bronze, or in the commoner furni- ture of gilded wood or gilded gesso, were applied to these veneered surfaces. inlays of tortoise-shell and metal a la boulle almost wholly disappeared, but wood- inlay or intarsia came back into favor. many of the finest louis xv pieces in the metropolitan museum at new york are decorated in this way. in these developments as a whole we recognize the uninterrupted continuance of many of the louis xiv traditions, handed down from father to son and from master to pupil. there is nothing absolutely new ex- a history of ornament cept the spirit in which these traditions were handled. even the chinoiseries and singeries were not new; one finds them occasionally under louis xiv, for the fashion of collecting objets a" art from the far east had begun under louis xiii and mazarin. whatever may be said in dispraise of the riotous frivolity and fanciful extravagance of louis xv detail at its worst, one can- not deny its originality of inven- tion, its frequent charm of effect, and above all its wonderful exe- cution. there was no falling off in the painstaking workmanship or exquisite finish of detail in architectural works, in furniture, in textiles, in every appurte- nance of life on which the de- signer's skill could be bestowed. the louis xv style was, in all that distinguished it, a style of protest against tradition, at least against academic classical- ism and above all against royal dictation. in this, as in its predilection for curves, it re- sembled the art nouveau of the early th century. but unlike the latter movement, it never sought to break loose from the control of inherited traditions of pure design, or to ignore those fundamental laws of design which spring from the demands of construction, balance and order. in its wrought-ironwork the louis quinze style found the most congenial field for its love fio. .—balustrade ry h£ret, nancy. renaissance in france, ii of free unhampered design and for linear patterning in swaying curves. the special qualities of the material and the structural requirements of its use in grilles, gates and railings, lent themselves to this sort of design, which here, therefore, exhibits a propriety too often lacking in the furniture and architecture (fig. ). and in church architecture, in external architectural form generally, the age of louis xv still adhered to much of its classical inheritance: witness the facade of the church of st. sulpice, the cold classical purity of the pantheon, and most of the works of j. a. gabriel. the style of louis xvi. it was inevitable that a reaction should follow the extravagances of the louis xv style as well as those of the louis xv social regime. the pendulum was bound to swing back from the gallic end of its arc towards the latin and classic. indeed, this return had already begun under louis xv, as already suggested, asserting itself in the more monumental forms of archi- tecture, but appearing also in such works of lesser size as the petit trianon by gabriel and the grenelle foun- tain by bouchardon, dating as far back as . many influences tended to accelerate the movement before the death of the aged roue louis xv in . probably the most potent was the rapid development of archaeo- logical interest, stimulated by the discoveries in hercu- lanum, pompeii and paestum between and , the publication of stuart and revett's "antiquities of athens" in , and a remarkable succession of archaeo- "jacques ange gabriel of lyons, - . a history of ornament logical expeditions and publications in the last half of that century. the classical purism of english taste also influenced the french, and a new interest in na- ture, in the beauties of the landscape, in flowers and outdoor life were tak- ing the place of the artificial and dressed- up rusticity of the watteau tradition. simplicity, natural- ness, sobriety and re- finement began to find favor as a welcome change from the rest- less extravagance of the louis xv regime. the educated middle class, the upper bour- geoisie, was growing in power and was destined in time to overthrow both the aristocracy and the monarchy it- self, as its ultimate protest against a corrupt and selfish domination. chalons-jun marne fig. .—rustication and paneling, arch at chalons-sur-marne. architectural decoration. the classical purism of the later louis xv architec- ture continued to prevail in all exterior design. the twin colonnaded fronts on the north side of the place de la concorde, finished in ; the pantheon, begun in but not completed till ; the ecole de medi- cine by gondouin and his hotel de la monnaie; the hotel de salm (now the palace of the legion of renaissance in france, ii honor) by rousseau ( ); the grenelle fountain and the petit trianon, all alike exhibit this new taste for classic purity and refinement, although built at dates ranging through more than sixty years. along with these somewhat stately edifices, in which the roman orders were still the dominant element of the design, were many others from which they were wholly absent. fio. .—louis xvi window-head, house in rue du temple, paris. in these the careful proportioning of the voids and solids, a studied refining of all the profiles of cornices and moldings, a discreet use of quoins and rustication, a frequent resort to rectangular wall-panels, and a gen- eral avoidance of strong projections and large features, were the most noticeable characteristics (figs. , ). the colossal pilasters of victor louis' extension of the palais royal to enclose the garden behind it are a marked exception. a history of ornament interior decoration. it was in interior decoration that the period of louis seize achieved really new and distinctive results. the change came about rapidly, almost suddenly. the curved line disappeared from the wall-paneling and from the supporting members of the furniture, and with it the shells, the palms, the ragged acanthus leaves and fio. .—two console-brackets, ixiuis xvi. the quadrant-corners of the louis quinze style. chi- noiseries, singeries and sugary denatured pastorals were banished. all the ornament was based on classic prec- edents. frets and honeysuckles and rosettes of greek or roman origin came into favor. consoles and brack- ets were often designed largely or wholly with straight lines (fig. ). the heavy swags or festoons of the louis xiii and xiv periods were replaced by light and graceful festoons of naturalistic flowers, tied with fillets and bows of narrow ribbon and often hung across the upper part of a panel or mirror (fig. ; pi. ix, ). the relief decorations of plaster ceilings were in renaissance in france, ii light and graceful pat- terns in low relief, based on simple geometric sys- tems of composition, re- flecting perhaps some in- fluence from the adam brothers' work in eng- land (see p. ). in general, refinement, deli- cacy, quiet restraint char- acterized the style. furniture and metalwork. marte astolnetft- jxu.ttocbe l these qualities appear fl . i ._lodis xvi p.cture-frame. especially in the furniture and the metalwork, in which many of the motives above described were used. the straight line and right an- gle dominate the design of tables, bureaux and desks, cabinets, commodes and armoires (fig. ; pi. ix, ). while ve- neering, inlays of wood and sometimes of metal, and applied ornaments of gilt bronze were still characteristic, the entire aspect of the furniture was transformed by this fig. .—louis xvi commode, change of form and detail. a history of ornament chairs still had curved arms and sometimes curved backs, but the legs of both chairs and tables were always straight and tapered downwards (figs. , ). the tapestries of the upholstering were woven with designs fio. .—louis xvi chair. morilier fio. .—louis xvi candle- national. stick. chiefly floral. sconces, candlesticks, andirons and light- stands often affected the slender and graceful forms of pompeiian bronze tripods and candelabra, or were other- wise designed with classical restraint and propriety combined with much refined and charming detail (fig. ). renaissance in france, ii the outstanding names in the interior decoration and furniture of this period are, first of all, cauvet and delafosse, among the decorative designers, correspond- ing in a measure to lepautre under louis xiv and rousseau, oppenord and meissonier under louis xv; lasalle, whose figured silks and brocades, with natural- istic designs, are justly celebrated (pi. ix, ), and in furniture the great riesener, who had already, in his late works under louis xv, begun to develop the character- istics of the style of louis xvi, and fay. the ironwork of this period is particularly noteworthy. wrought iron balustrades or stair- railings and balcony- flg. .- , ™ xvi w gate. parapets came into vogue, and these, along with gates and grilles, were de- signed with remarkable grace of line, free from affecta- tion or display of technical tours-de-force in hammered foliage or intricate twists and spirals. nearly all this ironwork was wrought of bars of rectangular section, giving it a certain refined severity of aspect, and decora- tive effect was produced by the patterning of the scrolls and a moderate amount of forged and repousse orna- mentation of rosettes, wreaths and "drops" or festoons of leaves or flowers (fig. ). a history of ornament french ceramic art. it has seemed better to treat this subject as a whole, rather than to break it up into the periods under which we have studied architectural ornament. the pioneer work of palissy was briefly referred to on page ; but for the real beginnings of french ceramic art we must go a little further back. the italians who came over in with girolamo della robbia to work on the glazed terra-cotta enrichments of the chateau de madrid do not seem to have founded a lasting industry. but shortly after the beginning of their activity, about , the earliest purely french faience—that is, glazed earthenware or majolica—was made at oiron near thouars in poitou, in an establishment created by a certain helene de hengest-gouffier, and continued by her sons until its extinction in in the disorders of the huguenot wars. this oiron ware (sometimes called henri deux ware), of which the small number of authentic extant pieces are almost priceless, was glazed with an ivory ground on which the peculiar banded and interlaced decorations were executed in varying shades of brown (fig. a, c). the later pieces bear the monogram of henry ii and the triple crescents of diane de poitiers; but these were ex- tensively counterfeited in later and inferior productions. meanwhile palissy, a huguenot glass-painter and an original and self-trained naturalist, had after infinite labor and experiment succeeded in producing a white enamel ( ), and later various colored glazes, with which he adorned all sorts of vessels, especially plates and platters of great size, modeled with naturalistic t e neveix pilgrim otl)r"i*<aid) fstrasbourg clockfonjc) gseyrej vose: cvfrrd) figure - illustrations of french ceramics. renaissance in france, ii ornament in relief (figure ). as he kept to himself the secret of his enamels and was opposed on principle to cheapening or popularizing his art, it left no really lasting impress on french ceramic art in general. its too naturalistic decoration of eels, fishes, shells, fruit, flowers and human figures in relief was artistically in- fio. .—early french faience: (a, c) oiron ware; (b) palissy ware. appropriate, and was never imitated by other french potters. many of palissy's works were, however, de- signed in a purer and less personal style, making free use of renaissance motives and classic mythological and allegorical figures. palissy died in prison for his re- ligion in (fig. b; figure ). another early center of ceramic art in france was rouen, where for fourteen years from a certain abaquesne produced finely glazed floor-tiles and drug- pots; but after this industry, like that of oiron, became extinct in the confusion of the religious wars a history of ornament and political disturbances of the time. it was, how- ever, revived in by poirel, sieur de grandval, who later ceded the works to a certain edme poterat, whose son louis developed the rouen ware to a state of high perfection, which was maintained by other rouen pot- teries throughout the greater part of the th century. the rouen ware has been called the "queen of french faiences"; confined at first to the simpler forms of plates, platters and ewers, it was later made in the greatest variety of shapes. its distinguishing characteristic is its decoration by delicate patterns derived from laces and embroideries, sometimes called "lambrequin pat- terns" (figure ), later varied by figures, scrolls, flowers, cornucopias, etc., outlined in a delicate red or blue, and almost always admirably disposed with ref- erence to the form of the object decorated. the rouen potteries became extinct in , having sacrificed the quality of their wares in a vain effort to compete with the better organized english porcelain potteries (see p. ). the lille potteries, established about , produced mainly imitations of other wares, including that of rouen (figure d). two other early centers should be mentioned: nevers and moustiers. by the marriage in of margaret of cleves to ludovico gonzaga, nevers came under the dukes of mantua, who established in that city a colony of italian potters, whose early works imitate the urbino majolica. later the product became more varied; persian forms and above all persian floral decoration were imitated, and the chinese fad of louis xiv's age led to the painting of chinese scenes and some repro- renaissance in france, ii duction of chinese forms. modeling in relief was in- troduced, and the fine taste and beautiful execution of the earlier works disappeared. this industry also be- came extinct with the close of the th century. the faience of moustiers rivals that of rouen in ar- tistic merit. this industry was founded by clerissy near the end of the th century; its products display a cer- tain originality in their freedom from imitation of for- eign wares. strasbourg also developed an important ceramic production, whose decoration was divided be- tween naturalistic floral ornament and rococo or louis quinze forms. the great royal pottery at sevres was one of the creations of colbert under louis xiv. here was de- veloped a rare perfection of manufacture both of hard and soft porcelains, in sets and display-pieces for the royal palaces and for presentation to foreign princes. its special distinction lies in the fineness of the ware, the perfection of the glazes, the splendor of the deep blue and of the gold employed in its decoration, and the classic elegance of the forms of its major productions (figure g). the period of louis xvi came to an end in the bloody upheaval of the french revolution. france and the monarchy paid the price of the long-continued ex- travagance of royalty and the aristocracy. for fifteen years war, proscriptions, executions and political over- turnings absorbed the energies and minds of the nation, until the genius of napoleon restored order under a new absolutism and inaugurated a new series of archi- a history of ornament tectural enterprises. in these the classical movement took on a new phase, more completely roman than ever, to which the name of the empire style has been given. but as it belongs to the th century its discussion must be left to a later chapter. books recommended: as before, blondel, daly, gélis-didot, guérinet, lurke, rouyer et darcel, ward.—also: anonymous: architecture de louis xv ( , paris, n. d.).—e. baldus: versailles, motifs de décoration (baldus, paris, ).—dilke (lady): french furniture and decoration of the xviii century (bell, london, ).—p. favier: l'architecture et la décoration aux palais de versailles et des trianons ( imprimeries réunies, paris, ).—v. garnier: les palais et musées nationaux: meubles d'art, etc. (paris, n. d.).—p. gille: versailles et les deux trianons (mâme, tours, ).—hessung: le mobilier louis xv au musée du louvre (hessling, paris, ).—j. lepautre: collection des plus belles compositions (noblet, paris, ).—e. mounier: le mobilier, xvile et xviile siècles (lévy, paris, ).—p. de nolhac: histoire du château de versailles au xvilie siècle (emile-paul, paris, ); versailles and the trianons (dodd, mead, new york, ).—c. percier: recueil de décorations intérieures (per- cier, paris, ).—r. pfnor: architecture, décorations, etc., louis xvi (morel, paris, ).—s. de ricci: louis xvi furniture (putnam, new york, ).—w. g. townsend: measured drawings of french furniture in south kensington museum (truslove, london, ). chapter viii renaissance ornament in spain beginnings. the renaissance came to spain.primarily from italy, but "at sundry times and in divers manners." christian spain had through the entire middle ages been exposed to contending influences and dependent on foreigners for much of its productive art, and this condition was not at once changed by the final conquest of the moors in and the elan of national enthusiasm of the early th century. moorish decorative art could not fail to influence spanish design, even during and after the gradual eclipse of the moorish power. the name of mudejar denotes the mixture of moorish with gothic details in many buildings of the late th and early th centuries; and long after the fall of granada moorish carpenters continued to work for their chris- tian lords. during the last quarter of the th century when, following the marriage of ferdinand and isabella in , the kingdoms of castile and aragon had been united, many french, german and flemish artists had entered spain by way of burgos, working in the late gothic style of northern europe, and developing in and about burgos a school of hispano-flemish archi- mudejares = conquered or subject moors. a history of ornament tecture and carving comparable with that of rouen of the same period (see p. ). several of the spanish- born descendants of these foreigners, trained in this ornate style, later became pioneers in the style of the early renaissance. meanwhile an italian invasion of artists from florence, genoa and lombardy had been introducing the style of the quattrocento into eastern and central spain by way of barcelona, valencia and murcia, and skilled carvers from the marble quarries of carrara had established a flourishing art-industry as makers of tombs, extending their influence as far west as toledo. spanish artists began to study their arts in italy, and the elevation of a borja (borgia) of valencia to the papacy as alexander vi in immensely strengthened the italian influence. moreover whatever contribution was made to the new style by germans or flemings was primarily derived from italy, so that the spanish renaissance was as completely italian in its origin as was the french. the closing years of the fifteenth century witnessed a remarkable series of events which raised spain to a high pitch of power and wealth and provided the in- spiration and opportunity for a marvelous artistic ac- tivity. these events were the conquest of granada and final destruction of the moorish dominion in ; the discovery of america and the elevation of borja to the papal throne in the same year; and in the union of the kingdom to that of spain. following the brilliant reign of ferdinand and isabella came the still more brilliant era of charles v ( - ), when spain was the first power of kurope, and when the renaissance ornament in spain conquests of mexico and peru had brought to spain an enormous wealth in gold and silver. succession of styles. the early renaissance style thus developed in spain is called the plateresque (from platero, a silversmith or goldsmith), and lasted almost exactly a half-century ( - ). the name by which it is known, displacing the earlier designations of obra del romano (roman work) and arte vie jo (antique art), came into vogue in the th century, either because of an erro- neous theory that the style had been intro- duced by italian goldsmiths, or be- cause of the minute- ness, delicacy and profusion of its sur- face-ornament, sug- gestive of work in the precious metals (fig. ; fig- ure ). a tendency towards a more academic and classical style manifested itself during the later years of charles fig. .—top of doorway, san clemente, toledo. a history of ornament v, and was strongly accentuated under philip ii ( - ), a monarch of ascetic taste and autocratic will, who made juan de herrera his artistic agent as the supreme arbiter of all architectural designs. the charming gaiety and freedom of the plateresque gave way to the cold monumental style known as the griego- romano exemplified in such buildings as the palace of charles v at granada, the vast escorial, and the cathe- dral of valladolid. by the middle of the th century the griego- romano in turn began to give way to mingled and con- fused influences from france, germany and italy, among which the italian baroque was the strongest until about . the spanish love of exuberant deco- ration, rising in protest against the barrenness of the academic "unadorned style," then found its exponent in josef churriguera of salamanca ( - ), a man of erratic genius whose name has been fastened on the styles of the first half of the th century, and whose sons and nephews continued to work in his vein. the lawless and fantastic character of the overloaded orna- ment of the churrigueresque style is often shocking to a conservative taste, sometimes fascinating by its bril- liance and ingenuity, but instructive chiefly, perhaps always, by way of warning. the architecture of the last half of the th century displays the decline of spanish originality and creative- ness in decoration. side by side there were examples of the expiring churrigueresque taste and monuments 'juan de herrera, born ; died about . •called also estilo desornamentado or "unadorned style." renaissance ornament in spain exhibiting a new influx from italy, in a dry and unin- spired phase of renewed classicism. italian works. the first acquaintance of the spaniards with renais- sance art came through an important series of minor works by italians—tombs, retablos or altar-pieces and enameled tile-work. as early as a pupil of fio. .—tomr in capilla real, granada. ghiberti had worked in valencia, and the carrarese and genoese artisans had carved tombs and retablos before . but it was after that date that the most notable italian works were executed. thus in niculoso of pisa made for the chapel of the alcazar at seville an altar of enameled tile-work (azulejos); in domenico fancelli of florence carved the fine tomb of the infante don juan in san tomas at avila, follow- ing in with one still finer—that of ferdinand and isabella in the chapel of the catholic kings (capilla real) at granada (fig. ). later the ribera tombs, a history of ornament now in the university chapel at seville, were carved by two genoese sculptors, aprile and gazzini (or gag- gini?), and the portal of the casa de pilatos in that city and some of the columns of its patio or court were carved in genoa. as late as giovanni moreto executed the rich silleria or choir-stalls of the cathedral of el pilar at saragossa. more important architecturally even than the works enumerated above was the great mendoza palace at lacalahorra, by a genoese architect, michele carlone, begun in . this was the first purely and com- pletely renaissance building in spain, and it exerted a powerful influence toward the extinction of the still lingering gothic style in the details of spanish archi- tecture. plateresque architects. the leading names in the development of the richly decorative plateresque style are: enrique de egaz (d. ); pedro gumiel (d. about ); alonso covar- rubias (first half of th century); diego de siloe ( ?- ); rodrigo gil de hontafion (d. ); diego de riano (active in ); alonso berruguete ( - ), and juan de badajos (d. about ). many of these architects were gifted also as sculptors in relief, and the charm of their work lies in part in the beauty of their carved and sculptured ornament in stone and wood. berruguete shares with the sculptor bar- tolome ordonez (d. ) the distinction of producing the finest sculptural work of the period; e.g. the fine tomb of cardinal tavers at toledo. renaissance ornament in spain architectural ornament. the style is characterized by a profusion of deli- cately carved renaissance relief ornament applied to the flat-walled, sparsely-windowed style of structure developed during the late gothic period (fig. ). fio. .—casa monterey, salamanca. effects of strong contrast were sought between plain wall-surfaces and rich decoration of restricted portions, such as a very open upper story with elaborate crestings and finials (fig. ). in the early years of the new style gothic features were sometimes naively mingled with those of the renaissance, especially in the ribbed a history of ornament vaulting of churches and cloisters and even civic build- ings like the lonja (exchange) at saragossa. the two styles are however never mixed in one composition to the extent that was common in france under louis xii. the adoption of the new style even by men trained in gothic work was more rapid and thorough- going than in france. such works as the portal of san clemente at toledo (fig. ) seem like anticipa- tions of french francis i work (see ante, fig. ). could the toulouse doorway have been by a spaniard? the very gothic courtyard of the infantada at guada- lajara is exceptional; the lower arcade is tuscan, the upper one extravagantly flamboyant gothic. decoratively the most important features of the plateresque compositions were the doorways, cornices and crestings of the exterior, and the court-arcades, stairways and ceilings of the interior. in churches the tombs, retablos and rejas or grilles were often the most interesting features. the most characteristic orna- mental details of this decoration—those which, added to the familiar italian motives of the acanthus, rinceau, pilaster-arabesque, anthemion, classic moldings and de- tails from the classic orders are most distinctively span- ish—were heraldic escutcheons, medallion portraits and candelabrum-shafts. the last-named motive, intro- duced as early as , evidently by the lombards working in spain, became a favorite ornament, appear- ing as a pilaster-decoration in retablos; as the usual form for iron or bronze spindles in rejas; as a substitute for gothic pinnacles in crestings and other combina- tions; as a substitute for engaged columns in doorways j renaissance ornament in spain (see fig. ), in the upper arcade of the collegio de los irlandeses at salamanca by- pedro ibarra ( ); and as an isolated support instead of a column in the upper ar- cade of the patio (court) of the casa de zaporta, re- moved from saragossa to paris some years ago (fig. ). doubtless the cam- paign of charles v in lom- bardy and fio. .—candel- arrum - shaft, casa de zaporta, fio. .—heraldic escutcheon, escuelas menores, salamanca. his great victory at pavia in contributed to enhance its popularity in spain (see pp. , ). in the spanish doorways moorish in- fluence is plainly manifest. the uni- versal mohammedan tradition made of the doorway a feature whose decoration was always extended upward to the top of the structure, and many of the span- ish doorways and church facades follow this tradition. the doorway of the uni- versity of salamanca, by an unknown architect (ct'r. ) is the most notable renaissance illustration of this system (figure ). the delicate arabesques, the medallion portraits, the heraldic es- cutcheons, the lace-like crestings with a history of ornament candelabrum-pinnacles, and the purely decorative use of pilasters and cornices as surface ornaments in this fine decorative design, furnish an epitome of the orna- ment of the plateresque period. other notable door- ways, among many, are those of the sacristy of the cathedral of cuenca, with superb carved doors by ber- ruguete; of the partly gothic hospital real at santiago de compostella, an early work by de egaz; the porta della pellejen'a (north transept-por- tal) of burgos ca- thedral by francisco colonia, and his door- ways to the medina- celi palace at cogol- ludo; the portal to the gothic capilla de los reyes nuevos in burgos cathedral; the carved doors to the chapter-room of toledo cathedral by gumiel and de egaz ( - ), and the portal of the convento de san clemente at toledo (fig. ) by covar- rubias. the classic orders played a very subordinate part in the plateresque period. columns, where used at all, chiefly in court arcades, were treated with the utmost freedom, with entire disregard of vitruvius and the italian precedents. capitals were carved with great fro. .—capital, ai.cai.a de hekares, in ?>iauuiu museum. renaissance ornament in spain originality and vigor (fig. ). jn the courtyard of the casa miranda at burgos an unknown architect de- veloped a beautiful type of bracket-capital, also used in a courtyard at guadalajara (fig. ) and in the courtyard of the university of alcala de henares by rodrigo gil de hontafion. on the exterior of diego de riafio's ayunta- miento (town hall) at seville the engaged col- umns (a rare feature in exterior design) are richly carved and wreathed with festoons. arabesqued pi- lasters of great beauty also appear in this facade and on the second story of the convent of san marcos at leon, by juan de badajos ( - ; fig. ). in the longa (ex- change) at saragossa, ionic columns, treated like the columns of san zaccaria at venice (see fig. ), the lower part of the shaft serving as a sort of pedestal for the upper part, support a ribbed vault of gothic design but renaissance detail. classic columns also form the chief architectural motives of the interiors of the cathe- dral of jaen by val del vira, and of the magnificent cathedral of granada by diego de siloe (begun ). in courtyards classic columns, carrying sometimes architraves, sometimes arches, are naturally of frequent use, and many of these courtyards or patios are of great fig. .—bracket capital, guadalajara. a history of ornament decorative beauty: e.g. (besides those already men- tioned) that of the hospital of santa cruz at toledo, by de egaz; that of the lupiana monastery; those of the arch- bishop's palace at al- cala by covarrubias, of the hospital real at santiago de compos- tela by de egaz, show- ing lombard influence in the doubled bays of the second story, and of the penaranda pal- ace by francisco de colonia ( ). col- umns are quite natur- ally important elements in some of the italian tombs, as in those of the riberas in the uni- versity chapel at se- ville. an example of the frankly and purely decorative use of the orders externally is seen in the facade of the monastery at piedra in aragon, in which two superposed orders of engaged columns with ressauts or broken-out entablatures are applied as a wall-veil, with no suggestion of structural function. but this is an exceptional instance of such use of superposed orders. fio. .—part of facade op convent of san marcos, leon. renaissance ornament in spain rustications. rustications appealed to the plateresque architects not as suggestions or expressions of massive masonry, but purely as devices for surface patterning. thus the medinaceli palace (now the civic hospital) at jativa, has a facade en- tirely patterned over with grooves that outline a small-scale rustication of the masonry. the con- ception of the wall as a broad surface to be en- riched by all-over orna- ment doubtless betrays moorish influence. in the casa de las conchas at salamanca carved shells in relief are applied like nail-heads at regular in- tervals along the horizon- tal joints of the masonry; and on the infantada at guadalajara stone diamonds perform the same func- tion. rustication was also used in interiors where the masonry was exposed, especially on the supporting and flanking walls of stairways, as in the santa cruz hos- pital at toledo and in the archbishop's palace at alcala. in these and similar examples each block of the rustica- tion was treated as a panel to be ornamented by carving fig. .—decorative alcala. rustication, a history of ornament in relief (fig. ). this minute ornamentation of interior stone walls, so much more suggestive of plaster- work than of masonry, is another evidence of the power- ful though doubtless unconscious influence of moorish art. a possible italian prototype may, however, be found in the carved rustication of the palazzo pretorio, bologna. fig. .—artesonado ceiling, university, salamanca. the stairways of hospitals and palaces were made the subjects of rich decorative treatment in spain earlier than in either italy or france, if we except the circular stairways of blois and chambord. besides the carved rustications of the walls, they were adorned sometimes by carving the risers, and the balustrades were executed with especial delicacy and care. one of the most famous examples is the double stairway in the north transept of burgos cathedral, leading to a door on a higher level opening onto the street. this is the work of diego de siloe and maestro hilario, the latter a frenchman who executed the iron balustrade. wooden ceilings and cornices are a distinctive feature renaissance ornament in spain of plateresque work, especially in andalusia, where excellent pine timber abounded, and where the moorish carpihteros in spanish employ displayed consummate skill in working it. ceilings were ingeniously framed and paneled in intricate designs, and then painted and gilded with admirable decorative effect (fig. ; fig- ure ). the deep panels or cofferings, or perhaps the inverted troueh-like form of ° is ^ p. _ a. many of these ceilings, gave them the name of artesonados, from arteson, a kneading- trough. notable examples of such ceilings are those in the hospital of santa cruz, to- ledo; over stairway of pal- ace of pefiaranda de duero, in the house of the dukes of alva, seville, the archivo fw .-cornice of lonja, at barcelona and many oth- saragossa. ers. the wooden cornices of palaces and hospitals were sometimes conformed to classic models, as in the lonja of saragossa (fig. ); sometimes given a projection of several feet, casting a broad shadow beneath them, somewhat after the fashion of the wooden eaves of florence and pisa, though far more elaborate in their details of brackets and framing. both types offer fruit- ful suggestions for american use, especially in the southern states, where the climate and the still-existing forests of yellow pine provide conditions not unlike those of spain. the great merit of these spanish a history of ornament cornices is their frankly wooden character combined with monumental solidity and vigor of design. tombs. the italian tombs already referred to as being among the earliest renaissance works in spain were of two types, the wall-tomb exemplified in the ribera tombs at seville, and the floor-tombs, of which the finest example is the magnificent tomb of ferdinand and isabella in the chapel of the kings (capilla real, capilla de los reyes) in the cathedral of granada, by domenico fancelli or foncelli of florence (fig. ), who also executed the tomb of the infante don juan in san tomas at avila. the tomb of don felipe and dona juana adjoining that of ferdinand and isabella, and of the same general form and style, is by the spaniard bartolome ordonez ( ). another fine tomb of the same type is that of the cardinal tavera at toledo, in the hospital san juan bautista, a work of the versatile berruguete ( ). retablos. the retablo is the distinctively spanish type of the reredos or altarpiece, and forms in many churches the richest and most striking decorative feature of the in- terior, covering the entire eastern wall of the apse or chancel. many of the retablos are of wood, painted and gilded; a few are of stone or marble; in the chapel of the alcazar at seville is one of faience, already referred to, the work of niculoso of pisa. the retablo consists of a lofty architectural composition of pilasters, renaissance ornament in spain candelabrum-shafts, shell-capped niches and entabla- tures, all richly carved, as a framework for a multi- tude of statues, pictures and reliefs. in these works the "three arts" were thus made to collaborate on equal terms; and while one may criticize the composition, one cannot deny the beauty and delicacy of the detail nor fio. .—detail, retarlo in porlet monastery. the splendor of the general effect. notable examples are, among others, the wooden retablo in the capilla real of granada cathedral, by felipe vigarni, a bur- gundian; that in the cathedral of el pilar at sara- gossa; another in the poblet monastery at tarragona, a carved detail from which appears in fig. ; and a third in the cathedral of huesca, all three by damian forment, greatest of aragonese sculptors of the period. a history of ornament equally sumptuous with the retablos, and sometimes surpassing them in the riotous profusion and abandon of their carved ornament, are the choir-stalls or sillerias of the churches. the cathedral of saragossa has un- usually fine plateresque stalls; those of the cathedral of jaen are illustrated in figure . lack of space superposed tiers, are held in a metal frame of posts, lintels and subordinate cross-bars, the upper lintel or entablature usually surmounted by an elaborate cresting and a dominant central motive (fig. ). the posts, both those at the two ends of the screen and those flank- ing the gates, may be square or round, adorned with arabesques or faced with candelabrum-shafts; the cross- bars or transoms are of ornamental work, forged or repousse, and the entablature and cresting display fig- ures, medallions, escutcheons, arabesques and foliage of the finest hammered metalwork. the spindles are usu- ally turned with candelabrum-like swellings, collars and forbids any analysis or further discussion of these superb examples of span- ish woodwork. fio. .—detail from reja, segovia cathedral. the rejas or grilles forming the screens or clotures of chapels and chancels are quite as dis- tinctively spanish as the retablos. their general scheme is of the simplest: long slender metal spin- dles, sometimes in two renaissance ornament in spain scotise, but are otherwise unornamented, and there is an almost complete absence of the flat-bar scrolls and elaborate spiral and curved work that characterize the grilles and metal gates of all other countries during the renaissance. in these rejas the spanish appreciation of decorative effect and the spanish craftsmanship are displayed in their highest development, and the names of such famous rejeros as sandro munez, who executed the reja in the capilla mayor of seville cathedral ( - ), and maestro bartolome, who designed that between nave and transepts in the cathedral of granada ( ) and others at jaen and ubeda, are well worthy of being ranked with the architects, sculp- tors and painters of the period. classic ornament. the ornament of the griego-romano or middle renaissance style in architecture calls for no special notice. so far as it belongs to the style and is not a survival from the plateresque, it is of the stereotyped roman or palladian fashion, sober and correct, appro- priate and well-designed, but with little of the spanish exuberance and abandon. examples of the style are seen first in the palace of charles v in the alhambra, begun in by machuca but never completed; in its circular courtyard, the reliefs on the exterior, the ex- aggerated rustication, the mishandled ionic order of one of the portals, and a number of handsome paneled ceil- the painter fortuny (mariano fortuny y carbo, - *) so highly esteemed the decorative value ajid effect of the spanish rejas that he introduced them into a great number of his paintings as decorative back- grounds for his figure compositions. renaissance ornament in spain light-and-shade characteristic of this style, its curved surfaces and fantastically-broken cornices and pedi- ments, appealed to the spanish taste; not so, however, its preference for colossal orders and big and heavy de- tails. accordingly we find a certain oscillation between a rather severe classicism and an extreme restlessness of fio. .—upper part, facade op san jorge, la coruna. design. the finest baroque facade is the west front of the granada cathedral by alonso cano ( - ), a close friend of velasquez; to whom are also due the church of the magdalen and the capilla mayor of the convent del angel in the same city. other examples of the style are the facade of la pasion at valladolid and the church of san cayetano at saragossa by felipe berrejo, built between and . berrejo is cred- a history of ornament ited with the introduction of a kind of flat relief orna- ment, somewhat resembling the "applique" or "strap- work" of germany and england (see p. ). the detail from san jorge at la coruna in fig. is a belated example of the persistent baroque tradition. fio. .—portal of san andrea, valencia. the peculiar extravagances of the italian jesuit style in church interiors, with their stucco abominations of theatrical sculpture, never found favor in spain, except in the single feature of the twisted column. this un- happy innovation, made famous by bernini's monstrous bronze baldacchino in st. peter's at rome (see p. ), renaissance ornament in spain was copied, repeated and varied in churches, altarpieces and doorways (fig. ), especially during the later and distinctly spanish phase or outgrowth of the ba- roque known as the churrigueresque style. the churrigueresoo. this style, in which for nearly a century after (say) the spanish decorative fancy once more found ex- uberant and extravagantly lawless expression, receives its name from the architect josef churriguera ( - ), who with his sons and nephews after him domi- nated the architectural design of most of the th cen- tury in spain. others prominent in this development were pedro ribera, antonio tome and his sons narciso and diego, miguel de figueroa, f. manoel vasquez, jaime bort, pedro come jo and cayetano acosta. the main characteristic of this style is the use of all the resources of both classic and baroque architectural detail, with utter disregard of every rule of the classic grammar of architecture and of every consideration of structural and architectonic propriety or logic. every feature and detail was broken up, reduced to fragments, contorted and travestied, and the resulting salmagundi of caps, broken and twisted shafts, moldings, finials, brackets, triglyphs and what-not was piled together with amazing cleverness into a decorative mass which, in spite of its incoherence and seeming lack of composition, produces a distinct and powerful effect of decorative richness. it is impossible to reproduce this effect in a line drawing, however carefully detailed. figure represents, with all its fantastic complexity of detail, an a history of ornament unusually restrained example of the style; while figure from lima, peru, illustrates it as practised by the spaniards in south america. the critics, classicist and gothicist alike, are shocked by its riotous defiance of every law of architectural decency; the uninstructed layman stands amazed before it; one hardly knows whether to laugh or mourn at such misdirected skill and energy; whether most to condemn its improprieties or to admire its astonishing ingenuity. but it is true to spanish tradition, and to the persistent moorish tradi- tion, in its reduction of all decoration to a play of minute spots of light and shadow, massed in larger or smaller areas in strong contrast to other areas of perfectly plain surface, in exterior design at least. in the case of in- teriors, however, this contrast is too often lacking, the decoration of every doorway and of every altar being carried upward to the top of the structure, and often spread over the whole wall. it is evident from what has been said that there must be not a few architectural works of the late th and early th centuries which belong to the border-land between the baroque and churrigueresque develop- ments: such are, for instance, the doorway of the arch- bishop's palace at seville (figure ), and that of the church of san andrea at valencia (fig. ). the latter with its twisted columns is an evident prototype of the side portal of st. mary's at oxford. churriguera designed the towers of salamanca "new" cathedral and the town hall of the same city; the tome brothers the facade of the university of valladolid; ribera the provincial asylum at madrid; bort the facade of a history of ornament towers do not differ greatly from italian baroque types, but the doorways are thoroughly churrigueresque. this type of church front was transported to spanish america, where in the th and the th centuries the progress of colonization and the growth of population and commerce made possible the erection of costly churches in great numbers, especially those of the jesuits—the great missionary order. executed some- times in stone, often in brick or rubble and stucco, these churches show the same variation between bareness and over-decoration which is noticeable in spain; but among them are not a few of decidedly churrigueresque char- acter, as at chihuahua (mexico), tucson (ariz.), la merced church at lima, peru (figure ), the sagrario of the cathedral at mexico, and many others. the panama-pacific exhibition at san diego, california, in was an ambitious effort to adapt certain phases of the spanish renaissance architecture to the decora- tion of modern exhibition buildings. the california state building by bertram goodhue was particularly successful as an example of the possibilities of the chur- rigueresco in the hands of an able designer/' the "mission style" in california, on the other hand, represents the other extreme of simplicity, being almost entirely devoid of ornament. the accessory arts. the spanish genius for decorative design asserted itself in all the accessory and minor arts. decorative it is interesting to compare this facade and that of the chihuahua church (fig. ) with, for example, the portal of the hospicio provincial at madrid by riwra illustrated in fig. in schubert's "barockstil in spanien." renaissance ornament in spain sculpture, if we include carved ornament, was so inti- mate and essential a part of the architecture as hardly to be classed as merely accessory. woodwork was an important element in this art. the wooden retablos of many churches have already been referred to as works of architecture. worthy of being classed with them are the choir-stalls or siuenas, of which a famous example among many is that in the choir of granada cathedral by berruguete and vigarni. these, like the retablos, are composed of architectural elements, and, with all their splendor, do not call for separate discussion of their ornamental details. it was in the furniture that spanish woodwork attained a special expression distinct from the more strongly architectural works just mentioned. furniture. spanish wood-carvers never found in domestic furni- ture so rich or congenial a field as did the wood-carvers of italy, france or flanders. there is nothing in spanish movable furniture of the th and th cen- turies to compare with the splendor and exuberant decoration of the wooden retablos and choir-stalls of the churches of that period. there are no cassoni, bed- steads, credences, tables or chairs to rival those of the countries mentioned. this scarcity of furniture is easily explained. the domestic life and habits of the span- iards were until the th century still largely those of the orient, dominated by moorish traditions, which had little use for the wooden furniture required by western civilization. people generally sat, reclined, ate and slept on rugs and cushions, and stored their clothes and a history of ornament smaller belongings in small chests and leather trunks. a chair or two, framed of straight members with little or no carving, served for seats of state on formal occa- sions, with velvet or leather thrown over the back and seat. later this material was nailed permanently in place, and the nail-heads were made into ornaments and multiplied for decorative effect (pi. xi, , ). fig. .—a spanish seventeenth-century table. the earliest distinctive product of the spanish furni- ture-makers was the vargueno, which derived its name from the castilian town of vargas where it was invented and largely made. this consisted of a rectangular chest with a let-down front lid, set upon a stand. later, hinged folding doors were substituted for the lid (pi. xi, , ). the chest was at first covered with velvet or leather, adorned with openwork fittings of iron or brass; later it was of carved, paneled and inlaid wood- renaissance ornament in spain work; the stand was formed of carved supports set upon transverse foot-bars and connected by longitudinal bars and spindles, as in the illustration. the varguefio served as cabinet, chest, table and desk. it was imi- fio. .—detail of church book- fig. .—details of chip- rest. carving on spanish furniture. tated in holland (see pi . xii, ), and in england in the th century. with the progress of the th century western habits and furniture gradually drove out the primitive moor- ish customs, and chairs, cabinets and tables came into general use, and were made after french and flemish models modified by the spanish taste. there is nothing new or original in the ornamental details of most of this a history of ornament furniture; the spanish character appears rather—if at all—in their general style. there were, however, cer- tain spanish innovations and peculiarities. iron was sometimes used for decorative braces in chairs and tables, and pi. xi, , shows a chair of considerable ele- gance made entirely of iron. the use of decorative nail-heads also continued, and leather was employed much more widely than in any other european country. stamped leather, in- deed, was a highly im- portant and distinctive spanish product. the art was, like so much else in spain, an in- heritance from the moors. two methods of decoration were employed: stamping and gilding. for the first, the leather, soft- ened by soaking, was pressed or hammered into or upon wooden molds. for the second it was smeared with an oily paste over which gold leaf was spread. heated metal stamps, with the desired ornament embossed upon them, were pressed upon the gold leaf, which was thereby made to adhere to the leather, after which the superfluous gold-leaf and cement were washed or scraped away. the pattern in both cases was often enhanced by applying color to the background. the patterns used, while chiefly derived from renaissance sources—scrolls, acanthus leaves and fig. .—araric and moorish lhy mo- tives: (o, b) from cairo; (c) from alhamrra. renaissance ornament in spain the like,—frequently betray moorish motives, such as the moorish or arabic lily (see fig. ), certain forms of quarry-mesh and diaper-treatment, and leaf-forms common in all the moslem decorative styles (see p. and figs. , ). the decoration of these leathers was usually broad and bold in design (pi. xi, ). cor- dova was the greatest center of this branch of art, which however has become en- tirely extinct in spain. this branch of decora- tive art, like many oth- ers, was carried to the netherlands and there practiced with great suc- cess (see pi. xii). spanish textiles are less important than the leathers. lace-making was introduced in the th century, most prob- ably from flanders, but never attained the importance it reached in flanders and italy. the richest of the spanish textiles are the velvets, decorated with patterns in applique and enriched with needlework in gold and silver thread (fig. ). renaissance tiles, although belonging to a branch of* art distinctly oriental in origin, show less of moorish patterning than might have been expected. the moors learned the ceramic art from the persians, and the spaniards from the moors. the name majolica is de- fio. .—patterned tiles. fio. .—single-motive or one-color tiles. fio. .—iron window-grille. fio. . — emrroidered wall-hanging, red on white, toledo town hall. a history of ornament be painted upon it in enamel pigments of various colors (fig. ). the latter kind of tiles gradually super- seded the first kind, and constitute the chief part of the tile-work in the buildings of the spanish renaissance and in museum collections. they are usually of a some- what coarse earthenware, covered with a slip or glaze of enamel in color, and designed with great skill as to both pattern and details. fig. represents a characteristic bit of the minor ironwork of spain; figs. - three examples of spanish needlework and embroidery, an art in which, as above stated, the spaniards produced sumptuous effects, especially on velvet. lack of space forbids any adequate illustration of this phase of spanish art, in which, however, the details employed were not essen- tially different from those of renaissance art generally in this and allied fields. books recommended: byne and stapley: spanish architecture of the sixteenth century (putnam, new york, ); rejeria of the spanish renaissance (the hispanic society, new york, ); spanish ironwork (the hispanic society, new york, ); decorated wooden ceilings in spain (putnam, new york, ) ; spanish interiors and furniture (helburn, new york, ) .—caveda (tr. kugler): geschichte der baukunst in spanien (ebner & seubert, stuttgart, ).—w. r. emer- son: the architecture and furniture of the spanish colonies (polley, boston, ).—a. haupt: baukunst der renais- sance in portugal (keller, frankfort, ).—junghaendel und gurlitt: die baukunst spaniens (bleyl, dresden, ). —monumentos arquitectonicos de espana (fortenet, madrid). —a. n. p rentice' renaissance architecture and ornament in spain (batsford, london, ).—o. schurert: barockstil in renaissance ornament in spain spanien (neff, esslingen, ).—c. uhde: baudenkmaeler in spanien (wasmuth, berlin, ).—villa amil: espana artistica y monumental (hauser, paris, ).—a. whittle- sey: the renaissance architecture of central and northern spain (arch. b'k pub. co., new york, ). chapter ix kenaissance ornament in the netherlands the netherlands. holland and belgium are modern names, both geo- graphically and politically. in the sixteenth century, when the renaissance began to invade the low coun- tries or netherlands, entering by various channels from italy, both directly and through germany and france, the greater part of modern belgium belonged to the dukes of burgundy, and was thus nominally an ap- panage or province of france (artois and flandre). the eastern portion of belgium and the whole of hol- land belonged to spain, as a part of the holy roman empire under charles v and his successors, until the revolt and establishment of the dutch republic in . situated thus between germany and france, inhabited by three races—hollanders, flemings and walloons, speaking dutch, flemish and french—owing allegiance at first one part to spain and the other to france, and later divided into the three dominions of the dutch re- public, of the empire under spain, and of burgundy under france, the low countries developed neverthe- less a robust and characteristic art, which if not by any means uniform in the various provinces, was far less chaotic and diversified than might have been expected. there is a certain similarity in the architecture of all ornament in the netherlands the lowlands of this region, whether in holland or in what is now belgium, due to similarity of conditions, the^ lack of stone and consequent use of brick for build- ing, and the development of wood-carving in regions where stone was scarce and marble wholly wanting. all this region was more .german than french in its taste, the rhine forming a main channel for cultural influ- ences. western belgium (flanders), possessing a more varied topography, with moderate hills, valleys and abundant building-stone, and being adjacent to burgundy with its splendid monuments of the middle ages, had developed a more imposing and varied archi- tecture in the th and th centuries, and a richer and more prolific decorative art. the splendid achieve- ments of the flemish textile industry and art beginning in the fourteenth century and immensely extended in the fifteenth, when bruges was the most important sea- port of northern europe, continued through the whole of the th and th centuries. flemish architectural ornament. in this field belgium has little to show that is remark- able for originality or splendor. the high decorative skill shown in the late gothic civic buildings of the flemings, and still more conspicuously in minor works like choir-screens and tombs, seems to have declined with the loss of their civic liberties, and the renaissance made apparently little appeal to their imagination. the classic spirit calls for breadth, repose, emphasis of horizontality, a certain largeness of detail and expres- sion. the flemish taste was always for the minute, a history of ornament for the animated breaking up of surfaces, for multiplied and crowded detail. hence the stepped gables, the small orders, the crowded windows, the too slender sup- ports between them, producing in many cases an im- pression of structural weakness and instability, as in the renaissance portion of the town hall at ghent (figure ), and in many of the guild-houses. except the dignified but monotonous town hall of antwerp there was not a single renaissance building of com- manding size erected in belgium. the baroque style with its restlessness was more in the flemish vein than the purer phases of neoclassic architecture. such a facade as that of st. pierre at louvain illustrates the skill with which the flemings handled its decorative possibilities; but they were at the same time corrupted by its more vicious tendencies, and most of the flemish jesuit interiors are as bad as the italian. in minor works, however, they were more successful than in monumental architecture. the great chimney- pieces in the town halls of bruges and louvain are un- deniably fine, although not free from the flemish tendency to redundance. they do not, however, like spanish works of the same class, display any distinctive novelty of detail or of composition. belgium created nothing like the spanish plateresque. these tendencies and characteristics are displayed in a great number of choir-screens, sacrament-shrines, altars, pulpits and tombs, all exhibiting excellent work- manship, but lacking the dignity, order and balance of the best italian work. the great sacrament-shrine from the church at leau, for instance, from whose hand- ornament in the netherlands some enclosing railing the detail shown in fig. is taken, although designed by the architect of the ant- werp town hall, de vriendt ( ), is singularly monotonous in the repetition of identical motives in the ten stories of its height of feet. in wood-carving the flemings were notably success- ful, combining fineness of execution with boldness of fig. .—altar-rail from church at leau, belgium. cutting, and attained especial reputation in furniture. we have already seen how important an element they contributed to the early development of french furni- ture (see pp. , , , ). flemish wood- carvers carried their art to elizabethan england, and in the late th century grinling gibbons was sent to flanders to perfect himself in that art, in which he became the greatest in england. but even in this art a history of ornament it was craftsmanship that made the flemish reputa- tion, rather than originality or creativeness in detail. the flemish character appears rather in the total effect and the execution than in the novelty or deli- cacy of the motives and details. (fig. .) there is notice- able, especially in the furniture, a fond- ness for the intro- duction of the hu- man figure, which was modeled and carved with great skill. in the earlier renais- sance wood-carving the minuteness of the detail, the sparkle of the composition and the effective handling of the relief strongly suggest french influ- ence by their resem- blance to francis i work. in the th century there arose a rio. .—wooden panel, audenarde. j new school of realistic wood-carvers or rather wood-sculptors, who executed an extraordinary series of pulpits in antwerp, brussels, ghent, louvain and other cities. in these the extreme of virtuosity in the minutely realistic representation of ornament in the netherlands figures, clothing, draperies, vegetation and common objects, combined with an equally remarkable boldness in the construction, was held to be the highest form of art, to the detriment of all the higher qualities of true art. these works belong more properly in the domain of sculpture than of ornament, and require no further mention. flemish furniture. in furniture, which does not call for the higher proprieties of design requisite in architecture, the ex- fio. .—flemish chest and credence. cellent craftsmanship of the flemish woodworkers found free scope. the primary inspiration in their designs doubtless came from italy, but so mingled with elements a history of ornament from spain and germany that it is not always easy to distinguish work of flemish design from that of these fio. — flemish tarle. countries. there is much use of gaines and of human figures and a tendency to overloaded decoration, and a species of arch-motive, probably derived from spain, is fio. .—nielle ornament from furniture. not uncommon; in the later renaissance turned and twisted spindles and connecting-bars appear in chairs ornament in the netherlands and tables. the technical skill of the flemish furniture- makers led to their employment*in foreign lands; in france, as we have already seen (see p. ), and in england under elizabeth and james i. a few illus- trations of flemish furniture are given in figs. - , figures , , and pi . xii. flemish textiles. the highest achievements of flemish renaissance art were attained in the fields of painting, which is out- side of our purview, and of textiles, in certain depart- ments of which, both as an industry and as an aft, flanders surpassed all other countries of europe. in the weaving of tapestries even italy and france were obliged to depend largely upon the skill of the flemish weavers for the execution, if not also the design, of the great woven pictures with which they were fain to deco- rate their palace walls, and it was flemings who taught the art to the italians and the french. the flemish lacemakers were of almost equal repute with the tapes- try-weavers, and in this gentle and exquisite art have retained their reputation to the present time, though with no such monopoly of superior skill as they once possessed. the origins of the art of tapestry-weaving are not easy to specify, because of the difficulty of determining at what exact point tapestries should be differentiated from other kinds of figured weaves or from needlework pictures like the famous bayeux "tapestry" of the th century. technically, tapestries are not woven; that is, the threads of the woof are not carried continuously a history of ornament across the whole width of the fabric and then returned; the thread of any given color in the design is carried across only as far as that color extends, often across only two or three threads of the chain or warp, and then knotted; the weaver confines himself to a breadth or relay of or inches in width; and the threads of the woof are "thrown" by means of a "broche" instead of a shuttle. the oldest european tapestries are fragments from the church of st. gereon at cologne, dating from the th or th century; other very old fragments are from halberstadt and quedlinburg in germany. early in the th century the art had be- come established in arras in french flanders, where a certain isabeau caurree is known to have worked in ; by the name "arras" had come into general use to signify a tapestry; and during the following cen- tury the weavers not only of arras but also of ypres, brussels and antwerp were developing the art to its highest perfection. the subjects were generally scrip- tural and religious, based on the pictorial illuminations of manuscripts, and were treated with a flatness and simplicity befitting woven mural decorations. with the advent of the renaissance there came a change not only in the character of the subjects but also in the manner of their treatment. the progress of painting naturally led to a more pictorial and realistic representation of life, while the secularizing influence of the renaissance movement and of the revival of classical learning brought about a general substitution of histori- cal and mythological in place of scriptural subjects, although these were also sometimes favored. for the ornament in the netherlands palaces and villas of the italian nobility the great paint- ers of the italian renaissance designed series of decora- tive mural compositions which were sent to arras or brussels to be executed. flemish weavers studied de- sign in italy; thus bernhard van orley, after studying under raphael, returned to arras to weave eleven tapes- tries from cartoons by his master of scenes from the new testament for the sistine chapel (see ante, fig. ); these were finished in . giulio romano, andrea del sarto, titian and other great painters likewise de- signed cartoons to be woven in flanders. four of giulio romano's set of scenes from the life of scipio, woven in brussels, are in new york; eight of his abra- ham set are in hampton court palace. not all the great sets of mural tapestries of the th century, how- ever, were designed by foreigners; the celebrated "tunis" tapestries woven by wilhelm pannemaker for charles v were from cartoons by a fleming, vermey- ren, and doubtless the majority of the tapestries, ex- clusive of these great monumentally important sets, were of flemish design as well as execution. nevertheless, the influence of this invasion of italian art was on the whole deleterious. it introduced a false standard of excellence in tapestry design in its textual reproduction of pictorial painting, and in its total sepa- ration of design from execution. the weaver became more and more a clever workman instead of a creative artisan. the th-century flemish tapestries are dis- tinguished by their soft harmonies of color and by the flat, mural character of their portrayal of scenes, as decorative in their way as byzantine mosaics and per- a history of ornament fectly adapted to the medium in which they were exe- cuted. the th and th century tapestries, on the other hand, are brilliantly executed copies of paintings, or original designs absolutely in the style of painted decorations, framed or bordered with conventional wreaths of fruit and foliage, or with architectural orna- ments, all rendered with full light-and-shade and bril- liant color so as to produce as real an effect of relief as possible. while this is less objectionable on a wall than in a floor-rug or carpet, it marks a decline from that higher art in which the design, the technic and the medium are all three in perfect harmony and dependent one on the other. during the th century "verdure" tapestries came increasingly into vogue for the walls of chateaux and fine city houses. these were large panels representing trees and shrubbery or forest scenes or partly wooded landscapes, and hence of a predominantly green tone. such tapestries could be woven for the general market; at least they did not require the services of great paint- ers for their design, and are more characteristically flemish than many of the more famous pictorial pieces. they are therefore highly esteemed and widely imitated to-day. it will have been observed by the reader that we have said but little of the specific ornament-forms of these tapestries. from its very nature and purpose this art was chiefly pictorial, and developed almost nothing in the line of distinctive conventional ornament. this section would therefore have been made much shorter but for the relation of this whole branch of flemish art ornament in the netherlands to the decorative art of italy and even more of france during the th and th centuries, as already indicated on previous pages. flemish laces. the art of lace-making is almost entirely a product of the renaissance, although its origin is to be sought in the various forms in which needlework was applied before the sixteenth century to the decoration of em- broidered fabrics by the nuns in the convents of italy. the first stage in its evolution was the cutting of decora- tive openings in the fabric, which were then buttonholed around the edges and crossed by threads so intertwined and interlaced as to produce delicate patterns in the openings. the next stage was the execution of such thread patterns with the needle independently of cut openwork, producing real "needlepoint" or "point" lace, of which italy seems to have been the first pro- ducer early in the th century. "pillow" or "bobbin" lace, on the other hand, originated in flanders, also in the early th century. in this kind of work the pattern is drawn on parchment or paper stretched over a pillow or cushion; pins are inserted along the lines of the pat- tern and the design worked by means of a large number of threads wound on bobbins and twisted over the pins and around one another. but the belgians by no means confined themselves to pillow lace; brussels point or guipure rivals in beauty the valenciennes pillow lace, and mechlin point is equally famous. while the earliest laces of the th century were de- signed by the women who wrought them, and bear the a history of ornament character of designs developed out of the process of their making, the later laces, those of the th and th centuries, betray increasingly the influence of archi- tectural ornament in the use of scrolls, rinceaux, acanthus leaves and the like. one may divide the pat- terns into two general classes: those in which the design of flowing lines is wrought upon a background of fine fio. .—brussels point-lace, eighteenth century. network, as in brussels and mechlin guipure (fig. ); and that in which there is no such background, the design forming an openwork pattern. to enumer- ate and discuss the great variety of ornament motives of the flemish laces would require an amount of tech- nical explanation and illustration far beyond the allow- able limits of a general work like this; the inquiring student must be referred to special books on the subject, two or three of which are mentioned in the list of books recommended at the end of this chapter. ornament in the netherlands dutch renaissance ornament. the dutch developed no great architecture, either in the gothic or the renaissance styles. the republic of the netherlands did not attain independence until , and it was not until years later that spain finally acknowledged this independence; and the long subjection to spain before this, and the close relations of protestant holland thereafter with the protestant states of germany combined to prevent the develop- ment of any great and independent style in the nether- lands. moreover both the lack of stone, which restricted architecture to construction in brick, and the national taste and requirements tended towards a modest and domestic quality in the dutch buildings, whose pic- turesqueness of composition and quaintness of detail are not without charm. such ornament as they display suggests a dominant german influence, seen in the fio. .—garle ornament, leyden. a history of ornament the netherlands, and it is from the minor arts of germany rather than of holland that this sort of ornament was derived. jan vredeman de vries, who died in , and his son paul, who lived till about , were the lepautres of the netherlands, and published collections of designs for furniture and interior decora- fio. .—doorway decoration ry paul v. de vries. tion, from which figs. and are taken. in these somewhat extravagant designs, which were apparently never executed, baroque and german elements, gaines, escutcheons or cartouches, strapwork and architectural "jewels" are combined in fantastic fashion (fig. ). in the th century dutch furniture, like that of italy, spain, england and germany, underwent the french influence, and the wavy lines, the swelling fronts, the applied ornaments of gilt bronze and the lacquers and ornament in the netherlands veneers of the french styles were imitated with more or less success in the netherlands. typographic ornament was highly developed by the dutch printers, especially in the th century, not only in the design of decorative initials, but even more not- ably in head-pieces, tail-pieces and borders (fig. ). the dutch engravers attained distinction, and there were published in holland, as in france, pattern-books fio. .—typographic ornaments ry elzevir, . of ornament for the use of painters, carvers, architects and jewelers, for the most part reflecting the italian baroque taste, like that of vredeman de vries for furniture, already mentioned. the same general style appears in the book-bindings, jewel-cases and similar small works in wood, ivory, leather and metal which holland produced and exported in considerable quan- tities, especially to england, where the dutch influence was considerable. to the artists who designed and executed these minor works the general name of "little masters" (petits maitres) has been applied by the a history of ornament french; in contradistinction, of course, to the great masters of art, to whose ranks the dutch contributed several names of distinction, and one, at least, of the very highest order in rembrandt van ryn. ceramics. when dutch ceramics are mentioned, one im- mediately thinks of delft; and quite justly, for delft was the chief and almost the only important center of this art. it is interesting to note that it was not until that the ceramic industry was first established at delft by her- mann pietersz; by the middle of the next century the delft wares had become famous, and by the end of the century the town had become the center of a very extensive and pros- perous manufacturing and ex- port trade in these wares. a powerful influence in this de- velopment was the guild of st. luke, founded in , which included artists of all kinds, and exercised a rigid fio. ,-dei^t tiies, seven- contl. l over both the qualifi- teeijth century. * cations of its members and the quality of their productions. the earlier ceramic wares of delft show a rather complex decoration of pictorial ornament in the netherlands scenes and conventional or naturalistic floral ornament, executed in blue. after the ware is finer, imitat- ing the oriental porcelains and copying in its decora- tion chinese and japanese models, holland having by that time established a colony in japan, while chinese art, as we have already seen, was entering into euro- pean commerce and affecting french as well as dutch fio. .—delft faience, plate and ewer. art. reygens, keyzer and pynaker are leading names in this period. by the end of the century delft was producing an extraordinary variety of shapes and styles of platters,, bowls, table-ware and druggists' vessels, besides flat tiles for fireplaces, "porcelain" stoves and walls. in the decoration of these varied objects the famous delft blue predominates, but with some yellow, red and other colors. the ornamentation includes floral forms, escutcheons and cartouches, scrolls and figures, espe- a history of ornament cially in the chinese and japanese imitations. any adequate illustration of the delft wares would require far more space than can be afforded in a work like this; figs. , may serve to show something of the character of their decoration. books recommended: g. von bezold: die baldwinst der renaissance in deutsch- land, holland, belgien und danemark ( bergstrasser, stuttgart, ).—f. boutron: l'architecture aux pays-bas (schmid, paris, ).—f. ewerbeck: die renaissance in belgien und holland (seemann, leipzig, ).—g. gauland: geschichte der hollandischen bauktmst und bildnerei . . . der renaissance (keller, -frankfort, ).—a. jolles: architektur und kunstgewerbe in alt-holland (miiller, munich, ).—moke and others: la belgique monumentale etc. (jaman, brussels, .—a. g. b. schayes: histoire de varchitecture en bel- gique (wasmuth, brussels, ).—f. strorant: monuments d'architecture et de sculpture (brussels, ).—j. van ysendyck: la belgique monumentale (nijhoff, the hague, ) ; documents classes de vart dans les pays-bas (maes, antwerp, ).—p. vredeman de vbies: plusieurs menul- series etc. (brussels, n. d.). chapter x renaissance ornament in germany the renaissance invasion. germany had been slow in the th century to receive and assimilate the gothic style from france: she showed herself equally slow to receive and assimilate the italian renaissance influence in the th. the first invasion of that influence was by way of southeastern germany, the tyrol and bohemia, where italian architects were employed in the later years of the th and early years of the tn century. the schloss stern, the schalaburg castle on the danube, the belvedere and waldstein palace at prague, the schloss ambras at innsbruck, and the chapel of the jagellons at cracow are among these early renaissance buildings in austro-german territory by italian architects—paolo della stella, valentino di lira, giovanni marini and others. the style spread gradually through germany, but it was not until the peace of augsburg ( ) that the adop- tion of the new style began to be at all general, so far, at least, as architecture was concerned. in the minor arts it had made more rapid progress, through the in- fluence of italian painting and especially of the work of the italian typographers and engravers. it must be remembered that, during the years preceding the treaty of augsburg, germany—that is s a history of ornament a large part of the german states as well as bohemia —was in the throes of the religious and political up- heaval accompanying the protestant reformation. the reformation itself was one of the fruits of the spirit of independent inquiry set free by the renaissance movement, and it was this, the intellectual and religious phase of the movement rather than the artistic, that took hold of the german consciousness. it was hardly to be expected that during such a period of turmoil there should have been any great and general artistic activity. facade decoration. two influences long prevented the adoption in ger- many of any system of design at all resembling the flat facades and rectangular flat-roofed masses of italian classical architecture.' these were first, the'fact that nearly all the earlier renaissance castles or palaces in germany were built on the foundations of irregularly- planned medieval castles; and secondly, the german preference for the picturesque and even the fantastic alike in mass, skyline and detail, with broken surfaces, varied play of light and shade and crowded detail. thus in a single exterior, that of the castle of giistrow, there are five varieties of rustication, three types of tower or turret, and a broken and tumultuous skyline, all as far removed as possible from the breadth, simplicity and repose of classical design. when, however, a new erec- tion on a more formal plan offered plane surfaces for treatment, the fantastic german taste often introduced 'germany in the th century was not a political unit, but a group of small states owing a common allegiance to the "holy roman empire" of charles v and philip ii. ornament in germany into their design singular irregularities of spacing and a studied disregard of symmetry and superposition, as in the curious facade of the fiirstenhof at wismar and the court-facades of the schloss plassenburg. the two most important renaissance palace facades in germany are those of the otto-heinrichsbau ( ) and friedrichsbau ( ) forming two wings of the castle of heidelberg. both are in ruins, having been burned in and again in ; both are straight facades, originally topped each with two great dormer- gables adorned with statues, but the friedrichsbau dormers are the only ones now standing. in spite of the difference of date there is a strong similarity of general style between them, and many details of one recall those of the other, though the friedrichsbau is the more robust of the two. the substitution of niches for pilasters in alternate bays, the use of gaines as mullions and the fantastic rustications are typical of the german renaissance down to or later (fig. ). architectural ornament: the orders. the classic orders were introduced into architectural design only, as it were, under protest, and with modifi- cations which amounted often to a travesty of the classic originals, both as to proportion and as to detail. the colonnade as such does not appear until the classic revival of the th century; except in rare instances, the free column was used only in columnar arcades in courtyards and in porches, or on a small scale as a purely ornamental detail in pulpits, shrines and sedilia. as an example of the fantastic proportions of the a history of ornament fio. .—part of facade, ottd-heinrichsrau, heidelrerg. ornament in germany columns and the utter disregard of the classic or palladian canons of design we may cite the court arcade of the mint (miinzengebaude) at munich, and by ex- ceptional contrast the very palladian arcade of the fig. .—columns from portals op rathaus, munden, and castle of aschaffenburo. courtyard of the residenz at landshut. the most frequent occurrence of columns is in entrance portals, where they may be either free or engaged, flanking the entrance archway and carrying an entablature or pedi- ment (fig. ). such columns are usually more mas- a history of ornament sive than the classic type and have corinthianesque capitals; they are seldom fluted but frequently have the lower portion carved in relief, as was often done in italy and sometimes in spain (fig. ). in the porch of the rathaus (town hall) of cologne ( ) we have the anomaly of pointed arches with classic archivolts and keystones, between de- tached corinthianesque columns carry- ing an inordinately heavy bracketed entablature. doric and ionic col- umns occur but rarely. rusticated and fantastically banded columns are quite frequent. gables and dormers. the high steep roof is a necessity of fio. i. —carvino a\ northern climates, and the dormer on lower half of . . column, bevern. window is its natural accompaniment. we have seen how the french renais- sance treated both features, eschewing the high gable in favor of various types of hipped roof, and developing the dormer into a subordinate rather than a dominant feature after the francis i-henry ii period (see fig. ; pi. vii, ). the germans, on the other hand, as well as the dutch and flemings, preferred gabled to hipped roofs, and made of the gable a dominant feature, and of the dormer a feature second only to the gable in importance. gables and dormers alike were carried through two or three and even four stories, with succes- sive steppings decorated with curves, scrolls, obelisks ornament in germany and finials, and their facades treated with pilasters and entablatures in small orders for each story (figs. , ). peculiarly german was the occasional disposi- fio. .—garle, state pharmacy, saalfeld. tion of openings over pilasters and pilasters over open- ings (fig. ), producing that effect of interruption^ and variation which the germans cultivated in their preference of decorative animation to repose. obelisks frequently adorned the steps of the gable, as in fig. . a history of ornament doors and windows. german entrance portals deserve more notice than the brief reference to them on page , which relates only to the use of columns to flank the openings. they fig. .—dormer, hamtelschenrurg castle. were in the earlier stages of the renaissance of very varied type, but were generally arched and broad in proportion to their height, giving them often an air of "squatness" hardly met with elsewhere. carved decora- ornament in germany tion was usually abundant and figure sculpture is, not uncommon. but there is nothing to compare with the beauty and dignity of the italian doorways, or the sumptuous but refined decoration of those of spain. such a wildly extravagant work as the door to the golden hall of the schloss at buckeburg recalls the lawless exuberance of the spanish churrigueresque of the next century. it is amazingly clever techni- cally but utterly destitute of architectural propriety (figure ), and illus- trates a characteristic of german architecture gen- erally—the exaltation of technical cleverness and artistic tours de force above finer qualities of design. german renaissance windows are as varied as the doors, and few among them conform to any italian or classic type. those, for instance, of the bremen town hall ( ) have no architrave or frame whatever, and their weak pedi- ments seem to rest on a void. the gaine-mullioned windows of heidelberg have already been referred to; another type is seen in the liebfrauenkirche of wiirz- ~ -iiif"' ma nir-" fio. .—window, house at dinkelsrohl. a history of ornament burg, while fig. shows still another from a half- timbered house at dinkelsbuhl, dated . carving and sculpture. german architectural relief-carving .was based, as was natural, upon the traditional italo-classic motives, fig. .—strapwohjc or fig. .—carving, stalls appliaufi ornament of chapel in mayence marienkirche, ror- cathedral, tock. but, as in the case of the orders, the germans developed a peculiar treatment of their own. the most notable element in this treatment was the evolution of patterns in flat relief, suggesting ornament cut out of a sheet of some material and attached to the surface to be decorated (fig. ). this ornament was evidently a transference to carving in stone of patterns and effects ornament in germany produced in sheet-iron ornaments on chests and other woodwork, and in ornament applied to jewel-boxes, book-covers and the like, by means of patterns cut out of sheets of leather or metal or thin pjeces of wood or- ivory and affixed to the object with nails, screws or rivets. the origin of this form of decoration was probably oriental, perhaps by way of moorish spain fig. .—carving, portal of gymnasium (school) at corlenz. (see p. ). in carving these patterns in stone, how- ever, additional decorative effect was produced by fillet- ing the edges of the relief pattern, and sometimes by curling up the ends or introducing minor details carved in "round" relief (fig. ). this sort of ornament is commonly called "strap- work"; a more correct designation would be flat relief or appliqut ornament. it spread from germany to holland and, in the second half of the th century, to a history of ornament england (see p. ). an additional illustration of this sort of detail is given in fig. . not all architectural carving was of this character; round and varied relief more after the traditions of italo-classic art was also j frequently used with con- siderable skill. the de- tail and execution were apt to be better than the composition, which often lacked unity of scale and due subordination of one part or element to an- other. bands of carved decoration of equal width and importance were jux- taposed, vertically or hor- izontally (rathaus at bremen, piastenschloss at brieg, etc.), and one sel- dom finds the refined deli- cacy and judicious dispo- sition of the carved orna- ment of the plateresque of spain, of the french renaissance or of the quattrocento and cinquecento of italy (fig. ). in the applications of sculpture to decoration, whether in architecture or furniture, realism and a cer- tain teutonic humor often verging on the grotesque are constantly in evidence. the figures over the door- "fig. .—carvings from nurem- rero, ; lead-work, six- teenth century. ornament in germany way of the highly ornamented facade of the piasten- schloss at brieg illustrate the first of these character- istics; of the second one could not ask a more emphatic example than the doorway of the furstenhof at wismar (figure ). here the biblical tales of delilah and samson on one side and of david and goliath on the other, are intended to symbolize the triumph of intellect over brute strength. the humor of the treatment here is not that of primitive naivete but of intentional grotesquery. interior decoration. there is no such relation between painting and decoration in germany as in italy, and the germans never developed any important art of mural painting during the renaissance, although in the pictorial art of painting they achieved notable results. beginning with schongauer this art was developed to a high level of dignity and excellence by such artists as albert diirer, burgkmair, the two holbeins, lucas cranach and others; but although the younger holbein designed goldsmith's work and ceilings for henry viii of eng- land, none of the german painters executed mural paintings of importance that have survived, either secular or ecclesiastical. not a single church of first- rate size or of great architectural importance was built in germany during the entire renaissance period, and until the latter part of the th century there were but few erected even of second rank. the religious upheaval of the reformation doubtless accounts in large measure for this; but whatever the cause, the result was to de- a history of ornament prive german decorative art of the powerful stimulus and the splendid opportunities offered by the church in italy and spain, and in a less degree in france also. as in holland and belgium, decorative effect in church interiors was sought rather in the furniture and ad- juncts than in the architecture itself. in the castles and town halls also this was true to a certain extent, and where decoration was sought in architectural interiors it was rather by purely archi- tectural means than by stucco-relief and painting after the italian fashion; by pilasters, wainscoting, and door- trim, and above all by the decoration of ceilings. ceilings. these were less varied in type and treatment than those of italy, france or spain. the dome and the coved ceiling hardly occur at all until after the mid- seventeenth century. barrel-vaults with penetrations cover some of the large halls and chambers of castles and town halls, and these are generally painted on the plaster, in a style peculiar to the country, less easily described than illustrated. a very fine early renais- sance barrel-vaulted ceiling is that of the schloss ambras, by an italian architect, recalling by its paneled decoration that of the hall of the palazzo del te at mantua (see p. ). another paneled barrel-vault is that of the church of st. michael at munich by w. miiller. the majority however of german renaissance ceil- ings are flat ceilings, coffered and paneled and painted and gilded, somewhat after the fashion of the italian ornament in germany ceilings of the middle renaissance (see p. ), but almost invariably heavier in design and detail, and without the great picture-panels which are the glory of many italian ceilings, especially in rome and venice. the ceilings of heiligenburg castle (figure ), of the golden hall of the rathaus at augsburg, and of the castle of biickeburg are examples of this; the main beams of the last named ceiling are over six feet deep. the german baroque. it was inevitable that the bizarre and sensational effects of the italian baroque style should appeal to the german taste for the fantastic in art. it must be remembered that the date , which marks the begin- ning of the general adoption of renaissance forms in german architecture, fell in the period of the greatest activity of palladio and michel angelo, when the first symptoms of the change from the mid-renaissance classic reserve to the baroque were showing themselves. the development of german renaissance architecture therefore, so far as it was affected by contemporary italian influence, received that influence from the work of maderna, bernini, borromini, martino lunghi, longhena, and other baroque masters, so that, given the german dislike of classic restraint, it is not surpris- ing that eventually german architecture surpassed even the italian in fantastic freedom and eccentricity of de- sign. in catholic germany there was, during the late th century and throughout the th, a considerable activity in the building of jesuit churches and monas- teries, reflecting the influence of the catholic counter- ornament in germany museum, on which he spent five years of labor, aided by a painter, a sculptor and a jeweler. french in- fluence became especially strong in the th century. in one respect the germans were more consistent than the french, though less judicious in taste, for in at least one instance they applied the louis-quinze- rococo style to a monumen- tal exterior—the zwinger palace at dresden, now a museum (figure ). this remarkable edifice by pop- pelmann, thoroughly classic in its monumental plan, is completely rococo in every detail, suggesting the exub- erant splurge of churriguera but with none of the chur- rigueresque absurd shatter- ing and confusion of detail. it is theatrical, extravagant, but artistically consistent. the belvedere and schwarz- enberg palaces at vienna show something of the same rococo detail, but in a more sober fashion and with more of the italian baroque spirit. a singular characteristic of the german th and th century decorative treatment of exteriors is the "topping-out" of towers and turrets, both of churches and civil buildings, which is often singularly fantastic fio. .—german towar- torrings. a history of ornament even when the main mass of the tower is sober or elegant. many of these decorative spires are bulbous with turnip-shaped silhouettes that suggest russia rather than western europe; or that look more like exaggerated finials to chair-posts or bed-posts than monumental structures (fig. ). the minor arts. whatever the german deficiencies may have been in the composition and decoration of monumental archi- fio. .—german gaines from a mantel in i.ureck; heidelrerg castle; monument at pforzheim; national museum, munich. tecture, in the minor arts the germans achieved some remarkable results. their craftsmanship was always of a high order, and craftsmanship counts for much in the minor ai ts. the german patience, love of minute detail and high standard of workmanship made the ornament in germany german craftsmen past masters, in ornament, in the carving of wood and ivory, in the chasing, hammering and embossing of metal, in the making alike of furni- ture and armor, and in all the arts connected with books. in the more architectural forms of the minor arts, such as choir-stalls, shrines, pulpits and monuments in churches, the faults of german architecture are blended fig. .—lower part of an etched bowl, seventeenth century. with the excellences of german workmanship and of the undeniable feeling for decorative effect in even the most extravagant baroque and rococo aberrations of ger- man design. the same is true of the furniture. the germans were particularly fond of the gaine, which they introduced into every possible combination, and developed with considerable decorative and imaginative skill (fig. ). in metalwork they were conspicuously successful, particularly in the making of arms and armor, in which they rivaled the italians (figure ). the magnificent collection in the metropolitan museum at new york a history of ornament is especially rich in examples of teutonic skill and taste in this art. the germans were consum- mate engravers, always more successful in decorative line than in decorative mass, and their suits of armor for man and horse, their halberds and swords, and later their cannons, pistols and carbines, as well as smaller fio. .— (a) etched tin plate, seventeenth century; (b) iron chest, sixteenth century. objects in metal, even tin plates, were etched and en- graved with patterns of great richness, in which the rinceau, acanthus and symbolic grotesques were com- bined with admirable decorative effect (figs. , ). fig. shows a carved ivory dagger-sheath of the th century. goblets, ewers and other vessels of silver were made of considerable richness of design in embossed orna- ment, though too often lacking in simplicity and purity of outline (fig. ). in ironwork, gates and grilles ornament in germany for windows and fanlights were wrought often with round bars, unlike the italian and french work which was usually of flat bars (figures , ). the patterns show frequent use of interlaced and crossed bars, with fig. .—carved ivory fio. .—late sixteenth- daoger-sheatr. century silver gorlet. less of spiral scrolls and flowing curves than was com- mon in italy and france (fig. ). this is true of the pre-baroque work, at least; in the th century the patterns were freer and more elaborate and intricate, following the lead of the french louis quinze style rather than of the italian (figure ). fig. a history of ornament shows a grille of the th century from hungary, with much fiat cut-out work. in the th and th centuries nuremberg was an important center for decorative flat ironwork applied to chests, locks and other movable objects, in patterns fig. .—two fan-lights, from nuremrerg town hall, and salt house at frankfort. cut out in sheet metal and chased or engraved with line- ornament, in which oriental influence appears. the nuremberg products were widely distributed and imi- tated throughout germany. the peculiar leaf and scroll details in fig. are unquestionably of arabic or turkish origin, but by what particular channel they t ornament in germany fio. .—grille from eperecs, fig. .—door-lock, bamberg hungary. museum. were introduced is not certain; very likely by way of moorish spain. figure shows an example of silver- smith's work in a book-cover. ceramics. the most important product of german renaissance ceramics was the huge earthenware (miscalled "porce- lain") stoves which took the place of open fireplaces in germany, as well as in holland and parts of switzer- land. the architecturally decorative character of these a history of ornament structures, built up of white and colored glazed earthen- ware tiles, is shown in fig. . the details of their fio. .—earthenware stove, monbsee, austria. ornamentation varied with the general movement of style. the drinking vessels, jars and table-ware of the german renaissance, of majolica and porcelain, ornament in germany a history of ornament represent a very prolific production, characterized by less decorative distinction than the italian majolicas, but having nevertheless a marked character, thoroughly german in its clever use of line patterns and grotesques (fig. ). nuremberg was the parent city of german renaissance ceramics. here the hirschvogel family, espe- cially veit the elder and his son veit who died , prac- tised various arts including ceramics and enameling. in the th century anspach, hochst, frankenthal and bayreuth became important centers for the production of both majolica and porcelains. the germans developed no new national type either of pottery or of ornament ex- cept the stoves already men- tioned, unless it be the stein or tankard with metal cover, and the china pipe-bowl. in fig. from the tyrol we recog- nize the direct influence of the italian potteries (com- pare with figs. , ). german furniture and woodwork partake of the gen- eral character of the art of the low countries in the use of gaines, half-figures and sculptured panels (fig. ). in the th century cut-out flat ornaments in fio. .—sixteenth-century chair, dresden museum. ornament in germany light wood on a darker wood (or vice-versa) were often applied to the flat members of the frame of the furni- ture, as earlier they had been used on boxes and small objects (fig. ) typographic ornament. a german invented printing with movable type in the middle of the fifteenth century. during the follow- ing century the germans, who had previously done ex- cellent work as illuminators of manuscripts, developed notable proficiency as engravers and as decorators of fig. .—"german text" initials, sixteenth century. printed books. the persistence of the medieval "ger- man text" characters, especially in the case of the capital letters, gave opportunity for highly decorative flourishes impossible with the more sober classic forms of the roman characters (fig. ). these last, used of course for all works in latin, which was still the language of learning and science, were decorated in quite different fashion (fig. ). the designing of line-patterns of free ornament for chapter-headings, tail-pieces, and borders was developed with great in- genuity, the space-filling and distribution of the black on the white being almost invariably of high merit. a history of ornament patterns of this class are called technically niellos, be- cause of their resemblance to niello-work on metal. fig. illustrates another type of typographic decoration of a more architectural character. books recommended: as before, von bezold.—also: anonymous: tafeln zum studium der deutschen renaissance und barockstils (seemann, leipzig, n. d.).—k. o. fritsch: denkmaeler der deutschen renaissance (wasmuth, berlin, ).—gurlitt: das barock und rokoko-ornament dcutschlands (wasmuth, berlin, ). —helm: ornamente und motive dcs rokokostils.—g. hirth: das deutsche zimmer (hirth, munich, ).—lamrert und ornament in germany stahl: motive der deutschen architektur (engelhorn, stutt- gart, ).—w. lurke: geschichte der renaissance in deutschland (ebner & seubert, stuttgart, ).—f. luthmer: deutsche mobel der vergangenheit (seemann, leip- zig, ).—a. ortwein: die deutsche renaissance (seemann, leipzig, ).—r. pfnor, monographie du chateau de heidelberg (morel, paris, ).—w. pinder: deutscher barock (langewische, leipzig, n. d.).—schmidt und schildrach: der konigliche zwinger in dresden (dresden, n. d.). chapter xi renaissance ornament in great britain the beginnings. at the beginning of the th century the english were still building in that distinctively english phase of the late gothic style called the perpendicular, or as applied to civic and domestic architecture, the tudor style. the most splendid monument of the perpen- dicular style, henry vii's chapel at westminster, was not completed until , when henry viii had been six years on the throne; in domestic and collegiate buildings the tudor style persisted well into the reign of elizabeth, which began in . this style was so completely english in its development and so well suited to english life and tastes, that it yielded but slowly to the renaissance influences from italy, france, germany and holland. it can easily be understood that under henry viii who, though not ecclesiastically protestant, had broken with the pope and disestablished the monasteries; under edward vi who was protestant and financially poor; under mary who, though a fanatical romanist, enjoyed too brief a reign to change the powerful anti-papal current of english thought, and under elizabeth who established protestantism as the national religion, the commercial and artistic rela- cp. my hist, of orn. i, chapter xviii, pp. - . ornament in great britain tions of england were closer with protestant holland and germany than with italy and france. with the flemings also england maintained an active commerce, and it was from germany and the low countries chiefly that the influences came that gradually trans- formed english art. before this transformation really began, however, a considerable number of italians had found employ- ment in england. among them were the sculptors torregiano, giovanni da majano and benedetto da rovezzano, the painters bartolommeo penni and toto del nunziata, and the engineer girolamo da trevigi, chiefly in the early years of henry viii ( - ). the earliest italian decorative work in england was in terra-cotta; the medallions with busts and wolsey's coat-of-arms in the walls of wolsey's wing of hampton court ( - , fig. ), the balustrade crowning the facade and other ornaments of sutton place, guildford ( - ), the tomb of lord henry marney ( ) and a tomb at arundel are among many examples. as in spain and france, italians were early in demand as designers and makers of tombs; e.g., the tomb of wol- sey by majano and rovezzano, appropriated by henry viii before its completion and long ago destroyed; the tomb of henry vii by torregiano in henry vii's chapel at westminster and his tomb of the countess of richmond in the same chapel; besides others of less importance. italians were also employed on the decora- tions of henry viii's palace of nonesuch, and on various altars, chantries and minor works in churches. the beautiful choir-stalls and screen of king's college a history of ornament chapel are clearly, in part at least, of italian workmanship. these scattered works, however, exerted little in- fluence on english art in general, least of all on archi- tecture. the formerly general belief that the imposing fio. .—terra-cotta relief, head of c.f.sar, hampton court. design of longleat hall was by the italian john of padua has been pretty thoroughly discredited. during the second half of henry viii's reign and throughout that of elizabeth ( - ) the preference was for flemings, hollanders and germans, and artists and artisans from these countries flocked to england, form- ornament tn great britain ing colonies of foreign workers in some at least of the artistic industries, such as weaving and wood-carving. the greatest of the germans was hans holbein the younger, who not only painted portraits for henry viii but designed gold vessels, ceilings, gate-houses and chimney-pieces for that monarch. from flanders came a group of wood-carvers and weavers, and in under james i, fifty flemish tapestry-workers, who were established at mortlake. under these varied and confused influences the english worked out their own versions of renaissance architecture and ornament, little by little grafting the details of the foreign styles upon the core of their own strongly national design. the transitional period under henry viii and his successors may be considered as lasting from (say) to , when elizabeth ascended the throne, or even to , when the earliest distinctively renaissance buildings like kirby hall were erected. the names "elizabethan" and "jacobean" have been given to the architectural styles developed under elizabeth ( - ) and james i ( - ). there is no clear dividing line between these two styles or phases, in which there was a gradual increase of renaissance de- tails and character and a corresponding decrease and final disappearance of tudor characteristics. motives and details. during elizabeth's reign the general prevalence of peace, the defeat of the spanish armada and a remark- able development of commerce led to a great activity in the building of manor-houses and other large a history of ornament residences. the extraordinary religious, social and intellectual development of this brilliant period was re- flected in the architectural enlargement of the univer- sities of oxford and cambridge, the building of schools and town-halls, the rapid refinement of manners, the increase of foreign travel and the multiplication of objects of artistic character for the service of both public and private life. but the style and con- struction of the great houses continued to be purely english, and it was only in the details that the foreign renaissance influences showed themselves. the germans and flem- ings and hollanders were employed to de- sign doorways and balustrades and carved ornament, and marble columns and statues were imported from the continent, but the general design was in the hands of english builders. the architect had not yet ap- peared as a professional designer and superintendent of the work. fig. .—doric chimney-tops, lacock arrey. ornament in great britain under these conditions classic design could not flourish, and the orders made slow progress in popular favor. they appear on the exterior of longleat, kirby ( ), wollaton, in the form of chimney-tops (fig. ) on burghley ( ) and in a portico on the front of hardwick ( ), but in all these and a few other examples they are travesties of the classic originals. their principal occurrence is in doorways and chimney- pieces, for which the designs are generally attributed to german and dutch pattern-books. a favorite device was the superposition in two or three stories of coupled columns flanking the main entrance and the windows above it, as at hatfield ( ) and the "schools" at oxford ( ). there was no attempt at classical cor- rectness either in the proportions or the details; the effect is picturesque in the mass but wholly lacking in the finer kind of beauty. columns were often banded, and gaines were substituted for columns with increasing frequency, especially after . the chimneypieces show the same general taste; many of them were the work of germans, but they were richer and more successful designs on the whole than the doorways. the fantastic variations of the orders, the gaines, the smaller scale and the enrichments of carved panels above the fireplace shelf or cornice, were more appropriate as interior decorations than for ex-, terior monumental architecture (fig. ). after the accession of james i in the round arch became more common, and the classic proportions were better observed (fig. ), though there was still much extravagant detail of a baroque or german character. a history of ornament windows were still generally mullioned and transomed in tudor fashion; it was not until inigo jones appeared, near the end of the reign, that either windows or door- ways were designed in the classic or "italian" style. fig. .—doorway, hatfield house. ceilings and plaster-work. as was natural in domestic architecture and in the residential buildings of the universities, horizontal ceil- ornament in great britain fig. .—ceiling pattern, great yarmouth. ings were in general use and vaulting almost unknown. these ceilings were rarely either beamed or coffered; they were nearly always of plaster, decorated with deli- cate relief-patterning of molded ribs forming geometric panel-designs, often with a subordinate floral pattern in each panel (figs. , , i). in crewe hall and some other examples pendants occur at intervals, an evident last survival of gothic tradition (fig. ). the walls were usually wainscoted up to a height of six or eight feet, with tapestries or other hangings above; but at haddon hall and in some other examples the space above the wainscot was deco- rated with low-relief ornament in plaster. the decorative use of plaster was confined to do- mestic work; at least it does not this period appear to have in been used in churches or in build- ings of monumental character, and only rarely does it appear in exterior ornament. fio. .—ceiling pattern, slanfihangel, wales. a history of ornament figs. - show various examples of elizabethan and jacobean ceilings and "strapwork" in wood, stone and plaster. fio. .—pendant, ceiling in crewe hall. woodwork and '' strapwork.'' england was a well-wooded country, particularly rich in oaks and nut-trees of various sorts, that is, in woods fitted both for construction and for cabinet work. the distinctive english uses of wood under elizabeth and james were for "open-timber" ceilings over chapels and halls, for wainscoting, and for stairways with their newels and balustrades; these three features giving to english manor-houses, college halls and other interiors an aspect and quality wholly unlike those of any other country. the hammer-beam ceiling or roof (for it was both combined) was a bequest from the late gothic builders, 'see my hist, of orn. i, pp. - , figs. , a. ornament in great britain fic. .—elizarethan and jacorean details. a history of ornament and one so useful and so full of decorative possibilities that it is surprising that it was so early and completely abandoned; it rarely appears after james' accession in , and never after . its essential features are an arch supporting the two main rafters and springing from the projecting ends of opposed hammer-beams, which are supported in turn by curved braces connect- ing them with wall-posts resting on corbels. these elements were treated with great elegance in such ceil- ings as those of the great hall at hampton court; of the great hall of trinity college, cambridge; of middle temple hall and the charterhouse dining-hall in london (the last named disfigured by modern altera- tions) and many others. wainscoting, usually of oak, was paneled in succes- sive tiers of simple rectangular panels, which in early elizabethan examples are some- times carved with the "folded linen" ornament (fig. ); or in rare instances was composed with pilasters or gaines and arches, as in the gallery of haddon hall. carved panels like those of fran- cis i at blois are not found in eng- land. fio. . — "folded the english staircases, unlike lin«n" cm linenfold the french, were usually of oak panel, elizarethan.' instead of stone, preferably built in two or three runs about an open wall, with carved newels and balustrades, all of wood. they were im- portant features of the interior decorative effect, and ornament in great britain display the customary ornamentation of the period in their "strapwork," gaines, miniature arches and other details (fig. , e). this strapwork or applique has already been de- scribed as originating in germany (see ante, pp. , ), and widely used in the netherlands; it was brought by german and flemish or dutch artisans to england, where it became the favorite detail for decoration in both wood and stone. it was easy to design and required only moderate skill to execute. the english extended its application to openwork pat- terns in wood and stone, using it for balustrades and crestings, especially under james i. it appears on nearly all the screens which separated the "withdraw- ing room" of the masters from the more public remainder of the great hall of the manor house, and formed a feature as distinc- i ' b^i^i^h^' ay' tive as the great chimneypiece, the oaken stairs and the plaster ceiling (fig. , h, ). the jacobean phase. during the reign of james i there was a gradual approach toward the taste and forms of the german a history of ornament and flemish renaissance, though the resemblance was never close, and many elizabethan details, like the "strapwork," were still in use. but this last was now more varied; "nail-heads" and "jewels" like those in german and netherlandish ornament were more fre- fio. .—jacorean garles. quent. round arches, balustrades and gaines are mul- tiplied; pilasters and entablatures and pediments are less grotesquely different from the classic; the linen- fold panel disappears, and gables affect curved outlines (figs. - ). the change is gradual, not sudden, and no line can be sharply drawn between the two phases. the palladian innovation. an extraordinary phenomenon in the history of the english renaissance was the revolution in style and taste which followed the return of inigo jones from italy. born in , he was seven years old at the date ornament in great britain of palladio's death, and when he went to italy in his early manhood, the name and fame of palladio were still in the ascendant. inigo jones ac- quired in italy in two visits a fairly thorough knowledge of palladio's style and a great enthusiasm for the italian classic architecture. his arch- itectural activity did not begin, how- ever, until about , but the works carried out from his designs, though not comparable in amount and import- ance with those of his great successor christopher wren, resulted in the complete transformation of english architecture. the most important of his works extant to-day are the ban- queting hall at whitehall—a mere fragment of a vast scheme for a royal palace for james i,—the earlier part of greenwich hospital, the "water gate" for the duke of buckingham, wilton house and lindsey house, lincoln's inn fields, london, a frank imitation of palladio's manner. the change in english taste and english architecture which followed was due not merely to the merit of jones's designs, but also to the general progress of education and knowl- edge of the outside world. the increasing tide of travel and the multiplication of books were making fro . — detail, chimneypiece in aston hall. a history of ornament during this long period architectural ornament, hav- ing lost the picturesque and amusing germanesque character of the elizabethan-jacobean period, gained little in originality or creative inspiration, but was more correct and more sober than before. the architectural decorative details of this period are in general rather dry and cold, though appropriate as far as they go (fig. ). the chief excep- tion to the prevailing commonplaceness of detail is in the wood-carving of the interiors, especially in the work of grinling gibbons ( - ), a hol- lander by birth, who carved the fine stalls and throne in st. paul's, london, the woodwork in trinity college chapel and library at cambridge, and other works at windsor, whitehall, petworth and other great houses, as well as fonts, tombs, etc., in marble. no other english work of the time compares with his in richness of a florid kind and in combined vigor and delicacy of execution (figure ). much other carving of the end of the th and of the th century is notably rich and effective (figs. , ). wren's work is always dignified and well composed. he used coupled columns with good effect and pro- duced picturesque decorative effects in the treatment of small domes, as at greenwich hospital, with columnar buttresses on the diagonal axes, and in his fig. .—steeple of bow church (s b. ry wren. st. mary-le- ow), london, ornament in great britain towers, in which by simple and inexpensive means he accomplished charming results of silhouette (fig. ). james gibbs ( - ) followed with success some- what the same lines, and his beautiful steeple of st. martin's in the fields was the evident direct prototype of many of the best american colonial examples (see p. ). plasterwork took on great importance after the great fire of , following the great plague. the conse- j hmd ts ra=a ■ r ml © hi b| fio. .—ceiling plan of st. mary's woolnoth, london. quent destruction of wealth and necessity of extensive, rapid and economical rebuilding compelled the substitu- tion of lath-and-plaster for more permanent materials for interior finish. the result was disastrous to the cause of honest and solid construction, but favorable to the development of decorative work in plaster, in which the english avoided, the blatant shams and extrava- gances of the italian baroque. figs. , illustrate the new classic spirit in the patterning of ceilings as compared with the interlacing geometric all-over pat- a history of ornament terns of the jacobean phase illustrated in figs. , b. figure presents an example of the best work fio. .—o.ve bay of dome decoration, radcliffe lirrary, oxford, ry girrs. of the new style, in which italians were often employed. later th-century work is less vigorous and interesting. the adam style. robert adam ( - ) was the most celebrated of four brothers, who worked together on a great * robert, james and william, the last named of whom lived until . ornament ix great britain variety of important buildings and blocks of houses in london and edinburgh. in this work they developed, especially in interior design and furniture, the english phase of the reaction towards purity, refinement and delicacy of detail, which we have noticed in france under louis seize (see p. ). rob- ert's visit to italy and dalmatia ( - ) and the influence of piranesi's ex- traordinary engrav- ings may account in part for the develop- ment of the very in- dividual style of the adam brothers; french influence and the general re- action from the heaviness or extrava- gance of previous styles also had their part in the change. while the adam ornament includes a very free treat- ment of capitals, moldings and other architectural de- tails (fig. ) with a studied preference for very slight projections and small details, its most conspicuous contribution was in the design of plaster ceilings. the small scale of parts, the delicate moldings, slender 'giovanni battista piranesi ( - ), venetian engraver. fio. .—architectural details, adam style. a history of ornament fig. .—two adam ceilings. ornament in great britain scrolls, rinceaux, wreaths and festoons suggest pom- peiian and roman stucco-relief rather than spalato or piranesi's engravings, and bear some resemblance to louis seize work (fig. ). the adam furniture and that of the nearly contemporary makers chippen- dale, sheraton and hepplewhite, will be referred to later. the minor arts. the english iron- work, from the time of charles ii for more than a hundred years, suggests a blending of italian and french types, with no german influence. gates and grilles of monumental size and richness were fashioned with flat bars, with straight up- rights predominating in the main body, and bent and scrolled work in the upper portions, and a moderate amount of excellent forged and repousse ornament (fig. ). cast lead, despite the meanness of the material, was handled with success for eaves- troughs, finials and garden ornaments. the growing wealth of the georgian period led to a remarkable de- velopment of the silversmith's art, in both sterling and fio. .—detail, iron gate at hamp- ton coubt. a history of ornament plated ware. the details of this th century silver were strongly influenced by the contemporary french taste, but were generally heavier and more crowded fio. . — silver fire- fio. . — silver doc, knole park. wine-urn, . than the french (figs. , ). the workmanship was, however, excellent, and there is a british solidity in these sumptuous pieces that in part atones for their frequent lack of delicacy in detail. furniture. the elizabethan furniture was simple and solid in design; chests, tables, benches and chairs of a somewhat massive type being the chief articles used. a frequent ornament on chests and wooden mantelpieces is a carved arch between pilasters or gaines or plain stiles, with rather elementary carving and strapwork applique on the panel as in figs. , . turned legs were com- ornament in great britain mon, often with inordinately swollen vase-forms (fig. ). in the jacobean period there was, as we should expect, an increase of elegance and lightness, with greater variety in the carving and with germanized renaissance details more in evidence. turned supports are more frequent in tables, chairs and cabinets; the over-heavy swellings of vase-forms are less common, and the earliest spirally- turned legs begin to appear. this evolution towards ele- gance and towards a more italian type of ornament be- came more pronounced dur- ing the inigo jones-christo- pher wren period. spirally- turned legs, stretchers and spindles become common, in- fluenced perhaps by the vogue of the twisted columns of the italian and spanish baroque styles (pi. xiv, ; see p. ). the carved detail follows classic and italian precedents, and shows in- creasing refinement and elegance, not only in furniture but even more effectively in the woodwork of mantel- pieces, and the interior dressings of doors and windows. pi. xiv, shows three chairs of the style of the late th century or early th. towards the end of the th century chairs became objects of especial attention, and there was a notable increase in the variety and number both of kinds of furniture and designs in each kind. a series of noted fio. . — detail, eliza- rethan oak chest. a history of ornament fig. .—chimneypiece, worcestershire. fig. .—the "great bedstead" of cromwell. ornament in great britain architects and furniture-makers, including sir william chambers ( - ), robert adam ( - ), thomas chippendale (fl. ), hepplewhite (died ), and sheraton ( - ), with their imitators, produced entirely new models of chairs, of small and light tables and lamp stands, of library desks, bookcases, chests of fig. .—a chippendale chair. fig. .—a heppiewhite chair. drawers, commodes, settees and the like, which are known by their names. these cannot here be enumer- ated and distinguished, but the illustrations figs. - show a few of the types of chairs, which were gener- ally executed in mahogany, walnut or cherry, rather than in the oak which had formerly been the almost universal material used. especial attention was given to the backs, framed with curved bars; the rear legs a history of ornament being usually straight, the front legs frequently curved ("cabriole"), and lightness and grace being sought rather than massive richness. "chinese" patterns, so called, were sometimes used by chambers, adam and chippendale. except in his "chinese" designs, chip- pendale's work shows in its carved details the strong influence of the french louis quinze style, but the forms of his furniture are generally though not al- ways simpler, and the deco- ration always more re- strained than in that style. the hepplewhite and sheraton patterns were more severe in line than ■ ■ ... -it chippendale's, but light // u |y and graceful, with much ujtlr* use of inlays and purflings of lighter wood (figs. , ). many of these ar- ticles of georgian furni- ture were imported to the american colonies before, and to the united states after, the revolution, and became the prototypes of many examples of our american-made "colonial" furniture. another branch of decorative woodwork demands mention, as influencing early american art: the wooden spindles, newels, railings and stair-ends of english houses during this same period. the mahogany hand- fig. .—a sheraton chair. ornament in great britain rail, turning outward in a spiral curve to meet the turned or carved newel; the slender balusters, usually of three different spiral designs to each step, and the carved modillion-ornament at the end of each step, fig. .—staircase detail, house in chichester. shown in fig. , were a common and elegant feature of english hall stairways. they were imported to america in considerable number, and later copied or imitated as characteristic decorative elements in amer- » ican interiors (see p. ). a history of ornament ceramics. except for the coarser and commoner kinds of domestic earthenware, ceramic art does not appear to have flourished in england until the time of charles ii, a little after the middle of the th century, when toft began work in kent, and others soon after in stafford- shire and at lambeth, a suburb of london. flemish potters had, it is true, established themselves in london as early as , and under charles i ( - ) "patents" -had been granted to various in- dividuals (thomas rous, david ramsey and others) for the making of "pigs," bot- tles, pots and tiles. but f.o. s.-a torr plattm. these pioneers, chiefly in staffordshire, pro- duced little except salt-glazed "stoneware," and the nearest approach to artistic design was in ale-pots and "bellarmines," which were fat-bellied, small-necked jugs with bearded faces at the top, to caricature the catholic prelate bellarmine who died in . by staffordshire was producing marbled and colored wares; porcelain was made at fulham by dwight in , and in the elers brothers from nuremberg at bradwell near burslem began making red porcelain and imitating japanese designs. fig. illustrates ornament in great britain the crudity of toft's work ( ). the great potteries of bow, chelsea, worcester and derby were not started until about ; that of plymouth a little later; but the bow and chelsea potteries were consolidated by duesbury in with the derby works, and ceased production the following year. "crown derby" ware received its name in , as the result of the making of a dinner set in that year for the princess of wales; in like manner josiah wedgwood's "queen's ware" was so called because of a set made in his works for queen charlotte. the rapid development of this highly important branch of england's industrial art in the second half of the th century received a great impetus on the artistic side from the genius of josiah wedgwood ( - ); and on the commercial side from the inven- tion by sadler of liverpool of the process of transfer- printing on earthenware (about ). about the same time the practice was introduced of painting on imported oriental china wares (by planche at derby). during the second half of the th century there was an extraordinary development of ceramic art and activity in england, in the production alike of glazed earthenwares and of porcelain. the variety of forms and of kinds and processes of decoration was enor- mously increased and its artistic quality correspond- ingly improved, so that english porcelain became an important article of export, especially to the colonies and the united states. by far the most important single agent in this development was josiah wedgwood, whose cultivated taste found inspiration in the classical a history of ornament revival of his time. first at burslem, then at "etruria," near stoke, he built up an extraordinary industry., pro- ducing wares of the greatest variety, shaped generally after classic roman models, and decorated both in color and relief with remarkable refinement of design and detail upon grounds of yellow, porphyry, light or dark fio. .—a wedgwood teapot. fio. .—a bow vase. crusted with delicately modeled reliefs of classic sub- jects in white, has continued to be made to this day. many of these cameo-like reliefs were modeled or designed by the sculptor flaxman. it is impossible within our limits to discuss or illustrate in any adequate fashion the great variety of ornament in great britain forms and ornamental details of english ceramic art of the th century. the preceding paragraphs and the illustrations in figs. - and pi . xiv will have to suffice: for further details the reader is referred to fio. .—crown derry cup and saucer. llewellyn jewitt's "ceramic art in great britain" (london, virtue, ). textiles. weaving as a branch of decorative art, and the asso- ciated arts of the needle and lace-pillow, were of late development in england, which long depended upon its near neighbors, france, holland and flanders, for fine fabrics, embroideries, tapestries and laces. charles ii established flemish tapestry weavers at mortlake in or thereabout, and in plate x, and , are shown details from tapestries woven in mortlake. but the art remained essentially a foreign art, developing no distinctive character in england, and lasted only a short period. looms for brocades, velvets and other a history of ornament fine fabrics were not numerous until well into the th century, when the textile industries, which had been greatly stimulated by the influx of huguenots expelled from france in , began to develop those activities which in the following century placed england in the van of the world's textile manufacturing, though still far behind france in silks and brocades. the english lace industry dates only from the closing years of the th century. books recommended: r. and j. adam: the decorative works of r. and j. adam (london, ; batsford, london, ).—g. p. bankart: the art of the plasterer (batsford, london, ).—bates and guild: english household furniture (b. & g., boston, ).—belcher and macartney: later renaissance archi- tecture in england (batsford, london, ).—r. blom- field: a history of renaissance architecture m england (bell & sons, london, ).—c. camprell: vitruvius brit- annicus (campbell, london, ).—h. cescinsky: english furniture of the xviii century (routledge, london, ). —a. e. chancellor: examples of old furniture etc. (bats- ford, london, ).—t. chippendale: the gentleman and cabinetmaker's director (chippendale, london, ).—d. j. errets: examples of decorative wrought-ironwork of xvii and xviii centuries (batsford, london, ).—j. s. gard- ner: english ironwork of xvii and xviii centuries (bats- ford, london, ).—gotch and brown: architecture of the renaissance in england (batsford, london, ).—a. hepplewhite: the cabinetmaker and uplwlsterer's guide ( ; batsford, london, ).—hessling: englische kunst- mbbel (hessling, berlin, n. d.).—p. macqitoid: a history of english furniture (lawrence & bullen, london, ).—j. nash: mansions of england (mclean, london, ).— w. papworth: renaissance and italian styles of architecture in great britain (batsford, london, ).—a. e. richard- ornament in great britain son: monumental classic architecture in great britain and ireland (batsford, london, ).—c. j. richardson: archi- tectural remains of the reigns of elizabeth and james i (ackerman, london, ); studies from old english man- sions, furniture etc. (mclean, london, ).—w. b. sanders: examples of carved oak woodwork (quaritch, london, ).—h. shaw: details of elizabethan architec- ture (pickering, london, ).—t. sheraton: the cabinet- maker and upholsterer's drawing book (sheraton, london, ).—t. a. strange: english furniture, decoration, woodwork and allied arts in xvll-xlx century (strange, london, ).—j. swarrrick : robert adam and his brothers (batsford, london, ).—h. tanner, jr.: english interior woodwork of xv-xviii century (batsford, london, ). —a. tipping: english homes (scribners, new york, ).— a. bolton: robert adam (scribners, new york, ). chapter xii renaissance and colonial ornament in america character of colonial art. colonists are always distributors of culture. they carry to their new home the tastes and aptitudes of their own people, and naturally seek to preserve these as long and as completely as possible. but the new environ- ment inevitably modifies these, and a new culture gradu- ally develops, in which reminiscences of the art of the old home are blended with the forms of the new. when the new home is a wild and undeveloped country, as was the case with those who first came to america, the modi- fying influences are those of new conditions, a new environment, new materials, and dependence on inter- course with more favored lands for the finer comforts and amenities of life. the style of the home-land is therefore more persistent in such a case than when the new home is among peoples already civilized, whereby the two cultures are intimately blended. in a new and raw environment the transplanted culture differs from that of the home-land only in those characteristics that result from the change in environment, climate and materials and the struggle with nature. all this is as true of the architecture and ornament of colonized lands as of their dress, manners and speech. colonial ornament in america the difference between spanish america and english- speaking america is evident to the most superficial observer. the spanish colonists carried with them their architecture and their decorative taste, and estab- lished these in lands where it was possible to preserve and perpetuate them in a fashion strongly reminiscent of spain, thanks not only to the wealth of spain and of her church in the sixteenth century, but also to the wealth and resources of the parts of the new world which they conquered, already the homes of ancient and highly-developed civilizations, and not wholly unlike spain in climate. the english colonists of north america, on the other hand, occupied at first, for the most part, the heavily-wooded shores and river valleys of new england, and were compelled to translate the architectural forms of their own country from brick and stone into wood. when the conquest of wild nature had proceeded far enough, the colonists were able to concern themselves with the production of archi- tectural and industrial works of an artistic character. but only by slow degrees were the imported products in wood and metal, in ceramics and textiles, replaced by those of colonial manufacture. commerce, travel, tradition and a common language and literature all tended to maintain the influence of the parent culture and art, even after political independence had been secured. thus the criticism often heard from euro- pean, especially french, visitors, that american art differs little from european art, is in substance correct; but their further contention that it ought to be funda- mentally different, a wholly new and original art, a history of ornament ignores the facts that we are a european people, though transplanted to a non-european environment; that our entire cultural inheritance is european; that our his- torical, literary and religious antecedents are euro- pean; and that precisely in those factors that belong to our american environment our manners, customs and art do differ from the european, even to-day when commerce, ocean travel, the telegraph and the press are constantly multiplying the links with the old world. spanish-american ornament. the colonial ornament of the western world we naturally divide into the two general categories of the spanish and the english. the spanish influence pre- vails in central and south america, in mexico and in those spanish territories that were later absorbed into the united states, especially florida, new mexico, arizona and california. in these states there is little spanish work antedating the th century, and the greater part of what remains belongs to the th. in south and central america and mexico, on the other hand, there are specimens of ecclesiastical art of the th and early th centuries. churches and altar- pieces are purely spanish, with but few exceptions in which the indian taste has found expression. the wealth of both church and state in spain enabled the colonists to build and adorn their churches with a splendor in strange contrast to the poverty and sim- plicity of those of the english colonies (figures . ; pi. xv), and to employ artists from spain as well as to import statuary, altars, church furniture and the colonial ornament in america richest products of industrial art in gold, silver, bronze, ceramics and textiles from spain itself. for the spanish colonists were not, like most of the english, exiles for their faith or else independent pioneers, but conquerors alike in the military, ecclesiastical and political fields, sent out or aided by the spanish government. moreover the traditions of the aztec and inca civilizations were by no means extinct. the indians of central and south america and yucatan were skilful stone-cutters and metal-workers, and the conquerors availed themselves to the fullest extent of their crafts- manship, so that the spanish colonial arts exhibited a magnificence wholly lacking in the northern continent. accordingly spanish art in america underwent little change, and the details do not differ essentially from those of the traditional spanish styles, even when the work as a whole, in its composition and general aspect, displays the qualities of a provincial art. as the majority of the extant monuments were built after the middle of the th century, it is the churrigueresque style that is most often in evidence. as a typical example of this florid style, we may from a long list select the facade of the church in lima, peru, shown in figure , that of el posito at guadalupe, mexico (figure ), and that of the church at chihuahua, mexico, where in true spanish style the entrance portal provides the motive for a splurge of fantastic ornament spread over the otherwise plain front (fig. ). the field of hispano-american ornament is a very extensive one, both in architecture and in the industrial a history of ornament arts. the number and splendor of the churches in spanish and portuguese south america, in mexico and in central america, are such as to offer an immense amount of interesting material for study. much of fig. .—church facade, chihuahua, mexico. this material is available in photographic reproductions in published works, but as yet very few libraries in the united states possess any of these works, which are for the most part in spanish. the limitations of this work forbid giving to this subject the space which its colonial ornament in america intrinsic interest merits, and a very few illustrations must suffice as samples of this widespread art. perhaps the most interesting single monument of hispano-american architecture is the cathedral of mexico. this is not only the largest of all its works, covering nearly ,- square feet, but it is one of the larg- est churches in the world, ranking sixth or seventh in area. it is also interesting as exemplifying all stages of spanish architectural style from the plateresco through the chur- rigueresque, having been begun in , the main structure being completed in , though the fa- cade was not finished until nor the dome until . the "sagrario" (sacristy) with its ornate churrigueresque facade (pi. xv, ), is of the th century. the churrigueresque extravagances are confined to altars and chapels in the interior. the main portal, though belonging to the baroque period, is in almost pure griego-romano style (pi. xv, ). the same plate illustrates other phases of the style. fid. . confessional, cathedral of mexico, mexico city. a history of ornament the "mission" style of california is interesting architecturally rather than decoratively; its simplicity and lack of ornament are in strong contrast to the splendor of the more southern colonies. colonial ornament in the united states. there was little wealth among the early colonists of the united states, whether english, french or dutch. the majority were agriculturists, and in considerable proportion religious exiles. they came to an almost virgin country peopled by savages, covered with forests, with no background of ancient cultures like those of the mayas and aztecs, and with no wealth of gold and silver to enrich the new population. the earliest build- ings were of wood; until the th century there was little work for stone-masons or bricklayers, except in limited regions where clay or easily-worked stone was available without first cutting away the forests. after the conquest of nature and the gradual growth of towns at the natural seaports and upon the navigable rivers, and the creation of practicable roads of inter- communication, had progressed sufficiently to permit of the beginnings of wealth and the introduction of some of the amenities and elegances of life. carpentry with its allied art of joinery, weaving and needlework were the arts earliest developed under these conditions; for metalwork, pottery and china, glass, fine furniture and textiles other than the simplest home-made products, the colonists depended upon importations from eng- land or holland, and later, to some extent, from france. gradually, and especially after the middle of the th colonial ornament in america century, the making and use of brick, the quarrying and cutting of stone and marble, and the production of fine cabinet-work and furniture in imitation of english models, became more general; and towards the end of the century glass-blowing, mining, smelting and various forms of metal-work began on a modest scale in scat- tered centers. cotton-mills were built in new england early in the th century; but until almost the end of that century the united states were still largely de- pendent on europe for most of the finer products of industrial art in textiles and china. architectural ornament. there was naturally very little effort at decoration of even the finest houses of the seventeenth century. life was too strenuous, the energies of the colonists too much absorbed by the struggle for existence, to allow of much expenditure, whether of money, time or thought, on the elegances of architecture. almost the only char- acteristic detail that has come down to us from that early period is the axe-hewn or adze-hewn bracket and pendant from the front overhang of a few houses in massachusetts and connecticut. an example of this naive and primitive decorative detail is shown in fig. , sketched in from a house in farmington, conn., built about but demolished about . by civilization, population, commerce and wealth along the northern atlantic coast had advanced sufficiently to allow of a certain elegance in the archi- tecture and domestic life of the well-to-do, which shows itself alike in the houses and the churches. from about a history of ornament or , for a full century, the prevalent archi- tectural forms were those developed by the colonial and early republican carpenter-builders in wood. these builders, whether english-born or not, were trained in the english traditions of the queen anne and georgian periods; they used english molding-profiles and worked from english pattern-books or from traditional instruction re- ceived in their apprenticeship. but the english details, de- signed chiefly for execution in stone, had to be interpreted in wood, which was the almost uni- versal building-material. under these conditions architectural de- tails were transformed, fortu- nately in a manner which reflects credit upon both the taste of the builders and the soundness of the traditions they inherited. the proportions of columns and pilasters were often more slen- der than those of the english or because the builders attempted nothing startling, nothing beyond their modest powers, the results were almost invariably pleasing. the re- finement of the moldings, the delicacy of the carved ornaments, the harmony of the proportions and the simplicity of the composition are such as modern architects have found not easy to surpass. the most interesting ornamental details of the fro. .—detail, overhang of house, farmincton, connecticut. classic originals, and figure . mantelpiece, ladd house, portsmouth, new hampshire. figure . detail, fireplace, brockiss house, germantown, pennsylvania. a history of ornament entablatures, rarely with pediments (fig. ), and were almost invariably square-headed, with the excep- tion of dormers. after or thereabout, palladian triple windows began to appear on the main stair- landing and above the doorway (pi. xvi, ). dor- mers were commonly pedimented over arched windows. cornices of classic type, denticular or with block- modillions, crowned the facade and ran up the gables at either end, but were rarely carried horizontally across the gable-ends. they were generally carried around the corner a short distance and returned into the gable wall. exterior pilasters were rare until ; then at first only at the cor- ners; then, at least in new england, also to flank the central bay of the front and carry the steep pediment with which the central bay was often crowned (fig. ). during the second half of the th century the pros- perity of the atlantic coast towns and cities led to a progressive enrichment of the exterior, especially with porches to the central doorways, with roof-balustrades and with palladian windows. the doorways of this period are often of great beauty, with a fanlight over fio. .—scroll pediment, window of hancock house, boston. a history of ornament exteriors was the urn or vase used as a finial, alike for gate-posts and to adorn the angles of gables (fig. ). church steeples were variants of the types developed by wren and gibbs (see p. ). they were usually of wood, even when the tower below was of stone or brick. the details were of a fairly pure classical type, fio. .—decorative urns and gate-post, salem, massachusetts. as in the english models, which were quite closely fol- lowed in many of the best examples (fig. ). fences and gates to private houses were usually of wood and treated often with considerable elegance; but few remain to the present time (fig. ). between and the influence of the adam style (see p. ) became manifest in a greater delicacy, freedom and attenuation of exterior details, especially of pilasters, capitals and cornices. colonial ornament in america brick and stone. in the james river valley, in the neighborhood of philadelphia, and here and there in restricted regions v£k>rww / m. fio. .—two colonial spires: christ church, philadelphia, and st. paul's, new york. elsewhere, the existence of abundant clay and the absence or extinction of forest growth led to a more general use of brick for houses and churches than in the wooded a history of ornament colonies of new england. in the hudson river valley the dutch farmer-colonists found a soft red sandstone easily worked by masons of moderate skill, while a greenish limestone supplied ambitious philadelphia!! fig. .—gate to cowles mansion, farmington, connecticut. suburbs with material for house-walls of a very solid and substantial aspect. yet while these materials and the provincial taste combined to produce architectural en~ sembles quite different from those of new england— - colonial ornament in america and of old england as well—the details of decoration differed little from the general georgian types, and were generally executed in wood and painted white. no colonial school of stone-carving or of ornamenta- tion in terra-cotta developed from the use of these ma- terials, and even in churches and public buildings stone columns were hardly ever used before the revolution. the coarse details of the john bartram house at kinses- sing near philadelphia ( ) represent an interesting early experiment which, in spite of its comparative suc- cess, remained sterile of fruit in later work. interior woodwork. in the interior fittings of their houses, churches and public buildings the colonial woodworkers produced their most interesting and charming results. the fio. .—chimneypiece, phillipse manor, yonxers, new york. abundance of superb timber, and especially of enormous white-pine trees, provided them with unsurpassed ma- terials for framed work such as wainscot-panels, doors, door- and window-trim and staircases and for carved a history of ornament details; the white pine particularly being easily worked and at once soft and durable. panels two feet and even three feet wide could be cut from a single board. in many of the finer houses along the coast, even as early as - , the entire side of the room containing the fireplace was finished in paneling to the cornice, and the staircase hall was in some cases paneled in like manner fio. .—upper part of doorway, gunbton hall, virginia. up to the ceiling on all four sides. chimney pieces were especially elegant, with pilasters or colonnettes to sup- port the shelf, which was finely molded, and above which the face of the chimney-breast was usually adorned with a large panel in a crossetted frame in wood or plaster (fig. ; figure ; pi. xvii, ). in the later examples the details are finer and more attenu- ated; and in place of the flutings, headings and fan- panels previously common, we find an increasing prevalence of applied ornaments in composition or colonial ornament in america papier-mache—vases, baskets, figures, swags, etc.—im- ported from france and england and used with taste and discretion (figure ). doorway frames were richly molded, the moldings in the finer houses, especially of maryland and virginia, being carved with the egg- fio. .—detail of declaration chamrer, fio. .—detail, ionic independence hall, philadelphia. order, doorway of cary house, batavia, new york. and-dart and acanthus (fig. ) and topped with an entablature or even with a scrolled pediment (fig. ; figure ). interior cornices were also elaborate, exe- cuted sometimes in wood, sometimes in plaster with dentils and modillions (fig. ; figure ). the use a history of ornament of the orders, whether internal or external, followed either the classic precedents (figs. , ) or the freer georgian handling, as in fig. . the corin- thian column is seldom used. staircases were treated as important features of the interior. the ends of the stairs were sometimes carved and the balustrade composed of slender spindles, three mwwwwtmw fia. .—detail, interior cornice of homewood, baltimore. to each step. after the spiral spindle becomes common, and sometimes a spiral newel supports the spirally-coiled end of the hand-rail (fig. ). this was generally of mahogany after the west india trade had begun to develop to important proportions. col- umns to cany the arch separating the front parlor from the rear parlor or the dining-room, or dividing the entrance hall from the stairway, were not introduced until about the middle of the century; they were at first more common in the houses of the rich southern plant- colonial ornament in america ers and merchants than in the north. ah these details correspond fairly well with the contemporary work in england, and the stair-balustrades were probably for a fio. .—detail or stairway, lee house, marrlehead, massachusetts. long time imported. this appears from the fact that they are of practically identical design in new england and in maryland and virginia. in the ladd house at portsmouth, n. h., there is in one of the chimney-pieces a history of ornament a fine carved panel attributed to grinling gibbons, and almost certainly not carved on this side of the ocean. but as the century advanced the native craftsmen de- veloped increasing artistic skill; dependence on the motherland diminished, and the later work was prob- ably all home-made. moreover in the woodwork as a whole there is a fundamental difference of effect from the english prototypes. the softness and fine grain of the white pine led to the use of small, fine moldings and delicate ornaments in low relief, contrasting with the heavier, more vigorous english work in oak. more- over the american woodwork, being mostly of white pine, was usually painted white, though in rare instances it was left unpainted and allowed to mellow into a dull golden tone. a dull gray was also used sometimes, but the prevailing finish was white, which gave to the colonial interiors a bright and cheerful effect in striking contrast to the dark tones of the english woodwork in oak. a characteristic feature of much of the american woodwork, derived not from england but from the facility of working the straight-grained white pine with plane, gouge and chisel, is the prevalence of flutings, reedings, headings and fanlike ornaments and rosettes, as in fig. from the so-called "jumel" (morris) house in new york. by the middle of the centur}" a new civic conscious- ness had appeared, a new solidarity of interest in each colony, and civic architecture began to be developed in buildings like independence hall, philadelphia, of which the central block dates from , and faneuil hall, boston ( ). the churches, designed mainly colonial ornament in america after the wren-gibbs tradition, had already taken on internally a dignity and classic elegance of detail not always evident externally except in their spires. the civic buildings show something of the same quality, as in the dignified doric treatment of the "declaration fig. .—details, morris-jumel mansion, new york. chamber" of independence hall, illustrated in fig. . in the later years of the century there was greater variety of effect. the influence of the adam style in england and of the louis seize in france gradually made itself felt jn the young republic in a greater free- dom, refinement and delicacy of detail. this is ob- servable in both the interior and exterior details. fig. shows an example of this new "adam" spirit in a a history of ornament doorway from the mappa mansion at trenton, n. j., and in the mantelpiece from germantown, pa., in fig- ure % already referred to. the importation of mahog- any from the west indies led to its increasing use not only for furniture and stair-rails but also for doors, fio. .—upper part of door, mappa house, trenton, new jersey. inside window-shutters and the trim of doors and win- dows. this was more general in the rich southern colonies than in the north, but was by no means confined to them. marble was also sometimes used for fireplaces, as in the tayloe ("octagon") house at washington ( ). furniture. the home-made furniture of the early colonists was extremely simple, all the finer pieces being imported from england or holland. the making of copies or imitations of the english models in these finer grades of work seems to have begun about to be quite gen- eral, though there are many pieces of the william-and- mary and queene anne periods ( - ) of which we cannot be quite certain whether they were of home colonial ornament in america or foreign production (fig. )%. even in the th century there had been a sporadic production of pieces of considerable merit by local artisans. thus the carved chests made in hadley, mass., are highly valued; and the chest of drawers on a stand in figure a might be taken for an excellent dutch piece. the english types fig. .—carved details of chair-back, william and mary style. of chairs of the second half of the century—chippen- dale, sheraton and hepplewhite (see pp. , ) — were freely imitated after , and the native cabinet- makers of that time also developed types of their own in chests of drawers ("low-boys" and "high-boys"), in four-post beds, "secretaries," bureau-desks and the like. the louis quinze or rococo ornaments that appear on much of the english chippendale furniture seem never colonial ornament in america ing though simple design, generally identical with eng- lish examples. there is almost no carving in relief, and the adornments of pediments, arched tops and other architectural features are very few. as in the archi- tecture of this period, the charm of the furniture con- sists not in the richness of its ornament, but rather in the grace of its lines, the excellent sense of proportion which it displays, its admirable workmanship and the refinement of its very restrained decoration. figure c, d, illustrates the americanization of louis xvi and adam suggestions. other arts. in the field of textiles the production was very modest. only the simplest fabrics were produced on the colonial looms as a rule, although figured bed-coverlets were woven by the more ambitious craftswomen in sim- ple patterns of blue and white. domestic needlework and embroidery produced little that is of real artistic value or importance. the traditions of english design had faded, and there was no artistic training nor any artistic background or environment to stimulate the arts of design (pi. xvii, ). it was easier to import than to make the more elaborate fabrics. where every one was busy in raising the necessities of life there was little chance for the development of an artisan class or of trained craftsmanship in the minor arts. the elaborate landscape wall-papers seen in the fine th-century houses of portsmouth, marblehead and salem and other seaport towns, and in virginia and maryland, were all imported, chiefly from france. so also with silks, . a history of ornament brocades, laces, china and glass. silverware was, how- ever, made by artisans of considerable skill in the latter part of the th century (e.g. by paul revere); but it was of simple form with little ornamentation. stiegel in pennsylvania produced glass of great variety and sometimes of genuine artistic elegance. brass candle- sticks and knockers, cast-iron firebacks (the earliest by stieffel in pennsylvania), and wrought-iron gates, grilles, porch-railings, door-hinges, sign-brackets and the like, were produced in increasing amount as the th century drew to its close. but there is little distinctive ornament in any of these arts until well into the nine- teenth century. books recommended: asher benjamin: the country builder's assistant and other works (arch. b'k pub. co., new york, ).—glenn brown: the octagon mansion (amer. inst, of architects, washington, ).—j. e. chandler: the colonial archi- tecture of maryland, pennsylvania and virginia (bates & guild, boston, ).—l. a. coffin: brick architecture of the colonial period in maryland and virginia (arch. b'k pub. co., new york, ).—corner and soderholtz: colonial architecture in new england (boston architectural club, ).—f. cousins: the wood-carver of salem, samuel maclntire (little, boston, ).—cousins and riley: the colonial architecture of salem; the colonial architecture of philadelphia (little, brown & co., boston, and ).— w. a. dyer: scale drawings of colonial furniture (helburn, new york, ); early american craftsmen (the century co., new york, ' ).—h. d. ererlein: colonial architec- ture in america (little, brown & co., boston, ).—p. elder: the old spanish missions of california (elder, san francisco, ).—n. w. elwell: the architecture, furni- ture and interiors of maryland and virginia; colonial furni- chapter xiii the modern revivals and nineteenth century conditions after . the last quarter of the eighteenth century witnessed a remarkable development of archaeological research. the rediscovery of pompeii, the publication of stuart and revett's "the antiquities of athens," the mar- velous engravings of piranesi, stimulated new enter- prises of exploration in classic lands. robert adam published his "spalatro" in ; wood and dawkins their works on baalbek and palmyra in and ; and other works on attica and ionia followed in quick succession. the stream thus started flowed with in- creasing volume through the early part of the following century; the excavation of pompeii was actively carried on, and sumptuous works on both greek and roman antiquities became an important feature of every schol- arly library, public or private. the foundations of scientific archaeological discussion were laid by winckel- mann in his studies of the albani collection, and of the philosophical esthetics of classical art by lessing in his "laocoon," and a new literature of historic art came into being. every gentleman who pretended to scholarly tastes was supposed to know something about greek and roman architecture. but the new interest was after all scholarly and literary rather than artistic; often the modern revivals an affectation, a polite accomplishment rather than a native artistic enthusiasm. the stream of artistic creation was running dry, and the impression became general that good design could be produced only by conformity to ancient models, even to the extent of copying ancient buildings wholly or in part. planning and construction were neglected or wholly subordinated to facade design, and a new era began of what may be called imitative design, not only in architecture but in all the arts. the dearth of creative art was partly due to the pre- occupation of europe and america with tremendous political and industrial movements. the american revolution, followed by the french revolution, ushered in a new age of democracy; the napoleonic wars shook europe to its foundations, changed the boundaries of nations and developed the new system of the "balance of power." but the industrial revolution which fol- lowed the invention of the steam-engine dealt an even more disastrous blow to creative activity in the field of applied art, for it brought about the decline, almost the disappearance of craftsmanship. it made possible three new things: cheap and rapid transportation, the substitution of machine-processes for hand-labor, with the resulting development of mass-production and end- less repetition; and the concentration of production in densely populated industrial centers. the advantages of the modern industrial system in multiplying the com- forts and conveniences of life and cheapening the cost of many articles of consumption are certainly very great; but the dissociation of design from execution, the a history of ornament division of labor, the division of the former craftsman's tasks between highly-paid designers and low-paid "op- eratives" or mill-hands, the disappearance of the artisan who made with his own hands the objects he himself designed, and the mechanical uniformity of the machine- product as contrasted with the individuality and human touch of the craftsman's work—all these changes wrought by the modern system have been disastrous to the arts of design. the grave economic and social prob- lems created by this system are outside of the fieldof our present discussion. influence on decorative arts. the industrial revolution was accompanied by an ex- traordinary development of the natural sciences, and by an equally remarkable advance in popular education, in the dissemination of knowledge, and by a vast in- crease in commerce and international intercourse. it would be interesting to trace the inter-relations between the progress of democratic institutions, the advance of science and the development of both the higher educa- tion and that of the masses, and of these with the social and industrial changes and the rise of the labor move- ment, and then to study the influence of all these related movements upon the fine and industrial arts. this discussion might well occupy a volume, and we can here point out only a few of its more salient points. in the first place, the preoccupation with these great human problems was long fatal to any great movement in art. nations struggling with questions of national existence and with the development of the new powers the modern revivals and resources created by the scientists, explorers and industrialists, had little energy remaining for the cult of the beautiful. the pursuit of the fine arts was left to the few, to the intellectuals and the people of leisure; art was more and more dissociated from life, as a luxury or an accomplishment rather than an essential element of life. the intellectuals felt the poverty of the art of their time, but did not know how to cure it. some de- manded the revival of the historic styles, meaning thereby the imitation or copying of the forms and details of the past, with no understanding of the principles that had given life and meaning to those forms. others raised the cry "back to nature," not realizing that only the artist can interpret and use the forms of nature in art, and that the artist must be trained both in the technic of his art and in the appreciation and delineation of the beautiful, before he can create beauty even out of the manifold inspirations supplied by nature. the development of scientific archaeology during the first part of the century supplied a powerful stimulus to the partisans of the first theory. this stimulus was intensified by the invention of lithography by alois senefelder in ; later by the invention of photog- raphy (by de la niepce in , daguerre in , and talbot a little later); and later again (about ) by the invention of various processes for photo-engraving and photo-lithography. by these the publication of archaeological works, monographs and books of all kinds on architecture and the decorative arts was made pos- sible at a cost within the reach of ordinary purses. to these must be added two others: the multiplication and a history of ornament development of museums of art, including architecture and the decorative arts, and the equally remarkable multiplication of schools of art. to offset the lack of craftsmen and to meet the requirements of the factories, it was necessary to train draftsmen and designers. the popularization of various kinds of knowledge about the arts had created, by the end of the nineteenth century, a greatly increased popular demand for manufactured products having at least a semblance of artistic beauty; the books and the schools, the museums and the great international exhibitions (the first at london in ) stimulated both the demand and the supply. mean- while, especially since about , there has been a notable revival of craftsmanship, largely through the activity of "arts-and-crafts" societies—a movement initiated by william morris in england in the second half of the nineteenth century. as a result of all these movements and developments there has come about a notable revival of the arts, a great advance in the gen- eral average of taste, a remarkable improvement in the quality not only of the major arts, but also of all the industrial arts, alike in hand-made and machine-made products. the early recourse to a slavish imitation of the historic styles has given place to a freer and more intelligent use of them, based on a better appreciation of their underlying principles. the study of nature, having been found to be futile by itself as a restorer of the arts, has been subordinated to an intelligent training in the fundamental principles of decorative design. the movement known as "art nouveau" (see p. ), aris- ing in the later years of the last century as a protest the modern revivals against traditionalism in art, has had the effect, in spite of its eccentricities and extravagances, of infusing a fresh note of originality into modern design in archi- tecture and the industrial arts alike. the difference between the art of to-day and that of the "mid- victorian" era is the measure of the progress of the last fifty years. commerce and travel. another influence has also profoundly affected mod- ern art. while archaeology, books on the art of the past, and photography with all its allied arts, have placed before the designer a confusing wealth of suggestive material, commerce and travel have been breaking down the barriers between the arts of different peoples. the result has been a general universalizing of art, in the sense that the art of every people is made available to all others. provincial and national styles and char- acteristics therefore tend to disappear, or at least to become less conspicuous because of the admixture of influences and suggestions from other lands. only those characteristics survive which are most deeply rooted in the national habits, mode of life, climate and environment. a theater in new york may be much like one in buenos aires, a railway station in new zealand much like one in south africa, a church in algiers like one in marseilles. louis quinze furniture adorns new york drawing-rooms, some of it made in france in the eighteenth century, some of it made in new york or grand rapids in the twentieth. persian rugs and chinese carpets cover the floors of mansions in a history of ornament five continents. the postage-stamps and bank-notes of half the world are engraved in new york. the sharp distinctions that once divided the decorative styles of different peoples have largely disappeared, and the de- signer of to-day is forced to be an eclectic. the forms of so many lands and ages are thrust upon him that he cannot, if he would, ignore the art either of the past or of other lands, and among them he must choose. under these conditions the remarkable thing is that national and racial characteristics do assert themselves, and that the artist possessed of an original and creative mind can still, and often does, impress upon his work the stamp of his own personality and the quality of an original creation. he can do this not only when, like the art nouveau designers of europe or louis sullivan in america he casts all tradition into the discard, but even when, like the late h. h. richardson, he bases his design avowedly upon some phase of historic art. for originality inheres in the artist, not in his materials; it depends less upon the forms and details he uses than upon the way in which he uses them. and in spite of commerce, travel, books and photography, in spite of many labored imitations of the artistic products of one country by the designers of another, french decorative art to-day is easily distinguishable as a whole, from english art and german art, and american art from all of these. the roman revival and empire style. the first results of the archaeological discoveries and movements just described were seen in the closing years the modern revivals of the th century in the effort to reproduce as literally as possible the stately grandeur of roman buildings by .prefixing roman corinthian porticoes to all sorts of buildings and even, as in the church of san francesco da paola at naples, by imitating an entire structure—in this case the pantheon, thomas jefferson's attempted adaptation of the design of the maison carree at nimes to the requirements of the new state capitol at rich- mond, va., and of the pantheon to those of a college library at charlottesville, va., and the mansion house and later the royal exchange at london, illustrate this tendency on both sides of the atlantic. but it was in france, under the romanizing rule of the emperor napoleon, that it asserted itself most forcibly between and . the madeleine, the arc du carrousel and the colonne vendome, the portico of the corps legislatif (now chambre des deputes) and the bourse, were under his inspiration made as roman as possible. all this was purely imitative architecture. in the in- teriors, however, the gallic originality asserted itself in decorative details and furniture inspired, it is true, by a romanized taste, but employing roman motives in a new spirit and with considerable elegance of effect (see pi. ix, ; figure ). for this result the associated architects, percier and fontaine, were chiefly respon- sible. walls were hung not with pictorial but with conventionally-figured tapestries in sober colors. furni- ture passed from the classical lightness of the louis seize style into a phase of classical massiveness, more sparsely adorned with ornaments of gilded bronze than under louis xvi (pi . ix, , , , , ; figure ). a history of ornament the imperial emblems, the eagle, the bee, the n in a laurel wreath, the palm of victory and traditional roman ornaments, were used with discretion, always on a dark ground. the sphinx, lion's paw and symbolic fio. .—empire chair, sphinx, footstool and pilaster. grotesques appear. the whole effect is formal, stately, massive, sober and undeniably refined, but lacking in charm and domesticity (figure ; figs. , ). the style passed into italy and germany and later the modern revivals to the united states, where between and duncan phyfe and his successors and imitators adopted its forms rather than its richer ornaments, in chairs, fio. .—empire ornaments: (a) from bed in grand trianon, versailles; (b) from tarle. sideboards, tables and clocks still to be seen in uninter- rupted use in old houses, and now sought for american museums (figure ). the biedermeyer style. partly accompanying, partly following the empire influence in germany, there was developed in furniture a modification of the empire style known as the bieder- meyer style. the name is not that of its inventor nor of any real person; it was a purely fictitious name for "the man in the street." those who developed the style thus dubbed were seeking to substitute painted orna- ment and cheap materials for the gilt bronze and ma- hogany and ebony of the french models. the products of this movement varied greatly in quality from clumsy simplicity to a certain elegance of form and decoration, often with painted floral ornaments of no little beauty on a black background. a history of ornament the greek revival, - . the causes that led to the archaeological revivals of the nineteenth century have already been explained. the greek revival was the second of these to take form, and it received its first impetus in england, al- though as early as the brandenburger thor had been built by langhans in berlin, in feeble imitation of the athenian propylaea. the results in england were on the whole disappointing, although a number of dig- nified facades to public buildings show a conscientious effort to adapt greek forms to modern uses. these, however, belong rather to the history of architecture than to that of ornament. the lack of decorative sculpture and the general poverty of the ornament are noticeable. the best british works in this respect are perhaps two monuments of small size in edinburgh, to robert burns and to dugald stewart, both based on the choragic monument of lysicrates at athens, and both having distinct decorative value. the great st. george's hall at liverpool is more roman than greek in style and interior decoration, though the pilasters of the flanks are derived from the internal piers of the apollo temple at didyme near miletus. the fine doorway and bronze doors by cockerell are the finest example of the effort to produce a modernized greco- roman style of ornament by any english architect (figure ). but the british taste and spirit were in general too far removed from the greek, and creative originality was at too low an ebb, for the production of any considerable amount of decorative design based on the modern revivals greek models. the best was usually that which copied most closely actual greek details. in germany the movement was less general, being confined chiefly to the work of two or three men in ber- lin and munich in the middle third of the century. but these were gifted men, possessed of a modicum, at least, of independent imagination, and they sought to adapt rather than to copy. the decorative details, internal as well as external, of some of their works possess elegance and charm, being original designs in the greek spirit. among the finest works of the greatest of these design- ers—schinkel of berlin, von klenze of munich and hansen of vienna—were a number of buildings erected in athens for the academy, university and museum (figure ). the french neo-grec. in france, thanks to the dominating influence of the iscole des beaux-arts, with its strongly classic roman traditions, the greek movement never took the form of an archaeological revival. but three successive winners of the "prix de rome"—j. f. duban in , h. p. f. labrouste in and l. j. due in —together sought to introduce into their work something of the crispness and delicacy of greek art, and developed what came near to being a new style, to which some writers have given the name of neo-grec. these men broke away from the stereotyped rules of the prevailing academic style, invented new profiles and combinations of moldings, pilaster-caps, consoles and balusters, and developed new forms of window-treatment and a some- the modern revivals fro. a.—details from palais de fig. . — console justice, paris. west front, palais de justice, paris. fio. .—detail, stair-balustrade in palais de justice, paris. the modern revivals exterior polychromy; the paintings on the f ronl of the church had at last to be scraped off, and the experiment left no lasting results in french architectural decora- tion. even the polychrome effects attempted by gar- fio. .—details from houses in paris. nier in the facade of the opera by the use of rich colored marbles and gilding long ago lost their original values and faded into the general gray tonality of the whole. a history of ornament the gothic revival. while one group of revivalists in great britain was championing the study and imitation of greek art as the only means of artistic reform, another group was even more energetically advocating the restoration of the gothic styles. this group was led by the elder pugin, whose successive books on english gothic architecture, followed by several books by his son augustus welby pugin in the same vein, were powerful agents in awakening the british public to the glories of their national medieval art. gothic architecture was advocated as being both english and christian; greek and roman models were "foreign" and "pagan" and therefore unworthy of imitation. as with the greek advocates, it was the forms, not the underlying prin- ciples that were studied at first. architecture and decorative art were to be reformed by the use of pointed arches, tracery, finials and crockets and gothic orna- ments, irrespective of materials, methods of construc- tion, or purpose. in this medievalistic revival john ruskin ( - ) exerted a powerful influence by his lectures, his books and his personal influence. possessed of a deeply religious nature, an intense hatred of all sham and pre- tense, an artistically sensitive spirit, with a tinge of puritan mysticism, he was strongly drawn to the art of the middle ages, above all that of italy, where he repeatedly made long sojourns, especially in venice. 'augustus pugin, a french tmigri to england ( - ). "specimens of gothic architecture, ; examples of gothic archi- tecture, ; gothic ornaments, . a history of ornament john ruskin, who had been castigating the british in- difference to art, which he allied closely to religious faith, had in several works expressed enthusiasm for the italian gothic style, especially that of venice; and the later gothicists began to borrow freely details and sug- gestions from the italian. as that was preeminently a derived style, which applied the borrowed forms of the northern gothic as a purely superficial dress, it lent itself easily to the purposes of the english gothicists, especially for secular buildings. in figure it is easy to recognize many italian gothic features. the famous and much criticized albert memorial in london by sir gilbert scott (figure ) is based in large measure on orcagna's altar in or san michele at flor- ence. in church architecture the gothicists could follow northern gothic models more closely, and here they developed in time considerable freedom of design. the earlier examples of decorative detail were more strictly archzeological in character,—closer copies of actual medieval details—than in the later work. the perpen- dicular style at first found especial favor, as in the im- posing houses of parliament but as the understanding of the true principles and historical evolution of the gothic styles advanced, the perpendicular came to be regarded as a style of the decline, and the early eng- lish and decorated styles, modified by suggestions from both the french and italian gothic, found greater favor, as in exeter college chapel at oxford, st. wilfrid's at york, etc. the later works of the century show increasing independence of historic precedent. in charles l. eastlake, son of a painter of some the modern revivals note and himself an artist and art-critic, published a volume entitled "hints on household taste," followed soon after by another on the history of the gothic re- vival in england. these two volumes, especially the first, exerted so strong an influence on british taste in matters of furniture and domestic art that there ensued a movement known as the eastlake, looking to the creation of a new style in furniture and interior woodwork. two main principles were fundamental in the movement: that design should be based on construc- tion and material, and that as far as the first principle permitted, gothic models should be followed or at least studied for suggestion and inspiration, especially for decorative detail. the rather singular style that re- sulted became popular, was commercialized, and after a few years died out, having run its course (fig. ). the trouble with this, as with so many other movements of attempted reform, was that principles were expected to take the place of artistic ability and creative origi- nation. the furniture that was produced, however faithful to the principles laid down, was stiff, often ugly, lacking in grace or beauty of line, and quite destitute of any right to be called gothic. nevertheless the move- ment did good in abating much of the hideousness of british interiors of the preceding period and in instilling the idea of honest construction and expression of ma- terial; it crossed the ocean and played its part in the early years of the artistic awakening in the united states of - . the net results of the victorian gothic movement in england were chiefly three: first, the slow develop- a history of ornament ment of a new national style of church architecture; secondly, the realization that gothic details are ill- suited to the purposes of modern secular architecture; thirdly, the revival of various crafts and art-industries, especially those of carving, metal-work and stained glass. fro. .—an eastlake sideroard. in germany there was a feeble echo of the english movement, confined chiefly to ecclesiastical architecture, as in the votivkirche at vienna, a somewhat similar church at munich and a few others. but the movement never became truly national, and on the decorative side may be dismissed without further mention. its most the modern revivals important fruit was the completion of cologne cathe- dral and of the spires of the minster at ulm and of the cathedral of ratisbon (regensburg). in the field of secular architecture the one outstanding monument of germanic neo-gothic design is the costly and impressive parliament house at budapest, by steindl (about - ). in france the movement, under the powerful lead- ership of viollet-le-duc was mainly archaeological. it resulted in the restoration of many decayed and decay- ing buildings, the erection of a few churches of severe archaeological correctness of style, {e.g. ste. clothilde at paris and the bonsecours church near rouen), and above all, through v.-le-duc's monumental "diction- naire raisonne," in a new understanding of medieval gothic architecture as a style based on the logic of con- struction. the remarkable illustrations in this work did more than any other agency except that of photography to disseminate a clear understanding of the significance and beauty of gothic detail. both the greek and the gothic revivals had their birth, as we have seen, in wholly mistaken conceptions of architecture itself and of the relation of art to life. the greek movement was extinct by . the gothic movement lasted in england to the end of the century, and indeed still persists in church architecture and all the arts of the church: of this more in the next chapter. in secular architecture it was losing ground by , eugene fimanuel viollet-le-duc, - . * dictionnaire raisonne de l'architecture francaise du v au xvii siecle, paris, . a history of ornament when alfred waterhouse, one of its chief advocates, shifted to the romanesque for the inspiration of his design for the natural history museum at south kensington, and george edmund street was demon- strating by an awful example the unfitness of the gothic for modern civic architecture in the new law courts in london. like the greek revivalists, the leaders of the anglo-gothic revival were men of fine culture and thorough scholarship. but scholarship alone cannot take the place of artistic inspiration and correct principles of design: it may even hamper origi- nality and fetter inspiration. the renaissance revival. meanwhile, during the second half and especially the last quarter of the century, there was developing a new interest in the monuments and spirit of the renaissance, not only in england but throughout europe and america as well. the revival of the renaissance style in france, with its brilliant results in the new louvre, the new opera house (pi. xviii, , , and figure ) and the new h tel-de-ville in paris, strongly in- fluenced architectural design and decoration on the con- tinent, and gradually made itself felt in england, es- pecially in civic architecture. during the last half of the century france was confessedly the leader in artistic design in all fields. in architecture, even the most ordinary street architecture, there is evident a touch of refinement, a finish of detail and often a spark of origi- nality, such as no other country could show. fig. presents a variety of details from what may be called the modern revivals fig. .—details of paris street architecture, nineteenth centtjry. a history of ornament the vernacular street architecture of paris of this period. in ceramics and textiles there was a like superiority to the rest of europe. the leaders in this revival in france were visconti, lefuel and garnier. the result in england was a somewhat peculiar but interesting de- velopment, in such buildings as the imperial institute fio. .—detail, city bank ladyhill, ry collcutt, . at south kensington, the town hall at oxford and many town halls and public buildings elsewhere, and in a fashion of house and school design curiously miscalled the queen anne style. in this development the classic details of the renaissance were modified and combined 'louis t. g. visconti, born at rome, , died at paris, ; designer with hector m. lefuel ( - ) of the new ixmvre. lefuel was richard m. hunt's preceptor. charles garnier, architect of the opera, was born in , died . the modern revivals under the english love for picturesque and irregular masses, turrets, varied roof-lines and small parts. the results were often exceedingly interesting, highly- original, sometimes charming (figs. , ). this was not, like its greek and gothic predecessors, an effort to revive textually a dead style, but a sin- cere effort to draw in- spiration from the his- toric past without copying, and to adapt the suggestions of the past to the special needs of the present. architecture was now better understod than at the outset of the revivals; it was once more becoming a vital art, closely related to modern life. the mul- tiplication of museums and schools, on both sides of the channel and of the ocean, was providing the technical training without which design can only limp along its path, and which in older days had been provided by the system of apprenticeship under great masters. fio. .- -a scotch town hall, ry r. sanoii.ands. a history of ornament the nature movement. in the mid-victorian period, about , the british public began to realize that in many lines of industry the british products were outclassed by the continental, especially the french, because of the superior artistic quality of the foreign products. the lack of museums and schools of industrial art was felt to be one reason for the inferiority of the british manufacturers, es- pecially in the field of textiles and ceramics. the establishment of the great south kensington mu- seum, with its library and schools, was the first step towards filling this want ( ), and was followed by the establishment of many "provincial" schools and museums. for some time an underlying principle of the training in these schools seems to have been that of recourse to nature, especially to the vegetable world, for suggestions of decorative design. historic ornament was also taught, but the chief inspiration was sought in the forms of leaves and flowers, which were to be dissected, analyzed, recombined and treated either naturalistically or con- ventionally, but always from the point of view of deco- rative composition. this movement had some echo in france and germany (figs. , ). the last half- dozen plates of owen jones's "grammar of orna- fio. .—a french floral wall-paper. the modern revivals ment," published in , are devoted to various types of flowers and foliage from nature, appropriate for ornament. in france the "flore ornementale" of ruprich-robert, published as late as , performed the same task in more elaborate fashion. the results were not equal to expectation, for the emphasis was laid too much on the plant-forms and not enough on training in the fundamentals of decorative fio. .—a german floral plate-border. design, in which the source of the motives used is less important than the way in which they are used. never- theless there was, on the whole, a decided gain. any sincere effort after greater beauty, even along mistaken lines, is pretty sure to open the eyes of the seeker and to develop his power of artistic appreciation. the monstrosities of perverted pictorial naturalism in car- pets, cretonnes, ceramics and wall-papers of an earlier day began to give way before a better mastery of the principles of decorative composition. other influences aided this progress: the increasing importation of chi- a history of ornament nese and japanese and east indian textiles, bronzes and ceramics and rugs, the multiplication of museums of industrial art, a more intelligent study of historic ornament, the great international exhibitions of london ( and ), paris ( and ), and finally in england the arts-and-crafts movement. this was the outgrowth of an enterprise initiated by the poet-socialist william morris in , which had as its aim a return to the old-time relation between design and execution, and the restoration of hand-craftsman- ship in place of machine production. wall-papers, furniture, stained glass and especially textiles were the objects to which attention was at first directed by the band of artisans and amateurs gathered and led by morris (pi. xix, , ). later he found in the printer's art a field for careful design of types and the treatment of the page as an artistic design in itself, producing many beautiful books in his "kelmscott press." the indirect results of morris's preaching and practice were more important than the direct. it was impossible to overthrow the modern system of mass- production and machine-processes. the works of the morris coterie could not be produced nor sold except at prices far above the reach of the masses, but the move- ment greatly stimulated the interest of the public in the products of handicraft, with the result that many old handicrafts have since then been revived, and that thousands of individuals have been led to design and execute with their own hands all sorts of artistic objects the modern revivals —textiles, book-covers, laces and embroideries, ceramics, jewelry and the like. this has reacted on the general public taste as well as on the quality of machine- products in the industrial arts. these are in general to-day vastly superior to those of the first three-quarters of the th century in almost every field of design (see pp. , ). plates xix and xxi illustrate some of these results. an interesting episode of the movement outside of the morris enterprise was an earlier effort of john ruskin to persuade the architects to substitute crafts- men's designing of architectural detail for that of the architects' office in the new museum at oxford. the carvers of the capitals in this building were allowed to design their own capitals from the flowers and foliage of the neighborhood, after the fashion of the medieval builders. the results were interesting, but it must be confessed that they were, after all, mediocre, for the carvers had never been trained to original design. yet the experiment was worth trying, and is worth repeat- ing, if only it can be continued long enough to train the carvers in the principles of decorative design. it was, indeed, repeated some years later in new york by p. b. wight, in the old academy of design (demolished ), with much the same result (see p. ). the difficulty lies in the fact that artisanship in the execution of a craft does not in itself imply or confer the ability to design. but this is not a very serious difficulty and would disappear if only the trade itself in each artistic craft were to set resolutely about providing for its mem- bers the necessary training in design. this is precisely a history of ornament i fio. . — detail from a german carinet in berlin, . fio. .—german communion wine-flaoon, . what the old-time guilds were accustomed to do. the modern craft of architectural modelers, now growing to increasing importance as an intermediary between the architect's paper design and the executed carving, a history of ornament this condition of things is greatly deplored by those who cling to the idea that distinctive national styles are in themselves essential to the production of good art. a more philosophical view recognizes in this universal- izing or commonizing of styles and in the eclecticism of modem design necessary and inevitable conditions in- separable from our present civilization; and in our modern design, whether in the major or minor arts, the clear expression of these conditions. this broader view seeks to discover, and to some extent does discover, national and racial differences not in the use of particu- lar shapes, forms and combinations such as formerly defined a style, but in subtler distinctions of character and spirit. where such distinctions are not discover- able, we are in the presence of products of a kind com- mon to several or all civilized nations; as for instance, in many textiles like brocades, velvets and carpets pro- duced by machinery and often in designs taken with little or no change from the past (see pi. xxiii). thus a florentine renaissance velvet, a persian or chinese carpet, may be textually reproduced on a power-loom in england or france or germany or the united states with no discoverable characteristic of the country of its production. books recommended: a. barqui: l'architecture rnoderne en france (baudry, paris, ).—l. a. boileau: les preludes de varchitecture duxxe steele (fischbacher, paris, ).—c. daly: l'archi- tecture privee au xixe siecle (daly, paris, ).—c. l. eastt.ake, jr.: the gothic revival (longmans, london, ) ; hints on household taste in furniture, etc. (long- the modern revivals mans, london, ).—f. v. feldegg: moderne kirchen~ dekorationen (schroll, vienna, ).—c. garnier: le nouvel opéra (morel, paris, ).—c. p. gourlier: choix d'édifices publics (colas, paris, - ).—w. hessling: ameuble- ment et décoration, style empire (beazley, paris, ).— t. g. jackson: modern gothic architecture (king, london, ).—krafft et ransonnette: maisons et hotels à paris, - (lib. art et déc, paris, ).—p. lafond: l'art décoratif et le mobilier sous la république et l'empire (renouard, paris, ).—liénard: l'ornementation du xixe siècle (liénard, liège, ).—w. lurke: geschichte der neueren baukunst (berlin, ).—f. luthmer: malerische innenraume moderner wohnungen (keller, frank- fort, ).—lutzow und tischler: wiener neubauten (lehman, vienna, ).—muthesius: die neuere kirchliche baukunst in england (ernst, berlin, ).—f. narjoux: monuments élevés par la vule de paris, - (morel, paris, ).—l. m. normand: part* moderne, ou choix de maisons, etc. (normand, paris, ).—a. e. richardson: monumental classical architecture in great britain and ireland (batsford, london, ).—h. ruckwardt: façaden und détails moderner bauten (claesen, berlin, ).—h. h. statham: modern architecture (scribners, new york, ). chapter xiv the nineteenth centuey in america it was inevitable that every movement of art in europe should in time reach the united states. al- though transatlantic communication by sail was slow, it was constant; and as the states of the young republic were dependent on the old world for almost everything of an artistic character, they could not fail to reflect sooner or later each phase of artistic development that occurred in europe, especially in england and france. the first evidence of the french influence is seen in the work of thomas jefferson ( - ), who was at once a statesman and an architect. while much of his work, e.g. at monticello and charlottesville (va.), was based on book-knowledge, especially of palladio, he brought back from his sojourn of four years in france ( - ) a great admiration for the maison carree at nimes, which he made the basis of his design for the virginia state capitol at richmond, under the influence of that classic revival in france which was maturing under louis xvi and was to develop under napoleon into the roman revival of the empire (see pp. , ). through the closing years of the th and open- ing years of the th century there followed a certain mingling and confusion of influences: the delicate adam-like detail of the later "georgian" or post- • i figure . american nineteenth cen- tury furniture. nineteenth century in america walter in the old mint and girard college at phila- delphia. the greek details were used with more freedom than generally in europe, especially in the handling of window-openings and superposed stories. the decora- tive detail was restrained but in good taste; but the lack of sculptural adornment made itself felt as a serious blemish here as in england. the style spread rapidly, so that by not only churches but private houses were designed with greek details, which displaced all others as the architectural vernacular of the carpenter and house-builder. there was much pleasing detail in the common molding profiles and modest carved ornaments of ordinary houses and small churches. sometimes the proportions of doric and ionic columns were altered to fit a purely wooden construction: more often not, out of regard rather to the tradition of a style which does not easily lend itself to radical change of proportion, than for any abstract logic as to the expression of material. figure and fig. illustrate the style as it worked out in doorways and interior details. there was also not a little good ironwork in railings, balconies, etc., in which greek details were used with good taste. the gothic revival. there was no background of gothic tradition in the united states on which to found a revival of the style, though pointed arches were sometimes used for windows of colonial and early republican churches, especially under dutch influence. the movement, when started a history of ornament by the building of trinity church in new york in by the english architect richard upjohn, had little vitality, and was chiefly confined to the architecture of episcopal churches. except for the excellent work of a few gifted men—the elder upjohn and his son rich- ard m., james renwick and f. c. withers—there was little merit in the attempts at gothic design. there were no craftsmen to execute good detail, except a few who came over from england and scotland, and the style was not understood by the people nor by architects generally other than those mentioned above. lath-and- plaster and painted pine liberally sanded, in place of vaulting and honest masonry, made a travesty of most of the efforts in the style, especially in secular archi- tecture. even the best work in this style in secular buildings was singularly uninteresting (fig. ). two buildings in this field stood out, however, as excep- tionally honest and interesting efforts to adapt the style to modern secular uses. the academy of design in new york by p. b. wight ( , demolished about ) drew its inspiration from the venetian gothic, and was a remarkably well-studied and intelligent adap- tation of the style (pi. xxii, ). two of the capitals were designed by the imported stone-carvers them- selves, from suggestions of the local flora, as was done in the new museum at oxford a few years earlier, (see ante, p. ). the results were very much the same, interesting but not so beautiful as to cause repe- tition of the experiment elsewhere. the capitals de- signed by the architect and executed by english carvers were better (figure ). the second of these "secular r - , i figuee . geeek revival dooeway, figuee . gothic business build- south fifth ave., new yoek. ino, boston ..r. { nineteenth century in america gothic" buildings was the state capitol at hartford, conn., in which the younger upjohn in - en- deavored to devise an american adaptation of the gothic style to secular uses. apart from its merits and defects as architecture, the effort is interesting but not inspiring. the deviations from historical precedent in the detail were seldom improvements, and it was again shown that personal innovations in style have no vitality unless they reflect something in the movement of the public taste. in st. patrick's cathedral in new york, mr. j. ren- wick frankly combined details and suggestions drawn from french, english and german gothic prototypes, without attempting to adapt or "americanize" them. the blending, as symbolic of the three nations from which at that time ( - ) the american catholic population was chiefly drawn, was managed with gen- eral good taste. there are a few other churches in new york, brooklyn, boston and philadelphia in which gothic details are used with intelligence and taste. the "civil war" period. the general condition of taste during the period from to in the united states was lower than at any time before or since. in every department of life there was a deplorable lack of knowledge or appreciation of the fine arts, and of opportunities for training in any of the arts. in the industrial arts we depended wholly upon importations from europe. the domestic furni- ture was heavy, dull, pretentious and ugly, predomi- nantly of black walnut. interior decoration consisted nineteenth century in america in american art. the revelation which it made to a million or two of americans of the art of the old world created a profound impression, shaking the complacency of the nation and arousing a popular interest, hitherto lacking, in art as a factor in everyday life. to this awakening a number of concurrent circumstances con- tributed powerfully. the nation, recovering from the disastrous panic of , was entering on an era of great prosperity, due to the opening up of the "great west." travel to europe was rapidly increasing in volume, and returning travelers, like the roman hosts returning from their campaigns in greece, were bring- ing back objects of art from europe and, above all, new conceptions and ideals of artistic beauty. three schools of architecture had been established, at boston, ithaca (n. y.) and urbana ( .); and by four others, at new york, philadelphia, syracuse and cam- bridge (mass.). the art museums of new york and boston were established during the 'seventies. several architects of great ability and strong personality at last found appreciation by a public which had begun to learn the difference between good and bad art. american students in increasing numbers resorted to the paris ficole des beaux-arts, bringing back new standards of planning, construction and draftsmanship in architec- ture and a new appreciation of painting and sculpture. we began to attain success in domesticating various industrial and decorative arts—in ceramics, in textiles, in furniture, metal work, mural painting, stained glass, etc. the first of these arts to attract attention abroad was our silverware (tiffany, gorham, whiting, etc.): figure . four capitals ry p. b. wight for academy of design, new york (demolished). nineteenth century in america trinity church in boston ( - ), richardson's first important masterpiece, displayed internally the first serious effort at systematic decoration by mural paint- ing and stained glass, under the direction of john lafarge. figs. , and figures , illus- trate characteristic examples of richard- sonian ornament. re- flections of his influ- ence are illustrated in pi. xxii, , , . fio. .—carvkd detail, harvard uni- versity law school, ry richardson. independent develop- ments. while the style and influence of richard- son's work were domi- nant in the field of architecture, they had little effect on interior decoration elsewhere than in the buildings erected by richardson and his followers. the awakened taste of this period expressed itself in various in- dependent fashions in the work of particular groups and individuals. one group, calling themselves "the associated artists," under the leadership of l. c. tiffany, produced interesting effects by the ingenious use of all sorts of materials and processes, mattings, glass rings, brass rings, hand-forged nails, stained wood, hammered metal, painted burlap and other singular and novel materials, besides needlework and stained glass a history of ornament and mosaic. the result was a species of "art nouveau," long anticipating the french movement, and drawing inspiration impartially from japanese, moorish, by- zantine and medieval art and the artist's inner con- sciousness (company rooms in seventh regiment armory; curtain of the madison square theater, long ago demolished). much of this decoration was beauti- ful, but its beauty depended wholly upon the taste and ability of the associated artists, not upon any principle of style, and the movement soon expired, like the rich- ardsonian, under the growing dominance of renaissance inspiration. other individualistic influences were noticeable in the work of caryl coleman, which revealed a strong japa- nese inspiration, and in the silver work of tiffany, gorham and whiting, borrowing suggestions from east indian, american indian and nature sources, handled with great skill. the bryant vase of silver by tiffany (c. l. tiffany, father of l. c. tiffany, previously men- tioned) now in the century club and exhibited in at philadelphia, represents an effort to combine natural- istic ornament based on american flowers with the classic form of the vase itself. there was developed a style of interior woodwork at this time which shows a curious blending of eastlake severity of construction with a kind of denatured japanesque carving. it ap- pears singularly out-of-date and naive to modern eyes, but it shows a sincere effort to break away from the banality and vulgar ostentation of the preceding "black walnut" period. technical skill and a new craftsmanship were de- nineteenth century in america veloping under these influences. carving, stained glass, bronze-founding, artistic work in wrought-iron were all carried on with increasing success. in wall-papers, carpets, silks and brocades the native producers were achieving a real artistic progress, though still largely dependent on foreign-born artisans and craftsmen for the execution of their designs. the neo-classic movement. with richardson's death in the vogue of his style began to decline. its success was largely due-to its author's personal genius; his followers, though sev- eral of them possessed ability, were unable to equal the merit of his designs, especially as new currents of taste were developing under the influences already men- tioned. the coup-de-grdce to the style was adminis- tered by the columbian exhibition of at chicago. in the festival architecture of this "white city" a number of architects collaborated in producing an ensemble of buildings in various versions of renais- sance or neo-classic styles, as being best suited to a monumentally decorative effect. the powerful influence of the late c. f. mckim ( - ) and his partners; of the late r. m. hunt ( - ); of the sculptor saint gaudens ( - ), and of the young architects trained in paris and in the american schools, together with an increasing public acquaintance with european, classic and renaissance art, all combined to favor the general acceptance of renaissance types and ideas. the superior fitness of the architectural and decorative forms of the so-called classic and neo-classic styles for g a history of ornament modern requirements found increasing recognition, especially for civic and monumental architecture. the development of the decorative arts based on the tradi- tions of the renaissance was stimulated, after the chicago exhibition, by the erection of two important buildings in which mural decoration by distinguished painters was made of nearly equal importance with the architecture—the public library in boston and the congressional library in washington ( ). the development of decorative art in the united states since the completion of those buildings in the closing decade of the th century will be discussed in another chapter. important contributing elements in the improvement and decorative enrichment of architecture were, among other things: the increasing use and high technical de- velopment of terra-cotta; the opening up of new quar- ries of limestone and marble of superior quality; the increasing supply of capable craftsmen—carvers, metal- workers, mosaic-workers, etc.; the new effects possible in stained glass with the opalescent, mottled, and irregu- lar-surfaced glasses available, thanks largely to the in- ventions and processes of mr. l. c. tiffany and the power and originality of the designs of john lafarge, the work of the brothers lamb (all in new york), and the progress made in decorative and monumental sculp- ture by a group constantly increasing of native or nat- uralized american sculptors (french, mcmonies, saint gaudens, ward, bitter, etc.) and of thoroughly trained foreign craftsmen and a few of their american pupils. in this connection mention should be made of ellen and nineteenth century in america kitson in boston, who had come over from england in the 'sixties and were associated in the carved work in wight's academy of design in new york; and of the decorative influence of the introduction of terra-cotta for the embellishment of important buildings, in the old (now demolished) museum of fine arts in boston in (pi. xxii, ). books recommended: g. brown: history of the united states capital (gov't printing office, washington, ).—j. w. dow: the ameri- can renaissance (comstock, new york, ).—p. graef: neubauten in nordamerika (berlin, n. d.).—f. kimrall: thomas jefferson, architect (privately printed, boston, ).—lamreth and manning: thomas jefferson, architect and designer of landscapes (houghton, new york, ).— j. mackson: american architectural interiors and furniture of latter part of th century (polley, boston, ).— monographs of american architecture (amer. architect co., boston, - ).—m. schuyler: american architecture (harper's, new york, ).—stevens and corr: examples of american domestic architecture (comstock, new york, ).—m. g. van rensselaer: h. h. richardson and his works (houghton, boston, ).—f. r. vogel: das amerv- kanische haus (wasmuth, berlin, ). (for the decorative arts of the th century in america the reader should consult the architectural and trade periodicals.) chapter xv the twentieth century: europe and america during the first fourteen years of the present century the arts of europe continued in the paths they were following during the last decade of the nineteenth. in all northern and western europe there was a general prevalence of the forms and styles of the renaissance, revived in each country generally along the lines of its own previous national renaissance, with a greater or less admixture of the french influence and here and there of naturalistic and of neo-gothic forms. in other words, the decorative arts were mildly eclectic, with the renaissance influence on the whole predominant. in so far as historic styles were followed, they were treated with freedom and intelligence. the "art nouveau" movement. along with this general current of renaissance in- fluence, however, there had developed, during the clos- ing years of the th century, a fairly strong current of independent design, as a protest against what was called "the slavish imitation of the dead past," "adherence to outworn formulae," "the blind following of tradition." the movement appears to have started in france, but was almost immediately taken up with enthusiasm in germany, austria and belgium, and to a much less t the twentieth century extent in great britain. it was called by various names —art nouveau or new art; moderne kunst or mod- ern art; the secession; independent art; and was to a considerable extent associated with the arts-and-crafts movement. it dealt at first only with architecture and the industrial arts, but spread soon to painting, sculp- ture and music, giving birth to post-impressionism, cubism and other singular recent developments of ec- centricity and extravagance. starting about in paris with the striking poster designs of cheret and grasset, it made its first appear- ance as a concerted movement in the paris exposition of , in furniture, jewelry, and vases, and in the architecture of many of the exhibition buildings. these works, widely differing in style and in merit revealed as their common underlying motive two controlling pur- poses: (a) the avoidance or ignoring of all historic styles and traditional forms, and (b) the expression of per- sonality. thus the movement was characterized by "the negative strength of protest rather than the affirmative strength of a vital principle. its lack of cohesion is seen in the division of its adherents into groups, some looking to nature for inspiration, while others decry this as a mistaken quest; some seeking to emphasize structural lines and others to ignore them altogether." "the re- sults ... as a rule have been most successful in small objects; jewelry, silverware, vases and small furniture. ... in the field of the larger objects of design, in which the dominance of traditional form and of structural considerations is proportionally more imperious, the struggle to evade these restrictions becomes more diffi- a history of ornament cult, and results in more obvious and disagreeable ec- centricities, which the greater size and permanence of the object tend further to exaggerate." the more extreme manifestations of this movement in architecture and interior decoration are equally destitute of grace and propriety. they demonstrate the importance of tradition and of structural fitness as restraints upon unregulated fancy or "originality," the ab- sence of these restraints being responsible for most of the absurdities of these designs. on the other hand, the beauty of many of the results in jewelry, ce- ramics and the minor arts, in which con- struction and tradition fio. .—lady's jeweled comr ry „ lauque. are ot less importance, has been as notable as its general failure in architecture. the jewelry of lalique (fig. ), the vases and lamps of jean dampt and of the belgian meunier, the posters and sculptural decorations of cheret, the stained glass and ironwork of the belgians (e.g. of victor horta, fig. ), and innumerable typographical and textile deco- rations by german, french and other designers, have proved how possible it is to break away from tradi- quoted from my "history of architecture," pp. - , ed. (long- mans, and green, new york). the twentieth century tion in these fields of design and still produce beautiful effects of line and form (pi . xx). particularly notice- able is the frequent recurrence of what may be called the "whiplash" line (fig. ), not only in flat linear patterns but also in the lines of draperies and sinuously posed fe- male figures in jewelry, lamps, vases, etc. in architecture, more- over, there have been ex- ceptions to the general eccentricity and extrava- gance of the movement. its most distinguished ex- ponent in austria, the late otto wagner, pro- fessor in the former im- perial school of art at vienna (d. ), pro- duced a number of build- ings in which distinction of general form and pro- portion were maintained and all mere eccentricity was carefully avoided. the detail, though sometimes eccentric, is in his work generally reasonable and elegant (pi. xx, , ). most of the paris exhibition buildings in were anti-traditional in composition rather than in decora- fio. .—window ry v. horta, brussels. the twentieth century which was also a movement of protest against classic tradition, it is interesting to observe how largely both movements expressed themselves in sinuous lines, in waving and contrasted curves, and in efforts to avoid straight lines, right angles, and rigidly structural forms. eclecticism in europe. the influence of the art nouveau movement was not strong enougn to change the entire course of the arts. alongside of its most conspicuous monuments of archi- tecture and monumental decoration others were being produced at the same time based upon the historic styles. it is difficult if not impossible to improve upon the forms which centuries of human effort evolved for the solution of problems identical with many which the designer has to solve to-day. they serve the purposes of the modern designer so well that there can be no reason for reject- ing them except the desire for novelty. that desire must to a certain extent animate every creative mind; it is the spring and source of every advance that has been made in art. in the historic past, however, it has manifested itself not in wholesale rejection and absolute new-creation, but in gradual and almost insensible modi- fications of detail. new and expressive styles have grown up out of the accumulations of these minute changes, building always upon the established and fa- miliar tradition. violent innovations and purely per- * in this estimate and review of the art nouveau movement, written in , i find i have had to make no substantial change from that which i published nineteen years earlier in the "craftsman" of december, , in an article to which i refer the reader for a more detailed account of the early phases of the movement than the limits of this work will allow. it was published by the stickley co. in new york. a history of ornament imitation which avoids servile copying, do not make for that progress in creative design which is essential to vital art. the designers of the second class are those who draw suggestion and inspiration from historic models, but adapt and modify more or less freely what they borrow from the past. they value fitness to function, rational use of materials and intrinsic beauty of form above conformity to historic models. poor de- signers, then, adapt and modify badly, but the true artist adapts and modifies wisely and well, and thereby infuses into his work something of himself. this is the truer path of progress, alike in architecture and in the minor arts. it cannot be too often repeated, it cannot be too strongly urged upon the student and the profes- sional designer alike, that the merit of his work depends far less upon the style chosen or the historic elements he uses, than upon the way he uses them. no teaching of styles in the schools, and no recourse to nature her- self, will produce a good design, unless the designer be an artist and work into his design the artistic quality which comes from his own taste and imagination. the technical training can only lay the foundation upon which he must raise his own edifice of art. the beauty of the products of european studios, ateliers and factories, and their superiority, as a whole, to the corresponding american products as a whole, have been due to the more general recognition of these principles in europe. tradition, training, a wise eclec- ticism and the higher general level of artistic taste in europe and especially in france, account for the ex- cellence and artistic charm of so many of the products the twentieth century of both the fine and the industrial arts which come from the other side of the atlantic. eclecticism in the united states. it is only natural that twentieth-century decorative art in the united states should be eclectic. having no age-long traditions of our own in a land in which the decorative arts are but little over two centuries old at the furthest, and with no environment of ancient monu- ments and works of art to influence our design, we have been peculiarly open to divers influences and sugges- tions from foreign lands; as well to those that are sup- plied by books and photographs as to those derived from imported products of the various arts, or from travel abroad. there is no particular reason, in the nature of things, why the american designer should follow one style rather than another. none of them except the colonial and georgian has any special historic associa- tion with american life and culture, and the georgian suggestions and precedents have little to offer in the decorative arts outside of architecture and furniture. american indian art is a primitive and undeveloped art of very limited range and is, after all, as foreign to our culture—which is european in origin and type—as mohammedan or chinese art. yet even indian art may supply valuable suggestions for certain classes of design, especially in beadwork, blankets and basketry, and to some extent our designers have made use of these suggestions. it is the nearest approach to a genuine american "peasant" art. in all the arts, architectural and industrial, the the twentieth century widely known, were creating designs of a thoroughly personal and individual aspect (figs. , ; pi. xxiii, , , , ). during the twenty-two years since this eclectic freedom has taken on certain definite trends, both in fio. .—upper part of schiller building, chicago. architecture and the accessory and industrial arts. in architecture the trend is toward the medieval styles for ecclesiastical and collegiate buildings; and toward the renaissance styles for civic and commercial buildings. in domestic architecture there is the greatest possible a history of ornament variety, according to location, materials and personal taste, but even here we note an increasing prevalence of georgian types. in each of these general trends there are divided currents. many roman catholic churches are in an italo-lombard or basilican style; a strong greco-roman trend is observable in the more monumental sort of buildings such as museums, banks and libraries. in "sky-scrapers" all sorts of historic de- tails may be seen; here eclecticism is freest in the effort to find an appropriate dress in which to clothe the skele- ton of steel. thus in new york the west street and woolworth buildings are dressed in gothic details; the metropolitan tower and municipal building have been given an italian renaissance dress; others wear a plain business dress, as it were, with a minimum of decoration of renaissance type. of late there have been many successful applications of spanish plateresque and churrigueresque models, closely followed as in the cali- fornia building by goodhue in the san diego exhibi- tion (pi. xxiii, ); or freely adapted, as in the catholic church at fall river by r. a. cram (fig. ). but these "styles" relate only to the apparel of decorative detail. underlying this is the fundamental style of the building, due to its form, proportions, con- struction and planning, which could not by any means be mistaken for medieval or italian, greek, roman or french: and this underlying style is purely american. in all these modern american applications of the historic styles to modern purposes there is evidence of a freedom of handling, an intelligence of adaptation, which are far removed from the slavish copying and the a history of ornament affectation of archaeological correctness of the revivals of the last century. many of the works produced under this eclecticism are works of true originality. the historic-style details have served merely as an alphabet with which to express new ideas, new conceptions in a new language. pi. xxiii gives illustrations of inter- esting "historic" details from recent buildings. minor arts. in the minor arts the choice of form and detail is far wider than in architecture. oriental art, both from the near east, in rugs and embroideries, and from the far east, in fabrics, ceramics and bronzes, has supplied abundant suggestions to our designers (pi. xxi). the beginnings of the oriental influence may be traced back to the centennial at philadelphia. the multipli- cation of art museums in which not merely the major arts are represented but also the industrial and minor arts, has placed before our designers during this century a wealth of suggestion and resource previously un- imagined. commercial manufacturers as well as indi- vidual designers and craftsmen are more and more turn- ing to these splendid collections of art from the old world for suggestion and inspiration. the metropolitan museum of art, new york, has for some time maintained an organized system for the encouragement of artisans and designers in the indus- trial arts in making use of the collections in the museum for suggestions of decorative design, and annual exhibi- tions of their work and of the objects from which their designs have been drawn have proved the value of this a history of ornament italian iron-workers of the renaissance (figure , ). arts-and-crafts societies of various sorts are stimulat- ing the production of personally designed and executed work in jewelry, metal-work, book-binding and ceramics, and by these prizes and exhibitions are slowly educat- ing the taste of the public to appre- ciate^—and pay for—such personally designed and individual products. textile schools, silversmiths' schools and general schools of decorative de- sign or "applied art" are beginning to accomplish what the french, english and other european institu- tions have long since accomplished in the training both of designers and craftsmen. the improvement in taste and artistic capacity reacts on all the machine-industries, so that carpets, rugs, silks and brocades, x" u, ittt. /lv.uba- tive initial. silverware, laces and ceramics, pro- duced in quantities by machine proc- esses, are to-day of an artistic quality impossible of attainment twenty or even ten years ago. figure illustrates american metal-work of the last thirty years (except no. , which dates from about ), showing both free designs and designs based on the historic styles. figs. , , show typographic orna- ments taken from current periodicals. but the american taste, though eclectic, is conserva- tive; novel and singular designs are looked upon with the twentieth century doubtful favor; our people still prefer the styles they are accustomed to, and changes to new artistic ideals are only effected gradually. furniture. by far the greater part of the furniture now made in the united states is manufactured in great factories, widely scattered over the country, with an especially important group at grand rapids, mich. while the cheaper products of this system of manufacture possess no artistic merit whatever, many of these establishments have turned their attention to the making of fine furni- ture after historic models in various styles, employing highly paid craftsmen, chiefly foreign or foreign- trained, upon the finer details. the enormous impor- tations of old italian, flemish and french furniture of the th- th centuries to adorn the homes of rich amateurs and collectors, the fine collections in many museums, and the growing fashion, fad or craze for "period" rooms, have combined to stimulate the system- atic commercial reproduction of fine furniture-models of these centuries and styles, including our own colonial models. while there has been a certain amount of counterfeiting of "antique" pieces by unscrupulous craftsmen, the great and better-known establishments are not concerned in such frauds. and while there is more or less direct copying or reproduction of "antique" or historic pieces, advertised and sold as copies, there is also an increasing output of original designs in the his- toric styles. the best productions of this kind are of high quality, alike of design, construction and execu- the twentieth century textile design. much the same phenomena are observable in the field of artistic textiles. the great factories of the united states produce carpets and rugs in all the oriental styles; brocades and velvets reproducing the richest patterns of renaissance italy and france, printed fig. .—american drapery, fio. .—detail from an ameri- canterrury pattern. can ingrain rug. cretonnes, chintzes and hangings of all styles, and ma- chine tapestries and laces often of excellent design for interior decoration (figs. - ; pi. xxi, , , , , , ). not all the factory products, however, are copies or imitations of historic patterns, and there are a number of establishments for the weaving by hand of tapjstries designed by distinguished artists. the schools of decorative art, including schools of design maintained by the manufacturers themselves, have begun to provide a history of ornament american designers of ability, many of whom take their suggestions from nature, others from the work of the american indians, others again from the historic styles, lisa -«* «-a*<c^^ - : »^v^.&! fio. .—curtain of machine net. adapting, varying and combining them often in wholly new forms and combinations. "independent" design in the united states. from time to time individuals of pronounced origi- nality and independence of imagination have appeared in the united states who have achieved success in the decorative arts while disregarding and even scorning the traditions of the historic styles, or handling their details with complete indifference to the way in which they are used in those styles. mr. h. h. richardson was such a man, although he founded his very personal style on a basis of the romanesque of southern france and spain. mr. l. c. tiffany, with his new kinds of stained the twentieth century glass and new effects therewith, and later with his "favrile" glass in vases and other vessels; he and the "associated artists" in the 'eighties of the last century, already mentioned on p. ; the late stanford white, in various fields of decorative art; and at the time of the chicago exhibition and since, the gifted louis h. sul- livan, the most prolific and most original of all ameri- can architectural ornamentists, who next to richardson has come nearest to creating a new decorative style, all exhibit this tendency toward a free personal expression in decoration. mr. sullivan excels in surface-orna- mentation with intricately patterned designs of great beauty, having a certain affinity of character with moorish wall-patterning, but far more varied, and, unlike moorish examples, making free use of conven- tionalized foliage. this decoration is associated with a style of architectural composition equally original and striking, but not always equally commendable for beauty (auditorium building, chicago, ; trans- portation building, chicago, ; guaranty building, buffalo; banks at ottumwa, ia.; and many others; figs. , , ). he has had a few imitators, but none possessed of his peculiar gift of decorative fancy and his sure taste. these original and independent productions consti- tute the american "art nouveau," anticipating the european movement and having no connection with it, though identical in spirit and purpose. the priority of the american movement has been acknowledged by french critics, who, as early as , called attention to the work not only of mr. sullivan at chicago, but also the twentieth century lacking in this country, which was in the closing quarter of the last century only beginning to emerge from a state of artistic ignorance and anarchy due to the lack of traditions and historic background in art. established traditions were precisely what american art most needed as a foundation upon which to build any healthy progress. hence the multiplication of museums and schools of art, to meet a need consciously or uncon- sciously felt to an increasing degree. the present dominance of the neo-classic taste in public architecture, the revival of the long-forgotten "colonial" tradition, and at the same time the new vogue of the gothic for ecclesiastical and educational buildings, are beginning to provide this foundation. meanwhile the incurable eclecticism of american taste and the freedom with which our designers handle traditional forms and his- toric styles, may be relied on to prevent the hardening of any one tradition into a formula of artistic enslave- ment. peasant art. the name of "peasant art" or "bauernkunst," used to designate the industrial art of the peasantry of ger- manic, scandinavian, balkan and other countries, covers a great variety of products of considerable artistic merit and interest. the furniture, embroideries, local pot- tery, rugs and blankets of communities as yet uninvaded by modern factories, and only slightly or not at all touched by the artificialities of civilization, preserve the traditions of old-time design unchanged. in these re- gions the old handicrafts survive, producing individual a history of ornament objects almost always quaint, sometimes of great beauty, full of the charm of the human touch in traditional pat- terns and forms, in naive interpretations of floral motives, and in bright colors. such are the simple, vigorous tables and chairs in old german and swiss cottages, hand-made in patterns hardly altered since luther's time. such are the embroidered "towels" of macedonia and bulgaria, the richly colored peasant- fig. .—peasant ornament: chest from bethlehem, pa. embroideries of greece, hungary and jugo-slavia, the peasant pottery of brittany, of perugia, of the bos- phorus, the painted wares and woodwork of central europe, including poland, and much of the russian brasswork sold in our cities. indian beadwork, navaho blankets and the native pottery and basketwork of our southwest, belong to this class rather than to "savage" art. figs. , , illustrate only a few examples of this sort of art, to which not merely one but many volumes might be devoted. it tends to disappear before the leveling influence of railways and commerce; the twentieth century filled the world with such a stupendous wealth of beauti- ful things. our inheritance from these centuries is marvelous in its amount and in the stored-up riches of esthetic enjoyment, it provides for all who have eyes to see and minds to appreciate. the author confesses to a feeling of personal gratitude to the thousands upon thousands, mostly humble and unremembered by name, who by their labors have provided for us this feast of beautiful things: to architects and painters, sculptors and carvers, inlayers and goldsmiths, weavers and lace- makers and needle-workers and hammerers of iron and casters of bronze, and "hands"—really human souls— tending whirring machines and rattling looms, and peasants in remote cottages. the world's treasure of beautiful things is piling up year by year; each genera- tion is richer than the last. and finally the conviction, which the reader may or may not share, has grown upon the author that despite all wanderings along mistaken paths at times, the decorators and ornamentists of every age have sought after beauty and loveliness, which is a noble quest; and that in spite of all our criticisms and intolerances, every age has bequeathed to us its own contribution which we should be loth to throw away, and for which we should be duly thankful. books recommended: american architect: american country houses of today (amer. architect co., new york, ).—j. grerer: uarchi- tecture aux £tats-unis (payet, paris, ).—c. holme: peasant art in sweden, lapland and iceland (studio, new- york, ) ; peasant art in italy (studio, new york, ); other volumes on peasant art in various countries, published list of plates platb i. italian renaissance architectural detail. ii. italian renaissance painted decoration. iii. italian renaissance woodwork. iv. italian renaissance metalwork. v. italian renaissance textiles, ceramics, etc. vi. italian baroque architectural ornament. vii. french renaissance ornament, francis i-henry iii. viii. french renaissance ornament, louis xiv style, ix. french renaissance ornament, louis xvi and empire styles. x. french renaissance ornament in color. xi. spanish renaissance furniture and minor arts. xii. flemish and dutch renaissance ornament. xiii. german renaissance ornament. xiv. english renaissance ornament. xv. spanish-american ornament. xvi. american colonial architectural ornament. xvii. american colonial ornament: furniture, etc. xviii. french architectural ornament, th century. xix. english ornament, th and th centuries. xx. european "art nouveau" ornament. xxi. english and american color ornament, th century. xxii. american architectural ornament, th century. xxiii. american architectural ornament, th and th centuries. i. italian renaissance architectural detail . doric order, santa caterina, sienna. . order of the piccolomini altar, sienna cathedral. . upper order of pilasters, facade of cancelleria palace, rome. . from contarini palace, venice. . detail, court of farnese palace, rome. . detail, court of borghese palace, rome. . "colossal" order, palazzo valmarano, vicenza. . rustication, pompei palace, verona. . rustication, city gate, verona. . cornice, palazzo pretorio, cortona. . cornice, palazzo larderel, florence. illustrations , , , , , are from drawings by the author; -i, , , , are taken from drawings by columbia students, derived from various sources. plate i italian rbws&am&akmkiu* italian early renaissance flraweaural delails- ii. italian renaissance painted decoration i, , , . various details from decorations of loggie of the palace of the vatican, by raphael, giovanni da udine, and giulio romano (second-tier arcade of court of san damaso). , , . various details from rooms in the vatican palace, rome. . painted ornament from palazzo del te, mantua, by giulio romano. , . details from loggie of the vatican. ii, . from palazzo del te and ducal palace, mantua. , , , . from loggie of the vatican. - ceiling in ducal palace, mantua. most of the above illustrations are taken directly from owen jones, "grammar of ornament." numbers , , , and two or three others are from drawings by w. virick and r. s. buck columbia students. iii. italian renaissance woodwork . stalls in santa maria novella, florence. . stalls in the certosa, pavia. . detail from stall in sta. maria novella, florence. . unidentified panel of florentine intarsia. . carved panel from palazzo del commune, pistoia. . carved panel, early th century. . from stalls in st. mark's, venice. . panel from desk in san giorgio maggiore, venice. . pedestal from genoa. . back and seat of a florentine chair. . florentine cassone or marriage-chest, - . . stalls in s. maria maggiore, rome. illustrations , , , are taken directly from the workshop, a periodical printed in new york, - . numbers , , are from drawings by the author copied from or based upon illustra- tions in meyer's "handbook of ornament." numbers , , are author's drawings from photographs. ■the pedestal, number . is almost if not quite identical with one shown in some publications as that of a group by germain (pilon), the french kith century sculptor. whether this is an incorrect attribution, or whether germain pilon had seen and copied a pedestal in genoa, or whether, on the other hand, a pedestal from genoa has been used to mount the pilon group, the author has so far been unable to ascertain. iv. italian renaissance metalwork . mast-base by a. leopardi, piazza san marco, venice. . silver chalice in uffizi palace, florence. . bronze candlestick, th century, rome. . iron lantern, strozzi palace, florence. . iron window-grille. . iron window-guard. . chapel screen in lucca cathedral. . detail of key. . bronze vase-handle in south kensington museum. . bronze door-knocker from fcrrara. . iron gate, th century, from frascati. . detail of a florentine key. . a roman key. . bronze door-knocker in south kensington museum. illustrations , , , , , , are redrawn by author after examples in meyer's "handbook of ornament." numbers , , are taken directly from the workshop (see notes to plate iii). numbers , , are from author's drawings from photographs. plate iv italian remai^awce/fat?^. v. italian renaissance textiles, ceramics, etc. . florentine fabric, th century. . venetian velvet, late th century. . italo-spanish tile, th or th century. . venetian brocade, after painting by marziales in national gallery, london. . genoese or venetian velvet. th century in south ken- sington museum, london. . pattern from madonna's dress in painting by crivelli, , in national gallery, london. , . italian th century initials. . italian tile, th century, perhaps by serlio. . typographic border, venetian, . , , , , . majolica details from faenza, gubbio, etc., examples in south kensington museum. , , , . florentine manuscript illuminations by attavante and others. , , . details from "book of hours of aragon." by a florentine artist. . tapestry-border by giulio romano (woven in france). illustrations , are from drawings by author after examples in j. b. waring, sidney vacher, and kelekian (see bibliographies). .numbers , and are taken direct from a circular advertising "l'arte della stampa" by ongania (venice); - are taken direct from owen jones, "grammar of ornament." all the rest are taken direct from racinet, "l'ornement polychrome." vii. french renaissance oknament, francis i— henry iv . panel, wainscot of gallery of francis i, fontainebleau. . a francis i dormer. s. pilaster, tomb of louis xii at st. denis. . detail of wainscot in church of st. vincent, rouen. . a francis i capital. . a henri ii gaine from hotel lasbordes, toulouse. , . two henri ii gaines from hotel lasbordes, toulouse. . henri ii keyhole plate, hotel d'assezat, toulouse. . pier and gaine, hotel d'assezat, toulouse. . baluster-parapet, francis i, church of st. eustache, paris. . detail from grande galerie, henri iv, louvre, paris. is. henri ii door-panel from chateau d'anet. . chapel ceiling, chateau of chenonceaux. . window detail, francis i wing, chateau of blois. . henri iii dormer, hotel de sully, paris. . henri ii door-panel, church at chalons-sur-marne. illustrations and are from drawings by author from photo- graphs. numbers , , and are redrawn from examples in rouyer et darcel, "l'art architectural en france." number is by a student, a. hauser; , , , , are drawn from exam- ples in c. daly, "motifo historiques d'architecture et de sculp- ture"; is taken directly from raguenet, "materiaux et docu- ments d'architecture"; is redrawn from pfnor. "le chateau d'anet"; and is from a drawing by w. t. partridge en "the american architect." ix. french renaissance ornament, louis xvi and empire styles . stucco panel, louis xvi, from interior of a house in aix. . two louis xvi screen-panels. . louis xvi wall-hanging with chinoiseries. . louis xvi desk. . empire cheval-glass. . louis xvi clock. - empire interior decoration, fontainebleau. , . details from empire credence in metropolitan museum, new york. . silk fabric by p. la salle. . louis xvi picture-frame. . empire clock. . louis xvi chandelier. . louis xvi or empire clock. . typical louis xvi ribbon decoration. all the above illustrations are reproduced by permission from illustrations in the good furniture magazine, except numbers and , from detailleur, "documents de decoration, xviiie siecle" (calavas, paris); and number from a wanamaker advertisement. plate ix. french renaissance ©rnameett ww-fapn* xiii. german renaissance ornament . painted door, st. mary magdalen, breslau. , . door-panels, castle of hollenegg. . doorway of schlosshof at tubingen. . painted door st. mary magdalen, breslau. . applique ornament, hofburg, prague. . sculptured mounting for portrait, ehrenhausen castle, mausden. . panel from sekkau. . cupboard-front, prague. . finial of fountain, ettlingen. . german metal door-knob. . wall-decoration, st. michael's, munich. . developed patterns from columns in market church, goslar. . wall-decoration from church at comburg. all the above illustrations except and are reproduced from "deutsche renaissance und borockstil," by a. ortwein and others. numbers and are from the workshop. xiv. english renaissance ornament . fountain in quadrangle of trinity college, cambridge. . pedestal by william kent, . . fireplace in ruins of donegal castle, ireland, . . three chairs, late th century. . english varguefio or table-cabinet. . chippendale "french" mirror, from collection of r. a. canfield, new york. , . wedgewood vases. . carved chair by william kent. all the above illustrations except numbers and are repro- duced by permission from good furniture. number from "minor fountains" and number from "odds and ends, fire- places," published by the american architect company, new york, are reproduced by permission of the publishers. xvii. american "colonial" ornament, furniture, etc. . top of highboy by william savery of philadelphia, - . . carved shell-panel, detail of number . . highboy by william savery, chippendale influence. . desk from connecticut, . . fireback from new york, . . new england braided rug. . drawing-room of langdon house, portsmouth, new hampshire. all above illustrations are reproduced by permission from good furniture. plateml colomtal olrmamfift furniture etc. ignnecbcul desk. or. t>fireback,nemyork.i y b-hsuenglandbnsfalftyrug drawing-room of langdon house, fbrhmoi/th n h-, ijdo iplate xyii french arctflornamentxlx-xxqenturies upper part of opera pans /s - " detail- pedime.nl in new louvre - s the gun du nord para €- the gathers museum - dookhtiy'arl mounau'style paris i oo rate xmx. english qrwament xk-mcenturiei modern curfain kef jz wm-morris texfi/e design a? wm morris tapestry design xxi. english and american color ornament, th century . rug or hanging, orinoka mills, new york. . wall-paper by walter crane, london. . stained glass by church decorating company, new york. . wall-hanging by walter crane. . rug or hanging by orinoka mills. . wall-paper by walter crane. . american rug, persian styles. . cloisonne candlestick by von lossberg. . american persian rug. . stained glass windows in studio of bolton and francis c. jones, new york. . cloisonne candlestick by von lossberg. . american silk brocade, cheney brothers company. . chair-back by stroheim and romann, new york. . american rug, chinese style. . american low cabinet, eclectic design. illustrations , , , , and are reproduced from adver- tisements in good furniture, and numbers , , , , , from illustrated articles in the same magazine. numbers , and are reproduced from advertising circulars of bigelow carpet company, hartford, connecticut. plate ml englisham> americancolor ornament a ~^^^^^^w\lwfcn if' "* si vylainakjtivmndov'^ijdiojbtfcjanes litbt>ar<ecaid/ejlirf /j chotrdoct h^'oheimk romam american rug. q}<ne e^ilyie 'american wwgidtncl eclecttedeslgrv. xxii. american architectural ornament, th century . part of old museum of fine arts, boston, (demol- ished). . old academy of design, new york, (demolished). . detail, business building, boston, , richardsonian style. . window head, new york, . . keystone, city hall, philadelphia, . . panel, city hall, philadelphia, . . entrance, detroit business college. . richardsonian dormer by schweinfurth, cleveland, ohio. , . details from madison square garden, new york, . . cornice, business building, boston. . door of house in new york. illustrations , , , , , are from photographs, some of which have appeared in the american architect. number is from an illustration in stone (trade magazine, by permission). numbers and are from a monograph published in . num- bers and are from the architectural record, by permission. r atexmrecentamerican omwumtarcmtectimil delail[condicl building. ne*r* zjqeuy/lauxleum^ detail .thebreokto. newport ri tterr* _ coua fekd<x>, t louis (walhedral iqdetod house at detmil,mica mi n*«ernunionbui^n^k jzcorn^ had**,* a^^ot.^a^, > ««,wftayj^, index index brescia, miracoli church , , , ( ) brick and stone: colonial ; french , ( , ) brieg, piastenschloss , briosco, andrea (archt.) , , briosco, benedetto di (archt.) brosse, salomon de (archt.) bruges, town-hall, brunelleschi, filippo (archt.) , , , , bruni, bruno, tomb in sta. croce , ( ) brussels: laces , ( ); tapes- tries bryant vase biickeburg, schloss: golden hall ceiling ; door , ( ) budapest, parliament house bullant, jean (archt.) buon, bartolomeo (bergamasco) (archt.) burghley house burgos: casa miranda, capitals ; cathedral, capilla de los reyes nuevos portal ; cathedral porta pellejeria ; stairway burns, robert, monument to burslem potteries , c cabinets, armoires, commodes: french , , , , , ( , , , ); italian , , caen, h tel d'ficoville caetano acosta (archt.) , caffieri, the (cbms.) , , ( ) california mission style california state building, san diego , cambridge (eng.): king's college chapel stalls ; trinity college hall ; chapel, library cambridge (mass.) vassall-craigie- longfellow house ( ) camera della segnatura in vatican, rome , , campidoglio, palaces on candelabrum forms , , ( , ) candelabrum shafts , , , , , , , , ( , ) cano, alonso (archt.) cantilever bracket , ( ) cantorie (music-balconies) , , ( ) capitals , ( , ); composite ; corinthianesque ; spanish , , ( , ) capitol at washington caprarola villa or palace, ceiling ( ); court arcade ; gafne , ( c); pilasters , ( ) cardinals of amboise, tomb of at rouen , , , ( ) carlo maderna (archt.) , , , carlone, michele (archt.) cartouches , , , ; ( , , ) carvings, wren's style, london ( - ) cary house, batavia (n. y.), door- way order ( ) caryatides, tribune of the, louvre casa caracci, bologna, window ( ) casa de las conchas, salamanca cnsa de monterey, salamanca ( ) casa de zaporta, saragossa ( ) caserta pal. , cassoni (marriage coffers) , , ( ) cathedral of beauvais, doors ; burgos (see burgos); como, east end ; windows ; cortona, ceil- ing ( ); cuenca, sacristy doors , ; florence (duomo) , , , , ( ); granada , , , , , ; jaen , index , , ( ); i-e mans, tomb in ; limoges, choir-screen ; nantes, tomb of francis ii of brittany ( ); rouen, tomb of cardinals of amboise ( ); salamanca ("new" cathedral) towers ; sienna , , , ( ); st. patrick (n. y.) ; st. paul's (london) ; toledo , ; tours, tomb of children of charles viii , ( ); val- ladolid caurree, isabeau (tap.) ceilings: caprarola , ( ); coved , ; doge's pal., early ren'ce , , ( - , , ); english - , , , , , ( - , , , , ); in farnese palace, rome, ; french , , , ( , ); german , ( ); middle ren'ce - , ( , , , , ); painted , , ( , ); pitti pal. ( ); sienna li- brary ; sistine chapel , ; spanish , , ( , ); vaulted - cellini, benvenuto (scp.) , , centennial exhibition, philadelphia , , ceramics: baroque italian ( ); dutch , , ( , ); early ren'ce italian - , ( , , , ); english - , ( - ); french - , ( , ); ger- man - , ( - ); middle ren'ce italian - , ( - ) certosa, granada certosa, pavia , , , , , , ( , ) chairs: early ; english - , ( - ); french , , , , ( , , ); german ( ) chfilons-sur-maroe, doorway chambers, sir william (archt.) , chambord, chateau , , , chapel: sistine (see sistine chapel); of st. lazare, marseilles ; of rue ; of tillieres , chapu (scp.) charles of anjou charles viii ; tomb of children of , ( ) charlottesville, va., university li- brary , chasuble, italian ( ) chateau of amboise ; ancy-ie- franc ; anet , , ( ); azay-le-rideau ; beaumesnil ; blois ; east wing , ; fireplaces , ( c); chambord , , , ; ch£verny, wainscot, bahut ( ); fecouen ; fontainebleau , , , ; gallery francis i , ( , ); gaillon , ; madrid , ; pagny, carved detail ( ) cmret (scp., dec.) , cheverny, wainscot, bahut ( ) chevalier, fttienne (cbm.) chicago: auditorium b'ld'g ; columbian exhibition , , ; schiller b'ld'g ( , ); transportation b'ld'g chihuahua (mex.), church facade , ( ) chimney pieces: colonial , ( ); english , , ( ); flem- ish ; french , ( c) chinoiseries and singeries , chippendale, thomas (cbm.) , , , , , ( ) chiswick, villa christ church, philadelphia, spire ( ) christopher wren, sir (archt.) , , , , ( , ) church steeples: colonial , ( ); english ( ) churriguera, jose and sons (archts.) , , , index churrigueresque church facades , , - , , ( , , . , ) churrigueresque stvle , , , , , cinquecento , , cirque d'fite, paris city hall, new york civil war period in u. s. , civitale, matteo (scp.) classic detail in renaissance classic origins of renaissance orna- ment - classic reaction classic revival , - claude perrault (archt.) clerissy (cer.) clermont-ferrand, doorway ( ) clifford'c inn, london, carvings ( ) clocks, american ( ) coblenz, gymnasium, carving ( ) cockerell (archt.) coffer or marriage chest , , ( ) cogolludo, medinaceli pal. colbert , , , coleman, caryl (dec.) collegio de los irlandeses, sala- manca, cologne: cathedral completed ; rathaus ; tapestry in st. gereon's colombe, michel (scp.) colonia, francisco (archt.) , colonial ornament in u. s. - ; colonial architectural - , ( - ); beginnings, early char- acter ; doorways , ( , , , ); exterior details - ; furniture - , ( , ); in- terior decoration ; minor arts - ; silverware ; textiles ; woodwork - , ( - , - ) colonnades: louvre ; of st. peter's colonne de juillet, paris colossal orders , . jf , , ( ) colosseum, rome, cornice imitated columbia university library, new york columns, twisted , , , , , ( , , ) commercial furniture adv. ( ) como, cathedral east end ; windows como, tommaso of (scp.) composite capitals concluding observations , conditions after - ; ar- chaeological discoveries - ; industrial and political revolution , ; influence on decorative arts ; arts-and-crafts ; commerce and travel , , congelations , ( ) consiglio, pal. del, verona consoles, baroque , ( , ) corbels , , ( , , ) corinthian capitals corinthianesque capitals , , , come jo, pedro (archt.) cornices, wooden, in spain , ( ) cortona, cathedral ceiling ( ) corufia, san jorge , ( ) covarrubias (archt.) , , coved ceilings , cowles mansion, farmington, gate ( ) cracow (krakau), jagellons chapel craigie (longfellow or vassall) house, cambridge, mass. ( ) cram, r. a., (archt) cremona, stanga pal. portal , cressent, charles (cbm.) crewe hall ; ceiling-pendant ( ) cristoforo lombardo (archt.) crown derby ware , ( ) cucci, domenico (cbm.) , index cuenca cathedral, racristy doors , curl-overs, curlicues , , , , , , ( , ) curtain: machine-net ( ); of madison sq. theatre d damian forment (archt.) dauphine, place, paris da vinci, lionardo (painter) , , declaration chamber, independence hall, phil'a ( ) decline of local styles - decorative painting under louis xv de bry, theodore (eng.) , ( ) de co'tte, robert (archt.) de la planche, francois (cer.; delft ceramists ; tiles and wares - , ( - ) delia porta, giacomo (archt.) , , delia quercia, giacomo (scp.) , , , , , ( , ) delia robbia, andrea (scp., cer.) , , , , ( ) delia robbia, girolamo (cer.) , delia robbia, luca (scp., cer.) , , , , , , ( ) delia robbia ware , , , ( a) delia robbias, the , , delia stella, paolo (archt.) delorme, philibert (archt.) delorme, pierre (scp.) desiderio da settignano (dec. scp.) , des vosges, place, paris de vogue. h tel, di.jon , ( ) de vriendt (floris) (archt.) de vries, vredcm.m, jan and paul (engs.) diego de riano (archt.) , diego de siloe (archt.) , , dinkelsbuhl, window , ( ) doge's palace, venice , , , , ( , , ) domenico cucci (cbm.) , domenico fancelli (scp.) domes: decoration ; of duomo, florence , ; of st. peter's, rome donatello (donato di betti bardi) (scp.) , , door-knocker from narbonne ( a) door-lock, bamberg museum ( ) door-panel: h tel cluny ( ); st. louis-en-l'isle, paris ( ) door-pull, henri ii period ( ) doors and doorways: biickeburg , ( ); chfilons-sur-marne ; clermont-ferrand ( ); dutch ( , ); french - ; ger- man , , ( , ); hat- field house ( ); leyden ( ); liverpool, st. george's hall ( ); mandorla doorway, florence , ( ); massimi pal., rome ( ); in spain , ( ); toledo, san clemente ( ); united states , , ( , , , , , ); vatican , ( ); wis- mar , ( ) doors and windows, early - , ( - , , ) doria palace, rome dormers: french , , ( , ); german , , ( ) dresden: chnir in museum ( ); zwinger pal. , ( ) duban, j. f. (archt.) , due, l. j. (archt.) , ducal palace, c rhino ; window ( ) duccio, agostino di (archt., scp.) , duccrceau, j. a. (archt.) , , , dugald stewart monument duncan phyfc (cbm.) , index floral design: french ( ); ger- man ( ) florence: annunziata church ; baptistery , , , ( ); gates of same , , , ( ); cathedral (duomo), dome of , ; east end of same ; mandorla door of same , ( ); cantorie in opera del duomo , ; foundling hospital (innocenti) , ; log- gia dei lanzi ; pal. bartolini , ; pal. larderel ; pal. pandolfini , ( ); pal. pitti , , , , , , ( ); pal quaratesi ( ); pal. riccardi , , , ( o); pal. rucellai , , ( ); pal. strozzi ; pal. vecchio , , ( , , ); pazii chapel , , , ( , ); san lorenzo , , , ( ); san spirito , , , ( ); santa croce, marsuppini tomb , , , ( , ); pulpit in, , , ( , ); villa petraia, fountain florentine pediment , , , , , ( ) floris (de vriendt) (archt.) folded linen panels , ( ) fontainebleau chateau , , , , , , ( , ) fonts for holy water , , ( , , ) foreign influences in england forment, damien (archt.) formentone (archt.) fortuny, mariano (painter) note fossombroni pal., arezzo, detail ( ) fouquet, jean (painter) fountains , , , , , ( , ); of innocents, paris, , ; of trevi, rome fra giocondo (archt.) fragonard (painter) francesco borromini (archt.) , , , , francis i: balustrade and capitals ; candelabrum-shafts , ( ); carving , ( , ); ceilings and interiors , ( ); details of style - , ( - ); doorway at toulouse ( ); dormers ( , ); facade system , ( ); features , ; fireplaces , ( c); furniture - , ( ); open stair , ( f) ; s-scrolls ( , g) ; style of, in general - ; tomb of, st. denis , ; wing at blois , ; woodwork , ( , ) francis ii of brittany, tomb , ( ) francisco colonia (archt.) , francois mansart (archt.) , frascati, villa falconieri , ( ) frazee (archt.) ( ) french: academy of painting and sculpture ; academy at rome ; brocade or velvet ( ); cam- paigns in italy ; ceramics , - ; ( ); doors and doorways , - , ( ); gothic revival ; influence in u. s. ; lace , ( a); needlework , ( ); neo- grec style - , ( - ) french renaissance: baroque ele- ments in ; character ; dec- orative sculpture ; furniture (see below); gallic and latin ele- ments , , , ; interior decoration - , , - , - , - , ( , , - , , , , , ); minor arts, henry ii-iii ; periods ; transition from gothic friedrichsbau, heidelberg fruit and foliage , , , ( , ) fuga, ferdinando (archt.) furniture: american - , - , - , ( , , c,d, ) ; empire - , ( , ); index english - , , ( , - , ); french - , , - , - , ( , , , , , - , , - ); german - , ( - ); ital- ian - , - , - , ( - , , - ); netherlands - , - , ( - , ); spanish - , ( - ) fiirstenhof, wismar ; doorway , ( ) gable ornament, leyden ( ) gables and dormers, german , , ( ) gabriel, j. a. (archt.) , gaillon, chateau , gatne (sheath-figure) , , , , , , , , ( , , , , , ) galeazzo alessi (archt.) , galerie d'apollon, louvre , , ( , ); des glaces, versailles , galilei (archt.) gallery of francis i, fontainebleau , ( , ) gallic and latin elements in french art , , , , , gardens: french , ; italian , , ( ) gamier, charles (archt.) , , , gaulli, g. b. (stucco-w.) gates, gateways , ( , ); (see doors, doorways) gazzini (scp.) genoa: pallavicini pal. , ( ); sta. annunziata, interior genre rocaille georgian architecture (see colo- nial) germain pilon (scp.) , german armor ; baroque style - ; carving and sculpture - ( - ); ceramics - , ( - ); gatnes , ( , , ); metal work and minor arts - , ( - , - ); portals , , ( , ); rococo german renaissance - ; doors and windows - (see german portals); early monuments ; facade decoration , , ( ); furniture , , ( , ); gables and dormers - , ( , ); interior decoration - ; orders, use of - ; painters (list) ; typographic ornament , ( * - ) germantown, pa., chimney-piece , ( ) germany: gothic revival - ; greek revival ; modern devel- opments in , , ( , ); renaissance invasion of geronimo da fiesole gesii, church of , ghent town-hall , ( ) ghiberti, lorenzo (scp.) , , , ; pupil of in spain giacetti (cbm.) giacomo barozzi da vignola (archt.) , , , , , , , , , giacomo della porta , , giacopo della quercia (scp.) , , , , , ( , ) giacopo tatti sansovino (archt.) , , , gian galeazzo, tomb of, pavia gibbons, grinling (carver) , gibbs, james (archt.) , , , , ( ) gil de hontafion, rodrigo (archt.) , ginain (archt.) giocondo, fra (archt.) giorgio vasari (archt., painter) giotto (di bondone, painter) , giovanni battista piranesi (eng.) giovanni da bologna (scp.) index hancock house, boston, mass., win- dow detail ( ) hans holbein the younger hansen, theophil (archt.) hardwicke hall harvard university, capitals .from law school ( ) hatfield house ; doorway ( ) hawksmoor (archt.) heidelberg castle , , ( ) heiligenburg castle, ceiling , ( ) hengest-gouffier, helene de (cer.) henri-deux ware , ( a, c) henry vii's chapel, westminster , hepplewhite (cbm.) , , , , , ( ) herrera, juan de (archt.) , hilario, maestro (iron-w.) hinart, louis (tap.) hirschvogels (cer.) hittorff, j. j. (archt.) holbein, hans the younger holv-water fonts , , ( , , ) homewood, baltimore, md., in- terior cornice ( ) hontaflon, rodrigo gil de (archt.) horta, victor (dec.) ; window by ( ) hospicio provincedl, madrid , note hospital, civic at jativa hospital, greenwich , hospital, great, at milan hospital real, santiago de com- postela ; santa cruz, toledo , , ; san juan bautista, toledo hdtel de ville, beauvais ; paris hotels: d'assezat toulouse ; biron, matignon ; champs eiysees, paris, detail ( ); d'fecoville, caen ; des inva- lides (and dome) ; lamoignon, paris ; de lasbordes, tou- louse ; de lauzun, paris, de- tail ( ); de la monnaie (mint), paris ; de salm (legion d'honneur), paris ; soubise , ( ); de vogue, dijon , ( ) houses of parliament: budapest ; london huesca cathedral, retablo hugues sambin (cbm.) , , , hunt, r. m. (archt.) , i ibarra, pedro (archt.) ifs, chateau des ilaria del caretto, tomb of at lucca , , , , ( , ) ii rosso , imperial institute,. s. kensington, london independence hall, phila. , ; declaration chamber , ( ) independent developments in u. s. infantada, guadalajara , , ( ) inigo jones (archt.) , , , inlays, marble and wood , , ( - ) innocenti, (foundling hospital) florence , innocents, fountain of the, paris , innovations in middle renaissance - intarsia , ( , ); painted imi- tation of interior decoration: french - , , - , ( , , , ); italian baroque - ( ); middle renaissance - ( , ) index leau (belgium), altar-rail , ( ) le brun, charles (painter) , , , , , , lefuel h. m. (archt.) , le mans cathedral, tomb in lemercier, jacques (archt.) le nfitre (landscape archt.) leopardo, alessandro (bronze-w.) lepautre, antoine and jean (eng.) , , , le primatice (painter) , le roux, roland (scp.) i^es andelys, church lescot, pierre (archt.) , , levau, louis (archt.) ley den: carved "jewels" ; dor- mer ; town-hall ; gable from same ( ) libraries: boston public, congres- sional library: of columbia university, n. y. ; congressional at wash- ington ; piceolomini of sienna cath. ; public, boston, mass. ; of ste. genevieve, paris ; of vatican, rome libreria san marco, venice liebfrauenkirche, wiirzburg lille potteries lima (peru), i-a merced church , , , ( ) limoges: cathedral, choir-screen ; enamels , , ( ) linenfold panels , ( ) lionardo bruno, tomb of, florence , ( ) lionardo da vinci (painter) , , liverpool, st. george's hall, ; doors of ( ) lodi, incoronata church loggia dei lanzi, florence ; of villa madama , ( , , ) logtrie of vatican, rome , , , , , ( , ) lombardi family (archts.) , ; martino, tullio ; pietro , lombardo, cristoforo (archt.) london: albert memorial , ( ); charterhouse ceiling ; clifford's inn, carvings ( ); houses of parliament ; man- sion house, royal exchange ; middle temple hall, ceiling ; south kensington museum ; st. martin's-in-the-fields, steeple ; st. mary's, carvings from ( ); st. mary-le-bow, steeple ( ) ; st paul's cathedral longfellow-craigie house, cam- bridge, mass ( ) longhena, baldassare (archt) longleat hall , lonja at saragossa , , ( ); at seville lorenzo bernini (archt.) , , , , lorenzo ghiberti (scp.) , , ; doors by ( ) lorenzo marina (archt.) , ( ) louis, age of the, in france louis xii, tomb of at st. denis, , ( ) louis xiii, style of , , ( - ) louis xiv: architectural design under , ; character of period of - ; furniture - , ( , ); garden art under ; interior decoration - , ( - ); metalwork , ( , ) louis xv period and style - : decorative painting in ; details , , , , ( - ); furniture - , ( ); iron- work , , ( ) louis xvi period and style - ; character of , ; fur- niture, etc. , ( - ); in- terior decoration , ; influ- ence of , , , ; metal- work , ( , ) index louvain, st. pierre, town-hall louvre palace, paris: colonnade of ; court ; court facade ; galerie d'apollon , ( , ); xjrande galerie , ; interior decoration ; "new" louvre ; panel from chamber of henry iv , ( ); tribune of caryatides luca della robbia (scp., cer.) , , , , , , ( ) lucca cathedral, tomb ilaria del caretto , , , , ( , ) luciano da laurana (scp.) i.uini (bernardo, bernardino) (painter) lunghi, martino (archt.) lupiana monastery, court m macerata, church machuca (archt.) madama palace, rome madama villa, rome , , , , ( , ) madeleine church, paris maderna, carlo (archt.) , , , madison sq. theatre, n. y. curtain madrid, chateau of , madrid, hospicio provincedl (asy- • lum) , note maestro bartolom£ (scp.) maestro hilario (iron-w.) maine, le, counts of as art-patrons maison carree, nlmes , maisons-lafitte maftre roux (painter) majano benedetto da (scp.) , , majano giovanni da (archt.) majano giuliano da (scp.) , majolica: origin ; border detail ( ) mandorla doorway, duomo of flor- ence , ( ) manoel vasquez (archt.) mans, le, tomb of charles of anjou mansart, francois (archt.) , mansart, jules hardouin , mansion house, london mantegna (painter) mantua, pal. del te , . , ; reggio gonzaga ; san andrea , manufacture des meubles de la couronne manuscript ornament , mappa mansion, trenton, n. j. , ( ) marble inlay ( ) marc de conrano (archt.) marina, lorenzo (archt.) marine exchange, philadelphia marini, giovanni (archt.) marly, chateau marot, daniel and jean (dec. and eng.) , marseilles, early ren'ce works at marsuppini tomb in santa croce , , , ( , ) martino lunghi (archt.) mascarons ( , ) massimi palace, rome , , ( ) mast-bases, venice matteo civitale (scp.) mayence cathedral, stalls, carving ( ) mccomb and mangin (archts.) mckim, c. f. (archt.) mckim, mead & white, mechlin lace , medici monuments, san lorenzo, florence medici villa, rome medinaceli pal., cogolludo, doorway medinaceli pal., jativa meissonier (dec.) index mendoza pal., lacalahorra merchants' exchange, n. y. metalwork: american , , , ( , ); english , , ( - ) i french , , - , , , , ( , , , , ); german - , ( - , - ); italian , - , - , ( , - ); spanish , , ( , - ) metropolitan museum, n. y. ; altarpiece in ; armor , ( ) meunier (scp.) mexico: cathedral ; confessional in same ( ); sagrario of same , ; chihuahua, church facade , ( ); guadalupe, el posito , ( ) michelangelo , , , , , , ; frescoes in sistine chapel by him , , , ; grotesques attributed to him ( ) michel colombo (scp.) michele carlone (archt.) michelozzi, michele (archt) , , , middle renaissance - ; char- acter of - ; ceilings - ; ceramics, etc. - ; interior decoration - ; metalwork - ; painting - ; textiles - ; use of orders - ; villas and gardens - ; wood- work and furniture - middle temple hall mid-victorian period migliorini, the (cbms.) "miguel de figueroa (archt.) milan: archepiscopal seminary , , ( ); great hospital ; marina pal. ; san satiro ; sta. maria delle grazie , , , miletus, apollo temple imitated mills, robert (archt.) mino da fiesole (scp.) , , minor architecture and arts (see under separate countries) mint, munich ; paris (hdtel de la monnaie) ; philadelphia miracoli church, brescia , , , , ( ) miracoli church, venice, , , ( ) mirror-frame, florentine ( ) mirrors, middle renaissance , ( ) modern german cabinet ( ) ; wine flagon ( ) modern revivals (see revivals) moderne kunst modillions moldings in middle renaissance , ( , ) monreale cathedral, twisted columns montefeltro escutcheon ( ) monuments: dugald stewart, rob- ert burns ; medici ; reg- nault moore, professor charles, remarks on treatment of nature in renais- sance note moorish influence in spanish art , , , , , moorish lily , ( ) morden college, blackheath, en- trance ( ) moreto, giovanni (archt.) morris house, n. y. ; details ( ) morris, william , mortlake tapestries morto da feltro (stucco-w.) motives in early renaissance orna- ment teq. moustiers pottery miiller, wilhelm (archt.) mttnden, rathaus, portal columns ( ) mufiez, sandro (archt.) munich: miinzengebaude (mint) ; st. michael's church municipio, milan, gatne miinzengebaude, munich murcia cathedral facade index murguia (archt.) music balconies (cantorie) , , ( ) n nantes cathedral, tomb of francis ii of brittany , ( ) naples: arch of alfonso of ara- gon ; carmine church ; porta capuana ; san francesco di paola ; tombs napoleon (bonaparte),influence narbonne, door-knocker from ( a) nature-movement, the - ; in u. s. nature in renaissance orn't navaho blankets , ( ) needlework, early , ( ) neo-classic or neo-renaissance movement in u. s. , n£o-grec style in france - , ( - )" netherlands - ; architecture - , - ; ceramics - , ( , ) ; furniture - , - , ( - , , - ); laces , , ( ); tapestries - nevers potteries new museum, oxford , newport, r. i., door of house ( ) new sacristy, san lorenzo, flor- ence, monuments in new york: city hall ; columbia university library ; jumel or morris house , ( ); mer- chants' exchange (nat'l city bank) ; metropolitan museum of art , , , ; metro- politan tower; municipal b'ld'g ; old academy of design , , , ( ); old court house, detail ; st. patrick's cathedral ; st. paul's , ( ); trin- ity church ; west st. and woolworth b'ld'gs niccol pisano (scp.) , , niccolo salvi (archt.) niches in early ren'ce , ( ) niculoso da pisa (cer.) , nielles, flemish ( ); french ( ) nimes, maison carree imitated , nineteenth century: conditions in - ; in united states - nonesuch palace nuns (piano-maker) , ( ) nuremberg: carving and leadwork from ( ); fanlight from ( ) o "octagon" house (tayloe h.), washington oiron ware , ( , ) old academy of design, new york , , ( ) old court-house, new york, detail ( ) omodeo (amadeo) (archt.) , opera house, paris , , , ( ) oppenord, oppendordt (dec.) , orcagna, andrea (archt., scp.) orders of architecture: in early renaissance - ; in middle ren'ce - , , ( , ); in france - , , , , , ( ); in spain orders, colossal , , ( , ) ordonez, bartolome (scp.) oriental influences , , , , , , , , , , oriental motives ( , , ) or san michele, florence, altar imi- tated ospedale del ceppo, pistoia; frieze otto-heinrichsbau, heidelberg , , ( ) otto wagner (archt.) index ; st. vincent de paule ; street architecture , details ( ) parliament houses: budapest ; london patent office, washington pavia: battle of, influence , ; certosa , , , , , ( ); group of artists pazzi chapel, florence , , , , , ( , , ) peasant art and ornament , - , ( - ) pediments, florentine , , , , ( ) pedro gumiel (archt.) pedro ibarra (archt.) pedro ribera (archt.) penaranda (di duero) pal: ceiling ; court penicaud (enameler) ; plate by him ( ) penni, bartolomeo (painter) percier and fontaine (archts.) perino del vaga (painter) perrault, claude (archt.) perreal, jean (scp.) perseus and medusa, statue , ( ) persistence of flamboyant gothic in france , personal factor in renaissance , perugia: confraternita di san ber- nardino ; sala del cambio , , ( ); san pietro casinese, stalls , ( ) perugino (pietro vanucci) (paint- er) peruzzi, baldassare (archt.) , , , , philadelphia, pa.: bartram house ; centennial exhibition , ; christ church spire ( ); fairmount waterworks ; gi- rard college ; independence hall , , ( ); marine exchange ; mint philibert delorme (de l'orme) (archt.)* , phillipse manor, yonkers, n. y. ( ) phyfe, duncan (cbm.) , pia, villa at rome piastenschloss, brieg , piccolomini library, sienna ( ) piedra, monastery facade piero di medici, tomb of, florence , , ( ) pierre bontemps (scp.) , pierre delorme (scp.) pierre lescot (archt.) , pietro lombardi (archt.) , pilasters, decoration of , , , ( , , , , , , , ) pilasters as wall-decoration pilon, germain (scp.) , pinturricchio (painter) piranesi, giovanni battista (eng.) , pisa cathedral doors pisano, niceolb (scp.) , , pistoia: ospedale del ceppo ; pal. del comune , ( ) pitti palace, florence , , , , , , ( ) pius ii, tomb of in st. peter's, rome places dauphine and des vosges, paris ; de la concorde planche, francois de la (cer.) planche (cer.) plassenburg, schloss plasterwork in great britain , (see also ceilings) plate resque style , ; in america , ; architects . of (list) ; architectural ornament of ; rustication poirel (cer.) i'olish peasant ornament ( - ) polychromy in paris , pompei palace, verona pope julius iii, villa of, home, , ( ) poppelmann, m. d. (archt.) index ; casa de pilatos, portal ; cathedral capilla mayor, reja ; house of dukes of alva, ceiling ; lonja ; provincial hospital ; ( ); san luis, twisted columns ; san salva- dor, altar, etc. ; university chapel, tombs in , , ; upper part of reja ( ) sevres pottery sgraffito - , ( b, ) shafts of pilasters and columns, early , ( - ) (see pilasters) sheraton (cbm.) , , , , , ( j* shrine for heart of francis i , ( ); for heart of henry ii , shrines, fonts, etc. , ( ) sideboard and cabinet, german (austria) ( ) sienna: baptismal font in san gio- vanni , , ( ); cathedral pavement , ( ); pulpit , ; stalls ; library ceiling , ( ); doorway of same , ( ); palazzo pubblico , , ( , , ); la scala hospital balustrade ( ); sta. caterina siennese torch-holders , ( ) silleria (choir-stalls) , , , ( ) siloe, diego de (archt.) , silverwork, english , ( , ) sistine chapel, rome: frescoes , ; music balcony ; swag on same , , ( ) "sky-scrapers" sladtz brothers (cbms.) solari (lombardi) (archts.) solesmes abbey, transept decora- tions south kensington: art schools ; imperial institute ; natural history museum spacla palace, home, stuccoes , ( ) spain: beginnings of renaissance in - ; becomes first power of the world ; italian artists in , , ; mixture of styles in ; moorish influence in , , , spanish renaissance: baroque influ- ence in ; beginnings of - ; churrigueresque style , - , , , - , , ( , , , , ); courtyards (patios) , ; doorways , ( , ); griego-romano style , ; metalwork , ( , - ); plateresque style and orna- ment , - , ( , ); rejas , , ( , ); rustica- tion ; sillerfas , ( ); stamped leather , ; succes- sion of styles ; textiles , , ( - ); tiles - , ( ) spello, column from , ( ) spread of renaissance st., ste. = saint, sainte ste. clothilde, paris st. denis, tombs in , , , ( ) st. eustache, paris st. gatien (cathedral) troyes, tomb in ste. genevieve, paris, library st. george's hall, liverpool st. lazare chapel, marseilles st. maclou, rouen, doors st. mary-le-bow, london, steeple ( ) st. mary's, oxford, portal prototype st. mary's woolnoth, london, ceil- ing ( ) st. michael's, munich st. patrick's cathedral, new york st. paul's cathedral, london, carv- ings st. paul's, new york , ( ) index st peter's, rome: baldaechino , , , ( ); colonnades ; dome ; doors ; holy-water font ; tomb pius ii ; vault st. snlpice, paris, facade st. vincent de paule, paris st. wilfrid's, york staffordshire potteries stained glass, italian - , ( ) stairs: colonial , , ( );. english , , , ( ); to pulpit. sienna cathedral stairways: blois . , ( ); chambord ; english ; span- ish , stamped leather, spanish s, stanford white (archt., dec.) state houses: annapolis, md. ; boston, mass. ; hartford, conn. ; ltichmond, va. , steindl (archt.) stewart, dugald, monument sticffcl (metal-w.) stiegel (glass-w.) st rap work (applique) english , , , ( , , ); german , , ( . ) strasbourg pottery strickland (archt.') strozxi palace, florence stucco: in baroque period , , ( , , ); in middle ren'cc - , ( , ) study of nature in renaissance ; in modern art - , sub-treasury, new york sullivan, louis h. (archt.) , , sutton place, guildford, terra-cottas swag or festoon , , , , ( , , , ) t tables: early italian ; flemish , ( ) ;' french , , , , ( , ); middle renais- sance and baroque , ( , ); spanish , ( ) talenti, francesco (archt.) tapestries: arras , ; bayeux ; flemish - ; french" , - ; in germany ; in great britain, mortlake , ; italian , , ( ); in vati- can ; in sistine chapel tarragona, poblet monastery, re- tablo tavera, tomb of cardinal, toledo tayloe ("octagon") house, wash- ington tcrra-cotta head of caesar, hamp- ton court ( ) textiles: colonial (u. s.) ; eng- lish , ; french , , - ; italian, early - , ( -s ); middle ren'ce - , ( , ); later ren'ce - . ( - ); oriental motives and influences , , ( ); spanish . ( - ) theodore de bry (eng.) thomas jefferson (statesman, archt.) tiffanv, louis c. (dec.) , , ,' files: dutch ( , ); spanish , ( , ) tillieres, chapel , tintoretto (giacopo robusti) (painter) , titian (tizinno vecelli) (painter) , tivoli, villa d'este , toft (cer.) , , ( ) toledo: cathedral, doorway ; transparent*" in same ; san clemente doorway , ( ); santa cruz hospital court ; ceiling ; stair-wall s ; tavera tombs tombs: early types - , ( , , , ); bruni in sta. crocc, index v val del vira (archt.) valencia: san andrea portal , ( ); santa catalina, tower valenciennes lace valentino di lira (archt.) valladolid: cathedral ; la pasion ; university facade valmarano palace, vicenza van brugh (archt.) van loo (painter) van orley, bernhard (tap.) vanvitelli (archt.) varguenos, spanish varin (eng.) vasari, giorgio (archt., painter) vases: medicis at versailles ; from menard-le-chateau , ( ) vasquez, manoel (archt.) , vassall-craigie house, cambridge, mass. ( ) vatican: borgia apartments ; camera della segnatura , , ; coved ceilings ; hall of maps ; loggie , ; stuc- coes , ( ); doors , ( ); sala rcgia , ( ); sistine chapel , , , , ; tapestries , ( ) venetia, renaissance enters - venetian knocker, th-century ( ) venetian lace , ( ) venetian printers, early venice: academy ceiling ; casa dario ; chimney-piece ornament ( ); doge's palace , , ( , ), ceilings , giants' stairs , panel from ( ); fondaco dei turchi ; frari church, tombs in ; i.ibreria (library of san marco) ; pal. vendramini , , ( ); san giobbe ; san giorgio degli schiavoni ; san zacoaria , , , , ( ); santa maria dei miracoli , , , , , , ( , , , ); santa maria del orto ; santa maria della salute , ( ); santi giovanni e paolo, tombs in ; scuola di san marco , ; scuola di san rocco ; zecca (mint) vercelli, san andrea, twisted col- umns in sacristy ( ) verdure tapestries vermeyren (tap.) vermiculations and congelations , ( ) vernis martin verneuil, corbel from , ( ) verona: palazzo del consiglio ; palazzo pompef , ( a) veronese, paolo cagliari (painter) , verrocchio, andrea (di cione) (scp.) , versailles palace - ; ceiling- cove ( ); galerie des glaces , ; interior ; keystone ( ) ; the trianons , , , ; vase medicis versatility of renaissance artists vicenza: basilica arcade , , ( ); palazzo valmarano ; villa capra victorian gothic , , vienna: belvedere pal. ; royal library ; schwarzenberg pal. ; votivkirche vigarnl, felipe , vignola, giacomo barozzi da (archt.) , , , , , , , , , villa: albani, rome , , ( ); capra at vicenza : caprarola, arcade , balus- ters , ceiling ( ); pilas- ter , ( ); d'este, tivoli , ; falconieri, frascati ( ); i^inte near viterbo , , ; madama, rome , , stuccoes , , index ( , ); medici, rome ; pia, rome villas, baroque villas and gardens, etc. , vinas j. b. (archt.) vinci, lionardo da (painter) , , viollet-le-duc, eugene emanuel (archt.) virginia state capitol, richmond , visconti, l. t. g. (archt.) viterbo, villa lante near (at bag- naia) , , vitruvius in spanish renaissance vittoria, alessandro (archt.) vogue, hdtel de at dijon , ( ) voluted buttresses: cathedral of syracuse ( ); santa maria della salute, venice ( ) von klenze (archt.) votivkirche, vienna vredeman de vries, jan and paul (engs.) w wagner, otto (archt.) wainscot: english ; french , , , ( , ) waldstein palace, prague walter, thomas u. (archt.) ward, w. h., quoted , - washington, d. c: capitol ; congressional library ; "octa- gon" or tayloe house ; patent office washington column, baltimore, md. water gate, london waterhouse, sir alfred (archt.) watteau (painter) , , wedgwood, josiah (cer.) , , ( ) west street building, new york, westminster abbey, henry vii's chapel , white, stanford (archt., dec.) whitehall palace, banqueting hall wight, peter b. (archt.) , , wilhelm mttller (archt.) wilhelm pannemaker (tap.) william morris , wilton house window, dinkelsbuehl , ( ) windows: english ; early renaissance italian , , ( , ); french , ( ); middle renaissance italian , ( ); in united states (colonial) , , , ( ) w'ismar, fiirstenhof , , ( ) withers, frederick c. (archt.) woolworth building, new york wooden cornices in spain , ( ) woodwork: colonial , , ( - , - ); early renaissance italian - , ( , ); english - , , ( , , ); french - , , ( , ); middle renaissance italian - , ( , ) wren, sir christopher (archt.) , , , , , ( ) wright, frank lloyd (archt.) wurzburg, liebfrauenkirche, win- dows y yellin, samuel (iron-w.) yonkers, n. y., phillip.se manor, chimney-piece ( ) york, st" wilfrid's , zecca (mint), venice zwinger palace, dresden , ( ) ^ nk hamlin, alfred d. . a history of ,h ornanent. vol. a manual of historic ornament, treating upon the evolution, tradition, and development of architecture & the applied arts ' -"- i m / .. -v /// ii -s" .-u m. • * ** historic ornament. monument to conte ugino, by mino da fiesole, church of the badia, florence. printed by s. clarke , granby kw, manchester ontents. page ornament of oceania ... egyptian ornament.... assyrian ornament greek architecture .... greek ornament . . . . roman architecture. . . . . . roman ornament . . . . . . pompeian ornament ..... byzantine ornament . . . . . romanesque architecture and ornament . . . celtic ornament . . . . . - scandinavian ornament ..... norman and gothic architecture . . . . norman ornament ...... early gothic ...... decorated or geometric gothic .... perpendicular gothic . . . . . french gothic . . . . . - renascence architecture and ornament . . . french renascence ...... english renascence ...... mahometan ornament ..... persian ornament . . . . . . indian ornament ...... chinese ornament ...... japanese ornament ...... the applied arts. mosaics ....... greek ceramics ...... ceramics ....... maiolica . . . . . . . terra cotta . . . . . . . glass . . . . . . . n stained glass . . . . . . enamels . . . . . . . gold and silver . . . . . . wrought iron . . . . . . . bronzes . . . . . . . decorative furniture . . . . . wood carving . . . . . ivories . . . . . . bookbindings . . . . . textile fabrics . . . . . . terms used in ornamental art . . . . printed initial letters . . . . . frets . . . . . . . the architectural capital . . . . . list of plates. plate page plate page i ornament of oceania . indian ornament egyptian ornament chinese ornament assyrian ornament japanese ornament greek architecture roman scroll .... ° i >- greek ornament , is roman architecture the applied arts. ^ v roman ornament , mosaics ..... / greek ceramics .... pompeian ornament . ceramics ..... ii byzantine ornament . ° maiolica ..... y romanesque ornament glass no celtic ornament . stained glass .... scandinavian ornament .o \ the triforium and clearstory ' '} gold and silver . . . , / norman details .... early gothic details . wrought iron .... decorated gothic details . bronzes . . . . , perpendicular details . ° furniture ..... i o french gothic .... wood carving .... ) \ renascence ornament , ivories ..... bookbindings .... ~ > french renascence , | } .j [-textile fabrics . , , , a [-english renascence . . , , j j frets i c mahometan ornament plans of historic buildings . [ persian ornament , illuminated manuscript 'illustrations in the text. pagk page arabesque ornament .... palaces — the farnesc, rome arch of septimus severus . the vendramini, venice capitals ..... - - - - the verzi, verona caryatide from the erectheum casa del diavolo celtic ornament .... ancien hotel d'kcoville chairs ...... - parthenon — the elevation . h chinese pagoda .... peruvian potterv .... chalice ...... peruvian textiles .... console table . . . ... i tt persian plate corinthian order from the pantheon . plan of roman house coffered ceiling .... plan of lincoln cathedral . crockets polynesian ornament decorated gothic .... poppy-heads ..... doric frieze from the parthenon relief from nike apteros . early gothic window roman scroll ..... s engraved panel by aldegrever . roman house — plan. enamels ...... sibyl, by michel angelo . frieze from the parthenon . sicilian fabric ..... frieze from susa .... singing gallery, by donatello . - frieze from tivoli .... spitalfields silk .... ' frieze by mantegna .... s. george, by donatello . frieze from phigaleia stained glass — gothic borders ..... early jesse window . " gothic piers ..... early grisaille .... gothic doorway, amiens . quarries ..... » golden candlestick .... canopies ..... us greek coins ..... terra cotta — greek .... - ilaria di carretto .... lucca della robbia ionic order from ilyssus ii andrea della robbia . japanese key pattern i theatre of marcellus .... lancet window .... tomb of lorenzo de medici i lismore crosier .... tomb of ilaria di carretto . metopes of the parthenon . i cl monument of lysicrates ii woodcut from the grotesque alphabet jj palace — the strozzi, florence . of ..... part i. the history and development of architecture & ornament. rnament of oceania. the ornamentation of the people of the pacific isles is full of interest, and is remarkable for the evolution and perfecting of an ornamental style by a primitive people, with myths and traditions purely local, and in no way influenced by other nations. it is a style of ornament full of meaning and symbolism, yet simple in detail and arrangement, not founded upon the beautiful vegetation and flora of their islands, but upon abstract forms derived from the human figure, and arranged with a pleasing geometrical precision remarkable for a primitive people. the ornamental art of these people may be broadly divided into provinces, each with its distinct ornamental characteristics and tradi- tions,. new zealand showing the highest development and australia the lowest in the ornament of polynesia and melanesia. much of the ornament is purely linear, consisting of parallel and zig-zag lines; that of australia consists almost entirely of these lines incised in the ground and occasionally filled in with colour. in new guinea a higher development is reached, the ornament, of straight and curved lines, being carved in flat relief. in the pro- vince of tonga-samoa, the surface is divided into small fields, and the linear ornament runs in a different direction on each of the fields. the hervey and austral islands are distinguished by their remarkable adaptations of the human female figure, the illustrations given here showing the original type and its ornamental development. these ex- amples, together with the circular form the elements of 'omiaaictit i from a club. samoa. eye pattern, the hervey province, of which the heape collection contains many fine examples. in the solomon island the linear ornament is occasionally interspersed with an inlay of angular pieces of mother of pearl. the new zealand province is distinguished by its skilful pierced carving, the beauty of its spiral forms adapted from the human figure (figs. - ), and the con- stant use of the border here given. egyptian ornament. plate . hathokic capital mourttcd by a ma - philf w nged globe apid a p thc carabceu o(v acr£ beetle coluam thebes c the ecyptiah lotus om~ aj-vemt idoc b c gyptian ornament. the history of egypt, extending from b.c. to b.c., during which thirty dynasties existed, is usually divided into three groups: ( ) the ancient empire, i.-xi. dynasties, - b.c.; ( ) the middle empire, xii.-xix., - b.c.; and ( ) the new empire, xx.-xxx. dynasties, - b.c. the capitals of the ancient empire comprised memphis and abydos; of the middle empire, thebes, luxor, and tanis; and of the new empire, sais and bubastes. the remarkable civilization of these early dynasties is attested by the many fine remains of architecture, sculpture, and decorative arts that enrich our national museums. the great pyramids were built during the th dynasty, the largest by kheops, - b.c., is ft. by ft, and ft. high; the second, by kephren, - b.c., is ft. by ft. and ft. high; and the third, ft.by ft., and ft. high, was erected by mykerinos, - b.c. the sphinx, half animal and half human, is the oldest sculpture known, and is probably of the st and nd dynasties, yet it is singular that all the earliest sculptures of the rd and th dynasties with which we are acquainted were realistic portraiture, remark- able for fidelity to nature. kings, queens, and individuals of note were finely sculptured, frequently of a colossal size. but the deities, amen sckhet, horus, hathor, iris, and osiris were represented in the later dynasties by small votive statuettes, noticeable for their number rather than for their artistic qualities, never reaching the excellence or vitality of the earlier period. much of the architectural enrichment was in cavo relievo, a peculiarly egyptian mode of ornamentation, the outline of the figures, birds, or flowers being sunk into the surface of the granite or basalt, and then carved within this sunk outline, leaving the ground or bed raised, these reliefs being invariably painted red, blue, green, and yellow. the frieze which in the hands of the greeks, at a later period, became their principal ornamental field, was used by the egyptians in superposed bands, showing, in cavo relievo, the industrial arts and pursuits—weaving, glass blowing, and the making of pottery; ploughing, sowing, and reaping; also hunting and fishing. the composition and sculpture of these incidents was simple, refined, and purely decorative, with a naivete and unaffectedness so appropriate to the architectonic condi- tions. mingled with these incidents were the beautiful hieroglyphs, or picture writing of the egyptians. figs. - are examples of painted decorations showing the spiral construction of lines, together with the symbolic treatment of the lotus, the latter being regarded by the egyptians as a symbol of fertility and of a new life, hence the profusion with which it was used in their decorative work. great fertility of invention was displayed in enriching their architectural capitals with the lotus, the papyrus, and the palm. a singular feature introduced during the th dynasty was the hathor capital, surmounted by a small naos. during the ptolemaic period— b.c. —the hathor capital was placed upon the vertical bell- shaped capital (fig. ). assyrian ornament. plate . assyrian ornament. the early history of babylonia and assyria is one long series of wars and conquests. originally one nation, they became divided, and the younger assyria in the north became the most powerful empire of that period, under tiglath-pileser i., b.c. oo, ashur-nasir-pal, b.c. - , shalmaneser ii., b.c. - , tiglath- pileser iii., b.c. - , the great sargon, b.c. - , senna- cherib, b.c. - , esarhaddon, b.c. - , and ashur-ban-pal, b.c. - . in b.c. the capital, nineveh, was destroyed by cyaxares the mede, and babylon arose again to power under nebuchadnezzar, b.c. - : this city was destroyed by cyrus the persian, b.c. . assyrian art, with its racial influences, religious beliefs, and climatic conditions, differs in a remarkable degree from egyptian art. though stone is found in assyria, the great cities were built of brick, no doubt owing to the fact of the arts and civilization coming from chaldea, where stone was scarce and clay plentiful. both at babylon in chaldea and nineveh in assyria the traditional type of building was rectangular, with arched openings and vaults, built of sun-dried bricks. the lower part of the wall was covered with large alabaster slabs, carved in low relief with scenes representing the king and his warriors engaged in hunting or fighting (fig. ). the upper part of the wall was in enamelled brick, or in coloured stucco, with details of the lotus and the bud, together with the rosette, which was often carried round the archivolt. the representa- tion of the industrial arts and the pursuits of agriculture, which is so admirably illustrated upon the egyptian reliefs, is entirely absent in assyria. the enamelled bricks of chaldea were modelled in low relief, with enamels of turquoise blue, yellow, white, and black, of fine quality and colour—one splendid example is the frieze of archers from the palace of susa. the enamelled bricks of assyria were usually flat, or modelled but slightly, and the enamels were less pure. the external walls were similar to the internal ones, but with larger friezes and bolder reliefs, and usually with religious subjects (fig. ). the portals were enriched with colossal winged and human-headed bulls, of alabaster, finely carved in relief. typical examples of assyrian ornament are the lotus and the bud (figs. and ), the patera or rosette (figs. and ), and the hom, or tree of life (fig. ). the lotus enrichment shows egyptian influence, and only came into use during the th century b.c., when intercourse between the two nations was established. it is differentiated from the egyptian lotus by its vigorous growth and curved profile, and the geometrical form of the calyx of the flower and bud (fig. ). the anthemion or hom, with its alternate bud and fir-cone, and with strong lateral markings, is beautiful in line and proportion of mass (fig. ). the horn is frequently used as a flower on the sacred tree, a form of enrichment that influenced much of the later persian and sicilian textile fabrics. greek architecture. plate - height or columm , u. or. ao modules. reek architecture. classic or columnar architecture is divided into the greek and roman styles, and each style comprises several orders of architecture: the grecian orders are the doric, the ionic, and the corinthian, and many examples of each of these orders are still extant in greece and her colonies—asia minor, southern italy, and sicily. from a comparison of these buildings, certain constructive and decorative features are observed to be present, and thence they are considered as the characteristics of the style or order, which comprises the base (except in the grecian doric, which has no base), column and capital, and the entablature, which consists of the" architrave, frieze, and cornice. the proportions of these orders are generally determined by the lower diameter of the column, which is divided into modules or parts, the height of the column always including the base and capital. the doric order was used for the early greek temples from b.c. , and cul- minated in the parthenon, b.c. . the columns in this order are ^ to diameters in height, with o shallow flutings with intermediate sharp arrises; the capital is half a diameter in height, and is composed of an echinus or ovolo moulding with annulets or deep channellings below, and a large square abacus above. the architrave is plain; the frieze is enriched by rectangular blocks, with vertical channellings in the face, termed triglyths, alternately with square metopes which were fre- quently sculptured. the cornice, composed of simple mouldings, projects considerably beyond the face of the frieze. the ionic order has columns of from to g% diameters in height, with flutings divided by narrow fillets; the base is half a diameter in height, and composed of a plinth, torus, fillet, cavetto, fillet, torus, and fillet. the capital is tv of a diameter high, and consists of a pair of double scrolls or volutes, supported by an echinus moulding enriched with the egg and tongue, with an astragal below. the entablature is one quarter the height of the columns, the architrave of one or more fascias, the frieze continuous and frequently enriched with sculpture in low relief; the cornice has simple and compound mouldings supported by a dentil band. caryatides were occasionally introduced into this order; they were female figures clad in drapery having vertical folds which re-echoed the flutings of the ionic column. these caryatides supported the entablature in place of the columns; a beautiful example is in the south portico of the erechtheum at athens. caryatide, erechtheum. the corinthian order was not much used by the greeks; the examples, however, show considerable refinement and delicacy of details. the columns are diameters in height, with flutings; the base is half a diameter high; the capital is a little greater than a diameter in height, and is enriched with acanthus foliations and spiral volutes. the entablature is richer and the cornice deeper and more elaborate than those of the other orders. the principal doric buildings in greece are:—the temples at corinth ' , b.c. , yegina ' , b.c. , the parthenon ' , and the theseum ' , b.c. ; the temples of jupiter at olympia ' , b.c. , apollo epicurius at bassse - , b.c. , propyla^a at athens, b.c. , and the minerva at sunium, b.c. . ionic buildings are:— temples at ilyssus ' , b.c. , nike apteros ' , b.c. , and the erechtheum, b.c. (see plan, plate ), north portico , east portico , at athens. in asia minor there are the temples of samos , priene , teos , diana at ephesus (with of its columns sculptured), and of apollo at miletos. corinthian buildings are:— the monument of lysicrates, b.c. , the tower of the winds (octagonal in plan), and jupiter olympius ' , b.c. . during the th century b.c. the doric order was extensively used in the greek colonies at sicily. at agrigentum there are the remains of six fine doric temples, of which the temple of zeus , b.c. , is the largest, being by ft. in this temple were found the telemones, or atlantes, male figures, ft. in height, with their arms raised, probably supporting the roof. this temple is also remarkable for its portico of seven columns, ft. in height, and having the peristyle walled up. at selinus there are five large doric temples - , and one ' with columns ft. in height, with an entablature of ft. at segesta there is a doric temple ' with only the peristyle complete and the columns unfluted, and at paestum, in southern italy, there are two doric temples ' and a basilica with its porticos of nine columns each. all these buildings in sicily and prestum date between and b.c. classification of classic temples. arrangement of columns and walls. apteral - - when the side walls have no colonnade. peripteral - - when there is a colonnade standing apart from the side walls. pseudo-peripteral when the colonnade is attached to the side walls. * dipteral - - when there is a double colonnade standing out from the walls. pseudo-dipteral - when the inner row of columns are attached to the side walls. the relation of the ends of the temple. /;; antis - - when the columns do not project beyond the ends of the side walls. prostyle - - when a portico stands in front of the temple. amphi-prostyle - when there is a portico at each end. mono-prostyle - if the portico is one column in depth. di-prostyle - if the portico is two columns in depth. the number of columns in the portico. tetrastyle - - if of four columns. hexastyle - - if of six columns. octastyle - - if of eight columns. monument of dt icjjate . athen .bc. . proportions of the entablature, in parts. archi- trave. frieze. cor- nice. total enta- blature.] a °/ "\ theseus ° ^ ' ionic - i erechtheum "\priene- i% ^ % ^ / ly.sicrates - ccrin-i hian-i fupiter * ° i °h ^ olympius '« m ionic order, temple of ilyssus. i i greek ornament. plate , arithemion orjiai*m tombs athens bc. go ok.mai^cmt ffvon the monumemt of lysicfvatcs athem .c. o. the east of the parthcnom - - poktion or the doorway. eighth eun. athen .c -o fum era l stele,with the reek ornament. greece, or hellas, consisted of a number of small states, speaking the same language, and worshipping the same gods. almost the whole of the aegean coast of asia minor was occupied in early times by greek colonies, which supplanted those of the phoenicians of tyre and sidon. the southern portion of this seaboard was occupied by the dorians, and the northern by ionians. in the course of time other greek settlements were made on the black sea and medi- terranean coast of asia minor, as well as at syracuse, gela and agrigentum in sicily, and in etruria and magna grecia in italy. these colonies appear to have reached a higher state of art at an early period than greece itself. the ascendency in art in greece was en- joyed by the dorians circa, b.c.; after which sparta took the lead, but was in turn excelled by the ionians, when athens became the focus of greek art, and attained a degree of perfection in that respect that has remained unequalled to this day. athens was des- troyed by the persians under xerxes, b.c.; but under pericles ( - b.c.) greek art reached its culmination. the abundant, although fragmentary, remains of grecian architec- ture, sculpture, and the industrial arts, show most vividly the artistic feeling and culture of the early greeks, with their great personality and religious sentiment, in which the personal interest of the gods and goddesses was brought into relation with the life and customs of the people. their myths and traditions, their worship of legendary heroes, the perfection of their physical nature, and their intense love of the beautiful, were characteristic of the greek people, from the siege of troy to their subjection by rome, b.c. . the almost inexhaustible store of greek art, now gathered in the british museum, and in other european museums, furnishes one of the most valuable illustrations of the many glorious traditions of the past. the vitality of con- ception, the dignity and noble grace of the gods, the consummate knowledge of the human figure, and the exquisite skill ofcraftmanship, are here seen in the greatest diversity of treatment and incident. the work of phidias, the most renowned of greek sculptors, is largely represented in the british museum by noble examples, showing his great personality, wonderful power, and his remarkable influence upon contemporary and later plastic art. the parthenon, or temple of the goddess athene, which was built upon the acropolis at athens by ictinus and callicrates, b.c. - , was enriched with splendid works of sculpture by phidias. many of the originals are now in the british museum forming part of the elgin marbles, which were purchased from the earl of elgin, in . the two pediments of the temple contained figure sculpture in the round, larger than life size. the eastern group represents the birth of athene, and the western group the contest of athene and poseidon elevatiorl of the bxrthenqn. athens. for the soil of attica. the fragments of these pedimental groups are now in the british museum, and, though sadly mutilated, show the perfection of sculpture during the phidian age. of the square metopes sculptured in high relief, that enriched the doric frieze, are included in the elgin marbles. the subject represented on these metopes was the battle between the centaurs and lapithae, or greeks, —a fine example of composition of line and mass, and dramatic power of expression. domc frieze . (the pakthemom . athem . the continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall, under the colonnade or peristyle, was feet from the ground, inches in height, and feet in length. it was carved in low relief, the subject being the panathenasic procession, the most sacred and splendid of the religious festivals of the ancient greeks. this frieze, with its rhythm of movement and unity of composition, its groups of beautiful youths and maidens, sons and daughters of noble citizens, roman architecture. plate . oman architecture is differentiated from that of greece by the extensive use of the arch and of superposed orders. the many fine remains of roman temples and public buildings show the extraordinary versatility and conception of the roman architects, their constructive skill, and their remarkable power of assimilating the arts of other nations. the roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to their greek prototypes, but usually without the side colonnade, larger in scale, and with an ostentatious display of mouldings and ornaments, less refined in contour and detail. optim's rortisymi;, yvf principi&vs io insicmbv urtvribv* eqhvm dom for. iso ve - p q b.. n u i i j r apvch of septi^ius evezru at a typical example is given here of a triumphal arch, namely, that of septimus severus, a.d. . other examples are the arch of titus, a.d. , and the arch of constantine, a.d. , all near the forum at rome. trajan's arch, a.d. , was destroyed by con- stantine, who used many of the reliefs for the building of his own arch. the superposition of columns and arches is seen in the theatre of marcellus, b.c. , where the lower order is of the doric and the upper of the ionic, and, like the early greek theatre, was semi-circular in plan. the colosseum, commenced by vespasian, a.d. , and completed plah of the house of pansa-fcmpeii the oam)cm , and splendour of embellishment. the skilful planning and appro- priateness of decorative treatment in their basilicas and amphitheatres are evidences of the practical nature of the romans. the basilica or hall of justice was an important architectural feature, rectangular in plan, with a semi-circular apse at one end, where the tribunal was placed; roofed with timber framing, or vaulted with concrete, and supported with rows of columns or piers. the remains of two typical roman basilicas are still in existence: the basilica of trajan, a.d. , rectangular, by ft., five aisles, the centre aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof, and enriched with bronze plates, is typical of one class; and the basilica of maxentinus, a.d. , with a width of ft, and a length of ft, is typical of a vaulted basilica, the two side aisles with an arched roof, and the centre aisle with an intersecting vaulted roof. these roman basilicas were adopted by the early christians to their service, and the basilica church became the typical form used up to the th century in the romanesque provinces. the roman houses were of two types: the domus, or houses clustered together, and the insular, houses which were surrounded by streets. most of the finest pompeian houses were of the insular type. the usual plan of a roman house consisted of the ostium, an entrance or vestibule, which opened into the atrium, a large room or court partly roofed over, with an opening in the centre called the conpluvium, under which was the impluvium, or cistern of water, placed below the level of the ground. small chambers surround- ed the atrium, and at the further end was the tablinum or private room, frequently leading to the peristylium or private part of the house, an open court, with a colonnade surrounding a marble fountain,with flowers, shrubs, and trees, forming a viridarium. sur- rounding the peristylium were private rooms, one of which was the tri- clinium, or dining room. from the peristylium, fauces or passages led to the porticus, a colonnade which overlooked the garden. roman ornament. plate , fk.ie e.ror.um of trajam. lateivan museutt. fig i twamgular. base ora/"vw,lc caridelabmjm . bmtish c nr-, a n mo ad loman ornament. rome, founded by romulus, b.c. , became by successive wars and conquests the mistress of the world, absorbing the arts and the architecture of the etruscans b.c. , the samnites b.c. , and of corinth and carthage b.c. . from these varied sources arose the style termed roman, assimilating and adopting the column and the horizontal entablature of the greeks; the arch, the vault, the mural paintings, and the decorative use of bronze and terra- cotta of the etruscans, with the sculpture, ornament, mosaics and coinage of the greeks and carthaginians. these varied arts were assimilated and perfected by the romans during the period b.c. to a.d. roman ornament is the continuity of the greek and etruscan styles, consisting of the anthenhenr the acanthus and the scroll; the romans using these forms with greater exuberance and elaboration, together with bold and vigorous carving, yet lacking the simplicity, refinement, and graceful contour of the greek and etruscan forms. roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral lines, clothed with cups and sheaths of acanthus foliage, the various spirals ter- minating in a rosette. these main spirals are frequently interwoven with fine curved or spiral lines, clothed with acanthus or other foli- ation, such as the vine, olive and ivy. birds and reptilesandcupids, and the chimera or griffin (fig. ) are often interspersed with the ornament, thus giving that large- ness of mass, and contrast of form, which is so characteristic of roman art. the thermae, or baths and public buildings, dis- played fine decorative ceilings, having deep sunk panels called lacunaria, or coffers; square, hexagonal or octagonal in form, with a centre rosette in high re- lief and the border mouldings of the coffers being enriched with the egg and dart, or the water leaf. these exhibit an effective treatment of moulded surfaces. the ceilings of the tombs and palaces were in many cases ornamented ompeian ornament. pompeii, herculaneum and stabia, roman cities, were buried by an eruption of vesuvius, a.d. . these cities had already suffered from an earthquake, a.d. , and were being rapidly rebuilt when they were finally destroyed by the eruption. the younger pliny, the historian, was a spectator of the event at pompeii, and wrote two letters to his friend tacitus, describing the event and his flight from the doomed city, which remained buried for seventeen centuries, with the treasures of gold and silver, bronzes of rare work- manship, mural paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of mosaics of marvellous execution and design; everything affording a vivid glimpse of the domestic and public life of the romans of the st century a.d. herculaneum was discovered in , and pompeii , and from these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken. in the museum at naples there are over , mural paintings, some , small bronzes, over large bronzes of figures and busts, and fine large mosaics. a plan of a roman house is given on page showing the arrange- ment and use of the rooms. the floors covered with mosaics (see plate ), those of the vestibule, corridors, and small rooms having simple patterns enclosed with borders of the key pattern, or the guilloche in black, red, grey, and white tesseriae. the floor of the triclinium, or dining room, was often a magnificent mosaic representing some mythqlogical or classical subject. the walls were painted in colour, usually with a dado ^th the height of the wall, with pilasters dividing the wall into rectangular panels and a frieze above (plate ). the general scheme of colour was, the dado and pilasters black, the panels red, and the frieze white; or black dado, red pilasters and frieze, with white or yellow panels. the decorations upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful, and painted with great delicacy. representations of architectural forms, such as columns and entablatures, are often rendered in perspective upon the painted walls. the painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the roman relief work, but is usually much more delicate in treat- ment. the spiral form and the sheath are always prevalent, and from these sheaths and cups grow the finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage, upon which birds are placed. stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mould- ings, were frequently combined with the painted ornament; they consist of small details, such as the water-leaf, the egg and dart, and the anthemion, and are repeated in a regular series. herculaneum differed considerably from pompeii, for the finest works of art and innumerable mss. have been found, shewing that a higher intellectual life existed than that at pompeii, where not a single ms. has been found. it is probable that herculaneum was equal to athens itself in the wealth of its art treasures. byzantine ornament. plate lily capital. st harks. pierced f marble screen sf marks. vitale ravenna sahcophaoi of theod us "cemtukr'. s apolltnart. kavettma . ierced marble. cafwed pamel im alada tek nvj^ stavarks . vemice i yzantine ornament. the decline of the roman empire, in the rd and th centuries a.d., had its inevit- able influence upon contemporary art, but perhaps a more potent influence was that of christianity, which, under the reign of constantine, received state recognition and support; and when this emperor removed the seat of government from rome to byzantium, the traditional greek and roman arts were assimilated with those of persia and syria, but moulded and influenced by the new religion, giving that strong vitality, deep significance, and symbolism which is so remark- able a feature of the byzantine style. the change of style did not take place immediately, for most of the buildings erected by constantine were in the traditional roman style, but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in the building of s. sophia, by anthemius of tralles and isidorus of miletus, during the reign of justinian, a.d. . this building is remarkable for its splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and pendentives on a square plan (see plate ), its embellishment with mosaics of glorious colours, and the great inventiveness and symbol- ism of the detail. the traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the greeks was united with the emblems of christianity, such as the circle, the cross, the vine, and the dove: the peacock also is fre- quently seen. figure sculpture was rarely used, but groups of figures were used in great profusion in the gold-ground mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls and the vaults and domes of the magnifi- cent byzantine buildings. the churches of ravenna, in italy, have somewhat similar characteristics: s. vitale, a.d. , the basilica churches of s. apollinare nuovo, a.d. - , s. apollinare in classe, a.d. - , together with the baptisteries, are rich in mosaics and sculptured capitals of the th and th centuries. in the cathedrals of torcello, a.d. , and murano, and the beautiful s. mark's at venice, marbles and mosaics were used in great pro- fusion to enhance the architecture. the sketch plans given on plate are typical of byzantine planning, in which the symbolism of the circle and cross are used as constructive features. this sym- bolism is a marked feature in byzantine ornament; interlacing circles and crosses mingle with the acanthus or the vine, and are cut with a peculiar v-shaped section. the circular drill is largely used at the sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is visible in the sculptured ornament of this period. pierced marble screens of interlaced foliage, or the fret in combina- tion with the circle, were frequently used (see plate ). a large number of pierced parapets in s. mark's are carved in low relief, with various modifications of the interlacing guilloche, or circles. romanesque ornament. plate . romanesque architecture &p ornament. romanesque architecture differs from roman chiefly in the universal use of the arch, the absence of the classic entablature, and in the imagery and symbol- ism of its sculpture and ornament, doubtless due to northern influence. one of the earliest existing buildings of this style is the church of s. ambrogio, milan (nth century), which has a nave and aisles, three eastern apses, and a western atrium, surrounded by an open arcade, enriched with vigorous reliefs of interlaced orna- ment and animals. contemporary in date is s. michele, pavia, with a nave and transepts and central cupola: there is a single eastern apse, having an open external gallery and bands of sculptured orna- ment. this and the frequent use of the lion or griffin as a support for pillars, are characteristic of the lombardic style, and are seen at s. michele, lucca, and the cathedral, baptistry, and the campanile of pisa. it was, however, in france and germany that the romanesque reached its highest development, principally in the south and south- west of france, where the churches are distinguished for the richness of the west fronts. s. trophime, arles ( th century), has a fine low semi-circular pro- jecting porch, resting upon a sculptured frieze and pillars. a cloister, with arcading of coupled columns richly sculptured, is attached to this church; while s. gilles ( ) has a low projecting porch of three arches, enriched with vigorous sculpture and ornament (plate ). the cathedral at angouleme has a vaulted nave, with three cupolas, and a west front with recessed arcading and figures: two square towers, with open arcading and conical spires, rise from the angles of the facade. notre dame, poitiers, is even more rich in its gabled west front, having a fine doorway with two tiers of arcading above. the facade is flanked by two circular turrets, with massive columns attached, having an open arcade above, with a conical spire; enriched corbel tables are carried across the front, over the door, the upper arcade and window, and round the turrets. saint-front, perigueux, has a richly sculptured west front and nave of the nth century, to which was added in a larger church similar in plan to s. mark's at venice (a greek cross, see plate ), and roofed with five cupolas in stone. in central france there was the magnificent abbey church of cluny, with its range of six towers; and in germany this number of towers is found at the great roman- esque churches of speyer, worms, and laach, with their singular western apse and external clearstory gallery. plate illustrates a few of the chief features of romanesque ornament. the upper frieze is similar to the roman scroll, but less vigorous in modelling, and with a rounder form of serration of leaf form. the laon capital has rich interlacing ornament and animals that suggest scandinavian influence. the portal of saint-gilles shows the exuberant carving and storiation that characterized many of the churches of south-west france. c celtic ornament. plate . initial the gospels of lii-tdl faiv e cndor/'-ceniurr, celtic intou.accino inrrhlaccd ahimals. rxon the book bmtish / spiral shield cnmched with *ed the ook of eltic ornament. no period in the history of art is more remarkable than the celtic. the carved stone architecture and crosses, the bronzes, enamels, and silversmith's work, the splendid illuminated books and manuscripts with capitals and borders, full of imagery and intricacy of detail, and the clear and accurate writing of the text are all indications of the culture and love of ornament of the early irish people, showing a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing forms. the bronze shield (fig. ), with its spirals and bosses of enamel enriched with the northern " fylfot " is a typical example of the nd or rd century, a.d. then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral, which, seen in its infancy on the bronze shield, reached a great degree of elaboration in the th and th centuries, a.d. (figs. to ), being typical of celtic work up to the middle of the th century when all trace of this spiral is lost. the interlacing bird and animal forms used from the th to the th centuries are doubtless derived from byzantine and lombardic sources. the serpent or dragon, which is such a marked feature from the th to the th century must have been borrowed from the north, as ireland had no traditions of snakes or dragons, and it is to scandinavia, with its legend of fafni, that we must look for the origin of the dracontine treatment. it is this zor- morpic character that distinguishes the celtic from all other styles of ornament except scandinavian. the obverse of the magnificent processional cross of cong (a.d. ), is divided into panels of decorations, and convoluted snakes occupy of them. the illustrations given here from the lismore crosier are typical examples of this celtic dracontine treatment. the early or pagan period is noted for its bronze work, cast and wrought, and enriched with champleve enamels. the fine chalice of ardagh (page ) and the tara brooch (plate ) th century, are splendid examples of the christian period dating from st. patrick, a.d. - . the beautiful book of kells, the book of armagh, the book of durrow, manuscripts of the early part of the th century (trinity college, dublin), and the book of durham, called the lindisfarne gospels, a.d. - , written by eadfrith, and illuminated by ethelwald, are a tribute to the vitality, assimilation of ideas, and the culture and wonderful craftmanship of the early irish people. in irish manuscripts gold is not used, except in the lindisfarne gospels, where a minute quantity is used. orman ftp gothic architecture. english gothic architecture has been broadly divided into periods for the purpose of classifying the styles, the following being the most generally accepted :— by sharpe. a.d. roman-/saxon esque \ norman - - gothic jlancet - /"transitional - - | curvilinear - i rectilinear - bv rlckman. a.d. norman - i - early english - - decorated - - perpendicular - - tudor - - - most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded, a.d. - , by norman bishops, some upon the old saxon foundations, such as canterbury and york, or near the original saxon buildings, as at winchester, or upon new sites, such as norwich and peterborough; and were without exception more magnificent erections than those of the anterior period, portions of the older style still existing in many cathedrals, showing the fusion of roman and byzantine archi- tecture with the more personal and vigorous art of the celtic, saxon, and scandinavian peoples. lincoln is a typical english plan, showing no trace of the semi- circular apsidal arrangement so universal in norman and french cathedrals. each vertical division in the nave, the choir, and transept is termed a bay. on plate is an illus- tration of four typical bays of english cathedrals, showing the development of style from the th to the th century. the general characteristic of each bay is given separately, but obviously it can only be approximate, as the building of each cathedral was influenced by local considera- tions, each period necessarily overlapping its predecessor, thus forming a transitional style. for instance, in the choir of ripon cathedral the aisle and clearstory have semi-circular norman windows, and the nave arcading has pointed arches. in the triforium and clearstory arcading, round arches are seen side by side with the pointed arch. the piers —sometimes termed columns—of these bays have "the seven periods of church architecture," by edmund sharpe. "gothic architecture," by thomas rickman. early english or lancet period. the lancet or pointed arch universal. capitals, of three lobed foliage and circular abacus. the pier arch mouldings, alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched with the characteristic dog's tooth ornament. a hood moulding which terminates in bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably surrounds the arch mouldings. this moulded hood when used ex- ternally is termed a " dripstone," and when used horizontally over a square headed window, a " label." the triforium has a single or double arch, which covers the smaller or subordinate arches, the spandrels being enriched with a sunk or pierced trefoil or quatrefoil. the triforium piers are solid, having delicate shafts attached to them, carrying arch mouldings of three orders, and enriched with the dog's tooth ornament or trefoil foliage. the clearstory lancet windows are in triplets, with an arcading on the inner face of the wall. the vaulting shaft occasionally springs from the floor, but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals, and finishes under the clearstory string with an enriched capital, from which springs the simple vaulting usually quadripartite or hexapartite in form. early windows in small churches were arranged in couplets, and at the east end, usually in triplets, with grisaille stained glass. the example given on the previous page from the east end of rievaulx abbey shows a finely proportioned window and its arrange- ment. figure sculpture, beautiful and refined in treatment, was fre- quently used upon external walls. the figures of saints and bishops were placed singly under triangular pediments and cusped arches, of which there are fine examples at wells, lichfield, exeter, and salisbury (fig. , plate ). splendid examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in the north and south transepts of lincoln cathedral, also at york, but they are comparatively rare in england, while france possesses over of the finest and most important examples of this type. they are to be seen in the cathedrals of notre dame, rouen, chartres, and rheims. decorated or geometric period. in this, the piers have engaged shafts, with capitals having plain mouldings, or enriched with finely carved foliage of the oak, maple, or mallow, seen in perfection at southwell minster, which contains the finest carving of this period— - (plate ). the pier arches have mouldings of three orders, also enriched, usually with the characteristic ball, flower, or foliage, similar to that upon the capitals. the triforium consists of double arches, with subordinate cusped arches adorned with geometric tracery. the inner arcading of the clearstory is absent, the one large window being divided by mullions the triforium & clearstory. plate . r?or. d/qr> fl • direct v ©ecxdemlc perpercdicl uflr- four qflyb optypicflli ef?©liish cflthedrhli ™ to we ist" cer?to ry and geometrical tracery, or by equilateral triangles enriched with circular and bar tracery (fig. , plate ). above the pier capitals an enriched corbel is usually placed from which springs the vaulting shafts, terminating with a richly carved capital under the clearstory string. the aisle arcading, as a rule, is very beautiful, having geo- metric tracery and finely proportioned mouldings, the aisle windows with mullions and bold geometric tracery. the circular rose windows of the transepts are typical of this period. perpendicular and tudor. the piers of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings carried round the pier arch, where capitals are introduced. they frequently resemble a band round the pier at the springing of the arch, or occasionally they are octagonal in form, and decorated with an angular treatment of the vine. in some instances the upper part of the plain octagonal capital is relieved with an embattlement. the latter is also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate per- pendicular screens, or for relieving the clearstory strings, or on the transoms or the lofty windows. the triforium is absent in this period, the bay consisting of two horizontal divisions only. the clearstory, owing to the sup- pression of the triforium, becomes of more importance. the windows are large and often in pairs, with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings of the window head. the aisle windows are similar, and when lofty have horizontal transoms, on which the battlement ornament is displayed. the aisle arcading being also suppressed, all plain wall space was covered with perpendicular surface tracery. enrichment of this type was used in the greatest profusion upon walls, parapets, buttresses, and arches, also upon the jambs and soffits of doorways. this, together with the use of the four-centred arch, forms the characteristic feature of the perpendicular or tudor period. the remarkable growth of the gothic style during the th and th centuries was contemporary in england, france, flanders, germany, and in a less degree in italy. one of the most beautiful churches in italy is s. maria della spina, at pisa, with its rich crocketed spires and canopies, features which were repeated a little later at the tomb of the famous scaligers at verona. gothic is differentiated by the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils. at venice there are many magnificent examples of gothic archi- tecture, remarkable for the beautiful central grouping of the windows, arcades, and balconies and the prevalence of the ogee arch, with cusps and pierced quatrefoils and rich foliated capitals. the facade of the doge's palace, with its great colonnade of pillars with rich foliated capitals (see ruskin's "seven lamps of architecture," plate v.), and the porta della carta, or entrance, with its magnifi- cent doorway flanked by figures and canopies and surmounted by a traceried window, and gable enriched with exquisitely carved crockets and finials of foliage and figures, are by bartolommeno buon ( - ), who also built the foscari palace. other examples are the casa, or ca d'oro, and the palazzi pisani, conterini fasan, and danieli, each with beautiful grouping of windows, pierced quatrefoil, and rich balconies. it was in france and england that gothic architecture reached its culmination. the abbeys and cathedrals, with spires and towers enriched with vigorous and beautiful sculpture, arcadings and cano- pies, with cusps, crockets, and finials, and the splendid traceried windows, filled with glorious stained glass, are all tributes to the religious zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the middle ages. the west fronts of the larger cathedrals of france have deeply- recessed triple porches, covered with figure sculpture (page ), magnificent towers with lofty open tracery, as at amiens and rheims, and splendid rose windows, as those of chartres (an early example of plate tracery), rheims, amiens, and the cathedral and s. ouen at rouen, the two latter with rich flamboyant tracery. french cathedrals are invariably of the periapsidal plan, with the semi-circular eastern ambulatory, surrounded by three or five radia- ting chapels. aisle chapels also are frequently introduced between the bases of the flying buttresses, giving a greater width across the church. in early cathedrals, the triforium chamber, or upper aisle and its arcade, was similar to english examples; but early in the th century the triforium gallery was reduced to the thickness of the nave wall, and the outer arcading glazed. later, the triforium, with its glazed arcading, became merged into the great clearstory windows, with their wealth and glory of coloured glass. english cathedrals show a marked contrast in scale to contem- porary french buildings. the english nave and choir are less in height and width but greater in length than french cathedrals. for instance, westminster is the highest of our english cathedrals, with its nave and choir ft. from floor to roof, ft. wide, and ft. in length. york is next with ft. from floor to roof, ft. wide, and ft. in length. salisbury is ft. from floor to roof, ft. wide, and ft. in length; and canterbury ft. from floor to roof, ft. wide, and ft. in length. lincoln with ft. and peter- borough with ft. are the only other examples reaching ft. in height: york, with ft, being the only one reaching above ft. in width of nave. the measurements of contemporary french cathedrals, on the other hand, being as follows:—chartres, ft. from floor to roof, ft. wide, and ft. in length; notre dame, ft. from floor to roof, ft. wide, and ft. in length; rheims, ft. from floor to roof, ft. wide, and ft. in length; while that at beauvais reaches the great height of ft. in the nave, ft. in width, and only ft. in length. i orman ornament. norman architecture was distinguished by the use of the traditional semi-circular arch, superseded by the pointed arch of the early gothic period. these semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were decorated with rudely executed carvings, cut or worked with the axe. later norman work is very rich, the mouldings being well carved with enrichments of the chevron, the cable, pallet, star, fret or key patterns; the lozenge and the beading or pearling. characteristic features of this period also are the beakhead (fig. ), and the corbel-table, which was a series of heads of men or animals, from which spring small arches supporting the parapet. many rich examples of norman surface ornament are still extant; at christ- church, hants, a beautiful intersecting arcading of semi-circular arches occurs, the enrichment above being a scale or imbricated pattern; at st. peter's, northampton, a very rich example of surface ornamenta- tion may be seen (fig. ). floral forms are but rarely used in norman ornament; instances are known of the use of the rose and the fir-apple, but they are the exception and not the rule. early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi- circular arch mouldings, decorated with the chevron, key, or beak- head. the semi-circular tympanum over the door was plain or enriched with rude sculpture in low relief. later doors show a great profusion of ornament in the archivolt and arch mouldings, which are often carried down the jamb mouldings. the recessed columns are also enriched with the chevron, or diagonal lines of pearling (fig. ), and have sculptured capitals showing a classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and the volute. fine examples of this period may be seen in the west front of lincoln cathedral (fig. ), the galilee porch at durham, and the west door of iffley church, oxfordshire. a fine, deeply recessed semi-circular norman doorway is at tutbury church, having a richly recessed window over, now filled with flamboyant tracery. early norman capitals are usually cubical or cushion-shaped, with a square or cruciform abacus, or occasionally octagonal as at durham, or circular as at gloucester, and enriched with the chevron, star, or anthemion. the capitals being escalloped with segments of circles, or enriched with volutes or the anthemion. early examples are in the white tower, and st. bartholomew, london. later capitals, usually rich in ornamentation, are found at st. peter's, northampton and wooton, or more frequently that have interlacing bands of orna- ment and animals; others with figures or " storied capitals," as in the north porch, wells. in the transition period—end of th century—capitals were con- cave or bell-shaped, with foliage of the serrated water-leaf type clinging to the bell and turning up under the abacus, forming a volute. this foliage was varied in type and vigorous in technique. fine examples are at christ church, oxford, and at canterbury cathedral. arly gothic. the norman style was succeeded by the pointed, or gothic style, remarkable for its variety, its beauty of proportion, and the singular grace and vigour of its ornament. showing no traditions, beyond sicilian and arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached a high degree of perfection in france and england. the massive and barbaric character of the norman style gave place to the light clustered shafts and well-proportioned mouldings of the early english gothic, with its capitals characterised by a circular abacus, and the typical three-lobed foliage growing upwards from the necking of the shafts, thence spreading out in beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus. this tendency to the spiral line is peculiar to the early gothic, and differentiates it from the decorated and perpendicular period. the diagrams of the three crockets here given show the distinctive character of english gothic ornament. cr.ock.ei; atc ©oth early gothic, three-lobed leaves arranged in spiral lines. decorated gothic, with natural types of foliage, such as the oak and maple, with a flowing indulating line. perpendicular gothic, showing the vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a square and angular manner. the same features and characteristics are observed in the borders here given. the beautiful carved span- dril from the chancel arcade, stone church, kent (fig. ), is one of the most beautiful examples of english ornament, remarkable for the vigour and flexibility of curve, its recurring forms of ornamen- tation, and admirable spacing, typical of much of our early eng- lish foliage from about - . the type of foliage in early english stained glass is somewhat similar to contemporary carved work, but showing more of the profile of the leaf, and it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in addition to the spiral forms of foliage (plate ), and the admir- able spacing of the ornament shows the skill in design that the mediaeval craftsman possessed. decorated gothic details. plate . s perpendicular details. plate . cop.n ce fp.cn b hop beckihgtopi' hrimc well} cathedral tudor flowtr westmimster from uftord church . uffolk crcem to law chapel manchester. cathedral upper pact orsouth porch. lavemhah chufcch.surfolk q netplact n tatter hau. ca tlp lincdnshirc - erpendicular gothic. late or rectilinear gothic is characterized by a rigidity of line in construction and ornament. the one exception is the beautiful fan-vaulting, such as that in the cloisters at gloucester cathedral, and in henry .vi i. chapel at westminster, which are not approached by any continental example for beauty of craftsmanship or the scientific precision of their masonry. the many splendid towers, having elaborate panelled tracery, and capped with pinnacles, open parapets, and battlements, such as those at wrexham and s. mary's, taunton, are also characteristic of this period. the windows, with vertical mullions running to the window-head, which is frequently a four-centred arch, have one or more transoms, enriched with battle- ments or tudor flowers, to divide the lofty windows horizontally (plate ). the many choir screens and stalls, with their canopies, have panels, friezes, crestings, and finials, and are frequently carved with an angular treatment of the vine and its tendrils, more or less conventionalized (figs. - ), the tudor flower being perhaps the most prevalent. the freedom and flexibility of the modelling and carving of the middle period of gothic, was replaced by a stiff symmetrical arrangement of foliage, and the painted diapers succeeded the carved ones of the earlier period. the terminals of the ends of pews were frequently en- riched with foliated "poppy-heads," often of great beauty. heraldic forms, such as shields, with their supporters, together with badges and crests, were largely associated with the ornament in the richer buildings of this per- iod, such as king's college chapel at cambridge, and henry viii.'s chapel at west- minster. the piers of the nave are usually rectangular or lozenge in section, consisting of a few rounds and double ogee moulds, which are fre- quently carried round the arch without the intervening capital; or an octagonal capital, with the typical square foliated ornament, is carried by some of the round members of the pier; or a series of moulded capitals, without enrichment, is employed. the only enrichment in the hollows of the strings and arch-mouldings is a four-petalled flower, alternate square and circular (figs. and ). renascence ornament. plate , e r*dn tmt bromze g*tc or tht evwtisttlw - - . ouattivocemto pace rr(,m the book of hourj.of bona spoivxv,duchc ormilah onti h -cotta on dellaiv olawa/,£ y luca delia w bbia, i - o in tw; chukcm or s onorwo (ftlmted orviamemt tron the ducal palace mamtua by giovanni da udine anojulio romano i o enascence architecture ornament. lombardy, in the north of italy, had witnessed a singular blending of the old classic art with the vigorous traditions and myths of the longobards, and the symbolisms of the old byzantine; thus producing the architecture known as lombardic, with its multiplicity of small columns and arches, quaint imagery of sculpture, and the frequent use of a lion or dragon as a support for the columns. these are features of the early art at lucca, and at bergamo, padua, verona, and other towns in lombardy (see romanesque, page ); a beautiful illustration from lucca is given in the appendix to ruskin's " stones of venice," vol. . contemporary with this period came the gothic influence with its clustered columns, pointed arches, its cusps and crockets, and its strong vitality, impressing the arts and architecture with a lasting influence; hence, during the th and th cen- turies in italy, this intermingling of styles, traditions, religious beliefs and myths, produced an art barbaric and vigorous in character, the imagery full of suggestiveness, and the detail rich and varied in con- ception. yet it was but the herald of a style which culminated in the glorious epoch of the renascence, a style where symmetry was to play an important part, as in classic art, where refinement of line and detail, of culture and craftsmanship, are found; and which, though beautiful in proportion, unity of parts, and perfect adaptability, yet lacked that symbolism, suggestiveness, inventiveness and rugged strength of the early byzantine, lombardic, and gothic styles. italian renascence is broadly divided into three periods, viz. :— the tre-cento, or transitional, a.d. - ; the quattro-cento, - ; and the cinque-cento, - . in the tre-cento period the sculpture and decorative arts are marked by dignity of conception, and a mingling of gothic and classic tradi- tions. one of the earliest examples is the hexagonal pulpit in the baptistery at pisa, and in the cathedral at siena, by nicolo pisano ( - ), where sculptured panels distinctly classic in treatment, are associated with cusped gothic arches. nicolo also executed the beautiful octagonal fountain at perugia, and was assisted in much of his work by his son giovanni pisano, who also executed the pulpit in the cathedral at pisa. a fine monumental work of this period having similar characteristics, is the tomb of s. peter the martyr, in the church of s. eustovgio, at milan, by balducco di pisa ( - ). in the architecture of this period, gothic forms prevail, together with the use of panelling of white and grey marble, lofty pilasters, pinnacles and gables, enriched with a geometric patterning of marbles or mosaic, and a frequent use of the slender twisted pillar. the cathedral at florence, with its panelling, pointed arches, and rich tracery, was by arnolfo di cambio (died ), and francesco talenti, who completed the nave, choir, and apses in . arnolfo and talenti were also the architects for the church of santo croce ( - ), and the palazzo vecchio, florence, ( ), where, in , michelozzo added the beautiful cortile, and c. salviati and de faenza, pupils of vasari, enriched the circular and octagonal pillars with beautiful stucco ornamentation (fig. . plate ), in . the beautiful campanile by giotto ( ), andrea pisano, and francesco talenti, who introduced the upper gothic windows, is a noble accessory to the cathedral of florence. a charming illustration of one of these windows is given in the "seven lamps of architecture," by john ruskin. in arnolfo introduced some prato marble pilasters at the angles of" san giovanni," the octagonal florentine baptistery, an ancient building where many of the great citizens of the republic received their baptism, and it was here that dante was baptised in may, . the last of the tre-cento masters was andrea pisano ( - ), who made the first bronze gate of " san giovanni," or the baptistery of florence. this gate has quatre-foil panels in relief, and bears the inscription "andreas ugolini nini me fecit, a.d. mcccxxx." the true renascence or quattro-cento period is remarkable for the vitality of the arts, and the naturalism and versatility of its crafts- men. brunelleschi ( - ), is the first architect (page ), and lorenzo ghiberti ( - ) the ornamentist and sculptor, whose chief works are the two bronze gates for the florentine baptistery. the first gate ( - ), has quatre-foil panels similar to the monument to ilaria di carretto, by jacopo della quercia. renascence ornament. plate . r oim-iamer-lt .n mak.olc . .school r u>mbar.oi ve/iicc i oo mawir bviclimthe c«urc» of dt'mlfvacol), vetiicc imo b> flc *ndhi son ,tullicvid amtomlo and the individuality of his medals of the contemporary princes of italy, are exceedingly fine. among other remarkable medallists, were sperandio of verona ( - ), caradossa of milan ( - ! ), vincentine of vicenza ( - ), benvenuto cellini of florence ( - ), lione leoni ( - ), pompeoni leoni ( - o), and pastorino of siena ( - ). other names of this period were desiderio da settignano ( - ), his masterpiece being the tomb of carlo marzuppini, in the church of santa croce, florence; mino da fiesole ( - , see frontispiece); andrea verrocchio ( - ), the author of the fine equestrian statue of bartolommeo colleone at venice (see bronzes); matteo civitali ( - ); and the rossellini, a remarkable family of five brothers, of which the most famous was antonio rossellini ( - ), who executed a charming tomb to cardinal jacopo di portogallo, in the church of the nunziata, florence. the cinque-cento period was the culmination of the renascence, when architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts, were under the magnificent patronage of the popes and princes of italy. palaces, churches, and public buildings were completed (see renas- cence architecture, pages - ), and embellished with beautiful sculptures and decorations; hung with the most sumptuous fabrics of the venetian, florentine, and genoese looms; decorated with altar paintings and mural decorations by the most renowned of painters; and enriched with the magnificent productions of the gold and silversmiths' art, and the loveliest of intarsia, or inlaid woodwork. the sistine chapel, built for sfxtus iv., in , by baccio pintelli, is decorated with fresco paintings on the walls by the great cinque-cento masters, luca signorelli ( - ), sandro botticelli ( - ), cos- imo rosselli ( - ), perugino, the master of raphael ( - ), domenico ghirlandajo ( - ), and michel angelo ( - ), who painted "the last judgment," on the end wall, and the famous ceiling, with incidents from the old testa- ment, and with the prophets joel, ezekiel, jeremiah, jonah, daniel, isaiah, and zechariah, and the sibyls erithraea, perscia, lybica, cumaea, and delphica. these are splendid examples of decorative painting, where unity and dignity of conception, powerful draughtsmanship, and marvellous execution are shown in a remarkable degree. the new sacristy of san lorenzo, florence, designed and executed by michel angelo, having the magnificent tombs of lorenzo and thecun/cah sibyl by michel ahgelo a roman gardens—were utilised by raphael in the decoration of the pilasters, piers, and walls of the loggie. the designs were painted with a fine range of colour upon white ground, and enclosed within borders of modelled stucco ornaments. in the panels upon the ceil- ing, raphael painted a series of fifty-two in- cidents of the bible. these are spoken of as "raphael's bible." raphael was assisted in this work by many con- temporary artists and pupils; giovanni da udine, giulio romano, francesco penni, per- ino del vaga, and pri- maticcio ( - ,) who completed the work after raphael's death. these artists carried the traditions and methods to other parts of italy. giulio romano execu- ted some fine mural paintings at the villa madama, rome; and for federigo gonzaga, duke of mantua, he enriched with beautiful paintings and arabesques the palazzo ducale, and the palazzo del te. these arabesques were upon richly-coloured or parti-coloured grounds (see plates - , " grammar of ornament," by owen jones). perino del vaga carried the art to genoa, where at the palazzo andrea doria he executed many admirable examples of coloured arabesques (see plates - , " palast-architakur, genua "). these painted arabesques show a great inventiveness and skilful combination of parts, but they are not to be compared with the refined and beautiful modelling, and harmonious composition of the contemporary carved reliefs by andrea sansovino ( - ), jacopo sansovino ( - ), agostino busti, pietro lombard o ( ), and his sons, tullio and antonio. these delicate reliefs have the traditional roman acanthus, but treated with a refined feeling for modelling, and beauty and symmetry of line and mass. in many examples, vases, masks, shields, and similar accessories are found in profusion (plate ). the composition of the cinque- cento ornament is usually symmetrical, the details being varied and interesting in the best examples; and whilst lacking the vigour and arabesque decotwlom- vaticam- the triumph of julius ge ak , fmezc byahdrla ft li|pi is*". m* u symbolism of the lombardic and byzantine styles, it excelled them in its absolute adaptation to architectural conditions, with perfection of design and craftsmanship. magnificent examples of decoration by pinturicchio are in the sala piccolomini, siena, and by perugino in the sala del cambio, perugia, where some of the earliest painted arabesques are upon a dark ground. andrea mantegna ( - ) executed nine paintings or cartoons in tempera upon linen, representing the triumphs of julius caesar, which are a portion of a frieze ft. high and ft. long, painted for lodovico gonzaga's palace of s. sebastian, at mantua. they were purchased by charles i., and are now at hampton court. an illustration of this frieze, from an engraving upon copper in the british museum, is given here. it was also engraved on wood by andrea andreani in . to mantegna is also ascribed the illustrations to the "hypnero- tomachia, or dream of poliphilus," printed in , at venice, by aldus manutius. good reproductions of many of these early illustrated books are given in the "italian book illustrations," by a. w. pollard, no. of the portfolio, december ; and in "the decorative illustration of books," by walter crane. • the study of classical architecture was stimulated by the publica- tion at rome, in , of the treatise by vitruvius, an architect of the time of augustus; an edition was also published at florence in , and at venice in . in , fra giocondo, at venice, published "the five books of architecture," by andrea palladio ( - ). another treatise upon architecture, by serlio ( - ), was also published at venice in and . beautiful types of the renascence decorative art were the venetian well-heads, situated as they were in most of the public squares of venice, and in many of the court-yards of her princely palaces. designed with details of the most varied and beautiful character by such artists as andrea sansovino, pietro lombardo, and his sons tullio and antonio, the venetian well-head became a type of beauty, diversified in its treatment, but never losing its character- istics or its usefulness. venetian well-heads display a great variety of form and decoration, and are a tribute to the vivacity and artistic feeling of the venetian republic. the strozzi palace, florence. the renascence in italy was distinguished by the many magni- ficent ecclesiastical and secular buildings erected during the th and th centuries in the chief cities in italy. florence was the first to show activity, and with brunelleschi ( - ), the history of renascence architecture commences. the great dome of the cathedral ( - ), the pazzi chapel (with a fine frieze of cherubs' heads by donatello and settigiano) at s. croce ( ), and the church of s. lorenzo ( ), were his first works, and were followed by s. spirito( ) and the pitti palace. the severe dignity of the bold rusticated stone work, which was usually varied in each story, the circular-headed windows, and cornices of great depth and projection, became the type of the early palaces of florence and siena. the first renascence palace was the riccardi, built for cosimo de medici, in , by michelozzi: and it was followed by the pitti ( ) and the quaratesi ( ), by brunelleschi; the rucellai ( ), by leon battista alberti ( - ), where pilasters with their entablature were used for the first time in a renascence facade; the strozzi ( ), by m. da majano and cronaca; the gondi ( ), by g. da sangallo; the guadagni ( ), with sgraffito decorations in grey and white plaster; and the nicolini, by bramante ( - ); the pandolfini ( ), by raphael; and the bartolini ( ), by baccio d'agnolo. the plan of these palaces was usually a rect- angle, having an internal cortile, with open arcades on the ground floor, the next floor having windows, while the upper story was frequently open. the farnese palace, rome. in rome the palaces were characterized by largeness of scale, the frequent use of the pilaster or attached super-imposed columns, and square-headed windows, with triangular or segmental pediments. the plan is rectangular, with a cortile of one or more stories of open arcades of semi-circular arches, springing direct from the capital, as in the cancelleria palace. the chief palaces are the cancelleria ( ) and the giraud ( ), by bramante ( - ); the farnesina ( ), the massimi ( ), and the villa ossoli ( ), by baldassare peruzzi ( - ); the palma and the farnese ( ), by antonio sangallo ( - ); the villa madama ( ), by raffaello and giulio romano; the borghese ( ), by martino lunghi; the laterano ( ), by fontana; and the barberini ( ), by maderna, borro- mini, and bernini. the chief ecclesiastical building is s. peter's (plan, plate ,) com- menced in by albert! and rossellino for pope nicolas v.; then carried on by bramante and san gallo ( ), raphael and peruzzi ( - ), antonio da san gallo ( ), michel angelo ( ), vignola ( ), giacomo della porta ( ), and carlo maderna ( ). in s. peter's was dedicated by urban viii., and in the colonnade in the piazza was erected by bernini. e english renascence. plate , desjgtt for. a time-metre. by holbe m.i cahopy to stalls * cross .wihchester woodcabv no. a toh hall portiom of ceilino at a tom hall birmingham. podtion of henry vii tomb bytobr gian we tmim abbey ramel from the chiche ter tomb. piltom church,devofl ribs frequently had a repeating pattern impressed while the plaster was soft. occasionally a double frieze was used, the lower having delicate arabesques and strap-work, while the upper one had boldly- marked cartouches and arabesques. one of the most important examples of early renascence plaster is the frieze in the presence chamber, hardwicke hall. it is decorated with classical subjects, such as diana and her nymphs, surrounded with forest trees and foliage. this frieze is ft. in height, modelled in low relief, delicately coloured, and is probably the work of charles williams. with inigo jones ( - ) the purely italian renascence pre- vailed. he was known from - as the designer for the elaborate scenery for the brilliant masques by ben jonson that were performed by the nobles and court of that period. in inigo jones completed the banqueting house, whitehall, the only portion of his great design which was carried out. he also designed the water gate, york house, executed by his favourite carver, nicholas stone, the earlier part of greenwich hospital, and the great room at wilton, with its fine mantelpiece and panelling. nicholas stone was an expert and prolific carver. an extract from his pocket-book is interesting, and throws some light on the cost of sculpture:—" . i made a monument, to be set up at westminster, of mr. francis holies, the youngest son of the earl of clare, for which the sayd earl payed for it sol. my lord of clare also agreed with me for a monument for his brother, sir george holies, the which i made and sett up in the chappell at westminster where sir francis vere lyeth buried, for the which i was payed from the hands of the sayd earl of clare /." the ornament of inigo jones is excellent in proportion, and italian in type. the decoration of the panels and friezes consisted of boldly- designed festoons, masks, and shields. the plaster ceilings have large rectangular, circular, or oval panels, with moulded ribs enriched with arabesques, fruit, or flowers in high relief. the work of wren, which followed, is on similar lines, the propor- tions being good, but the details are less refined in type, being largely under the influence of grinling gibbons and his school. their wonderful technique and lack of restraint in the hands of less able men degenerated into the mannerisms and looseness of style which marked the later th and early th centuries. the era of church building began with sir christopher wren ( - ) in , after the great fire of london, in which old s. paul's, ninety-three parish churches and chapels, the exchange, the guildhall, and fifty of the city companies' halls were destroyed. s. mary-le-bow ( ), s. bride's ( ), s. clement dane ( ), and s. stephen's, walbrook, illustrate some of the typical features of the fifty-one parochial churches that he designed, and his master- piece, s. paul's ( - ), is a noble example of english renas- cence (plan, plate ). wren also built portions of hampton court english renascence. plate . orders by godfrey yke . and greenwich hospital. hawksmoor ( - ), a pupil of wren, built christ church, s. george's-in-the-east ( ), spitalfields church ( ), and s. george's, bloomsbury ( ). castle howard ( )and blenheim palace are by vanbrugh ( - ); s. philip, birmingham ( ), by archer; burlington house ( ) by camp- bell, who also brought out his great work on english architecture, "vitruvius britannicus," vol. i., , vol. ii., , vol. ill., , while vols. iv. and v. were issued by woolfe and gandon in . this book gives introductory descriptions, with plans, elevations, and sections of the chief english buildings erected between - . the horse guards ( ), holkham ( ), and devonshire house ( ) were designed by kent. s. mary-le-strand ( ), s. martin's ( ), the senate house, cambridge ( ), and the radcliffe library ( ) were by gibbs ( - ). with chambers ( - ) the later renascence begins, and somerset house ( ) is a typical example of this period, accurate in proportion, with refined details and excellent workmanship and materials. chambers also published his " treatise of civil architec- ture" in , and "a treatise on the decorative part of civil architecture" in . other architects of this period were george dance, who built the mansion house ( ), and robert and james adam, who designed and built the adelphi ( ) and many streets and mansions in london, bath, edinburgh, and dublin. robert adam also designed many accessories, such as console tables and candelabra, and on the ceilings, pilasters, and panels were classical stucco enrichments (plate ). pergolese, bartolozzi, and angelica kaufmann contri- buted designs and paintings for the brothers adam. of modern renascence, the wellington monument, in s. paul's cathedral, by alfred stevens ( - ), is distinguished by its strong personality and architectonic treatment of composition, and the beauty and singular grace of its details. mahometan ornament. plate . f^elier ow amc.mt frqaa the wekala. cairo ar.abiam capital fnow the coukj the lions ceilimg decoivuiom.fr.o/v\ wall decob-atiorl f .ofa the paim /aor.e que . (owenjqnes persian ornament. plate . ersian ornament. the early art of persia was similar to that of assyria and babylon, having the same forms, mate- rials, and traditions. with the accession of the sassanides, a.d. , came the introduction of the elliptical dome, so typical of eastern architecture. this dome rested on pendentives, which occupied the angles of the square base. these pendentives and the elliptical dome are dis- tinctive features in mahometan architecture. the industrial arts of persia were largely influenced by the tradi- tional arts of assyria and chaldea. this tradition was carried on with rare skill and selective power by the persians, culminating in the splendid period of shah abbas, a.d. - . the vitality, beauty, and interest of detail, combined with perfect decorative adaptation to material, are characteristic of the textiles, pottery, metal work, and illuminated manuscripts of the th, th, and th centuries. the mahometan conquest of persia, a.d. - , by abu bekr, the successor of mohammed, largely influenced the development of the arts of the persians, who adopted the customs and habits of contemporary races, yet preserved all the characteristics of their art; and there is no doubt that the art of the arabs was founded upon the traditional arts of persia. persian decoration is characterised by a fine feeling for form and colour, and for the singularly frank renderings of natural plants, such plate. th 'centura .km- as the pink, hyacinth, tulip, rose, iris, and the pine and date. these are used with perfect sincerity and frankness, and are essentially decorative in treatment, combining harmony of composition of mass, beauty of form, and purity of colour. it was doubtless owing to these qualities, together with the perfect adaptation of ornament to material, that the persian style so largely influenced contemporary work, and especially the european textile fabrics of the th and th centuries. the illustrations given are of some familiar types of persian adaptations of natural flowers, doubtless chosen for their significance, beauty of growth and form, and appropriateness of decorative treatment. purely arabian forms, as given in plate , are frequently associated with the persian floral treatment, showing the influence of the artists of damascus. many fine examples of lustred wall tiles, dating from the th and th centuries, are in the south kensington museum, of which the blue, brown, and turquoise colouring is of a splendid quality. they often have arabic inscrip- tions interspersed with the floral enrichments. examples of wall tiles of the th century have been found in the ruins of rhages. these lustred tiles are a remarkable instance of tradition or heredi- tary proclivity. this art, beginning with the enamelled bricks of babylon, and the later frieze of susa (page ) with its brilliant enamel and fine colour, was continued by the persians, and, passing to the arabs, the tradition was carried to cairo, spain, and majorca; thence into italy, where enamelled lustre ware was made, differing from the original persian in its frequent absence of utility, which was fundamental to the art of the persians. mahometan ornament has five broad divisions, viz., arabian, sicilian, moresque, indian, and persian ; and they are all characterised by strongly-marked compartments or fields, which are filled with finer and more delicate enrichments. these compartments are most pro- nounced in the moresque, with its complex geometric interlacing and entire absence of natural forms (figs. , , , and , plate ). the arabian style is somewhat similar, but less formal. the indian has a conventional rendering of plants, and the introduction of the lion, tiger, and the elephant (fig. , plate ); while in the persian work there is a still less formal constructive arrangement, with floral forms clearly defined in line and mass, and the introduction of the human figure with the horse, the lion, the tiger, and birds. note the illustration in textiles, which is taken from a fine carpet in the south kensington museum. in this carpet, animal forms, chosen with rare selective power and judgment, are combined with the typical floral enrichment of persia, with the wealth of colour, admirable detail of spacing and mass, beauty of incident and vigour, and appropriateness of treatment. these are features that distinguish the industrial designs of persia; and it is doubtless due to the interest and vitality of their ornament that we owe the remarkable influence of persian art upon the contemporary and latter craftsmanship of europe. persian ornament. plate . indian ornament. plate . columm frofa ttcmple of vi ha pmhted cotton dock collf.ctic)m. silk dkocade with pine shaped flowers dcriafvxs . cotton pfmht with flowers i tht fok.m of a leaf . . t\ . /a lss.v^'^ixs^^tisn^ <"<r==r» ^^ ift»> /"?iri-> ?riw./.fcci:« cakf with the p of p me ijarj.rt oi^ourtd k. / chinese ornament. plate . wovem silk chime e lav ftocm-oluectlori mar-<che te rockcollection. chimre d .acom . embroidery. paidtid borders . miho dyflastv.a d . japanese ornament. plate . plate . art ii. the applied arts. woodcut from the grotesque alphabet of (flemish), british museum. enoraved panel by heinrich aldegrever, one of the little masters of germany. osaics. mosaic is the art of forming patterns by means of pieces of variously-coloured materials, fitted to- gether, and is broadly divided into opus tesselatum, of small cubes, like dice; opus sectile, of slices of marble; and opus musivum, or glass mosaic: and may be subdivided into opus figinum, or ceramic mosaic; opus vermiculatum, with (a) majus, black and white marble; (b)medium, all materials and colours; and (c) minus, of minute tesserae, used for furniture inlay. opus alexandrinum is an inlay of porphyry and serpentine on white marble. it was in rome that the art of mosaic was brought to its greatest perfection. the finest example is from the house of the faun, pompeii, and represents the battle of issus, between alexander and darius. this mosaic, of the rd century b.c., is probably a copy of a greek painting. a magnificent example of this period is the so- called " pliny's doves," a representation of four doves upon a basin. many fine roman mosaics have been found in england, at ciren- cester, london, lincoln (fig. ), leicester, and at brading. magnificent examples of opus misivum are found at ravenna, constantinople, and venice, where the opus muisvum reached its culmination, of the ravenna (page ) mosaics, those of the baptistery, a.d. , s. apollinare, and s. vitale.are typical exam- ples of the earlier byzantine mosaics, having dark green and blue backgrounds, with tesserae about jh? in. square. the beautiful frieze of male and female saints in s. apollinare extends along both sides of the nave, and is ft. high. the vaulting and domes of s. mark are entirely covered with the characteristic th century byzantine gold ground mosaic, formed by fusing two pieces of glass together with gold leaf between. at santa sophia, constantinople, and in the cappella palatina, palermo, are other fine early mosaics. splendid examples of opus alexandrinum are found on the pave- ment of the pantheon, rome (a.d. - ). other examples, dating from the th century, are in rome, in the nave of the basilica of san lorenzo fuori le mura, having interlacing circular bands of geometri- cal mosaic on white marble. in santa maria in trastevere, the pattern is formed of hexagons and stars of six or eight points. a beautiful design of a large eight-pointed star of porphyry, with the triangles between the points of the star filled with small geometric opus alexandrinum, is in the church of s. s. giovanni e paolo. in the th and th centuries in italy, the cosmati (a family of mosaicists) produced some fine geometrical inlaid mosaics upon the vertical and twisted pillars in the cloisters of san giovanni laterano, and on the splendid "ambone," or pulpit, in santa maria, in araceli, rome. on the tombs of edward (a.d. ) and henry iii. ( ), in westminster abbey, are some good examples of this "cosmati" mosaic. greek ceramics. plate . ceramics. plate . lustrous. amiam war£: a powiom or oirjon pottery: im lay of coloured clays orlthe white body of the warx pairtted with chrysanthemums - foliaoc m ml no dyma ty. south in kelief.obtained byprf. - .imc imto moulds b. by tht u e of dies museum of geology. owhamemtrd with pipeclay sllp.on mu euh of geology camoltstick. "-deux waive . a.d.i -- o. .k a\ oivcelaim va e' pcnop or loui xvi m c l e acfictnjl h am dwight i-i oo &mti h f these different processes of covering the porous body of the earthen- ware largely influenced the decorations and scheme of colouring. the beautiful faience of damascus and rhodes is covered with the silicious slip or glaze, and painted with rich blues, produced by cobalt, turquoise and green, by cobalt and copper, and purple by the use of manganese, and then covered with an alkaline glaze. in the rhodian ware the same scheme of colour prevails, except that the purple is replaced by a fine opaque red of great body, called rhodian red, produced from armenian bole. on the italian maiolica, with its tin enamel and plumbeous glaze, there are fine blue, turquoise and green, but red is very poor in colour, and is generally replaced by rich yellow from antimony, and orange from iron. this white tin enamel was undoubtedly introduced into europe by the moors, as some tiles in the alhambra date from - . a large number of bowls and dishes, known as samian ware, but now called terra sigillata (seal clay), of roman importation have been found in england. the paste is usually of a fine sealing-wax red, with a good glaze. these bowls are enriched with a series of hori- zontal bands, containing the festoon, the scroll, birds, animals, and figures. the bands, or friezes, are often divided by the traditional egg a°d tongue moulding (fig. ). clay moulds, impressed with stamps, were made and then fired. the red paste having been pressed into the mould, the interior was smoothly turned in the lathe. a mould of this character was found at york in , so it is possible that some of this ware was made in england, by roman potters. roman pottery has also been found at castor, near peterborough, doubtless made at the former place, kilns for firing having been found on the same site. this castor ware is usually brown, with a black glaze, being~ornamented with indented tool marks, and raised slip patterns of pipeclay (fig. ). many roman dishes and vases of a dark grey colour, ornamented with incised lines and raised bosses of clay, have been found in the upchurch marshes in kent. little artistic pottery of the mediaeval period, however, is known to exist. early in the th century beautiful encaustic tiles were made for the great monasteries, abbeys, and cathedrals. about , the production of tiles was introduced into holland, quantities of small blue and white ones, decorated with scriptural subjects being made at delft, and thence exported to england for the lining of fireplaces, etc. some fine painted tiles or azulejos were made at valencia about the th century. in the th century, the porcelain of china was introduced into europe by the dutch and portuguese traders, and much of the delft and rouen ware subsequently produced was in imitation of this oriental porcelain. "delft" ware, which takes its name from the small town of that name in holland, dates from a.d. , and is a ceramic coated with stanniferous enamel, decorated with a full and liquid brush upon the absorbent enamel ground, and then glazed with a plumbeous glaze. some of this delft ware is very fine in quality, the cobalt blues under the glaze being remarkably soft and rich in colour. early examples were decorated with historical subjects, often containing numerous figures, the middle period being notable for its imitation of chinese porcelain, and the application of coloured enamels on coloured grounds. vast quantities of this kind of ware were manufactured up to , and exported to all parts of europe. the production of delft ware was first introduced into england at lambeth by some dutch potters in , being subsequently extended to fulham, bristol, and liverpool. the use of stanniferous enamel was introduced into france by girolama della robbia, son of andrea della robbia, during the reign of francis i., , and enamelled ware similar to the later produc- tions of urbino was made at nevers, where also was produced a fine ware decorated with persian motifs in yellow and blue. at rouen, also, a fine earthenware covered with a tin enamel was manufactured, the decorations consisting of the lambrequins or scallop pattern, symmetrical in arrangement, and converging to the centre of the plate or dish. the ornament was based upon chinese examples, influenced by the contemporary woven fabrics of france. the decorations were usually in blue and with overglaze painting, i.e., after the white enamel was fired, finer and more delicate detail being obtained by this process, but at the cost of the purity and liquid softness of colour which is so characteristic of delft and oriental underglaze painting. in rouen ware, the ground is generally white, but some fine ex- amples at south kensington have a soft yellow ground, a rich indian yellow being sometimes introduced with the blue decoration. it was under the directions of louis poterat ( ), that this most beautiful faience was perfected. bernard palissy ( - ), by repeated experiments discovered the stanniferous or tin enamel. his first productions were jasper ware, warm and brilliant in colour, and richly enamelled. in the second period, rustic dishes, elaborately decorated with carefully modelled fishes, reptiles, and plants or natural foliage, covered with an enamel of great brilliancy and purity, were the chief productions. the later pottery of palissy consisted of saltcellars, inkstands, ewers, etc., the elaborate figure decorations of which were probably executed by some contemporary artist. henri-deux or s. porchard's ware, now more properly described as oiron ware, originated at s. porchard in , perhaps by the hand, certainly under the patronage of helene de hangest, widow of a. gouffier, a former governor under francis i. this oiron ware, of a pale straw colour, is enriched with inlays of yellow, blue, green, and brown coloured pastes, the interlacing and arabesque ornamenta- tion, carried out under the direction of jehan bernart and francois charpentier, being similar in type to the contemporary bookbinding of grolier which was probably executed with similar tools. many early examples of staffordshire slip ware are to be found in england, consisting chiefly of candlesticks, cups, tygs, posset pots, piggins and plates, the slip decorations being in yellow, white, and brown. this ware was made at wrotham as early as , and by thomas toft, at shilton, (fig. ). marbled, combed, and tor- toise-shell ware were formed by using colour slips or clays. agate and onyx ware were formed by layers of different coloured clays, crossed, cut, and pressed into moulds. these methods were perfected by thomas wheildon ( - ), and josiah wedgwood ( - ), who perfected both the queen's and the variegated ware. queen's ware of a creamy colour was made chiefly for dinner and dessert services, being decorated with painted flowers in enamel. in , wedgwood introduced his famous jasper ware, and jasper dip or washed jasper. this latter ware was dipped into admixtures of metallic oxides, producing blue, lilac, pink, sage green, olive, yellow, and black as desired. the decorations in low relief are of the purest white (fig. ), and in the traditional classic style, the figures being arranged as cameo medallions, or in bands with the scroll, the festoon, and the vine in delicate relief. many of these beautiful cameos were designed or modelled by flaxman ( - ), pacetti and angelini ( ), bacon ( - ), hack wood ( ), roubiliac ( - ), stothard ( - ), tassie ( - ), and webber ( ). stoneware differs from earthenware, owing to the presence of a larger percentage of silicia in the plastic material, which, being fired at a greater degree of heat, vitrifies the body or paste into a kind of glass, thus ensuring a closeness and hardness of material not possessed by ordinary earthenware. stoneware is usually glazed during the firing by throwing common salt into the kiln, which being volatilised, re-acts upon the silicia in the body, forming with it a silicate of soda or glass, having a minute granular texture. the usefulness and the artistic character of stoneware was perfected by the flemish and german potters of the th century. the principal varieties of this ware are the grey and white "canette" of siegburg, near bonn, and the pale brown or grey ware of raeren, near aix-la-chapelle, with its incised and stamped enrichments, sometimes with blue decoration. frechen, near cologne, probably supplied the " bellarmines " or " grey beards," largely imported into england under the name of " cologne pots." examples of this frechen ware were frequently ornamented with a raised scroll of oak leaves. grenzhausen, in nassau, produced a beautiful grey ware, having delicately moulded reliefs filled in with blue and purple. many grey jugs ornamented with the initials of william iii., queen anne, and george i., were imported into england from the nassau kilns. a peculiar kind of stoneware, also termed " cologne ware " was produced at fulham by john dwight, about . some fine jugs and a few cleverly modelled unglazed statuettes, believed to have been made at this place, are to be seen in the british museum (fig. ). another peculiar red stoneware, porcelain, or red china as it was called, was made near burslem by the brothers elers ( - ), the ornamentation being obtained by pressing sharp intaglio copper moulds upon pieces of clay attached to the shaped ware. fine ex- amples, characterised by beauty of outline and delicacy of enrichments, are exhibited in the museum of geology, jermyn street. astbury ( - ), continued the traditions of elers, producing a fine white stoneware, which largely influenced the staffordshire pottery of that period. a stoneware was also made at nottingham from - . porcelain is technically known under the terms "hard paste" (" pate dure") and "soft" (" pate tendre "). hard porcelain is made from clays containing muchaluminia and felsparordecomposedgranite, having but little plasticity, which necessarily influenced the shape or profile of the vessel. the beauty of form which is so typical of the greek earthenware vase, is absent in porcelain, where the cylindrical or octagonal form is principally used. "pate tendre " is a soft and vitreous porcelain, having a great affinity for the beautiful coloured glazes and enamels used in the early examples of sevres. porcelain was known in china about b.c., and it was in common use during the th century. during the ming dynasty ( - ), porcelain reached its highest development in the perfection of its body, ornamentation, colour and glazes, blue and turquoise being the chief colours of this period; this limited range of colour was owing to the intense heat required to fuse the felspar glaze upon the hard porcelain. it is uncertain at what date chinese porcelain was first brought to europe. amongst the earliest known pieces in england are some bowls given by philip of austria to sir thomas trenchard in . but whatever the date, it was inevitable that attempts should be made to imitate this beautiful ceramic. florentine or medician porcelain was made - . it was not, however, until or , that a similar manufacture was established at rouen and s. cloud. in , bottcher commenced making hard porcelain at meissen, in saxony, subsequently producing some excellent examples about . this was the commencement of the well-known dresden china. in , the manufacture of hard porcelain was adopted at sevres, replacing that of " pate tendre " which had been in use from . both "page dure" and "pate tendre" were made at buen retire in madrid (a.d. ,) all the porcelain manu- factured for the first twenty years being kept for the exclusive use of the royal family. there are some finely modelled buen retire tiles in the royal palace at madrid. about the year , the manufacture of porcelain was established at bow, chelsea, derby, plymouth, bristol, and worcester. the maiolica. plate . awlmg coleectl k.f\ pocjiom orbordefvor a naiolica plate italian . , imcised orsgraefiato orriame.r t s km bottle. by ora io forttaha urbimo wart i - km plateau for. am eweh. blue arabesques.om oramge ground faeriza. i o s.k.m. vase by .maestro ♦giorgio. goldbwjdy lustre "n owl.gubbio war.e by maestko giorgio. i \ k.r- d*ug«* vase js „,°ln z^^^^n^^^^^^^ k * wwl gu~bbtctwap.e . ca tel duramte h pairiteu mc.m a.ue cartel duramte by mac tro gof.& . k pa s km. io aiolica. maiolica or italian faience is an earthenware, coated with a stanniferous or tin glaze, termed enamel. this is formed by the addition of oxide of tin to a silicious glaze or slip, thus rendering it white and opaque, hence its name, enamel. the origin of this beautiful ceramic art may be traced to chaldea and persia, with their magnificent enamelled bricks, such as the "frieze of archers" from the palace of susa ( b.c.), and now in the louvre. from persia the art was carried by the arabians to fustat, or old cairo, which was destroyed a.d. , and amongst the ruins many fragments of gold or copper lustred ware have been found. this enamelled ware was introduced into spain in the th century, and perfected there by the moors, giving rise to the hispano- moresque ware. this ware was enriched with central heraldic arms, surrounded by concentric bands of foliage, arabesques, or inscrip- tions in blue, with a copper lustre. this hispano-moresque ware was manufactured chiefly at malaga, talavera, triana, and valencia, and dates from the moorish occupation of granada (a.d. - ). in the island of majorca, from which this beautiful ware derives its name, fine examples were manufactured at an early date by persian and arabian potters. after the conquest of majorca by the pisans (a.d. ), many of these examples were introduced into italy, the art being subsequently cultivated in some of the smaller central states. the early italian maiolica was usually covered with a thin white "slip" or engobe of clay, which served as a ground for the coloured patterns. it was then coated with a lead glaze, and was known as mezza or mixed maiolica. in some examples the design was scratched or engraved through the upper layer or white engobe, showing the darker body underneath. this type of ware, known as sgraffito, was also glazed with the lead glaze, forming, when fired, the beautiful iridescent lustre. few remains of a tin enamel of italian workmanship have been found in italy prior to the time of luca della robbia ( - ), who discovered an enamel of peculiar whiteness and excellence. the secret of its composition was kept by him, his nephew andrea, and his great-nephews giovanni, lucca, and girolamo, until . the mezza maiolica was then superseded by the true maiolica, or the tin enamelled wares of caffaggiolo, castel durante, urbino, pesaro, faenza, forli, diruta, siena, and gubbio—cities all within a limited district, lying towards the east coast of italy, and renowned centres of the maiolica fabrication. the gubbio ware is noted for its metallic ruby and golden lustre, and was signed by maestro georgio (georgio andreoli, - ): the finest period of this master was about. . the same artist also lustred many wares made by the potters of urbino and castel durante. other examples of urbino ware are signed by niccola da urbino ( - ); orazio fontana, the head of a noted family of potters, consisting of father, son, and grandson ( - ); francesco xanto avelli ( - ). faenza ware was produced at the casa pirota botega, and siena ware was signed by maestro benedetto. the chief characteristics of caffaggiolo ware are arabesques and figures in white, grey, or yellow on a rich dark-blue ground. urbino has small medallions with figures and blue and yellow arabesques on a white ground, called raffaelesque, being from designs by raffaelle del colle. faenza has a yellow ground with blue arabesques. in brief, the number of colours that could be used on the absorbent tin enamelled ground with its lead glaze was somewhat limited, consisting of blue, turquoise, yellow, and orange. these colours are of great depth and translucency, and are only equalled by the blues and turquoise of china, persia, and india. gubbio ware is frequently enriched with a raised curved fluting called gadroons, a most effective method of enhancing the beautiful ruby lustre of maestro giorgio. this gubbio tradition was continued by giorgio's son, vicentio, called maestro cencio, and many beautiful lustre works are signed by him. this lustre was produced by exposing the ware to the action of smoke during the firing in the kiln; the smoke, being carbon in a highly-divided state, reduces the metallic salts of the pigment or glaze, forming a thin film of metal upon the surface, the beautiful iridescent lustre resulting from the relative thickness of the film. castel durante was frequently enriched, on white or grey borders, with delicate raised scroll-work in white slip or enamel, a process called lavoro di sopra bianco or bianco sopra bianco. faenza maiolica has, frequently, the whole surface of the ground covered with a dark-blue enamel, enriched with dancing amorini and arabesques in blue, heightened with white sopra azzurro. a frequent form of enrichment upon plates was to have small medallions painted with portraits and appropriate inscriptions, and doubtless intended as lovers' presents. they are known as amatorii maiolica. are made in this way, the ornament being run into the incised pattern with "slip." many tiles are decorated in the same way as ordinary earthenware, that is, painted and glazed. terra cotta was largely used by the nations of antiquity, especially by the assyrians, whose clay tablets or books throw so much light upon assyrian history. with the greek, terra cotta was extensively used for "antefixse," and the many beautiful tanagra figures now treasured in our museums show the exquisite modelling by the greeks, in such a material as terra cotta. this material was used by the etruscans for their sarcophagi and recumbent figures. the pompeians tiled their roofs with terra cotta. it was used for votive statues and offerings, and for lamps,some of which were dipped in molten glass. during the revival of art in italy in the th and th centuries, terra cotta was extensively used by the della robbia family. luca della robbia ( - ) produced many beautiful terra cotta reliefs, coated with the white tin enamel, and enriched with coloured enamels. among his numerous works was the marble " cantoria" or singing gallery ( - ), with its ten panels of singing and danc- ing figures in relief, which was placed by the organ of s. maria del fiore, or cathedral of flor- ence. donatello's "cantoria" was also placed here (page ). they are now both in the museum of the opera del duomo. lucca also executed five mar- ble reliefs, in , for the campanile, from designs by giotto, and the two kneeling angels bella rqbbia holding candelabra, in the sacristy of the cathedral, florence, are the only figures in the round by this master. among his many beautiful examples of terra cotta are the "resurrection" and the "ascension," over the doors of the sacristy bambino by lucca in the cathedral; the splendid monument to bishop federighi, with its beautiful recumbent figure of marble, in the church of s. trinita, florence; the tabernacle of peretola; the madonna of or san michele; and the many fine heraldic medallions, with the arms or emblems of the various guilds, that enrich this beautiful oratory of florence (see page ). other heraldic medallions in flo- rence are the pazzi and serristori arms for the quaratesi palace, and in the south kensington museum are some fine medallions with the arms of king rene d'an- jou.and twelve me- dallions represent- ing the months. most of these ex- amples have the typical quattro- cento borders of fruit, flowers, and foliage or fir-cones (fig. , plate ), and are enamelled in brilliant colours. ottaviano and agostino duccio, contemporary scul- ptors of repute, also collaborated with lucca in the production of this ware. andrea della robbia ( - ), the nephew of luca, carried on the traditions with rare selective power and artistic skill. among his early works are the medallions with the bambini, for the loggia of the spedale degli innocenti, or foundling hospital, at florence, in collaboration with his uncle, lucca, and brunelleschi, the architect. the adoration and the annunciation were familiar subjects with andrea. there is a splendid " adoration" in the south kensington museum. terra cotta relief by andrea della robbia glass. plate . tibiurt ca c. alaba trom. g^ek or,ph(cmician. witha pikal bpotish muscufa thpvfad im blue. akabiam emamclled. lamp. k the powlamd vase tablet ih r£licf bopyof dakk blut gla whitecanco on bluegr.ound the. fiouke? im white made in a mould. .k sooth kensiricton o^krticuutrocla . brjti h i io stained glass. plate . tained glass, with its depth and translucency, owes its intrinsic qualities to metallic oxides, such as cobalt, giving fine blues, silver, pale and deep yellows, pink from iron and antimony, and ruby from gold and copper, which also yields fine greens. when these oxides are mixed with the glass in its fused state, it is termed "pot metal," but if the coloured oxides are applied to the surface of the glass only, it is termed "flashed" or " cased glass." ruby, owing to its depth of colour, is usually cased glass. fine blues are often flashed, and splendid effects are produced by flashing ruby over yellow or blue pot-metal glass. cased glass is of the greatest value, owing to the variety of tint that can be produced on a single sheet of glass, and also because the colour may be removed by grinding or by the use of fluoric acid. the rationale of the glass painter is :—( ) the scheme of composi- tion and colour shown on a small scale; ( ) a full-sized cartoon in charcoal or monochrome, with all the details carefully drawn, and showing the lead lines and positions of the iron stanchions for strengthening the window; ( ) a tracing on cloth showing the lead lines only, called the cut line, on which are cut the selected pieces of glass; ( ) a tracing of the details from the cartoon, with brown enamel, on each piece of glass, the pieces after firing being then fix- ed in the leading, and kept together with h-shaped leads. the brown ena- mel, which is used entirely for outline, detail, or shading, is a fusible glass in combination with opaque manganic or ferric oxide and tar oil. with this ena- mel, smear shading or stipple shading is worked. this may be removed as required, before firing, by means of a pointed stick or quill, so as to give the details of embroidery or of heraldic forms. silver stain (oxide of silver), introduced at the beginning of the portion of a "jesse" window, canterbury cathedral. h or yellow-cased glass. the borders were narrow, with a somewhat natural rendering of the rose, the maple, and the oak. in the th century a further change took place, figures became more numerous, and the canopy or shrine larger, and chiefly in white glass, with the crockets and finials tipped with yellow stain: a good illustration is that given from all saints' church, york. the coloured border of the earlier glass is entirely absent, its place being taken by the shaft of the canopy, and the crockets, finials, and orna- ments are square in treatment, and based chiefly on the vine leaf. fairford church perhaps contains the finest series of late gothic glass (a.d. - ). like the con- temporary architecture of the th century, stained glass was now influenced by the renascence. the canopy still survived, but was horizontal or pedi- mental in form, with purely classical columns and details. good examples of this period are the windows of king's college chapel, cambridge ( ), where rich renascence work is introduced into late gothic mullioned windows. these win- dows are probably similar to those by barnard flower, glazier, placed in henry the seventh's chapel at westminster abbey, as in henry the seventh's will it was expressly provided that " the walles, doores, windows, archies, and vaults and ymagies of the same, of our said chapell, within and without be painted, garnisshed, and adorned with our armes, bagies, cognoisaunts, and other convenient painteng, in so goodly and riche manner as suche a werk requireth, and to a king's werk apperteigneth " :—" that the windows of our said chapell be glased with stores (it stories], ymagies, armes, bagies, and cognoisaunts." of this glass little remains, but we know that a contract was made in the time of henry the eighth to complete the windows of king's college chapel, cambridge, "with good, clene, sure, and perfyte glasse, and oryent colors and imagery of the story of the old lawe and of the new lawe, after the forme, maner, goodenes, curiousytie, and clenelynes, in every poynt of the glasse windowes of the kynge's new chapell at westminster." this glasse was by francis williamson and simon symonds, glaziers, of london, and its cost was to be sixteen pence per foot. galyen hoone, richard bownde, thomas reve, and james nicholson also agreed to execute eighteen windows of the upper story of king's college chapel, late gothic window, north aisle, all saints' church, york. pressing a pattern in intaglio or sunk relief, on an enamelled ground, and then filling these intaglios with other enamels. a most exquisite kind of enamel called "plique el jour" was used by the byzantines: this was composed of open filigree cloisons, filled with translucent enamels. champleve enamel is formed by engraving, casting or scooping out the cloisons from a metal plate, leaving a thin wall or boundary between each cloison, which is then filled with the various enamels as in the cloisonne method. this champleve method was practised in britain before the roman conquest, and was probably derived from the phoenicians, who, centuries before the romans came to england, had traded with cornwall for tin. the beauty of colour and perfect adaptability of these early enamelled brooches, fibulae and trappings of horses of the early britons and celts, are remarkable, showing a fine sense of colour and a harmony of line and mass. a splendid bronze celtic shield (fig. , plate ), now in the british museum, is enriched with fine bosses of red enamel. these champ- leve enamels upon bronze have usually an opalescent or cloudy appearance caused by the fusion of the tin in the bronze alloy during firing. champleve enamels were used with rare skill and refinement to enhance the beautiful art of the goldsmith during the middle ages; the chalice, the paten, the reliquary, the thurible, the crozier, and the bookcovers of the churches, especially, were enriched with beau- tiful enamels. classed among the champleve enamels is that method called jeweller's enamel or " baisse taille," in which the plate is engraved in low relief or beaten up in repousse and then flooded with translucent enamel. the lynn cup of the time of richard ii. is one of the oldest pieces of corporation plate and is covered with fine translucent blue and green enamels (plate ). in india, where fine colour is a splendid tradition, champleve enamel soon attained a remarkable perfection of technique and purity and brilliance of colour almost unknown to the western nations. the champleve enamels of jaipur have most beautiful lustrous and transparent blues, greens and reds laid on a pure gold ground. pertubghur is renowned for the fine green or turquoise enamel fired upon a plate of gold; while the enamel was still soft a plate of pierced gold was pressed into the enamel. this pierced plate was afterwards engraved with incidents of history or hunting. in ratain, in central india, a similar enamel is made having a fine blue in place of the pertubghur green. the fine monumental brasses, of which many still remain in our english cathedrals and churches, are a survival of the champleve process, the cloisons, being usually filled with a black niello, but occasionally the heraldic shields are enriched with coloured enamels. during the th and th centuries, limoges was renowned for its champlevd enamels, but early in the th century painted enamels were introduced and limoges became the centre of this art, called late limoges or grisaille enamel. my/nor^d the enamel colours were now used as a pigment, and were painted and fired upon a copper plate. the enrichments in grisaille, or grey and white, were used upon a black, violet or dark blue ground, the grisaille after- wards being enriched with details of fine gold lines. these limoges enamels have asplendid technique,but they lack the charms of the lumin- ous colour and judicious use of enamels of the early champleve period. the most renowned masters of the painted enamels of limoges were penicand ( ), courtois ( ), pierre raymond ( - ), and leonard limousin ( - ). about - jean toutin and his pupil petitot produced some fine painted miniatures in opaque enamels upon gold, remarkable for delicacy and perfection of enamelling. in painted enamel was introduced into england and produced for about thirty years at battersea by janssen. the enrichment consisted of flowers painted in natural colours on a white ground. a similar enamel was also produced at bilston in staffordshire. the finest enamels undoubtedly are those in which the enamel is used in small quantities, such as in the celtic jewellery, the book- covers, and the church and corporation plate of the gothic and early renascence period, and the early byzantine cloisonne, such as the hamilton brooch in the british museum, and the pala d'oro of s. mark's, venice, which was made at constantinople for the doge orseolo in a.d. , and has panels of fine cloisonne enamel set in a framework of gold. the "pliquectfour" the "baisse taille" and the pertubghur enamels are fine examples of appropriateness of treatment with translucency or opalescence and richness of colour. the japanese cloisonne with its literal treatment of natural forms, and the painted enamel portraits of francis i. and contemporary princes by leonard limousin, clever as they undoubtedly are, lack the depth and purity of colour obtained by the early methods. frequently, however, the penicauds, nardou, and jean i. and ii. obtained some richness in the painted enamels by the use of "paillons" or pieces of metallic foil which were afterwards flooded with translucent enamel. old and silver, with their intrinsic value, ductility, and beauty of colour, have long been associated with the decorative arts of the past, and the many splendid examples still in existence are a tribute to the culture and personality of the craftsman. beautiful early examples were found in with the mummy of queen aah-hotep ( b.c., cairo museum), and consisted of bracelets, armlets, rings, chains, a diadem, a small model of a war galley, and a poniard, all of exquisite workmanship and of pure gold, enriched with jasper and turquoise vitreous pastes. at petrossa, in (bukarest museum), some splendid gold objects of byzantine workmanship were found, consisting of two neck-rings or torques, a large salver, hammered and chased, a ewer, a bowl with figures in repousse\ four fibular enriched with precious stones, a gorget, and two double-handled cups (plate ). at guarrazar, in spain, ten gold votive crowns of gothic workmanship were found: one inscribed with the name of king suintila (a.d. ) is now in the museum at madrid; the others are in the hotel cluny, paris, the largest having the name of king rescesvinthus (a.d. ) in pendive letters. of silversmiths' work, the most important is the "treasure of hildesheim," found in (berlin museum), consisting of thirty objects, cups, vases, and dishes, beautiful in contour and admirably en- riched with delicate repousse work of the greco- roman period (plate ). of the gold and silver vessels used by solomon in the temple, we have only a representation of the seven-branched golden candlestick on the arch of titus, at rome. english work of an early date is rare, but there are two very beautiful examples, one, the gold ring of ethelwulf, enriched with blue champleve enamel, now in the british museum, and alfred's jewel of gold, with cloisonne, opaque, and trans- lucent enamels, with the inscription "alfred me has worked ": this is, with the single exception of the s. ambrose altar-frontal, the oldest signed enamel extant ( - , ashmolean museum, oxford). contemporary irish work was even more skilful, and the ardagh chalice of silver, with gold filigree and enamel enrichments, and the tara brooch (plate ) are fine examples. the wealth and elaborate ritual of the mediaeval church called the aivdagh chalice im the fvdyal irish academy forth the finest effort of the craftsman, more especially the gold and silversmiths, who in england, perhaps more than in other countries, produced abundant examples of ecclesiastical plate. altar-frontals of gold, used only on rare festivals, are some of the richest relics of the past. an early example ( th century) was given by the emperor henry ii. to the cathedral of basle (cluny museum). it is of gold, ft. high and ft. in. wide, and has many figures in relief. at s. ambrose, milan, is an altar-frontal of silver-gilt, set with precious stones and enamels, and signed by "wolvinus," an anglo-saxon, and dated a.d. . the great altar-frontal or pala d'oro of s. mark's, venice, was commenced in at constantinople. it is ft. in. wide, and ft. in. high, consisting of plaques of gold, on which are figures of our saviour, angels, and saints in cloi- sonne enamels, and set with precious stones. the early two-handled chalices were frequently very large, and it is recorded that charlemagne gave one of pure gold, set with precious stones, and weighing lbs., to s. peter's at rome. from the th century the chalice became smaller and without handles, and the bowl semi-ovid or conical. the knob or boss on the stem, together with the base, are usually lobed or hexafoil, and enriched with repousse work and enamels (plate ). the pax, introduced in the th century, was a small rectangular plaque, used in the celebration of the mass to convey the kiss of peace. the cross, the shrine, the reliquary, the pix, the ciborium, the monstrance, the thurible or censer were of gold and silver, enriched with jewels and enamels or delicate repousse work. the pastoral staff, or crosier, was first a staff of wood, capped by a ball or knob with a simple volute; then later the knob developed into tabernacle work, with canopies and figures, and the volute or crook, enriched with crockets, frequently enclosed the agnus dei (lamb of god) or other sacred group. the early crosiers ( th or th centuries) were usually of copper, gilt and enamelled, and of limoges workmanship. from the th century, gold, silver, and ivory were the materials generally used, the limerick crosier is a good illustration of this period (plate ). contemporary with this splendid ecclesiastical work was the college and corporation plate, of which the lynn cup (plate ) is perhaps one of the most beautiful among many magnificent exam- ples extant. the leigh cup (plate , fig. ) and salt-cellar (fig. ) are also of the gothic period, but with the first half of the th cen- tury, the renascence appears in the works of the great goldsmiths, such as benvenuto cellini, of italy, etienne de laune, of france and jamnitzer, of germany. with holbein's design for a gold cup (plate ) the english renascence appears, and civic plate was en- riched with strap-work and cartouches, with foliated pendants of fruit and flowers (figs. and , plate ). in the th century, the acanthus foliage, with delicate chasing and relief, is the chief feature. rought iron. the decorative qualities of iron, with its strength, durability, and comparative cheapness, have ren- dered it one of the most useful metals in the applied arts. many fine norman hinges of wrought iron are still in existence, having a straight central bar or strap, with small scroll terminations; these central straps were strengthened with crescent-shaped pieces, terminating in small serpent forms, probably a survival of the viking traditions. this form of hinge was succeeded by the early gothic hinge, which was a series of spirals springing from the straight bar or strap, the spiral being welded or fastened with collars; these spirals were enriched with a three-lobed foliage, or trefoil, typical of the early gothic period; fine examples of this hinge occur on the west door of notre dame, paris, where this typical spiral has the trefoil leaf, with birds, dragons, and small rosettes in stamped iron. this stamped characteristic may be seen, but in a less degree, in the fine hinges of leighton buzzard church, eaton bray church, bedfordshire, and the eleanor grill in westminster abbey, by thomas de leghton, in . in the th and th centuries, when panelled doors took the place of the earlier doors, this early gothic style of hinge was not needed (fig. ), so that we find no trace of it in that period, but the art of wrought iron was continued with the hammered and chiselled hinges and lock plates of the most varied and delicate workmanship, which enriched the beautiful gothic chests of the th and th centuries. the simple wrought screen, which was so largely used in the th century was now elaborated, especially in italy, and fine examples of quatre-foil grilles with massive wrought framing and a rich frieze of foliage, cupids, and animals in pierced and hammered iron are to be seen at the cathedrals of orvieto, prato, and siena, dating from about to , and at santa croce, florence ( ); but it was in spain and france that the screen reached its culmination. the spanish screens or " rejas" in the cathedrals of seville, toledo, and granada have a fine range of turned and chiselled vertical bars some to feet high, with an elaborate frieze and cresting. beautiful wrought and chiselled gates were erected in france about , for the louvre and royal chateaux of anet and econeu. there are some fine wrought gates at s. paul's and at hampton court by jean tijon, who published some drawings of them in , and many good simple gates of the last century are still in existence in many parts of the country. the wrought iron gate piers in st. george's chapel, windsor, with their architectural treatment of open panelling, cresting, and massive buttresses, are filed, bolted and riveted, and are splendid examples of flemish workmanship, probably by quintin matsys ( - ). bronzes. plate , a vma mvorize bk.acelet iouvk.i irtcisro portion of t armour.. bronzt repousse. british mlrttuh bkdmzt lamp hfrculameum. im the museum »t naples. camdtlabb.a from hikculantum maples mu el)m fnom htrojlameui. a.d in tmf mumurt design om ctru cam mirror, rofvro or dplfhinj ita.uai- . i o. l*rtp of*. c mole tick . oiitm kcnsl^cton f^uscu'-a c rom the rmjlizo tkevlsam, ronzes. bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, has been in use from a remote period; its adaptability for casting, its durability and colour, render this material one of extreme beauty and usefulness. among the many examples of antiquity are the , statues of osiris, found in the temple of rameses ill., and the bands of figure sub- jects in relief from the assyrian balawat gates, now in the british museum. in greece, bronze was wrought with exquisite skill and refinement, and the name of lysippos ( b.c.), is usually associated with the finest statues. two beautiful repousse bronzes (fig. ), probably by lysippos, found in near the river siris, in italy, are admirable examples of this period. many greek statues have been found in pompeii and herculaneum, of which the beautiful statuette of narcissus is the best known, and many bronze heads are still extant with the eyes formed of ivory or beautiful stones and jewels. etruscan bronzes have a most expressive treatment of incised lines, which differentiates them from the repousse work of the greeks. the bronze mirrors with an incised treatment of classic mythology (fig. ), and the cistae, or toilet caskets, all found, with but few exceptions, at palestrina, are typical of etruscan bronzes. the finest example known is the "ficoroni cista"of the rd century, b.c. its cylindrical sides are enriched with a representation of the "argonauts," by morios plantios, and it is now in the "collegio romano" (see "magazine of art," , and " murray's handbook of greek archaeology"). of small decorative bronzes, naples museum alone has over , examples, consisting of candelabra, tripods (figs. , , , and ), tables, chairs, and couches, which eighteen centuries ago were used by wealthy roman citizens. early bronze equestrian statues are the " nero" found at pompeii (naples museum), and the marcus aurelius at rome (a.d. , plate ). the four bronze horses, now in front of s. mark's, at venice, are probably of the time of nero. later examples are the "gattamelata" at padua, by donatello ( ), the magnificent "colleone" at venice (plate ), by verrochio and leopardi, and the "louis xiv." by girardon, cast by jean baltazar keller in , and destroyed in the french revolution. many fine bronze effigies are still extant, which replaced the earlier effigies of purbeck marble, such as the earl of salisbury at salisbury ( ), and the earliest recumbent figures in gilded bronze are those of henry vi. ( ), and queen eleanor ( ), in westminster abbey, by william torell, goldsmith of london. in canterbury cathedral is the fine effigy of the black prince ( ). the richard ii. and his queen, in westminster abbey, are by nicholas broker and geoffrey prest (j ), a"d at warwick is the magnificent earl of warwick, by william austin and thomas stevens ( ). the florentine torrigiano in , made the beautiful recumbent effigies of henry vii. and his queen (see page ), and also the countess of richmond, which are in westminster abbey, where there are also the gilded bronzes of the duke of buckingham ( ), and the duke and duchess of richmond ( ), by an unknown artist. the statue of charles i. by le sueur, and the charles ii. at chelsea, and the james h. at whitehall, by grinling gibbons, are later english examples of bronzes. in rome, the recumbent effigies of sixtus iv. ( ), and innocent viii, which are the finest of renascence bronzes, were by antonio pollajuolo. in michel angelo made the colossal seated statue of pope julius il, which was over the door of s. petronio at bologna. benvenuto cellini ( - ), was the great florentine goldsmith; his "nymph of fontainebleau," a relief in bronze for the lunette over the door of the palace, is now in the louvre, but his masterpiece is the " perseus " (plate ), in the loggia dei lanzi, at florence, where the " judith and holofernes " by dona- tello is also placed. another eminent master was giovanni da bologna, who executed the beautiful fountain with the figure of neptune, at bologna. the shrine of s. sebald at nuremberg, by peter vischer ( - ), and the figure of the emperor maximilian at innsbruck, by lodovico scalza of milan, which is enclosed by an elaborate grille, and sur- rounded by twenty-eight large bronze statues of men in armour, are excellent examples of german renascence. many of the early historical buildings still retain their original bronze gates. those of the pantheon (a.d. - ), are still in position, also those of the cathedral at hildesheim, with the panels of scriptural subjects in high relief, and the name and date of bishop bernward ( ). early byzantine gates cast in constantinople by staurachios, are at amalfi ( ), and at s. salvator, atrani ( ), enriched with figures in silver damascening. the west door of san zeno, verona ( th century), is of wood, covered with panels of repousse work (see plates - ," arata pentelici," by ruskin). early cast bronze gates in italy are those of s. ambroise, milan ( ), and at trani, ravello, and monreale cathedral (by bonanno, ), having relief panels and bosses upon the style of the door. in , bonanno cast some gates for the cathedral at pisa, which were destroyed, with the exception of one, by fire in , the west door being replaced in by a fine work by giovanni da bologna. of the renascence bronzes, the baptistry gates are the most remarkable (see page ), while others are those of s. peter's, by simone and filarete ( ), the door of the old sacristy of the cathedral at florence, by lucca della robbia (the only bronze by this master, - ), and the " baldacchino" of bronze, ft. high, covering the high altar of s. peter's, and cast from the ancient bronze enrichments of the dome of the pantheon, by order of pope urban viii., in . i furniture. plate ' ecorative furniture. caskets, chests, and cabinets, chairs, tables, couches, and bedsteads have been of universal use during many ages, differentiated in design and craftsman- ship according to the culture, wealth, and customs of the people, and the versatility, inventiveness, and skill of the craftsman. many materials have been used for furniture, the chief being wood of various kinds, which was selected for its constructive qualities, beautiful texture, grain, and colour, and its adaptability to carving and inlay. 'the universal use of-the chair has doubtless tended to preserve its typical form through many centuries, and though undergoing various ftok a a -riufr ffcom a cakk va c modifications, it has still retained its essential character as a seat. numerous illustrations of early chairs are found on the carved reliefs of ancient egypt and assyria, and there are in the british museum some early egyptian chairs, one of which is of ebony, with uprights turned in the lathe, and inlaid with ivory. many greek chairs, remarkable for their simple and beauti- ful form, are shown upon the early greek vases; and the roman " sella curulis," or chair of senators and consuls, is represented on the byzantine ivories (plate , fig. ). the chair of s. peter, of the st century a.d., which has enrichments of ivory and gold, is purely architectonic in form, and the same may be said of the coronation chair (fig. ), which is the earliest example extant in england. the gothic chairs, few of which remain, were of the box form, with carved linen-fold panels. during the age of eliza- beth, chairs were of oak, with turned supports, the back having an arcade in low relief or in open work. this form of chair was continued during the reign of james i., when the " farthingale chair" (chair with- out arms) was introduced. in the period of charles i., walnut was introduced, and the chairs had twisted supports and rails, the back and seat being covered with pigskin vtnmori uiajn or with stamped and coloured spanish leather. in the reign of charles ii. and james ii., the twisted or the carved and scrolled form of legs were common, with the seat and portion of back in cane, and the back, cresting, and rails in richly-carved open work, similar to fig. . in the time of william and mary, the long supports were turned, and the front supports and arms turned and scrolled, the back of the chair being of open work, or covered with plain or patterned velvets. the chairs with simple curved or cabriole front legs, the arms, seat, and back upholstered with cut velvets, are characteristic of the queen anne period. with george ii. and ill., we come to the use of mahogany and the work of thomas chippendale, who published a work on furniture in , , and . his chairs have frequently straight legs, with shallow sunk carving, or the carved cabriole leg and claw foot: the back is of open work of scrolls, strap-work, or ribbon-work, with delicate carving. mathias lock published a book on furniture in and . in and , a. hepplewhite published a set of designs, which largely influenced contem- porary furniture. much of his work is chippendale. sheraton. ^^ ^ ddicate in treatment and distinctive in form, such as his chairs with the shield-shaped backs. m. a. pergolesi published a folio in , and made some beautiful chairs for robert adam, with straight fluted legs and refined scrolled arms and back. excellent chairs were made by thomas sheraton, with straight legs, turned, fluted, or enriched with delicate carving, or an inlay of coloured woods, and having a delightful reticence of form and treatment. sheraton published in and a work on furniture. early gothic tables were of the trestle form, the ends being of two pieces, connected by the upper frame and a lower stretcher. the renascence table retained this form (figs. i, , , and ), which was but a survival of the greek and roman marble table (fig. ). the elizabethan table had legs of a bulbous form, gadrooned or carved, with upper and lower rails. the oval gate-leg table, with spiral or turned legs, is characteristic of the early stuart period. chippendale frequently used the straight legs and carved or open rails, with a raised fret-work edge round the edge of the table. sheraton's tables were frequently inlaid with different coloured woods, or of satin-wood veneer, painted with flowers or wreaths, and polished by hand. the ornament of sheraton is seldom original, but founded upon that of adams (plate ), consisting of rosettes, urns, scrolls, and festoons. the artists cipriani, and angelica kauffman, are known to have decorated furniture for the brothers adam. early cupboards were of oak, with pierced and carved tracery wood carving. plate . ood carving. wood carving is perhaps one of the earliest and most universal of the industrial arts. the splendid carved statues and statuettes found in the early tombs of egypt, the vigorous reliefs of the spiral and dragon from the scandinavian churches (plate ), the intricate spirals of new zealand (plate ), the pierced and carved screens of india, the beautiful carving on the furniture of the renas- cence (plate ), and the delicate and skilful work of grinling gibbons bear tribute to the universal skill of craftsmanship, which reached its highest point of excellence in the later gothic and renascence period. the choir stalls of amiens cathedral (plate ) by arnold boulin, alexander huet, and jean turpin ( - ), are magnificent ex- amples of the versatility and skill of the flamboyant carver. but france was not alone in the excellence of this craft, for almost con- temporaneous are the beautiful doors of the stanza della incendio and the stanza della eliodoro in the vatican at rome (see page ), by giovanni barili, and the choir stalls in the cathedral at siena by antonio and giovanni barili. the magnificent candelabra and the delicate carvings and intarsia in the choir of sante marie in organo, at verona, by fra giovanni da verona, and the stalls and screen in sante maggiore, bergamo, by stephano da bergamo, are some of the finest examples of wood carving in italy. the richly carved oak stalls by jorg syrlin ( - ) in the cathedral at ulm, indicate the beginning of the intricate and florid scroll-work, which became the type of the later german renascence. the hanging screen and crucifix of s. lawrence, and the crucifix at s. sebald's at nuremberg ( ), by veit stoss (fig. ), are admirable examples of the skilful and florid carving of the german school during the early part of the th century. in flanders, the splendid chimney-piece in the palais de justice, bruges, with carvings of charles v. and his ancestors, by guyot de beaugrant, from designs by blondell ( - ), is rich, yet restrained in treatment, but in the pulpit of the cathedral at brussels, by verbriiggen ( ), carved with figures and foliage, representing the expulsion from paradise, and in the pulpit by van de voort in the cathedral of antwerp, carved with naturalistic birds, trees, and figures, extraordinary technical skill is attained, but with a loss of dignity and appropriateness of treatment. admirable examples, good in design and technique, abound in english cathedrals, in the screens, canopies, and misereres of the choir stalls (plates , , ) of the th and th centuries. with grinling gibbons ( - ) wood carving reached its culmination in delicacy and skilful craftsmanship (fig. ), his principal works, consisting of flowers, festoons, and birds, are carved chiefly in lime, of which fine examples are at belton house and petworth; and in collaboration with sir christopher wren he executed splendid carvings in the library at trinity college, cambridge, s. paul's cathedral, s. james's, piccadilly, the vestry of s. lawrence, jewry, and at hampton court palace. i vories, doubtless owing to their beautiful texture, colour and adaptability for delicate carving, have been in use from a remote period. egypt, assyria, and india have each contributed many beautiful examples of fine craftmanship, indicative of the artistic culture of the centuries preceding the christian era. in the periclean age of greece, ivory was used for the figure of athene parthenos by pheidias, placed inside the parthenon. this statue of the standing goddess, ft. high, was of gold and ivory (called chryselephantine sculpture), the drapery being of beaten gold and the exposed parts of the figure of carefully-fitted pieces of ivory. a seated chryselephantine figure of jupiter, about ft. high, in the temple of olympia, was also by pheidias. pausanias, the roman traveller, enumerates some ten chryselephantine statues which he saw in his travels (a.d. ). the roman period is noted for the many beautiful consular diptychs, which may now be seen in our national museums. they consist of two ivory leaves usually by in., the inside having a slightly sunk plane covered with wax for writing upon, the outside being enriched with delicate carved reliefs (figs. , , and ). these diptychs were given by new consuls on their appointment, to their friends and officers of the state. the consul is usually represented seated on the cushioned curule chair, or chair of state, and his name is generally written across the top of one leaf. the byzantines enriched the covers of their manuscripts with ivory, of which an illustration is given in fig. ; the ivory throne of maximian, archbishop of ravenna (a.d. - ), is also of this period. a beautiful treatment of ivory was used in the th and th centuries by the saracens of egypt; they frequently worked a fine geometric inlay of ivory upon ebony; in other examples ivory panels were pentagonal, hexagonal, or star-shaped, and carved with delicate arabesques, the framing of the panels being of cedar or ebony. in india ivory carving reached a high degree of perfection, especially in the many ivory combs, with pierced and relief work representing the figure of buddha surrounded with foliage and richly caparisoned elephants. in the carlovingian period, th to th centuries, ivory was largely used for coffers or small chests. during the early gothic period in italy and france, ivory crucifixes, pastoral staffs, croziers, statuettes, and triptychs were made in large numbers; and the ivory combs and mirror cases of the renascence period have fine reliefs of legendary or allegorical subjects. of pictorial ivories the modern japanese craftsmen show the highest technical skill, combined with a keen perception of nature and movement, yet their ivories lack the beauty and dignity of composition and the decorative treatment of the early and mediaeval ivories. ookbindings. the covers used to protect manuscripts and printed books have always offered a suitable field for deco- ration, hence ornamental covers of various periods and materials are numerous. ivory carved in relief or cut in open work, was frequently used for early byzantine ms. (fig. ). the chief material in use since the loth century is leather, stamped with dies or tools. an early example dating from the loth century is of red leather, with a raised interlacing celtic design, and is now at stonyhurst. four remarkable leather bindings were executed at durham for bishop pudsey ( - ), stamped with small dies, of which there are over varieties. con- temporaneous with these were similar stamped covers of the winchester domesday book, produced at winchester, and the libre sapientiae, at london. this tradition was continued in the th century at oxford, and by caxton ( - ), who frequently used intersecting diagonal lines, between which small dies were placed. in the low countries and in germany many beautiful bindings were produced by the panel stamp. the earliest english example has the arms of edward iv. impressed. other fine examples are by f. egmondt ( ), richard pynson ( ), and jean norris ( ), who used the acorn panel (fig. ), and the s. george by john reynes (fig. ), who was binder with thomas berthelet ( ) to henry viii. the introduction of the roll in superseded the panel, and with the exception of those by nicholas spering, of cambridge, these designs with renascence figures and arcades are not to be compared for vitality and beauty of detail with those of the earlier period. the gold tooling, which superseded the "blind tooling," was introduced from saracenic sources into europe at venice, where, in , aldus manutius commenced his fine series of printed books, and his early bindings ( - ) had parallel lines and slight arabian enrichments at the corners. then followed the beautiful interlacing patterns that were executed for the famous book collectors, tommaso maioli ( - ) and count grolier ( - , figs. , ). the royal bindings for francis i. and henry ii. were by peter roffet, philip le noir, and geoffrey tory, who probably was also responsible for the grolier bindings. the i th century famous french binders were nicholas and clovis eve ( - , fig. ), mace ruette, and le gascon, famous for his pointille work. the th century binders were boyet, n. and a. padeloup and the deromes, while the bindings of red morocco with broad tooled borders, executed for the earl of oxford ( - ), known as the harleian style, and the beautiful and refined bindings by roger payne ( , fig. ) are of contem- porary english work. the early grolier tools were distinctly arabian and solid or barred, while the bindings of "eve" have interlacing circular and square panels with sprays of foliage. some french bindings for henry iv. are tooled with a semis of monograms or flowers. examples to are in the john rylands library, manchester. textile fabrics. plate . egypt i am fabrics from arhmln .sncvmik nahchcstck collection egyptian fabfmc erot\ akhfm/a ™ cerrruror. south kemsiriotom nuseun. ilk damask sicilian iy-cemtuiv iciuam. i thcemtury venetiam. fiw\ a persian design. south *em imqtoh amiseun. bock collcctiori ./aahch e tek. i '"cemtub f. ho extile fabrics. the utility, universality, construction, texture, orna- mentation, and colour of textile fabrics are full of interest and suggestiveness, for in the remarkable development of textile fabrics we may trace the continuity of style and tradition, the intermingling of races and customs, and the grafting of religious ideas with the wealth and luxuriance of the past. all fabrics wrought in the loom are called textiles. they are broadly divided into three classes:— ( ) plain fabrics in which the warp and weft alternate equally; ( ) those fabrics in which a pattern is produced by the warp and weft intermingling in different proportions or colours, figured cloths and tapestries being included in this class; ( ) those fabrics in which the plain textile no. is enriched with the needle or by printing, termed embroideries or printed fabrics. owing to their perishable nature few remains of ancient textile fabrics are in existence. the oldest examples are found in the tombs of egypt, where, owing to the dryness of the climate, some fabrics of the early dynasties still remain. they are usually of fine linen, and without enrichment, yet upon the same tombs are many painted patterns that undoubtedly show a woven origin. the oldest figured fabrics found in egypt are of the th century a.d., and they show a remarkable similarity to the early patterns of persia and byzantium, for it was in india, persia, and arabia that textiles reached their perfection of workmanship, and their wealth of material. this splendid tradition was carried from persia and india to byzantium in the th century, and in the th century the arabians absorbed and assimilated the arts of persia, india, egypt, and spain, and brought the art of weaving to its culmination during the th and th centuries. the ornamental designs of textile fabrics of different nations and periods are characterised by well-defined forms, differentiated by racial influence, climatic conditions and the myths and traditions of the people. yet the traditional eastern origin may be traced through many textile designs, for there is no doubt that india, persia, and arabia influenced the designs of textile fabrics more than other nations. this was due no doubt partly to the eastern weavers carrying their art and traditions with them to various parts of europe, and also to the exportation of their splendid fabrics, but principally to the beautiful and interesting designs, which were perfectly adapted to the process of weaving. it is due no doubt to this frank adaptation of natural forms and their appropriateness to the technical necessities of woven fabrics, that has rendered this eastern influence so persistent through many centuries in different parts of europe. it is remarkable that even in italy during the whole of the renascence period, with the characteristic scroll forms rets. the remarkable universality of the fret, the simplicity and rhythm of detail, its adaptability and usefulness for surface enrichment, have made the fret one of the best known forms of ornamentation. it was used in the surface decorations of the tombs of egypt, the temples of greece, and the civic and domestic buildings of rome. the greek form with its right-angular and equally-spaced keys, was used on the simple abacas and plain fascias of the dorian archi- tecture, in bands upon the painted vases, and in a concentric form when used in the interior of the red-figured circular cylix. the romans, without imparting freshness used the same right-angled key-pattern, chiefly as borders for mosaic pavements and upon the horizontal soffits of their architecture. the byzantine, using the same type in conjunction with the cross and circle, gave more signifi- cance to the fret. the arabian fret differs in the use of the oblique line, together with the right angled key, obtaining a won- derful degree of complexity and richness. the celtic fret is chiefly a diagonal one but the recurrent angle is rounded to a curve. chinese and japanese frets are usually right-angled, and are used in great pro- fusion, often in a secondary field or background. the japanese key or " fret diaper"'is used in the greatest profusion; it is used alike on silks and brocades, damascened in metal, in cloisonne enamel and in lacquered work, and is frequently arranged in irregular shaped compartments or medallions. the greek continuous fret border is rarely used by the japanese who generally use the disconnected or irregular fret. a similar irregular fret border was used by the peruvians (page and ), by the mexicans, and by the natives of polynesia. the assyrian and byzantine guilloche is but a curved fret, but additional in- terest is given by the introduction of radiating forms in the principal interstices of the fret. the simplest form of construction for frets, or key pattern, is to use squared or ruled paper. the chinese or japanese key is comparatively simple to construct by making the double t squares in length with arms at each end of squares, and placed alternately at right angles to each other. the perfect adaptability of its foliage to stone carving, the signifi- cance of its detail as emble- matic of the trinity, the spiral growth of its foliage, and the vigorous contrast of light and shade are the chief character- istics of this period. lacking, perhaps, the delicacy or variety of detail of the byzantine period, or the later gothic work, it excelled them in the appropriateness of its enrich- ment, which is more beautiful in the early english examples with their circular abacus than in contemporary french capitals where the square abacus was prevalent. the transition from the circular column to the square abacus was always felt to be a difficulty, and was rarely overcome, but in the circular abacus of the early english capitals we have a break in the continuity of the style of the capital. the english foliage of this period differs from the french in the use of a deep mid-rib and simple trefoil leaf. the french examples have a less pronounced mid-rib, and the leaf is convex in form and divided into three lobes, and the foliage adheres more closely to the bell, consequently the brilliant play of light and shade which is so characteristic of early english work, is generally absent from french examples (fig. , plate ). analysis of ornament roman. ancient panel. florence. (frontispiece. analysis of ornament the characteristics of styles an introduction to the study of the history of ornamental art by ralph n. wornum picic, scv ninth edition london: chapman & hall, limited , henrietta street, w.c. london : printed by j. s. virtue and co., limited, city road preface to the first edition. the following sketch is prepared chiefly as an introduc- tory guide to aid in the adoption of some ready system in the study of ornament. though illustrated ornamental works exist in great profusion, they are generally on special monuments and localities, or extending only over very limited periods of time : and being, further, mostly of a purely illustrative character, without analytical description of the parts, they fail to impress on the mind of the student those elements which are the essential characteristics of the works, and distinguish their style. these charac- teristics, therefore, which are the very essence of the art, are to be apprehended only by dint of great labour in the comparison of many costly publications, which, until lately, have been generally inaccessible even to the metropolitan student. but with access to such works, some systematic general guide is absolutely indispensable to enable the student to acquire a sound apprehension of his subject, with moderate labour, and within a moderate time. the knowledge of ornamental style is, doubtless, most readily imparted in a course of lectures, in which, by numerous illustrations on a large scale, including occa- sionally the objects themselves, the peculiar features of each style can be at once pointed out and fixed on the mind, through the facilities of immediate comparison. but this compendious abstract of the course of lectures on ps (recap), as a new - preface. ornamental art, -delivered by me originally at somerset house, and subsequently at marlborough house, under the direction of the board of trade department of science and art, - in the absence of a more complete report, may serve in some measure as a substitute for the personal instructions of a lecture, by pointing out its sources, and enabling the student to derive directly from the standard authorities in the library of the department such information for him- self. the student will find the most important works illus- trating the subject enumerated in the text, to which he must refer for its complete illustration; but he will find the most essential and characteristic elements of the styles, perhaps adequately illustrated by the few engraved cuts contained in the work, which have been chiefly executed from casts in the collections of the department, by the female students of the wood-engraving class at marl- borough house. the accompanying sketch, however, is not published as a report of the lectures referred to: it is simply a concise abstract of their substance, and is intended only as an introductory aid for the student, to enable him to make profitable use of the works in the library, in furtherance of an earnest study of ornamental art.* r. n. w. * see the account of the library, fc., with a catalogue of the principal works, classified for the use of the visitors. by ralph n. wornum, librarian. london, . the diagrams prepared by me for these lectures now form part of the property of this library. the lectures were originally delivered in the government schools of design, both at somerset house and in the provincial schools in england, scotland, and ireland, in the years , , and . introduction. - ornament. chapter . the history of art shows two great classes of ornamental styles—the symbolic and the æsthetic; that is, those which appeal to our understandings, and those which appeal to our feelings. we may term those styles symbolic in which the ordinary elements have been chosen for the sake of their significations, as symbols of something not necessarily implied, and irrespective of their effect as works of art, or arrangements of forms and colours. those that are com- posed of elements devised solely from principles of sym- metry of form and harmony of colour, and exclusively for their effect on our perception of the beautiful, without any further extraneous or ulterior aim, may be termed æsthetic, style in ornament is analogous to hand in writing, and this is its literal signification. as every individual has some peculiarity in his mode of writing, so every age or nation has been distinguished in its ornamental expression by a certain individuality of taste, either original or bor- rowed. it is the comprehension of these individual tastes b ornament. characterizing various times and people, which must con- stitute the most thorough education of the ornamental designer. these expressions are interesting also to the general student, as they exhibit an essential quality of the social character of these different people, both in relation to the arts and to general culture and religion. in a review of these ornamental styles we shall find that the elements of form are constant in all cases; they are but variously treated. this, in fact, must be so, if a style be founded upon any principles at all: and those styles which have carried with them the feelings of ages could not be otherwise than based upon some fixed natural laws. the elements of styles are of two kinds—pure and absolute, and conventional and arbitrary; or natural and fanciful. the investigation of the principles of ornamental art is an inquiry into the nature and character of these elements: how the effects of certain variations of form and colour happen to be so universally appreciated that the varieties of their arrangements have occupied all people from the remotest times. universal efforts show a universal want; and beauty of effect and decoration are no more a luxury in a civilised state of society than warmth and clothing are a luxury to any state: the mind, as the body, makes everything neces- sary that it is capable of permanently enjoying. ornament is one of the mind's necessities, which it gratifies by means of the eye; and, in its strictest æsthetic sense, it has a perfect analogy with music, which similarly gratifies the mind, but by the means of a different organ—the ear. so ornament has been discovered to be again an essential ornament. ment of his materials, not in their execution. there is a distinct study of ornament wholly independent of the merely preliminary exercises of drawing, colouring, or modelling. a designer might even produce a perfect arrangement of forms and colours, and yet show the grossest stupidity in its application. there are two provinces of ornament—the flat and the relieved. in the flat, we have a contrast of light and dark; in the relieved, a contrast of light and shade; in both, a variety of effect for the pure gratification of the sense of vision. much is common to both; but in the first case, a play of line is the main feature, in the second, a play of masses; and colour may be an auxiliary to either, but it acts with far greater power in the flat, as it is entirely dependent upon light. ornament, therefore, is a system of contrasts: the object of study is the order of contrasts. the individual orders may vary to infinity, though the classes are limited, as right-line or curved-line series, series of simple curves or clustered curves, series of mere lines, or natural objects, as flowers arranged in the orders of these different series. for example, the common scroll is a series of spirals to the right and left alternately; the roman scroll is the acanthus plant or brank-ursine, treated in this order of curved series. . chapter ii. decoration or ornamentation, then, we may assume to be divided into two great classes—the flat and the round, or what may be otherwise described as painting and modelling. that of painting, or the flat, is the far more extensive class. it comprises, in the first place, all pictorial decora- tion,-general costume, drapery, all printed or woven fabrics, mosaic, inlaying, boule-work, enamelling, and, accordingly, many classes of furniture. the relieved, or i modelling, is limited to building purposes, hardware, certain kinds of furniture, implements, and to jewellery. but everything that is relieved is comprised also in the flat, in one sense, inasmuch as it can be imitated in the flat: this is, however, not a legitimate use of the flat, as it is really we may call these two classes, then, the flat and the round. they have two qualities in common-shape and contrast. the shape in both is given by the outline; the contrast, in the one by light and shade; in the other, by colour, or light and dark. there is no other means of contrast in the flat but that of colour, or light and dark; for when an ornament in the flat is merely an imitation of the round, it belongs strictly to the round: the con- ornament. the earlier epochs of art, and they were generally parts of ornamental schemes. any picture, whatever the subject, which is composed ornament, and any ornamental design in which these two principles have been made subservient to imitation or natural arrangement has departed from the province of ornament into that of the picture or the model, whichever it may be. and in nearly all designs of this kind, applied to useful purposes, you frustrate the very principle of nature, upon which you found your theory, when you represent a natural form in a natural manner, and yet apply it to uses with which it has, in nature, no affinity whatever. therefore, however you may conform with nature in little matters, you certainly commit an outrage there is a class of ornament which has much increased of late years in england, and, by way of distinction, we may call it the naturalist school. the theory appears to be, that as nature is beautiful, ornamental details derived immediately from beautiful natural objects must insure a beautiful design. this, however, can only be true where the original uses of the details chosen have not been obviously violated; and one peculiar feature of this school is, that it often substitutes the ornament itself for the thing to be ornamented, as illustrated in the accom- panying examples; in which the natural objects are so mismanaged as to be principals : flame proceeding from a flower, a basket on an animal's head to hold a liquid, a bell made of leaves! the elements chosen · being so opposed to the proposed uses of the objects ornamented, ornament. as to make the designs simply wsthetic monstrosities, ornamental abominations. ornament is essentially the accessory to, and not the tested a gas jet. morinin ciceronist citittier a bell. a cup. substitute of, the useful ; it is a decoration or adornment; it can have no independent existence practically. we cannot look upon any mere ornament without instantly ornament associating it with something that it is fit, or is destined, to adorn; as a necklace or a bracelet. even a statuette is ate it with some shelf or other object or support that it may be fit to adorn. if we look upon it as a mere statue or portrait, it is purely a work of fine art, not an ornament; because it is then principal, instead of being accessory, an absolute condition of all ornament. hence, every implement or article of practical utility, as, for instance, a candlestick, that is composed or built up of natural imitations exclusively or as principals, however poetical the idea may be supposed to be, is practically bad as a design. there is a very great difference between ornamenting à utensil with natural objects, and substituting these natural objects for the utensil itself. in the latter case, however true the details, the design is utterly false; in the former, you are in both respects true, and may be also highly suggestive and instructive. of course, there are many natural objects which at once suggest certain uses; and we can never be wrong if we elaborate these into such implements or vessels as their own very forms or 'natures may have spontaneously presented to the mind. every article of use has a certain size and character defined for it by the very use it is destined for, and this may never be disregarded by the designer; it is, in fact, the indispensable skeleton of his design, and has nothing to do with ornament. but it is upon this skeleton that the designer must bring all his ornamental knowledge to bear ; and he is a poor designer if he can do nothing more than imitate a few sticks and leaves, or other natural objects ornament ii ere wherewith to decorate it; he must give it character as well as beauty, and make it suggestive of something more than a display of sprigs and flowers gathered from the fields, or this would be mannerism indeed. natural floral ornament is one kind of ornament, and a very beautiful kind; but even an infinite variety of floral detail, especially in the round, will have æsthetically but very little variety of effect upon the mind. for this purpose we must bring art to the aid of nature, or work upon the principles illustrated by natural objects, rather than imitate their individual appearances. we should add an illustrative elaboration of the abstract principles of beauty, to the mere representation of those natural objects in which they may be most effectively displayed: and this is the professed object of all tracery or mere geometrical design. the beautiful italian style, known as the trecento, is a fine example of this combina- tion of natural and artificial forms, in its mixture of conventional flowers and foliage with its tracery and various geometrical designs. · it seems to be a law of nature, that every individual thing shall be composed of two similar parts in its outward appearance; and as the internal arrangement is often dif- ferent, as in the animal creation, this similarity of exter- nals would appear an evidence of the design of beauty. we find this similarity of parts more or less decided according to the individuality of the object — from the simplest crystal form to that of man. and we find this remarkable similarity relaxed only where its relaxation does not interfere with the beauty of the object, -as in a tree, for instance: the two i ornament. halves of a tree are not exactly symmetrical in their branches, yet they are generally so. there is quite as much symmetry in every tree as the eye can ap- preciate. it is so also with flowers : the calyx and petals of all flowers are symmetrical; and this symmetry is the more decided, inversely as the number of flowers on one stem : plurality of members seems to do away with the special symmetry of the individual member; and where there are several flowers from one root or on one stem, the deviation from individual symmetry is always in favour of the symmetry of the collective group or groups. where nature groups, it is the group that is the ornament, not the individual; and this is a law which must be observed likewise in art; as in all clusters, colonnades, or festoons, the individuals of such designs may be arranged at ran- dom, provided the cluster, colonnade, or festoon, be itself of symmetrical proportions. in endeavouring, therefore, to be symmetrical in our designs, so far from being artificial or formal, we are strictly following one of the grand principles of nature.. this distinction between the symmetry of the parts and the symmetry of the group or cluster is very important. take man himself: he is a compound form,—a group of trunk, limbs, and extremities. whatever part of the group is balanced by a similar member on the other side, is without that symmetry which we are speaking of. the arm is not symmetrical, because it is balanced by a similar member on the other side ; but take the head, which has not this plurality to disturb its symmetry, and we find a perfect contrast of the two parts. i believe this to ornament. be true of all natural groups; and i believe this law of symmetry to be so important, that there is no form or combination of forms whatever that, when symmetrically contrasted or repeated, cannot be made subservient to beauty chapter iii. the whole grammar of ornament consists in contrast, repetition, and series. a perfect contrast of form may be defined as the two sides of a solid or section of the solid, generated by the revolution of an outline around a given axis; as, for instance, a sphere is the solid generated by the revolution of a semicircle around its diameter. repetition and series are nearly identical. series com- prises repetition, and defines its order. mouldings are simple repetitions, right-lined or curved, as the case may be. perhaps the best illustration of the value of series is the kaleidoscope. all the beautiful figures represented by that instrument are repetitions in circular series; and often the rudest materials will generate extremely beauti- ful effects. and the elliptical, or any other regular series, sym- metrically arranged, will be found nearly equally valuable with the circular. in no popular style of ornament have natural details ever yet prevailed. the details of all great styles are largely derived from nature, but for the most part con- ventionally treated; and theory and experience seem to show that this is the true system. ornament. a plant is said to be conventionally treated, when the natural order of its growth or development is disregarded. where the exact imitation of the details, and its own order of development, are both observed, the treatment is natural ; and an object so treated, independent of any application, is only a picture or model, not an ornament; to be an ornament, it must be applied as an accessory decoration to something else. in egyptian, greek, and roman ornament, it is ex- tremely rare to find any natural treatment of the details : that is, any mere imitation. the only examples i can recall are the birds, reptiles, and animals occasionally introduced in arabesques and scroll-work. the case is the same with byzantine and saracenic art, and with the great styles of italy, especially the trecento and the cinquecento, in which all the most perfect schemes are purely conventional, or upon a strict geometrical basis, whatever the treatment of the detail may be. lorenzo ghiberti has introduced exact natural imita- tions in his celebrated gates of the baptistery of san giovanni at florence; but they are strictly accessory to a general plan, and symmetrically arranged; being neither negligently nor naturally disposed. they are bound in bunches or groups of various shapes and sizes, disposed in harmony with the main compartments of the gates, of which they are ornaments. and this is, perhaps, the utmost extent to which decorations of this class can be judiciously applied. but in ghiberti's case, as elsewhere, the group is the ornament, and not the parts of which it is composed. it is requisite that we should have a clear understand- ornament. ing of the difference between a natural and a conventional or ornamental treatment of an object. a natural treat- ment implies natural imitation and arrangement; but an ornamental treatment does not necessarily exclude imita- tion in the parts; as, for instance, a scroll may be composed of strictly natural parts; but as no plant would grow in an exact spiral direction, the scroll form con- stitutes the ornamental or conventional arrangement. as in the following arrangement of a leaf, from an old french example. ma m rees we may have, however, conventionalities of details as well as conventionalities of arrangement. a leaf or a flower, for instance, may be represented as it appears, with all the local accidents of light and shade and colour : this would be a strictly natural representation. and it may be represented as a mere diagram,—that is, as we know it to be, —without reference to its appearance; or it may be treated as a mere shadow of itself, —as a silhouette : the two latter would be conventional treat- ments; and it is such representations that we find almost exclusively in egyptian and greek art; as the lotus of the egyptian tombs and temples, or the various foliage of the terra-cotta vases of greece. ornament. ---- - --- ----- t mer there can be no question that the motive of ornament is not the presentation of natural images to the mind, but the rendering the object ornamented as agreeable as possible to it, and therefore the details of decoration should have no independent character of their own, but be kept purely subservient to beauty of effect. this can hardly be done, or rather cannot be thoroughly done, but by the adoption of conventional ornament-whether flowers, foliage, or other natural forms: because as a conventional or mere geo- metrical form can really have no individual associa- tions, and yet at the same time may present an ex- tremely beautiful effect; the whole of that effect is simply auxiliary to the general beauty of the object deco- rated : the ornamentation is purely accessory. the designer must ever remem- ber that the effect of the whole should never be in- terfered with by any partial attraction of the details. every design is composed of plan and details—as in a vase, the shape of the vase is the plan; whatever decora- tions it may have are the details of the design, or their enrichments, as medallion pictures or pieces of sculpture : so with a candlestick, casket, and others. in all cases where elaborate works of fine art are vous ornament. introduced as enrichments of an ornamental scheme—as sculpture in the pediment of a greek temple, or a picture in the panel of a wall—it is only in the general form an arrangement that they share in the ornamental effect; they are no longer ornaments when examined in detail, but independent works of fine art. the ordinary details or accessory decorations may be of various kinds: they may cover the entire surface of the plan or only portions of it; the covering of only portions of a plan involves, of course, far higher ornamental prin- ciples than the uniform covering the entire surface. de- corations which are spread uniformly over a surface are commonly called diapers—an expression supposed to be derived from ypres, the name of the flemish town where cloths so decorated were first or largely manufactured. they are composed of a repetition or series of the same ornament, in a vertical, horizontal, or a diagonal order. this is the most popular class of design for cotton-prints, and the unit of repetition is generally small in these cases; but it may be either extremely simple, as a spot or star, in one colour, or as com- plicated and as rich as the diapers of the alhambra, from which the mass of paper diapers are derived. diapers are suited for flat or round work of every class in manufactures or in mural decoration. units of repetition, or repeats of irregular shapes, arranged diagonally, have the finest effects. a ornament. diaper, however, may be an alternation of two or more simple figures, just as it may be a constant repetition of one compound figure; for as it is in this case the group that is repeated, the group of figures becomes the attern or unit of repetition. geometric diapers are infinite, and by a judicious variation of colours may be made extremely beautiful. the majority of ancient mosaics are diapers of this character, and they are a good illustration of the carrying out of the principle of fitness in design; for these geometric mosaics are nearly all floors, and they emphatically express flat- ness—an essential quality for a floor. the diaper, then, is a uniform decoration of a surface: another general.. decoration analogous to it is a succession of stripes, of any character, or of colonnades. the colonnade consists of repetitions of continuous curves in the same direction : it is the favourite form of decoration for carpets, papers, lace, curtains, and some other textile manufactures : it is generally a decorated or foliated serpentine, and rarely a scroll always a measured curved succession in vertical series. . ... all such superficial decoration is very simple: it is, in fact, as the paper-stainers expressively term it, mere filling, as it involves no scheming. you have but to design your repeat or unit of repetition; the rest is mere mechanical expansion. ornament assumed at starting to be the element of all ornamental effects. these compartments are known as panels, borders, cornice, frieze, basement or dado; capital, shaft, base, pedestal ; neck, body, foot, and so on; all names desig- nating the ornamental divisions of the general schemes of objects; though these things may not be ornamented, the mere division of an object into such parts is done for the sake of variety of effect, in obedience to one of the necessi- ties of the mind. these various compartments are separated or made prominent by mouldings: mouldings may be either mere suits of concave and convex members, as in many gothic examples, or the concave series may be filled in with orna- mental details. these may be plain or enriched mouldings; and, as boundaries of compartments, it is necessary that they should be particularly distinct, and we accordingly find that they are, in nearly all cases, the part of a design which has been most elaborated : call them edges or call them borders, the principle is the same throughout- whether the moulding of a room or piece of cabinet-work, the hem of a vest, the border of a shawl or handkerchief, the edge of a salver, we have everywhere the one principle of contrast in itself, and with its own ground. as no border is introduced into a design for its own sake, but only as a contribution to the general effect, that is sure to be the best which is designed with a view to a principle rather than for any speciality of detail of its own: thus we find that a mere repeat, which shall contain an elemental principle, is superior to a prominent succession of elaborate and varied imitations, because special attrac- ornament. tion to secondary details is not a merit, but a capital defect in a design. the border or moulding is the ornament, and not the details of which it is composed. the truth of this principle is proved by the practice of all ages : we have not now to create ornamental art, but to learn it; it was established in all essentials long ago. as a proof of this i would instance the most popular deco- rations of the present day: we find that they are identical with the favourites of nearly all ages, from pericles to pope julius ii., from julius ii. to the late king of bavaria, ludwig i. chapter iv. we still use the forms, and, indeed, the very details, adopted by the greeks upwards of two thousand years ago. why is this ? certainly not from their speciality of detail, but rather because it would be, perhaps, impossible to select others of a less decided individuality, which would so well illustrate the great principles of ornament,-series and contrast; contrast of masses, and contrast or harmony of lines. the details, however, will admit of every varia- tion which will not disturb the order or arrangement on which the ornament depends : you may change the details to infinity, the ornament will remain the same as long as the arrangement is not disturbed. and this alternation is imperative if we wish to develop a rich and varied school of ornamental art. the ornaments i refer to are,—the zigzag, the fret, the echinus, the astragal, the anthemions, the guilloche varie- ties, and the scrolls. in the zigzag we have the simplest varieties of lines we can well conceive; in the frets we have a more complicated order of right-line series; in the varieties of the guilloche we have a similar simple series of curved lines or inter- lacings. ornament. e band, by mere contact, or by some simple scroll. every example of an ornament must have an indi- viduality of detail necessarily, but it is a great mistake to adopt this detail as an essential part of the ornament; for example, no two greek anthemions are alike, but there are some few which contain a member a good deal resembling the honeysuckle: the ornament is simple and beautiful, but modern imitators overlooking its principle have comprehended only the detail, assumed it to be an imitation, and have called it the honeysuckle ornament. instead, therefore, of grasping the source of a thousand ornaments equally beautiful, they have acquired but one, and half the classical buildings of modern times are covered with honeysuckles, bringing the whole art of greece into disgrace for its monotony and formality, while there is scarcely a weed in england that might not with equal skill have been substituted for the honeysuckle, with perhaps equal effect, if only treated on the principle of a succession or alternation of an harmonic group of curves. this is only one of the dilemmas that the designer must fall into by allowing mere specific details to usurp the place of the principles of ornament: his mind becomes occupied by a few individual forms, the very idea of prin- ciples is incomprehensible to him; and he necessarily remains a mere hack or imitator. where the mind views something more than the surface, or where the eyes are auxiliary only to the mind, every natural object may be suggestive of some new essential form or combination of forms. the lotus, the lily, and ornament. the tulip, must be something more than flowers to the designer, or his use of them is limited indeed; each suggests distinct forms as applicable to various useful purposes. all established styles of ornament are founded upon the same principles: their differences, which i shall in the following sketch endeavour to point out, are differences only of the materials, the details of the several favourite essential forms, which each more or less partially deve- loped, some for one reason, some for another. the pecu- liarity of egyptian and byzantine ornament is owing to their prevailing symbolism, and certain details becoming standards: the peculiarity of the saracenic is of exactly the opposite character, it scrupulously rejected everything approaching an individuality of detail; and accordingly the principles of ornament are perhaps more clearly deve- loped in this style than in any other, because the details are so entirely subordinate. . we do not therefore admire the echinus and the astragal, because they are derived from the horse-chesnut or the huckle-bone, but because they are admirable details for that prominent contrast of light and shade which is so extremely valuable for edges or mouldings. it is the same with the whole series of popular ornaments; not. one of them is beautiful because it represents any natural object, but because it has been chosen to illustrate certain symmetries or contrasts, by the very nature of vision delightful to the mind, just as harmonies and melodies delight it through another of its senses. i believe the analogy between music and ornament to be perfect: one is to the eye what the other is to the ear; and the day ornament mere imitative skill, employed on the most beautiful natural materials, out of the strict province of so-called fine art, will engender but mere fanciful vagaries, utterly powerless on the eye as ornament, when compared with even the crudest materials of the coarsest execution, if only arranged in any order or combination of harmonic progression. greek terra-cotta. the characteristics of styles.. chapter v. the styles. in a review of this kind, when we speak of the styles, we can comprise only the broad distinctions of ornament itself—the kinds or genera, not the more specific varieties. there are, of course, many varieties of nearly every great style, but so long as the chief characteristics remain un- changed, the style is the same. from this point of view, therefore, the styles become comparatively few. we shall find that nine will comprise the whole number of the great characteristic developments which have had any influence on european civilisation, namely, three ancient- the egyptian, the greek, and the roman; three medieval —the byzantine, the saracenic, and the gothic; and three modern—the renaissance, the cinquecento, and the louis quatorze. several of these styles have their recognised varieties. of the greek there are the doric and the alexandrian; that is, the severe and the florid. of the byzantine there are the romanesque, lombard, and norman varieties, &c.; and of the renaissance, also, there are several varieties. we speak of the renaissance both as an epoch and as a style. as an epoch; it comprises many styles or varieties, characteristics of styles. romanesque from the roman, and so on, with more or less affinity of character. it does not follow, however, that an ornamental work is in a certain style because it belongs to the period of that style, for a style is defined not by its time or period, but by the prevailing peculiarities or characteristics of that period; and it is not at all the case that every work of a period possesses these peculiarities. it must be borne in mind, therefore, that while a genuine example of a style will always imply a certain time, a specimen of a certain time will only as a general rule illustrate the correspond- ing style. this is because no style is predetermined, but is, in its details, in all cases, incidental, notwithstanding a prevailing sentiment. we will now then proceed to examine the nine great historic styles, which appear to sufficiently illustrate the history of ornament. the egyptian, greek, and roman- the ancient; the byzantine, saracenic, the gothic—the middle age; and the renaissance, cinquecento, and louis quatorze—the modern. the ancient styles. eight lectures. chapter vi. egyptian ornament. illustrated literature. the works mentioned under this head are not cited as the authorities for the opinions given, as many of them were published some years after the preparation of the lectures, and the views do not always agree: they are referred to only as the most comprehensive or useful illustrated works on the subject, and as thus best adapted to aid the student in his labours. egypt.-description de l'egypte, ou recueil des observations et des recherches qui ont été faites en egypte pendant l'expédition de l'armée française. publié par les ordres de sa majesté l'empereur napoléon le grand. (the great work of the french expedition, treating of the antiquities, arts, natural history, and modern state of egypt.) vols. folio, atlas folio, and elephant. paris, , et seq. * ancient art, - . syllabus. lecture i.—on the decorative art of the ancient egyptians. early establishment of egyptian art-about b.c. its stationary and purely ornamental character. extensive remains still preserved on the banks of the nile, from meroë to alexandria, a distance of nearly miles. ipsambul, the telamons. essaboua, the sphinx-andro—crio-and hieraco-sphinx. philæ. edfou, the egyptian temple—the pro- pyla, obelisks, mosaics, &c. thebes, sumptuous decoration of the egyptian temples—their columns and capitals. the tombs. denderah. sakkara, the arch. the pyramids. heliopolis. egyp- tian style. egyptian ornament. porter, sir r. ker.–travels in georgia, persia, armenia, ancient babylonia, &c., during the years , , , and . vols. to. london, . gau, f. c.-antiquités de la nubie, ou monumens inédits des bords du nil, situés entre la première et la seconde cataracte, dessinés et mesurés en . ouvrage faisant suite au grand ouvrage de la commission d'egypte. large folio. paris, . ram raz.-essay on the architecture of the hindus. with plates. to. london, . rosellini, j.-the monuments of egypt and nubia, arranged accord- ing to their subjects, by the tuscan expedition to egypt, under the direction of rosellini. i monumenti dell' egitto e della nubia disegnati della spedizione scientifico-litteraria toscana in egitto : distribuiti in ordine di materie, interpretati ed illustrati dal dottore ippolito rosellini. (this great work is in three parts, folio, with separate text in octavo. tavole m. r. contains the historical monuments of the kings, monumenti storici, in plates : tavole m. c. contains the civil monuments, monumenti civili, in plates: tavole m. d. o. the monuments of religious worship, monumenti del culto, in plates.) vols. atlas folio, plates ; vols. vo. text. pisa, - . lecture ii.-egypt : ornamental details. decorations of the tombs. painted ceilings. colours. sunk-reliefs. ornamental types—the zigzag, labyrinth, wave-scroll, lotus, winged-globe, asp, and cartouche. the funerals. manufactures- furniture, pottery, &c., variegated glass, armour, linen and cotton fabrics, prints, embroidered stuffs. ships, &c. study of ornament. lecture iii. - asia. egyptian and asiatic art characterised–egyptian influence in asia- judæa, assyria, india. nimroud marbles. persepolis-cambyses, darius, xerxes. the ionian greeks. general similarity of standard ornamental types in ancient monuments, whether egyptian, asiatic, or european. lecture iv.-greece: heroic age of greek art. intercourse between greece and egypt. greek traditions. legend of origin of greek art-dibutades of corinth. development of painting -skiagram, polychrom, monogram, and monochrom-the pro- cesses. the heroic age of greek art, from about the th to the th century, b.c. inclusive. pelasgic remains-mycena. tomb of agamemnon. the greek colonies in asia minor and magna græcia. development of art as evinced in the homeric poems-ornamental armour, toreutic work, embroidery, woollen fabrics of miletus, corinth, and carthage. shawl or pallium of alcisthenes of sybaris. the terra-cotta vases. egyptian ornament. layard, dr. a. h.—a second series of the monuments of nineveh, including bas-reliefs from the palace of sennacherib, and bronzes from the ruins of nimroud, from drawings made on the spot during a second expedition to assyria. plates, oblong folio. london, . fergusson, j.—illustrations of the rock-cut temples of india. fol. london, . - the palaces of nineveh and persepolis restored : an essay on ancient assyrian and persian architecture. vo. london, . -- picturesque illustrations of ancient architecture in hindo- stan. folio. london, . — the ilustrated handbook of architecture ; being a concise and popular account of the different styles of architecture prevailing in all ages, and in all countries. with woodcuts. folio. london, . jones, .—the grammar of ornament. drawn on stone by f. bed- ford: folio. london, - . (on the styles generally.) the earliest style of ornament of which we know anything of material importance is the egyptian, dating from about lecture vii.-rome: florid development of greek art under the romans. the spoliations of greece. the roman triumphs. collections. mar- cellus, b.c. the greek painted earthenware and the murrhine of the east. general concentration of ancient art treasures in rome. gradual development of roman taste. greek and roman orders and details compared. the composite or roman an aggregate of the echinus, voluted, and acanthus orders of the greeks. the acanthus and scroll, chief characteristics of this period. distinctions between greek and roman acanthus. the arch. magnificence of the romans. the forum of trajan. apollodorus of damascus. lecture viii. – roman decoration : final decline. the three tastes--egyptian, greek, and roman. discrimination of style accessory and principal. rapid decline of roman art under the emperors—the triumphal arches. general florid and debased character of the ornamental details of the public buildings of rome. the roman house of the time of augustus-general scheme of decoration. the golden house of nero. the colossus of zeno- dorus. extravagances of the time of nero condemned by pliny as iusanities. censures of vitruvius on the taste of his time. pompeii, its destruction, a.d., re-discovery in a.d.; its decorations, mosaics, &c. roman bronzes, armour, devices on their shields, family portraits, funerals. egyptian ornament. b.c., when it was already completely established; and this is literally a hieroglyphic style in its sentiments and in its details; both are derived from a priestly sym- bolism. as a rule, the elements of egyptian ornament have a particular meaning; they are not often, if ever, arbitrarily chosen for the sake of beauty of effect. the style is accordingly, though abounding in materials, very simple and limited in its arrangements, in comparison with ruins at thebes. later styles, in which mere symbolism was superseded by the pure æsthetic principles of art; that is, effect, not meaning, being the object of the artist. yet we cannot but admire the ingenuity with which the egyptian decorator, by a mere symmetrical arrangement, has converted even the incomprehensible hieroglyphics into pleasing and tasteful ornaments. a simple symmetrical egyptian ornament. arrangement, however, is the limit of his artistic scheming, and generally in the shape of a simple progression, whether in a horizontal line or repeated on the principle of the diaper, that is, row upon row, horizontally or diagonally. the painted ceilings of the tombs of the kings at thebes afford many good examples. in one class of ornament egypt is eminent, independent of its skilful application of art to manufactures: it is eminent in its complete adaptation of its own natural productions in the development of a style peculiar to itself, in its conventional treatment of local natural types, as, for instance, the lotus or water-lily of the nile, the element of so many varieties of ornament. the egyptian details are not mere crude imitations of nature, but natural objects, selected by symbolism, and fashioned by symmetry into ornamental decorations. so that we have here one great class of ornament, and the earliest systematic efforts in design in the world's history. many of the details of the egyptians are still popular ornaments, handed down by successive ages to our own time. when we consider the heirarchical vassalage of the egyptian artist, and that he was by birth, and not by choice, in his profession—as every man, by the law of caste, was forced to pursue the occupation of his father, in spite of his tastes or capabilities—we must admit that he displays peculiar ability. in many respects, the art was as thoroughly understood at memphis or thebes three thousand years ago as it is at london or paris this day. the shapes of the egyptian ewer and basin, and other vessels for domestic purposes, are identical with those of onai .. egyptian ornament. the most favourite patterns of the present time; and many egyptian ornaments are still popular ornaments, and have been so through all times; as the fret or labyrinth, wave- scroll, spiral, zigzag, water-lily, star, and palm. they had many others derived from the vegetable productions of egypt. in the first place, egyptian ornament admits of no pictures of objects; all are treated conventionally. even in the wall-paintings themselves, no object is fairly painted as it actually appears ; the best examples are but intelligible representations—mere elevations or dia- grams. the arrangements are almost exclusively a mere sym- metrical series or progression, and always of a very simple order; but precious stones and metals, and the richest materials generally, seem to have been very abundantly used. the frieze or broad-band is the commonest form of these decorations; and the details are generally some of the more important symbols, as the lotus, or water-lily of the nile, the type of its inundations, from which egypt derives its fruitfulness, and the zigzag, the type of water or the nile itself. this ancient signification of the zigzag is still preserved in the present zodiac sign of the water- carrier, or aquarius. the fret or labyrinth, another right- line series and important symbol, is of less frequent occur- rence. there is, however, one particular ornament which is more common than all others in egyptian decoration. this is what is sometimes called the scarabæus or beetle, or, rather, the winged-globe: it occurs of all sizes and almost in all materials, and is a species of egyptian ornament. talisman or invocation of good luck (agathodæmon). the globe is supposed to represent the sun, the wings providence, and the two asps, one on each side of the globe, dominion or monarchy; the creative, protective, and distributive powers, implying order, the koguos, or we almost invariably find this ornament placed over doors, windows, and in passages, and sometimes of an enormous size, extending thirty feet or more. it is also frequent in costume and on the mummy-cases. there are several other winged figures found in egyptian friezes, natural and conventional, as the vulture with the tau and ostrich feather, the hawk, the winged asp, and the human winged figure, corresponding apparently to those described in the works of the jews. the sphinx, a remarkable object in egyptian art, does not come under the category of the winged creatures. in this it is distinguished from the greek creation of that name, which is always winged, and always female. the egyptian sphinx, on the other hand, is always male. it is supposed to represent the combination of physical and intellectual power, or the kings, as incarna- tions of such attributes. they are also associated with the special forms and attributes of the great egyptian deities, osiris and ammon, neph or jupiter, and phreh or helios : that is, we have the man-sphinx, the ram- sphinx, the hawk-sphinx, or the lion's body with the head of the man, the ram, or the hawk, according to the deity worshipped. these sphinxes were thus named by the greeks respectively the andro-sphinx, the crio-sphinx, and the hieraco-sphinx. the principal position of the egyptian ornament. pated the greeks in something more than some ordinary details. their temples display a great diversity of pillars, from the mere fluted columns of beni hassan to the gorgeous varieties of thebes, philæ, and denderah. but although the egyptians, except in the case of the isis capital, as well shown at denderah, systematically varied their pillars in the same colonnades, two alike with their decorations complete never being placed together, except as a pair of opposites, their varieties may be reduced to three essential forms—the truncated lotus-bud, the lotus-bell, and the isis head. every capital is a variety of one of these essential forms; but the lotus or papyrus-bell of the middle period is much the most com- mon. the abacus is, on all occasions, the width only of ruins at philæ. the pillar, and invariably narrower than the capital, which is a valuable feature, and very essential to the effect of egyptian ornament. stability. the egyptian pillars vary in their altitudes from about four to nearly seven diameters, the longer proportions being the most common. the general massiveness of egyptian architecture, though, when transported to other climates, it may appear heavy, is particularly appropriate to the climate and landscape of egypt itself. the various altitudes and horizontal masses of the great divisions of an egyptian temple, as still seen at philæ and elsewhere breaking with their bold shadows the dazzling undulating mass of light characterising the general landscape, are calculated in the highest degree to give delight and repose to the eye in their general features, while the gay polychromic decorations of their surfaces constitute a rich centre of attraction, modifying the excessive brilliancy of the surrounding scene. the egyptian style of decoration was not without its influence upon all people connected with egypt; on the jews, on the greeks, and more especially on the persians after the plunder of thebes by cambyses, who, diodorus siculus informs us, carried away a colony of egyptian artists back into persia : and we still see the remains of their influence in the whole basin of the euphrates and on the borders of the persian gulf, from nineveh to perse- polis. the so-called nineveh sculptures recently deposited in the british museum are identical in style with those of persepolis, the work of this egyptian colony, according to diodorus, introduced by cambyses in the latter part of the sixth century before our era ; but the works were chiefly carried out under the direction of his successors, darius and xerxes. independent of this tradition, there is con- egyptian ornament. siderable evidence of egyptian influence in the works themselves. the winged figure of cyrus at mourgab or pasargadæ has a decided egyptian character, and the head-dress appears to be that of the egyptian god malooli, a son of isis and horus. the change in the general character of the sculpture may be explained by the fact that the egyptians worked in persia under the influence of the persian priesthood instead of their own. the subject bull, which figures largely in the persepolitan sculptures, is explained as signifying the overthrow of the assyrian power by the persian. the persepolitan, like the assyrian sculptures, are inscribed with the arrow-headed characters. the name of sennacherib, who was murdered by his own son in , is the oldest name yet discovered in the inscriptions; and as his achievements in judæa, in , are recorded, the oldest sculptures are since his time, or, at the earliest, in the seventh century before our era. unless much later works, they must, however, belong to the seventh century before our era ; but the ruins are found in three distinct places—khorsabad, kouyunjik, and nimroud, apparently much too remote from each other ever to have constituted a single city. the so-called north- west palace, that of nimroud, is supposed to have been built by ninus ii. and sardanapulus (esarhaddon) iii. ; kouyunjik, by an earlier sardanapulus. the entire city was destroyed by nabopolassar, the father of nebuchadnezzar, in , and the same king destroyed jerusalem in ; he rebuilt babylon, which was, in its turn, destroyed by cyrus in b.c. darius hystaspes, who succeeded cambyses b.c., had been with that king in egypt, as one of his body- egyptian ornament. in egypt, we found grandeur of proportion, simplicity of parts, and splendour or costliness of material-gold, silver, and ivory, precious stones, and colour—as the great art characteristics. and we find throughout, that the prevailing characteristic of asiatic art, also, is sumptuousness. it is equally displayed in the works of the tabernacle, in the temple of solomon, in the buildings of semiramis and of nebuchadnezzar at babylon, and in the palaces of the persian kings. jewish ornament, like the egyptian, appears to have been purely representative. the only elements mentioned in scripture are the almond, the pomegranate, the palm- tree, the lily or lotus, oxen, lions, and the cherubim. the only example we possess of jewish ornamental work is the bas-relief of the candlestick of seven branches, still partly preserved among the sculptures of the arch of titus at rome. extending our view still farther east, we find the most characteristic feature of hindoo art seems to be the fantastic; and though possessing the same jewelled richness as the egyptian, it wants its simplicity and grandeur. its most striking peculiarities are its fantastic animal devices, and profusion of minute foliage. but i believe most indian work to be modern compared with egyptian.* it is not till we come to greece that we find the habitual introduction of forms for their own sake, or for their æsthetic value or effect, purely as ornaments; and this is a very great step in art. * on the rules and proportions of hindoo architecture, see ram raz. chapter vii. greek ornament. illustrated literature. ionian 'antiquities, published, with permission of the society of dilettanti, by r. chandler, m.a., n. revett, architect, and w. pars, painter. folio. london, , paoli. p. a.-ruins of pæstum. rovine della citta di pesto detta ancora posidonia. folio. rome, . hamilton, sir w.-collection of engravings from ancient vases, mostly of pure greek workmanship, discovered in sepulchres in the kingdom of the two sicilies, but chiefly in the neighbourhood of naples, during the course of the years - , now in the possession of sir w. hamilton; with remarks on each vase by the collector. vols. large to. naples, - . . stuart and revett.—the antiquities of athens measured and delineated. vols. folio. london, - . - supplement to the above by cockerell, kinnard, donald- son, jenkins, and railton. folio. london, . british museum.—a description of the collection of ancient marbles in the british museum, with engravings, chiefly from drawings by h. corbould. vols. to. london, , et seq. de quincy, q.-le jupiter olympien, ou l'art de la sculpture antique considérée sous un nouveau point de vue, &c. (the mode of construct- ing the chryselephantine works considered.) folio. paris, . -- monuments et ouvrages d’art antiques, restitués, d'après les descriptions des ecrivains grecs et latins, et accompagnés de dissertations archéologiques. (attempted restorations in coloured plates of chryselephantine and other celebrated works of ancient art.) vols. to. paris, . millengen, j.-ancient unedited monuments. painted greek vases, from collections in various countries, principally in great britain, illustrated and explained. to. london, . greek ornament. draece, asia minofon, n. d. ancient marbles in bouillon, pei vulliamy, l.-examples of ornamental sculpture in architecture. drawn from the original of bronze, marble, and terra cotta, in greece, asia minor, and italy, in the years - - - . nd edition, to. london, n. d. bouillon and st. victor.— the ancient marbles in the louvre. musée des antiques, dessiné et gravé par p. bouillon, peintre, avec des notices explicatives par j. b. de st. victor. vols. folio. paris, - . normand, c.--nouveau parallèle des ordres d'architecture des grecs, des romains, et des auteurs modernes. folio. paris, . micali, g.-monuments illustrating the history of the ancient people of italy. monumenti per servire alla storia degli antichi popoli italiani ; raccolti esposti, e pubblicati da giuseppe micali. small folio. florence, . text, vols. vo. - . penrose.-an investigation of the principles of athenian architec- ture, or the results of a recent survey, conducted chiefly with refer- ence to the optical refinements exhibited in the construction of the . ancient buildings at athens. illustrated by numerous engravings. (published by the society of dilettanti.) folio. london, . hittorff, j.j.-on greek polychromy, or the painting of architecture. restitution du temple d'empédocle à sélinonte, ou l'architecture polychrome chez les grecs. text, to.; plates, atlas folio. paris, . weitbrecht, c. — ornamenten zeichnungs-schule. (ornamental drawing-school for artists, manufacturers, and workmen.) plates. nd edition. oblong folio. stuttgart, . bÖtticher, karl von.—the art of the greeks in its relation to the beautiful in architecture, and in the industrial arts. die tektonik der hellenen. text, vols. to. ; atlas of plates, vols. folio. potsdam, - . holz, f. w.-details of the principal greek mouldings. details greichischer haupt-gesimse zusammengestellt für die man- nigfachsten anwendungen, in blättern. to. berlin, . donaldson, t. l.–architectura numismatica, or architectural medals of classic antiquity. illustrated and explained by comparison with the monuments and the description of ancient authors, and copious text. imp. vo. london, . the next great historic style we have to review is the greek. first we must speak of the doric, or early greek, which comprises the etruscan-evidently derived greek ornament. seventh century, and perhaps earlier, it is impossible but that the greeks were sufficiently acquainted with all the arts of the egyptians, and that very much was learned by them from the egyptians, although, in the great cities, the traditionary records or later versions of records generally claim the art as indigenous and original. the traditions, however, of less important localities, as occasionally repeated by pausanias, carry the whole evidence to the other side of the question. the arts of the greeks appear to have been established much earlier, or more extensively, in the islands, and espe- cially at samos, than in greece itself. the doric age—the first historic age of greek art- comprises altogether a period of about four centuries from the first historic records ; from rhæcus of samos and cypselus of corinth, until phidias and pericles and their immediate successors. the previous period from the traditions of the trojan war, belongs rather to what may be termed the heroic age. the style of this period extended from the western shores of asia to the extreme limits of sicily, as shown in the many interesting doric ruins still preserved. the most important manufacture of the period of which remains exist, was that of the terra-cotta vases; and on these we find all the charac- teristic ornaments of the distinctively greek style of decoration. we find on these vases exactly the same ornaments, but necessarily modified in their treatment, as those which distinguished the architectural monuments of the time. there are two classes of the painted greek pottery, the black and the yellow; that is, those which have uses ime greek. example of fret or labyrinth. ותו פסקל סה"ס anthemion. apollo epicurius. dionoididodo masulman echinus and astragal. erechtheium. s example of guilloche. greek ornament. black figures and ornaments, the ground of the vase being left the colour of the clay; and those which have the ground painted black, and the figures left the colour of the clay. of the black or former class there are two varieties, the one painted only with animals, the other with figures, &c. the earliest belong to the date of about b.c. ; the second may be generally reckoned as a century later. of the yellow vases there are three varieties or sub-classes—the severe, the beautiful, and the rich, so called from the various characters of their decorations; and these belong respectively to the general dates , , and , b.c., when the manufacture seems to have ceased. there are two other kinds of vases which, in an ornamental view, may be considered to commence and to terminate the series ; those that are not painted, but are merely decorated with zigzags and frets in a manner resembling wicker-work; and those which are painted with the complete encaustic picture in all colours. the last are very rare, and belong to the latest date, about b.c.; the first are even older than the most ancient black yases, and may be considered as belonging to the seventh century before our era. the first ornaments which attract our notice on these vases, of all periods, are those with which we have already become familiar in egyptian art—the zigzag, the wave- scroll, and the labyrinth, or greek fret. but perhaps the most characteristic ornaments of the period are the echinus, or horse-chestnut (egg and tongue), and the anthemion, commonly known in its most simple form as the honeysuckle or palmette, both of which it somewhat resembles, as represented in the doric antefixes. but greek ornament. om the anthemion, or flower-ornament, is more than the mere honeysuckle (or palm-branch, whatever it may be), even when so applied: it is this flower-form alternated with the lily or analogous form. this is the case with every example, except a very few, upon the vases. there is, however, no actual imitation whatever in greek ornamental art. occasionally, also, in this period .em- blematic ornaments were used which referred to the mysteries, sacrifices, funeral rites, and the games; but instances are not frequent. at all events, such ornaments do not belong to prominent characteristics of style. the architectural features of the greek are still more distinctive than the ornamental in comparison with the egyptian. the flat, ponderous, sloping buildings of the egyptians are both beautiful and useful in the landscape and climate of egypt; and just as the rainless heat of egypt developed the massive flat roofs, so the rainy seasons of greece rendered the sloping roof necessary, the gable of which the greeks eventually developed into their beau- tiful pediment. the pediment seems to have necessitated another member in the entablature, the frieze; a feature æsthetically more than mechanically necessary to diminish the apparent weight of the pediment, to balance the parts, and to strengthen, in effect, the entablature. the only greek example of a temple without a pediment, the pan- droseium at athens—has no frieze in its entablature. the distinctive ornament of the three greek architec- tural orders, as they are termed, is the capital. the doric capital consists of a round flat cushion, called the echinus, and a large square abacus, the lower diameter of the echinus being that of the pillar, its upper that of the greek ornament. abacus. the cushion is called the echinus, from its being invariably decorated (painted) with that ornament. as this ornament is so constant, the doric order may be descriptively termed the echinus order ; and the echinus is accordingly the principal ornament of the period. like the egyptian, the greek is distinguished from its broad flat surfaces. even its curves are flat, of a para- bolic character; a development, perhaps, due to the prac- tice of polychromic decoration. everything was coloured; and high relief, as producing shadows, is antagonistic to the display of colour. in a general classification we may combine the doric and alexandrian as one style, the greek, unless we wish to distinguish between early and late greek; and as they really are distinct, it is proper to separate their charac- teristics here; but of course the second comprises the first. of the early period, then, to recapitulate, the charac- teristic features are—the echinus, the wave-scroll (some- times called the vitruvian scroll), the fret or labyrinth, the zigzag, the anthemion, and occasionally the astragal; and the terra-cotta vases have given such a prestige to black and tawny yellow that their combination has become a characteristic colouring—not, however, to the exclusion of red, blue, yellow, green, or white. purple and saffron may likewise be said to be characteristic of this period, as the favourite colours for male and female costume. on the whole, foliage performs a very secondary part in the ornamentation of this age. we have conventional floriage more prominent; and we have comparatively a great variety of geometrical forms and combinations in the greek ornament. characteristic of the roman than the greek. the only greek scroll worthy of the name is the very simple one of the roof of the choragic monument of lysicrates. the most simple form of the scroll is of very rare occurrence, even on the painted terra-cotta vases ; but it is not uncommon on the ordinary red ware of the romans, and in these examples it has preserved its greek character. there is always a great simplicity both in the details and in the arrangement of the materials of greek ornament: it is generally the various elements arranged in simple horizontal series, one row above the other. jamaa nnnnn ancient bronze lamp, ound in the 'thames. chapter viii. roman ornament. illustrated literature. piranesi, g. and f.-greek and roman antiquities, paintings, &c. vols. fol. paris, - . wood and dawkins.—the ruins of palmyra, otherwise tedmor in the desert. folio. london, . - the ruins of baalbec, otherwise. heliopolis, in colosyria. folio. london, . moreau, c.-fragmens et ornemens d'architecture, dessinés à rome d'après l'antique. folio. paris, . tatham, c. h.-etchings, representing the best examples of ancient ornamental architecture, drawn from the originals in rome, and other parts of italy, during the years , , and . . rd edition, small folio. london, . rome.—the most remarkable buildings of ancient rome. raccolta delle più insigni fabbriche di roma antica e sue adjacenze. misurate nuovamente e dichiarate dall'architetto giuseppe valadier, illustrate con osservazioni antiquarie da filippo aurelio visconti, ed inciso da vincenzo feoli. folio. roma, - . wilkins, w.-the civil architecture of vitruvius, comprising those books of the author which relate to the public and private edifices of the ancients. illustrated by numerous engravings. with an introduction, containing an historical view of the rise and progress of architecture among the greeks. folio. london, . mazois, f.—les ruines de pompéi, dessinées et mesurées par f. mazois, pendant les années , , . ouvrage continué par m. gau, précédé d'une notice sur f. mazois par m. le chevalier artaud, et de l'explication de la grande mosaïque découverte à pompéi en , par m. quatremère de quincy. le texte de la quatrième partie a été rédigé par m. barré. vols. folio. paris, - . roman ornament. taylor and cresy.— the architectural antiquities of rome. vols. folio. london, . gell and gandy.–pompeiana : the topography, edifices, and orna- ments of pompeii. vols. imperial vo. london, - . canina, l.-ancient architecture, explained by its monuments : greek, roman, &c. l'architettura antica descritta e demonstrata coi monumenti. text, vols. vo. plates, vols. folio. roma, - . albertolli, ferd.-friezes from the forum of trajan, with others in rome, and various other cities. fregi trovati negli scavi del foro trajano, con altri esistenti in roma ed in diverse altre città ; disegnati e misurati sul luogo da ferdinando albertolli. folio. milan, . zahn, w.-the most beautiful ornaments and most remarkable paintings of pompeii, herculaneum, and stabiæ, &c., from original drawings made on the spot. die schönsten ornamente und merkwürdigsten gemälde aus pom- peii, herkulanum, und stabiæ, nebst einigen grundrissen und ansichten, nach den an ort und stelle gemachten originalzeich- nungen, von wilhelm zahn. folio. berlin, - , et seq. -- ornaments of all classic art epochs, represented from the originals in their proper colours. ornamente aller klassischen kunst epochen nach den originalen in ihren eigenthümlichen farben dargestellt. oblong folio. berlin, . wieseler, f.—theatres, &c., of the greeks and romans. theatergebäude und denkmäler des bühnenwesens bei den griechen und römern. to. göttingen, . we come now to the third and last ancient style, the roman. in this, however, we have simply an enlarge- ment or enrichment of the florid greek. it did not add a single important element to the greek, but elaborated the established elements with every possible variety of effect, and with all the exuberance and richness of which they are capable, developing some into comparatively colossal proportions. it was, therefore, original only in its treatment of the greek materials. roman art is accordingly still greek art; and it is more than probable roman. hiz set hitel s win pa ho toio cornice of pedestal, trajan's column, rome. roman. oldinidiididik j.es echinus and astragal. pantheon, rome. finden. jupiter tonans, rome. well! antonio jupiter stator, rome. roman ornament. that nearly all the great artists employed by the romans were greeks, not only in the provinces, as at petra, palmyra, baalbec, or at athens (temple of jupiter), pola, and spalatro, but at rome itself, where the most magni- ficent forum, that of trajan, was the work of a greek. however, though not original, roman ornament has its peculiar characteristics, as well as every other style. the chief of these is its uniform magnificence. the most simple greek ornament becomes, under roman treatment, if not a magnificent, at least an elaborate decoration. in fact, the most florid greek example, as the choragic monument of lysicrates for instance, becomes a very simple design in comparison with only an ordinary roman specimen. the architectural orders, though preserved in nearly their pure greek form also, have not escaped this enrich- ment; and the composite, the only distinct roman order, comprises, as its name literally implies, all the three greek orders at once—the echinus, the voluted, and the acanthus orders. it is perhaps incorrect to say that there is no new element in roman ornament. i believe the shell, which in after time became so very prominent, is first found in the modillion of the arch of titus at rome. the arch, too, is a roman feature : where the greeks were in the habit of using the horizontal entablature, the romans very often have employed the arch. the roman acanthus likewise has a character of its own. the greeks used the acanthus spinosus, or narrow prickly acanthus; the romans the acanthus mollis, or soft acanthus,—the brank-ursine of our islands. but the roman acanthus, for capitals, is commonly composed of conventional clusters of olive- roman. ws what is ancient pilaster, rome. roman. acanthus scroll, rome. roman. g. mateaux frieze, forum of trajan. roman ornament. the free introduction of monsters and animals is like- wise a characteristic of greek and roman ornament,—as the sphynx, the triton, the griffin, and others : they occur, however, much more abundantly in the roman. the most splendid roman ornamental specimens are those which have been dug up among the ruins of the forum of trajan, of the early part of the second century of our era. they are the work of a greek,-apollodorus of damascus,- who carried out many great works for the emperor trajan. helodie oel.sc chimera. chapter ix. the decline of ancient art. we have hitherto looked at only the bright side of this period: we must not overlook those features which more especially constitute it a period of decline. in the first place, quantity generally supplanted quality; and in the second, this quantity was applied in most cases without taste or propriety. this is illustrated by most of the great works of the period; and by none better than the triumphal arches, which are exclusively ornamental works. a few remarks will suffice to show how the roman, with its abundance of materials, was still a period of decline. it was the use that was made of these materials. style and system may be looked upon as synonymous terms in ornamental art. besides the ornaments themselves, we must have some system of applying them. and if the prominent and characteristio members of certain established styles are promiscuously thrown together, the principal features of one style applied as secondary to subordinate features of another, the value of all is diminished, and the general effect has but its vagueness to characterise it. the same ornamental types may be used in the develop- ment of new styles,—distinction of style depending not so much on the types themselves, as on the mode of using them. the decline of ancient art. but in the development of any particular historic style of ornament, we are strictly limited to the elements belong- ing to that style; and in combining styles, the various members belonging to the same style should preserve their relative degree of importance. the general decorations of the roman period, and espe- cially those of pompeii, exhibit an utter disregard of these observances; and thus all distinctions of style, and conse- quent peculiarities of character, are lost. the tastes of the three ancient styles—egyptian, greek, and roman, are very distinct. the egyptian is symbolic, rich, and severe, at the same time; the greek is severe and beautiful; and the roman, rich and beautiful,-at least in its good examples. greek taste steadily progressed until about the time of alexander : from this period, richness and abundance of ornament gradually supplanted the chaster principles of design. the conquest of asia introduced a taste for orna- mental display, which, ending in pure ostentation, resulted in the utter annihilation of taste, and of art itself, under the luxurious example of the roman emperors. the greeks themselves, however, were always lovers of splen- dour. their painted and chryselephantine (gold and ivory) sculpture could hardly be surpassed in magnificence: their personal costume, as sybaris evinces, was of the richest character; and the splendour of their temples was only characteristic of their mural decoration generally. this splendour was carried out by the romans on a still greater scale, until a boundless luxury established an indiscriminate extravagance of ornamental detail. marcus ludius, in the time of augustus, became very celebrated the decline of ancient art. for his landscape decorations, which were illustrated with figures actively employed in occupations suited to the scenes ; which kind of painting became universal after his time, and in the first century of our era was established that extraordinary style which we have still preserved at pompeii, but which the roman writers themselves were as far from approving as the best critics of modern times. vitruvius, at a still earlier time, deplores the folly and absurdity of the stucco-work of his day. “what the ancients," he complains, "accomplished by art, we attempt to effect by gaudy colouring. expense is now substituted for skill. who, in former times, used vermilion, except for physic? we now cover our walls with it.” pliny also complains of ostentation having completely supplanted good taste in the decorations of his time : “a man now cares nothing for art, providing he has his walls well covered with purple, or dragon's blood from india.” vi- truvius enumerates the various kinds of wall-painting in use among the ancients. they first imitated coloured marbles; these they afterwards divided into panels, and enriched with ornamental frames and cornices; then archi- tectural decorations were added ; and finally were intro- duced tragic, comic, and satyric scenes, and landscapes. all eventually degenerated into the existing pompeiian extravagances. yet, notwithstanding the general extravagance of this age, there were doubtless in rome many examples of beautiful decoration of a very high character. even pom. peii, an unimportant provincial town, exhibits occasional traces of a magnificent system of decoration. the painted figures which we find in the centres of walls or panels, res the decline of ancient art. feet by ten, representing the battle between darius and alexander at issus, discovered in the so-called house del fauno, in . it is one of the most important relics of ancient art, and shows that though the laws of perspective are generally grossly disregarded in the architectural deco- rations, it was not from the ignorance of their existence; for in this work, however careless the mechanical exe- cution may be, perspective is appreciated, and the fore- shortening of the figure and the horse is even skilfully expressed. it is a work, in composition, general attitude of the figures and horses, and for treatment of costume, in every way worthy of a great master; and the picture or composition itself evidently belongs to a period long anterior to the execution of the mosaic, in which we most probably have an example of the higher school of painting of the greeks, and possibly a coarse copy of the great battle-piece of the victory of alexander over darius, men- tioned by pliny, by which philoxenus of eretria had ren- dered his name celebrated. byzantine ornament. wyatt, m. d.-specimens of the geometrical mosaic of the middle ages; with a brief historical notice of the art, founded on papers read before the royal institute of british architects, the royal society of arts, and the archeological institute of great britain and ireland. small folio. london, . chalmers of auldbar.—the ancient sculptured monuments of the county of angus, including those at meigle in perthshire, and one at fordoun in the mearns. with an additional plate and explana- tory text. (privately printed and presented to the bannatyne club.) large folio. edinburgh, . perret, l.-the catacombs of rome. catacombes de rome ; archi- tecture, peintures murales, inscriptions, figures, et symboles des pierres sépulcrales, verres gravés sur fond d'or, lampes, vases, anneaux, instruments, &c., des cimetières des premiers chrétiens. vols. folio. paris, , et seq. (published by the french government, under the direction of a commission of the institute of france.) caumont, de.-archæological a b c book. abécédaire, ou rudiment d'archéologie. ouvrage approuvé par l'institut des provinces de france. (ornamental styles, civil and military architecture, &c.) vols. vo. paris, - . inkersley, t.-an inquiry into the chronological succession of the styles of romanesque and pointed architecture in france; with notices of some of the principal buildings on which it is founded. stained glass—methods of glass painting—mosaic-mosaic-stain- and the pure and mixed enamel-mosaic enamel. mosaic method described by theophilus, twelfth and thirteenth centuries. design, hatched and smeared on pot metal, in enamel brown—the grozing iron. ornaments, chiefly from the manuscripts—of a byzan- tine or norman character-tan coloured flesh-simple and medal- lion windows-foliage and quarry patterns, plain and reticulated. lecture iv.—on gothic ornament-decorated pointed. the verticality of gothic as contrasted with the horizontal romanesque. the five arches of english architecture—the round, the pointed, the ogee, the four-centred, and the flat. seven styles of english ecclesiastical architecture, from edward the confessor ( ) to edward vi., about five centuries—the saxon (early norman romanesque)-round norman (zigzag)—pointed norman (transition)-early english gothic(introduction of the mul- lion and tracery) —decorated-perpendicular (lancastrian)—and tudor. average duration of each style about seventy years. characteristics. geometrical character of gothic art. snow crystals. tracery-soffit and chamfer cusping. the trefoil leaf-the crocket-the finial—the gargoyle. the tudor flower. manufac- tures. byzantine ornament. bock, f.—les trésors sacrés de cologne. objets d'art du moyen age. vo. paris, . tymms and wyatt.—the art of illuminating, as practised in europe from the earliest times. ilustrated by borders, initial letters, and alphabets, selected and chromolithographed by w.r. tymms. with an essay and instructions by m. digby wyatt. imp. vo. london, . we may now turn to the middle-age styles, which, in sed termed christian art. the peculiar views of the early christians in matters of art had, before the establishment of christianity by the state, no material influence upon society, though the pagan idolatries found many bold and vigorous opponents long before the time of constantine. during the first and second centuries, christian works of art were limited to symbols, and were then never applied as decorations, but as exhortations to faith and piety. and all christian decoration rests upon this foundation,—the same spirit of symbolism prevailing throughout, until the return to the heathen principle of beauty (to the æsthetic) in the period of the renaissance. the early symbols were the monogram of christ : the lily; the cross; the serpent; the fish; the aureole, or vesica piscis, representing the acrostic symbol, the fish, from the common greek word for fish, ixoús, containing the initials of the following sentence: 'ingous xplotos ocoû yiós lórnp, jesus christ, of god the son, the saviour; and the circle, or nimbus, the glory of the head, as the vesica is of the entire body. these are very important elements in christian decoration,—especially the nimbus, which is the element of the trefoil and quatrefoil, so common in byzantine ornament. cos from a gold fibula. byzantine and gothic art, the first having reference to the trinity, the second to the four evangelists, as the testimony of christ, and to the cross; at the extremities of which we often find four circles, besides the circle in the centre, which signifies the lord. thus, figures or combinations of three, four, and five circles are common in me- dieval art, and have all sacred significations. many crosses are composed nearly exclusively of the five cir- cles as principals, or are prominently decorated with them. a cross of this character is not uncom- mon, either with the circle or nimbus in the centre, and four other circles or nimbi at the extremities, or com- posed simply of five cir- cles arranged in the form of the cross,—the centre circle, or nimbus, having reference to the lord, and the other four to the evan- gelists. occasionally the symbolic images of the old leather case. evangelists, — the angel, the lion, the ox, and the eagle,—are represented within these circles. these symbolic images of the evangelists are frequently byzantine ornament. applied as the principal decoration of a façade, and are constantly met with under the arches of doorways, on either side of the vesica, which is found circumscribing the image of christ, with his right hand raised in the attitude of benediction. the hand, in the attitude of benediction, is another characteristic element in early christian and medieval works of art. there is a distinction between the greek and the latin form,—the greek symbolising jesus christ, expressing the greek monogram, ic.xc., (jesouc xristoc), by placing the thumb on the third finger, and slightly curving the second and fourth : the latin displaying the thumb and the first and second fingers only extended, and thus symbolising the trinity. the roman prelate blesses in the name of the trinity; the greek in the name of jesus christ. without some knowledge of these essential points, the byzantine decorations are quite unintelligible ; for their early designers would appear to have avoided rather than sought beauty in all these peculiar forms; the principle is exactly the same as that by which egyptian art was regulated. the lily, too (the fleur-de-lis), the emblem of the virgin and of purity, is as common in christian decoration as the lotus is in that of egypt. it is the symbol which was eventually elaborated into the most characteristic foliage of byzantine and romanesque art, still well illustrated in work of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, -and especially in the old iron-work of that time. byzantine ornament. details, is that conventional foliage and scroll work just described. the very exclusive prejudices of the early byzantines once overcome, a most comprehensive style of decoration was rapidly developed, notwithstanding they never attained that purity of detail which characterises the works of the greeks. still, so great was their ingenuity, that they made, from their crudest symbols even, very beautiful and attractive designs. an important feature always to be observed in the works of the byzantines is, that all their imitations of natural forms were invariably conventional : so far they have preserved the ancient custom throughout. it is the same even with animals and with the human figure : every saint had his prescribed colours, proportions, and symbols. this byzantine system of decoration was fully matured, and is still shown in perfection in the rich mosaics of st. sophia at constantinople, completed by the emperor justinian a.d.* the beauty and effect of byzantine designs is, however, as often owing to their materials as to the fashion of the ornaments themselves; and this is the case with nearly all early middle-age art; as it was with the egyptians, and must perhaps always be in every style which depends for its individuality of character chiefly upon its sym- bolism: for symbols are not chosen for their beauty, but for their meaning. * some beautiful specimens have been lately published in the work of salzenberg, on constantinople, undertaken under the auspices of the prussian government. byzantine ornament. we shall find that the most beautiful byzantine designs are those in which the symbolism is unobtrusive, or even wholly disguised : not absent, for that is very rarely, if ever, the case. a design which contained no trace of symbolism could hardly be a genuine byzantine example. generally speaking, but especially in eccle- siastical decoration,—whether metal-work, stone-work, wood-carving, glass-staining, or mosaic,—the symbols, in some form or other, are paramount, being mixed only with geometrical forms. many by- zantine capitals may appear to con- tradict this; but on examination it will be found that the apparently floral forms are combinations only of the conventional types derived from the symbols; as vesicas, circles, lilies, and many others. the very tracery is sometimes composed of serpents; and serpents are not an uncommon ornament for a capital. the serpent figures largely in byzantine art, as the instrument of the fall, and one type of the redemption. the cross planted on the serpent is found sculptured on mount athos ; and the cross, surrounded by the so-called runic knot, is only a scandinavian version of the original byzantine image,—the crushed snake curling round the stem of the avenging cross. the cross, with two scrolls at the foot of it, typifying the snake, is another of its modifications, and a very common byzantine ornament. the ordinary northern crosses, so conspicuous for their interlaced ornaments and grotesque monsters, appear to be purely modifications of this idea. some good examples urra byzantine. iron hinge, notre-dame, paris. byzantine ornament. may be seen in chalmers' sculptured monuments of - angus. the leading forms of byzantine architecture are like- wise due to the same influence—the cross, the circle, and the dome, pervade everywhere. the dome has its own reference to the vault of heaven, whose living glories were generally represented on the spherical roof of the apse at the end of the greek basilicas. this representa- tion is known in the greek church as the holy liturgy, or the glorification of christ, and it often illustrates the dome itself in the centre of the cross. that is the reason that the cross and the dome are so characteristic of early esque architecture generally. some of the principal byzantine or romanesque churches are developments of the symbol of the five circles or glories : they are placed in the form of a cross, and are surmounted by domes corresponding in size and situation to the circles represented in the pavement below. st. mark's at venice is a conspicuous example of this symbolic architecture. this species of architecture, with the dome and round arch, is termed romanesque, as derived immediately from that which prevailed throughout the roman empire at that time when from heathen it became christian : some of its classical types are the pantheon, the coliseum, and the palace of diocletian at spalatro. though not roman absolutely, it is derived from the roman; it is debased roman-romanesque : it is a general term which distinguishes the round-arch species from the saracenic and gothic, which are pointed-arch species. the pre- byzantine ornament. servation of the dome and arch, however, was probably due rather to the symbolic value of those figures among the byzantine greeks than to the mere historic example of the romans. the chief varieties of the romanesque are the byzantine, the lombard, and the norman.* both the lombard and the norman may, in a technical point of view, be considered mere modifications or varieties of the byzantine; certainly few examples of the romanesque out of italy were not deriyed, directly or indirectly, from constantinople, or byzantium, as it was previously called. the style extended to this country as far north as york and hexham: it is still the standard type in russia; and it is the exclusive model of the whole system of architec- ture of the mohammedans, from benares to cadiz, from cairo to damascus. indeed the byzantine was so widely spread, and so thoroughly identified with all middle-age art, that its influence did not entirely cease until the establishment of the renaissance in the fifteenth century: both the saracenic and the gothic proceeded from the byzantine. the greek missionaries carried its influence into the extreme north ; and while the artists of syria were accommodating their style to mohammedan exclusiveness in the south, in the colder regions of europe the mysteries of mount athos were freely mixed up with the fables of scandinavian mythology. the scandinavian soldiers, also, of the imperial body- guard, made the talismans of christian mythology almost * see these styles beautifully illustrated in osten's “ buildings of lombardy." byzantine. capital. moissac, france. capital. germany. byzantine ornament. as familiar in their native homes as the gods of their forefathers. the same mixture became as common even- tually on the portals of lombardy. there is this difference between the byzantine and the lombard and norman varieties, that the symbolism is mere matter of habit in the two latter, and generally, perhaps, though rudely preserved in many forms, is dis- regarded in their spirit; that is, in mere ornamental details, such as the zigzag, dog's-tooth, nail-head, star, chain, and a host of others : but the symbolic figures and other religious decorations mean exactly what they express. as the peculiarly norman style, such as it is best known in this country, was originally developed in sicily, it contains, of course, many saracenic features, of which the pointed arch and the zigzag are the most prominent; for the norman, though originally a simple romanesque style, eventually adopted in the twelfth century the pointed arch of the mohammedans.* this style is well developed in the cathedral of cefalu in sicily, built by king roger in . the terms byzantine and romanesque have been used above as almost synonymous. they are so as regards their architectural features; the byzantine being only a variety of the romanesque. in the later centuries they may be considered the same in all respects; but in the earlier centuries there is an ornamental distinction: the more strictly romanesque, or latin, being a simple debasement of roman art; the byzantine, or greek, being this art combined with the symbolic elements * gally knight, “saracenic and norman remains in sicily.” m va n saracenic ornament. time. however, by the seventh century, when the works of the saracens commenced, the byzantine greeks were already sufficiently skilful to make light of such exclusions, and the exertion of ingenuity which they impelled gave rise to a more beautiful simply ornamental style than perhaps any that had preceded it, for there was no division of the artistic mind now between meaning and effect; and although the religious cycles and other symbolic figures which had hitherto engrossed so much of the artist's attention were excluded, the mere con- ventional ornamental symbolism, the ordinary forms borrowed from the classic periods, and geometrical sym- metry, left an abundant field behind which was further enriched by the peculiarly saracenic custom of elaborating inscriptions into their designs. mere curves and angles. or interlacings were now to bear the chief burden of a design, but distinguished by a variety of colour; the curves, however, very naturally fell into the standard forms and floral shapes, and the lines and angles were soon developed into a very characteristic species of tracery or interlaced strap-work, very agreeably diversified by the ornamental introduction of the inscriptions. and although flowers were not palpably admitted, the great mass of the minor details of saracenic designs are com- posed of flower forms disguised; the very inscriptions are sometimes thus grouped as flowers : this is especially the case in the later works of the alhambra; still no actual flower ever occurs, as the exclusion of all natural images is the fundamental of the style in its purity. the omission of the crescent in saracenic or moham- medan work generally is worth notice. it now crowns lio saracenic ornament. cu was the great mosques of constantinople, but it is not to be found in any early work, and it appears to be itself simply the trophy of the conquest of the greek capital of constantinople, the ancient byzantium, of which it was the symbol, the town on one occasion having, according to an old tradition, been preserved from a night ambuscade by the timely appearance of the new moon; it occurs on old byzantine coins. constantinople was not captured by. the turks until . one of the greatest works produced under these cir- cumstances was the magnificent mosque of touloun at cairo, a monument of the ninth century ( a.d.), and the recorded work of a greek. the ornaments are in stucco, and altogether offer the most characteristic example of the combination of byzantine and saracenic elements. with the saracenic tracery and inscriptions, and other peculiar forms, we have combined several of the most popular ancient ornaments in their byzantine garb, but somewhat more than ordinarily modified, as the fret, anthemion, the guilloche, the horns of plenty, and the fleur-de-lis. the more characteristic detail, that is, the original saracenic elements, the disguised conventional foliage spoken of, is very beautifully elaborated in some of the accessory works of this mosque. they became standards to after ages; for the details of the diaper-tiles of the alhambra, executed some five hundred years afterwards, are in many respects nearly identical with these details of the mosque of touloun at cairo. in all these early arabian buildings of cairo we have the pointed arch, which appears first, i believe, in the saracenic wiec isa dodds vw sggceo cccccc sss ДОНО alhambra diaper. saracenic ornament. great mosque of amrou, a work of the seventh century ( a.d.); but the ogee, the crescent, and the scalloped arches, are more characteristic, perhaps, of saracenic architecture generally, as the pointed arch has been made familiar by a later style; but the simple round romanesque arch also occurs in the moorish works of spain. this style became gradually richer as it advanced westwards from egypt to sicily, and especially in spain, where the alhambra, a work of the fourteenth century, still remains to bear witness to its unparalleled richness of detail. there is not much pure saracenic work in sicily; the palace of la ziza, at palermo, is, perhaps, the only example: there are, however, some magnificent siculo- norman remains of the twelfth century at palermo, monreale, cefalu, and messina, in which greek or saracenic artists were engaged; and the glass mosaics in these places are among the finest specimens of their class existing : they exhibit some exquisite examples of tracery or interlacing. the saracenic was the period of gorgeous diapers, for their habit of decorating the entire surfaces of their apartments was peculiarly favourable to the development of this class of design: the alhambra displays almost endless specimens, and all are in relief and enriched with gold and colour, chiefly blue and red. some give the idea of being more endurable imitations of the rich woollens of cashmere, which the arabs always made great store of. the genoa damasks, arras tapestries, and modern paper-hangings, are all imitations of these saracenic wall diapers. the very word “damask” means ace eans saracenic ornament. . new honu : - ben li ol damascus work. damascus, however, was famous for such fabrics before its conquest by the arabs. it was called damesk, and was a place of repute even in the time of abraham. damascus is still famous for its textile fabrics in a pure saracenic taste, and it produces a great variety of patterns in silk and in cotton, the designs of which are chiefly stripes and inscriptions, good wishes or pious sentences.* the siculo-norman, from which our round zigzag (ziza) and the pointed nor- man are derived, is as much a variety of the saracenic as of the byzantine : it is indeed a free combination of the two styles ; for the reserved mixture of the two hitherto practised had its christian character restored to it by the normans, through the introduction of sacred figures, and a pro- berkeley castle, gloucestershire. minence which they gave to all the most palpable christian symbols, more especially * this style has of late years found its way into our railway carriages : worsted borders, in which the initials of the company are worked as an ornamental pattern, right and left, and upside down, as in the eastern examples, are now common. the mock inscriptions on the borders of rich robes, in early italian pictures, are also derived from oriental models. the richest stuffs were from the east, and were decorated with arabic inscriptions; the old painters accordingly, when from a spirit of veneration they dressed their saints in rich robes, were very particular in the elaboration of their border decorations, which neces- sarily implied a robe of a costly oriental fabric. there are several examples of such borders in the national gallery. chapter xii. gothic ornament. illustrated literature. de laborde, le comte alexandre.—les monumens de la france, classés chronologiquement, et considérés sous le rapport des faits historiques et de l'etude des arts. vols. folio. paris, — . carter, j.-the ancient architecture of england, including the orders during the british, roman, saxon, and norman eras; and under the reigns of henry iii. and edward iii. illustrated by en- gravings. a new and improved edition, with notes and copious indexes, by john britton. folio. london, . -- specimens of the ancient sculpture and painting now remain- ing in england, from the earliest period to the reign of henry viii. exhibited in plates, drawn and etched by j. carter. with critical and historical illustrations by francis douce, richard gough, john fenn, j. s. hawkins, william bray, and the rev. j. milner. a new and improved edition, arranged in topographical order, and illustrated with copious notes by dawson turner, sir samuel rush meyrick, john britton, and others. folio. london, . britton, j.—the cathedral antiquities of england. vols. to. london, . putin, a. w.-specimens of gothic architecture, selected from various ancient edifices in england, consisting of plans, elevations, sections, and parts at large, &c. the literary part by j. e. willson. vols. rd edition, corrected and revised. to. london, — . popp, j., and buleau, th.— the three ages of gothic architecture. les trois ages de l'architecture gothique, son origine, sa théorie, démontrés et représentés par des exemples choisis à ratisbonne, &c. folio. paris, . boiserÉe, s.-histoire et description de la cathédrale de cologne. pour servir de texte aux vues, plans, coupes, et détails de l'edifice. nouvelle édition refaite et augmentée. plates, folio; text, to. munich, – . gothic ornament. architecture of the middle ages, and its spire growth. vols. folio. london, – . dollman and jobbins.—an analysis of ancient domestic architecture in great britain. to. london, . the third and last great middle-age style was the gothic. of this i can remark only as regards its general principles, to fully explain all its subdivisions of style would occupy much space. it grew out of the byzantine, and flourished chiefly on the rhine, in the north of france, and in england. salisbury cathedral, a.d. , the first great work of the kind in this country, is a work of the french, but in style it was a genuine norman beginning. the gothic was developed in the thirteenth century, and was perfected in the fourteenth ; its most characteristic monument, perhaps, is cologne cathedral, which was consecrated in the year ; in the fifteenth century it rapidly declined, and it became quite extinct, in this country at least, in the sixteenth ; a catastrophe doubtless involved by the reformation. england has had seven ecclesiastical styles, extending over a space of about five hundred years only, from the death of edward the confessor, , to the death of queen mary, , when all ecclesiastical architecture ceased; and the tudor was superseded by the renaissance in the reign of elizabeth. the seven styles are,- . the saxon, or simple round arch, romanesque. . the round norman (zigzag style). . the pointed norman, or transition (henry ii., or first plantagenet style). gothic. debe pud ess go ar fea lidl de ou osa to the lynn cup. c. . i gothic ornament. had occupied his time in the years of his apprentice- ship. there are not many matters on which the english people have been more deluded of late years than on the subject of the nationality and the christianity of gothic architecture. gothic is of comparatively very late de- velopment, and endured at most in this country for about three centuries; it is by no means english in its origin, and so far from having any determinate unity in its character, it displays, as already shown, a continued succession of changes. its religious elements are byzan- tine. as regards christianity of style, the most christian architecture is literally that of the mohammedan mosques, which owe their forms to the early christian symbolism, as developed by the byzantine greeks. three only of the above styles, the fourth, fifth, and sixth, are what can be strictly termed gothic: the two first are round arch, and belong to the byzantine or romanesque varieties; the third is the simple transition from the round to the pointed styles; and the seventh is the transition back again from those styles in which the arch is so prominent a feature, to the renaissance varie- ties, in which the arch becomes again round, and loses its importance as a principal elementary feature of style. the general characteristics of the gothic, as an archi- tectural style, are these :-it is essentially pointed or vertical in its tendency, and in its detail is geometrical — in its window-tracery, in its openings, in its clusters of shafts and bases, and in its suits of mouldings—but it is only geometrical in its construction, or in its form, not in its spirit or motive. all the symbolic elements of the byzantine are con- gothic ornament. tinued in the gothic; but the pointed arch is substituted for the round. there is a close traditional connection in all the ordinary details, though the virulence of the image controversy, and other differences, between the greek and latin churches, doubtless had some influence in the development of a change of style; for we find that where the greek church has prevailed there has been, until very recently, no essential change whatever in ecclesiastical architecture. it is unquestionable, how- ever, that climate has had something to do also with the peculiar development of the gothic; it has flourished only in cold regions subject to much rain and snow, and a gothic church frequently looks very like a fortification against the weather, with its high-pitched roof, solid buttresses, and narrow doors and windows. as i have already explained, the pointed arch, one of the charac- teristics of the gothic, is not peculiar to it; it had already existed five hundred years in egypt, and is the common form of the siculo-norman arch. the gothic is chiefly distinguished from the byzantine and the latin romanesque varieties, by the universal absence of the dome, and the substitution of the pointed for the round arch. the union of the belfry with the church is not peculiar to the gothic, though in the great romanesque examples they are distinct, as at venice and pisa; they are also distinct at florence, and many other italian towns; nor are the towers in the place of the domes peculiar to the gothic, they are common in the norman romanesque in sicily, in germany, and in this country, as at ely, peterborough, and elsewhere. the spire is the pointed roof of the tower, and both gothic ornament. doubtless originally owed their development as much to use as to ornament: in thinly-populated and only half- cleared countries, such as england was in the middle ages, a tower or spire was a landmark performing other useful services besides that of simply indicating the locality of the church, or securing the proper elevation of its bells. the transition added the spire to the old tower of the romanesque and norman, and it is a common feature of the gothic; while the square abacus and the heavy cushion capitals of these styles, with their simple incised ornaments, are converted, in the transition, to the round abacus and the bell-shaped capital, decorated with raised foliage, and eventually elaborated into infinite variety in the gothic styles. ornamentally the gothic is the geometrical and pointed element elaborated to its utmost, its only peculiarities are its combinations of details; at first the conventional and the geometrical prevailing, and afterwards these combined with the elaboration of natural objects in its decoration. the byzantines never did this, their orna- ments were purely conventional; while in the finest gothic specimens we find not only the traditional con- ventional ornaments, but in the decorated period also elaborate imitations of the plants and flowers growing in the neighbourhood of the work. this is a great feature; but still the most striking feature of all gothic work is the wonderful elaboration of its geometric tracery -vesicas, trefoils, quatrefoils, cinquefoils, and an infinity of geometric varieties besides. the tracery is so para- mount a characteristic that the three english varieties, gothic ornament. the early english, the decorated, and the perpendicular, are distinguished almost exclusively by this feature ; it is the same with the french flamboyant—the flame style, from the waving lines of its tracery. the tracery, indeed, establishes the fact of a style being gothic or not, for the byzantine contains only the symbolic folia- tions; so the pointed style called “transition” is not gothic, because it has no tracery. the first gothic in this country is the early english, in which we have the first development of geometrical iswallow. from the temple church. window-tracery; mullions instead of piers; windows of several lights; flying buttresses, crocketed pinnacles, com- plicated mouldings, the columns clustered, and the capitals generally round; an extensive application of foliage, with the trefoil leaf, commonly called the early-english leaf, as the most characteristic ornament. it is sometimes as formal as a clover leaf, at other times very irregularly formed, but always with a fulness or roundness of the parts, as contrasted with the somewhat similar, but flat or even . gothic ornament. - - - --- - - hollow byzantine or norman foliage, of which it is a variation. the so-called tooth, or dog's-tooth, the most character- istic ornamental detail of the previous pointed style, the transition, occurs comparatively rarely in the early english, and in the early specimens only, and consider- ably varied in detail. this ornament was probably in its original form a simple vesica cross, but being contracted to fill hollows was developed into its ordinary character, so common in early plantagenet, or transition work. upon the early english succeeded the decorated, chiefly characterised by a more magnificent development of the leading elements of the early english, more especially the tracery; but it has its own features—the ogee arch, and the pinnacled canopied recesses of the buttresses, and other parts, producing a prominence of diagonal lines. the so- called ball-flower, and the common serpentine vine-scroll, are the most characteristic details of this period. there is also more nature, or imitation, in the details than in any other of the gothic varieties. in the third variety, the perpendicular, the new features are the horizontal line, the panellings, and the substitution of perpendicular for flowing tracery. and the execution of the ornamental details is very conventional. the most prominent bar of the tracery is the mullion itself, so that the prevalent panelling of the style is also prominent in the window tracery, composed of mullion upon mullion, or mullion and supermullion, being separated by a horizontal bar, termed a transom. this divides the lights into vertical panes or panels, and the same panelling (of which fan- tracery is also an example) is spread over every surface of gothic. w cados cd ses nimente dhe ser h illi wi uu . eu llllll be pedestal, henry vii.'s chapel. gothic ornament. nation of the lily and the cross, common as the decoration of a crown, and for edges or borders of many other kinds. there are five orders of arches which distinguish these several ecclesiastical styles generally, namely—the round, the pointed, the ogee, the four-centred, and the flat: the pointed itself comprising three varieties—the lancet, the pointed, and the drop arch; in the first the pitch being greater than the span, in the second equal to it, and in the last less. in ornamental art generally, then, as in architecture, it is geometrical tracery which will stamp a design with a gothic character: decorate it with natural flowers only, it will still be gothic; it would be necessarily made much more characteristic by the introduction of some of the historic ornaments of the period, -as the tudor-flower, fleur-de-lis, crocket-leaf, trefoil or early-english leaf, vine-scroll, or any other of the more familiar ornaments of the style. as, however, the gothic is a style which has flourished exclusively in cold countries, its ornaments of a natural class to be characteristic should be from such plants as are native to gothic latitudes; tropical plants would be inconsistent. throughout we should prefer the wild plants of the north to the more exuberant flowers of the south. all exotics, in fact, that are not symbols, should be unconditionally excluded. the characteristic norman ornaments are not admissible in the gothic, with the exception of the tooth, and that is peculiarly ren- dered. classical ornaments, likewise, are of course excluded ; even the scroll occurs only in the gothic as a serpentine. gothic ornaments independent of the tracery are nearly il gothic ornament. exclusively fruit, flowers, or leaves; and as a general rule, the execution is extremely rude. such is a rough outline of the course of ornamental art among the most prominent people of medieval history, for a period of more than a thousand years. we have seen that all varieties, however individual in character; are intimately connected with those which preceded them; an advantage once gained was not allowed to be lost; and the remarkable transition from the byzantine to the saracenic, so totally different in spirit and in detail, yet both deve- loped by the same artists, shows that it is not from a per- severing manual routine that variety and beauty are to be derived, but from the active intelligence of the controlling mind. fountains abbey, yorkshire. the modern or renaissance styles. sommerard, a. du.—les arts au moyen age. (collection of the hôtel de clugny.) text, vols. vo. ; plates, vols. folio. paris, - . lacroix and serÉ.—the middle ages and the renaissance, manners and customs, sciences and arts, &c.; with fac-simile illustrations. le moyen age et la renaissance, histoire et description des mours et usages du commerce et de l'industrie, des sciences, des arts, des littératures, et des beaux arts en europe. direc- tion littéraire de m. paul lacroix. direction artistique de m. ferdinand seré. dessins fac-similes par m. a. rivaud. vols. to. paris, - . beckner and hefner.—works of art and utensils of the middle ages and the renaissance. kunstwerke und geräthschaften des mittelalters und der renais- sance. by c. becker and j. von hefner. many coloured plates, vols. to. frankfort, . russian empire.—ecclesiastical, imperial, and other antiquities of the russian empire. published by supreme command. (russian text.) produced under the direction of an imperial commission. by s. stroganov, m. zagoskin, j. snegirev, and a. th. veltman. division . ecclesiastical antiquities; . imperial insignia, dresses, &c.; . arms and armour; . costume, pictures, and portraits; . furni- ture, jewellery, &c.; . architecture and decoration. text, vols. to.; plates, vols. folio. st. petersburg, . durelli, g. and f.—the charter house of pavia. la certosa di pavia descritta ed illustrata con tavole incise dai fratelli gaetano e francesco durelli. plates. folio. milan, . . berain, jean.—collection of ornamental designs. mural chimney- pieces, and other decorations, cinquecento, renaissance, and louis lecture ii.—the renaissance—the quattrocento. the quattrocento ( ). tradition superseded by selection. natural imitations in the details, and the symmetrical arabesques from ancient sculpture, added to the elements of the previous style, with occasional cartouches, or scrolled shield-work. luca della robbia -enamelled pottery. andrea pisano. iron and bronze work—the gates of the baptistery of san giovanni at florence. lorenzo ghiberti, – . niello-work. tommaso finiguerra. metal-plate engraving, . the renaissance as an epoch and as a style. lecture iii.—the cinquecento. the cinquecento ( ), the predominant italian style of the sixteenth century, the ultimate goal of the renaissance. a perfect restoration of classical ornament of the roman period, to the exclusion of all alien forms, with an especial elaboration of the arabesques and scrolls, and grotesque combinations of vegetable and animal forms : a purely æsthetic, or sensuous development of ornament. ' the renaissance or revival. new elements of beauty, especially its varied and intricate interlacings, which were so very prominent for a while as to constitute the chief characteristic of a new style, the first step of the transition from middle-age to modern art; known from its mean time, about the year , as the trecento. the new life and activity displayed by italy at this period was in some degree owing to the crusades, and more especially to the latin conquest of constantinople in the year , which displayed many treasures of ancient art to the venetians, whose taste was already sufficiently cultivated to appreciate their value; and four ancient bronze horses, a christian trophy of this venetian crusade, still adorn the façade of st. mark's. venice, already rich in byzantine works, appears to have taken the lead also in the dawning revival of classical art; and the venetians seem likewise to have contributed more than any others to its most finished development, the cinquecento. the venetians and the italians generally, controlled by no trammels of tradition, added their own beginnings of natural imitations, to christian or to pagan elements indiscriminately; the prestige of a thousand years was broken; the classical forms prevailed, and the quattrocento, the first great style of the renaissance, was established. from this time, the fifteenth century, we have done with all christian forms and elements in italy, in the ordinary details of ornamental art. the first of these modern innovations is the transition style, the trecento; which may be considered a negative style, as its peculiarity consists in its exclusion of certain hitherto common ornamental elements. the renaissance or revival, for the great features of this style are its intricate tracery of interlacings, and delicate scroll-work of conventional foliage, the style being but a slight remove from a com- bination of the byzantine and saracenic, the symbol- ism of both being equally excluded; the foliage and floriage, however, are not ex- clusively conventional, and it comprises a fair render- ing of the classical orders, with the restoration of the round arch. nicola pisano, andrea taffi, giotto, and their contemporaries, were the great masters of this style, and the church of san francesco at assisi and the cathedral of florence are fine examples of it. in the quattrocento, the next style, we have a far more positive revival. lo- renzo ghiberti may, perhaps, be instanced as its great ex- ponent or representative in ornamental art. filippo calendario and antonio riccio, called briosco, contem- mol renzo hm gate of baptistery, florence. the renaissance or revival. of ornament does not in any way invalidate such an origin. there are none of these forms on the gates of ghiberti ; but it abounds with medallions containing portraits, which perform a similar service in the design as the shields in other examples. another feature of this quattrocento style—or what is more especially the italian renaissance, as dis- tinct from the cinquecento—is the introduction, for the first time, of the grotesque arabesque, after the ancient models of rome and pompeii: in fact, the style of decoration is now of a very complicated character, though not confused, for we still have the trecento interlacings very largely used as borders, and the scroll, from the pretty serpentine character of the previous style, appears with all the fulness of the roman arabesque, but not yet very prominently intro- duced. although in the quattrocento the religious symbolism was excluded generally (not absolutely) from the orna- mental details, the religious sentiment was by no means absent from the quattrocento art itself; on the contrary, the quattrocento is essentially a religious style, but the religious sentiment was transferred from a secondary to a primary object in the design: we have the actual repre- sentation instead of the mere symbol. as, for instance, in the second pair of ghiberti gates—the history of moses is the principal subject of illustration of these gates—the ornaments are but the decorations to the several panels ; so it is in all other great schemes, of which the certosa of pavia offers many examples. there is little decoration wy la chapter xiv. the renaissance as a style. furaflour bronze. from door of st. maclou, rouen, o. . the capricious style, the so-called renaissance of the sixteenth century, which was in such good repute with the jewellers, was far more conspicuous for its cartouches (its scrolled shield-work) and tracery than for the more natural or the more classical elements of the style; the beauties of nature and the standard ornaments of antiquity could not vie, in the general taste, with either the attraction of novelty or the charm of indiscriminate variety, especially with the example of such names as primaticcio, holbein, and benvenuto cellini, as its advocates; but in as far as art and manipulation again attained the ascendency over symbolism it also was a revival, by reasserting the æsthetic principle. renaissance. carved door panels, from the château d'anet; now at the ecole des beaux arts, paris. c. . elizabethax. from the old guard chamber, westminster. c. . buoto ) n tootmoediae elizabethan. north entrance, wollaton. es ii wlanum in lp lw .. គុធ ដើមគេម gothic. place house, cornwall. cinquecento. . m. sparling, del. se from the martinengo tomb, brescia. c. ). cinquecento. ole from the façade of santa maria de miracoli, brescia. c. . cinquecento. efter i j. swallow.dlic from carved oak panels in the louvre, paris. c. . tu from a marble fountain in the louvre, paris. italian. . the cinquecento. another of its features is its beautiful variations of ancient standard ornaments, as the anthemion especially, of which there are some admirable cinquecento ex- amples. the guilloche or plat, the fret, and the acanthus scroll are likewise favourites, and occur in many varie- ties. the cinquecento appears, in- deed, to be the special province of the curve in its infinite play of arabesque; but in all its develop- ments it is in the form of some natural object or artificial combina- tion. the cartouches and strap- work wholly disappear from the best examples. in all the extensive works in sculpture of the north of italy, from about until , such forms are extremely rare; and in defining the cinquecento as a style, their exclusion becomes an essential condition. absolute works of art, such as vases, and imple- ments and instruments of all kinds, are prominent elements of the cin- quecento arabesque; but cartouches and strapwork as unauthorised by ancient practice, are necessarily ex- cluded from the style as a presumed carved wood. château de gaillon, ancient revival. we d graos og carved wood. château de gaillon, france. c. . the cinquecento. nu- en it is, however, in sculpture, perhaps, that we must look for the purest examples of this style, as regards the mere elaboration of form; and among the cinquecento sculptors none paid more attention to ornament than the lombardi of venice and agostino busti of milan. venice abounds with the works of the lombardi, of whom tullio is prominently distinguished. his monu- mental bas-reliefs have, perhaps, never been surpassed for their exquisite spirit and delicacy of execution: and even in their details they are unsurpassed by the best examples of antiquity. sometimes they consist of fine elaborations of the pure classic acanthus scroll; at others, and more commonly, of the standard arabesques, with the interspersing of grotesque figures and animals, and occasionally of simple curves, with ordinary natural foliations, combining a strict imitation with a masterly freedom of execution. another chief feature of the cinquecento is the admir- able play of colour in its arabesques and scrolls; and it is worthy of note, that the three secondary colours, orange, green, and purple, perform the chief parts in all the coloured decorations. its great leading form, the acanthus scroll or foliated spiral, is sometimes a complete iris, with its beautiful variety of tints, as in some of julio romano's decorations at mantua. aind where we have but two colours, we have constantly complements.. indeed, the cinquecento may be considered the cul- minating style in ornamental art, as presenting the most perfect forms and the most pleasing varieties, nature and art vying with each other in their efforts to attract Уес. the cinquecento. and gratify the eye. it appeals only to the sense of beauty. all its efforts are directly made to attain the most attractive effects, without any intent to lead the mind to an ulterior end, as is the case with the byzantine and other symbolic styles. the cinquecento forms are supposed to be symbols of beauty alone; and it is a remarkable concession to the ancients, that the moderns to attain this result, were compelled to recur to their works; and it is only now in the contemplation of this consummate style, that the term renaissance becomes quite intelligible. the renaissance, or rebirth of orna- ment, is accomplished in the cinquecento; still the term is not altogether ill appropriated to the earlier styles, because these were really the stepping-stones to the the æsthetic was substituted for the symbolic. the principles, therefore, were identical, though from imper- fect apprehension, elements strange to the classical period were generally admitted; it was a revival of principle though not of element. the cinquecento very generally pervaded manufactures for a time in france as well as italy, though for a much shorter period than its great beauties and applicability would seem to justify. the arms and armour, and the pottery or majolica wares of the time afford some of the finest examples of the style. it was, however, not long successfully pursued : it appears to be too exact in its details, and too compre- hensive in its range of elements, for the ordinary grasp of the decorator, whether from the kingdoms of nature or the realms of art, poetry, and history ; every form the cinquecento. rna- being excluded having neither wit nor beauty to recom- mend it. it required too much from the designer's powers, for, besides a familiarity with the art of classic antiquity, it exacted a considerable acquaintance with the figure, as well as a mastery over the animal and vegetable forms generally. accordingly, already in the sixteenth century, orna- mental art fell back to what it was before that time; and from the middle of the sixteenth century, as illus- trated by the works of alessandro vittoria, nicola dei conti, alfonso alberghetti, and benvenuto cellini, we again find the promiscuous mixture of forms of all kinds with a prominence of the cartouche, as in the ordinary renaissance, which, from its far less definite character, gave greater liberty to the artist, in accordance with his own vague notions of variety, tủe attainment of which seems now, and for a long period, to have usurped every other purpose. the cinquecento is essentially an italian style, though in some few instances good examples are found out of italy, especially in france; as the monument to louis xii. in the church of st. denis, near paris, and several examples at rouen, and at the château de gaillon, normandy. these were, however, either carried out by italians, or directly from some italian example. the ordinary ornament of the renaissance was at the same time very common in the north and west, and was evidently much spread by the little works with ornamental marginal woodcuts published frequently in the sixteenth century, and expressly for designers for the cinquecento. manufactures: as in the case of the edition of alciati's emblems, published at lyons in , of which there is a copy in the library of the department. chimney-piece, louvre. by germain pilon. chapter xvi. the louis quatorze. for a century after the development of the cinquecento, there was little individuality in the practice of ornamental art. architecture itself was completely domineered by a mere classical pedantry, rule and measure usurped the place of expression. towards the close of the seventeenth century, however, a new style commenced to develop itself (the louis quatorze), essentially an ornamental style, and differing very materially in principle from nearly all that preceded it, its chief aim being effect by a brilliant play of light and shade; colour or mere beauty of form in detail having no part in it whatever. this style, like most others of modern times, arose in italy; and we may, perhaps, look upon the chiesa del gesù, or jesus church, at rome, as its type or model. the principal decorators of this church were giacomo della porta, pietro da cortona, and father pozzi, author of the well-known jesuits' perspective. of the vague character of the intermediate style, after the decline of the cinquecento, the various nautilus-shells are good examples, something of the renaissance, eliza- bethan, and louis quatorze combined. the great medium of the louis quatorze ( - ) al the louis quatorze. was gilt stucco-work, which, for a while, seems to have almost wholly superseded decorative painting; and this absence of colour in the principal decorations of the period seems to have led to its more striking characteristic, -infinite play of light and shade. such being the aim of the style, exact symmetry in the parts was no longer essential, and, accordingly, in the louis quatorze varieties, we, for the first time, occa- sionally find symmetry systematically avoided. this feature was gradually more and more elaborated, till it became essential in the louis quinze, and ultimately led to that debased yet popular style, the rococo, in which symmetry, either in the balance of the whole or of place. versailles is the great repertory of the louis quatorze: but the whole was evidently intended to present a gor- geous classical scheme of decoration. foreign elements, however, and foreign treatment, both found their place; and it is to these foreign features that the decorations owe their individuality. they are the constant and peculiar combination of the scroll and shell —the an- themion treated as a shell, and a small scroll, sometimes plain and sometimes clothed in acanthus foliations. all the other elements of the style are classical, such as we find them treated in the cinquecento, with some slightly modified new varieties. the fiddle-shape combination of scrolls is, perhaps, a legacy of the ordinary renaissance. the louis quinze ( - ) does not much differ from the louis quatorze in its elements; but yet, from a certain manner of treatment, must be considered as s conclusion. in the byzantine,—the first style of the second period, -we go back to at first an almost exclusive symbolism, which, however, in the course of a century or two, is elaborated into a style of a very gorgeous general effect,- combining the æsthetic with the symbolic-partly owing to richness of materials; but as prejudice was gradually overcome, a comprehensive and beautiful style was ulti- mately developed in the sixth century, but nearly always displaying, perhaps, more skill in its general effects than in its details. the saracenic is the same in principle, a gorgeous general effect, without any remarkable merit of detail : it is made up of an infinite number of minute contrasts of light and shade and colour, -something like a formal flower-garden, wanting the simplicity and grandeur of natural scenery; but it is capable of very beautiful general effects on a small scale. in the gothic, again,--the last of the middle-age styles, -symbolism more than divides the field with art, and induces much of that crudity of detail which must be the inevitable result of a divided attention. the general effects are often grand; but the details are ill expressed and inferior. in the renaissance,—the herald of the modern styles, and, like the classical styles, purely æsthetic,-we have, at first, the natural vagaries of an unaccustomed freedom; which, however, eventually settled into a genuine revival of the most finished styles of antiquity,--the cinquecento. then came the final decline,--mere love of display, gold and glitter : such is the louis quatorze,--still, prodi- giously clever in the means it took to accomplish its effects. conclusion: the louis quatorze is more general in its aim than any style whatever: thus its details, provided they generated sufficient contrasts of light and shade, were of no indi.' vidual consequence. accordingly we find, after a little time, that all detail is absolutely neglected, and with it all study: and in the absurd rococo,—the very natural result of this general neglect,—we have designs made up of details so without meaning and individuality, as to defy description. they are rococo ; we can come no nearer to them; and with this rococo, the first term of existence, the last of the nine lives of ornamental art expires. this vast store of materials, taken in the mass, without selection or order, is a mere chaos; and so far from creating variety, will, unless classified into schools or styles, engender only a mere uniform repetition of con- fusion. . . this is the view, then, .with which we study the history of art,—to discriminate and individualise the styles of the various epochs; and by thus developing distinct characters, multiply to an equal extent our means of viewing nature, and our powers, consequently, of representation. the real result of historical knowledge, therefore, is not the mere copying of what has been done before, but the acquisition of a power which not only supersedes all copying, but which alone will insure the production of that variety of ornamental design which, the simplest theory must make manifest, is the ostensible effort of every designer. had the knowledge of styles been a little more dis- seminated in the present day, we should not have found the louis xv., and the rococo, as the prevailing english tastes of the great exhibition of . in fault of his- et conclusion. me torical knowledge, and its consequently enlarged views of art, the designer has been reduced to merely copying his neighbour : hence the still paramount importance in this country of the last great historic style of france, - the louis xv.,-in silver, in wood-carving, in carpets, damasks,—even in lace, also, and in many other branches. the great lesson we may learn from a study of the characteristics of styles is, that our designs want indivi- duality: they are too general, too much alike: we require something more than mere sprigs and colonnades, or con- ventional scrolls. we want both systems of detail and systems of arrangement. a picture is not an ornament; but every flower, -however simple,—and, indeed, every leaf, —is capable of being converted into an ornament by the mere aid of repetition on a geometrical basis; and the same forms may be beautifully varied by altering this basis; and again, by new judicious combinations of colour, applied to the same geometric scheme. we should work on the principles of construction of natural objects, independent of their individualities of development. the value of such a system in ornamental design is incalculable: but it is only by a knowledge of the characteristics of styles,—the standard types of all ages, that even system will effect that variety and indi- viduality of expression, which alone will secure a perma- nent gratification or success. the great success of the greeks was not more than commensurate with the strict adherence to principles of beauty upon which even their slightest efforts depended. the cheap manufactures of antiquity, as the ordinary greek terra-cottas, were cheap by reason of the nature of conclusion. se their material, not from any neglect of care in their manufacture. the ancient prosperity of the samians is a remarkable instance of the great national benefit to be derived from the judicious application of art to manufactures, and is worthy the emulation of their modern british competitors. the small island of samos, by its potteries alone, carried on an important trade with all the great cities of the greek and roman empires, and thus was enabled to compete in splendour and luxury with the greatest states of the ancient world. herodotus (iv. ) speaks of the un- paralleled fortune of a samian merchant. it was the first greek state that attained celebrity in the arts. its temple of juno, the famous hercum, was perhaps the most cele- brated art-repository of antiquity, and was itself a work of extraordinary grandeur. the same greek historian (iii. ) speaks of it as the largest temple he ever saw, though it was constructed entirely of marble. the workers in metal and the painters were equal in renown to the sculptors and architects of samos. all this magnificence was but the fruit of its industrial ingenuity, its skilful ship-building, its enterprising commerce, its matchless potteries. the skill of its potters made the very soil they trod upon more precious than gold. this earthenware of samos carried its commerce over every sea, to every port, until its mer- chants became princes, and this small island-state was conspicuous among the richest nations of the world. it was this distinction, this political pre-eminence, which excited the jealousy of its more powerful neighbours; and with its freedom, its commerce and its prosperity declined together. toiu conclusion. the sun still shines on the fruitful valleys of samos, and it still abounds in the valuable clay of which its ancient potteries were manufactured; but its population has de- clined into a mere scattered and rude peasantry; its potters have departed; the genial clay without the skilful hand to fashion it is of little avail. such was samos when it directed its energies to the art; such is it now that all cultivation of art has ceased. it was but the judicious application of art to industry that made this small levantine island once the illustrious rival of great empires. the end. painted by j. $. virtue and co., limited, city boad, londox. %it>rar\> of the "wmversitp of 'misconetn text books of ornamental design by lewis f. day. i. the anatomy of pattern. lewis f. day's text books of ornamental design. price three-and-sixpence each, crown vo, bound in cloth. some principles of every-day art: introductory chapters on the arts not f ne. second edition. in great part re-written from 'every-day art,' containing nearly all the original illustrations and some new ones; forming a prefatory volume to the series. the anatomy of pattern. fourth edition and eighth thousand, revised, with cuts and forty-one full-page illustrations, several of them first drawn for this edition. the planning of ornament. third edition and fifth thousand, revised, with forty-one full-page illustrations, many of them re-drawn for this edition. the application of ornament. fourth edition and fifth thousand, revised. with forty-eight full-page illustrations. thick crown vo, cloth gilt. price s. atthird edition and fourth thousand. nature in ornament. with a hundred and twenty-three plates, and a hundred and ninety- two illustrations in the text. descriptive list of plates. . the construction of gothic tracery patterns— showing the square, diamond, hexagon, circular, or other plan on which elaborate tracery is built . the square—checks and other diapers built on cross- lines. . the lattice and the diamond—plaids, zigzags, &c, built on cross-lines. . frets, &c.—showing their construction on a network of cross-lines. . all-over pattern—showing the cross-lines upon which it is planned. . the triangle —diapers of star, hexagon, and lozenge shapes, built up on the lines of the equilateral triangle. . the triangle —diapers composed of the equilateral triangle and its compounds. . the hexagon—honeycomb and other diapers based upon the hexagon and its compound. . diaper —designed on the lines of hexagon or triangle. . the octagon—simple octagon diapers and the lines of their construction. . arab lattice pattern—dissected, and their anatomy laid bare. . curvilinear patterns—showing the construction of the wave, the ogee, the net, &c the anatomy of pattern. pattern; certainly it is impossible to plait, net, knit, weave, or otherwise mechanically make, without producing pattern. it may be infinitesimally small, as in weaving, where the warp and weft are often invisible to the naked eye; but it is there; and all that re- mains for us to do is, to efface it as far as we can, or to make the best of it. out of the determination to make the best of it has grown much of the most beautiful pattern-work. to neglect this source of in- spiration, therefore, to say nothing of the attempt to suppress it, would seem to be wasteful of opportunity to the very last degree. so certainly will the repetition of parts result in some sort of pattern, that one may say, wherever there is ordered repetition there / is pattern. take any form you please, and s repeat it at regular intervals, and you have, whether you want it or no, a pattern, as surely as the recurrence of sounds will pro- 'duce rhythm or cadence. the distribution of the parts need not even be regular. the wave marks on the sand, the veins of marble, the grain of wood, the crystallisation of the breath upon the window- the anatomy of pattern. upon the vertical, horizontal, or diagonal lines, which thus asserted themselves. it was much more likely the result of not working upon definite lines at all. a designer who knew the a b c of his business, would make sure of lines not in themselves offensive; he would counteract a tendency to stripes in one direction by features directing the atten- tion otherwards; and he would so clothe any doubtful line that there would be no fear of its unduly asserting itself, as in its naked- ness it might. he foresees the danger (it is a danger even to the most experienced) and he is fore-armed against it. the mighty man of valour who disdains to be trammelled by principles, or any such encumbrance, is with- out defence against contingencies practically certain to arrive. it is only by a miracle, or a fluke, that he can escape failure. the over- whelming odds are, that the petty considera- tions he has despised will be quite enough to wreck any venture he has dared in defiance of them. since, then, it is practically inevitable that there shall be definite lines in ornamental design—seeing that if you don't arrange for them they arrange themselves—it is the merest introductory, common sense to lay down those lines to begin with, and, in fact, to make them the skeleton or framework upon which you build up your pattern. you will see, when they are laid bare for you, that these skeletons are after all very few. the anatomy of pattern. ii. pattern dissection. repeated pattern may be classified, i said, according to its structure. first in order of obviousness comes the stripe. it comes also very early in order of invention: the loom must from the begin- ning have suggested the stripe-pattern, which practically grows out of it. the stripe, however, carries us only a very short distance in the direction of design. for as soon as you make any break in the re- peated line, the recurrence of that break gives other lines in the cross direction. suppose a series of horizontal bands broken at equal intervals by a series of rosettes. it is clear, that if the rosettes fall one under the other, they give upright lines; or if they are shifted you get diagonal cross lines. if the line itself is broken, as in the case of a series of waved lines, or, still more plainly, in a pattern dissection. series of vandykes, the turn of the wave, or the point of the zigzag, when it is repeated, gives the cross line just the same. and so we come at once to the vast order of patterns constructed upon cross lines. this is probably quite the first in point of time, arising as it inevitably does out of the very primitive art of plaiting. you have only to interweave strips of two different colours, and you get at once a check, or what is familiar to us in black and white as the chess-board pattern. (plate .) suppose the interwoven strips to be all of one colour, then the lines of intersection would make a lattice or basket-work pattern. the simplest form of check or lattice is when the crossing is at equal intervals and at right angles. vary the interval, and you have all manner of plaids and tartans. alter your point of view (or turn the design degrees round) and you get the diamond. the difference in point of view makes no real difference in plan: a stripe may take any direction, yet it is always a stripe. but if we alter the angle at which the lines cross, we get not only a fresh variety of shapes, but we may obtain also a diamond pattern dissection. ii to the pattern, but to its translation into a textile fabric. if instead of the chess-board we take the lines of the lattice, and work upon them, we get, without departing from those lines (only intermitting them) a wonderful range of inter- lacements and the like; some of them of ex- ceeding intricacy, as in the case of the "fret" a number of these are shown on plate . there seems no limit to the ever-increasing range of pattern-work thus disclosed, all built upon the same constructional scaffolding. from the intermission of the lines results a dnd of spot pattern, more or less free, which : might be mistaken for a distinct order of de- ! >ign (plates and ). but it is only a variety. in a certain sense it matters little whether [a design is constructed on geometric lines, or only arranged so that it falls within them. i the skeleton, when you come to dissect the two, is the same in either case. our theory of iconstruction, therefore, applies quite as much to sprigs, spots, and all so-called free patterns, us to those in which the constructional lines actually occur as lines. you have not done away with construction when you have suc- ceeded in keeping the scaffolding out of i a^lcb ▲ fffftftfirl the anatomy of pattern. another new shape is evolved. returning once again to the square lattice, if we cross it diagonally both ways, cross it by itself, that is, so that each square is cut up into four, we get out of those lines the octagon (plate ); but not an equal-sided octagon; that is, built on a cross lattice of different proportions. the octagon, however, is not a unit which will of itself form a diaper, as the hexagon will. it is only in connection with a square, diamond, or other four-sided figure, that it will "repeat." place side by side a series of octagons, and there will appear four-sided gaps between (plate ). nevertheless, this new series of lines gives us new varieties of radi- ated pattern: witness once more the elaborate interlacings of the arabs; all of which, even the most magnificent, are closely related to the pattern so familiar in the, seat of a common cane-bottomed chair. it is possible to carry the principle of radia- tion further still. you may, for example, cross this more elaborate lattice by a lattice like itself; but you get by that means rather intricacy than variety—especially when the intersecting lines are in part interrupted. in pattern dissection. certain arab patterns, where this ultra-elabora- tion of lines is employed, it appears almost as if a new principle had been introduced (plate ); but, upon analysis, the designs resolve themselves into the elements with which we have already had to deal—so few are the plans upon which pattern is con- structed. already we have come to the end of the straight-lined family. why, it may be asked, can you not make a diaper on other lines, on the lines of the pentagon for ex- ample? well, you may put together so many penta- gons—and a very respectable diaper they form—espe- cially if you fur- ther enrich the pentagons with five-pointed stars. not long since i came upon just such a diaper, which, for a moment, promised to upset all my neatly arranged theories on the subject of pattern anatomy. however, pentagon diaper and its skeleton. fpl&te . the anatomy of pattern. figures (plate ), very nearly approaching the straight-lined hexagon. in this way the straight-lined series might be derived from the curved (compare plates and ); and so once more, by a very different road, we reach always, in this maze of pattern- work, the same point, which is, the limited variety of skeleton on which pattern is built. from the combination of straight lines with curved (plates and ) result all manner of new diaper forms; which, however, present nothing very new in the way of skeleton. you might start a scroll pattern, such as that given in plate (a type common in the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries), on the lines either of the hexagon or of the ogee, or of a mixture of curved and straight lines which i may call the broken ogee; and in the end it would not be very clear which of them you had taken for a groundwork; or even whether you had not founded your design upon the diamond—such close kindred do those various skeletons betray. i have dwelt at some length upon rudi- mentary diaper forms, for reasons quite apart the anatomy of pattern. by the conditions of his work, are, in most instances, not just those which beauty would have decreed. they prove, however, to be identical with the lines already shown to be the basis of all recurring pattern-work; and so we begin to see that, had there been no such thing as pattern design before, and no traditional forms of design for us to follow, those very forms must have been evolved as certainly out of the more complex conditions of modern manufacture as they were out of the simple contrivances of primitive handicraft. that is to say, that the lines first given to us by the primary processes of netting, plaiting, and so on, would equally have been prescribed by the printing roller or the power loom. it is one of the most interesting points in the analysis of pattern design to see how regularly we work round, again and again, to identically the same shapes. you cannot safely dogmatise as to the origin of this or that pattern; there are always so many ways in which it might have been suggested. put side by side a series of waved lines so that their curves are opposed (plate ) and the effect is exactly the same as though you had opened pattern dissection. out an ogee diaper; you can deduce either pattern from the other. or, again (same plate), if the ogees interlace, it is impossible to say whether this was the outcome of the ogee, or of waved lines, or simply of the pro- cess of netting. on plate are shown six different ways in which one and the same simple star pattern may be arrived at. . by the juxtaposition of stars and the addition of cross-lines. . by the juxtaposition of diamonds and the addition of cross-lines. . by the juxtaposition of right-angled diamonds, each occupied by a star. . by the interlacing of two series of octagons, and the addition of cross-lines. . by the crossing of two series of zigzag lines, and the addition of cross-lines. . by the crossing of two series of diamonds or lozenges, and the addition of cross-lines. and this does not by any means exhaust the number of ways in which the same result might have been reached. to take another instance, of a very dif- ferent kind, you know how common it is to see a waved line with leaves alternating on the anatomy of pattern. each side of it. this appears on the face of it, a quite mechanical and arbitrary arrangement; but you have only to note how, in nature, the alternate leaves on a slender stem pull it out of the straight, to see the natural and inevitable origin of the idea. by merely ex- aggerating the slight wave of the natural stem, you get one of the most conventional of ornamental border patterns.' so it would seem that, whether you begin with mechanical construction or with nature it works round to the same thing in the end—in the hands of an ornamentist. * see 'nature in ornament,' pp. , . ^plate "photc-tiht" fcjr j.ak«mau. ,qi»«n sipimx the anatomy of pattern. and though the printer make use of the roller' instead of the block, the conditions of design remain unaltered; for the roller is, for all practical purposes of design, only a block bent round in the shape of a cylinder. the square plan of the printed curtain design on plate was prescribed by the roller, which was inches wide and the same in circum- ference. even the bookbinder of earlier days, who was comparatively free to do what he liked in the way of "tooling," was led, whether by instinct or by his tools, to adopt a rectangular repeat, as in plate ; in which also is exemplified what may be done in the way of reversing, and again reversing, the unit of design—so as with comparatively little drawing to produce the effect of an extensive pattern. we have, ordinarily, to reconsider the pos- sible lines of pattern construction in their rela- tion to the rectangular figure,—that being the repeat determined for us by the conditions of nearly all modern manufacture. the base of our operations is, then, usually a parallelogram. furthermore, this parallelogram is in all flate . practical pattern planning. cases restricted in size, and in most cases of more or less arbitrary proportions. for example—in the case of wall-paper printing, it is practically determined for us that the printer's block shall be rectangular. custom has further fixed its width at inches. and, since a block of greater length than that would be unwieldy, we are restricted to a square of inches by inches. the block may represent a fraction only of the design, which can theoretically be made up of as many blocks as you please. but in practice the expense of such a pro- ceeding would make the paper-hangings cost more than paper-hangings are ordinarily worth; and, apart from commercial consider- ations, which would be enough to prevent that kind of extravagance, it is contrary to craftsmanship so to misapply labour. the most capable artist is he who can apply his art to most purpose, and get full value out of his materials. as a matter of fact, the wall-paper designer has to content himself, then, except in very few instances, with a repeat of at most inches square. within those limits he is comparatively the anatomy of pattern. free; but, as i have already shown, do what he may, his repeated pattern will fall into geometric lines, if only those of the parallelo- gram on which it is built. a pattern, such as a, on plate , may seem at first sight to conform to no conditions of restraint; but the actual lines of the repeat reveal them- selves, on closer inspection, in any single feature whose recurrence is to be traced. it is based, you will find, upon the parallelogram —faintly indicated by dotted lines upon the black ground. apart from the conditions of actual manu- facture, it is found commercially expedient to adopt certain fixed dimensions for the tile, block, roller, or whatever it may be—and we are thus constrained to design tiles (if they are to be of any use) on the usual three-, six-, eight-inch or other accepted scale; textiles to a width fixed by the loom, and a length controlled by the consideration of economy; block-printed fabrics under very similar con- ditions; and roller-printed to a length as well as a width prescribed. the proportion of the parallelogram within which our design must be confined varies, that is to say, with the manufacture for which we are designing. an practical pattern planning. experienced designer could often tell, from its proportion and scale alone, for what par- ticular manufacture a design was made. and it is in the impracticability of his ideas that the novice most infallibly betrays his lack of experience. the production of such a pattern as that on plate in the form of a wall-paper inches wide, would involve the (prohibitive) cost of four sets of blocks. whereas to the weaver it would not prove comparatively very costly: as a matter of fact patterns of that relative length occur quite frequently in textiles. in the width of the sicilian silk, on plate , dogs, lions, and eagles follow one another closely in a row; but in the length of the material each is separated from its like by the other two. the pattern repeats on the lines of a long upright parallelogram; but obvi- ously it was designed on the cross lines shown. there is no occasion to enter more fully into all the various technical reasons for the limitations to which the designer is subject. the practical convenience of them, however, is patent. it is as desirable that the architect, for example, should know what sized tiles may be available, as that he should be able the anatomy of pattern. to reckon upon the "bond " of his brickwork; and it is equally clear that without some uni- formity in the width of materials (such as silks, velvets, carpets, chintzes, and so on), it would be difficult to estimate, off-hand, the relative cost of each. the upshot of it is, that the designer has habitually to shape his design according to a rectangular plan, and that of limited, if not fixed, dimensions. it becomes, then, a very serious question with him how far he can avail himself of any other basis. the student might with advantage set himself to tabulate the possibilities in the way of adapting the various units of repeat to repetition, within the square. it would then be seen that, though all things are possible, there are schemes the artist would like to adopt, which, in order to be brought into the repeat permitted, would need to be worked out upon so small a scale as to become quite too insignificant for use. one instance of this it may be worth while to give. suppose a square block of inches, and you wish to adapt a hexagonal design to the anatomy of pattern. duced to half that size; that is to say, there would have to be seven hexagons to the width, measuring each only three inches across. try to arrange a pattern such as that on plate to accommodate itself to a rectangular block of given dimensions, and you will realise how inevitably it is born of the hexagon or the triangle, and cannot be made to fit into arbitrary square lines. it will be seen how very strictly the artist is bound by considerations which scarcely occur to the uninitiated, considera- tions which have always had a great deal to do with the design of pattern-work. fashion has had her say in the matter, too, no doubt—it is a wicked way she has; but, though certain lines have been generally adopted at certain periods and in certain countries, i think it will invariably be found that there was some technical or prac- tical reason for their adoption in the first instance. out of the conditions of weaving came, for example, the adoption of upright patterns, such as that on plate (from a coarse woollen fabric of the fifteenth century) and cross colouring such as occurs in byzantine, plate . practical pattern planning. sicilian, and early italian silks (plate ).* out of weaving comes also the turning over of the design on the two sides of an upright stem, or purely imaginary central line; as in plates , , and many others. in plate may further be seen what great influence material may exercise upon pattern. there was a whole class of pat- terns of this kind schemed in the th and th centuries, with the obvious purpose of disturbing as little as possible of the rich pile of the velvet for which they were designed. when it is realised that the turning over of the pattern is essentially a weaver's device, it will be obvious that in a pattern similarly planned for printing there is no occasion for such rigid symmetry of the two sides; and that, on the contrary, it is desirable rather to introduce a certain amount of variation in the pattern. that is shown in plate , where, though the main lines take the formal ogee shape, the termination of the branches is not alike on both sides. * see also 'the application of ornament,' plate . d the '' drop" pattern. piece of the stuff will fit on to the left of another, and so on. but it is clear that the design may be so contrived that each succeeding breadth has to be dropped in the hanging. if this drop were only very slight—say three inches—it would take seven breadths, in a pattern of inches deep, before a given feature in the design occurred again exactly on the same level. there would be no dan- ger then of any horizontal tendency in the marked lines which recurring features of the design might take, but, on the other hand, great likelihood of a diagonal line developing itself, with even more unfortunate effect. the design would seem, rather, to step down- wards; and the shorter the steps, the more noticeable would be the line such features might take. this difficulty is avoided if you make the "drop" just one-half the depth of the pattern, so that every alternate strip is hung on the same level. then the diagonal lines correct themselves. if any line at all asserts itself, it is more likely a zigzag (instead of a step), which, in connection with corre- sponding zigzags above and below, may very possibly form a trellis or lozenge pattern. d the anatomy of pattern. there is good reason, therefore, for saying the diamond is a useful plan to work on; for upon it is formed the safest variety of drop pattern—that, namely, which drops one-half its depth. instances of drop patterns are given in plates , (b), , , and others. one has heard persons, more familiar with the forms of ornament than expert in prac- tical design, complain of the difficulty they experience in scheming a "drop." if they would only think of the problem as the filling of a diamond shape, it would come very easily to them. the diamond is, in fact, only a square turned part way round. that part of your design which extends beyond the margin a b must occur again within the margin c d; that which extends beyond the margin c a <?late . (plate . - aaerman.photolith '. the "drop" pattern. snip from a square the two opposite corners (black in diagram) and transpose them, top and bottom, and you get the oblique shape. snip from it the four corners, and rearrange them at the sides of the hexagon thus given, and you get the flat diamond. nevertheless, practically it makes all the difference in the world which plan you adopt. your design must be influenced to a very considerable degree by the shape you set yourself to fill. it would never occur to you, for instance, to stretch a festoon, or wreath, across a width of space you did not see before you. so it may be fairly said, that such extension of the design beyond the width of the material, is the direct result of working on the lines of the diamond: whilst you are designing within the lines of the square, you have naturally less impulse to go beyond its limits. in designing for tiles and such like, where the material is not continuous, the conditions are somewhat different, and the possibilities l plate . *ph«yo-tiht" ly j>ma. akarjnm. london .w.c. i v. skeleton plans. the designer finds it ordinarily more con- venient to design at once upon the lines of the diamond, because their simplicity enables him better to keep in view the effect of his pattern in its repeated form than any other lines on which the "drop" can be worked. even though one may have no intention of taking advantage of the full width of a block, it may still be found convenient to design within the diamond, if only in order to economise design: and, mind you, economy is an absolute necessity of the case. but for economic reasons there would be no weaving, printing, stamping, and so on; we should confine ourselves to embroidery, tapestry, painting, and other work of our own hands. assume, for the purpose of explanation, that it is a wall-paper you want to design. if you begin by dividing the width of inches into two, and make your pattern a "drop," inches long by rob wide, as at a (plate *photo-tiht" by jan* 'l alc«nn an. london w c. <? ate u (plate "photo-iikt" krjime* a.k.™«i london "w c. skeleton plans. even in plate ), looks almost as though it were impossible of geometric construction, and, of course, it never is mathematically built up. but, for all that, it falls into the familiar lines. the spiral itself is only a series of segments of circles ; and if you dissect any repeated scroll-pattern, you will find most likely that its back-bone is a wave line or spiral. certainly you will find it has a back- bone. pattern is a vertebrate thing; and in a scroll the spinal cord is very decidedly pronounced. you can soon see when a scroll is broken-backed. e the anatomy of pattern. vi. appropriate pattern. it is only by experience that a designer learns to know what may, and what may not, be done within given lines. many a notion which one had a thought of adopting, turns out to be practically quite unamenable to existing conditions. you cannot have a bold, flowing scroll with- out considerable allowance in the way of length in the blocks, cards, or whatever may be the mechanical contrivance used; nor can you well avoid a certain upright tendency in patterns where the width is very much restricted; though you may counteract it to some extent by lines in the contrary direc- tion. in plate the horizontality of the large leaves is more than corrective of the upward growth of the design. the fact of the matter is, the characteristic lines of time- honoured patterns are mainly the direct result appropriate pattern. plate the birds were meant to appear in gold, the gold thread need only be used in the bands where the birds actually occur. you have but to look at the back of any old piece of many-coloured silk damask to see the changes of the shuttle very plainly marked. the aim of the designer is usually to disguise them more or less in his pattern. but in the early days of silk weaving the unso- phisticated artist had no fear of a horizontal line. in such a pattern as the sicilian silk in plate , he would boldly make the various bands of animals in various colours. he would sometimes even carry bands of colour straight across the animals, regardless of their shape. and the effect of this rough-and- ready proceeding, in the silk itself, certainly justifies him.' in early examples of weaving both the turning over of the pattern, and the banded arrangement of the colour are very frequent; indeed, so much so, as to form quite marked features in the design of the eleventh and fol- lowing centuries, whether sicilian or italian. (it was from sicily, you know, that the art of weaving was introduced into italy.) • 'the application of ornament,' plate . the anatomy of pattern. ingenuity, if we have any, is excited. the more difficult the conditions, the more they provoke solution. a designer must have in him something of pugnacity; he must enjoy attacking a tough problem. indeed he proves himself a designer, not when he has somehow or other arrived at a design, but inasmuch as out of unpromising material and untoward circumstances he can contrive a thing of beauty. london! printed by william clowes and sons, limited, stamford street and charing cross. fa . transferred to fine arts library kardia et al huntin "euro emia risto cele onn tas: sovo chr lesiae ovat barvard college library from moering. bequest. a Ꭱ Ꭲ in ornament and dress. ... : a rt in in ornament and dress. translated from the french of - philishe) atuquate utley nod-e, charles blanc, member of the institute, and formerly director of fine arts. with illustrations. & co new york: scribner, welford, and armstrong. . – fa sapt. ). mæring baqumi, contents. the grammar of the decorative arts. page introduction the general laws of ornament . . division of the work . . . . . . .. division of the work personal adornment. on the tendency of the repetition of vertical and hori- zontal lines to add height and width to the human figure . . . . . . . . . unity an element of size in dress and ornament figure the value of amplitude or width in dress . . . . on colours and their expression . . . . . . the harmony of colours in dress . . . . . general remarks on hair-dressing . . . . hair-dressing as a mark of character in men . . . on the various forms of hats . . . . . . hair-dressing in women . . . . . . . . close connection of fashion with the head-dress in women variations in male costume . . . . . . . on the selection of the material in a woman's dress : variations in female costume . . . . . . . on character in women's dress . . . . . . rules to which the art of dress is subject . . . . contents. page on the accessories of the toilet-shoes, gloves, the fan, etc. --and on laces, etc. . . . . . . - on the value in adornment of the jeweller's and gold- smith's arts . . . . . . . . . -on design in the composition of a jewel . . . . - the decline of symbolism in jewellery . . . . . on the unsuitability of the human figure, carved in relief, to be worn as a jewel . . . . . . on the use of enamelling in jewellery. . . . . on the assistance to jewellers of the theory of colours on jewels in their relations to sentiment and beauty : dress and ornaments an indication of morals and of the reigning ideas of the period. . . . . . list of illustrations. page vitruvian scroll ... . . . . . . . . greek fret . greek fret . . . . . . . . . . triglyphs and metopes. . . . . . . . . example of alternation in romanesque architecture ... example of repeated intersection . . . . . . simple intersection forming symmetry. . . . . . example of repeated intersection . . example of a circular pavement . . . . . . . example of progression in perspective . . . . example of progressive ornament. . . . . japanese ornament . . . . . . . example of decorative confusion . . . . . . . order . . . . . . . . . . . . brutus, after the antique . . . . . . . . sargon, king of assyria . . . . . . . . charles i. : . . . . . . . . . . . berryer . . . . . . . . . . . . bonaparte, consul . . . . . . . . . . head-dress, showing the urÆus, of the ancient kings of egypt · · · · · · .. egyptian cap . . . . . . . . . . unicorn cap of the middle ages. . . . . . . hat of charles i. . . . . . . . . . extreme severity in the head-dress . . . . . . extreme coquetry in the head-dress . . . . . . head-dress called hennin . . . . . . . . egypt viii list of illustrations. page the horizontal style of head-dress low rounded bodice the oblique style of head-dress . . . . . . low rounded bodice . . . . . . . square-cut bodice . . . . . . . . . . odette bodice . . . . . . . . . . . corselet and basqces. . . . . . . . dolman, with page sleeves . . . . . . . mÉdicis ruff . . . . . . . . . . . turned down collar and basques with facinus, . . . , gabrielle ruff and puffed sleeves . . . . . . odalisque sash. dress with train and gathered flounces. moblot . . . . . . . . . . . watteau. sabot sleeves ; marquise ruche . . . . costume dress . . . . . . . . . . . . costume camaÏeu . . . . . . . . . . hand screen . . . . . . . . . .: diffused ornament. . . . . . . . . . radiating decoration . . . . . . . . . sunshade . . . . . . . . . rÉseau with square meshes, used in valenciennes lace . . rÉseau with hexagon meshes, also called round meshes . guipure foundation in barrettes . . . . . . . foundation of five holes, also called mariage . . . fond chant · · · · · · · · :, point d'esprit . . . . . . . . . . point d'alenÇon . . . . . . . . . . bruges lace . . . . . . . . . . . malines (mecalin) lace . . . . . . . point de gaze, rÉseau and fleurs in needle work . . brussels appliquÉ. fleurs made of pillow lace and appliquÉ on tulle · · · · · · appliquÉ mixed with needle point . . . . . . . . . . . . . blonde . . . . . . . . . . . . chantilly . list of illustrations. ix . page rose diamond, full view . . . . . . . . rose in profile . . . . . . . . . . brilliant in profile . . . . . . . . . brilliant, full view . . . . . . . . . . brillolette . . . . . . . . . . . gem cut in steps . . . . . . . . . . gem cut table shape . . . . . . . . . star shaped cutting . . . . . . . . . . portuguese cutting . . . . . . . . . specimens of alternation and recurrence . . . . . pendant attributed to benvenuto cellini . . . . . enseigne and cartouche attributed to benvenuto cellini .. jewels radiating or fan-shaped . . . . . . . various etruscan and greco-etruscan jewels . . . . egyptian jewel with horus eyes . . . . . . . etruscan jewel . . . . . . . . . . . . greco-etruscan ear-rings jewelled pendant jewelled pendant . . . . . . . . . jewelled bird . . . . . . . . . l . dragon-fly in diamonds . . . . . . . . . imitation lace necklace composed of brilliants . . fashion during the revolution . . . . . . . fashion during the first empire and the restoration . . head-dresses during the restoration . . . . . . fashion during the reign of louis-philippe . . . . modern costume . . . . . . . . . . . art in ornament and dress. part i. the grammar of the decorative arts. introduction. the general laws of ornament. nature, viewed in the grand spectacles, permanent or ephemeral, which she offers to our eyes, is not beautiful, but she is sublime. she is not beautiful, because she lacks the three conditions of beauty_order, proportion, and unity. neither the stars in the firma- ment, nor the trees in the forests, nor the rivers in their courses, nor the ocean imprisoned within its bounds, nor the continents in the irregularity of their outlines, and the upheavals of their surface, present any apparent regu- larity or visible order. the immutable laws which govern both cosmical phenomena, and the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, only manifest themselves in the succession of ages, and exist but in mental contemplation and the record of history. order then is wanting in nature seen on a grand scale, that is to say, a visible order, since it is impossible for us to seize at one glance, art in ornament and dress. as in a picture, the alternation of day and night, the recurrence of the seasons, the periodical motion of the planets, and the rhythm which governs the universe. it is only in her lesser works that nature begins to be beautiful, because in these only she exhibits order, takes pleasure in symmetry, offers to us perceptible unities and sensible harmonies. at the outset, in her lowest king- dom, she reveals in crystallisation an astonishing regu- larity, a mysterious geometrical design. next, order is apparent in a more general, connected, and striking manner, when we observe the vegetable kingdom. proportion is not there as yet, proportion, properly so called, that is to say, the condition of a body in which all its members have a common relation among themselves, and to the whole. we know that the size of a tree can- not be determined from the dimensions of its branches, as the stature of a man from the measure of his hand or his foot. many plants, however, are regular in their forms, affect symmetrical arrangements, and are orna- mented with admirable delicacy. lastly comes the animal kingdom, in which proportion plainly declares itself, the law of numbers is manifest, symmetry is self-evident, and its very movements obey in their freedom, an intentional equilibriun, and an inexorable rhythm. so as creation rises in the scale, order becomes more complicated, abundant, striking, and marvellous. but the word order is only used here as a generic term to express what is common to all things adorned by nature. the regularity of her lesser works, and the charın which she has thrown around them, proceed from principles, distinct enough, but very few in number;, nes more co the general laws of ornament. and as these distinct principles are the inevitable elements of all ornament of man's invention, it is of consequence to have a precise acquaintance with them, to distinguish them well one from the other, and to reduce them to their simplest elements, carefully avoiding confounding those that are primary with those that are not so. moreover, there can be no nobler satisfaction to the mind than to be able to unravel what is beyond measure complicated, to diminish what is apparently innumerable, and to reduce to a few clear points what was involved in a maze of obscurity. just as the twenty-six letters of the alphabet have been and will be sufficient to form the words necessary for the expression of all human thought, so certain elements, susceptible of combination amongst themselves, have sufficed and will suffice to create ornaments, whose variety may be multiplied indefinitely. in fact, the numberless methods which men have invented to this day, and which they will continue to invent for the adornment of their persons, their dwellings, or their temples, owe their existence to the application of one of the five following principles :- repetition, alternation, symmetry, progression, and confusion. such are the primary sources to which we may reduce all ornaments of which the idea has been borrowed from nature, and which man has subjected to the law of his intelligence, and to his own free control. b art in ornament and dress. repetition. however “divers et ondoyant” he may be, as mon- taigne says, man is essentially a being all of a piece. the eyes of his body correspond to those of his mind. to act upon his mind we must use the same means as in exciting his physical sensations. a single prick of a pin is nothing, but a hundred such can rouse the sensitive- ness of our organs. thus it is that everything that appeals to our feelings acquires an astonishing power by the simple reiteration of the active cause. we see how the same mode of procedure is found in all the arts, in architecture, sculpture, and painting, as well as in music, literature, and poetry. the simplest mode of decorating a surface is by the repetition of any given figure. any form, however insig- nificant in itself, becomes interesting by repetition, at first because the artist by repeating it forces us to take notice of it, and reveals an intention which would have escaped our observation without this repetition; and next, because number often suggests thoughts which unity would not have originated. for example, the repetition of a spiral ornament on a pedestal, a column, or the border of a panel, awakens in us the idea of one object pursuing another. hence has arisen the name of postes (vitruvian scroll), given to that buvusius visus vitruvian scroll. series of running volutes which we meet with so fre- the general laws of ornament. quently on architraves in architecture, and also in iron- work, goldsmiths' work, and pottery. these spirals also remind us of the succession of the waves of the sea, and the imaginative poet may see in them by analogy, a troop of maidens pursuing each other in space, not frivo- lously, but in cadence, as if executing a sacred dance. and if such an ornament be used round a large vase, the spiral seems endless, because the convexity of the vase hiding from us part of its leading lines, our imagination sees them in constant, nay, in perpetual pursuit of each other round the amphora. let us now suppose the succession of these curved lines changed into a succession of straight lines, and we shall have a different expression, owing its power, how- ever, to the same principle, and appearing as severe as the other was graceful. bent always at the same angle, and at equal distances, these bare lines form the winding ornament called the greek fret, and they become im- posing because they have a processional character, and mgg iii iii. ii | nal greek fret. seem to obey a mysterious order, or to conform to the rhythm of a grave, slow, and ceremonial harmony. it is from repetition that all architectural ornaments borrow their external aspect, their interest in our eyes, and their sway over our feelings. a series of discs in relief, or of circles moulded hollow, at greater or less distances, adorn a frieze agreeably enough. the mere repetition of triglyphs produces a spirited and marked art in ornament and dress. cu tren en decoration on the entablature of the doric temple. it wanted nothing but a simple unbroken series of mutules to give animation to the cornice of the parthenon, and successive rows of small cones called gutta, to enrich the soffit. the dull square, the hard and frigid cube, become ornamental as soon as they are set in a row; so much so, that the architect employs them to form the tooth- like ornament in the richest of the three orders—the corinthian. a repetition of roses, accompanied by a chaplet of beads, formed a sufficient decoration of the ionic portico of the erechtheum at athens. is it necessary to speak of the part played in music by the recurrence of the first bars, that renewal of the theme, da capo, which is indispensable if one wishes to feel the effect of music in all its fulness? what do i say! to move us powerfully, nothing more is needed than rhythm, that is to say the repetition, accelerated or diminished, of a sound with vibration or without. the tolling of a bell sounding for a long time the same note, at equal intervals, may produce a profound and solemn impression, and there are moments when the three beats of the recall, repeated on the drum, cause all faces to grow pale. but what then is rhyme, the talisman of the poet, sav. the intentional reiteration of the same sound, and this reiteration lends so much charm to poetry, that the pleasure of the ear is more vivid when the repetition is immediate, as in this stanza from “les orientales :" • elle est là, sous la feuillée, Éveillée au moindre bruit de malheur, . art in ornament and dress. sen- influence on the decorative arts, and that the repetition of an unimportant figure, of a moulding insignificant in itself, should possess the marvellous property of forming an agreeable, significant, brilliant, and striking ornament. here we not only touch upon one of the most essen- tial conditions of human existence, but upon one of the great laws of universal life, where we see years repeat themselves eternally, marked by the constant recurrence of the seasons ; days, marked by the perpetual return of dawn and twilight; and nights, marked by the interval which separates the twilight from the dawn. once more it is only by our inner consciousness and by our memory that we are cognizant of these great laws. the order which governs the progression of the universe, and in particular the movements of our own planet, does not fall within the range of our senses ; while on the con- trary, the order that nature observes in the creation of her lesser works, appeals to our bounded vision and yields it a refined pleasure. so the regularity which consti- tutes the ornament of the universe is a source of admira- tion to our mind only, while the beauty of the humblest flower gives enjoyment to our understanding and our sight. there is no principle which appears more frequently in the ornamental works of nature than repetition, and next to repetition, alternation. alternation. variety is, like repetition, one of the great laws of the universe, and these two great laws are combined in alter- nation, which is in fact a blending of repetition and art in ornament and dress not satisfied with variegated flowers, the gardener often likes to vary his borders with anthemis and helio trope alternately, or it may be with an alternation of scarlet and crimson geraniums. music, so despotically governed by the principle of repetition, owes sometimes a great deal to alternation. in the opera of the muette when we come to the air written to these words : “ conduis ta barque avec prudence, pêcheur, parle bas ; jette tes filets en silence, pêcheur, parle bas : le roi des mers ne t'échappera pas, le roi des mers ne t'échappera pas," the ear is pleased by a light phrase which alternates with a graver one, and the theme loses itself to perfec- tion in a brilliant repetition. the greek architect gives animation to the aspect of the doric frieze by a succession of triglyphs and adnanalisatlanuring the tongumoristitutor i al azazala hb triglyphs and metopes. metopes, and to give a marked distinction to the differ- ence between these two repeated ornaments, he carves on the metopes, combats, horses, centaurs, or else pateræ or chaplets, so as to bring out more clearly by the oppo- sition of curved lines the rigidity of the vertical lines of the triglyph. moreover, we must not forget, that the the general laws of ornament. i word alternation comes from alter, another, and conse- quently owes its origin to that taste for variety which is perhaps as keen in the human mind as is the love of repetition. it is to meet this taste that the neck of the ionic column is so often ornamented with palm leaves alternating with the “lis marin,” and terminated by a border of beads, or more correctly speaking, by a chaplet composed of almonds and olives, each olive being followed by two almonds. to the same principle may be referred the plan of ott willy derson hii unturou tir example of alternation in romanesque architecture. construction so frequent among the arabs, in which layers, alternately of white and black marble, or else art in ornament and dress. painted white and red, give variety to the appearance of certain edifices, such as the mosques of cairo and the walls of damascus. in romanesque architecture, the artist loves to decorate his arcades, sometimes by an alternation of projections, sometimes by an alternation of colours. when he wishes to break the continuity of the massive pillars of a long nave, which would otherwise obstruct the view, he places an isolated column after each of the pillars flanked by four columns, and by thus piercing the line of supports he allows the eye to see through and lose itself in the obscure depths of the side aisles. in this manner he obtains by alternation a poetical effect as well as the pleasure the eye derives from variety. the manufacturer of striped tissues makes use of two alternate colours, sometimes boldly contrasted, as in yel- low stripes side by side with violet, sometimes alike in colour but differing in shade, as in dark and light blue. occasionally in stuffs of a single hue, variety is gained by the mere contrast of brilliancy and dulness, as when for instance, a black dress has stripes of a satin-like lustre, alternating with stripes of a dull tone like velvet. the egyptians who made more use of repetition than of alternation, did not however discard this latter mode of decoration in the ceilings and cornices of their temples, or in their pottery and jewellery. we find amongst them vases decorated all round the neck, with animals alternately red and black; and jewels composed of an eye and a cross alternately. sometimes the alter- nation is so complicated that the same figure or the same colour only recurs after several others, but always in the general laws of ornament. regular, order and at equal distances. a band of yellow for example, will be followed by three bands, one of light green, one of red, and the other light blue, and this order being repeated all along the scotia, the band of yellow, supposing it were the first in order, will re-appear the fifth, the ninth, the thirteenth, and the seventeenth. · unity may in this manner alternate with different numbers, but only on condition that these numbers shall not exceed, or scarcely exceed, the numbers below ten; otherwise we should not be sensible of the alternation, and the periodical return of the same figure or the same colour, ceasing to arrest our attention, would only have the appearance of a caprice or a whim. lastly, the simple disposition of the subject may intro- duce an agreeable variety into that which is only repeti- tion. this is the effect produced by a series of stars, bouquets, or flowers arranged in lozenges in the pattern of a wall-paper, imitating the order of trees planted in a quincunx. each floret in this case will be at the ex- tremity of a v or in the centre of an x, in such a way that it follows and forsakes alternately the vertical line on which it was at first placed. thus it may happen that the distribution of the subject without any variety of either figure or colour, may break the uniformity of a decorated surface, so much so as to resemble an alterna- tion. there are in the basilica of saint mark, at venice, pavements which represent white lozenges dis- posed on a red ground, following lines intersecting each other at right angles, in such a manner that the lozenge is sometimes on one line, sometimes on another, or if you will, sometimes vertical sometimes horizontal. from its art in ornament and dress. arrangement therefore, the design of this mosaic may be said to hold a place between the two styles and to belong to both of them. we have already seen of what importance in decora- tion is the economy of its subjects, since the character of the design may be entirely changed without the slightest alteration of either the figures or the colours of which it is composed, merely by a movement as on a chess- board, and may excite different sensations, or awaken in the mind fresh thoughts simply by the inclination or the reversal of the figure. in its relation to feeling, alternation is less elevated in its character than repetition: the latter may be almost sublime, the former never passes the limits of beauty. variety in unity is in fact one of the sources of beauty, but if alternation has more piquancy and charm, repeti- tion has more grandeur. when we hear in egypt the monotonous music of the arabs, which consists in the perpetual repetition of a few notes, and which has so happily inspired the author of le désert, the impression, at first gay and lively, becomes gradually grave, and finally solemn : one forgets the dance, nay, even the music itself, and the mind is plunged into a deepening reverie, which changes what at first was pleasure into a sort of mental intoxication, and leads the almées on to the delirium of the dance and the dervishes to their ecstasy. те symmetry. passing from the vegetable to the animal kingdom by means of those insensible transitions we so often the general laws of ornament. find in nature, we see a constant reproduction of a species of repetition which, without being absolutely new, is altogether singular,—i mean symmetry. when we are brought face to face with a living being, it seems to be composed of two parts which have been united down a central line, and these two parts, alike, without being identical, correspond in such a manner that the right side if folded over the left would cover it exactly, in the same way as one hand can cover the other. this similitude, or rather this perfect correspondence, is just that which we generally call symmetry. but the original meaning of the word symmetry, according to its greek etymology, meant the state of a body of which all the members have a common measure amongst themselves (oùv petpóv); that is to say, it signified what we mean by proportion. moreover these two things have so near a relationship to each other, that the words proportion and symmetry are almost interchangeable, because a symmetrical animal is always well-proportioned, and a well-proportioned animal is always symmetrical. lastly, in a more general and extended sense, we give the name of sym- metry to any disposition of several objects arranged in a perceptible and pleasing order.. the human figure, i mean the external conformation of the human body, having been constructed on a sym- metrical plan, man desires to find outside himself the order of which he is in his own person so striking an image. more than that, symmetry exists in his mind as well as in his body, since the organ of his judgment, which is reason, obeys a kind of moral equilibrium which art in ornament and dress. is logic. a decoration, without symmetry, or at any rate without a latent balance, would appear to us one- eyed or halting, and so would offend our sight as not being in accordance with our understanding. a temple having its principal entrance in a corner of the building, would seem to us outrageous, because its façade would bear no resemblance to the aspect of the human face. if it is the rule that the anterior peristyle of an edifice be always composed of an even number of columns, it is in order that the intercolumniations, three, five, seven, or nine in number, may have a centre where the great door should be placed. this need of symmetry in an edifice is so imperative, and has been so keenly felt by artistic nations, that the athenians the better to mark the central point of the façade of the parthenon, took care that the space between the middle columns should be wider than between the others, while to right and left of the door the columns were closer and closer together. the archi- tect, instead of making symmetry apparent by equal spaces as is done in the present day, accomplished his purpose in an artistic and striking manner, by the equal repetition of unequal distances. we are speaking here of the decoration of public buildings, for private houses may sometimes dispense with symmetry when there exists a necessity for its abandonment. we have an example of this in the hôtel pourtalès, at paris, built near the madeleine, from the design of m. duban. this distinguished architect, having only a narrow plot of ground at his disposal, boldly and skilfully avoided placing the door in the centre of the building, lest the general laws of ornament. symmetry should oblige him to pierce the façade with apertures too mean or too near together, or the internal arrangement should be upset by the studied regularity of the exterior. but the world in general so keenly desire symmetrical arrangement, that we see houses every day with false windows, simply out of deference to public taste. one method of introducing symmetry into an orna- ment which as yet is only marked by repetition, is by introducing intersection. ziegler (Études céramiques) gives this name to that style of ornament produced by one object intersecting another. for example, if the lation scottigicos go / embeas sciciglogjigjual gsbeisitigiigsojcikctgsgriging example of repeated intersection. series of spears composing a railing be interrupted by a fasces or a pillar surmounted by a vase, the fasces or the pillar will form an intersection. so with the pilasters which break at regular intervals the continuity of a balustrade, like that with which perrault has crowned the general laws of ornament. again two rows of spears equal in height and size, one to the right and one to the left of each fasces, which answers to the common definition of the word symmetry. it seems to us then that ziegler is mistaken in reckoning intersection among the principles of ornamentation. it is clear in fact from the examples that we have given and from those that he gives, that the intersecting object forms a kind of alternation when it is repeated, and of symmetry when it is singular. what is true of architecture, considered as decorative beauty, is no less true of those ornaments with which we enrich the objects that give a charm to our habitations and our everyday life. pavements, carpets, hangings, wall-papers, pottery, and iron-work, are all subject to the same law, so much so that even those artists who seem to have purposely forgotten it, like the japanese, are not without respect for it, as shown in their substi- tuting with delicacy and taste, equilibrium for symmetry, for the love of order co-exists in the human mind with the strongest desire for freedom. if we compare a greek or chinese with a japanese vase, however different the styles of decoration may be, they will bear a distant but appreciable resemblance to each other, in this sense, that the japanese artist, much less faithful to symmetry than the greeks and the chinese, will nevertheless have pre- served a secret balance in the extreme whimsicality of his composition. see him lay, as if by chance, on a lacquered tray or a porcelain plate, this or that design, which will extend over one corner only of the ornamented surface : he will seldom fail to put in the vacant space, a crane, a blackbird, or a line of thin clouds, which will c art in ornament and dress. be enough to balance the picturesque view, and prevent it, so to speak, from falling to pieces. the design of a pavement, whether it be simply repeated or its effect heightened by alternation, must be symmetrical, because the eye likes to find either in the intersection of the dominant lines, or in a central figure, the diagonals of the pavement if it is rectangular, and the point of convergence of its rays if it is circular. example of a circular pavement. by discovering a symmetrical arrangement in the pave- ment of a vestibule, for example, the spectator concludes that the axis of the pavement is identical with, or parallel to, the axis of the building. made evident to him by this symmetry, the unity of one part of the building leads him to understand the unity of the whole. the better to comprehend this fact, which, however, scarcely needs demonstration, let us imagine in the pavement of a square hall, a star placed outside the centre, or else the general laws of ornament. & compare a corner paved in squares with a semicircle the pavement of which is fan-shaped. symmetry, like repetition, whenever it strikes the eye, has something about it grave and imposing. it is, par excellence, the ornament of civil and religious ceremonies ; it lends a national solemnity to the combined movements of a squadron, and to the evolutions of an army. this it is which gave an air of majesty to the gardens of lenôtre, and which mingled dignity with grace in the minuet of our ancestors. this it is which, strengthening the spirit of order and of family union, makes us feel instinctively in a private house the calmness and worth of its inhabitants; this it is, lastly, which gives the greatest distinction to the festivities with which we wish to do honour to esteemed or illustrious guests. progression. a poet stretched on the grass and indulging in dreams of reverie is gradually aroused by an indistinct noise, which though it as yet appears very distant, makes him listen attentively. it seems to him that this noise in- creases insensibly, and draws nearer. casting his eyes around him, he perceives a storm gathering on the verge of the horizon, and which the wind is driving towards him. the clouds advance, the distant mutterings become more frequent and less indistinct. the sun disappears, the day grows gloomy, the sky is overcast, the darkness increases, the sound is more and more distinct; and at last the storm breaks forth, the clouds are rent asunder, and after a terrific rolling, the thunder clap bursts. . . art in ornament and dress. ce here we have a description of increasing progression in the sublime decorations of nature. but such a progression is not perceptible all at once ; for it we require the lapse of hours, and a continued series of impressions, which is not so in the case of ornaments invented by man: they must be seen like a picture, d une seule fenêtre, to use the words of leonardo da vinci, or at least they must be perceived in their entirety, so that the mental gaze may have anticipated them before the eve has seen them in their completeness, otherwise unity would be wanting, and where unity is wanting there is no art. let us suppose a series of colours from the darkest to the lightest, disposed in stripes on a surface which we wish to ornament, ranging, for example, from the darkest violet to the most brilliant yellow, or, if we please, from simple black to pure white: we shall have here an increasing progression, which, viewed reversely, would be a decreasing progression. “when the branches of a plant,” says bernardin de saint-pierre, “ are disposed on a uniform plan of diminishing size, as in the pyramidal shape of the pine, there is progression. and if these trees be placed in long avenues diminishing in height and colour, as each tree does in itself, our pleasure is re- doubled, because progression here becomes infinite. it is owing to this instinct of infinity that we take pleasure in looking at anything that presents progression to us, like nurseries in different stages of growth, the slopes of hills retreating to the horizon at different levels, interminable perspectives. ..." perspectives! these are nothing more than highly mol the general laws of ornament. attractive examples of progression, which, when made use of in the decoration of a theatre, produce an illusion always delightful. here again the natural phenomena of optics have taught us a science of which the genius of ornament has made an art. when we see at the extremity of the great enclosed court of a palace, an avenue of trees lengthening out the space or the distance as far as the bm . . m ma w ini voyes ommary ah watud! se heleke.e. example of progression in perspective. eye can reach, we experience sometimes a double pleasure, first of all that of being deceived, and then that of becoming aware of the deception. and if the illusions of a simulated perspective are especially attractive when they hide the bareness of an indispensable wall, and change the appearance of a solid surface which would have offended the sight-one sees many examples of this at bologna,—how could we do without the illusion produced by progression in the real art in ornament and dress. perspective of a large garden, when a straight avenue leading to a group of statues, a summer-house, or a grotto, gives to the eye the poetic pleasure which belongs to the indistinctness of distant objects, and the mysterious effect of depth. there is no more suitable decoration for pyramidal surfaces, such as pediments, than a progressive ornament. the triangle formed by the front of the awning which shelters, with its glass roof, the steps leading to a door would be more suitably ornamented by an increasing and decreasing progression of a single figure, than by an ornament of volutes, some in one direction and some in another: the former of these ornaments would add to the effect of progression that of an intentional repetition, made more remarkable by being progressive; the latter would simply be a meaningless jumble of twisted iron intended to fill up a blank space. this artifice of progression is universally employed : the architect, the poet, the musician, and the orator un u liituitiittitutetuer m twitttttitudiidiititititro udutulidunt ut d h uratured these are so example of progressive ornament. make use of it to produce impressions which would be unattainable without it. jacob's mysterious ladder was the general laws of ornament. a progression that appeared to the patriarch in a dream and raised his thoughts from earth to heaven. the pyramids of lower egypt, built as they are in steps, are examples of the principle of progression, as are also the terraces in tiers of the gardens of semiramis at babylon, and the interminable stairs which led to the platforms of persepolis-in fact the greater number of monuments designed in former times to embellish not only towns but also provinces. again, have we not an example of progression in the swelling rhythm used in dramatic music, that crescendo which gently possessing itself of the least responsive soul, and warming it by degrees without giving it time to recover itself, causes it to rise with irresistible power to the paroxysm of passion as expressed by the crashes and outbursts of the orchestra ? in written and in spoken language, there are similar artifices made use of to carry away the mind from one extreme to another, from the most peaceful to the most terrible of ideas. a grave moralist, boiste, in the dictionary which bears his name, gives this fine specimen of progression—"temper leads to impatience, impatience to anger, anger to rage, rage to violence, violence to crime, and by this progression we pass from an arm-chair to the scaffold.” smoother and more simple in character are the pro- gressions made use of by the decorative artist. to speak correctly, this element is only employed in the decora- tion of buildings and towns, or else to give a lofty expression to national festivals, or to those great cere- monies intended to inspire a nation with a feeling of its dignity, and to give it an idea of its duty to justice and art in ornament and dress. to itself. in the celebrated festival of the supreme being, of which louis david had the arrangement, the altar of la patrie, placed on the summit of a mountain, formed the termination of a progression which was imposing when the members of the convention were seen advancing majestically and ascending slowly, carry- ing bouquets of ears of corn and flowers. progression then is only a mode of setting the mind in motion, and carrying it, in spite of itself, to a point where it will receive a strong impression which would not have struck it unawares or without preparation. it is for the artist a royal progress, whether he gives size to a garden by means of retreating lines, or imitates the skill of the egyptian architect, who led the eye through solemn avenues of sphinxes to the portals of the theban temples, and afterwards by rows of columns to the doors of closed and dim sanctuaries. confusion. although order is the sovereign law of the decorative arts, confusion may also play a useful part in ornament and even come into operation as an equivalent of order itself. “a fine disorder is often an effect of art,” says boileau, but before he had said this, nature had shown it. by the charm which she has thrown into the careless foliage of the trees, by the way in which she has spotted the granite, variegated the jasper, and embellished mar- bles with irregular veins and unexpected touches of colour, she has presented us with charming models of decorative confusion. every day we see women pass by dressed in astracan fur, the sole beauty of which consists in the the general laws of ornament. confused arrangement of the hair, which, naturally curled, is divided into irregular ringlets, turning in every direction, and forming brilliant wavelets on a black ground. the leaf of the st. john's wort is ornamented with exquisite delicacy, when we see in the sunlight its little transparent points which give it the effect of being pierced with a thousand holes. but it is essential to remark that in this example, as in others, confusion should be balanced, that is to say, should have a latent equilibrium running through all the ornaments scattered upon the object ornamented. if these transparent points were not distributed upon the perforated leaf so as to shine a little everywhere, if all the large holes were on one side and all the small ones on the other, the balance would be defective, and the eye, therefore, offended. that which is a delicate ornament would be nothing more than a curious freak. looking at certain frescoes of raphael as simple mural decoration, we become aware of this law, the knowledge of which the great painter possessed intuitively; and we admire the way in which the numerous figures of the school of athens, which seem, some of them to be ac- cidentally isolated, and others to be grouped by the mere chance of a sympathy of feeling or a casual encounter, really form masses which, in spite of their apparent want of arrangement, balance each other, and supply what was wanting in symmetry. let us remember, however, that it is not for man to employ confusion as a decorative element with the same freedom that appears in the works of nature on a large art in ornament and dress. scale. the country, which in the spring is covered with buttercups, primroses, and blue hyacinths, has no regular boundaries of its own. if agriculture and the jealousy of property had not divided and enclosed it with formal divisions, it would present no order in its outlines. con- fusion in this case is not only in the flowers sown in the tender green with no apparent regularity, it exists also in the whole plan of the meadows. so it is with the stars scattered by handsful in the skies by an invisible sower. so also with the woods with which nature has covered spontaneously uncultivated tracts. if we look at them from an eminence we see a multitude of trees of different sorts, arranged at random, which have grown up in disorder close together or apart, scattered or in groups, and which nevertheless form an agreeable array, but as a decoration without beginning and without end. so the confusion which embellishes the great spectacles of the universe is not redeemed by any design that we can possibly grasp : it forms part of a plan whose equi- librium escapes us, and whose immensity confounds us. on the contrary, the ornaments with which man embel- lishes his works would not have the appearance of dis- order were they not circumscribed by a frame which marks the boundaries, gives regularity to the area, and thereby indirectly produces symmetry. when the japanese artist ornaments the angles and corners of a box in black lacquer with a landscape in gold, he deems it useless to dispose his subjects in regular order, because he reckons on the regularity of the box to balance the whimsicality of a decoration so strangely distributed. the artist is at liberty to employ confusion because the the general laws of ornament. cabinet maker had kept in view geometrical arrange- ment. i have seen at cairo carpets which the oriental colourist had sown with chrysanthemums on a quiet los is japanese ornament. ground, where varieties of green and dark yellow were blended, to imitate the effect of a meadow glistening with daisies like stars fallen from the sky on the grass; but the carpet was surrounded by a border, which framed, so to speak, this enchanting confusion. raphael, in that same fresco of the school of athens, of which we have just spoken, has balanced, by the rigid lines of an architectural deception, the different move- ments which broke the uniformity of his plan. michael angelo also, in the ceiling of the sixtine chapel, has given the appearance of architectural compartments, to counter- balance, by the quiet of horizontal or vertical lines, the contortions of his writhing and tortured figures : in this art in ornament and dress. sei o way these two.great masters have preserved freedom in symmetry, and symmetry in freedom. the human body, although it be the very type of order, exhibits nevertheless in its hair, especially when it curls, a natural disorder analogous to the confusion of the foliage of the trees. thus herder has compared the hair of a man to a sacred wood which covers the mui example of decorative confusion. mysteries of thought. to sum up, when we come upon an old tower in ruins in some deserted spot, if it is clothed with ivy and carpeted with moss, if it is adorned with a the general laws of ornament. wild vine with twisted stem, shoots climbing at random, and purple and golden foliage, we are pleased to find in the midst of such admired confusion the lines, still exact, of the battlements and loopholes, and the remains of symmetry in the mullions of the gothic casement sprinkled with green and variegated with flowers. in the hands of the designer, then, confusion is only a method of rendering order invisible in a happy disorder. here, as elsewhere, contraries meet, extremes touch. such are the principles of all decoration. it is enough to follow and combine them to give existence to or- naments as numerous as the sands of the sea, but which are either repeated, or alternated, or symmetrical, or progressive, or thrown into a confusion which is re- deemed by a latent equilibrium. but each one of these principles is accompanied by a secondary element derived from it, and which, multiply- ing the resources of the ornamentist, allows him to give an infinite variety to his combinations. to repetition belongs consonance; alternation contrast; „ symmetry radiation; progression gradation; to balanced confusion deliberate complication, consonance. in the arts which form the subject of this book, con- sonance is that which reminds us of a dominant harmony. when the leaves of a plant are arranged round its branches, in the same way as the branches themselves art in ornament and dress. are arranged round the parent stem, as in the pine, there is consonance." it is very remarkable," says bernardin de saint-pierre," that the most beautiful harmonies are those which have the most consonance. for example, nothing in the world is more beautiful than the sun, and nothing is more frequently repeated than its form and its light. it is reflected in a thousand ways by the refrac- tion of the air, which makes it visible every day in all the horizons of the earth, before it has risen and after it has set; by parhelia, which sometimes reflect its disc three or four times in the foggy climate of the north ; by rain clouds, in which its refracted rays form a bow of many shades of colour, and by the waters, whose reflections represent it in an infinity of places destitute of its presence, in the meadows, among the flowers covered with dew, and in the shade of the green forest. the sombre and uncultivated earth again reflects it in the transparent particles of grains of sand, micas, crystals, and rocks. she presents to us the form of its disc and of its rays in the disc and in the petals of a multitude of radiating flowers. and finally this beautiful luminary is itself multiplied indefinitely in a variety of ways unknown to us, in the numberless stars of the firmament, which the sun discovers to us as soon as he forsakes our hori- zon, as if he only hid from us the harmony of the earth to make us perceive the harmony of the heavens.” this passage from bernardin de saint-pierre suffi- ciently explains the meaning of consonance, and how the decorative artist, following the example of nature, may make use of it. in ancient poetry, consonance was personified by that nymph, daughter of the air, who, on the general laws of ornament. the banks of the cephisus, repeated the last words that she had heard. ornament has its echoes of form and colour, as music has its echoes of sound, literature its echoes of syllables, and painting its echoes of light. every one knows that in oratory, consonance, or, if you please, assonance, gives an incisive effect to words. it sets a seal to proverbs which are the echoes of experience, and impresses them more deeply on the memory. “if youth knew, if old age could—he who lives will see—he who has lived has seen”—these are consonances which throw thought into relief, and preserve it from oblivion. poetry, by redoubling its rhymes, produces a similar effect :- “ la voix grêle des cymbales, qui fait hennir les cavales, se mêlait par intervalles aux bruits de la grande mer.”—v. h. the great architect who built st. paul's cathedral, sir christopher wren, has recalled the dominant feature of the edifice, the cupola, in the apse of the choir, and in the two small circular projections with their columns which form the porticoes of the side entrances. · titian, veronese, rubens, those great colourists, have brought their tones into consonance by the repetition of their harmonies. in the famous assumption of titian as in the marriage of cana by veronese, notwithstanding the apparent diversity of the tones employed, it is on the contrast often repeated, of a very few colours, a contrast sometimes prominent, sometimes subdued, that the magnificence of the spectacle in a great measure depends. art in ornament and dress. the colouring of rubens, when well examined, is less harmonious, less striking, less fascinating, than the skill with which he has blended warm colours with cold tones, and cold colours with warm tones. stop before a picture of rembrandt: the light, or rather the fantastic gleam, which falls upon the principal figures, is re- produced indistinctly in the background by the softer half lights, which in their turn again throw a mysterious reflection on the shadowy figures, till at last the light becomes gloom, and the gloom becomes night. however little taste he may possess, the upholsterer always contrives to have an echo to the dominant colour of the furniture in his other colours. he borders, for example, the yellow curtains of a room furnished in green with a green stripe, and vice versa, the tassels and braid of green furniture he covers with yellow : this is the principle of rubens. if he covers the walls with a hanging or paper, he is careful to choose a distinctive border, in which, nevertheless, the most striking colours of the hanging or the paper will re-appear in such a way as to soften down the contrast by harmony. but it is especially in the dress of women, as we shall see by and by, that harmonious repetitions are essential; while at the same time there must be some intermixture of dissonance, delicately managed or skilfully accom- plished. ex tooi contrast. if you make a red stripe follow an orange stripe in a stuff, you simply produce alternation; but if the stripes so placed are the complementary colours one of the other, the general laws of ornament. as orange and blue, yellow and violet, red and green, you will have a most lively contrast. in the same way, a series of circles and ovals would only present alternating forms; while a circle and a rectangle, a cube and a sphere, would be decidedly contrasting forms. contrast is then the highest degree of alternation. nature uses it to distinguish her harmonies, to throw into relief the different characters of her works, to give spirit to her pictures, and brilliancy to her colouring. in a general way she contrasts the colour of the animal with that of the ground on which it lives. the verdure of the pastures contrasts with the colour of the ruminat- ing animals spotted with white, fawn colour, brown or black, and the slate coloured plumage of the water wag- tail stands out on the skin of the flocks on which it settles. flowering plants have, doubtless, green leaves ; but there is no natural flower in the world of which the colour is green; so that the background which throws the flower into relief is at once brought to mind by a consonance, and distinguished by a contrast, or at any rate by a difference which sufficiently distinguishes the colours. on the brown bark of trees, climbing birds, such as the titmouse, the lapwing, and the woodpecker, betray their presence, the last by a yellow rump and a red hood, the former by a black or blue head, and the other by the brown orange of its wings. insects varie- gated with the prettiest colours, such as the butterfly, are always visible whatever may be the ground on which they settle. but the law of contrast is not universal in nature; and it often happens that animals, from the d the general laws of ornament. if the lights and shadows of a picture were distributed at regular distances, the effect would be cold, and would give no pleasure to the eye. so the great masters have invariably made contrast subordinate to the beauty of the whole. in rubens we see the triumph of the gay effect of light, in rembrandt the poetry of shade dominates. like all other creations of the human mind, the decorative arts are subject to this law-that two con- trasting objects, far from disturbing unity, ought on the contrary, emphatically to strengthen it, by giving more play to that one of the two objects which we wish to bring into prominence. in music the accompaniment is a mode of contrast which supports the melody without overpowering it, and is moderated or subdued to give prominence to it. in the dramatic art, when the poet mingles some comic incidents with his most harrowing scenes, his aim is not to vary the impression, but to render sorrow more sorrowful, and tragedy more tragic. radiation. on entering st. peter's at rome, we perceive at the end of the basilica a golden light which casts its rays in every direction and shines forth in the midst of a glory of angels. it is an invention of bernini to illuminate by the transparency of a crystal the chair of st. peter which is beneath the glory, and to decorate in a magnificent manner the tribune of the church. here we have an example of radiation applied to structural decoration in a manner which reminds us, no doubt, a little of the theatre, but is yet grand and imposing. art in ornament and dress. in the animal kingdom, radiation is a form of symmetry, but it differs from it in that all its parts are alike, while symmetry admits of the similitude of the bilateral members, and at the same time of the disparity existing between the upper and lower organs. that which in a symmetrical body is disposed along a vertic a radiating body ranged round a central point, but as it is easy to imagine an axis passing through the centre, we may thus reduce the radiating form at least to bilateral symmetry. · if symmetrical animals are superior to radiating animals, if symmetry—the perfect proportion of the human body-corresponds to what is most elevated, grand, and noble—thought; we must also acknowledge that radiation, by the very fact that it characterises the rudimentary works of creation, anterior to the appearance of man on our planet, belongs to epochs when the world presented nothing but spectacles of sublimity. it is by its rays that the splendour of the sun is manifested. it is by radiation that all the stars shine in the sky, and that the aurora borealis shoots forth in the depth of the night its luminous colours. finally, when man himself raises his eyes to the constellations, or looks around him, it is by radiation that his soul puts itself into communi- cation with the universe, and contemplates it from the depth of that camera obscura, the human eye. but radiation appears in the smaller as well as in the greater works of nature. the spider's web is a tissue whose threads radiate; the ocean is peopled with ray-like zoophytes, such as star-fish, halcyons, and sea-anemones. everywhere on the earth the dandelion flourishes with its the general laws of ornament. golden rays, and before they are honoured with a place in our gardens, the easter daisy, the blue-bell, and the periwinkle adorn the fields and the woods with their star- like corollas. why then should not the decorative artist count the radiated form among the elements of his art? the gardener working on a grand scale, likes to make his alleys converge to a central point, distinguished by a column, a monument, a cascade or a fountain. by making several streets converge round a central space, the artist decorates a great town magnificently, and gives it importance. he knows the impression produced on a traveller who discovers in the heart of a forest a radiating centre from which the various paths retreat and are lost to view, and who finds himself surrounded by scenes full of deep poetic meaning. sometimes, in a more limited area, his ponds have the form of a shell, sometimes the back of his trellised arbours spreads out like a fan. and how frequently do we find radiation in interior decoration, whether it be in the ornamentation of a spherical vault or the embellishment of an apse, whether the intention is to give a happy form to the holy-water basin in a church, or to arrange artistically the pavement of a round, elliptical, or semi-circular hall! in the pan- theon at rome, the vault of the cupola is ornamented with compartments which diminish in size in proportion as they approach the eye, that is to say the opening pierced in the top of the vaulted roof; and in this way converging curves follow each other so as to form a decoration which unites the grace of a curvilinear radia- tion with the charm of a decreasing progression. under. art in ornament and dress. the dome of the invalides, at paris, before the crypt had been excavated which was to contain the tomb of napoleon, there was a marble pavement designed by mansard whose radiating configurations corresponded with the arrangement of the vaulted roof, and recalled to mind the projections and recesses of the building above. when a bird flies or hovers in the air, its extended wings form a radiation which the egyptians happily imitated by carving a winged globe, sometimes in the concave moulding of the cornice which crowns the doors of their temples, sometimes on the smooth stonework which surmounts them. every day we see great vases adorning the gardens or the vestibule of a palace, orna- mented with elongated ovals (gadroons), which, starting from a pivot, follow the curves of the body of the vase, either in a vertical direction, or so as to form elegant spirals. lastly, it is upon a principle of radiation that the goldsmith often works in ornamenting plate, and the watchmaker in tracing the curved lines on the back of a watch. we shall have to notice by and by, how gracefully radiation may be applied to the dress of women, and to general decoration. gradation. gradation is not quite synonymous with progression. the former of these two words invariably expresses what the latter sometimes fails to express, a series of adroitly managed transitions. progression may be animated, and even irregular, gradation is never so. as in the science of numbers we distinguish arith- the general laws of ornament. metical from geometrical progression, so we must dis- tinguish in speaking of design and colours, what is graduated from what is progressive. the terms , , , , , which preserve amongst themselves an interval invariably equal, bear no resemblance to the terms , , , , , which are separated by gradually increasing intervals. this is precisely the difference which exists between gradation and progression. the one resembles a slow, almost imperceptible advance, the other a series of steps which may either decrease or increase rapidly. the latter is a regular succession of changes, the former a linked series of shades. in ascending or descending the scale of colours, like the gamut in music, if we pass from violet to yellow through all the intermediate hues, garnet, red, deep yellow, orange, and saffron, and if we descend from yellow to violet by sulphur, green, turquoise, blue, and sky-blue, we shall have an increasing and decreasing pro- gression. but if you suppose all these colours slightly modified by chiaroscuro, that is to say by their combina- tion with black and white, you will obtain for each of them a dull half tint, which making the colour vibrate on itself, would render the transition from the one to the other softer. light green would precede pure green, which, followed by dark green will melt more easily into the varieties of blue. what was a progressive disposition will become a shaded gradation, like that which leads us through dawn to daylight, and through twilight to night. the english, in the present day, sometimes decorate the interior of their rooms by substituting paint or stucco art in ornament and dress. for paper, and intermingle colours very finely blended, nor do they find any transition too delicate. it is not yet time to estimate this use of gradation in the art of which we are treating, but it is easy to see that all modes of ornament have a reason for their existence ; that ac- cording to the feelings or sensations to be produced in the mind of the spectator, we should make use of abrupt contrasts, imperceptible progressions, or the tenderest gradations of colour. the decorator may doubtless occasionally allow him- self to use a striking and unexpected effect to start with, following the example of the orator who sometimes ventures on an abrupt exordium ; but it is more natural to walk than to jump, and if the unexpected is more striking, graduated impressions are always grander and more desirable. there are persons who display all their treasures in the vestibule of their houses, and it is some- what the fashion now a days to turn it into a museum, to such an extent that in passing through the antechambers to the reception rooms, the visitor, speedily disappointed, finds the luxury of the saloons in which he is received meagre and insufficient. like nature, who to use the words of linnæus, only advances by measured steps, non facit saltus, the mind of man finds more pleasure in gradations than in sur- prises. the poet, who rambling in the country, sees a village wedding pass by him, and hears with a smile the harsh music of the fiddlers, soon finds a certain charm in listening to this music, gradually softened by distance, and in resuming his peaceful reverie in propor- tion as the noise dies away and loses itself in silence. the general laws of ornament. complication. “ complication,” says ziegler, “is another aspect of the art which owes its origin to the sentiment that dædalus expressed in the plan of his labyrinth, solomon, in his mysterious seal, the greeks, in the interlacings of their winding ornaments, the byzantines, the moors, and the architects of our cathedrals, in their finest works. interlaced ornaments, mosaics, the intersections of arches and ribs, all spring from complication.” we know not how to give a juster idea of complication than by defining it by well-chosen examples; for the word itself, like the thing which it signifies, is a little obscure. to introduce complication into an ornament is to pro- voke the curiosity of the spectator and to rouse him to an investigation which promises to be of interest. alex- ander, great as he was, when he cut the gordian knot, only acted like a rough soldier. however little of an artist he may have been, he might have chosen to re- solve by other means than by the sword, the graceful problem of that complication which is a charming irony in art and so familiar to the orientals. when we see their cords so skilfully plaited, their ornaments in which straight and curved lines intermingle, cross, branch out, disappear and recur, to be lost again and again to re-ap- pear, we experience a singular pleasure in unravelling a puzzle which appeared undecipherable, and in acknow- ledging that a latent arrangement has only complicated what at first, and at a distance, appeared an inextricable confusion. the ornamental style of the arabs, that style which art in ornament and dress. has created wonders in the mosques and houses of cairo, was invented by the genius of complication ; but as this complication is generally originated by an entanglement of geometrical figures, it conceals a regularity which enables us to unravel the enigma. sometimes a star, scarcely apparent, is repeated in the ornament, accom- panied by smaller stars, and then we finally trace it through a maze of interrupted curves and broken lines. sometimes, it is a polygon, of which all the sides form the chords of a circle, which the designer has effaced after having traced it, and then the radii cutting the circumference on points marked by the compass, are carried further in order, and changing their direction form smaller polygons connected among themselves by invisible trapeziums, so that by means of purposed turn- ings and windings, all these divergent radii resolve them- selves into new convergences. but when the surface ornamented according to arabian taste has no dominant subject indicated by its isolation or by its colour, the spectator has only before him an assemblage, regularly confused, of triangles, lozenges, wheels, half moons, trefoils, imperfect penta- gons and unfinished meanders, which penetrate, intersect, balance and correspond to each other, approach to re- treat, and touch one moment to depart the next, and dissolve themselves in a labyrinth without outlet and without end. the arabs have thus realized the strange phenomenon which consists in producing an apparent disorder by means of the most rigorous order. like their end- less tales, in which imaginary events are woven and e e . the general laws of ornament. mingled together, and in which we like to lose ourselves with the narrator, the web of their ornaments gives the mind the pleasure of having its curiosity excited, and the delight of unravelling the complication. the following figure forms a mnemonic image of the truths developed in this introduction and brings them before the eye. order. repetition. alternation. symmetry. progression. confusion. consonance. contrast. radiatiox. gradation. complication order. the result of all that we have now said, summarily stated, is, that there is no decoration in the works of nature or the inventions of man, which does not owe its birth to one of the originating principles which we have enunciated, namely-repetition, alternation, symmetry, progression, and balanced confusion; or else to one of art in ornament and dress. these secondary causes,-consonance, contrast, radiation, gradation, and complication ; or, lastly, to a combination of these different elements, which all finally lose them- selves in a primordial cause,—the origin of the move- ments of the universe, order. division of the work. air a time when more interest than ever is felt in the decorative arts, at a time when everyone seems eager to occupy himself with them, it is somewhat strange that the object most worthy of ornamentation, the human figure, should be forgotten, and that we should not give our at- tention to ornamenting persons before decorating objects. read a list of the decorative arts : you will see in the first rank goldsmiths' work, pottery, carving in wood and ivory, engraving, the manufacture of weapons and carpets; we also reckon amongst the professions which art ennobles, that of the jeweller, the glass manufacturer, the enameller, the worker in mosaic, in bronze, and in iron, and the bookbinder ;-but we shall find there no mention made of the man who invents a new style of dressing the hair, nor of her who designs costumes and fashions, as if as much, nay more taste were not required to devise a tasteful arrangement of the hair, to choose a material and adapt its form and colour to living beauty, to adjust laces, knot ribbons, arrange flowers and feathers, handle blond, tulle, and gauze, as to ornament a morocco binding, design a pavement, turn the iron of a railing, or invent a pretty keyhole. nevertheless, what a contrast between the grace of a living being and the beauty of a lifeless object. a vase, book i. the grammar of the decorative arts. personal adornment. before entering upon this delicate, subtle, and attrac- tive subject, we must repeat some of the ideas that we have put forward, in the grammar of the arts of design, touching the ästhetic character of lines and colours. it is scarcely credible, but it is with bare lines, with stiff geometry, that the study of personal adornment must begin. that beautiful woman who, unknown to herself, is enclosed in a network of inflexible parallels like a bird in its cage-an invisible trelliswork of horizontal and vertical lines confines the free play of her beauty. she appears to have been draughted by a supreme designer, who, effacing the right angles that he had traced to con- struct her figure, only left the grace of it to be seen. the model of the human body being free, notwith- standing its symmetry, and symmetrical notwithstanding its freedom, we shall naturally look to find even in its movements the vertical and horizontal lines that the designer has effaced, some trace of which nevertheless exists in the axes of the body, in the central line of the face, and in the parallelism between the eyebrows and the eyes, and the eyes and the mouth. but if by the mov art in ornament and dress. help of our imagination we supply these half vanished lines, or if we trace them anew, as they have at once a mental significance and a value appreciable by the sight, we cannot fail to catch the power of their twofold expression. vertical and horizontal lines. in personal adornment, the repetition of vertical lines tends to add height to the figure, and the repetition of hori- zontal lines to add width to it. we have said and proved in the grammar of the arts of design, that vertical, horizontal, and oblique lines pro- duce sensations as well as awaken feelings; but here we have only to consider them with regard to the judgment of our sight; i say judgment, because the eye of man, although an admirable instrument, is yet a very imperfect one, and would be led away by continual illusions and errors, if experience did not perpetually step in to rectify these errors, and put us on our guard against these illusions. learned men have demonstrated, and our every-day observation confirms it, that the eye is not simply a passive organ of sensation, it is also the pupil of the judgment and feeling. it begins by being a defective instrument at the service of the mind, which in due course corrects and brings it to perfection, so that it may the better make use of it. this being the case, let us examine what would be the impression produced upon us by seeing a repetition of vertical and horizontal lines. the vertical line raises itself, the horizontal extends personal adornment. itself; the one is erect, the other is prone. therefore it is natural that these two lines should be connected with totally different ideas. what do we mean by the height of a body? we mean the number of degrees that it occupies on the vertical scale. a well grown man being five times as high as he is broad, presents a figure in which the direction of height is the one which strikes us; but in order that the height may impress us, the figure must be perpendicular to the ground. on the other hand, animals, whose bodies are parallel to the line of earth, are always longer in the direction of that line than in the direction of height: this is true even of the elephant, although he is so thick set, that he might almost be said to be square. but no sooner do they raise themselves above the horizon than height predomi- nates in the profile presented by their figure. the dog that is made to dance, the horse as he rears, the goat browsing on the leaves of a tree, change their dimensions so to speak, by becoming higher than they are long. and if the natural conformation of the animal makes his body follow an oblique line, his tendency towards a ver- tical line gives him immediately height instead of length. the giraffe, for example, may be said to be upright, because his hinder quarters being much shorter than his fore quarters, he almost appears to be erect. the same holds good with regard to trees and plants: most of them tend upwards, so their size is measured by height, while as to the plants which spread out their branches or creep on the ground, like the rhododendron and the mahonia, their leading dimensions are measured in a horizontal direction. e art in ornament and dress. in architecture, the supports which are necessarily vertical, such as pillars, piers, and columns, are always higher than they are wide, however thick and short they may appear to be; on the contrary, the parts supported, however massive they may be, are more developed hori- zontally than in height. this is why we attach the idea of height to what is vertical, and the idea of width to what is horizontal. this being the case, given two surfaces equal in dimensions, two circles for example, the one divided by vertical lines will appear a little increased in height, because by repeatedly insisting on the idea of height, these lines will direct our thoughts towards that dimen- sion. both circles will have a slight tendency to an oval, each in the direction of its lines. so, if we take two squares instead of two circles, the perpendicular lines will give height to the one, the transverse lines will give width to the other. let us at once say that physical experience may lead us to two different results. if the convexity of the eye be more decided from top to bottom than from right to left, vertical lines will be seen most clearly. if the eye on the contrary be more convex from right to left than from top to bottom, horizontal lines will strike it most. but here we must draw a distinction between la vue- sensation and la vue-sentiment, and quote as bearing on this subject the apposite observation of voltaire, “when i see a man five paces off, his diameter is double or nearly so what it was when i saw him ten paces off, and yet that man always appears to me the same size. neither geometry nor physics can solve this personal adornment. problem” (philosophie de newton). the truth is that our eye, instructed and schooled by our intelligence, has ceased to transmit to it illusions which it would not accept. the instrument, at first passive, has become as reasoning and sensible as its master. moreover, if science pursues exact truths, art exists on pleasant fallacies. the great engravers teach their pupils—my masters calamatta and mercuri so taught me—that the perpendicular lines at the bottom of a picture are those which are the best seen; that to tone down certain objects and make them recede, or to spread them out, like water, they should be represented in pre- ference by level lines. now there is no doubt that of two equal surfaces the most prominent would appear to be the largest, and this could only be in the sense which we have pointed out. women, who in their dress are artists, par excellence, have not consulted philosophers to know how to set off their beauty or hide their defects. they make use of la vue-sentiment, and are guided by it alone. you would never persuade a woman embarrassed by her height to wear a dress striped lengthways, nor a little woman to try to add to her stature by means of hori- zontal stripes. women understand instinctively, in a wonderful way, that the attention should be drawn in a different direction to that of their defects. our first proposition is for them an axiom. we are then in possession of a primary law which can be applied both to persons and objects. the repetition of vertical lines on a surface gives height; the repeti- tion of horizontal lines, width. thus it is proved that wo art in ornament and dress. frigid and abstract geometry has a secret connexion with elegance, and may give counsels to beauty. unity. ii. : in dress and ornament, unity is an element of size. the preceeding observations touching the education of the eye by the mind, authorise us in saying that aesthetics and pure physics are two sciences which are not always in perfect accordance, although doubtless they may be reconciled in a higher identity. certain natural philosophers, particularly m. laugel, the author of an interesting book called l'optique et les arts, the object of which is sufficiently explained by its title, maintain that the idea of size is inseparable for us from the idea of measure ; that what is undivided always appears to us too small, that “ of two lines of the same length, the one divided into a certain number of equal parts, the other undivided, the latter would appear the shorter.” if that were true, æsthetics would in this case be com- pletely at variance with physics. morally, to divide is to lessen. in the social scale, the division of inheritances has diminished the greatness of families. in the art of war, the surest method of weakening the enemy is to divide his forces, and common good sense has expressed these different truths by an adage-division, destruction. it would be strange if the laws of the mind were so little in harmony with the laws of optics. let us try and solve this problem, not by geometry, as voltaire says, personal adornment. a but by æsthetic observation, that is to say by the decisions of feeling. and in the outset we must make a distinction. the philosopher may be right as regards a very extended such as we see sometimes represented in archi- tecture. let us imagine, for instance, an unbroken wall. feet in length by feet in height: the eye will have no means of measuring its size, for to measure you must have something to measure by, an object of comparison, a scale. imagine on the other hand, in this extended surface a door, some windows, or a man stand- ing by the side of the wall, and we shall at once have an object of comparison which will enable us to calculate in our mind the colossal dimensions of the wall. again, at whatever point the spectator may be placed, the super- ficies of the wall, by an effect of perspective, will present foreshortening more or less considerable, according to the point from which it is seen. if the wall be unbroken, the eye will glide over the surface and a portion of the extremities will be lost. if on the contrary the wall is divided by pilasters or abutments, the rays of vision being arrested and caught by the succession of reliefs will take in the wall to the very end by means of the divisions that light and shade will make apparent; and the most distant part of the wall, which otherwise would almost have escaped being seen, will be much less lost to sight on account of the projections and recesses which will cause it to be more distinctly noticed. for the same reason the great basins which ornament gardens and parks, such as those which we see at the tuileries, at versailles and saint-cloud, appear smaller art in ornament and dress. than they really are, if they present an unbroken surface, without anything to interrupt the level, without fountains, or sculpture on the water, or any of those breaks which, like a swan or two, would arrest the vanishing perspec- tive, and give us some known magnitude with which to compare the size of the basin. it is true then that vast surfaces may give the impression of increased size, simply by being unbroken. still, that which is apparently increased is the size of dimension rather than the aesthetic size, it is the size that is seen, rather than the size that is felt. we need not, therefore, repeat what we have said concerning the sublime character of unbroken surfaces, such as the colossal masses of certain egyptian porticoes, the pyra- mids, and the level sea, which are all sublime in their indivisibility and awe-inspiring unity. but if it be certain that great spaces seem greater still materially when they are divided, it is not so with regard to surfaces and bodies with whose proportions we are familiar. now nothing is more familiar to us than the human figure, and to measure it with the eye we have no need either of a comparison or a scale. do we wish to make it clear to ourselves that division lessens, unless it be in the direction of height, we have but to compare the woman whom we surprise in her morning wrapper with the same woman wearing a dress fitted to her figure, the outline of her form broken by her corsage and girdle, and decked with ribbons. the effect of height will be still more striking if the wrapper is quite plain, i mean if it is not broken up by a variety of colours. but what is unity of tone but an unbroken re lo personal adornment. surface of colour? besides our second proposition is related to our first and confirms it. the repetition of vertical lines, we have said, gives height, and why? because it divides the width. and the repetition of horizontal lines gives width, and why? because it divides the height. now if it be granted that division diminishes height in one case, and width in another, may we not reasonably conclude that indivision should produce the contrary effect? and who does not feel that it is with the idea of adding to their height that priests wear a cassock all of a piece and of one colour ? amplitude (or width). iii. amplitude, if not exaggerated, adds to the human figure both a mental and an optical size. everyone knows how tall a man appears when disguised as a woman, and how small a woman appears when she assumes the garb of a man. it is easy to conceive the reason of this. it results both from an optical illusion and an error of the imagination. in the first place, the male costume presents, in the lower part of the body, lines which are parallel in a vertical direction, if the man is standing and motionless. the legs covered with trousers form, so to speak, two long cylinders; but covered with a petticoat the two cylinders would disappear beneath a garment having the form of a truncated cone, and the vertical lines would be replaced by oblique ones. now, according to this axiom of geometry that the oblique is longer than the perpen- art in ornament and dress. dicular, the line that extends from the waist to the ground is considerably longer in a figure in a petticoat than in a figure in trousers, or close fitting breeches, because the eye measures the length of the line by following the oblique line from the waist to the bottom of the dress, and does not perceive the point where the feet really terminate. if the line, mo, perpendicular to the ground, measures the true distance from the waist to the heel, the eye prolongs this line to the point n, and replaces the line om, which it cannot see, by the line nm. if the dress be still further lengthened by a train, the optical illusion will be increased, but only to that point where the train, assuming a horizontal line, will break the oblique folds of the dress, and so determine the length. it is certain then, that physically, the fulness of a woman's dress is a trick which gives height, and this is so true that when fashion exacted that the dress, having become what is called a costume, made short and drawn tight round the hips, should fall on both sides in almost vertical lines, women appeared much smaller, and soon art in ornament and dress. son increased importance to a person amply dressed and ornamented, by augmenting the place that it occupies in the mind, by reason of the space that it fills in reality. colours and their expression. iv. however variable may be the effect of colours, each of them has its distinctive character which is in accordance with our feelings. colours and forms, so to speak, are the vowels and consonants of the silent language of creation, and both these terms are united in light, which makes us com- prehend form and see colour, by giving relief to the one and qualities and shades to the other. · nature does not always employ her two modes of expression ; she has not given form to everything, neither has she coloured everything. the sky, the air, the mist, have colours which are bounded by no outline. before the sun's disc is visible on the horizon, the dawn displays to us a casket of colours unfettered by any form; so that without traversing any design, the eye may pass from the whiteness of the dawn to the blackness of night, through golden yellow, orange, vermilion, purple, violet and that sombre blue which borders on the darkness. on the other hand, nature has delineated with precision certain forms without adding to them any colour that we can lay hold of, as for example, rock crystal, and carbonate of lime: we therefore call them colourless. when the two expressions are united, there is always a dominant one, and whether it be form that prevails personal adornment. over colour, or colour over form, it is not only to our sight that they both appeal, but to the innermost facul- ties of our soul. without noticing the particular and purely local significations that different nations have attached to them, colours have human affinities and harmonize with our ideas, but especially with our feelings and our passions. this is why women, who are led by sentiment, attach more importance to colour than men do. it is not by a mere arbitrary arrangement that we find gaiety in light, mystery and melancholy in the vague- ness of shadow, and sadness in night. if there are countries like india and southern china where white is an emblem of mourning, it is because the people of those countries are black or tawny, and because the decided contrast between black and white is hard and distressing to the sight. we may notice, further, that mourning is always symbolised by a non-colour, for so we may call both white and black, since all colours vanish in the one and are lost in the other. a colour, no doubt, is a trifle in itself, and only has its full value when it is in contrast or harmony with other colours. nevertheless, between these two extremes— white, which absorbs all the sun's rays, and black, which does not reflect any—each colour has an expression and a character peculiar to itself, and each is enlivened as it approaches its lightest shade by its mixture with white, just as it is saddened and perishes as it approaches its darkest shade by its mixture with black. as to pure black, if it be, in the dress of the grandees of spain, a mark of nobility, and a symbol of pride, it is because the austere habit of the priest bas of necessity appeared a art in ornament and dress. dignity and a privilege to that devout nation, who are as christians humble, but as men, haughty. yellow is the eldest daughter of light, and we must not be astonished if such a nation of colourists as the chinese look upon it as the most beautiful of colours. without yellow, no spectacle can be splendid. with it nature bas tinged the flesh tints of the races of mankind highest in her scale; with it she has coloured the most precious of metals, and those plebeian cereal grasses, as linnæus calls them, which contain the most necessary articles of food—the ripe ears of wheat and rye, the seeds of maize, even the grains of barley, and that fine straw which, after having borne the ear, becomes an ornament, when plaited by women it forms hats which shelter them from the sun, and cast a golden shade over their com- plexion. striped with black, yellow characterises the covering of the most formidable of animals, and the most venomous of flies, such as the tiger, the panther, and the wasp ; and this contrast of black and yellow is also much fancied in countries where the passions are hot and violent. it suits the nubian and arab women well; the spanish women especially favour it, and it harmonises with the decided character of their black eyebrows and sparkling eyes, which express boldness and defiance as much as love. red is a favourite colour with all the nations of the world. as distant from yellow and white as it is from blue and black, it occupies a central position among the primary colours, and in it the evening and the morning meet and are united. just as it gives life to the human personal adornment. se face by making the circulation of the blood transparent, so it animates all surfaces where it appears, and enlivens all the harmonies in which it plays a part. “it is by means of red,” says bernardin de saint-pierre, “that nature enhances the most brilliant of her beautiful flowers. with it she arrays the plumage of most of the birds of india, especially in the breeding season. at that time there are few birds to whom she does not give some shade of that colour. some have their heads covered with it, like those birds called cardinals, others have patches of it on their breasts, others have necklets, others hoods, and others epaulets. some there are that pre- serve the grey or brown ground of their feathers, but are glazed with red, as if they had been rolled in car- mine; others are sprinkled with it, as if a scarlet powder had been blown over them.” occupying a place between the liveliness of light and the quiet of dark colours, red has an expression of dignity, magnificence, and pomp. there is something imposing and terrible in the robe of a criminal judge. in the habit of the princes of the church, in the uniform of soldiers, in the dress of women, it is suggestive of pride, bravery, and licence. it asserts a strong will, it appeals to and provokes observation. the expression of blue is one of purity. it is impos- sible to attach to this colour the idea of boldness, licence. or voluptuousness. blue is an unobtrusive and imagina- tive colour, which, recalling the impalpable ether and the clearness of the calm sea, necessarily pleases the poet by its immaterial and celestial character. it does not vet suit, or it no longer suits, like golden and flame colour, von art in ornament and dress. the time of love. it is, moreover, of all colours, that which ascends the highest, and descends the lowest in the scale of chiaro-oscuro. nothing so much resembles white as light blue, so linen is bleached with blue, and nothing so much resembles black as dark blue—the bleu d'enfer as dyers call it. the result is that this colour is more susceptible than others of approaching extremes, and thereby changing its character. it may be suitable in its light shade for the dress of an innocent maiden, and in its dark for romantic affections and evening thoughts. it seems in this latter case to indicate a mind which is beginning to withdraw itself from the realities of life, and to incline to solitude, mystery, and silence. the complementary colour of blue, orange, corresponds to other feelings. a mixture of light and heat, of yellow and red, orange plays a brilliant part in the decoration of the universe. it gives life to the harmonies of the dawn, and mingling with the dramatic scene of declining day, it adds its numberless vibrations to the endless novelty of spectacle which the sinking sun presents. but in the dress of women, orange can only figure sparingly, as an accessory, and by way of echo or consonance ; first, because it enters into the two tints of the complexion of those races who are not black, and next, because there is something slightly acid in orange colour, just as there is in the fruit from which it derives its name the colour with which nature has tinted the back- ground of all her pictures, green, is the most suitable ground for other colours. it unites wonderfully well with the yellow and blue which have produced it; it heightens red, and there is no flower or ripe fruit which personal adornment. it does not set off to greater advantage, either by analogy or contrast. as it tones down the brilliancy of yellow by the quiet of blue, it is both gay and modest, bright and tender. green can only awaken amiable and gentle thoughts, remembrances gracious as those of spring, and other promises of nature : green gives repose to the mind, as it does to the sight. it is only when combined with black that green becomes symbolical of sadness. it then characterises the plants which grow among ruins, like ivy and those which are used to ornament the tomb. but between blue and red a colour has a place which possesses a striking signification of concentration, of inflated wealth, of melancholy—i mean violet. it con- tains the red of life, but red encroached on by blue, and darkened. in the rites of the christian church, violet is the colour adopted in times of fasting, and if the soutane of our bishops be distinguished by this colour, it is because their violet is more charged with crimson than that of the rainbow; it inclines to purple, and so seems to conceal under an ashy blue the pride and passion of red. in its real colour, as the solar spectrum presents it to us, violet is a hue which has been brilliant and rich, but is so no longer. the blue of the periwinkle, the flower that thrilled the saddened heart of rousseau, some- times approaches violet, and it is by an infallible verdict of the imagination that popular language calls the dark purple scabious " the widow s flower.” it is true then that colours have in themselves not only an optical character, but in some sort a moral one, by reason of their close union with feeling ; setting aside religious feeling or those national preferences which art in ornament and dress. different peoples have given to them, as, for example, the preference of the arabs and turks for green, because it was the favourite colour of mahomet. all is not relative, all is not arbitrary and variable, even in what appears to us more variable and more arbitrary than anything in (the world-colour ; but in dress and ornament a colour has its proper expression only when it is isolated, or the dominant colour, that is to say, when the colours which accompany it are employed to add to its eloquence, and contribute to its triumph. the harmony of colours in dress. nature having suited the colour of the complexion to that of the eyes and the hair, we may deduce from this some general laws for the harmony of colours in dress. before reading what treats of the adaptation of colours to the ornament of the human person, it is important that the reader should remember or refer to what we have set forth in the grammar of the arts of design concerning the law of complementary colours, black and white, optical blending, and the vibration of colours, and the changes that the different lights which illumine them cause them to undergo. we have just spoken of the secret relations of colour to feeling. it is of its optical value, of the sensations that it conveys, and of its relative suitableness in personal ornament that we have now to speak. and let me premise that this chapter is exclusively addressed to women, for in the great show of life, all colour in the present day is on their side. amongst personal adornment. primitive nations who are more natural, younger, and more under the sway of feeling, the man is almost as fond of colour as the woman. the savage, finding him- self doubtless too much of one colour, seeks to embellish himself by tattooing; the cacique makes himself a head- dress with feathers of brilliant tints; the moor, the negro, the arab, and the indian deck themselves with staring hues. but wherever civilization becomes intri- cate, and developes, man abandons colour to woman; he himself becomes colourless and sombre, and in the present day throughout europe he is dressed in black. now-a-days scarcely anybody but soldiers preserve in their dress the variety and liveliness of colour, and while nations proclaim their brotherhood by the similarity of their civil garb, soldiers and their officers are still com- pelled to avow, by their different coloured uniforms, their original purpose, as shown in their style of dress, of slaying their fellow creatures. but women will never renounce the means of pleasing which colour gives them, they will never consent to lay down such a weapon. although the shades of hair and skin are extremely varied, we may reduce these shades to certain principal varieties, and say that the hair of women is black, fair, red, chestnut or ash-coloured. to these colours of hair correspond ordinarily certain varieties of complexion. it is rare that black hair goes with a white skin, unless the hair itself is softened down by the same cause that has whitened the skin, as we may remark in the english and irish, whose freshness is preserved by the dampness and fogs of their island, and in the women of antwerp, in whom the crossing of the spanish and flemish races has f art in ornament and dress. produced the mixture of a clear complexion with the hair of the south. both one and the other have hair and eyes of a brilliant but not dense black, which does not resemble the hair of the italians or spaniards. the real brunette has a dull and warm complexion, ranging from yellow to olive, and the pupil of the eye, like a carbuncle, stands out on a brilliantly white membrane. nature is always in harmony with herself. the blonde beauty -she is in life what rubens has represented her in his pictures, her flesh rosy, delicate and transparent, inclines to fairness. at the hôtel rambouillet, fair women were called lionnes. chestnut hair matches wonderfully with the colour of the complexion most. common in europe; its dulled and faint red is in perfect harmony with that yellow mingled with half tones of blue grey and rose-colour, which is the usual tint of the skin. red and sandy hair agree with a white skin and a dazzling complexion, and the eyes of ruddy-complexioned people are of a colour bordering on chestnut. if fair hair be ash-coloured, as if it were covered with a slight layer of dust, that fine powder appears also to be sprinkled over the flesh, and to soften the eyes and subdue the brilliancy of the skin. so each temperament has its own harmony ready to hand, or at least ready prepared, and nothing remains for the artist but to render this harmony softer or more lively, to bring out that which is undecided, to set off what is insipid, to temper what is harsh, to bring into relief what may please, by subduing what would fail to give pleasure. these varieties of complexion and hair require no personal adornment. varm doubt varieties of colour; nevertheless there are some colours which go well with all physiognomies, such as black, light grey, and pearl grey, which, correctly speaking, are non-colours, and old oak, deep havane, and mushroom brown, because they are warm in the shade, and cold in the light. i say black, but what black? to set off to advantage the freshness of a blonde, or the fairness of a red-haired woman, it is a soft and deep black that is wanted, the black of velvet. for a brunette, black would be frightfully melancholy, in fact it would be mourning, if it were dull and unenlivened by something glossy, such as lyons satin, or silk, or even by faille, or softened like the black of velvet by rich reflexions. ovid, in his art of love, says, “black suits the fair: it became briseis, she was dressed in black when she was carried off. white suits the dark: it added to thy charms, andromeda, when, clothed in white, thou didst traverse the isle of seriphos.” the poet is right: if black gives fairness to a brunette by contrast, white produces the same effect by throwing out a light which irradiates all that comes within its range. light grey, which is only a softened white, produces a similar effect, provided it has a lustrous surface, and throws out reflections. according to general opinion, which we must take into consideration, even in our country (france), where scarcely any feeling for colour exists, yellow and red suit brunettes, and blue suits blondes. ordinarily speaking this is true, but it is subject to numerous exceptions in practice, for there are many tints in the complexions both of brunettes and blondes, and it is precisely the art that o art in ornament and dress. now occupies our attention, which deals with delicate admixtures and shades of colour. knowing the law of the simultaneous contrast and optical blending of colours, the effect of white and black in a show of colours, the property that red possesses of surrounding itself with a halo of green, yellow with a halo of violet, and blue with a halo of orange, and vice versâ, that is to say, the property which each colour possesses of projecting its complementary colour on the surrounding space—being cognizant of these laws, and knowing what light will illuminate his work, whether sun or gas, morning or evening, a south or a north light, the artist may at his pleasure strengthen or soften, bring into prominence or subdue the natural colouring of the person he wishes to adorn, by the introduction of foreign colours into his decoration. it is for him to judge under what circumstances he shall use this or that artifice. would he be wise to waste his pains in hiding a fault that nothing can hide ? should he try, for example, to soften down the harshness of a swarthy complexion ? no, that which cannot be con- cealed it is best frankly to acknowledge. in such a case then he will employ for a brunette brilliant yellows and splendid reds. a jonquil-coloured ribbon, a scarlet camellia in the black tresses, a poppy-coloured bodice, partially softened by chantilly lace, will give a dashing character to the figure so decorated, and instead of diminishing its effect, will add to it new force. amongst the soft beauties of the north, the sallow-complexioned germans, the english with their dazzling and satin-like skin, the french whose complexion is generally undecided personal adornment. in colour, whose hair is between the two extremes, and whose grace is all one of delicate shades—it is always a fine offence of colour, the appearance of one of those exotic and harsh beauties, or of an andalusian with an arab skin, a piercing eye, and stubborn hair. in connexion with this subject, i remember that one of our most learned colourists, eugène delacroix, was visited, when at the point of death, by a woman, an artist, who was much attached to him, and who came to give him a last clasp of the hand. just as she was entering the room, delacroix, by an involuntary and instinctive movement, seized a red china scarf, and wound it hastily round his neck, as a foil to the livid, almost corpse-like pallor of his face, the colour of which, even in health, was almost that of a gipsy. the artist had survived the man. but if we have to deal with a delicate brunette with slightly jaded features, or a brunette whose skin is com- paratively fair, and eyes of a velvety black, we must no longer make use of striking and decided colours. here, on the contrary, soft colours should be employed, espe- cially pale blue, because that is the shade which ap- proaches nearest to white without having its rawness. we shall thus succeed in giving fairness to the one, and we shall subdue in the other her slight pallor, and the evanescent change in her features, by associating with them the faintest possible colour. it is the same with blondes. i mean that the common theory must often give way in this sense, that we must treat gracefulness sometimes by contrasts, and sometimes by similars. no doubt, as a general rule, the softness of fair women, which may become insipidity, calls for art in ornament and dress. certain contrasts and enhancements. if the hair of a blonde be golden or red, it ought without doubt to be accompanied by its complementary colour: a dark violet velvet bonnet, a tuft of violets in the hair, a deep lilac dress will go with it marvellously well. there is another colour which suits all shades of red hair-green of a medium intensity. if the complexion of the blonde be delicate and fresh, an orange, turkey (caroubier), or ruby red will set off the freshness and delicacy, partly by similarity, partly by contrast. red, then, is not ex- clusively the rouge of brunettes (“ le fard des brunes”), to use the common expression; it plays a part also in the dress of fair beauties. we may say the same of yellow, which we have seen look bewitching on some blondes. but in this case the yellow ought to match in hue the lightest shade of the hair, and it must be heightened by a colour that contrasts well with it. let us now try to find out what colours will match chestnut or ash-coloured hair, and the complexions that correspond with them. women who are placed, so to speak, in the half shades of colour, may wear either what suits brunettes or blondes, provided the tones of their dress and ornaments be subdued in proportion to the degree of warmth in their complexion. pure yellow or deep red would ill suit chestnut hair, even if dark; but half tints, such as pale yellow, maize, deep yellow, tur- quoise blue, and hazy blue, would harmonise well with the neutral character of these natural colours. light chestnut admits of the colours suitable to fair hair, but with a little less decidedness in the tint. as to those who have ash-coloured hair, and skin in keeping with it, personal adornment. eyes blue as the sea or sea green, their delicate and extreme softness calls for half-warm tints, with suggestions of neutral grey or slashings of pale blue. black velvet gives them fairness without detracting from the distinc- tion and delicacy which are the characteristics of their complexion, and pearls form in their ornaments a happy consonance, provided their cold colour is relieved by one that is decided, tastefully used and concentrated within a small space, such as a polished but uncut garnet, a ruby, or a trinket of gold. but this chapter on colours is not yet exhausted. we shall have to return to the subject by-and-by. hair-dressing. vi. of all theressing is among of all the arts which are the subject of this work, that of hair-dressing is among those which require most skill and taste. the art of the hairdresser is one that requires much taste and refinement, and m. lefebvre was right when he said in a speech he delivered in paris, in ; “hair-dressing is an art. .... to give becoming forms to those long filaments which nature seems to have in- tended for a veil rather than an ornament; to bestow on those forms a consistency of which the material com- posing them does not appear susceptible; to give to luxuriance a regularity which may banish disorder, and to supplement scantiness with an abundance which may deceivė the most searching glance; to combine the accessories with the groundwork which they are to soften down or relieve; to give stay to a delicate face by airy personal adornment. amongst our barbarous ancestors, long hair was a mark of honour, a token of freedom, and so julius cæsar understood it when he cropped the hair of the vanquished gauls, as though to inflict upon them the ignominious stigma of the roman scissors. in fact, there is some- thing in hair allowed to grow freely and to float in the brutus, after the antique. wind that suggests the simplicity and independence of primitive peoples, and gives them a resemblance to horses with flowing mane and tail. but voluntary cutting of the hair is in no sense humiliating, and it is undeniable that it imparts an air of austerity, neatness, and adherence to rules, and, being the reverse of what is customary among women, it has on that account alone a masculine character. how could we imagine brutus art in ornament and dress. other than with short and thick hair, such as he is repre- sented in the antique ? the shaven head heightens the expression of formal zeal in the aspect of the quaker, and of daring in the appearance of our zouaves ; it marks also the boldness of the corsair, who is determined neither to be captured or rescued by his hair. besides, short hair suits equally well a beard or a shaven chin. when francis i., wishing to hide a scar, or perhaps to correct the excessive breadth of his face, allowed his beard to grow, he felt the necessity of cutting his hair short, and by covering it with a black velvet cap ornamented with a feather, he succeeded in giving to the head a certain grace, at least in the profile, as titian has painted him. it is then more becoming to wear the hair short with a beard, so as to give prominence to the upper part of the head, to the marking of the eyes and eye- brows, to the development of the forehead, and also to show the shape of the skull, if it is not unsightly or out of proportion. in the reign of henry iv., when every variety of beard was introduced, for it was cut square, round, fan-shaped, swallow-tailed, and in the shape of an artichoke leaf, the beard was worn with hair propor- tionately short. for an analogous reason, long hair demands the dis- appearance of the beard. only a venerable old man, such as leonardo da vinci was when he visited france, could wear both long hair and a long beard. in the time of louis xiii., those courtiers who were old or shaved were obliged to assume a wig, or according to the word then in vogue, a coin. when louis xiv. exhibited him- self in all his majesty, no one would wear his own hair, personal adornment. “ cheveux de son cru,” as molière says. besides, it was quite natural that the king should lay his edict on fashion, when he claimed to impose it upon the conscience. at that time were seen displayed on “huge rhinegraves” brown and even blonde wigs, then in high favour. they were ill suited no doubt to the fresh charm of youth, but we must admit that they lent a certain dignity to sedate persons of mature age, just as in our day they still give an imposing air to the speaker of the house of commons and the judges in england. the magistrates of the ancient parliaments, the ministers of state, the provost of the merchants, the sheriffs and the bailiffs, presented a different appearance in their hammer wigs (“perruques à marteaux ") to the counsellors, judges, and functionaries of our own day whom we see in court, with their hair more or less cared for, more or less scanty, sometimes awkwardly standing up, sometimes lying flat on the temples like sabre-blades, sometimes gathered in the shape of a dagger, sometimes rough, or in ludicrous disorder. whoever has to take part in a public ceremony, or to fulfil some important public function, would look more dignified by wearing an official head-dress, just as a cap is worn by counsellors, or a hat à la française, rather than give himself up to the mercy of the brush and comb, or trust to a hap-hazard arrangement of the hair, which, without his knowing it, may perhaps turn him into a laughing-stock. in theatres where Æschylus and sophocles, plautus and terence were played, the actor wore a tragic or comic mask, accompanied by false hair in keeping with it, so that the expression intended by the poet art in ornament and dress. might not be changed by the accidents of individual faces, and the permanent charac'er of the personage be maintained. old sel do olac spoo tojottotett sa ottovo naslololololololalo iiton- mi sargon, king of assyria. in egyptian sculpture, as in greek statuary, the gods and heroes have their front hair divided into very fine locks, rolled in a spiral, and their back hair slightly personal adornment. : waved and curled with the tongs. this regularity imparts a solemn, priestly, and sacred character to their faces. the same may be said of those majestic beards of the assyrian kings, of which there are so many examples in the louvre and the british museum. but without going so far back, in modern times the manner of wearing the hair was sufficient to distinguish the parties into which whole nations were divided by politics or religion, as, for example, the roundheads and cavaliers in the time of cromwell, and later the rigid and the lax quakers. we must repeat it: the hair and the beard give ex- pression, much more than we think, to a man's face. so the painter and the sculptor ought to take the greatest pains to copy with fidelity the style of the hair, to catch its wave, its form, and its expression. ingres was always most attentive to this. david d'angers excelled in it. in that series of medallions which is one of the marvels of french sculpture, he copied or devised as many styles of hair as he had heads to model. he showed himself to be a coiffeur of genius. never in the hands of any artist was the turn given to the hair so powerful a means of imparting double force to the ex- pression. · and in fact what a difference there is between a head dressed with feeling, and the same head when the hair is left to chance or ill arranged! no doubt the natural arrangement may be so admirable that there is no necessity for any alteration. it is thus that disordered hair may characterise the incessant absorption of a philosopher, always buried in problems, like ampère- art in ornament and dress. let us leave him with his hair all in confusion. neither let us meddle with the stubborn hair which indicates the intractable pride of an ingres, nor those unkempt locks which denote the rude condition of a danubian peasant, or the assumed frankness of a courtier in thick shoes. speaking one day to david d'angers of the wonderful talent he showed in the hair of his models, & chara he took hastily from a drawer a medallion of kleber, and said, as he showed it us, “look, his hair throws out rays like the sun's disc.” every day it happens to us to fail to recognise our friends when they have cut their hair in some unusual manner, when they have shaved or allowed their beard to grow contrary to their ordinary practice. this proves what effect these natural ornaments have on a man's appearance, and how they fix themselves in the memory. personal adornment. eve a particular face shows determination merely by the turn of the moustache; but the moustache is robbed of all its expression unless it be worn by itself. accompanied by the other parts of the beard, it loses its originality, it ceases to be a marked characteristic of will or temper. however slightly turned up, as it was in callot's time, the moustache has an air of haughtiness which was so much felt, that it became, under louis xiv., the privilege of the corps d'élite in the royal army; and in the reign of the bourbons, after their restoration, when it was desired to revive among the french troops the recollec- tion of their ancient aristocratic constitution, only the officers were allowed to wear the moustache. the variations which this appendage throws into the expression of the face are numerous. molière, following the king's example, cultivated on his upper lip a thin thread of moustache, which showed the entire outline of his amiable and sensitive mouth, and it only wanted a few cuts of the scissors and razor to give an external form to the refinement of his genius, to that raillery with- out bitterness, to that extreme kindness, which charac- terised him. in our own day, eugène delacroix trimmed his moustache à la molière, and upon his impassioned and worn countenance it resembled the life-like stroke of a pencil, which repeated the expression of his eyes, small and contracted, piercing and black. when it grows naturally, the moustache is always a sign of a manly temperament. it never, or at any rate seldom, happens that it is bristling, hirsuta, in gentle and thoughtful characters, and it is rarely rounded, turned under, or softly curled in men of rough natures ws m art in ornament and dress. on born for contradiction and conflict. to draw it to a fine point, as was done under the empire, whether from a spirit of mere imitation, or courtier-like flattery, is to give the face of the wearer a factitious and evanescent expression, since the points cannot be kept stiff without the use of a cosmetic, easily detected and soon melted. how many other alterations the scissors may produce in a man's head! if the face be broadly developed, it may be lengthened by an imperial, which may be grown long enough to come below the chin. if it is too narrow, it is easy to reduce its length by spreading out the whiskers with the comb. the care that we bestow on our person is a species of politeness towards others; thus it is that many persons shave some part of their beard, in order to unite freedom of toilette with an appearance of cleanliness and trimness. some there are who, by shaving the chin, and allowing a point of hair to grow towards the corners of the mouth, indicate a studied intention, and sometimes give to their features a meaning which they would otherwise not have had. under the restoration, it was the fashion among the ultra-royalists to trim their whiskers à la dambray, that is to say, to shave them like the chancellor dambray, as high as the orifice of the ear, and to make them grow in a curved line on the cheeks. this kind of lower eye- brow gave relief to particular faces, and lent them piquancy. we know that berryer, the famous orator, preserved all his life an old-fashioned style, not only because it was a political archaism, but because it gave refinement and distinction to his open, blotched, and personal adornment. massive face, the natural character of which was one of ready affability and universal kindness. once more then we must not forget what expression there is in the cut of the beard, moustache, whiskers, and hair. - avia berryer. hair cut square on the forehead was, in the fifteenth century, among the contemporaries of périnet leclerq, significative of holding the opinions and fancies of the malcontents. falling long on the shoulders it gave mildness and expressiveness to the mien of a bernardin de saint-pierre, and was in keeping with the amiable good nature of franklin. combed back over the head, it bespoke the enthusiasm of a poet like schiller. simply smoothed down on the forehead it expressed the calm concentrated enthusiasm of a fanatic like saint-just. g art in ornament and dress. ox during the french revolution the patriots wore their hair short, and abolished powder, with the single ex- ception of the chief of the mountain, and he needed all his courage to venture to present himself in the clubs with his hair neat and in order, combed and carefully bonaparte, consul. (bust by houdon ?) powdered, which proved him to be “a man methodical in his life, his hatreds, and his schemes," such as he has been described by the youngest of the historians of the revolution.* under the directory, manners having become licentious, the feeling of a reaction full of malice betrayed itself in the plaited hair brought up on the head by the comb, and by the “ dog's ears,” which seemed to be a sarcasm * histoire de la révolution française, by louis blanc. personal adornment. aimed at the discomfited jacobins by the “incroyables.” even our brave hussars were condemned to wear their hair like women, with those plaits turned up under their caps, called catogans. but by-and-by, in the midst of this efleminate society, with its long and plaited hair, there appeared a corsican “with straight hair,” a false brutus, whose choleric and consular head was to be crowned with the diadem formerly worn by the long- haired kings. viii. the hat, like the dress in general, ought in its shape and ornaments, to accord with these three forces of nature and life-attraction, growth, and motion. one of the cleverest architects of germany, m. sem- per, who also possesses an original, speculative and inves- tigating mind, has conceived the idea of reducing the ornamentation of the human figure to three principles. the following is a brief statement of his views, which seem profound in their obscurity, but which will appear still more profound and beautiful if, while summing them up, we succeed in throwing light upon them.* man should be considered, even by the æsthetic, not at all as a kind of plane figure, as an image offered to the perception, but as a solid body, in which three forces act, corresponding to the three dimensions of space : * m. semper's views were developed by him in a course of lectures delivered at the polytechnic institute at zurich. these views would have been unintelligible to us if they had not been translated by a man of remarkable intelligence, m. challemel-lacour, whose translation was pub- lished in by the revue des cours littéraires. personal adornment. at once. he is developed vertically like a tree, and he moves horizontally like a fish. the result is that he is independent of the law of rigorous equilibrium in a down- ward, just as he is in a backward direction. it is only from right to left, or from left to right, that symmetry is apparent, which is an absolute condition of statics, an inevitable submission to the laws of equilibrium. this axis of symmetry, which is horizontal, cuts at a right angle the axis of direction, which is also horizontal, and the axis of growth, which is vertical. here then we have the three forces, or, if you please, the three axes which correspond in the human frame to the three dimensions of space, and to these three forces are united three kinds of ornament, which the author calls pendentive, annular, and (for want of a better term) ornaments of direction. that beauty may be apparent in man it is necessary that these different centres of action should be reflected in his external form, and should there be represented in a manner perceptible to the eye. the pendentives answer to weight. they make the stability of the body stand out. they should be essen- tially symmetrical. we could not imagine, for instance, a single ear-ring or two drops of unequal length and weight. the æsthetic effect of this ornament is in- creased by the moral reaction it exercises on the person wearing it: it obliges her to a certain moderation in her movements, to a certain dignity in her attitudes. a woman, whose ear-rings were constantly in the air, would thereby show an extreme restlessness and fickleness of disposition. the stiff vertical curls (of which we have ornal art in ornament and dress. already spoken) of the hair and beard of the pharaohs, and of the kings of nineveh, belong to this class of symmetrical ornaments, as well as the draperies of the greek caryatides, and the stiff folds of archaic figures, with their pendent tresses. the annular or peripheral ornament has especial telation to individual proportions: it indicates the centre round which it is placed, and if its principal subject is the human head, it is because the head is the symbol of the entire man. the leafy crowns regularly arranged according to a certain form, the circles of gold, which were in greece the emblem of exalted power, the assyrian mitre, the feather head-dresses of the mexican caciques, all come under this class of ornament. next comes the necklace, which marks the transition from the head to the shoulders, and the belt which encircles the union of the torso with the lower part of the body; and then bracelets and rings, which display the delicate proportions of the extremities. with freedom of movement and spontaneity is con- nected an ornament whose aim is to mark and throw these into relief. it differs from the other two, inasmuch as it is neither symmetrical nor rhythmical. it depends on the contrast between front and back, and should be arranged so as to be seen in profile. but this ornament is of two kinds: it is either fixed or floating; fixed, like the royal viper, the uræus which invariably decorates the orow of the deified kings of egypt, or floating, like the mane which adorned the helmet of the etruscans and the greeks. in the middle ages the knight wore a waving plume on the crest of his helmet; and in our personal adornment. day, regiments of soldiers, like the horse guards of england, and the lancers of france, et les dragons mêlant, sur leur casque gépide, le poil taché du tigre au crin noir des coursiers, v. h. wear upon their caps or helmets floating appendages. ribbons also, feathers and tufts, are among the inex- www www ikuti inc head-dress, showing the urÆus, of the ancient kings of egypt. haustible means of emphasising the direction of the body. the lightness of the materials, rendering these ornaments moveable, makes them express not the ac- cidental or insignificant changes of position of the in- dividual, but the general direction of his movements. such are, substantially the ideas of m. semper touch- ing the three grand methods of adorning the human body. these three methods, as we see, come under symmetry, radiation, and contrast. not one of them personal adornment. mains: for example, in the ram's horns which adorn the head-dress of the egyptian kings of the xxvth dynasty, and which figured on the medals of alexander when he gave himself out to be the son of jupiter ammon. at a time when helmets were treated as symbols or objects of art the hat and cap were simply a covering for the head, without the slightest ornament. the cap of ulysses, semi-oval in shape and without le a. egyptian cap. a brim, is the same as the sailors and fishermen of the mediterranean wore, and which the egyptian fellahs still wear, doubtless from their attachment to a tradition which goes as far back as the remotest ages of their history. simple not less was the phrygian cap, which every one knows, and which became a symbol of liberty from the custom that existed in rome of presenting a somewhat similar cap, a pileus, to the slave who was to be set free. in greece, the hat was indicative of rural occupations, art in ornament and dress. and was scarcely ever worn except in the country, in hunting or riding. sometimes it was flat and wide, like the arcadian petasus worn by certain horsemen on the frieze of the parthenon; sometimes it was high, with a turned-up brim like that of the macedonians. in ancient times the hat was only looked upon as a useful article, unless it might be in war, when a character of haughti- sed · unicorn cap of the middle ages. is ness, sometimes, too, of grace, was given to it, by means of a garland of flowers, as the gauls, our savage ances- tors, wore it to express their contempt of death, when they marched to battle against the romans. in the middle ages the hat took the most diversified forms: sometimes it was conical, sometimes semi-circular, sometimes almost cylindrical, like a mortar; but it had become a decided ornament, an instrument of distinction and luxury. “the nobility,” says m. viollet-le-duc art in ornament and dress. ground plan and cubical in its elevation would be in the highest degree displeasing, because standing before equal surfaces and façades all alike, we should not know how to estimate its dimensions; we should not be able to dis- tinguish the entrance from the exit, nor the principal features from the subordinate ones, and the mind like the sight would be all in doubt. for a still stronger hat of charles i. reason a direction is necessary in ornaments for the human figure, especially those for the head, because it is impossible to conceive a living being, even in repose, without freedom of movement, without a possible and impending change of position, so that if one sees the figure in profile from a certain distance, we should be able to recognise from the head-dress on which side the face is, in what direction the wearer is going to walk- what is, in a word, the front façade of that moving and active edifice called man. art in ornament and dress. peoples, like the american indians, the head-dress has a direction : they show a tendency to disregard symmetry, and make use of feathers, which beyond all other orna- ments is the ornament of direction. like a ship which has to cleave the water, the hat and its decorations show a prow and a poop, and this is the character as it ap- pears to us, which ought to prevail in it, if not in private life, at any rate in out-door and active life. our tubular hats—which artists in their everyday discourse have cast such withering scorn upon—these hats without front or back, without direction, without a culminating point, and whose frightful cylindrical shape is altogether at variance with the spherical form of the head, are as- suredly the last remnant of barbarism, and we must not be astonished if their use spreads in our day over the whole world, since nothing has more chance of lasting success than ugliness and absurdity. it is very evident in the present day that in what are reckoned the most civilized countries man has ceased to make his bat an article of luxury, an object ornamented with anything besides a band and a buckle. but even supposing that this part of the dress had no other use than as a protection against the cold and the sun, still there are shapes to which taste gives a preference and art recommends, even taking into account the difference of climate. thus, as we advance towards hot countries, it seems that the brim of the hat should increase, and this we find to be the case in the south of europe. in spain, the name given to the hat, sombrero, tells us wonderfully well that it was at first looked upon as a means of shading the face, for sombrero comes from personal adornment. sombra which means shade, or from sombrio which means dark, obscure. but if we penetrate still farther into hot countries, africa and asia minor, we find that the hat ceases to protect the face from the sun, while it continues to shield the head from its effects. the eyes and face remain uncovered, only the skull is protected. the moor, the bedouin, the nubian, the wandering and independent arab, making a beauty of necessity, turn their turban into an ornament, while the turks, egyp- tians, and all the subjects of the porte, submit to wearing the official fez or tarbouche imposed upon them by an edict of the sultan. we must go as far as japan on the one hand and brazil on the other to find in the hat the idea and the shape of the parasol. if we pass from the covering of the head to the entire dress of man, from a part to the whole, we should say that his costume in general, that it may not be at variance with the laws and sentiment of art, ought not only to make known its purpose and clearly show its utility, but should also be a symbol of the forces which act on and in man. it ought to represent by its pendent and corresponding ornaments, or by the repetition of similar objects, the centre of gravity, that is to say, the axis of weight, and consequently symmetry, without which there would be no equilibrium; it ought to reflect by its radiating forms or annular ornaments, the vegeta- tive force, that is to say, the axis of growth ; and lastly, by its floating and waving ornaments, or by a decided direction, it ought to show freedom of action, that is to say, the axis of motion. art in ornament and dress. ix. the style of dressing the hair of women varies and ought to vary in its lines, its colours, and its character, according to the shape of the head, the profile, the complexion and the age of the person. a poet who was a lover, and who was banished be- cause of love, ovid, did not think it beneath him to write upon the dressing of hair in elegant verse :- “never let your hair be in disorder: nothing pleases us so much as neatness. your charms depend on your hands; but there are many modes of varying the style ; above all, let each of you consult her looking-glass. “a long face requires hair simply parted on the fore- head: such was laodamia's style. a slight knot on the top of the head, leaving the ears displayed, best suits round faces. one woman will let her hair fall on her shoulders, like apollo when he carries his lyre; another will gather up her tresses, like diana chasing the deer. one charms us by her waving ringlets, another by her bands smoothly drawn on her temples. one likes to adorn her hair with a polished shell, another to give to her tresses the undulations of the wave. we might more easily count the acorns of a bushy oak, the bees of hybla, the animals which abound on the alps, than the new ornaments and fashions which every day brings forth. there are many women whom hair apparently in disorder suits : it might not have been dressed since yesterday; it has been arranged this very moment. art should imitate chance. such was the beautiful disorder of iole when hercules saw her for the first time in a n personal adornment. town taken by assault, and cried 'i love her!' such was the princess forsaken on the shores of naxos, when bacchus bore her away in his car to the shouts of the satyrs who cried evoe!'" the arrangement of the hair being indispensable to beauty only in woman, man, without actually handling the scissors and the curling tongs, ought to be his own hair-dresser ; and if so, we may be sure, as has already been said, that his character, careless or careful, impetu- ous or calm, timid or resolute, stiff or unreserved, will show itself in the way in which he usually cuts and arranges his hair. but woman needs to be adorned with profound skill, and it is not easy for her to dress her own hair. let us see if there are not some fixed rules which should be recognised and followed to bâtir de ses cheveux le galant édifice. oman the first thing that a woman should consider in pre- paring for that great work, her toilette, is the shape of her head, which she must also compare with her stature, and with her slimness or embonpoint. but it is the same with the human figure which is to be adorned as with a picture that has to be finished: it can only be judged of properly before a glass. before a glass (and it must be a large one) the figure can be studied, the proportions of the body, the age, can be better understood, because the reflection renders imperfections more apparent by show- ing them in an unexpected manner, that is to say, by showing the right side of that which is generally only seen on the left. being more at liberty to look at a woman from head to foot and at different distances, the h art in ornament and dress. ii. artist who dresses her hair can better see what he ought to see, and he will more easily be able, after a study which is neither inconvenient nor embarrassing, to select and adapt the style of embellishment most in accordance with the rules of his art. if the head is short—it is always short when it is not oval—the elements of taste point out a sure method of correcting that defect. by drawing back the hair in the chinese or any other style, we give length to the head because the eye is carried in the direction of height, which may be still further in- creased by raising the hair to the top or on the back of the head. in the latter case it is necessary that the mass of hair should be sufficiently raised to be seen when we are looking at the face in front, and it must terminate in a curve ; for if it formed a flat line, we should be flattening what we meant to heighten. when smooth bands are fashionable or worn from choice, they should be made to describe on each side a curve which will display the forehead and give narrowness to the face, or else the oval shape should be restored by en- croaching a little on the cheek bones by any means which the prevailing fashion will allow. if the head is long, anything giving squareness in front will help to shorten it. straight roots would no longer be suitable; but the hair should be brought down on the temples, with a slight wave to make it puff out, or bands taken off horizontally, to give as much width as possible to the forehead. applying here the principle of division, the height could easily be diminished by means of a chain or band, with a jewel in the middle (ferronnière); but the ferronnière is an awkward line which intersects personal adornment. the forehead harshly, and the fashion of wearing it, if it were to return, would be condemned by good taste. a. professor who has written on his art, and who in his day dressed the hair of the prettiest women in paris, croizat, (les cent-et-un coiffeurs) makes the just observation that nearly all styles of dressing the hair suit faces which are a perfect. oval, especially those which one would have chosen for round shaped heads. but if the head has the defect of too great depth, if it is too much developed in the parietal region above the occiput—which, by the way, is very rare in women-it would be easy to remedy this blemish by carrying above and below the too pro- minent part the tresses which would have formed the chignon. so surrounded and balanced, any undue pro- tuberance would disappear and the head resume its original graceful shape. . next to the general proportions of the head we must examine the entire profile. a projecting forehead, sunken and deep-set eyes, would not bear anything coming forward on the face, nothing covering it (because such a face wants to be lightened), nothing again too much drawn off from the face, as it would be in the antique style of wearing the hair, because the projection of the forehead would then be too strikingly displayed. a head with a receding forehead and face somewhat sheep-like requires a style in which the hair is brought forward on the head, and which by diminishing the curve of the profile, would make the features recede. in this case we may cover the top of the forehead according to the fashion of the day, either with waving curls, or with those rounded tufts which recall, but that art in ornament and dress. co they were larger, the style of dressing the hair à la titus, or with a coronet slightly lowered, or with a heart-shaped wreath, à la marie stuart. we need not say that hair smooth on the temples would only make more conspicuous the defect it is necessary to conceal. but the obligation he is under to conceal or lessen the irregularities of which we have been speaking should not prevent the hairdresser from throwing some character into his handiwork, and giving it the desired style. since the grave boileau has allowed himself to compare the dressing of the hair to an edifice, we may also be per- mitted to discuss the three orders of this modish sort of architecture. besides, it is to the purpose to remember that it is vitruvius—the classic vitruvius—who marks the intentional resemblance of the ionic volutes to the curls of a woman's hair. great as may be the variety of styles of hairdressing adapted to the different faces of women, it is possible to reduce them all to one of these three types-severity, grace, and magnificence. and how many differences, almost insensible, may not be found in the intervals which separate these three orders of ornament! by how many delicate transitions do we not pass from the severe to the graceful, from elegance to stateliness, from richness to dignity! how many are the gradations between the two extremes of severity! what shades, to sum it all up, in grace, which is itself nothing but a shade! the real world, like the world of painting, has its types of style, race, or character, and of genre; and generally they are easily distinguished by the shape of the nose, which is the most prominent and decided art in ornament and dress. nervous nostrils. we mean by coiffure de genre that which requires contrast rather than symmetry, that which lends itself to irregularities, that whose lines, instead of being continuous, are broken, and instead of resembling each other, are just the opposite. these definitions apply equally to graceful arrangements of the hair, although grace may also insinuate itself into the severe style, but only to a slight extent and to soften it. but if the nose is unequally short and turned up, the hair admits of still more fanciful arrangement; it may be whimsical, surprising, even set off with a little dis- order. · a stray ringlet, a careless bit of ribbon, an aigrette on one side would be allowable, or a falling spray of flowers, or a single curl on the face. in fact, it rarely happens that there is not some harmony between the shape of the nose and the moral character; and a nose à la roxelane is generally a feature which nature gives to lively and dashing women, who have an open mouth and ready speech, a bold eye and a sprightly air. after all, these remarks only apply to the indications of character. to dress a woman's hair according to the style of her face, one need not be a la bruyère; but one ought to possess quick-sightedness, and, above all, the principles of a physiognomist. to have a correct profile, a head of a typical form, the features of an italian beauty, is by no means the same thing as to have a high-bred face. this word points more especially to heads with character about them, to those which have a look of distinction, a remarkable expression, or a grand air. let the nose be a little arched, or projecting almost in a straight line, it is ar personal adornment. always rather long in this sort of face; it is neither classic nor bold; it has a marked direction, an apparent design, and so the hair must not be dressed in the antiqué or genre style: a luxuriant and historic coiffure suits such heads—we mean that without being disguised or setting the reigning. fashion at nought, it is better to keep to a bygone style in some characteristic details. we may recall, as cases in point, such well-known faces as those of grignan, sévigné, la vallière, fontanges, and gabrielle, whose characteristic heads avoid the in- congruities that the taste of the time would have inflicted on them. a traditional style of ornament suits them better than the impromptus of the moment, and without doubt a grave and dignified elegance is more becoming than a mere caprice. one word more as to colours. whatever may be the flower, the ribbon, the crape, the gauze, the material or the jewels chosen, it is important not to forget that variety is the enemy of severity. a single colour freely used by itself would be more severe than several colours. for a graceful or fantastic style a mixture of different colours may be suitable, because variety corresponds to fancy, and seems to throw into relief the lightness and changeableness of grace; but where we wish for an indication of character, unity is synonymous with dignity. repeated with symmetry, or placed in the centre-i mean in the axis of the head-dress—one single colour is a dignified ornament, and the effect it will produce is as certain as in another way would be that of a bush of colours, or, as professors say, of a jardinière. anyway, in the choice of colours, warm or cool, art in ornament and dress. brilliant or pale, pure or medium, due regard should be had not only to the complexion and colour of the hair, but to the character and age of the person. here we may apply the observations already made on the expres- sion of colours. character! do you say—what a long word for a flower! yes, flowers have a great deal of character, and so have feathers and ribbons, lace and gauze. it is only a slight thread which connects all this with our feelings; but that slender thread is never broken. would you place indifferently on a haughty head or a face with irregular features, field flowers, the lily of the valley, the narcissus, and the easter daisy? would you deck a face breathing of the spring with sprays of the black or purple vine, or place a wild rose in hair which should be soberly dressed ? you might just as well set on a brunette's head those wreaths of hop, or those mosses mixed with leaves whose decided green goes so well with fair faces. as if they were the work of a woman's hand, flowers have received from nature certain expressions dependent on their colour, form, or mien, independent of the idea we attach to them, or of the associations of memory. the dahlia, in its perfect symmetry, is a severe flower; the camellia, in its beautiful regularity, has a serene and noble air; and the hundred-leaved rose, just like the peony, a certain magnificence, especially when it is of a brilliant hue. lilacs, primroses, rose-coloured heather, wall- flower, clematis, the wistaria, the wood hyacinth, the catch-fly, the wild tansy, the blossoms of the plane and wild cherry, all these delicate creations which florists imitate to perfection, and which can be made into long personal adornment. clusters, wreaths, and sprays, belong to the graceful style, to the head-dress of youth. a bunch of blue bells, of corn-poppies, and a cérès of ears of corn (as has been so well said) must recall harvest time, and it is hardly allowable that they should be worn indiscriminately at a dinner party in town or country. there are some drooping flowers whose very appearance is sentimental, others which are irregular, whimsical, and, so to speak, desultory, like the begonia, so dear to japanese artists. some there are whose exquisite symmetry and extreme delicacy are their chief charm, like the lingwort, sedum, sage, forget-me-not, and the elder flower. the convolvulus expands gently, the columbine droops sadly, and the daisy displays gaily its star-like corolla. is there not an air of freedom in the attitude of many flowers and flowerets which grow straight and firm on their slender stalks? is there not a manifest purpose of elegance in the form and bend of the fuchsia ? wild oats, which are so suitable for coiffures de genre and fancy, have they not an air of pretty and attractive disorder? the flowers that are inost magnificent when full blown are retiring in the bud. modesty, pride, frankness, reserve, coquetry, boldness, and independence—all these human characteristics may be attributed to flowers, and are, in fact, attributed to them by the unerring sentiment which has created the poetry of their language. it is enough to say that to the expression of their colour and form must be added that of their bearing, their mien, their easy carriage, their whole aspect, and thus we shall have in the king- dom of flowers an endless choice of decoration for the na apt in casament and dress. head-dress of woman, according to ber style, appearance, and age. we often hear it said, that it is a mistake for a woman of a certain age to make herself appear younger by her dress and style of hair ; that it would be more becoming, at thirty-five for example, to dress as if you were forty, than to fall back on the style that suited you at thirty. this is going too far, as it seems to us, and reckoning on a reaction which will not, perhaps, take place in the mind of the spectator. no doubt it is a false calculation to make yourself appear too young; but to try to appear old, that your age may be charitably allowed to you, is a calculation still more false, or, at any rate, a dangerous one. in the world, where the battles of coquetry take place, where the rivalries of grace, and the emulations of art come into play, modesty of intention is a very pre- carious artifice: we are generally taken at our word. young women always look well with their hair taken off so as to show the face. the ear, according as nature has formed it with more or less delicacy, may be entirely uncovered or partially hid; the forehead, if high-if longer than the nose-should be concealed a little, and the face only uncovered near the temples. long curls, such as lawrence's figures wear falling on their cheeks, have an expression of sentimental reverie which may suit certain romantic ladies; but, in a general way, the cheeks left bare and the hair turned back is more graceful and natural than these drooping ringlets which the most chaste and tender kiss would disarrange. why display beautiful curls on the cheek when they look so elegant on the nape of the neck or the shoulder ? to personal adornment. . conceal a part of the face, is it not to make people suspect some defect, or to lead them to believe more than really exists? women who hide under corkscrew curls their faded complexions, or the marks which the finger of time has left on their faces, make themselves look old by this very precaution. sincerity is best. as regards young girls, they are always charming when they display the whole of the face. youth is such a skilful hairdresser ! x. fashion is closely connected with head-dressing in women, that is to say, the art of adapting the bonnet to the head, and of suiting it to the whole of the dress. the art of dressing the head and the art of fashion are connected without being identical, and in spite of their close union we can readily distinguish them. the bonnet, not being indispensable, as the head can be bril- liantly arranged without it, forms part of the dress. it belongs to the complete costume, and properly so, since it is the crown of all. like all other parts of her dress, a woman's bonnet is an indication of character, and this can only arise from its relation to sentiment. look at that nun who is pass- ing by, devoted to charitable works, and who bears the name of the virtue she practises: she wears on her head a large white cornette, which conceals the profile of her face, only leaving the organs of sight, breathing, and speech uncovered; her hair is invisible, and even its growth is hid under the bandage across her forehead. starched and stiff, this cornette expresses to herself complete with- nal art in ornament and dress. drawal from the world. its single föld has a purpose and determination; no hand has touched it. its smooth whiteness is an emblem of chastity and purity. look, now, at a fashionable young lady of the present day, who has discovered how to wear a bonnet without its covering her head, and who, far from concealing her hair, draws it back, puffs it, crimps it, displays it, and even adds to it an artificial abundance. are not these the two extreme severity in the head-dress. extremes of bonnets between which every variety of severity and coquetry may find a place ? so true it is, that carefully to conceal the hair and as much as possible of the face is connected with a feeling of severity, that in the time of isabella of bavaria, towards the close of the fourteenth century, widows added to the veil and wimple, which at that time covered the forehead, cheeks, and hair, a chin-piece, called a bar- bette, which only left the mouth visible, and was looked upon as a sign of mourning. hence the veils, wimples, and chin-pieces worn in imitation by nuns of different personal adornment. orders, who by their chastity and self sacrifice are, so to speak, the voluntary and mystical widows of the world. when devotion, true or false—for sometimes it is the fashion is in the ascendant, the bonnet is a protection from stolen glances ; it prevents the eyes from seeing and being seen by stealth. such was the bonnet worn in france at the time of the restoration, when a certain muoti extreme coquetry in the head-dress. religious guise was considered high breeding and good taste. in proportion as austerity diminishes, the front of the bonnet diminishes likewise, and when the quakeresses give up the tenets of their sect, they will certainly alter the uniform bonnet which is one of the outward signs of their belief. if freedom of manners were to gain the victory over sedate deportment or hypocrisy, there would be nothing left of the bonnet but the shape and the strings. but to talk of shape, as we have but lately seen the art in ornament and dress. ere bonnet, is mere elegant irony. sometimes it is flattened on the head, like an inverted saucer; sometimes it is com- posed of velvety leaves, mounted in a coronet or en cérès; sometimes it is nothing but a simple bow of english point, or a skull-cap of straw bound with velvet, or a piece of felt turned up, or a lilliputian three-cornered hat, enlarged with all sorts of gewgaws, or a cap of silk cloth, or a little bell-shaped funnel, indented and tilted over the ear; sometimes it is only a puffing of tulle and velvet, or a pretty confusion of lace, ribbons, and flowers, so that the idea of covering the head has given place to the desire to adorn it. a bonnet is simply an excuse for a feather, a pretext for a spray of flowers, the support for an aigrette, the fastening for a plume of russian cock's feathers. it is placed on the head, not to protect it, but that it may be seen better. its great use is to be charming. but the bonnet, like the dressing of the hair, has its varieties of outward aspect, which depend greatly not only on the materials employed, but on the turn given to them and the manner of wearing them. of course the bonnet itself must be all elegance, whether it be severe or coquettish, simple or rich in style, the device of fancy, or made after a recognised pattern, like the catalonian, tyrolese, watteau, and trianon shapes. grace is the foundation of everything; but it varies in a thousand ways. to say something more of the materials of which the bonnet is made, what a difference there is between black and coloured velvet! how much more simple and grave the one is than the other! the non-colour is to personal adornment. se nal the innumerable shades created by nature or art what unity is to variety. but if velvet gives richness and quietness to black which it deepens, or to the tints which colour it, what an air of lightness and delicacy is there on the contrary in a lace bonnet, a knot of blonde ; for we see, daily, bonnets composed of these cloudy materials which afford neither protection nor covering, and whose only purpose is to be arranged prettily, to be skilfully manipulated, to be elegantly useless. it is the same with feathers : one can scarcely see in them the most remote allusion to a sun-shade. their sole use is to ornament. when they are stiff, like pheasants and cocks' feathers, they have a determined and gallant expression. pliant and drooping they have a sort of warlike grace, which recalls the crested plumes of ancient chivalry, and for that very reason forms a pretty contrast between the woman's delicacy and the military style of her costume. a single feather is elegant and haughty, especially when it falls on the back of the head, and why? because, by indicating the action of the air in a contrary direction to that in which the wearer of the feather is walking, it reveals an impulsive will, and a life-like movement. several feathers curled, brought together in tufts, or symmetrically arranged as a coronet, produce the im- pression of richness and style. as to the west indian birds which display their wings as it were in a nest of black feathers on iridescent leaves, like the humming birds of brazil, one cannot fail to see in them a magni- ficence which suits but few faces, and only those of a marked character. marabout feathers, so wavy and art in ornament and dress. filmy, are only suitable for women of mature age, be- cause they add a richness to the head-dress which youth does not stand in need of, but which makes up for faded beauty. so also, on account of the splendid luxuriance of their symmetrical colouring, peacocks' feathers are better placed in the centre of the head-dress than at the side. let there be no mistake: there are many things in the bonnet which do not depend upon fashion, which are released from its absolute yet limited control. all the ukases of this capricious and fantastic sovereign will not prevent a bonnet fastened with strings from being more modest, more of a covering—i was going to say more seemly—than a little cap perched on one side, or a plate upside down, like the nice bonnet, fastened to the back of the hair by a ribbon nearly horizontal, and whose ends float behind. it is clear that with the one bonnet we connect the idea of reserve, with the other the idea of liberty. the former covers the space between the cheeks and the hollow under the ear, which space always gives a voluptuous expression when it is slightly depressed; the latter leaving uncovered the flexibility and grace of all the parts about the neck, allows the light to fall tenderly upon them and the imagination to caress them. the bonnet strings then are not without their bearing on the style of the bonnet. whether they be of blonde or crape, ribbon of silk or velvet, tulle or gauze, they express an intention of covering a part which is exposed and of fastening the bonnet, thereby giving it an appear- ance of modesty. an appearance, we say, for it hardly amounts to more than this in the modes, so finely art in ornament and dress. tain expedition, it is always very becoming to her to bring the rough or manly style of her dress into contrast with the delicacy of her hands, the smallness of her feet, and her lithe and fragile figure. a man's hat has long been looked upon as classic in the costume of a woman on horseback, whose only way of asserting her sex is by wearing a veil, under pretence head-dress called hennin. of protecting her eyes from the dust and sun. how otherwise than by a little masculine felt hat with a short feather, or a little turned-up cap, could the dress be made complete, which recalls the sedition of the fronde, or a suit consisting of a frock coat with buttons, a vest of the french guard, a turned-down collar, a collegian's cravat, and a zouave's trousers and gaiters? who does not feel that a martial air gives piquancy to the grace of personal adornment. a fragile creature, because it becomes a pleasant joke, a piece of irony! women often wear high bonnets, and there is no objection to this, provided the bonnet be perfectly dis- tinct from the head, and the excessive length or size be quite separate from the mass of the head itself. in the fifteenth century, when french ladies wore those huge pointed head-dresses called hennin, its mere inclination, vo le the horizontal style of head-dress. without saying anything of its shape, detached it com- pletely from the rest of the body, the natural proportions of which were not altered by it, because the hennin was simply an ornament, evidently intended as a decoration for the head, and easily separated from it in imagination. in the present day, on the contrary, women make with their own or their false hair, a structure all of a piece, so clumsy, so voluminous, that, in spite of the most elementary laws of human proportion, the head becomes art in ornament and dress. the fifth and sometimes the fourth part of their whole person! we have spoken of what was meant in the human head by a vertical, horizontal, or oblique direction (grammaire des arts du dessin). these inexorable rules apply also to the head-dress. placed horizontally, it gives an idea of order and calmness. coming more or less over the forehead, and only allowing the eyes to be the oblique style of head-dress. seen, as though to increase their brilliancy, it gives an expression of independence and originality, because there is but one horizontal, while the oblique line varies ac- cording to the degree of its obliquity. it is evident that a woman's bonnet or hat has quite a different appearance when it is placed parallel to the natural lines of the face, than when it cuts these lines by being worn to right or left, before or behind, instead of following them as the frame follows the outline of the object framed. to sum up, the same rules hold good for the head- personal adornment. dress and bonnet of women as for the other parts of their dress and personal ornament of which we are going to speak. regularity, symmetry, unity, the choice of the vertical or horizontal, are essential to the severe or serious style; while variety, alternation, contrast, the preference given to oblique lines, are indications of self- will, boldness, and caprice, or at any rate the character- istics of youth and liberty. dress. xi. without violating the absolute laws of beauty, male costume ought to vary, both according to the climate of the country and the belief of the nation, and also according to the nature of a man's functions and habits of life. it would be a false idea to try to reveal the shape of the body by means of the dress which covers it, for we do not dress to display the nude figure, but to protect it from the inclemency of the weather and to conceal it from view. sculpture, it is true, often employs drapery so as to make the nude figure seen beneath its slight covering ; but the sculptor, in doing this, thinks of nothing else but the beautiful. marble is only an emblem ; it is not chilly; marble, being chaste, feels no shame. destined to show the beauty of the immortals, it does not express morbid and perishable flesh, but forms pure, eternal, and divine. drapery, then, in the hands of the sculptor is only a means of enhancing the beauty of the nude figure, by contrasting with its compact and smooth modelling the ruggedness of the folds, and art in ornament and dress. with its whiteness, on which the light falls, those sunken parts which retain the shadow. but the drapery of the living man is subject to other conditions. it is not necessary that it should cling to the limbs like a wet cloth. better, indeed, not to reveal the shape than to simulate it as the scabbard does the sword. dress has its own dignity and elegance, not entirely and absolutely depending on the body it covers. the outer covering may have a grace independent of the form beneath. since civilisation has invented and insisted upon modesty, dress, even when it was not a protection against the climate, has necessarily been employed, not to display the shape, but to conceal it. the simple and primitive nudity of the fellahs in egypt has nothing immodest in it; while on the contrary the tights of our male and female dancers are almost indecent. besides, convenience is hardly more consulted than decorum in these close-fitting garments, which impede the move- ments and prevent the blood from circulating. but for men leading an active life, or for military men, it is not unsuitable to show the curve of the leg by means of tight stockings or gaiters, in order that the wearer may appear more at ease. generally speaking, a man with a large head, coarse features, and a brawny face, will not have a slight leg, a bony ankle, or a meagre calf; and, in such a case, there would be a happy effect of harmony, or, if you will, of consonance, in showing that the lower part of the figure corresponds to the upper. how much more ready and alert a greek en fustanelle, and a zouave with his breeches gartered below the knee, appear, than a foot ea art in ornament and dres parts of a man's dress; but custom requires that we should only show what is necessary to make its cleanli- ness evident. the display of the shirt-front has a double inconvenience, in leading us to think that its whiteness is perhaps exceptional, and at the same time in throwing a great mass of light on the chest, which attracts the attention and fatigues the eye. titian, in his portraits, manages the whiteness of the linen with great care. where the costume requires it, part of the shirt-front is seen ; but its whiteness is softened by a warm glaze, and by the little shadows formed by the folds of the tumbled linen. van dyck and rembrandt, in their pictures, treat the frills and bands in a way not to offend the eye by their whiteness, by laying over them a slight tint of blue or yellow, and they soften them still more by means of the little black points in the lace. the plaited ruffles are equally sub- dued to throw out the flesh, the white of the eye, and the lights on the forehead, the nose, and the cheeks. in everyday life, as the whiteness of the linen cannot be toned down as in painting, it becomes, when it is too much displayed on the chest, a spot of light distressing to the eye, and an ostentation which popular wit has ridiculed by creating this metaphorical expression for him who gives himself airs of importance—" he makes a show of his linen” (il fait jabot). there is, besides, a certain dignity, or at least reserve, in buttoning oneself up, rather than in leaving the waistcoat completely open. this is so true that language even gives us a proof of it. thus we make use of another metaphor for a man who pushes circumspection too far: we say that he is “always art in ornament and dress. the chinese and the japanese, who consider obesity as a sign of perfect happiness. they call domestic union the embonpoint of families; just government, the embonpoint of the empire; harmony among nations, the embonpoint of the world. far from repressing the development of the belly, the chinese display it with delight, to judge by their sculptured and painted representations. the people of the west, by reason of their spiritualism, attach more value to the predominance of the pectoral muscles in a broadly developed trunk, whose hips are perpendicular, and whose viscera are restrained by rigid muscles. the greeks have given us a proof of this predilection in their statues, particularly in that of the ilissus, which formed part of the western pediment of the parthenon. since the era of christianity, the predominance of spirit over flesh has only strengthened the feeling of the greek artists. it is natural, therefore, that, according to their belief, the western nations should assign a higher rank to the organs of respiration than to those of digestion : let us not forget, besides, that the word spirit originally signi- fied breath. this is why it is more fitting that any garment serving as a doublet or waistcoat should extend at least to the spring of the hips, so as to cover a part of the belly, while it gives breadth to the chest. but a doublet without sleeves and skirts becomes an under garment, and it is especially the outer garb which comes within the range of æsthetic observation. whether this be a robe, a gown, a cloak, a frock coat, or a dress coat, the first remark we have to make is, that the length of the garment ought to be in proportion to the sedate- ness of the wearer. the imaum and the dervish in the personal adornment. single earring. so we have given up this ornament, and the watch is placed in a pocket of the waistcoat, leaving the chain to appear as a fastening, and not as a pendant. the dress coat or frac is at present what the justau- corps was before the revolution. the pockets that we have contrived under the skirts behind, were then worn in front, and of these pockets, by means of braid, flaps, and worked button holes, a kind of ornament was made. but the justaucorps, coming down to the knees almost like the frock coat of our day, hid all signs of wear that might appear on the under garment, that is to say on the breeches: so it was thought needful to suppress the skirts in front, keeping only the tails behind, and this was done with the idea that the less any part of the dress was concealed, the more was it imperative to keep it clean ; and as consequently a frock coat is less cere- monious than a dress coat, it amounts to this, that it shows more politeness to appear in a dress than in a frock coat. and is it not the same feeling a little exag- gerated, which has led men of fashion to wear the waist- coat very much open, in order to display the greatest possible expanse of shirt front on the chest at a dinner- party or a ball ? the ornaments which semper calls “ ornaments of. direction” are rarely found in the dress of the civilian. but we find some examples when we go back to old 'fashions, particularly to the shoulder-knots, which pre- vailed in england in the time of queen anne, after having been in vogue in france in the seventeenth century- those shoulder-knots which play so striking a part in the famous tale of a tub of swift. you remember how art. in ornament and dress. the three twin brothers of that allegorical fiction twist their father's will to find in it permission to wear on their dress braid, fringe, and tufts of ribbon. the shoulder-knots transformed later on into aiguillettes in the uniform of our officers, are suitable for military costume, because, being light and waving, they form an ornament of direction and a vivid image of movement. but they should only be worn at court or in town, unless by the young dandies of society, or by pages, for it is evident that any appendage to dress which waves in the wind, clashes with physical gravity, and contradicts the feeling of moral gravity. “iphis sees in church a shoe of a new fashion, he looks at his own and blushes; he no longer thinks him- self well dressed : he had come to mass to show himself, and now he hides himself. see him kept by the foot in his room all the day.” so says la bruyère, and he uses this illustration to give a vivid idea of the im- portance of the shoe in costume, or at least in fashion. next to the head-dress, there is nothing which attracts the eye more than the shoe, because it is natural that in looking at a man from head to foot, or from his feet to his head, the attention should be arrested by the extremities. from the slipper without a quarter piece to a postilion's top-boots, from the pumps of the dancer to the hob- nailed shoes and rough gaiters of the gamekeeper, all shoes ought to be visibly made for their purpose, and in an extreme case their very suitability will make them beautiful. here we may say with montaigne, “que la bienséance originelle dépend du service et de la personal adornment. commodité du corps.” let us recall the gentlemen painted by vandyck and wouvermans in their great top-boots. even when they were on foot, imagination pictured them on horseback. the high tops of these boots, were they not in fact indicative of the protection necessary to the knee, that it might not strike itself against the holster of the pistol ? such a precaution, however, did not prevent the clock of the stocking worn with the boots from being ornamented when required with lace; but the wide boot of a bassompierre was none the less made to show the habits of the cavalier, even though the rowel of the spur was not necessarily seen. to bring vividly before the eye the connection between the dress and the function it is to discharge is certainly a merit, and there are certain parts of civilian garb which have no other. those who in our own day wish to revive the fashion of wearing boots beneath which the trousers are drawn and concealed, are in the right, for nothing is more contrary to sense than to cover the leather of the boot with the cloth of the trousers, as we have long done in france. just as in architecture, it is an axiom that the strong part should support the weak, so, in the economy of dress, it is a fundamental truth that the substantial should protect the delicate. the modern boot is nothing but a reminiscence of the greaves worn by the greeks in battle, and which our gaiters somewhat resemble. but the greaves, which were of metal or leather, only covered the leg and left the foot bare : the romans turned them into boots by adding a vamp and soles, and, looking to the expression art in ornament and dress. used by suetonius to designate the boots of augustus, tibialibus muniebatur, we must come to the conclusion that they were something more than mere boots; and that they protected the tibia by reaching to the knee. our ancestors placed on their shoes sometimes bows of ribbon when they wished to parade their red heels on the floors of princes, sometimes silver buckles when they desired to be studiously polite in the intercourse of middle-class life. they thus expressed, merely by the appearance of the shoe and its ornaments, either an in- clination towards elegance or coquetry, or a simple desire to be polite—so true it is that the care bestowed on the toilet, according as it is excessive or controlled, betrays self-esteem, or is a mark of deference towards others. to the artist who looks on a man dressed as the great painters did of whom we have already spoken, that is to say, as a walking portrait, bare hands are echoes of light, which it is well to moderate in order to give greater prominence to the light of the face. hence the introduction of the glove in portraits where the hand would be too conspicuous and would be a rival to the face. but the glove, so happily employed as a picturesque accessory by titian, velasquez, and rembrandt, was not invented by them, for its use is traced back to antiquity: gloves were known four or five centuries before our time. according to xenophon, the persians wore gloves in the winter, and displayed as much luxury in them as in the rest of their dress. we may also believe that the gloves with which the tartars and the samoyedes cover their hands are of great antiquity, if we can give the name of personal adornment. gloves to what are furs without divisions, that is to say without fingers. in the middle ages, gloves were sometimes an or- nament reserved for nobles and prelates, who often em- bellished them with precious stones, sometimes a mark of acknowledgment given to the lord by his vassal, when put into possession of a fief or a long leasehold, sometimes a love-token worn as a talisman on his helmet by a knight who hoped by it to be victorious. in the present day gloves are only an article of comfort or a sign of good breeding; but they vary according to their colour and the leather of which they are made. except as a symbol of mourning, black gloves are intolerable, because they extinguish, as under a layer of ink, what is of most importance in the human body, the instrument par excellence of universal language, the hand. let the glove by its light colour be distinct from the dress of the man, that is sufficient. a bright colour, approaching pure white, would be out of place, unless it were drowned in waves of light at a brilliant soirée or a ball. light blue, pearl grey, mauve, brown, peach, havane, chamois, fawn, and all other shades of the same depth, that is to say, not going higher in the scale of lightness, are those which appear to suit gloves for ordinary wear; and these colours will be generally used for them, when certain other colours are given up, which, in an article where elasticity is essential, would recall hard and unyielding substances, such as bronze, iron, and slate. again, thick gloves, cut out of strong leather like beaver, buckskin, buffalo and deerskin, the stout gloves k art in ornament and dress. which falconers formerly wore to protect their fingers from the claws of the falcon, have a character of their own. the rough and soiled gloves of cromwell, those gloves which the toils of war had unsewn and which suit so well his doublet worn by the halbert, and his dusty hat, have too an expression of their own, when we see him thus accoutred in his portraits, opening the coffin of charles i., or closing the doors of the parliament the æsthetic quaiiy of the accessories of the dress depends for the most part on their connection with certain ideas or reminiscences which occur to all culti- vated minds. there is more pleasure in guessing the use to which a thing is put or its suitability than in verifying it by actual observation, because we like better to look at objects with the eye of the imagination than to see them with our bodily sight. gloves of reindeer skin lying forgotten on a table make us think immedi- ately of the sportsman who passes his life among horses, in driving a britska, or in fox-hunting. how many things can we see in a glove which has covered a man's hand, and which retains the impression left by his nervous movements and the trembling of his fingers when under the sway of thought! i can recall, in connection with this subject, one of those profound impressions which the observation of an apparently trifling and insignificant detail sometimes leaves. in march, , when i was director of fine arts to the ministry of the interior, i represented to m. dufaure, at that time minister, what a pity it was to make use of the louvre for annual exhibitions, and so to liide periodically all the fine old masters behind a screen personal adornment. of modern canvasses. as it happened, the palace of the tuileries was then uninhabited, from the pavilion of marsan to that of flora. m. dufaure conferred with general changarnier, and all that part of the palace was placed at the disposal of the director of fine arts, who for the first time was able to free the louvre from its servitude. while inspecting the rooms of this deserted palace, i reached the door of a chamber which had remained closed for seven years, and of which the queen marie-amélie had kept the key. it was the room which the duke of orleans had just left the day when he fractured his skull on the pavement. nothing had been touched : papers, books, cigar-boxes, képis, sword- belts, a quantity of things were there, in the disorder in which he had left them. what struck me most, was to see on a table, thrown here and there, gloves of all colours and sorts. the life of this young man, divided between pleasure, hunting, and war, revealed itself in the appearance of these scattered gloves, some tumbled, others intact, some tried on, others still in their box, there were chamois gloves for driving, beaver for riding, dogskin, white lambskin, and kid, and all these varieties of the toilette had there a singular and striking meaning. but the leather of these gloves had long since shrunk : the lambskin was stiff, the kid like parchment, and these lifeless objects, which told so plainly the story of the habits of the young man of fashion who had worn them, told also of his death. so, whether we examine it as a whole or in detail, the costume of a man is or ought to be an external indica- tion of the part he has to play, of his condition, and art in ornament and dress. me az disposition, and, consequently, it ought to vary according to the profession he follows, in other words, according as he is engaged in a life of contemplation, a civilian's, or a soldier's life. to each of these three chief varieties-not to mention shades of difference—there correspond some invariable principles, which it is important to sum up. a long and easy garment, whose length is almost con- tinuous, whose colour is dark, whose ornaments are annular, suits priests, magistrates, monks, and generally men whose life is sedentary and studious, that is to say, the men of contemplation. short coats, broad and tight belts, which facilitate the movements by confining the viscera; the ease of breeches, the extremities free, the legs at liberty, as in the uniform of the foot soldier, or pro- tected as in that of the cavalry; boots at once strong and elastic, like hessian boots; ornaments of direction, that is to say, waving appendages, particularly in the head- dress; gay and gallant colours —such are the varieties demanded by military dress. as regards civilian costume, we may say that it holds a middle place between the other two, and that the dif- ferent degrees of width or scantiness, length or shortness, simplicity or richness of ornament, lightness or darkness, airiness or gravity, a wish to give freedom to the move- ments, or a calmness that is intended to be apparent- ought to be in keeping with the profession of a man, with the duties he has to fulfil, and, so to speak, with the temperament of each mind. is it necessary to add that in man's dress, as in every- thing else, the first and absolute law which must govern all suitability is harmony? is it necessary to say that personal adornment. the plumed felt of cinq mars would be ridiculous on the head of a man dressed in our scanty frock coat, and that the graceful cap of a valois does not assimilate except with the easy, light, and gay garb of those personages ? lastly, is it not a truth which our feelings corroborate, that ornamental facings, collars of a different colour to the coat, skirts turned back, edgings, braid, linings in- tended to be seen, top-boots, and other similar details, just because they go well with military uniform, would be out of place in the dress of a civilian ? that unity should be expressed by the exterior of the dress is still more necessary in woman's attire, because variety, alternation, and contrast are as spices invented by the coquetry of the sex, means of attracting and pleasing which, in man, should be subordinate to his wish that his personal habits, his cast of thought, his duties in life, and his character, may be apparent at a glance. and now, to those who look upon such questions as trivial, we will say, and insist upon saying, that a man's dress is also the garb of his thoughts. the proof of this is that to bring about an æsthetic alteration in costume, requires nothing short of a complete change both in religious and moral ideas. at the time when the followers of st. simon wished and hoped to found a new religion, they were seen to assume a new dress. on the th of june, , to the roar of the cannon of st. méry, they opened the doors of their retreat at ménilmontant, to march in public procession, with a sort of religious solemnity, to the ceremony of assuming the new garb. their uniform, designed by edouard talabot, was as elegant as it was simple; a blue justaucorps opening in art in ornament and dress. front over a waistcoat which buttoned behind, a leather belt, white trousers, and a red cap—this was what com- posed it: the neck was bare, and the beard was to be worn long, in the oriental fashion. the ceremony of assuming the dress was the occasion of strange scenes. father enfantin, who had been absent for three days, presented himself at two o'clock before the eyes of the brotherhood, who awaited him with emotion and meditation. as he appeared, there passed through the faithful, as it were, a sudden thrill of admiration and affection, and they all began to sing in chorus. ... meanwhile, he advanced with a slow and majestic step, his head bare, his face beaming. . . after he had spoken, the father, assisted by one of his disciples, assumed the apostolic habit. then helping in his turn the brother who had assisted him, he said, “ this waistcoat is the symbol of the fraternity: no one can put it on without the help of one of his brethren. if it has this inconvenience, that it renders assistance indis- pensable, it has also the advantage of reminding us each time of the ruling idea of the association." * no, nothing is trivial which may be a reflection of thought. if in our age a uniform costume has succeeded the intentional varieties which were the outward marks of social distinctions, it is because uniformity is now an external declaration of the principles of civil equality and liberty, inaugurated in the world by the french revolu- tion. i say liberty, for formerly everything was regu- lated, settled, and classified according to the laws of a rigid etiquette. the royal will of louis xiv. laid down * histoire de dix ans, by louis blanc, iii., - . personal adornment. regulations for the toilette as well as for commerce, ndustry, and literature. not to mention the justaucorps à brevet, invented by the king, as though to hint at the deference of the courtiers who surrounded him, the costume of frenchmen was at that time subject to regu- lations, which, without being written down, were obeyed. velvet, satin, frieze, and cloth were to be worn in winter, silesias and camlets in spring, and taffetas in summer. the rule of the three unities—may i be forgiven for saying it !—was not more rigorous than the obligation to begin wearing furs on all saints' day, to leave off muffs at easter, and english point after longchamps. now people may dress themselves as they please, but under the eye of public opinion, under the surveillance of ridicule which will not allow the liberty assumed in every-day costume to go so far as to set equality at nought. but, alas! the uniformity of civilian garb does not prevent variety in military dress, and if europe in a frock coat testifies to the fraternity of nations, russian, austrian, and english uniforms, the prussians in blue, our own turcos in turbans, and our infantry in red trousers, say plainly that the principle of war is deep- rooted in this old soil, tilled by the philosophy of so many centuries, and that the peace of the world is only a dream, personal adornment. at avignon, offer more distinctly the contrasts of bright- ness and shadow, and entrap in their long graceful folds the rays of light. these bright gleams are often very striking in materials which imitate silk, like alpacas, but they have greyer shades, which soften the sheen. if there is a superb effect of quiet wealth in silk velvet, it is owing to the beauty of its deep, warm tones, which dissolve into each other with the richness of their shadows. by mixing wool with silk or with alpacas or goat's hair, to produce irish poplin, sultane, alpaca, and mohair, these materials are rendered less glossy than pure silk, and, whilst dimming their brilliancy, the wool gives them a softly luxuriant effect which associates it- self with domestic life and family virtues. following the same train of thought, the mixture of lustrous wools and cotton, that forms dull heavy look- ing materials, like orleans cloth, suggests simplicity and comfort. whilst pure cotton fabrics, jaconet, cambric and nansouk, display, after being ironed, a clearness of folds, a freshness of appearance, which seem to indicate a kind of moral purity, and this effect is doubly striking in pieces of linen thread, like ticking or lawn. thus the texture of the material has an expression by the manner in which it is affected by the light, i.e. by the way in which the rays are absorbed or reflected by it. this character is infinitely varied by the material being plain, striped, quilted or figured with large spots or small flowers, and by the arrangement of these ornaments, whether successive or alternate, abundant or rare, un- obtrusive or striking, dispersed or closely set, carelessly or regularly placed. art in ornament and dress. the stripe ? it immediately changes the style of a material; producing an elongated effect, if vertical, and a widening effect if horizontal. oblique, the stripe con- veys an idea of absolute freedom, for it does not cor- respond either with the movement of the figure or with its repose. from the moment the stripe is used to vary a dress, the result is the very contrary of unity, especially if the stripes are alternate either in colour or width; for instance a wide stripe succeeding a narrow one, or a rose-coloured a red one. between plain and striped materials the same difference exists as between a rubbed or stumped drawing and a print. a severe painter, like ingres, for instance, who wished to give a particular style to his works, preferred them rubbed, because the expression of the form seemed to him grandest when most simple, and because the grace of the pencil stroke, and the freedom of the hatching process are apt to degenerate into mere prettiness, and tbus attract the attention of the spectator to the manner of expressing the form rather than to the form expressed. on the other hand, the engraver, wishing to reproduce a design, either shaded, rubbed or merely of pencil strokes, invents lines, which, while producing the same amount of black on the print, by their flow, their flexi- bility, their undulations and their elegant curves, enliven the master's severe outline, being spaced out over the lighter parts, and brought closer together in the shadows. now look at a striped material : we might say it en- graves itself; the cross lines, which in the loom are perfectly regular, are broken on the finished dress; their parallelism is disturbed with each movement; they dis- personal adornment. is. perse in one place to reunite in another; they undulate with every ripple of the surface and straighten themselves in obscure folds. the stripe has a slightly fantastic style, because it provokes and amuses the eye, contrasting with the dignity of plain materials which rest the sight. the one appears frivolous because the other is always quiet. but should the stripe be complicated by a second, the two stripes must unfortunately be cut at right angles. in fact, nothing is more unbecoming than a checked material made into a dress, particularly in the bodice, because the perfect regularity of the squares renders the least disparity in the shoulders, the clavicles, and the bust, strikingly conspicuous. in modelling the human figure, the supreme designer seems, it is true, to have left some traces of the original squares, but the verticals and horizontals, on which the figure is constructed, have been nearly everywhere effaced, so that nature, not being chained to rigorous lines, could freely give birth to innumerable individuals, all resem- bling the original type, but all differing through the endless accidents of life. the primeval type could only be restored in the network of the divine geometry. however, if the check is extremely small, this diffi- culty no longer exists; the texture appears only shaded and unity is re-established. and the same result ensues if, of two stripes cut at right angles, one subdues the other, either through depth of tone, or width of line, for then the squares disappear and simply form an additional variety in the stripe; but this can only result from one of the shades being three times deeper than the other, and the first line three times wider than the second. this re- art in ornament and dress. mark may be verified in the scotch or tartan silks, where the stripes, although crossing at right angles, seldom form distinct squares, because they are continually in- terrupted by a change of tint. here, for instance, a vivid red deepens on one side into brown and on the other fades into pale pink. or there, blue rectangles lose themselves in a green line, or meeting poppy, change into violet; sometimes the material is brightened in one part by a golden yellow which merges into unbleached white, while passing through it. then come fine clear lines, which, placed at uneven distances, enlarge the squares on all sides and thus soften their rigid effect. but whatever the design of a tartan may be, the extreme variety of colour and the complicated and changing stripes produce a fancy material, wholly repugnant, by its characteristic style, to the dignity of dress, although very suitable for children and when worn short, for young girls. ... but is it not wonderful that the same prin- ciples which govern greater things rule also lesser, and that unity is a necessity of nobleness in the apparently most frivolous art, as well as the secret of greatness in the highest efforts of the human mind! with regard to chiné taffetas, and brocaded silks, they appear uniform or plain, if the pattern laid on is sufficiently pronounced to produce at a distance a general tone of colour. but however distantly or closely we look at the black embroidered lyonese silks, where the flowers are raised on the surface in various colours, they never produce a uniform effect, owing to the scantiness of the ornaments, because the little flowers are added in relief, and are distinct from the background, like the rm ats personal adornment. plastered touches on an artist's canvas. in this case the embroideries look better in alternate colours and places. all the advantages of variety are then secured, the flowers for instance being successively yellow, green, and red, but erect in one shade, slanting in another, or placed in turn now from left to right, now from right to left. figured silk is composed of two different tints: for instance, garnet branches on a black ground produce a richness, which, although very striking, is somewhat severe ; less severe, however, than the shaded brocades, such as pale blue on dark blue, or dull heavy black on glossy brilliant black. the dignity of female dress is increased by everything which allows uniformity to pre- dominate, whilst relieving it by slight variations, formed by designs laid on in the same tints, hy some quiet change of colour, or by the workman's labour, who, by passing the material through a calender to water it, makes serpentine threads of light on the surface, and thus varies the texture without introducing any new element of design or colour. when paul veronese, in the marriage of cana, shows us magnificent figured stuffs, on which he lavishes all the varieties of tints and striking contrasts, it is remarkable that the robes of state, the splendid damasks, the amber silks, the emerald velvets are reserved for the musicians who attend the banquet and the cup-bearers, without mentioning the bride and bridegroom, whilst the virgin and christ and those who are in the seats of honour, are simply clad in woollen tunics of pure red and blue. so that even in representing an oriental festival, which new personal adornment. tonio she would buy embroidered lyonese silks, failles with a raised pattern, leaving for the matrons and grand-parents satins, rich brocades, and all fancy velvets, either figured or à la reine. other considerations are, of course, to be taken into account in the choice of materials—the season, the climate, the purpose for which the dress is intended are to be remembered; and the variety of manufactures, the inventions of industrial genius, are sufficiently nume- rous to satisfy all the requirements of a graceful fancy inspired by the desire for beauty in every-day life. once in possession of the abundant means of which æsthetic taste can disposem for this generous science does not regard moneythe woman with some latent taste, or who has consulted one who is an authority on fashion, will procure the most varied materials in colour, design, and price, assigning to each its destination. she reserves for the garden, sea-side, or occasional costumes, all tex- tures least liable to crease—sultane, mohair, foulard - and she chooses them in two shades of the same tint, like dun and mouse-colour. she adds to the list vichy linen, indian muslin, unbleached tussore, imitations of nan- keen with white stripes, everything refreshing to the eye. for a dinner in the country, or an evening at the “casino," she provides a straw-coloured or a french grey crêpe-de-chine; and for wearing over coloured taffeta or satin she buys white tarlatane, silk grenadine, and chambéry gauze, which by their transparency allow the under colours to show through a light veil; like a delicate haze in painting. foreseeing a journey, she prepares a violet or brown poplin, a dark blue water- proof, and a deep green hood. if races are anticipated, art in ornament and dress. the expert who accompanies her, advises her to take several yards of cloth, and—if desirous to produce an effect-of white cloth. cloth is very suitable to those intermediate seasons when one can imagine the tem- perature sufficiently cold to offer an excuse for warm clothing. but materials — this women know well —change colour by day and candle-light. they are aware that their dress would not be of the same tint by artificial light as it is in the daytime. and therefore the élégante, whom we have been watching whilst she selected her materials, enters, at noon, a lighted room, in order to judge the effects of the yellow flames of candles, gas, or lamps upon her evening dresses. she discovers that the colour of the texture gains or loses by candle-light according to the amount of yellow contained in it. violet, which is the complementary colour to yellow, is decomposed, the blue disappears, and it becomes red. blue, if pure, borders on green ; if dark it appears harsh and black, and if pale it loses colour and becomes grey. the faded blues, whose tint by daylight is with- out tone, under a yellow flame take a turquoise hue ; but in revenge, turquoise silk, which by sunlight is beautiful, loses its brilliancy and appears faded. . in ascending the scale of cold colours, a fashionable woman notices that yellow greens are the prettiest for evening wear. thus, apple green is not far from emerald, emerald, without changing tint, gains brilliancy on one side, richness on the other. peacock green becomes yellowish in a ballroom—the blue is destroyed by the strong light in which yellow materials, par- personal adornment. ticularly satins, plushes, and silks, appear to best advantage. amber, already beautiful, acquires richness; straw-colour slightly reddens in the folds; sulphur does not change; and pink, which mixed with yellow produces the salmon tint, disappears in the light to reassert itself in the shadows. but there is nothing, perhaps, more charming than maize, which, without losing its peculiar qualities, gains an imperceptible warmth of tint and becomes exquisite. the same effect is produced in red shades, for the yellow glare of evening lights, which is so fatal to blue, enhances their tone and augments their splendour. ruby is heightened in its beauty, particularly in plush materials; orange-red brightens ; cerise approaches poppy; poppy, capucine, which, in turn, borders on orange. orange takes a flame colour. black and white do not escape the action of artificial light; blue blacks, those beautiful blacks so well named after the raven's wing, become dull and heavy, because they do not retain the blue shade which gives them life and depth. white, on the contrary, improves at night, and, if faded, revives. for this reason actresses often ask for a white that has lost its freshness, believing that the footlights will restore the lost brilliancy. this white is usually called blanc-de- lumière. a colour which retains its charm is silver grey: always pleasing and distinguée, it even gains a slightly rose coloured hue. but should the grey contain a suspicion of blue, like pearl grey, the blue tint is lost, and the distinctive characteristic of pearl grey disappears. a scientific man would explain these changes by the optical blending of hues, the property of complementary l art in ornament and dress. colours, and the law of simultaneous contrast, but a woman once warned of their uncertainty does not trouble science to account for it. she does not require its aid in making herself beautiful. but is not fashion the most imperious ruler over a woman's choice, when she occu- pies herself with the art of dress? yes, certainly, and yet whatever may be the caprices of this sovereign, so renowned for her vagaries, and who is believed to be so independent, and so absolute, fashion herself submits— who would believe it?—to a secret logic: she is the slave of certain great laws which she knows by instinct, and which she dares not disobey. xiii. over and above the immutable laws of beauty, women's dress varies, and should vary, according to their figures, com- plexions, ages, and dispositions ; but however numerous the variations of the toilet may be, they can all be reduced to three principal characteristics-severity, grace, and magnificence. how many things require study in a woman whom one wishes to dress in a manner suitable to the style of her face, of her figure, and of her temperament! how much intelligence, adaptation, and tact! what should the artist not know or not guess, who undertakes to adorn nature, in her chef-d'oeuvre, to embellish a living moving beauty, to whom presently all will submit, but only when the assistance of art has been implored and obtained ! yes, it is only a true artist that can render the cloth- ing of the human body a decoration, either by guiding a woman in her choice, or by dressing her according to her personal adornment. . height and carriage, and the colour of her hair and skin, and in a manner suitable to her social position, and also to the particular bent of her mind—i was about to say, her heart. and first, we must consider her height. a woman may be tall and slender, or tall and stout; she may be little and slight, or very short and robust : to these four varieties of stature belong inevitably different styles of dress—but which ? and this is a delicate ques- tion. in a painter's eyes the women, who in passing attract his attention, are moving portraits. he can say, and generally does say, on seeing them-if i had to paint them, i should strongly accentuate their physical characteristics, in order to delineate their moral nature. i should lay stress on the elegance of one, the grace of another ; i should dwell upon the majesty of this one, and bring the embonpoint of that one into full relief. if requisite, i should not hesitate to slightly exaggerate the most distinctive features in certain per- sons, to give more expression to their portraits. it is a law in painting of the highest style to add to a fact sooner than to detract from it. michael angelo, to express strength more forcibly, sometimes became violent. correggio, fearing that his figures may not be sufficiently pleasing, exaggerates their grace, and where rubens heightens the lights, rembrandt deepens the shadows. but can the example of the great masters be followed by the artist who wishes to adorn a woman by her attire ? no; because the deceptions of the painter are imagined at the expense of truth, and of a superior truth, while the art of the ruling modiste is to create a happy illusion. one deceives in order to give reality to what is purely art in ornament and dress. cars imaginative, the other to conceal defects which are living, palpable truths. it is the same with a woman's dress as it is with her head-dress. the style of her dress should depend on the shape of her nose, just as the colours she wears should harmonize with the tint of her complexion and the shades of her hair. if the nose is strongly charac- teristic the dress may be the same, particularly if the face and carriage indicate pride. but what is under- stood by a toilet of characteristic style? this question resolves itself, in virtue of the first principles of decora- tive art, into an inquiry whether repetition is grander than alternation, whether consonance is more dignified than contrast. colours very slightly varied, lines scarcely interrupted, great simplicity even with richness, plain materials, sober trimmings, these form a severe costume. on the contrary, alternation, and diversity of tints, broken lines, piquant contrasts, trimmings varied and impromptu—these are the distinguishing marks of the charming fantastic costumes the french call toilettes de genre, which are so becoming to a person with a slightly retroussé or irregular nose, an attractive face, and mis- chievous eyes. we have thus two extremes, austerity and coquetry, or, if it is preferred, pride and grace, and the medium would be quiet elegance. but in the intervals between these three styles—we might again say these three orders, doric, ionic, and corinthian-we find space for every necessary degree of severity or attractive charm, of magnificence or delicacy, of simplicity or rich- ness. in approaching the one, in receding from the other, it is easy with additions or deductions to create all personal adornment. the modifications which the innumerable types of beauty can require. but how to fulfil these conditions, how to reconcile them with the exigencies of fashion, while con- sidering before everything else the height and the figure ? this we must now examine. xiv. of all the details which form a woman's dress there is not one without character, and that does not contribute its share in giving the toilet its particular style. without recurring to a woman's head-dress, which crowns her apparel, and is inseparable from it, we may affirm that the bodice, the sleeves, the collar, the ruff, the girdle, the basques, the skirt, the tunic, the flounces, the cross-bands, the ruches, the paletot, the tippet, the jacket, the waistcoat, the shawl, and the mantle, all these important items of the toilet decide its character accord- ing to the manner in which they are made, trimmed, and worn. the bodice. to hide, yet to display, or rather to indicate and yet disclose, are the two objects of the bodice ; but it must not be forgotten that often what is concealed is just that which is most wished to be displayed. the significance of the bodice results from this fact. if it is high, it expresses, or seems to express, modesty, retiring virtues. opened like a shawl or heart shape, it preserves the same character; at all events in a greater degree than the bodice cut squarely, à la raphael, or cut low and round, which attracts the attention to the shape of the neck, to the shoulders, to the outline of the bust. and here the ascendancy of fashion, or rather the art in ornament and dress. despotism of custom, makes itself felt, for the most delicate creatures, girls whose imperfectly developed figure show their tender age, are, condemned by women anxious to conceal their own waning youth to wear low bodices and bare arms. it is true that muslin neckerchiefs, tulle low rounded bodice. habit-shirts, and (by elderly women) lace tippets are sometimes worn, to veil the disclosures made by the open bodice. but how many trifles scarcely noticed by men add to the impression made upon them by a woman's dress! what an air of naïveté and innocence is produced by a sailor's bodice, so becoming to young girls, worn with a sailor's collar and loose cravat! what a difference personal adornment. there is between a high close bodice ornamented simply by a lace frill and one with facings, which seems open to the eyes and fancy, through display- ing the material with which it is lined, and which in order to be more conspicuous is made of a striking an onyo . jumont square cut bodice. colour and of a different texture! and the quieter the outside shade the more brilliant is usually the inner one. for instance, on a bodice of grey mauve cashmere, or of unbleached foulard, the facings would probably be distinct in rose-de-chine taffeta, in garnet velvet, or in brown satin, for it is considered in good taste to use the . richest material in that part of the dress which shows least. from another point of view the bodice is of art in ornament and dress. great importance, because a woman displays the beauty of her figure above the waist, and if her bust have any defects, she can modify them, by deceiving the eye by the shape and accessories of her bodice. a short waist is lengthened by the bodice being trimmed with braces or straps joining at the sash, or by being prolonged demers odette bodice. to a point in front and small basques behind; or again, it can be connected with the second skirt and form a tunic without interruption, i.e. without sash or bow. on the other hand a woman can conceal her excessive thinness by opening her dress in a square, or by trimming it with an imitation of a square bertha by a ruche, a crossband, a velvet or any other ornament, or even, if it is season- personal adornment. able, by means of a small round tippet which would con- ceal the height of the bust, all horizontal lines having the property of giving width, because they are directly opposed to slender forms. the varieties of the bodice are numerous. heat, cold, a walk, a ride, a journey, morning dress, full dress, corselet and basques. the “casino,” the sea-side, are all pretexts—what have i said-are serious reasons for varying the garment which covers a woman's heart and chest. here the dread of a cold wind has dictated the selection of a double-breasted bodice buttoned on one side like a military great coat; there, the odette bodice, clinging to the figure until it art in ornament and dress. reaches the hips, has been chosen by a woman who can bear the exposure of her chest even on a spring day. another wears a watteau bodice, i.e., made with a sacque, which lengthens her waist and gives her elegance. this one prefers a marie-antoinette, which crosses the chest and hooks at the side with a charming rustic grace; and that one has put a black silk corselet over a violet dress- a graceful allusion to the breastplate of the valiant knights of old, an ironical imitation of armour, which recalls to me jean paul's cutting remark, “les femmes sont comme des guerriers ; elles jettent leurs armes quand elles s'avouent vaincues.” the sleeves. artists, who paint in a particular or fancy style, i should rather say who have a taste for certain selected forms, have always been careful to give their female figures beautiful arms, well covered with flesh, because weak, and above all thin arms, denote bad health and an enfeebled race. raphael in his frescoes, ingres in his pictures, have delineated powerful arms, attached to the shoulders by solid muscles. not only the out- lines are more pleasing, but the elbow joint and the transition from the fore-arm to the wrist appear com- paratively delicate. the sleeves then have much interest in women's attire. the leg of mutton or gigot sleeves, so long worn, were invented to conceal the defects of the arm, a defect much more common in france than in italy ; but the ostensible reason was, that they made the waist appear smaller. in the time of the valois ladies wore puffs at the shoulders, probably to give delicacy to the neck and grace to the carriage of the head. they frequently covered the arms with muslin sleeves, relieved eason personal adornment. cal from shoulder to wrist by light knots of ribbon. when the sleeves are not made in linen it is essential that they should be of the same colour as the first or under petti- coat-unless they belong to the tunic—for if made of a different shade the arms would look as though they belonged to another body. this retention of the colour of the petticoat is necessary even when the sleeves are of a transparent material like tulle, silk, or woollen grenadine, or chambéry gauze. white, being achromatic, is the sole exception, and sleeves of muslin, nansouk, or cambric may be regarded as under-sleeves. the arm, being the chief instrument of gesture, always attracts notice. nothing is more expressive, more indi- vidual; and a woman describing a dress would never omit to mention the sleeves. there are many varieties in this portion of feminine attire, and many shades of expression, but it is scarcely necessary to add that these shades not only indicate the tendency of the mind and the desire to please, but they add to the com- pleteness of the dress, and assist in rendering it suitable for its purpose in the occupations of life. are not the long open sleeves which distinguished the costumes of the varlets of former days, and which are still called page sleeves, a striking illustration of the freedom required for their arms in waiting upon the knights and ladies at table, in handing a dish to the lady of the inanor? when the long sleeves are widened at the opening like pagoda sleeves, copied from the chinese, it surely is with the intention of causing the hands to appear smaller by the contrast with the aperture from which they emerge.. if the sleeve is trimmed with rms art in ornament and dress. epaulets above, it is to give width to deficient shoulders, and if the epaulet falls over jockey sleeves it is perhaps to conceal too great angularity. with regard to elbow sleeves, their width of course depends upon the size of the arm; but they are usually relieved by some orna- dolman, with page sleeves. ments, facings, imitation buttons, or any other trimming that matches the under petticoat. in the last century, under louis xv., the sleeve, restrained at or below the elbow by a ribbon favour, escaped and widened by means of a flounce or of a piece of embroidery; but this shape iş inelegant, if too suddenly art in ornament and dress. should match the other linen ornaments used in the bodice. the collar. the grace of the head largely depends upon its support; consequently the shape of the collar and of the ruff require careful consideration, for they turned down collar and basques with facings. relieve the outlines of the throat, accompany and frame it, show it off by contrast or by consonance, and make the first transition between the head and the shoulders, the unclothed and the clothed. the collar and the ruff are ornaments which have reference to the axis of growth and to individual out- personal adornment. lines. it is, then, natural that they should be peripheric, that is annular, and that they should match the shape of the neck by reproducing its roundness, thus resembling the astragal below the grecian capital. there are some imposing persons whose powerful and rigid necks recall in gabrielle ruff and puffed sleeves. the implantation of the doric column: they should wear light collars and ruffs, to restore feminine characteristics to their manly proportions. others, with slender throats, resembling ionic columns, display this flexibility by lowering their collars; but, if the collar is low and very open, if shaped in points, or at right angles in front, like personal adornment. upon the warfare continually waged between these three forces. it is in allusion to the growth of the human plant that crowns, ruffs, necklets, surround the vertical axis, augmenting by their circular forms the rotundity of those parts which are naturally round. it is the same with the girdle. the girdle marks the transition between the parts displayed and those hidden. it is the ring of the body, and betrays its delicate or sturdy proportions. but the body having two important aspects, the ring which encloses it cannot dispense with an ornament. hence innumerable graceful inventions have resulted ; the charming knots, so easily varied, becoming at will either simple, magnificent, rich, coquettish, or delicate. now a velvet rosette closes the sash, now a satin one, with floating ends escaping from between two bows, or a knot with long pendants forming a scarf; or perhaps a large double bow with wide-spreading ends falling in graceful folds. sometimes the sash forms a basque, which being deeper at the sides serves to decorate the hips. it is scarcely necessary to add that the accessories of the material, the fringes, gimps, and lace trimmings, help to enrich the bows of the sash, and that a woman may give them, according to her fancy, a stamp of simplicity or richness, of neatness or negligence. is there anything, for example, more expressive for a costume for the races or the country house, than the odalisque sash, falling halfway down the side of the skirt with easy nonchalance, and recalling vividly by its name and form that houri who was too careless to attend to the details of her dress? but where should the bow be placed? there m art in ornament and dress. is no doubt that it is more becoming and graceful at the back than in front. below the chest a bow is useless and cumbersome, unless it is placed there to soften the odalisque sash. dress with train and gathered flounces. extreme simplicity of a young girl's dress. the front of the female form is sufficiently adorned by the features, the eyes, the expression of the mouth, the outlines of personal adornment. serve the figure and throat. it is, then, expedient to reserve some ornaments for the back of the dress, and to put the sash knots behind, for they always look well, even if not very handsome. there is one ornament which always adapts itself to a bodice, regardless of fashion. i allude to the basque. rounded, squared, or pointed, to suit the figure they are to embellish, longer in front than behind, or behind than in front, the basques form a transition between the bodice and the skirt. by prolonging the bodice over the skirt, they prevent the former ending abruptly at the waist-belt. if they are divided at the back, cut short with two buttons placed near together, they are called postilion- basques, and acquire that piquancy which results from any feminine garment imitating the roughness of manly apparel. nothing is better adapted to a riding-habit than basques trimmed with little buttoned pockets, re- sembling miniature cartridge-cases, perhaps prepared for warlike expeditions. basques can be made according to fancy: indented or notched, quilled or scalloped, bordered with fringe, trimmed with flounces or lace, relieved with braid, embellished with one or more bands of satin, or, complicated with facings, their expression will not be much altered, the vagaries of fashion cannot effect any great change in them. the skirt. this part of the dress being only designed to cover and conceal, should not offer the least analogy to the shape of the body. during the directory, the women of paris, mad with their own beauty, walked in the public gardens wearing statuesque costumes, meant to imitate the clinging linen draperies with which the antique sculp- art in ornament and dress. tors often clothed their figures. but what is charming in the statue of a god, the intangible type of eternal beauty, is totally inappropriate in a living, palpable being, who only represents a moment in the universal creation. however, without indicating the hidden form by its construction, the dress should recall the circular ornament, so that, even in the wave of its changing folds and floating circumference, the skirt should be connected with the girdle, the collar, and necklet, and thus recall the vertical axis around which it moves. but besides its circular trimmings, the skirt admits of ornaments on all sides. it is because women understand this, that they have invented a second skirt ; this one can be draped, removed, raised, thrown behind, lengthened or shortened, allowing modifications which would be impossible with the first. what is the connection established by good taste between the two skirts? if chosen of the same colour and of the same material, they give the dress that severe appearance which results from uniformity, unless the material is striped, brocaded, chiné, or figured, when it contains in itself a sufficient element of variety. should the under skirt, for instance, be of pink and white stripes, the second skirt may be made like it without monotony. but if the first is plain, there would be austerity in not changing the tone of the second. let us imagine the one in violet silk, the other in yellow taffeta, —these two complementary colours harmonise perfectly, -and to soften the contrast it would be well to scatter violet flowers over the yellow taffeta, thus redeeming the brightness of opposition by the recurrence of conformity. personal adornment. fashion decides as she pleases. it is always permissible, without open resistance, to interpret her decrees and to use some discretion in obeying her commands. “l'ex- traordinaire du mercure galant" of —for double skirts were worn in the reign of louis xiv., and even in the sixteenth century—advises the selection of two entirely different colours for the upper and lower skirts ; but if one is to be lighter than the other, should it be the upper or lower ? that depends on circumstances. a little woman should not put the darker shade below, because at a distance a person's height appears to end with the lighter one, and is consequently shortened; and by the same rule a tall woman diminishes her stature, by wearing a petticoat, which by its deep shade, escapes notice, leaving only the upper skirt visible. it is hardly necessary to add that a train or a half-trained dress is ridiculous in a street costume, and that for walking, or for visiting any public place, for instance a picture gallery, the skirt should clear the ground, although it is widened or narrowed according to the fashion. but it is chiefly in the upper skirt, or in the tunic that replaces it, that the character of the dress is shown. there in the draping, the plaiting, the raising, the numerous varieties of moral physiognomy, and of the proprieties of dress are displayed, according to the wearer's age, height, and rank, and the multiplied degrees of beauty and grace, for women have a hundred ways of being beautiful, a hundred ways of being pretty. young girls, who are generally thin, can, when discon- tented with the simple skirt most becoming to their age, wear high plaits on the hips; but the puff, that is the art in ornament and dress. bunch at the back of the dress, if at all enlarged has a fast appearance, which would strike us disagreeably, if we were not accustomed to it, by its general use. whether the upper skirt is draped in front, or flattened forming an apron, it is equally suitable, although the latter shape is most becoming to young girls. at the side, however, the tunic can be looped, slightly or decidedly, it can be folded in deep plaits, or rippled with small gathers, it can be raised to join a jet buckle, or twisted several times to form one of those shells which recall the classic greek draperies. sometimes dressmakers hide the looping at the sides under a large basque. some hold it by a satin rosette, others suspend it to a buttoned velvet strap. by these means a woman's dress is adorned on both sides; but the similarity of the two sides is not absolutely necessary. those who prefer irregularity and caprice, need not repeat on the left the ornament they have placed on the right. now let us consider the trimmings, where striking variations in the toilet become delicate shades. the flounce is an ornament full of character. it adds width to the dress, richness to the garment, and to the play of light and shade those effects which indicate habits and which change their expression according as the flounce is plaited, gathered, ruched, quilled, slashed, with or without a heading. who does not feel the accent of propriety in a deep plaited flounce, which by its intentional regularity affirms a love of order, a well disciplined mind, because it re- sembles the draperies in which antique sculptors repre- sented the priestesses, the vestals, and the young girls personal adornment. varied by the alternation of narrow and wide bands. in every form they are ornamental: whether cut from the same material as the costume they are made distinct from it by means of a decided border, or whether they produce a contrast by a difference of texture, which is then usually of velvet, satin, or crêpe de chine. like the flounce or moblot. the ruche, cross-bands can be used in different parts of the dress, and are particularly suitable for trimming the bodice and the basques. from the morning wrapper, and the figaro jacket, both garments for home wear, which do not require a sash, to the polonaise, that falls a little below the knee, women art in ornament and dress. have many ways of imitating the pea-jackets and over- coats worn by men. in fact the paletôt itself is one of their most charming equipments, above all when it is loose or only half adjusted to the figure. this it is that constitutes the chief difference between the overall, the basquina, the cloak with a tippet, real or imitation, the chinese paletôt with pagoda sleeves, the french guard paletôt with frogs and small satin knots, the dolman copied from the hussar uniforms, the moblot, an imitation of the greatcoats worn by the french garde mobile, the long open louis xiv, frock coat, secured below the facings on the chest by a bow, and the frock coats closely buttoned, and short in front, recalling the female leaders of the fronde rebellion. tightly fitting, these mantles are not becoming either to very thin or very stout women, because they at- tract the eye to those defects, which require conceal- ment. in these cases it is wiser to choose light cloaks, which, by carefully arranged folds, veil while defining the figure, and thus hide its peculiarities. the looseness or tightness of a mantle determines its character, changing it from négligé to full dress. sometimes to unite the two expressions the paletôt is cut behind as though the puff had forced it open, displaying the sash, which had been originally concealed. sometimes the overall is raised and draped, so that by undoing it a train can be formed; sometimes the mantle represents at the same time an overall and a sash. one detail must be noticed which proves that the laws of dress are positive—this is that broad-shouldered women obliged to wear tunics, jackets, or tight-fitting personal adornment. paletôts, can decrease their size by a vertical band of velvet, gimp, or lace, which by dividing the width of the back diminishes its effect; for we must repeat it once www juni mon watteau. sabot sleeves; marquise ruche. more, all vertical lines heighten and elongate the object adorned, while all horizontal ones lower and enlarge it. this is why a tippet lowers the height of a tall woman. art in ornament and dress. while a sacque adds not exactly grace, but elegance to an ordinary figure. i say elegance rather than grace, for these terms should not be confounded in the language of the toilet. elegance relates to the slenderness of the body, grace can be found in various proportions; a delicate woman may be graceful, even if she is short. correggio in his rather small figures is full of grace; parmigiano in his tall easy figures is a type of elegance. but how true it is that the general style of the dress is a sign of the times and an indication of the morals of society! formerly luxury was not incompatible with the wisdom of domestic economy, because it was composed of durable elements. the same apparel lasted during several generations. an indian shawl was regarded as an heirloom ; laces were bequeathed by will, and a young bride decked herself with pride in her grandmother's raiment. in this way the esprit de famille was preserved in the most personal of all feelings, viz., that of dress. now, with the exception of jewellery, articles of dress are no longer transferable. the shawl, which formerly lasted a lifetime, is replaced by a fashionable mantle, which scarcely looks well during one season. and this results from the desire for novelty, novelty being an easy method of displaying wealth if one is rich, of counterfeit- ing it if one is poor. in these days of ephemeral fortunes, dissipated as soon as made, all hasten to enjoy the present, and it is a question who can enjoy them- selves most. in order to feign inexhaustible riches, garments which last are despised, dresses that wear out quickly are preferred, for the pleasure of renewing them is eagerly sought after. we have seen, and shall pro- personal adornment. bably see again, young women who have found in their corbeille de mariage a cashmere shawl, exquisite in quality and delicious in colouring, no longer daring to wear it as a shawl, but puckering it at the waist to make it resemble the folds of a tunic, and fastening a rosette of black velvet in the centre. others, out of the same regard for appearances, wear their shawls squarely folded, so that they form a horizontal line, which cuts the body in half, shortening it in defiance of all rules of beauty. and this is so true and so well understood by women individually, that when obliged to wear a cashmere mantle or a silk scarf, they know perfectly well how to avoid the horizontal effect by allowing the miniature shawl to fall carelessly, forming a cascade of changing folds, and consequently a curved line below the waist; and it must be admitted that the shawls of the present day regularly smother little women and are unbecoming to tall ones, because the convenience of this garment has been sacrificed to a desire to increase its beauty and the richness of its design. the cashmeres worn by our mothers had a large foundation, and this central part being fine and supple, so much so that it was boasted it could pass through a finger ring, adapted itself to the shoulders, defining the figure without enlarging it: now that the palms and other embroideries instead of bor- dering the foundation have invaded and nearly covered it, the shawl has become heavier and thicker all over, through the excessive ornaments that in their turn thicken and cumber the shoulders of the wearer. it is no longer possible for any but tall and thin women to put them on. thus, to increase its richness, the shawl art in ornament and dress. side of the vertical axis and not repeated on the other, gives a fanciful air to the dress, which duplication would have avoided. slight irregularities are sometimes piquant, charming and attractive; but to merit its title, beauty requires at least a portion of that equilibrium which is one of the aspects of order, and an equivalent of symmetry. this is not all: the human body, in spite of the innumerable differences in individuals, has typical pro- portions. a woman's average height is one twenty-second part smaller than that of a man. her face is one-tenth shorter, and since the space between the eyes remains the same, the oval of her face is rounder. the head measured in length is rather less than one-seventh of the entire height of the body. the shoulders are smaller by one-thirtieth, and the ribs by one-eleventh. the result is that the bust forms, with the socket of the neck, an equilateral triangle. these are the general proportions of a woman, and they should be respected in her dress. however, since some slight deviations exist in all individuals, which cause them to differ more or less from the perfect type, it becomes necessary in the adornment of human beings to redeem the irregularities which disfigure them, and to bring into prominence the harmonious relation of indi- vidual proportions. every day we see women loading their heads with immoderate chignons, fabrics which, by their size, render the head one-fifth of the whole height. it is easy to increase the height of a woman's head without spoiling her natural proportions. it is only non lous personal adornment. necessary to define distinctly her bonnet or head-dress, so that the whole person seems raised by nearly one- seventh; for if the length of a woman's head is rather more than one seventh of the length of her body, it can be one eighth without interfering with the proportions : for this constitutes slenderness in either sex. thus a head-dress, which increases a woman's height by a head, only gives elegance to the profile, provided, once more, that the head and the head-dress do not form one undivided mass, appearing to the eye two-eighths or one quarter of the entire figure. this happens when women attempting to copy postilions' wigs, dress themselves out with enormous chignons, instead of wearing light curls falling on the neck but not concealing it. one day, when the caprices and follies of fashion were being discussed before us, a lady said eagerly, “but, after all, whatever is fashionable is never ridiculous." these words, spoken in jest, contain a great deal of truth. in a country like france, a country which fashion has made her native home, there is always sufficient intelli- gence to restrain extravagance, and taste to correct it. if fashion is eccentric, all the professors of dress seem to unite to redeem and diminish its mistakes. for instance, when large chignons were introduced, women, in order to avoid being overweighted by them, restored the high heels to their shoes, and thus regaining their seeming loss of stature, they re-established the proportions which the enormous head-dress had disturbed. in the human body, which is almost monochromatic, the proportion of the members one with another, and their accordance with one common measure, are an image of n art in ornament and dress. order, an element of harmony; but in the body dressed and adorned by its clothing, it is necessary to join the harmony of texture and colour to that of lines and masses. but in the first place harmony and character agree. does not harmonizing a work consist in reducing the various parts into one uniform whole? and in dress, where beauty is always relative and individual, unity can only result from character, which under penalty of extinction is essentially one. how is it possible to express a character without being guided by a pre- conceived idea, a ruling sentiment? there is then a moral harmony to be established at the same time as an optical one. for this reason women have invented what they appropriately term costumes, that is, a complete toilet, combined at first in one colour, or in two border- ing shades; for instance, olive green and pale green, fawn and brown, violet and mauve, or else formed of two con- trasting and striking colours, like capucine and turquoise, sulphur and garnet, gold and violet; or again, of two entirely different colours, such as pearl-grey and china rose. these two principal shades should constitute the harmony of female dress, either by repetition, contrast, or consonance, or by all these at the same time. let us imagine, then, a toilet of one shade: the dress is of iron-grey taffeta. if the tunic is of the same and the bonnet matches, the harmony is defined by the uni- formity. and in order to prevent unity from becoming monotony, it is sufficient to change the texture of the tunic, making it of crêpe de chine or cashmere. the colour, although practically the same, would not on the yes art in ornament and dress. crêpe de chine or the cashmere be absolutely identical in tint with the taffeta. but if the upper skirt is of a different shade from the under one, though bordering upon it, harmony is easily established through consonance, provided that each of the shades is used with the other. the under skirt being violet, and the upper mauve, the latter can be relieved at the sides by a fringed violet bow, the fringe being of violet to match the under skirt, but separated from the bow by mauve ends. the mauve bodice, which with the second skirt forms a tunic, should have violet basques, with fringes to match. on these basques should be placed a mauve quilling, and on the quilling, at the waist, a violet bow with fringe should be worn. in this costume, properly called a costume camaïeu, each shade is distinct and each is echoed in the dress. now, if the two colours are in contrast, like pale blue and straw-colour—a combination produced in nature by the contrast of the sky against a field of ripe corn—if the blue skirt is ornamented with a deep plaited ruche, the sleeves of the straw-coloured tunic should have small blue plaitings. a scarf of black lace trimmed with blue ribbons, and attached at the waist by a large blue silk bow, would agreeably soften the contrast and form a charming accessory to the dress. if the hat were made of straw or crinoline, it would be necessary to recall the tint of the skirt by a blue feather, a blue gauze scarf, or a bunch of forget-me-nots. but the echo of colour is not the only means of harmonizing the different parts of a dress; it can be established, or rather it must be estab- lished, by the use of the same trimmings. if the under art in ornament and dress. skirt has an indented flounce edged with velvet, the upper skirt should also be indented and edged with velvet, and the same ornaments should be repeated in miniature on the basques of the bodice. it is the same with plaits, quillings, cross-bands, cordings, ruches, and also what are called "fancy trimmings,” which cannot be used on the skirt or tunic, without re-appearing in narrow widths on the bodice and sleeves. if the upper skirt has a large facing, a tasteful woman would not neglect to repeat this facing on the basques and the cape, if she wore one, and even the cuffs of her sleeves would have the same ornaments. when hand embroideries are the fashion, or the season of furs has arrived, she is careful to trim her jacket with the same fur or braid that are on the dress, and even to put some on the sleeves. in this way the style of the dress is defined, and thus harmonizing a toilet only consists in accentuating its character. let us now pause to observe the admirable relation- ship which exists between all the arts—how the painter colouring his picture, the musician writing his score, obey the same laws as the artist who decorates the human form. listen to a master's symphony, you hear the principal air of one part, passing through various phases, quicker or slower according to the different rhythms, and, if a second air is formed, it is heard developing itself in a different part of the orchestra at the same time as the first, until the two ideas, apparently strangers to one another, unite and lose themselves in a superior melody which completes the meaning of the work. it is the same with a woman's dress. it is neither n personal adornmentor nme . nor graceful nor noble, magnificent nor simple, coquettish nor severe, before variety has been subjected to har- mony—that is, to the unity of a definite style. if the dress is intended to be dignified, the least frivolity in the trimmings would render it ridiculous. its dignity may be compromised by merely wearing a hat or a bonnet without strings, instead of a close bonnet with them, or by the flowers, instead of blooming in the centre of the head-dress, being worn on one side, like the hats of the braggadocios of former days. everything that inter- rupts uniformity, that resembles manly habits or clothes, above all military uniforms, or that reminds us ironically of rustic uncouthness, and the careless negligence of the masses, detracts from a dignified costume. on the other hand, grace that provokes attention, the desire to attract and to triumph, will not neglect any of those accessories which imprint themselves on the eye and on the memory; and the harmony of a designedly piquant costume will con- sist in an assortment of intentional variations, in which we shall meet with contrasting colours, braidings imitating the decorations of hunting-coats or hussar jackets, posti- lion basques, and the double facings of a girondin bodice, with its stripes, its false pockets, its buttons, frogs, open cuffs and steel buckles. whilst a woman, who wishes to be respected, avoids striking contrasts and contents herself with the harmonies of a minor fashion, the woman who courts observation relies on the effects of opposition, the parade of colours, and the style of the trimmings. she defies symmetry, puckers the flounces of her dress in the same way that she puckers her lips and her eyebrows; she redoubles the fanciful changes in her attire, and completes art in ornament and dress. it by placing a flower or a tuft of feathers on one side of a coquettish hat and in raising her tunic in fantastic folds. but we must not be deceived by appearances : the dignity of dress, its veiled luxuriousness, the severity of the uniform or camaïeu style are sometimes an excess of refinement dictated by the most perfect coquetry. women also can use masked batteries. but that harmony is a necessity of dress is so hack- neyed a truth that the reader may think a simple allusion to it would have been sufficient. yet no; this truth, if hackneyed, is not universal, for each day we meet charm- ing persons who do not know it, or at any rate act as though they were ignorant of it. our promenades, our streets, our drawing-rooms, our theatres are crowded with women whose attire is discordant. this one, dressed entirely in black, has placed a rose in her bonnet, which, by its isolation, makes a spot in her costume, just as in a picture, a solitary light produces the effect of a hole. that one, instead of mixing harmonious colours—for instance, blue and green, or complementary colours, which must always be used in unequal proportions, like green and red, violet and yellow—has put incongruous colours side by side, reddish browns next to fresh tints, pink next to garnet, fiery red to mauve, blue to brown. we have seen a clever woman wearing at home a scarlet waist- coat over a petticoat of the shade called groseille des alpes: the combination was an optical scandal. there is nothing more painful to the eye than badly contrasted colours, that is, the use of colours in defiance of the law of complementary shades. * but it is not only the eye • the theory of complementary colours has been clearly explained towis art in ornament and dress. would be a noticeable spot. a maize shoe relieved by a bow of pale blue poult-de-soie would harmonize per- fectly with a stylish toilet in these two colours. a bronze boot is well adapted to grey and brown costumes. sometimes the shoes match through the trimmings of lace or blonde being similar to the flounces of the dress or the ornaments on the tunic. to conclude, it is the shoes that complete the character of the dress, and in bringing back into fashion the shoes worn under louis xv., which rest instead of fatiguing the wearer, women have ac- quired a new resource, which is the more appreciated because it allows them to elevate their head-dresses, and thus add to their natural grace that proportionate slen- derness which is indispensable to elegance. the gloves.-it was formerly said that for a glove to be good three kingdoms should have contributed towards its manufacture : spain to prepare the kid, france to cut it, and england to sew it. three nations for one glove! how can we avoid attaching importance to this portion of feminine attire ? and who will reproach us for devoting at least one page to its con- sideration ? fashion has not much influence over gloves. she always insists that for women they should be longer than the hand, in order that they may not form an abrupt line below the wrist; they must be glazed or dull, accord- ing to the time when they are to be worn, and good taste, more unchangeable than fashion, advises women never to wear them too tight-fitting, for tight gloves give a swollen look to both hands and fingers. just as a woman's em- bonpoint is most striking in a very close-fitting bodice, personal adornment. which has no folds, and which, by compressing the figure displays its fulness, causing it to rebel against the pressure and rebound ; so however slightly plump the hands may be they revolt against tight gloves, and in spite of the elasticity of the lamb's skin the suppleness of their articulation is lost. a woman who does not neglect details in her efforts to please should consult on this as on all other points, the great masters of portrait painting, rubens, vandyck, velasquez, reynolds, lawrence, gérard, ingres. she would perceive that the gloves worn by the women they painted, all distinguished for their beauty or for their charming manners, always formed light creases, and never looked tight or narrow. it is evident that the artists feared that imprisoning the hands would give them the effect of those wooden hands used by glovers for sign boards. these beautiful female portraits, as the artists have represented them, show us that they intentionally sacri- ficed the lights in the hand to those of the face, by care- fully softening the shade of the gloves with a light glazing. the swedish gloves are worn with the same idea, in écru, cinnamon or amadou, which look so well with town costumes. if the gloves are glazed and of a brilliant yellow, which is so closely related to pure white, they have the double disadvantage of forming a luminous spot which at once attracts the eye, and seems to enlarge the hand, because all forms appear to increase in size when they are very light or very striking, whilst darker tints diminish the apparent size and lessen the objects they cover. a mon an at dress. art in ornament and files them into the desired shape, then to the polisher, then to the carver. next follow the engraver, who engraves them, the chaser, who carves them in open work, the gilder, who gilds them, and the workman who fastens on the spangles of oxidised silver, of steel, gold, or copper. and all this does not complete the handle of the fan, for the blades and the panaches have still to be united by means of a metal pin, which holds them together and is called the rivet. in the mean time a sheet of vellum, lamb's skin, silk, or crape has been pre.. pared, on which a subject has been painted in water colours, in order to be lithographed or engraved, and which serves as a model for colouring the proofs. some- times celebrated artists do not disdain to decorate hand- some fans, painting gallant figures, groups, landscapes, small medallions which, as they are not multiplied by engraving, make the fan thus ornamented an unique and costly specimen. there now only remains the fixing of this painted leaf on the frame: to do this the blades are elongated by the introduction of thin supple slips of wood or cardboard which support the coloured paper or silk, which has previously been carefully folded; the edges are then gilt, and the blades and panaches are em- bellished, by incrusting them with reliefs in colour or with tiny mirrors. finally the overseer puts the last touches to the work, adding the tassels, the tufts of marabout, etc., and when this formidable weapon of coquetry is completed it is enclosed in a case, like a well tempered blade in its sheath. regardless of the climate, the fan is chiefly an acces- sory of the toilet, affording an excuse for graceful move- personal adornment. ments under the pretext of agitating the air to refresh it. this flexible curtain, in turn discloses all that is ap- parently hidden, conceals all that is apparently exposed. in the time of louis xv., mdme. de staël wrote, “what graces does not a fan place at a woman's disposal if she only knows how to use it properly! it waves, it hand screen. flutters, it closes, it expands, it is raised or lowered ac- cording to circumstances. oh! i will wager that in all the paraphernalia of the loveliest and best dressed woman in the world, there is no ornament with which she can produce so great an effect." for a spaniard, all the intrigues of love, all the manoeuvres of flirtation, are hidden in the folds of her fan. the shy audacity of her looks, her venturous words, her art in ornament and dress. hazardous avowals, half uttered, half dying on the lips, all are hidden by the fan, which appears to forbid while it encourages, to intercept whilst it conveys. but what style of ornament is most suitable for a fan? can well-known pictures, scenes from comedies, or pas- diffused ornament. radiating decoration. torals, be painted on them ? nothing is more appro- priate if the fan is not folded, if it is a hand-screen. but if otherwise, what would be the use of depicting figures engaged in action of any kind, when they could only be seen separated, cut, and mutilated by the radiating folds of the vellum or silk on which they are painted ; although, if the artist had arranged his figures so that each one personal adornment. should occupy an oblique division of the fan, they could be placed face to face in couples, and would at least remain entire. a watteau harlequin kissing his hand to a colum- bine, a leander quarrelling with isabelle, could be placed on blades which in refolding would reunite the lovers and reconcile the disputants. but to develop a graceful subject on a series of projecting and retreating angles, all more or less acute, would be a waste of labour. is it not better to use in these cases a diffused or a radiating ornament? is it not better to scatter over the fan a charmingly disordered arrangement of pictures and colours, or even to place isolated subjects between the folds, in order that elegant women, in manipulating their fans, may have twenty opportunities of showing in each fancy group the artist's talent, and, at the same time, of displaying some special charm of their own—a pretty hand, a well turned arm, or beautiful eyes? the sunshade is another weapon of coquetry. you believe that it was invented to shield the complexion from the sun ? no doubt this is true, but how many resources has this necessity of shading their faces fur- nished women with, and how little they would think of the sun if it did not give them this pretext of defending themselves from its rays? in the work of art, which we call a woman's toilet, the sunshade plays the part of chiaroscuro. it produces the charming effect that rubens has imitated in his celebrated picture called " chapeau de paille,” which consists in effacing the shadows of the face, in blending them with the light, thus merging the whole in luminous half tints. but these beautiful shadows result from the sunshade art in ornament and dress. being of a pale colour, for instance of maize silk, if the under skirt is of that shade and material, for the sunshade must match the dress. if the skirt is in violet or mauve silk, the sunshade should be lined with violet or mauve. !! licentiam sunshade. but there is a risk of the reflections of this lining chang- ing the complexion. let us here recall the laws of complementary colours. by throwing a violet shade over the face, the skin becomes colourless and dull, because the flesh tints, always more or less yellowish, destroyed by the violet, are reduced to a neutral tint of pale grey, whilst a personal adornment. parasol lined with rose de chine, or carnation coloured silk, sheds a youthful and animated colour over the face. but how is it possible that the parasol and the dress should match when the reflection of the lining may spoil the complexion ? the parasol can be made to harmonize with the dress by means of a light flounce, or by a small fringe of the same colour as the dress or its trimmings. a pretty woman will never sacrifice her beauty, even to the rules of optical harmony. the sunshade, in the play of colours, resembles a varnish, in the play of light it resembles a blind. vonal leve ven lace. the same may be said of a woman's dress, as is said of nature, that she excels in details, maxime miranda in minimis. we must not, then, be astonished at the im- portant part played by lace in her attire ; and, in fact, how many things here require consideration, how many delicate precautions must be taken in the fabrication of an ornament which is at once so strong and so light, so transparent and so firm ! it would be useless to write much about lace if we still retained the habits of our ancestors, for formerly every woman was a connoisseur in stitches. it was not the “cloistered nuns ” alone who undertook the task of spinning, sewing, and embroidering to escape the ennui of the convent, and to prevent their thoughts from wan- dering to the outer world. needlework occupied a large portion of women's time, even of those of high birth and station. this sedentary personal adornment. be this as it may, without dwelling on a question which is not precisely within our range, we have now to consider lace as a decorative object. the essential distinction between embroidery and lace, consists in the former being worked upon a pre-existent foundation, whilst the latter is manufactured at the same time as its foundation, and requires no ground to work upon. by lace is understood a fabric made with a needle or with bobbins on a regular foundation, called net-work or trellis (réseau ou treille), and all work of the same style, where the design is in relief on an irregular foundation, is called guipure. thus it is in the foundation that the chief difference between guipure and lace exists. the one is intended to stand out from a network from which it is inseparable; the other is invented and executed indepen- dently of the ground. the workwoman, having finished her work, her fleur, unites the details by means of unequal lines, called brides or sometimes barrettes. the bride in needle-lace is composed of two or three twisted threads, and, in spite of its apparent frailty, it forms a strong fastening. in pillow guipure, the bride is a plait of four threads, united by a twisted or button-holed stitch. the appearance of a piece of lace, its softness, its ful- ness, its elegance, are connected with innumerable de- tails, which require to be thoroughly understood, in order to comprehend the charming and important effects resulting from the use of this trifling article. these details are the foundation, the pattern, the stitch, the toilé, the grillé, the close work (mat), the open work (jours), the edge or footing, and the pearl. personal adornment. the exterior lines, how is it to be filled in? by linen stitch, by trellis work, or by heavy embroidery. the linen stitch or toilé is a close texture, in which the threads cross at right angles, in the same way as in a piece of linen, and they produce a plain surface. the grillé. or trellis-work is made by the threads being a little more apart, crossing diagonally and forming a trellis of diamonds of different sizes. the pieces where the needle or bobbin has repassed to thicken them con- stitute the mat or heavy embroidery. thus in this fairy-like architecture, in which the courses of stone are, as it were, linen or silk threads, the solid masonry is represented by the toilé and the mat; the apertures half by the grillé, and half by the openings called jours—but the name jours is only used when the openings are crossed by threads artistically arranged to intercept a part of the light. when there are no cross threads, the space left is only an open hole. however slightly we may be acquainted with the art of engraving or of drawing in chalks, we can easily imagine what richness, what variety, what colouring-i say it advisedly—what colouring can be given to lace by the mixture of the grillé with the mat, of the jours with the toilé, by the transitions between the plain and the spotted, by the accentuation of the outlines, and finally by the great contrast formed by this fanciful embroidery, and its light and regular foundation of netting, which forms a contrast and a transition, a softening effect, and a relief. this charming work becomes doubly piquant if the réseau is spotted with points d'esprit—that is, with small round knots in relief, about the size of a grain of millet art in ornament and dress. nov nately displayed on a foundation of hexagon brides, and a réseau of wide square meshes dotted with stars. is it possible to imagine a queen bearing on her shoulders the image of a frigate in distress, or on her throat dolphins sporting near a fort! and when ornaments of this kind attract the spectator's eye, how can he divert his attention to the wearer ? in our time the desire or rather the passion for novelty has induced even the most skilful and celebrated lace manufacturers to introduce the effect of shadows and of modelled designs into their lace patterns. these innovations, which are used in the latest specimens of the chantilly lace made at bayeux, are looked upon and boasted of as improvements; they consist in heightening the design by the effects of chiaroscuro, by representing for instance foreshortened flowers, a rosebud half hidden behind a leaf, a convolvulus obliquely opening its bell- in a word, by simulating various designs by means of graduated shades and deep veinings. this much vaunted progress appears to us an unfortunate novelty, capable of entirely destroying the character of lace, for in this as in most other decorative arts, literal imitation and perspective are the elements of corrupted taste. it is true that the venetians used ornaments in high relief on their guipures and in knotted stitches called punto a gropo; but the shadows in these reliefs were produced by the incidence of the jours. at each move- ment of the wearer, the shadows changed from dark to light, from light to dark. there is no attempt at model- ling; no idea of copying guided the designer; and it is probable that if he had thought of iritating anything art in ornament and dress. women are easily attracted by the rhythm of a well regulated pattern. this is the reason why the manu- facturers prefer symmetrical patterns and order details similar to those designed for coloured papers. but when the lace is used for head-dresses, cravats, hand- kerchiefs, tunics, or scarves, when it is gathered into flounces, ruffled into cuffs or frills, what becomes of the regularity of the repeated or the grace of the alternated figures ? for such purposes it appears to us far prefer- able to use fanciful half defined subjects, a skilful confu- sion, carefully calculated to be the equivalent of a latent order—i might say of a charming disorder. the pretty scrolls, where nothing seems either to advance or to retreat, except in the folds which may be made in them, are simply interceptions of light when the lace is looked through, and an interception of transpa- rency, when the pattern is clearly defined against darker shades, or if the lace is black, against pale silks or the whiteness of the skin. the confusion is sufficiently redeemed by the regularity of the réseau, and there is no objection to the work being relieved by the accentuation of lighter or stronger trac- ings, the avoidance of any imitation of nature being the essential object. now let us speak of the point or stitch. the point is of so much importance, that it has been from the begin- ning synonymous with lace, and since it varies with the localities where it is produced, the laces are called brussels point, point d'alençon, honiton point, genoese point, venetian point, hungarian point. the variations in point are numerous, but above all other differences, personal adornment one great distinction must be first established. lace is made in three ways; with a needle, with bobbins, and with machinery, and each of these methods has its different aspects, its qualities, its defects, its varying shades. needle-lace.—all the world acknowledges that the point d'alençon, which is made with a needle, is the richest and most beautiful of all. and the value of this lace not only arises from its representing a considerable in point d'alenÇon. amount of labour, but also because nothing can replace in human productions the fabrics made by a man's or still more by a woman's handicraft. however the hand may be restrained by the necessity of faithfully following, on green parchment, the design imagined and traced by another person, there is always, even in copying an out- line, an individuality, an imperceptible deviation to the left and to the right, above and below the tracing, which impresses on the design an accent of strength or gentle- ness, of indecision or determination. and when the p personal adornment. the most valuable qualities, neatness and fulness, richness and elegance, rank pillow-laces. in these the dominant characteristics are the softness of the outlines, and the smoothness of the general appearance: the needle is to the bobbin what the pencil is to the stump. the design, which is softened in pillow-lace, is defined by needle-work, and in a way engraved. and here many trifles betray the influence of hand work; but to thoroughly understand these details we must first explain how pillow-lace is made. the machine used in lace-making, which, according to the country where it is used, is called a cushion or a pillow, consists of a square box, stuffed and covered on the outside. on the upper surface, which is very sharply inclined, an opening is arranged, where a stuffed roller turns firmly on its own axle. on this roller a parchment is so placed that it falls a little over the opening; on this parchment the design has been previously pricked with pins. for the work an enormous quantity of bob- bins filled with thread are required, which are interlaced according to the pattern. pins placed in the pricked holes as fast as the work progresses, serve as land-marks to the lace-worker, and hold the stitches. the tracing having been placed so as to allow the different parts of the work to join easily, by turning the roller on which it is fixed the maker can continue the work without inter- ruption, while in brabant, where a simple cushion is used, the workwonian is obliged to raise the bobbins when she arrives at the end of the cushion, and to replace them at the beginning of it.* * la dentelle à l'aiguille et aux fuseaux, by m. j. seguin. paris : rots- child, . this book, which is the work of a thoroughly competent writer, art in ornament and dress. this short description of the lace machine, shows that simple as it appears, it requires a special appren- ticeship, the method of working being quite different from that used in making twisted edgings or fringes with open headings; and from being more quickly and cheaply made than the needle-laces, the pillow-lace has a more industrial character, and for that reason a larger de- velopment.* when the ruffs and frilled tuckers were imported into france from italy, the needle-laces with which they were trimmed, finished them abruptly, giving them sharp edges, like a necklet of spikes. but when the pillow-lace was substituted for these harsh guipures, being much lighter and more flexible, it softened the outlines and rendered the pinkings of these triple frills almost ethereal, instead of their imprisoning the head and making it appear, as l’estoille said, “like the head of john the baptist on a charger." the use of lace.once made aware of the different effects produced by needle or pillow-lace, a woman who has been shown to us in manuscript, and we can vouch that it is most instructive and interesting. the historical criticisms are particularly re- markable. the author refutes with proofs all the errors committed by his predecessors; he describes in detail every style of manufacture, and ac- quaints us with all their centres. * this explains the reason why rich ladies even to the end of the six. teenth century continued to devote themselves to needle-work, and why so many fine collections were published for their use-at lyons by ostans ; at paris, by dominique de sera, assistant to the celebrated artist, jean cousin; at venice, by the seigneur de vinciolo, cesare vecelli, and some anony- mous authors. most of these collections were reprinted several times, whilst after the publication called le pompe, which took place in , and which contained several patterns for pillow-lace, no other book of the kind was published until , which is the date of foillet's book printed at montbéliard. personal adornment. . beautiful. all is relative to the wearer, her personal appearance, her moral characteristics, not to mention the harmony indispensable between an ornament so delicate and valuable as lace, and the other portions of the dress. often an elegant woman entering a lace warehouse is asked a question which she considers quite unnecessary, “you wish to see some lace, madam ; may i inquire for what purpose it is to be used ?” “how can that affect you, sir, that is my affair," is the usual ony ente point de gaze, rÉseau and fleurs in needle work. answer. and yet what a useful question, if it were candidly answered, and the questioner had good taste. what a difference there should be between lace worn by a young woman and that which is suitable for a dowager! the rank of the person, her style of living, her age, the prominence or delicacy of her features, her natural tran- quillity or activity, all have an important bearing on her selection, as montaigne said (speaking of love). should a woman of twenty-five, with a piquant air and quick movements, place on her shoulders the thick point de art in ornament and dress. vénise with raised ornaments, whose majestic heaviness suited the collar worn on ceremonial occasions by the procurator of st. mark ? brussels appliquÉ. fleurs made of pillow lace and appliquÉ on tulle. we must not forget that from its invention, until the end of the last century, lace was worn as much by men as by women. the valois used it profusely. appliquÉ mixed with needle point. henry iii. covered himself with lace in fine gold, and he was so anxious that his ruffles should be perfectly fresh, that he goffered them himself if he fancied the plaits were personal adornment. correct the stiffness of a medicis ruff, which stands up on the neck like a fan. to slightly rounded shoulders a flat laced bertha is most becoming; on thin shoulders it should be gathered, for lace without folds is intended to disclose what is underneath, but plaited, it serves to half veil it. for a beautiful arm and well turned wrist, plain cuffs should be preferred, while for angular proportions a fuller trimming ca chantilly. is required. if lace is used for head-dresses, a mixture of muslin and appliqué with a few bows should form the close cap worn by elderly women, but the bonnet for a young and elegant woman should be more decidedly trimmed by a lace lappet falling over the chignon. for sleeves, flounces, and tunic trimmings, it may be useful to add that pale tints require white flowing laces, bruges for instance, whilst darker shades require the black laces made at chantilly, caen or bayeux, for at the art in ornament and dress. present day it is in calvados that the lace known by the generic name of chantilly is manufactured. although black lace is usually regarded as a thread blonde. lace, it is always made of silk, but as this silk called grenadine is twisted, it loses its brilliancy and acquires the appearance of thread. but on the other hand no one personal adornment. mistakes blonde, which is also a silk lace, whether black or white, because the pattern is filled in with a flat silk more brilliant than that which is used for the foundation. blondes derived their name from being first made with unbleached or yellow silk. those now made in white for veils and mantillas have a rich silver coloured effect, which brightens the skin, and this renders them highly prized amongst dusky olive-skinned races. in spain and in the spanish colonies, the women reserve the white blondes for fête days, bull fights, and easter mondays; the contrast between their skin and the brilliant white of the silk being softened by the reflection of that white. the mantilla in black blonde which they trim with black velvet is the most essential part of their ordinary dress; it mysteriously shrouds the face, only permitting the sparkling eyes to be visible. ah, what a mistake it is to consider the subject which occupies us, as futile ; to think 'that there is frivolity or puerility in devoting so much writing to laces and blondes ! let it be well understood that the spaniard's mantilla is sacred in the eyes of the law : it cannot be seized to pay her debts, it forms part of the woman and her dignity. the poet is a man of judgment who wrote: rien que pour toucher sa mantille, de par tous les saints de castille, on se ferait rompre les os. but, to return to laces, an enormous quantity of them are now manufactured in black wool. after adorning the cotton head-dress of the poorest peasants, these guipures have become the fashion. flounces, dresses, veils, art in ornament and dress. shawls, and mantles, are made of them. they are used instead of fringe in the loose fitting, ready made cloaks and jackets, and in those street-costumes and semi- morning toilets in which parisians excel and which sometimes seem inspired by a refinement of coquetry. a chantilly shawl is only suitable for summer cos- tumes. in spring, when it is no longer cold and yet not warm ; in autumn when the seasons are reversed and the cold is approaching, woollen guipure—now called lama, as though it were made from the hair of that animal—is a valuable accessory in dress. on this ac- count, it has been subjected to imitation and sold at a low price. we here reach the third description of lace, which are machine laces. machine laces. the first time that mechanism invaded the peaceful domain of lace-making, was in the manu- facture of tulle. after several experiments made towards the end of the last century, consisting in the transfor- mation of a stocking-loom into a loom for knitting in meshes, the bobbin loom was invented, which is the only one producing by machinery the hexagon mesh used in pillow lace. through this invention immense machines, moved by steam, weave upwards of sixteen thousand meshes per minute, whilst a lace-maker can on an average produce but five or six meshes in the same time: one may therefore say that the machine replaces the work of twelve thousand women. · the tulle bobbin once invented—at first it was a plain réseau—the manufacturers proceeded to work, on the meshes, the small spots called points d'esprit ; then apply- ing jacquard's system to the tulle-looms, they produced personal adornment. nal those embroidered textures called machine lace, of which so many veils, shawls, scarves, and fanciful ornaments have been made. finally, the lyonese perfected these fabrics, by adding a skilful touch of hand work to that of the machine. the pattern which leaves the jacquard loom is defined and ornamented by a silk thread, which gives it a shade of resemblance to real lace. after all, this resemblance is very deceitful. it is easy to say that there is no difference or very little between machine and hand work ; it is none the less true that the point de gaze, for instance, which is made entirely, both fleurs and réseau in needlework, by the workers of brussels, is of unequalled fineness in quality and of incomparable beauty. the same workwoman weaving with bobbins and linen thread the réseau that is to be the foundation of an appliqué lace, adds to it a lightness and delicacy that the loom can never perfectly imitate, and the woman who makes the fleurs with her needle which are to be appliqué on the réseau or on the tulle, gives a style to the texture of the fleurs and to the brodé, that is, to the points in relief, which machinery can never attain. but how mysterious and strange are the results of human invention! is it a subject for congratulation or regret that human labour is superseded by the machine which diminishes, and we might say destroys it? this is a serious question. how many troubles were brought into the daily life of humble families ! how much anguish was caused by a discovery which is to profit, so they say, the people who suffer most from it to-day! in travelling through flanders, brabant, normandy and auvergne, one sees through the windows of a room on voman art in ornament and dress. the ground floor, young girls bending over their cushions, wielding innumerable bobbins around innumerable pins, twisting, crossing, interlacing them, without a single mis- take, picking them up, dropping them to retake them, and drop them again, watching that they are always filled with thread, pricking in the pins, taking them from one . place where there are too many, to put them in another where there are too few-in a word making nearly one hundred and fifty-two thousand evolutions for a design of ten inches, amounting to seventy-seven move- ments in a minute ; and one is startled, horrified at the work entailed upon these living machines, whose intelli- gence seems bounded by their threads and imprisoned in the meshes of their work. one questions whether the life of these creatures, born to please and to be loved, ought to be entirely absorbed in rendering other creatures more attractive and more pleasing, and one hopes that the machines which at first sight seem instruments of slavery, may some day become a means of alleviation and of freedom. xvi. of all the arts which are treated of in this book, the jeweller's and goldsmith's are the most valuable. the jewel, which is so well adapted to a woman's adorn- ment, is a combination of the riches of nature and art; it is concentrated brilliancy, the quintessence of light. incredible fact, marvellous truth! in the bowels of the earth, in the deserted channels of exhausted torrents, in the gloomy depths of the mineral world, stars are con- cealed that rival in their beauty those of the firmament. the fresh splendours of dawn, the sun's incandescent s personal adornment. rays, the magnificent sunsets, the brilliant colours of the rainbow, all are found enclosed in a morsel of pure carbon or in the centre of a stone. they all result from the mysterious, one might say the awful, property possessed by the molecules of certain bodies, of obeying the laws of attraction, in the same way as the stars of heaven obey them, and of uniting as though urged by the secret instinct of the beautiful, to compose prismatic forms of astonishing regularity, and often of perfect symmetry. all the luminous and coloured spectacles which the world in the immensity of space can offer us, nature has produced in miniature amongst precious stones. the ruby encloses the brilliant red of the clouds of evening; the sapphire, varying from dark to pale blue, is a concen- tration of azure. the emerald condenses the green of the meadows and certain aspects of the ocean. the topaz is a miniature reproduction of the rich gold which illumines the setting sun. the opal resembles a fraction of the rainbow softened by a milky cloud. the aqua- marine, which has the colour of persian blue, has the glassy tint of the waves of the sea. the violet of the amethyst represents the deep purple shade of the heavens, and the hyacinth is like the tints of dawn passing from saffron to orange. thus, as man is a summary of anterior creations, an epitome of the world, so the diamond and other precious stones are focuses of light, and essences of colour which seem expressly created to ornament on a small scale the human body with all the splendours which adorn the universe on a large scale. but nature only produces diamonds and other jewels in a rough state. for man is reserved the task of q personal adornment. the brilliant should always be set transparently. but who can help admiring the precision in the minuteness of the work, when the lapidary is able to cut thirty-two facets on a particle of diamond not larger than a pin’s head, and twenty-four, or at least eighteen, if it is cut rose shaped ! the brilliant shape is cut on stones naturally spherical; when the rough diamond is pear-shaped, the facets are cut at all angles, and it forms a brillolette. the pendants shaped like a half pear have a collet and brillolette. a table, and are cut into facets on the side of the collet. well-cut pendants are much sought after, and are dearer than brilliants. how much art and science, and what attention, what care is necessary to render the sun-beams which are im- prisoned in a tiny polyhedron of pure carbon, brilliant and sparkling ! but there is one stone more valuable even than the diamond, the oriental ruby, when it is of a considerable size and clear, deep coloured crimson. the mine which produced this ruhy having been lost for more than a century, these gems are now found only in jewel caskets. the most beautiful came from ceylon, india, and china. yet, whatever the market value of precious art in ornament and dress. stones, a value dependent upon their rarity, we should here notice the part they play in personal adornment, and consider them with reference to their beauty, their colour, their brilliancy, their æsthetic character, and their momentary fitness in the toilet. if gems and other precious substances used in jewellery were to be classed, not according to the price jewellers ask for them, but according to their beauty, we should place in the first rank, the diamond, the ruby, the sapphire, the emerald, the topaz, the opal, the pearl, and the western turquoise, called old rock; in the second rank the syrian garnet, the amethyst, the aqua-marine, and the coral; and in the third, the peridot, the tourmaline, the lapislazuli, the girasole, amber, and all the varieties of agate, such as the chalcedony, the blood-red cornelian, the chrysoprasus with the green tint of a leek, and the onyx which is so well suited to cameo engraving. in the eyes of an artist, who regards beauty before everything else, the stones in the first and second rank are the only really precious ones, the remainder being simply fine stones. but each has its style, its use, and its place in the toilet, i was about to say its hour, with- out alluding to its mysterious connection with sentiment, for women attach superstitious ideas to certain stones even in france, where the spirit of irony is so powerful and so alert. the opal, for instance, which should be eagerly sought for its beautiful and changing colours, in- spires them with a vague dread of not being loved. the emerald, on the contrary, is a promise of happiness, and is worn as a talisman and as a jewel. other stones perplex their thoughts and interest their heart's secret devotion. personal adornment. again, the poetry of colours has a language and shades for stronger minds which are above feminine weaknesses. there may be something melancholy in the colour of the aqua- marine, which reflects the sadness of the waves; and a disquieting element in the livid tint of the amethyst, if much used as an ornament. it is easy to imagine the sapphire's celestial blue an emblem of purity and love, and the ruby's crimson an expression of triumphant valour and pride. however, precious stones are also uncertain ; they are apt to fade, to deepen, or to become discoloured under certain influences. women know that the sapphire, which is, by daylight, so pure and soft a blue, in the evening loses its brightness, and deepens almost into a violet black. thus they prefer pale azure sapphires which retain their brilliancy under artificial light. the emerald darkens by candle-light, and, under the same influence, cape diamonds, which by day are disfigured by a pale lemon colour, lose this tint, and regain the beauty of their latent fire. the brazilian topaz, warmed to a certain temperature, takes the rosy hue of the balas ruby, and the name of burnt topaz; the tone of the eastern turquoise, called old rock, sometimes fades, loses its polish with time, and finally disappears. fire blanches the sapphire, and robs the amethyst of its colour. the opal is impaired by the prolonged influence of a damp atmosphere; it is the most sensitive of minerals, equally fearing heat and cold. the warmth of the sun, by dilating the minute particles of air enclosed in the opal, causes it to lose its colour, and intense cold produces personal adornment. are are neve are cut ; they are never perfectly beautiful without the lapidary's aid. coloured stones cannot be treated like diamonds: they cannot be broken, because the price would diminish with the size, and the small pieces cannot be used to make rose sparks; for, if the base of a precious stone were flat like that of a rose, it would lose its brilliancy. but the lapidary can remove the imperfections of a ruby, a sap- phire, or an emerald, by polishing it en cabochon instead of cutting it, and thus giving it the oval form of a drop of tallow. this shape is most suited to the opal, the tur- quoise, the coral, cornelian, and malachite. the cabochon is single when it represents half of a tallow drop, and double when, like an almond, it is rounded above and below. a bevel is then cut in the side to mark the junction of the almond's two halves. sometimes, while the upper side is polished, the under is cut in facets, in order that the play of light may be more animated. the brilliant cutting, star cutting, and portuguese cutting with spherical triangles, are suitable to rubies, sapphires, topaz and amethyst. the emerald and beryl are cut in steps, that is, on the upper side there is a flat surface, sometimes rectangular, sometimes square, with rounded angles, then two steps, then below two more steps surrounding a square facet which forms the collet. thus the lapidary's art consists either in assisting the refraction of light by facets, or in augmenting the trans- parency of the stone by the size of the surfaces or by the smoothness of the polish. he perfects the beauty of the gems, by calling geometry to the sun's aid. where the lapidary's work ends, the arts of the jeweller and art in ornament and dress. goldsmith commence. in the present day their crafts are no longer distinct, though their labour differs. when the precious metals are only used as a setting for the gems, the work belongs to the jeweller; when the stones only serve to enhance the beauty of the gold and silver work, the objects belong to the goldsmith. for instance, let us take a jewel shaped like a butterfly: if the prin- cipal parts are in gold, the chief work would not be done by a jeweller; the insect's body, its antenne with their tiny clubs, the open wings with their veinings, the holes which receive the roses and brilliants, the minute claws which seize and hold the gems, are all made by the goldsmith. but, if the body is of opal or labrador, the wings of striated or ribboned agate, the antennæ of sardonyxes, and the eyes of rubies, the butterfly would be the jeweller's work. but, although the colouring is very important in jewels, we must first direct our attention to their shape, and it is most difficult to limit the designs, for nature has furnished us, for her share in the work, with treasures of light and colour. xvii. order being an essential element in the composition of a jewel, the methods which should chiefly be used are repetition, alternation, symmetry, radiation, progression, and consonance. the principles which we asserted in the commence- ment of this book, apply quite as much to jewellery as to gold and silver work, ceramic art, and other branches of decoration and ornament. the design will have a more or less sober and severe character, according to the method used by the designer, personal adornment. no doubt ingenious labyrinths of ornament can be invented and applied to architectural decoration, after the al doo ercolor ka oce ers specimens of alternation and recurrence. manner of the arabians, in mural surfaces, doors, open enclosures, and friezes. designs for mosaic pavements, art in ornament and dress. damascened caskets, jewel boxes, and vases may be com- plicated, but to complicate the design of a jewel is to make incomprehensible that which it is already difficult to com- prehend. when a printer has arranged a text in nonpareil he endeavours to compensate for the diminutiveness of the type by the extreme distinctness of the press work; but uwai . a il o . pendant attributed to benvenuto cellini. even then he knows that many readers will be dis- couraged by its size. in a jewel, distinctness is only attainable by the repetition or the periodical recurrence of the same objects. and it is scarcely necessary to add that if complication is out of place in an earring or a ring—and the smaller the jewel the more out of place is the complication—by the same rule, even regulated art in ornament and dress. diamonds or of precious stones is most suitable for the centre of a diadem. the radiating style, which the egyp- tians used so successfully in their winged scarabæi as well ooo pocopos om cooooo co qo mm loquendidikarusodintis andrajadul uym merah more v to coro m aladi ka wa dowwe un i tario uudnurlowonunua wwmandmda armani mama un son wwwwwww wwwomans vizues guravan for jewels radiating or fan-shaped. as in the cornices of their porticoes, is well adapted to art in ornament and dress. rings either in circular or notched plates. the grecian fibulæ were usually round brooches, and the athenian artists, who manufactured such fine jewels for the kings of the cimmerian bosphorus, and for the rich inhabitants of the hellenic colony of theodosia, recalled the round- ness of the gem by the spherical form of its reliefs. for instance, they placed concentric rows of pearls or of small beads round the circular centre, formed by a ranun- culus surrounded by chrysanthemums. this style is now called consonance, and is a remembrance, an echo of original harmony. here then we again find the repetition doubled, i mean the persistence in a regular return to the primitive shape of the object. so true it is that similarity, or at least analogy of details is essential in all ornamentation, and particularly in jewels, otherwise their diminutiveness would render them unintelligible. xviii. the decline of symbolism has caused the disappearance of a part of the charm of jewellery, by giving increasing importance to the imitation of real objects. in the earliest ages, jewels were emblems. the gems worn by men and women bore the impression of pro- found sentiment, or contained some allusion to a reli- gious idea. the soul was never entirely lost sight of even in the most frivolous and luxurious articles, and everything that added to the charm of an ornament was a delight to the mind. thus in far distant times, imita- tion was always interpretive and conventional, because it was subordinate to the expression of an idea. the breastplate worn by the egyptian high priest, and often pv art in ornament and dress. which becomes a cameo or an intaglio. but when the figure is represented, either as a caryatid in an architec- tural design, or as engaged in an action requiring decided movement, it completely disfigures the jewel, because it is lowered from its natural rank; for the human body is too rich in form, has too much beauty and importance, and is too high in the scale of creation to play an acces- sory part amongst images drawn from the vegetable world, or from geometry. when benvenuto cellini, in modelling the pendant which is preserved in the biblio- thèque nationale, and is otherwise so precious, carved upon it the figure of apollo on the keystone of an arch, and two of the muses on the pediments, accompanied by griffins and chimeras, he made a work of art, and not a jewel. an ornament in this style is, by its very beauty, condemned to be useless. a woman who possessed it might show it to others to admire, but she could not wear it. how could she exhibit on her breast, or suspend in her ears or on her neck miniature statues, the perfection of whose beauty would attract all admiration from the person they adorned? it must be remembered that utility belongs to the industrial kingdom, and that beauty is the prerogative of the artistic world. every object destined for use can be embellished, but cannot be intrinsically beautiful, for if its chief characteristic is beauty, it is no longer suitable for use. only a savage would put salt into benvenuto's famous salt-cellar, or use a panathenian amphora in offering wine to his guests. the designer of jewellery should think much less of displaying his talents than of enhancing the beauty of his work, in order to render the woman who is to wear it personal adornment. more attractive. the greeks with their delicacy of perception understood or divined this; they have not carved human figures in relief on their jewels. their bracelets, necklaces, diadems, fibulæ, and pins are only ornamented with portions of the human body, a man or woman's head, a bust in armour, a hand holding an apple, a mask of medusa or of bacchus, with bull's ears or dishevelled hair, represented by spiral gold threads. it is quite exceptional, when the etruscans suspended imperceptible figures of children, in relief, to somu an ady greco-etruscan ear-rings. their earrings. animals even are only represented in antique jewellery by their muzzles—at least, as far as quadrupeds are concerned. amongst other animals, reptiles, birds, and insects, such as the bee, the grass- hopper, the scarabæus, and the butterfly, are represented entire. a serpent curves himself to form a bracelet, raising his head or biting his tail. . a lizard glides on the cover of a fibula. sometimes a cock, a dove, or a swan in white enamel is suspended to greco-etruscan ear-rings. but the complete human figure, in full relief, would be as rarely found in antique jewellery as it is inappropriate in modern. art in ornament and dress. xx. of all the resources at the jeweller's command enamelling requires the most artistic treatment. what choice of models remains then to the jeweller, when the human figure and the representation of animals are prohibited ? he has the vegetable world, radiating bodies like the stars, architectural ornaments and artificial objects, such as the innumerable instruments invented by man in the exercise of the arts and industrial pursuits, music, agriculture, war, the chase, navigation, gold and silver work, liturgical ornaments, which have a mental significance, and generally the old heraldic figures. by the mixture of these resources, the details may be infinitely varied, and made charming, on the understanding personal adornment. that the workman does not attempt to imitate that which is inimitable. for instance, for the last twenty years jewellers have delighted in the fabrication of bouquets in precious stones,--the leaves in emeralds, the fruit in rubies, and the flowers in brilliants, with sapphire centres. some of them have even endeavoured to imi- tate birds' feathers. they succeeded in moulding sheets of metal, that is, in rendering them convex and concave, working them until they had something of a feather's ng soros flexibility; with fine strokes of a saw, they detail the down and the quills, and then studding them with diamonds and other precious stones, they form brooches, ornaments for the hair, or aigrettes. but these efforts of skill are contrary to good taste and sentiment. he who attempts to imitate in hard brilliant substances, the soft down and airy lightness of a marabout feather, resembles the virtuoso who tries to play flute-like music upon a serpent. we should not try to do badly in one art any- thing that can be perfectly well done in another. how art in ornament and dress. many resources are employed by french jewellers, who are acknowledged to be the most skilful in the world! with what dexterity they fasten the gems in the mounting called illusion, on almost invisible pins, gems which appear suspended without support, like drops of rain traversing the air! how gracefully they redeem the too great free- dom of a curve, by some angular lines, tying a ribbon, weaving a wreath, twisting a cable bracelet, shaping it ironically like a fetter, or giving it the form of an enve- slowongoza tai grace states . tours net vw tiguamo o sy dragon-fly in diamonds. nomed asp! how successfully they enamel formidable looking chains, load with gems or pearls a slave's collar, and attach miniature oats to a pair of earrings, which shine with every movement! with what precision they reproduce in the pierced or open parts of their work, the caprices of the locksmith's work, the foliage of moorish art, the tracings of persian enamels! and what fertility of imagination in renovating old models, or inventing new ones! a pair of ear-rings is made of enamelled violets, and enhance wonderfully the beauty of golden hair ; personal adornment. thus changed by a corrosive process which can only be detected by the use of a magnifying-glass, gold takes a dullish appearance, which can be removed by a brass wire brush, or left to serve as a background for brilliant substances. gold in colour should not be confused with coloured gold : the former is simply gold purified on its surface from all alloy. we now reach enamelling, which is sometimes of great importance in jewellery. enamel is a crystal (a vitreous paste). when used in art or industrial work, it is coloured by being combined with metallic oxides. it is thus composed of two sub- stances: a vitreous, colourless and fusible substance, called aux, and the metallic oxide with which the flux is mixed in the fire, and which gives it a brilliant colour ; generally the oxides leave the crystal its transparency but oxide of tin has the property of making the enamel opaque and white. the word enamel presupposes the action of fire. m. jules labarte * says that “a jewel is not said to be enamelled because it is ornamented with pieces of coloured glass set in a bezel without the aid of heat or cemented to the jewel; but it is the fusion of enamel in interstices previously prepared on a piece of metal that constitutes enamelling.” the colours produced by the oxides upon enamel, form the richest palette imaginable. “where else can we find so rich a harvest of colour ?” says an enamel painter, m. claudius popelin _" white as snow, or softly dull like ivory, the lustrous mourning of the raven's wing, or the fuliginous black of ebony, pearl greys, slate-coloured ashy tints, fresh lilac * histoire des arts industriels, v. , p. . orfévrérie. art in ornament and dress. and flax, deep violets, brilliant ultra-marines, sombre indigo, azure, beryl, emerald and malachite, the warm olive of sun-lighted bronze, the chromatic scale of dead- leaf tints, amber and citron, the splendid golden hues, the burning flame of orange and the ruddy glow of copper, the vivid cochineal scarlets, the soft amaranth, lustrous orange reds, flashes of vivid carbuncle! what accumu- lated resources! what materials in the hands of a person eager to revive an art equally charming and powerful !"* since so many works have been introduced to us froni the far east, which are rendered marvellous by the various styles of enamel employed in them, french jewellery has been much influenced by these models, and has derived a series of ornaments from them which truly belong to art and are enhanced by painting. the enamels used in jewellery are cloisonné, champ- levé, translucid on chasing in relief, and painted. the words cloisonné and champlevé, explain themselves. cloisonner, consists in putting different enamels which require careful separation into distinct divisions. the dividing bands resemble metal ribbons soldered perpen- dicularly on to a metal plate; following the tracings of the design, they become its outlines, so that the pencil lines drawn by the designer on paper are replaced on the enamelled plate by a copper thread. champlever, means to excavate the foundation. in champlevé enamel, instead of placing delicate metal bands on the plate to define the pattern, the workman hollows, with a flat graver, the places destined to receive the enamel, reserving (épargnant) in the plate itself the out- * l'email des peintres, by claudius popelin. paris, a. lévy, . art in ornament and dress. peries, damascened arnis, precious stones, the jewels worn by the persons represented, fanciful foliage, flames and other brilliant objects, spangles or paillons are used, that is, light leaves of metal are placed under the coloured enamels, giving them an incomparable richness. this style of painting, in which the metal is entirely concealed under the enamel, is called painter's enamel, or more generally limoges enamel, for this town has given its name to painted enamel in the same way that damascus did to the art of damascening. finally there is a kind of enamel which unites painting and sculpture, pittura mescolata con la scultura, vasari calls it. a low relief is carved on a metal plate and a transparent enamel is poured upon it, the shades being darker or paler according to the depth of the hollows- just as water always looks darker where the bed is deep- and thus there are differences of tone in the same shade of enamel. the miniature is thus rendered more delicate, and more nicely modelled, than when it is painted on a flat surface, because the lights and shades instead of being picked out with the brush are formed by the bas- relief, distinctly visible through the transparent enamel. such are the ingenious and delicate processes invented by the refinements of taste, and used in jewellery to em- bellish woman's charms. cloisonné enamel unites richness of ornament with sharpness of outline. the gold twists in tortuous windings to encircle fanciful pictures, flowers that bloom only in the garden of the imagination, chimeras, dragons, monstrous reptiles, stags covered with scales, and other fabulous animals, which are so often employed to decorate ceramic art in the east, as though persia, china, and japan had also their apocalypse. art in ornament and dress. the theory of colours is a great assistance to jewellers in all that concerns transparent enamels-in their application on gold, silver, or platina-and in mounting precious stones with enamels. the law of complementary colours, which does so much credit to modern science, is known to all jewellers either by tradition or intuition. but this law cannot be applied to jewellery (properly so called), that is to the reciprocal action of the colours of precious stones. it is only observed in the union of transparent enamels with metals or in that of precious stones with gold and enamel. a ruby, for instance, is already sufficiently brilliant; it would be useless to enhance its colour by the juxtaposi- tion of an emerald. the union would produce a hard contrast painful to the eye, spoiling instead of improving the harmony. colours that are striking, without being complementary, such as turquoise and ruby, turquoise and garnet, turquoise and coral, fatally impair each other's beauty. so placed, the turquoise becomes green, the ruby scarlet, the garnet black, and the coral yellowish. precious stones always look well arranged with diamonds, and nearly always with pearls, because the diamond, with a few exceptions, is only used in jewellery when it is colourless, and the pearl, from its silver shade, and in spite of its opaline reflections, may be considered as almost void of colour. however well all gems and precious stones sort with diamonds, their mixture with pearls is not always so successful; sapphires, emeralds, amethysts, and topaz look well with them, but the ruby, by its personal adornment. end brilliant red, is too decided in tint to be placed by the side of pearls. but rubies are charming when mingled with opals, because the one's vivid crimson finds an echo in the rosy flame of the other. but even in this case the transition should be softened by alternate diamonds. now let us speak of the effect of colour in enamels. applied on gold, platina, or pure silver, the transparent enamel is optically influenced by its foundation, and the colour is considerably modified. if the enamel is green, it is only successful on fine gold; it would be crude on silver, and cold or impaired on the other shades of gold or on platina. if it is red, fine gold renders it warmer and more pleasing. on silver it would be harsh, and on platina it would acquire a brownish tinge. the red gold, which contains more copper alloy than any other gold, and which therefore is capable of oxida- tion, might tarnish red enamel. silver and platina are the best metals for preserving the purity of blue and violet enamels, and white gold, that is gold of legal weight, gives to violet enamel the velvety effect of the pansy. yellow enamel approaches orange on fine gold, and still more on red gold. pink enamel retains its purity on silver, but becomes flesh colour on sterling gold. finally, red gold gives to brown enamel the tone of florentine bronze. these variations result from the contrast or the analogy of colours. science foretold them, experience confirms her prediction. but the theory is equally applicable in the harmonies of colour, intensified or softened, which are produced by the use of precious stones with enamel and with gold. la art in ornament and dress. a clever jeweller has taken the trouble to examine these harmonies and has published a treatise on the subject,* in which he indicates the different effects pro- duced by the juxtaposition of gems, enamel, and gold. gold in colour lends a greenish hue to the topaz, but it deepens the shade of the emerald and the blue of the sapphire, and gives a clearer azure tinge to the eastern pearl. in pursuance of the infallible laws of comple- mentary colours, red enamel enhances the beauty of the emerald, and by the side of green enamel the ruby appears of a richer crimson and the garnet a more vivid red. violet enamel heightens the tone of the topaz, which by the side of blue enamel takes a pretty orange tint. green enamel increases the red lights which con- stitute the beauty of the opal. a setting of green gold reflects a charming rosy shade over pearls. it is scarcely necessary to add that black and white acting as oppositions or as achromatics, can be introduced when necessary, but always in fine lines, either to refresh the eye and soften the violence of contrasts, or to give the work the piquant relief that a grain of pepper adds to food. in their relations to sentiment and beauty, jewels are subject to asthetic and moral proprieties. the races matured by civilization, whose tastes are raised and purified, limit more and more the use of jewels on the person, at least for men. the sex who wore them formerly, have now given them up. our ancestors, * traité spécial à la bijouterie, by l. moreau, designer of jewellery. paris, . personal adornment. _mine the celts, coming from the heart of asia, brought with them several customs, which by their effeminacy jarred with the hardiness of the race, which had continued or become barbarous. their chiefs still wore, like the median and persian generals, golden collars formed of spirally twisted threads, and called torques. they had also bracelets of distinctly asiatic origin, and it was, perhaps, the gauls of brennus who imported into etruria the use of these jewels, which in ancient greece were reserved for women. in egypt, in the time of the pharaohs, men's necklets were rewards given for brilliant actions, distinctions answering to the modern orders of knighthood; later, amongst the romans, heads of medusa, called phalere, were worn on the breast as honourable ornaments, of which the nature and significance have been clearly defined by m. de longpérier, one of the ablest french antiquaries. when the grecian cities awarded to their greatest citizens golden crowns imitating laurel or oak leaves, they seemed to indicate that in man only the head, the throne of intelligence, should be decorated. : in proportion to their elevation above savages men disdain jewels, leaving them for women. they only retain those worn as remembrances, emblems of attach- ment and fidelity, jewelled and wedding rings, lockets, trinkets, or rich scarf pins, which excuse their beauty by their utility. in brazil medical students, from the time they become doctors, wear an emerald on the finger as a sign of their diploma, and in the same way the french bishops wear an amethyst as a symbol of their dignity. in some parts of america infants are decorated with personal adornment. more skilful, it creates fictitious gems, which rival real ones. by means of thin leaves of beaten metal called tinsel, which are placed under coloured enamels to enhance their brilliancy, it heightens the colouring of false rubies and sapphires. by the aid of lining and gilding, ornaments are fabricated which display the gold, where it is necessary for it to be seen on the surface. in this way it supplies by a deception persons of moderate means with the luxuries of the rich. with or without jewels, charming women will never cease to charm; but it would be ungrateful towards nature, which has produced diamonds and precious stones, towards science, which teaches us to imitate them, and towards those who so skilfully cut, polish, set and mount them, to regard with philosophical disdain these treasures of concentrated light and colour with which human beauty can adorn itself. xxi. far from being a frivolous subject, dress and ornaments are for the philosopher an indication of morals and a sign of the reigning ideas of the period. the traveller who arrives in a country and who has not had time to learn the manners and ideas of the people whom he is visiting, may at once know or divine something of both from their architecture and from their costume. when, for instance, he sees, beneath the burning sun of egypt, the arab women carefully covering their faces, hiding their hair, and endeavouring to conceal their individuality, he at once comprehends that the prepon- derance of men and their suspicious dispositions have con- demned women to an indoor life, and that the tyranny art in ornament and dress. which compels them to be always veiled, is the same that imprisons them in houses with no outside windows, and . sumo fashion during the revolution. where the rare apertures are obstructed by impenetrable lattices. no doubt the climate, the soil, and the materials art in ornament and dress. by leg-of-mutton sleeves, and since the scanty dress of the restoration would have been ridiculous with so dce acos fashion during the reign of louis-philippe. great a development of the shoulders and head-dress, the hoops and puffed skirts were revived. thus attired, personal adornment. women seemed designed for a sedentary and domestic life, because nothing in their dress indicated movement, or appeared favourable to it. all was reversed under the second empire: family ties were relaxed, and a growing luxury so corrupted manners that an honest woman could no longer be recognised by her style of dress. the female toilet was transforined art in ornament and dress. vs from head to foot, bows and ringlets disappeared, the chaste smooth braids, in which raphael framed the fore- heads of his madonnas, began to wave and to be thrown back after the fashion of antique hair-dressing. at last the hair was worn quite upright, and the only ringlets and curls retained were worn on the forehead and the nape of the neck. the hoops were thrown backwards, and resulted in an exaggerated curve at the back. every- thing that could prevent a woman remaining seated was developed, and everything that could impede her walk was discarded. they dressed their hair and themselves as though they were always to be seen in profile—now the profile is the outline of a person who is not looking at us, who passes and would avoid us. the toilet became an image of the rapid movement which bears the world onwards, and which threatens to carry away even the guardians of our homes. they are to be seen at this day sometimes clothed and closely-buttoned like boys, sometimes adorned with braid like soldiers, walking on high heels which throw them forwards, hastening their steps, cleaving the air, and hurrying their life as though to swallow up space, which in turn swallows up them. the end. bradbury, agnew, & co., printers, whitefriars. wm. wolfarth, oscar spindler, w. Т: foshan Р ккккккккк vice-p eeeeee ът. summum'. Ё illvstrated catalqcve compositiqn f, capitals and brackets l jvn Е, the decoratgrs svpply СО. manvfactvrers archer ave. and leo st. chicago, ill. п . ~ t > ç; САР‘ alsqÈl i „ '>- i. u d* /" _“ и ъ v „‘-. ' ' ‚ддЁОКАто ` explanation and instvations. НЕ opposite page illustrates one of our modern lonic capitals with necking, Т “empire," as applied to a column showing the wood shaft and core running through the capital supporting the entablature above. the plans of the differ- ent abacus forms as given will serve as a further illustration of the relative position of shaft and our material. all our capitals are furnished as shown in the catalogue, each capital having a complete finish to connect with shaft. the diameter given in catalogue represents the top of column. the width represents the top of pilaster. the height given is the exact height of capital. always allow a trifle more height for your core, so the weight will resti on shaft, and not on capital-yá of an inch up to a io-iiich diameter, И of an inch above that size, will be sufficient to insure a safe application. the thickness of our material is i inch up to a io-inch diameter capital, making the core of a io-iiich diameter capital inches; of an -inch capital, inches. above io inches allow уз of an inch more for the thickness of material for every inches of increased size, making core for a i ­inch diameter capital „И inches; a ió-inch capital, паи inches, etc. in ordering capitals, give name, number, and size of diameter of width. also state material wanted, viz.: exterior composition, warranted to stand in any climate. interior composition, made with grain to match any wood, having a solid wood body, requires no core on column. always state the kind of wood and finish. fibrous plaster used in conjunction with interior plaster finish. the sizes of our brackets given are: i. the entire width across abacus moulding. . width of face on body without moulding. drop or length. . projection. we are constantly adding new sizes to our stock, and will make any sizes desired not listed, upon special request, and also`carry a number of odd styles and sizes of capitals and brackets, designs of which will be sent on application. special designs submitted will receive correct and careful execution. в the decorators svi-’pix Со. ',.‚._ ‚ . ,n . . т _ ŕ _-._ . вычетов-дарите »í -jl'ut ì' c w .. . сап—ПА- | (Читы. ‚,„ ч | l i f __ _ ч cement and exterior bases are cast hollow to allow for wood core on column. c _., ­ e ~;.­. make core inches less than diameter of column. <%_:_Ё f» q_-;ŕ Г _j | this applies to pilaster bases also. `-\___›‚Ч :mw-awww ‘it-« pilaster bases full square or over half are saine price _ i c____-___. _ Г .ju-¿t _d ­ as corresponding column bases. -—————————) в Г”"’ ` % î Ё Г*————_—_ ,i '..- .squl нити __.. i». _ pwr/arf. l--llrfn' __. i. _ Нитки-в плати __. cohwtÍw dohic iof`ilc` cou/mn. corinthian bash. ШьАзтвк. sizes same as for column. ­ prices for buse return or less. nvib diam. height dram.of sqvare diameter port. nvab port. ber ofshapt cnfbase cor.cap. члхтн АТ \ ЕХТЕКПЭК cement rer extermnq cement inches inches íinches inches inches. .- $ . $ . $ . “ “ “ ” }{ “ . . . . “ “ , “ “ до “ . . . . i: i: “ " “ . . . . “ i “ s :i l “ i :‘ . . . . - u @ Н ” ‘ . . . . “ “ “ }; “ " . . i-Ós - ‘t “ “ “ . . . . “ “ “ á “ . . . ” " ” “ ” . . . . ” Ь “ " ” ” . . . ï ” ” “ " . . . . u о}? к ” ” " . . . . “ “ ” ‘{ “ . . . . “ “ “ “ . . . . “ ißlí “ “ “ “ . . . . ‘a “ “ ” “ . . . . И и h ” “ . . . . colvifin. Вошь ВАЬЬ. pilaster. sizes same as for column. prices for base ‘if return ' less. nvm- iham. thhght uam.of sqvare nameter port. nvm- port. ber (Л shaft of base cor.cap. hjnth Ат х Ехтнкпп‹ cement eer extermnt cement inches íinches inches. inches. §§inchcs. $ . $ . $ . . “ “ " “ g “ . . . . :‘ “ “ “ “ . . . . ‘i :t :‘ “ i “ . . . . и ‘ ” “ . . . . Н @ к ï y ” . . . . И Ц u Ä x до . . . “ ‘t “ l “ “ . . . . u ‘ i . . . ‘ “ }; ” “ . . . . “ ” “ ” “ . . . . “ g “ “ “ “ . . . “ ” “ ” ” ‚ . . colvmn. iomc base. pilaster. sizes saine. as for column. prices for base Га return or less. nvm- ХЛАМ. гипспт ГЛАМ.ОР sqvare inameter port nvm- port ber (mfshapt ofbase cor.cap. члхтн АТ А ЕХТЕККП< cement ber extermh< cement inches inches inches inches §íinches. . $ . . $ . ” ” ” ” ” . . . . ” ” ‘ ” ” “ . . . . :‘ “ " ” " . . . . ¿ x х к x . . . . ‘ . . . . . : / i. j: }; “ l ‘i . . . . “ “ t i: . . . . ß ‘ ‘ . . . . ” }{ ” ” ” ” . . . . ” ” ” " ” . . . " ” ” ” ‘ “ . . . . х х г i ” . . . . Н n Á И x . . . Н . . . . ” “ ” “ . . . . ” ” ” " “ o . . . “ " '° { " “ . . . . “ " “ “ “ . . . . ” “ ” ” ” . . . . " ” “ “ “ . ` “ " “ “ " . . в t НЕ decoratoizs svpply co. colvmn. exterior. ln'i`erl()r no. diameter. hil/ . priei-:s (fur natvral wood finish) incńies. ¿ incńies. $ . crudi. м }; " “ . “ no. diameter. height. prices. “ j§ ” , “ inches. âíinches. $ . each. a } т ” . ” ' ' âa :‘ - и ‘ % " .~o “ . ' .mé ' ` . a % “ . ’ “ , . “ “ “ ss@ “ “ x " . ” `° }í “ . П a НЕ " % " . “ “: " " - “ s “ “ . " б " sh “ - “ a } “ § “ . “ “ ïx “ . “ (i о “ " . “ " Ó“ u “' и ‘i ojá “ . ” a ‘ :i s " . ” .t .. . Н . к l “ ‘l . Н o a sl» l, . a " 'ж " "о ” s a “ ‘ “ - Н “ }; ‘ ” “ nfs " . ” a " ¿§ " " " “ . ” " ‘ " ” i; " “ ” “ “ ” И a " " . ” " д “ “ . " - . “ }; “ . ” zove‘pńcesluuœd on oak orlnrch. .xny'otheroods c] `° ‘ “ . " extra. _ pilas'riir. f hÄlhrior. ln'l hrior. Ão' u th’ НЕЁСНТ' prices (шк ХАТУКАЬ woon finisii.) ip inches. §ginches. $ . each. v ‚ ,ap }§ ” Н ,_ ‘­ Ärn “inth. lisunrl lhucßs “ “ _ ; Н p inches. §í nches s „u>each. др i: l :i и; ‘î ’ И _¿ u - u ‘ p m . ‘ f" Ц ° n - п a? Ó}§ " f “ . " p ' i. l t“ ~ u p " ц " . ” ЭПР Ч / “ } “ «Óo Н ap . }; ” ” . “ p д]: . “ p " “ . “ sip Ó l " sÈÍ “ - ‘l ap sßí “ “ _ ; “ p ’ ‘i âïs ‘i . “ m» i “ si “ . ;@ “ . ' ‘ s ‘ - “ p id “ }: '° . ” ssap “ ‘l Ó-oo n sp i “ “ . ” p " “ Ó-Óo п op '| " " . ” ^Р jl “ ; “ ' h _ qap big “ ' à " . ” ЗЗР “ “ . h p » " i ¿{ “ . ” р " oßä l. q­Öo u ioap i “ }; " . “ iip “ Á " . “ p “ ‘« " . ” p n’ “ iólí “ . ” p " " . “ ap “ " . ” iqp “ “ . ” р “ ; ” oo ” :above prhxs based on oak orlńrch. y' thertvoods } p " '; “ . ” extra. . state return or thickness of pilaster. " d f ` (meek anta;.­­i>ii-asiei<. ex'i erior. leriarlor. no. yvhhwl ileunnz lhucßs ' (ron natvral woon fhhshj inches. inchcs. $ . each. :yo \yidth­ iieight- prices. }¿ ” ! ” . “ inches. inches. $ . each. ­ Н - “ Н _» ` ’ “ i/ Н Н s u s к „ - Н мг u : , „ - u g ‘i ij) i‘ , Н п “ î/ß “ . Н “ ,/ t. . ? И (Ч Í, ‘t il, “ . Н ) a () ‹ . ho д . t . и .gf И u . “ },° ” x ‘ . s “ °' . ” ' “ “ _ @ ” п :: : :: :i аз i: ‘f :: i: Н и . и Ц */ Н - „ sqa . :‘ Юн - б - " o " . “ " . по “ ,’ ’ “ . " ‘д “ iofx " . ” х !‘ “ “ . ” “ §Í “ . ” " " . “ " °` . ” “ " . ” ;\Ьоге ргпкж based on oak ortńrch. y ther ds “ " . " extnl state return or thickness of pilaster. Авох'в prices svbject то discovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the headingr exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at saine price. t n¿i)ecorators svpplv c greek ionr; erechthevm colvmn. " , , i * . -»u wll¢|\¢' ~\"' . ‘$ . ’ h- г; "Ёж ,à _ i. {in} ’ _-‘u k* eulaster' fj: А. „¿f§/f`ì ` а: . ‘,.vxv'twvï ` ‘ i. i i:\ůsl­\ŕlynâ\h\m\­i- ,i "`. ‘u’ мЦ”ё›д greek antal ihlaster. either of the above two pilaster caps can be used with the column Сар. instrvctions and explanation page . io the decorators svpply co. ` y com mn. ` y ` ч ‹ y’ ч à г— rai ilrior. ii\ i ilrior. Минная. diameter. height. prices. (fdr natvrai. woon finish.) cies. «§ n es. >i . eat-l . '. f . a. с : . : g . ‘ . n nl l l s ` l \ lr di \iit ~r h ht prilfs ian }í “ ¢ ” . " n inches. }§ nches. $ . eaph. ‘c lt ‘l / ll ‘ ‚‘ Ó \ n ‘ . n @ m . an п м н n п и . и ~ и tiri н _ и „ ia/ м alli-'_ Н и n Ó h -on n , - Ю - an " mm “ . " n “ " . " ‘\ it l О _.' ‘l _ ‘l n / § ._ ‘ n & ‘ h@ . ‘ ‘i ‘l ll il Ч l( С an b@ u . n . '_ v «t _' l; _ an ' / и А. "f н ‘l n l ‘t '@ ‘t . n p; . ,lq ‘ . п san % f я . ” n - u / ‘ ’ «s ’ и и Ón ‘l tl il , / lí ‘ ‘l ¿n “ ‘l h ‘n д " . o “ an f " »i' ." it l / «t ‘\ / n ‘l З as n §§ . n o . an i “ “ . ” n " / “ .­o ” q v l и sn/ st n it э n as . ioan “ ‘{ “ . “ n “ “ . “ n “ “ . ” n “ °‘ . ” n o “ i §§ “ . ” an “ g “ . ” n “ “ . ” n “ ‘i’ “ . “ above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods % n o “ )/ “ . " extra. ` yr \ t' itÄ i erior. interior. nvmher. “Читы. height. prices. (por natvrai. woon finish.) ipn inches. % inches. . each. nvmher width. height. prices. iapn §á “ bń “ . ” pn inches. ìí nches. $ . each. pn “ / “ . " pn lf “ ' . " “ , si и / и _ н ‚ , и ilu/ì’ п ì н . m. sÁ , . m` f . pn “ " . “ pn }; “ Чд ” . ” .mw % “ з'ё " . “ горы “ ‘s " ­ и px Н и l с: зорх h н и ^pn -’ / И s ” . " m' " ” `%. u spn ” ' , “ . “ зги . " sîìâ ” . “ ‘l l\ (t «t (l in ` , l п l и .. ` ` y н а f и _ _ п Ópa o . дыры }; . ‘s ‘t ‘l ‘a п ъ px ii н _’ и . _ и q %/ п :/ в: о и pn, н / и à и дёрч ‘ н н Ó п А \, a н ¿ig/ п п e) f q п . / и п oap. д i . о in „e . h (l tl ioapn i: gli °‘ . " iipn oßg “ . Н i pn “ ioßá “ . ” pn " “ . “ i pn o “ izëá “ . ” apn “ ;@ “ . " iqpn " " . “ . . ipn и iÓ ’ и _ o и above prices based oak or birch. any other woods % pn “ }{ “ . ” ЁХЁПЪ state return or thickness of pilaster. creer ani.»fh,-pilaster. exterior. in ierior. nvmber. width. height. prices. (for natvrai. wooo finish.) n s mches- , lnchcs- $ . each. Хитин. width. height. prices. n } “ hìô “ .so “ n inches. ihginches. $ . each. n Ó и '/ Н ‚(о u n i/ h i ,-/ Н . Н , н ás н ) и / и н п Ь . n i/ß . n н и - и n н и . и n у}; “ уё “ . “ n “ iâ( " . ” io н м . м n sl/é/ н :%‹% и . и n “ “ . ” n Ó " zßá “ . ” Х “ kg “ . “ n ófí " li “ . ” (an i“ “ i “ . ” n ­ “ ” “ . ” .. И .. ä g .. .gw .g .. .. ¿o .. ‘ . ( a k ' n ( ч Ó п / п а н ‚ п gl? п п ) . i n _ . ; ‘ . ‘ ,Ä io b .so ian i ` . ‘ n " “ . ” n o “ “ . ” n " sii “ . ” n “ }; " . ” iove prùxß based on oak orlmrch. . }'otheroods @ ll (l n ii . " extra. state return or thickness of pilaster. above prices svbject to discovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the head of exterior can also he furnished for interior plaster ñnish at same price. rl`iie decorators svpply c . greek ionic. erechthevm. . _ wir’ y ‚ « " о ­­ А r . rar' ч r "- :и — " Ч? — «vv *'f ‘ *_ ' ' f " /l ' \ v y . _ . ‘v .. ` ‘r ‘ \ — _ ‚ . —’ i \ мы» ‘fà ‚ ‘l l’ ’ .. ~ y . . er* _ \ "l А “- в colvmn. . l r " / l n y .` ` ‘ Дамттёпм‘й“ -- i, .i pilaster. greek ante " “ “f 'mc-ui“ ‘ i" ia ­ »il ’ ' d pilasters. either of the above two pilaster caps can be used with column caps. instvarions and explanation page . t e decorators svpplv С . apollo i) >\«’.\ .»vs. coinmn. l'- .\ii rior. intilrior. nvmber. imameter. thmont. lüuces (nuzxsrvral~woodiunnul) inches. c inches. ` . each. Мишки. diameter. iieigiit. prices. ' С‘ h' . . u — inches. § nches. s . c>each. u / и _ _, u d ,. Ó “ _ “ .‹ _ u u ‚‚ ‚‚ Í . s “ “ “ ’- ь‘ / (б _ _ “ h' А lo Í до § “ . “ “ “ . “ :xbove {nices innuxi on (udc or inick. ;\пу other wooiis, ,? extra. ’ ..-\s' ‘ «;r. iiÄterior. interior. iÑvmber. \vidth. phnght. ihuces. (for natvr^l`w d fuushÖ Ó inches_ дтсЬез. . о(%идъ Г\гхп‹нк. \idtil tienìut. Íprices. “ “ . “ . inches §§inches. . each. u / u ,_ a ,__ ь; u _, ц . „ Ó - n( i и . и n' % и . и “ i “ “ “ “ oo “ “ ' " “ ­. “ . . д// \Ь че prmes based on oak or inrch. ; y other ivoods % extra. Литвы stator. (Íoinmn. pilaster. ­ exterior. exterior. nvmber. ihnmeter. phngut. prmes. nvmber. \vnnur thmght. prmhh. inches. íinches. . nud ioinches. íinches. s .cœ>each. “ “ . “ _ “ “ . “ ' “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ ( “ . “ “ “ . “ state return or thickness of pilaster. .\bove ihuces svbject to ihscovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. i Íiheidecorators svpply co. colvmn. exterior. interior. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. (for natvral wood finish) inches, , / / inches, , @ach nvmber. diameter. height. prices. a % “ iâ “ i . “ % inches. ‘ inch. . each. “ % “ . “ “ % inches. . “ a % “ % “ . “ % “ “ . “ “ , / “ . “ “ iffg “ . “ % “ “ . “ % “ ; “ . “ “ И; ‘i i n i “ И “ . “ “ % “ . “ % “ “ , “ “ " . “ “ % “ . “ % “ % . % “ i; - “ “ ё=ё “ - % “ . оо “ % “ “ . “ “ ’ ,/ “ , “ “ % “ . “ % “ % " . “ “ % “ . “ “ “ . “ “ % “ . “ “ % “ . “ “ % “ . “ io “ % “ . “ “ ` “ . “ a “ “ . “ “ % “ . “ “ e/g “ . “ “ “ . “ above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods % extra. ihlaster. 'exterior interior. nvmber. width. heigiit. prices. (for nati'ral wood finisii) тема % inches_ $ each. ni'miier. width. height. prices. А % “ ( ) “ i _oo “ % inches. Н inch. so . each. “ % “ i ° is “ “ % inches. . “ a % “ % “ . “ % "i “ i-oo “ “ “ . “ “ “ - “ % “ “ . “ . % “ и l a “ , “ . “ “ % “ i » u % “ % “ ­ s “ % " ’­’ iii “ i ­ “ “ “ . “ u .kÃ/ “ i ­ “ % “ % “ . “ % “ % “ . a “ , / ; “ . “ “ % “ . “ % “ “ . “ “i ‘if/ u - a “ % “ . “ / “ ‘if/Í “ - io “ “ ?/ “ . " “ и “ - a “ “ . “ q “ u - и i и % “ . и то “ , “ . о “ “ / “ . “ a “ “ . “ “ }{ “ . “ _ . и ,á a . и ao\'e cprices based on oak or birch. any other “ u . o u woods o ,fc extra. state return or thickness of lpilaster. above prices svbject to discovx'r. .\ capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at saine price. ТНЕ ВЕСОКАТОКБ svpply Со. i colvmn. Сорушснтвв nv Тнп Ввсокм'ояз svrply Со. greek angvlar ionlc. minerva polias. Сопкюнтвп by Тнв dbconm-oks svpply cn, pilaster. ixstvatons and explanation page . the decorators Биты co. y coin m a. exterior. interior. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. (for natvral wood finish.) mîhes' meuheb' °°° eŕffh' nvmber. diameter. height. prices. a }á éí . . . _ a „ i. „o a inch. nches . oeach. ` § a ê a ¿o a iliinches. “ . “ “ “ . “ " “ s " / с; / .. .. lá " “ . “ a- & ql - o ' „ .. . .. y ‘‚/ ‘s _ h' ` ' . d ° / ¿u / »s и А и }: в. «s ,!/ . a i r . „ yí j . ° y i Ъ. l_/ ‘ и / t Ó ‘t q - t. А А ,-- . _’ .. „' д _o .. “ i “ . ” ssÍ ,/ „ / „ " o() io c. . . i.' â i [ , с i .oo _ a „ f „ ‚ _ и ; " ‘ . " "l _ is n ¿t i» u .a h ‘ в п _', . - _ “ ‘ . в i i/ м ’o и l .f “ Ь “ . „ } . ‚ о „ is и i.' . ; .i io i . iÓ и a o „ oo “ ` “ . “ и “ ¿s . .a “ §{ “ . “ (i ¿i o “ “ . “ above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods %i extra. exterior. interior. nvmber. width. height. prices. (for natvral wood finish.) ШЁЁЮЕ“ meines' si ' eadl' nvmber. width. height. prices. А - " . .,. a и }/ и i „o a inch. nginches. si.u each. и а i ¿o a ikáinches. “ . “ ' ‚_(" n Í h' - t» a a u . i. , i h /, ‘ . u и q и . „ , / »g . a ` u _ . u ` . i ч ° a i ' в. ;/ i.' ` с. — " % “ о - “ ‘ l - Э * ' Э (g u _y в. ч _ c. a lí “ ­ illí “ . " ‘“ ‘ д i . "д ‘ и i a . a î §á § . n ‘l _ s ‚_ s l „o ь l .i и « « зч э и __ з и h ¿t u д ад n чдб “ h . a i /" ` i ' . ‘ / “ ‘ Ó о ‘s (ь ь ‚’ a . О т ёв . _ i 'i/ „ Ó „ ii ¿i iïsá a . и А l l io/-g .oo “ }( “ . “ Ё “ / ü b-sn “ и ‘ _ . i. o ‘ :y ‘ . ‘ i a и и . ' Ы и “ is и a io_ a . И / ( ` ` ‘Ь l . “ “ . “ ‘ “ ( ¿á o . .a “ ( “ . “ q , и ‚_, . О (i § o “ î // “ . “ ‘ “ l( ¿i above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods %l extra. state return or thickness of pilaster. above prices svbject to discovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the headingr exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. lìniijecorators svp?ly СО. state. return or thickness f pilaster. exterior. СОЦ’МХ. interior. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. (for nan-ral wood finish.) . i/ . А ЁИ meres' ” “ ?“ nvii-iber. diameter. height. prices. и % и i до и inches. / inch. ` $ . eauch. a % и % и _ и i “i rfi-È inches. . к “ “ . “ / u i?? u - о “ a “ “ . “ c@ / „ a ' и „ и и “ }q . l % ­ y s . f) к и и a и « t и i. i u ­­ / “ . so “ u , и _o и , (‚% А % “ % “ “ . Ó % Ó'oo ц a / и „ Ь . .»" ' so ,_ м l u _ и u _ / «a l . io d;~ ' _ io i. „ g u и “ , “ . " ’ / ° “ “ . “ о “ “ . “ А “ “ . “ “ % “ . “ “ g “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ ‘ “ % “ . “ al'iove prices liiisetl n oak т . any other “ “ . “ “ТКмЪ С% ехгпъ exterior. РПАЬТЬК- interior. nvmber. width. height. prices. nymiier. width. height. prices. ? inches. ,’/ inches. . each ? inches. i inch si . each. a? }á “ §§ “ . " ? “ iîáinches. . “ ? “ §§ “ . “ ? }§ ” / “ . “ ООАР % “ /{ “ . “ ? “ / “ . “ ? h “ . ” ? " “ . ” ' О АР } “ ëg ‘“ . “ ? “ §á “ . “ ? “ % “ . “ ? }ъ “ “ . “ АР } “ }§ " . ? “ ” . “ ? “ §§ “ . ” ? “ “ . “ АР % “ % . " р “ “ - “ о Р “ “ - “ ? то “ “ - “ ? “ §i§ “ . “ ? “ ” . “ ? “ ” . ” ? “ “ . “ a? “ % “ . “ ? “ §á “ . ” ? “ }§ “ . ” ? “ “ . ” ? “ , ;Í “ . “ above prices based n oak r birch. any other ? “ % “ . “ woods % extra. ? “ “ j . “ state return r thickness f pilaster. romanÍdorr; i exterior. pilaster. interior. nvmiier. width. height. prices. (for natvral wood finish.) Ó inch€ ­ % inches- si ~ еж“- nvmber. width. height. prices. “ % “ - inches. inch. . each. ç f i-Öo f “ §§inches. . “ u Í n - “ }{ “ “ . “ “ . / “ - “ o “ ,.'/ “ . “ ii u n - “ }á “ § “ . “ i “ “ - u “ §§ “ . “ и “ u И ( и . “ А “ “ о-оо “ ; ò “ “ . .“ “ @sá “ то “ “ “ . “ “ “ “ “ и _ “ “ }§ “ i “ lo “ âgé и . и “ “ . “ " ‚ ­ , ъ „ d l ­ t ‚ h i/ „ н оке prices )ase n oak or birch. any other "* ' woods % extra. above prices svrject t discovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also he furnished for interior plaster ñnish at same price. t НЕ decorators svpply co. rqman ionic. marcellvs. pilaster. roman doric. pilaster. either of the above two pilastcr caps shown сап be used with column Сар. instrvctions and explanation page . the decorators svpply Со. constantin exterior. colvmn. pilaster. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. nvmber. width. height. prices. % inches. inches. $ . each. % inches. inches. $ . each. n н б‘оо n . с. ¿i % “ “ s % " - " % “ % “ - “ % " % “ % “ s “ . “ % " s “ . “ state return or thickness of pilaster. septimvs severvs. exterior. colvmn. pilaster. nvmeer. diameter. height. prices. nvmber. width. height. prices. inches. % inches. $ . each. inches. sëfá inches. s . each. “ % “ . “ ." % " . “ “ € “ . “ “ " . “ “ % “ . “ “ % . “ “ a “ . “ " . “ state return ' thickness of pilaster. above prices svbject то discovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. above furnished in exterior or plaster only. n twheidecorators svpply co. colvmn. exterior. interior. nvmber. diameter. height prices. (for тупим“ wood finish') inches. “а inches. . each. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. “ и . и inches. ;/ inches. ~$ . each. “ % “ . “ “ % “ - “ a “ % “ “ “ % “ - “ io “ % “ . “ a “ “ ~ ‘i “ “ . “ “ % “ » “ a “ “ . “ io “ Á ‘i - a i “ “ _ @ “ “ , ; “ . “ “ % “ . “ i ‘i ‘i i ­ и a “ % “ . “ “ “ . “ “ % “ . “ “ “ . “ “ % “ . “ above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods % extra. ihlaster. exterior. interior. nvmber. width. height. prices. y (Гон natvral wood finish') inches. % inches’ $ .ю ежи. invmber. width. height. prices. и и . и inches. % inches. $ . each “ % “ “ - :is/ê “ - “ a “ % “ . “ n % “ ­i° u “ щ “ . “ А “ “ “ и / и , s " % “ ~ “ i и io и . и n “ “ “ „и “ . i “ / “ . “ a “ % “ . “ и и — “ “ “ . “ “ % “ . “ “ / “ . o “ “ % “ . ‘ above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods % extra. state return or thickness of pilaster. above prices svbject то discovnt. АН capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster ñnish at same price. timiidecorators svpply co. д colvmn. copyrighted ey the decorators svpply Со. roman doric. diocletian. a: Г _y,” Ут)'!т)” )т)т’ ‘Юттштттхюптем-‚ш. п.ю‚юттжтш‚м„ ‚ .......... i ` - \il?'ìßwwel'wnîfhfüwßfmfiß'nfw 'i Ёжик/т ‚г шцшщиишимр . . ‘ if?. w??? . А ‚ ц ` ~ ` ‘_. ` ' ’ _ И e ­ ‘s .:­ mi; z Ё i? > Ч . ‚ _j „ . ‚ ‚. г «~ m — y а А. y wf’. _ В d. ` copyrighted 'av the decoratorsisvpply co. ‚Г? rexford new/comm pilastern „о____„„„ instrvctions and explanation page . ц п ЭЕСОКАток svpply Со. colvmn. exterior. interior. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. (for natvral wood finish.) o inches. inches. $ . each nvmher. diameter. height. prices. % u s'Óo u inches. % inches. $ . each. д. f и d ’ ю u '” „ '°° „ % “ . “ и i l и . ú п к . a ‘t i / l и . “ и “ _оо и i и ‘ . ‘i n и iÓ и ‘ . и и io/llá и . u . h и ПИ и . и “ % “ . “ above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods % extra. pilaster. exterior. interior. nvmber. width. height. prices. (for nÀtvral wood finish) inches. % inches. $ . each. nvmber. width. height. prices. soi и ilyî ‘ inches. % inches. $ . each. u . и и ' % и _ u ‘ . ‘ и % и . и ` l и " ‘ а к к i / / н u b .; k ° i .. ”И . '°° .. “ , / ’ “ - “ iÓ и ./ “ . ‘ u loll/b н . u % ' “ i% “ . “ “ }ё “ . “ above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods % extra. state return or thickness of pilaster. above prices svbject то discovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. . t НЕ decorators svpply co. СОЦ/МЫ. exterior. interior. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. _ (for nati'ral wood finish) % inches % inches. . each nvmber. diameter. height. prices. “ “ . “ inch. â/g inch. $ . each. a % “ % “ . “ % inches. {Ё . “ . o “ “ , “ . “ “ % nches. . “ % " % “ . “ % “ iâá “ . “ % “ . “ “ / “ % “ “ . “ % ” % “ . “ “ % “ . “ " “ . “ % “ , ( “ . “ % “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ ‘з ‘ . % “ % " . “ % “ ' % “ . “ “ . “ ” / / “ . ” % “ ” . “ a ‘ “ “ . “ ” % “ . “ “ “ . “ “ , ” . “ a ?/ u i Ц . “ “ % “ . “ “ “ . :‘ “ % “ . “ .А % “ % ‘i . о f a “ “ . “ “ ‘ . ‘ “ “ ' . “ “ %/ ” “ ” ” . ” “ “ . “ “ ' “ . “ “ % “ . “ a “ пи, “ . “ i “ % “ . “ “ % “ . “ “ h; :‘ . ‘i ” % “ . “ “ ‘l . Ь “ % “ . “ ‘l Н . u “ “ . “ . ‘ % _ . “ % ” . “ above prices based on oak or blrch. any other woods % extra. pilaster. exterior. interior. nvmber. width. height. prices. (for natvral wood finish) % inches~ % inches- $°- ° each nvmber. width. height. prices i n ­ % u - Ц inch И; inch. $ . each. a % " % Ц — “ % inches. т “ . о " Н % н Н “ % inches. . “ i % и % u i~ Ц % “ iâ/g “ . “ Н % u i- Н “ % " . “ % u И - и % “ % “ . “ n % Н . Н “ % “ . “ % u % И i~ и % “ / “ . “ Н н Н h / “ “ % н % n - Н % “ % “ . “ Н Ó ‘l h “ % “ . “ i % Н Н - Н А % “ “ . “ io u h . И “ “ . и Н % И - u a % “ /( “ . “ ” % h . “ “ % “ . “ “ % ” - ” А % “ % “ - “ a i Н % Н - Н “ " . “ iÓ И io И - Н “ % “ . “ Н ios/ h . Ц ” “ “ u iii- Н - н “ % “ . “ a “ / “ . " “ % “ . ” b ” ‘ ” . ” “ o /é Н “ l Ц Н . ” “ “ . “ “ / “ . " “ пои “ . “ Ц ” . “ “ “ . “ o “ % ” . ” above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods % extra. state return or thickness f pilaster. above prices svßject to discovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. the decorators svpply Со. cou/mn. copyrighted ey the decorators svpi'ly Со. modern ionic. ` semi-classic. copyrighted ey Тнв degorators svpply co. pilaster. instrvctions and explanation page . ij в ri`he decorators svrply co. cou/'ii х. -e.\ thor. interior, nvmber. diameter. height. prices. Т (ШК Äatwral “ood finish') _ _ l Хитин. diameter. height. prices. io » i . ' ‘ s. .-. f .. . .- - io i à / cÚ € ;/ s@ ‘s’ @mil inch. % inches. $ . each. f _”f - u i А " i l то; f a ¿iâ “ д % inches. iy'á ‘ . “ ’- r’ . О .. ‚ и u ‘s los, a ‘i ; ‘c í и ‘ % . _ . / . \ Í и â -./ . . . “ i-so ь- . ‚- в‘ ‚, v/ а ..- — ‘ // « ‚., i s / »sê/‘ì i 'go д _` _ u (С? u. 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' for natvral wood finish. nvmber. width. height. prices. . y( ) .\'\'.\ ber. width. height. prices. “ — % “ - si -oo @afb i i inch. i И inches. . each. i x l Í “ - ,l inches. , “ . “ А l - “ % “ ` . “ “ % “ i ­ " % “ l “ - u ii А i “ “ “ u i ­ sÁ u “ . ‘í % ‘ . “ Ó i.Óo “ “ i “ % “ ~ / “ n “ _ и ’ " _ u lq@ a - u , i . ii ` / “ «Из - l % “ /; “ . “ ii Ó " - °° “ .( “ i “ ..._ u i ‚ “ ` ; . . i . - % “ (if/ ‘ . “ и i и _’. h’ ` / Á . Ó и “ ° О “ “ l ‘° . “ i “ - “ а ‘~' ugg qy u _ ’ u o) u a % u ‚ь; u . u Ói . o “ i ‘ -- “ . / ‘ _"' ._ n' / и и Ó и ‚ и до u a ’i Á ., ' izo u . i - l “ % “ . “ u _, и ‘ и ]/ u . ‘s a % “ % “ . “ ‘l // ~ “ “ . “ i ° , / " . “ “ / “ o “ Ц n ¿l . › l] l iÓ “ . l . () il “ % a . u м - “ “ “ . “ d , / u . “ i a “ iÓ “i ч u .. u . ' i“ ` ; А u . А - u i “ % “ . “ ” * В l / к - ‚ “ “ . “ u x ь ,_ д " xi u ( ' ì“ ­ “ ‘ % “ . /o ‘ ` ‘d )- “ “ % “ . “ / y - above prices based on oak or birch. .~ _\’ other woods гос; extra. state return or thickness of pilaster. above prices svbject to discoynt. all capitals and brackets lisie<l unfler the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. the decorators svpply СО. .:__‘_‚ ..v":v._xvy _. . - - _ è»- > _,..- _ Соьумх. copyrighted bv - Тип Внсокпокз svpply Со. modern n c, with мкм. empire. copyrighted sv Тнв Овсомтокз svpply Со. ЁЧЬАЗТЕК. instva'rloxs and_explanat n page . ТНЕ decorators svpply Со. italian renaissa nce ion ic. pellegrini. colvmn. pilaster. italian renaissance compgsite. bernardino. СОЦ/МЫ. pilaster. instva'rions and explanation page . timiidecorators svpply co. Ñ __„_ colvmn. „_ > lÄihrior. iin ПАНОВ. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. ­ (for .\'at\’r.\l wood finish.) «- l ` ‚/ i ‘ ` о- v ПСПЕЬ- Ё ПСЬЭЬ- б -эс’еасм- Ххжлвнн. Ъпдхпггнк. iieight. prices. и ’ h __ t» l _ _ a j _ / _ + m i _ i inch. f nch. . each. i “ ` / a f? „ ["o „ пспез. já “ ‚ “ ~ ­ l i.i ъ .. f- . д si/ u hä _ ’o ilginches. . ‘ , в . i _q „д: „ i » „ i __ a °@ Ó “ § " С '/ ё i 'qd « в / „ ;> i ' h@ ' - “ c; / u .§ _ - ‘o _ / ' ‘° . ёэ zi ß öff _ ' _ ` }j “ . “ i `j­ _ _lll/ i. _ /é’ ii h i i .? „ "° g “ - “ . q_, _il .. i` i. а i. . i ( d / Ь o . io u _ i _i n _ i. o э . О ii _, ‚о i. “ < g " i „ ,“ ‘ д'д ._ .i h : ; n ­' _ _ l@ ' Зад ‘ . “ n _. n и ь. ь. Ё / ‘_ '] n ‘ / " “ ‘ . „ % „ Ó „ / О í n .o h n Í/ . ' in i _ii . _ î „ . ' / ,. i. _l_ .. __ i. _) i и _ / ( О i. q Э s 'id : ii ). i. l ()[ ­\ Ё i ‘i o-so n u ‘_ u i. n и i u / __ ¿ ' n ii " ‘; “ . “ i / ' i () i', n l u i "О h ‘s ioiÍ/ n'. [_ и °' i °/ i ‘s’ .i l. n / u и . . “ ;{ " . " “ & “ . “ “ ‘Á " -oo " “ с. и А i . . . _ ii Ó i _ i\h ve inices based cui oak cn'lnrch. .Än\' other . l (ч t ‚ _ .. __ .. oois ~ ex ra. . “ ...oo ii „__ inlaster. _ _ liÄlerior. ii\ thior. nvmber. width. height. prices. (for natyrai. wood finish.) ° - - О â anheï ‘îílnche so-qoeach­ nkhiheh. \yidth. läeight. prices ' ‘ «a “ . “ . . -° i д i u if „ h i inch. та ппЛ . . с›еаСЬ. .А / / . i/ . _‚ “ _ _ _ -f „ _ „ , inches. yg . '/ - д _. i. {и ~ ‘ .. i __ l/ _, __ , i в n ches. . sÁ i; i ‘ .i .. i i. y. i. “ ‘ ‚ _ _ „ . ‘ - _q i. / i. i. “ l u h l §l О i / i . / / - ~ ’ . f ’ ‘°"Э .... / ь. _, i. _ _. / и _ i. . . l / Г- д _ i .. / i. _, i. i и i/ м _ a idlz . ,/ l _, .l [/ n ‘n `_„ ‘Ь i# / «­ - .. Íwgn ‘ / . >ъ . \„‘ u __ и _ “ " , .i , .. ‚ __ .. ‹ . Á i ' d _ _ _ i/ n Í/ в. "'_ ‘s _ . и i/ и и i­Öa ' ‚ч’ i. ;.’ i. i. _ i “ , и _ _ _ — . д - / з --io _ _ , „ _ / i i a / i „ , / ‚ g . / .< ‘ .. " i i. i ` И ii ­/ `› ; / ' ” . ‘ i ‘l/ i _ „ ` i f ii i/ и и iss() , , . ~ _, ._ _ "' i / a ` „ . . ~ i / i. i. ` и i „ ` . \ / è@ , ` l ii i ’ м ` о. ‘­ ii _.,i i. _ Ó_ .. о h. . b- д ` i/ e Äi/ “ — -— “ ‘l ‘if’ ‘ь ’ . \ о "s is _ i. ` / i.' ` ` i. ` и и ` „ ?; . iÓ ' ` i. ` / ii ` ii ` “ ii' ц ‘Í i ь \ (ь н w ‘i и l „ н óìf . . i l i :i i i„ oo i / д ` f -" i.. “ ‘ . “ ‘ Ч a “ ' “ . “ “ “ . “ “ ёё “ . “ . “ “ . “ - \ ‘t _ t. - s ‘ i iÓ /- i\h ve inaces lnuxxl on (ndt or lnrch. .Àrnr other ‚. и _ ii в. ' - ivoods €@ extra. state return or thickness of püaster. ixhove phuces sybject to ihscovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also he furnished for interior plaster finish at. same price. ТНЕ ВЕСОКАТОКБ svpply СО. colvmn. italian­ renaissance Íonic. scamozzi. q, i .;`\ &.\ \ copyrighted by the daconnons svpply cn. pilaster. instrvctions and explanation page . the decorators svpi-)lv С . colvmn. pilaster. with festoons with festoons exterior. interior. exterior. interior. nvm- price with nvu- priceiiith nvai- price with nvm- price with eer' diagfi. height festoons her d . height feetoon her wiiith iieii;ht festoons ber width height festoons ? in. i/áln. $ . oea. ? in. д nr $ . oca. ? in. . $ . ea. ? in. % hl $о. са. ? ” ' ” . ” ? ' ” n ” . ” ? ” ' ‘ . ” ' ” дв" . “ a? ” ‘ " . ” ? ” ‘н ” . ” a? }, " ‘‚ " . ” ? ï ' “ ‚ ; " ? " s " . ” ? ' ” ‘а" . ” ? " g " ‚ " ? " " , “ ? “ ' " . ” ? ” ” . " ? ' " ' ” . ” ? ” ” . “ ? ” " . ” ? ' " u . ” ? ” ” . ” ? " " . " ? Ь “ ” . Ü ? ” ' ” . ” ? '; ” ' ” . ” ? ” ' " , “ ? " ” . “ ? _ ' “ ' “ . " ? " " . " ? ' “ ’ " . ” ? " ßí “ . “ ? " " . " ? ' ” ' " . " ? “ “ . " ? ” " . “ ? ” з'н “ . “ ? “ ‘к ” . ” ? ” ‘ " . “ ? " и . ? х '» x . ï ? 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" ‘ “ ” above prices baâed on oak or birch. any other woods % extra. above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods % extra. . . btate return of thickness of Р э‚_ ‘. . . colvmn. pilaeter. .y f p `  i ГН drops. \»\"l i Н drops. exterior. interior. exterior. interior. nvm- price хиты nm- price with nv.“- price with nvm- price with ber iham. iiehhh` drovs ber inah. henurr drops her vvhwh ihnght drops eer vvuan height drops in, iljin, $ . a, in. % l $ . oea. in. : . . еа. in. % l . . ” ‘ ” . ” i'í ” s“ . “ ” 'Í " . ” ” ?ъ ” . ” А " ' " . " ” '? " . " ad ' " ' " . ” ” ' " . ” " :fs ” . " 'í " ' " . “ " ” . ” >á ” ” . ” “ l? “ . ” " ” . “ p ' ” '? ” . ” “ ” . ” ' “ " . “ " ” . ” ” " . " ” ” . " ” ” . ” " ' n . И ‘ " ” . ” ” ” . “ in ' ” “ « . “ ’s “ ‘ " . ” " ' “ . ” " '“ . ” lá" j ” . " ” °' . ” ‘ ” ' ” . ” ” “ . " " " . " ” в" . h ” " . ” ” '? ” . " sfá ” “ . " ” '» ” - " ' " ” . ” " ' “ . ” " ‘ ” . " ” ‘ " . n ' u sÍ? ” . ” ” х" . “ / ” ” . " ” ” . ” ' " ” . ” " ; " . ” “ ” ` . ” ' ” " . " " ” . ” “ ' " . ” ” ?в " . ” ” н ” . " ’ " " . “ " " . " " ' ” . ” ” ‘ ” . ” " ' " . ”_ s'á ” ; " , " ” ” - . o ” ” '? ” . " ” “ . " “ 'т " . ” " ' " . “ a ' ” " . ” " ' ” . " " " . “ ” x ” . ” ” ‘ " . “ ” " . ” “ ‘ " . " " ” ” ” ' " . " ". ” . ” ” ‘ ” . ” ” " . “ ” " . ” ” ” . ” “ " . " " ” . ” ” " . " ” " . " ” бдн" . " " ” ” ° " '? . " " ” . " " ” " " " . ” a “ " . ” " '; ” . ” ” }; ” . " " " “ ” ' ” . “ ‘ " " . " . А ” ” . ” ‘ “ ” . ” " ” . " " “ . “ ” ! ” . " above prices babed on oak or birch. any other woods c; extra. above prices basel on oak or birch: any other woods % extra. state return of thickness of pilaster. above prices sveject то discovnt. ll capitals and brackets listed under the head of exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster ñnisli at same price. t НЕ decorators svpply Со. italian renaissance iÚnic scamozzi. colvmn. with festoons. Р ЬА ТЕ r. with festoons. colvmn. with drops. pilaster. with drops. instrvctions and explanation page . ’viie decorators svppin С . c<>i,\'.\ii\’. hxterior. interior. eon natvral'wood fnusu. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. ( ) . ,. nnaiher. i)l\meter. iìennvl prices. inches. g inches. si. c>each. iÓl a “ “ _@@ “ i inch. iêöinches $ . each. “ " _ о “ псЪез. “ . “ o' и ,_ n д n И ‘É i. _ (б )-) , -., / э - f ‚ _. ._ ,’ п / u и a “ " . } . “ “ _ @ “ " j@ “ . “ i ц n п (в Í “ А “ . iÓÖi ? о в; qs: .. З . и u . и } “ “ . “ ”; " “ . “ ‚ n \ м _ С‘ “ “ “ . ÓÖ - ‚ , “ u ) _ ,_ `,/ n ч a/ ь‘ ¿d a “ ' ­­ iÓÖd д”: ‚ . / l э i “ “ . " б " “ . “ ‚ _' , n n _ f’ и и ‘c “ ув . / ‘ б._о ‚ ' ‚_ .. ,j ь; ,_ a a “ “ . " @sb - , ~. д ' ‘w и is _ и “ .‘ . ‘ Ö -/ / и о ‹ н ~/ ц a “ i . ‘ io %' “ -/ i “ “ . " “ “ . “ “ } “ . “ “ “ - “ above prices l'iased on oak or birch. any other oods c; extra. pilaster. (von natvral~wood fnusn. nvmber. width. ‘ height. prices. ) . ,. Ахжпппь `“Ч тн. ЪПпспт. ihuces inches. lginchcs. $ . uńr и í ß ,_ @ ß inch. lìáinches. $ . emch. .“ “ . “ l пспеэ. “ . о “ “ “ . “ Т “ % “ - “ ., ‚ _ ,_ n' t' ь‘ хрбА „ “ p “ l “ m % % ‘ . _, ‘i “ ‘Ö “ “ . i. “ @ . a “ “ . “ " §Í “ — “ “ $ё “ . “ “ “ - “ j “ ‘ì ‚_ .ì и / n' w h' А “ . » -Öo “ “ . “ “ " io “ a “ “ . “ “ / n n i o и % и и и d . i _, _, l,/ s.' i( ‚.. ‘ “ “ . “ /- - . ‚ ‚ч ì _ n " “ _ a “ “ . “ и . - . э и а _, i “ “ . “ ­Öb i “ “ . “ “ " io. “ “ “ . “ “ “ - “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ - above prices based on oak or birch. any other voods c@ extra. state return r thickness of pilaster. \ßove ihuces sveject то ihscovxt. all capitals and brackets listed under the her-uling exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. ЧЧЫ ЭЕСОКАТОНБ svpply СО. и colvmn. copyrighted by Тнв Ввсомтокз svpply co. italian renaissance corinthian. sansovino. copyrighted bv Тпн Овсомтояз svpply co. ЪЧЬАБТЕН. instryctions and explanation page . ЧЧЫЕПЭЕСОКАТОКБ svpply c . (Хижжпш exterior. штыкюк ГЧчмввк. ЕЛАМЕТЕК. llßunrn lüucßs. (РОК natvral wood рюпзнд inches_ líinches. _ (лц ъ ХХжаннк. i)l meter„ iÍehsht. prices. “ “ _@@ “ inch. iëöinches. $ . mch. “ }; “ . “ l incbcs. “ , “ “ “ , “ “ “ . “ А % “ . ” “ . но “ . , / “ . “ “ “ . " “ g “ “ А } “ " _ @ “ " i( “ . “ “ : “ . " " & “ . “ х “ " . “ n iÍ “ - u “ “ . “ n “ -„ и А % “ ”ё? " - “ % " % “ “ “ “ _ @ “ “ “ “ “ “ . " ` о “ . “ А “ Ъ “ _ “ “ : “ . “ “ ;{ _“ . “ ‘ “ - “ “ о} “ . “ “ “ - и “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ - “ above prices based n oak r birch. any other xvoods } extra. inlastur. exterior. interior. Ínvmber. vvhhwl ' ЪПЫонт. Лисв& чл<ХАТУКАь‹шООПХЦХП”Ъ) _ _ nvmher. \vhnwl ЪЫпснт. ЕЛЫСЕ$ inches. nches. $ . oexuńr и и ‚. ß inch. ißâinches. $ . fxuńr .“ “ _ “ iyíinches. “ _ö@ “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ a “ “ . " / “ “ - u “ }§ “ . . “ “ “ . “ a “ “ . “ " “ - ü “ ёё “ . “ “ “ - “ А }{ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ d “ - u А “ ;( “ . “ § “ “ - u “ “ . “ “ “ - “ “ “ . “ “ “ - “ a “ “ . " “ ' “ - к “ “ . “ “ “ - a “ то}; “ . “ " “ - a “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ - above prices based n oak or birch. any other vvoods % extra. state rcturn or thickness oflaüaster. ;\bove ihncus siject то ihscovxt. all capitals and brackets listed under the beadingr exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. t i-i e dectmif-vroas Биты Со. col .v.\i n. exterior. .nvmber. ihameter. ihught. Ркпчъ. inches. §inches. . œu “ }{ “ . “ “ “ . " “ }: “ . “ “ “ . “ furnished in exterior and plaster only. " l m/ii n. ext erior. interior. for natvral wood fhhsh. nvmber. imameter. thmgnt. Ркшвз. ( ) . /. _ nvmeer. imameter. thmght. Рацию. inches. loyzinches. . each. “ “ б_ и nchcs. y nches. . c each. ’ " it ‘ь “ h a ° a “ . ‘ З - . f (в и u %; “ . , “ ‘ / _ @ _ ¿n ¿c ‘t “ “ ` . “ - “ “ . “ h “ . “ “ " . “ above prices based n oak r birch. any other ivoods % extra. state return thickness f püaster. \b ve prices sanect to ihscovxt. all fapitals and brackets listed under the headingt exteriorcan also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. the decorators svpply С . à n_n иди. î' _y y ŕ i* german renaissance. diÍrer. copyrighted by the decorators svpply co. copyrighted by Тнв decorators svpply co. moorish. alhambra. instvations and explanation page . ïïnilecorators svpfly co. coiynn 'l i a. . nvmber. diameter. height. prices. (for natvral wood finish.) inches iáinches $ . each. iqvmber. .diameter. iÄeight. prices ­ и > / u ,_ . . . l ‘ -/ и inches. inches. $ . each. Ó u u - u . “ § “ . “ “ / ‘ . _ “ f§ “ . “ ì h l Ö u ? u ~ u “ “ . “ a / - l “ g “ . “ “ ( “ . “ “ : и ;_ И и _, Í к ' o' ч i i l ~Óo ‘ “ }{ “ . " f f . “ “ “ . “ “ zoßá “ . “ “ “ . “ “ } “ . “ _ . “ “ ¿ _ “ :xbove innees based (n oak (n'lnrch. y cnher g и () н ; h woods % extra. y ) . ` i iilashnm exterior. interior. nvmber. width. height. prices. (for natvrai. woon finish.) inches. )@ haches. . each. tcviieer„ \vidtil iiehsht i?rices. ‚. и l/ и ' a . . д i ‘ i-Óo inches. &í nches s .ooeßch. ‚ u' д í i’. u' ‚ . . } “ “ . “ _, Ч ¿c и Н “ _, s ` “ q u . “ ,’ ’ ¢ u ‘ }{ ‘ . l “ § “ . “ t _‚ и ‘ А q % . и “ и и . л .› /{ . Ó “ и . “ и / 'i _, ,_ и ‘ u ‘ ‘ . ‘ ‘ | }í . “ f y i . д / n' и ‘ . . “ } “ . “ “ / “ . î i( ”З d( í . . . i и и . и ove innces based (n oak cw lmrch. ¿xny ther ` ’ д ivoods % extra. state return or thickness of pilaster. " ` Соквьь exterior. interior. corresponds (for natvral wooo fnushj ;\hacvs projec- “чти c rresp nds tjvmeer.\nidth. twon. iiemhve cap. ihuces. abÀcvs pr jec- wÃth (На in. ` . . . ea. Мишки. width. тюк. height. cap. prices. / и u' _, ее u' . . . и ~/ iiv /êä и ' f u u u s - @ @ и и - u “ “ “ a . “ и ;/ u / и ‘ u :il/í u “ - a / u и и . ‘ “ “ “ . ; “ ‚— » »v р- ‘ д ‚' ь „ %/ „ / „ a - .‘ m . “ .i ­ ‘ . . “ i i ‚ i ‘ ­­ ‘ _if a ­-/ и a/ . _, и g; u За} u ;? u . u d _ u q ; a и “ " " и _) ёд . l _, / “ "/ (l i/ (c á( ь ' - f . “ }_ ì§ “ . “ “ Ъ{`“ ‘ “ . “ “ “ “ . “ :above inúces based chi oak (к lńrch. . y cmher “ “ “ . “ ‘т Ъеэжга . „wl/ . v / / В и дб„ i . - i\bove ihuces svbject to [hscovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the heading, exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. the decorators Вити Со. " colvmn. exterior. interior. nvmber. imameter. phhght. prhwß. (tor natvralinoodihnhÑl) inches. ßâinches. . xud a`tjber' iulÃmeter" iielght' БЦНСЕЗ- sooo м и o н inches. inches. $ . each. “ “ . “ “ }{ “ . “ “ § “ . “ “ “ . “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ € “ . “ “ “ . “ Í “ “ . “ м “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . " “ §Í “ “ “ “ . “ “ §§ “ . “ “ “ .оо “ . / ’ “ % s . “ i - “ “ “ . “ u “ “ “ g “ . “ ove eres basmd on cxń§ or bhch. ¿any cńher voods год? extra. pilaster. - ЬХТЕККЛ{ МТЕКПЛ{ nvaiber. width. height. prices. (por natyral wood finish) о _ nvmber. yvhnwl phhght. prhhß. & nches nches . each. a ‹« и i oo a inches §inches $ . each. “ }; “ , “ “ “ . “ “ g “ _ “ “ “ . “ “ “ , “ “ } . “ “ ё “ . “ “ ‘ “ . “ “ “ . “ % " И “ i . “ “ “ . “ “ бЁ “ . “ “ “ . “ ?/ “ “ . “ “ ħ “ . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ " “ . “ “ “ . “ u u - “ “ ОЁЁ “ . “ “ “ . “ ‘ “ “ _ @ “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ \Ъоче {hices based (n oak cn'lńrch. .an}f other woods } extra. state retufti or tinaniess of ynlaster. \rove thuces sveject то thscovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the. h »ading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. t НЕ ВЕСОКАТОКБ svpply Со. colvmn. \ u* ч ‚ ` . ` ‘l nw, y skis: l.' ‘iy i »wat .imi Соппюнтвв ny Тнв dacokuoxs svpply co. italian renaissance. venice. covvnmm-ßn by Тнв Овсомтокз svpply co. pilaster. instvatons and explanation page . the decorators svpply c . colvmn. greek corinthian. winds. pilaster. instrvctions and explanation page . the decorators svpply Со. colvm n. exterior. interior. nvmber. d_iameter. height. prices. h (for КАП—“Ь wood “мм” nches. inches. $ . each. „ % . м Мтмвнк. diarieter. height. prices. Ó . м _ и inches. у; inches. $ . each. Н Н . ” % ‘a , Н . u “ ‘ . “ ‘ i “ - “ “ % “ - “ " % ” . “ “ a “ . “ n % Н . “ “ % “ . “ i ' / " ’ “ . “ u ” . " Ц Н . “ “ % “ . “ % ' % “ > . “ “ “ . “ И %' Н . “ “ % “ . " % и / “ . “ ” “ . “ Н ” . " “ % " . “ . “ ‘ “ . “ “ " ` . “ Н . " - Н “ “ ........... ' h % ‘ . “ “ io “ . “ Н “ . “ “ % “ . " i Н , n - h “ “ . “ и " . “ “ % " ........... il ‘i . “ . “ “ . “ i н “ . “ “ ‘ " . _" above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods '( extra. .. pilaster. exterior. i interior. nvmeer. width. height. prices. (for natvrai. woop finish Ё ша es % mçiles sigg ее?“ ni'mber. width. height. prices. . „ .. n zo ы / inch % inch. $ . each. и Эй и . м }; , Ц . ‘i “ “ . “ u / u ­ h % 'l . “ % , l . ‘i Н ” . " / Н , Н . И il Ц % " . “ i И -‘ n . и “ “ . ‘ l И / И - Ц “ ‘ " . ; “ .' Ц li u - a h u qq ‘ s i u Í' n . l " % “ . “ si u Н . Ц “ “ . ‘ Í u / Н - Ц n % u . “ Н и ' “ “ . " / % Н - " % ' ........... / Н - l “ io “ . “ ._ v ~ u /‘ " . " i n % ­ “ ” . “ ‘o Н И - “ % “ ........... П % i ~ ” “ . " Н — “ % “ . “ above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods "; extra. state return or thickness of pilaster. state return or thickness of pilaster. above prices svbject то discovnt. all capitals and bracketsl listed under the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. twhsidecorators svpply Со. »colvmn. / a modern french ionic. versailles. »pnßsnüe ixstvatons and explanation page . ф Т НЕ ЭЕСОКАТОК svpply Со. colvmn. exterior. interior. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. (for natvral wood finish.) inches. inches. $ . each. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. Н и ' u inches. inches. $ . each. u u ~ Н i% Ё‘ % “ . “ Н Н - u “ “ . “ Н › ° % ” % ” . “ и :t Ó­ Ц " “ . “ ° ‘o Í: ю . „ И “ % “ - “ и - u “ “ . “ u u . Н / ' Н % Н _ Н ° „ „ . „ “ “ - “ i - % “ % “ . “ Н Ц - ° n “ “ . “ “ “ . ” , “ % “ . “ и u ~ “ “ . “ " “ . " / / Н % Н i . Н Н И - о Ц “ “ . “ И и . Ц “ “ . “ и Н . u “ “ . “ и и - И ” " . ” u u - и ” ” . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . “ above prices based on oak r birch. any other woods l extra. ihlaster. exterior. interior. nvmber. width. height. prices. (for natvral wood finish.) inches. inches. . each. nvmber. width. height. l prices. » inch. inch. $ . each. Ó Н Ó Ц ~ и % inches. % inches. . “ u Н - Н “ “ . “ h _ и - u % “ “ . “ и „ . „ “ “ . “ Ц - “‘ ` % “ % “ . “ ‘i Н ~ u “ “ . “ Ц ‘ ­ Н ,’ “ % “ . “ Ц :a - Н “ “ . “ i „ . „ : “ % “ . “ i . “ ‘ . “ “ “ - “ % j % “ . “ “ " . ” “ “ . “ :Í u ‘Ó f % “ % “ - “ Н " i v a ‘^ “ . “ l И ~ i “ “ . “ - “ " . “ ‘ Н - ” ‘ . “ :l h - : ‘ " “ . “ . “ “ оо ‘ above prices based oak r birch. any other woods % xtra. state return r thickness f pilaster. above prices svbject to discovnt. a capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. tïuïidecorators svpply Со. colvmn. paris. inlaster instrvctions and explanation page the decorators svpply Со interior. (for natvral wood finish) colvivin. pilaster. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. nvmber. width. height. prices. inches. , / inches. $ . each. inches. % inches. $ . each. % i: % : - С: % “ ?’/ “ - “ Н Н - u l“ “ . о “ % Ц % и i- o h % ‘ % “ . о ” l % u и ’ ” % “ - “ % ‘ - o % “ “ i - “ н «i . ‘nl ii и . п % “ % “ - ‘ % " % “ i ~ “ “ “ . “ " " . “ above prices based on oak or birch. any other woods % extra. state return or thickness of pilaster. interior. (por natvral woon finish) colvm n. pilaster. nvmber. diameter. height. prices. nvmber. width. height prices. inches. % inches. $ . each. inches. % inches. $ . each. % i. . Н % и п . о п Н % ­ и % - Н % “ %; ~ u % и %‹ l - " ‘f “ И ‘ f ‘ - “ % “ % “ - % ‘ /s “ i - “ и и . и н Ó/i м . и н w п Н н н и %` ‘l ‘l Ó là li и above prices based ,on oak or birch. any other woods % extra. ­ state return or thickness of pilaster. above prices svbject то discovnt. the decorators svpply Со. greek. erechthevm. copyrighted ey the decorators sypply co. copyrighted ey the decor/«tons svpply Со. roman. pantheon. instrvctions and explanation page . tihïidecorators svpply Со. mgdern renaissance. empire. copyrighted by the deconarors svpply Со. bracket copyrighted by Тик dacorators svpply co. roman. jvpiter stator. instvations and explanation page . n tiheidecorators svpply Со. bracket ilxterior. interior. abacvs face projec- (for natvral wood finish.) nvmber. width. width. tion. drop. prices. www f СЕ pruec .­ . . П a (_ .- % in. in. % in. in. . ea. nvmber. width. width. tion. drop. prices. ,/ и и / и и u . _ _ _ / Á /É ‘ ' , / . . % . . . ea. u “ ‘ Ó “ i . “ l/ и / и ­ " ь ‘ ‚„ и / a a u и ,_ и ’ / i ' / / ‘ ‘ ‘ “ ' “ “ ‘i Ó “ . и s ‘ ‘ ‘ . ‘ _ , и i/ u _;/ и ,_ u а у и у и ‚_ и а „о и / / ‘ / . Ё “ u / u a .Í ‘ u u u a и i ЧЗ ‘ , . . / / io , § .a % и _‚ .ь u . и и ‘a / и и и \ ~ Í к } . ‚ i/ a a _ . a ' и “ “ / “ “ “ бич 'â io . ' . д ‘c h ' ` ‚- y “ io ‘l ‘г до ‘l и “ “ Ó'ÓÖ a : - lo и .i / и iÓ и . a f f' ' bracref exterior. interior. abacvs face projec- (for natvral wood finish.) nvmber. width. width. tion. drop. prices. тис“ РЖЕ prohtc i in. in. in. in. si . ea. nvmber. width. width. tion. drop. prices. и u a и и . _ _ d / ‘ ‘ ' }á hl hi hl hl . еа. и “ ‘ ‘ . О и f i.' i в / “ u u, “ ‘ ‘ - “ “ “ . „ a .. a a Ó a »i a ac a и и , io ' s i “ . и u Ó i.' ее Ó а и Ц И и . í( Ц ‘s’ ‘l “ ils/á “ “ “ “ . “ “ “ “ “ . “ }{ “ “ “ “ . “ above prices svbject to discovnt. all capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster finish at same price. t НЕ decorators svpply Со. italian renaissance. cecile. copyrighted by Тнв Овсокпопз svpply Со. Сорукшнтвп by Тнв Внсонпокз Бугрьу Со. italian renaissance. zorzi. .instvations and explanation page . п ЭЕСОНА к svpply С . bracket. -seiiii-classic a. r ч ~ exterior. interior. abacvs face projec~ (por nati'rai. wood finish.) invmber. width. “idth. tion. drop prices abacvs face projec_ iii. in. in. / . $ . ea. ..\ieer. width. width. tion. drop. prices. / Н '/ Н __ l l и i/ н __ н ____ _ __ _ _ _ _ iîë „ f* n / u -lo _ ; d. h n. h hl wqih. $ . ea. i _ _ _/ н , _so () _ ‘ i н _ с. i п o м u u h l, Н u »- f и f н ` / н .f и ‚ч п и i и / и / и .()o «i iss i ‘ , 'bo /» % _ ; „ itn: н ill/á «i и , м п ­­ ' в ` * " /p « ‚ ' yg n : Н Н y.; l . Н Н i и. ч н в“; и i oo м к " i/ ,- l ' l/ н i// и _i п п ____ «i l _ __ __ ь __ _ _ __ __ g .. .. ¿ŕ .. Ёж .. _ „ îf .. ‚, .. v .. ; „ ”О „f ‚ ‚ >’ -j . ' ч i it t / ‘l _ ч i _ _ Í, f / l» _ Н / Н ' н Н . м ; ‘ fl/ h и Н i'Óo a lt l ú x io / : h / Н iol/ë __ / __ . __ Н и м : . згёп __ и o н g“ _ ; п í" lá“ á" " . ” i«‘\ ` /“ iÓ; f* i „"~ oy “ — “ `i/ Н “ ` и .. „ .. '“ .. 'l .. n dÍ/ Н s f / Н . «i il ‘ils ' ‘ / u ä”q „ ) п „ З'до n И И n “ . ” il ц ii- __ н — «s _,f ‘n s» __ __ h А‘ ( ,/ l Н «a _o u Ц Э ,l __ __ б __ d'Ós __ i “ .. ’f .. / .. '.çÈ „ .. , / h % - q/È п / н / н (sÍ/z/ «i . и Н Ó И : h ,“ И o ; Н , х «y Н l Ь ” ‘ . “ i С j “ ” ; ‘ . “ Н “ ” “ . “ bracke l ._seiii-classic в. ` y exterior. . interior. ahacvs face projec- ' (por natvrai. wood finish.) v r .y . ~‘y Т . ‘ . \‚ meer. width. “idth. tpo/n. drpp. _prices _ a_mcvs each pr(,jec_ . / _ _ ­ __ _ _ ­ _ _ _ ­ _ _ ­ - fffl- ..\ieer. “idth. width. тюк. drop. prices. v д f ‚(о „ . . . . . _ a ,j „ ii „ ЁЁ h ) „ yáin. hñin. ‘Ün n. zäfin. $ . ea. § ;/« i/.» : / . _`__ il/ п i «i il i i.' п ; н ` А f ’ i ' d il t ‘l h ' i( i .i ‘l _’ __ ‘ н / н ? u ’ìë п „ § ” “ }; “ §í ” . ” ®ё / . \ - .. if.. - .. .. „ ч l ;/ н / / l п _ п i i’s . ; '/ f ,* @Á - u" 'x/ «i / п l и ч п `_ п / ” / “ “ “ " ° ›@ /ж ‘ . ’ . / о l l f’ (А о { н ‘Í h „ ’; н д и ` ” ь ‘ @ . g , ’ З` ' - "" ­/ н i/ м ì/ н- i/ п ` п " Ъё“ ” ЁЁЁ ” ” — “ ‘ / : : - ’ / h -Óx „ jq/ „ “а; u `_д a i “ ” " " . ” g , ," . . ` " / н k/ «i ` / Н д ' и м l _ n u „ _ „ ;_ „ , _ д . ”; н ,/ н / н п '( a o î§ “ ” a И h . " § * / / ? i() lo ` 'i/ и ` l/ п ` " / н д/ н и _'Ё`_ н __ Н г) н l__c') / н ____ и / , f : . . / __ Öi/ __ / __ " / __ _ -lÖ __ § н м _ н м н Ч/З {о ` / п i/ и _ i/ н _ п y н _%_ н ò п __.’_r/ п z__ м ‘so п . , i() "’ , н i „ '/ u ,/ „ " n @ ” ” “ ” . ” a ó/á lá q . „ ~,/ „ / „ a к a ` 'i u н i и / ` н ' "’ п ‚ ; Ь."О % /; . ’ f ‚ .. д‘ .. ’ , .i .. д „ ‚Ё “ .. / Н i’ “ / “ ч “ - : : __ f_/z __ , __ / __ -‚э __ б % . / - __ _ и н l/ u / __ п , / , . ` i brackei.vmman ч y, ‚` 'f ` ` en i erior. ib i ЬКЮК. АВАСу face prqÍec­ (for natvral “"ood finish.) nviiiber. widtii. ­width. thin. drop prices. .xbacvs face projec- ' ’ ' и! ' v v _ w' v ' a) ` :n . , i ш, % “ _ ¿ , . ca_ mmi- er. \ idth. \ idth. tion. drop. i ricls. _ ___ _.’o l .f t ъь t ____ м _ ‚ - . / . _' . _. §g Á ¿_: zêë h i_/__ . , __ , ißëip. ii/ih. iÍ ih. yáih. $ . ea. “ f s i ." ~ ‘ , . ” i/ н н l м ‚ _; п i м l l п i н i н н , , / ., , , .bo н п , / ¿i к}; и и к; и i и н i _ .so n () _’ ‘i ‘t t( ‘l tb ‘a i( __ iÍ/ (t i ,/ l( _ о (ß ‘l ‘l ‘l ‘l l э l b ‘a il `)­_­ ' ‘c / il ‘l ‘ f . - : : . - - a / Ц И / н ' h п м ls ‘ ‘ / ‘ / ” . " / - . hoi( lli/ н zf Н ¿eni п osi@ н i м ___/_ € is; «i “ ; ; и ; и i во и в l/ и i т / и Н a.' ` Н q __ Н “i ‘ д г` ‘__/ п Н Н .ì и tú , «i )-/ l ‘t i . " « / i д .' н . ; и i . ‘a _ / _ . __ "; / .() _ il l( $ í ll ‘l _ it ‘i i Ó l . Ó'r . Ól/á . Ч Ц ‘l : м l( м «i «l in h / h t( ‘t п it ¿l «s ‘t о. пс __ н — п v/ п __ н _ н _ ' _ __ / ы f ы l/ и __ ц ___ Ó _ _ ' _ _ ‘ . / - . ___ l А _ n il l l ‘u / l» i" А и . о _ ___ ’ «t О А. n [ ! «l î~ (А ,д i , , .,д above prices svbject to discoi'nt. all capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also de furnished for interior plaster ñnisli at same price. t iie decqrators svppiaiy Со. modern renaissance. r semi-classic А. semi-classic b. copyrighted by Тнв deconaïors svpply Со. ВНАСКЕТЗ. ""copyrmhten nv Тнв dumm/«tons svpply co. _ vatican. instructions and explanation page . the dec ra' rs st'ijply c . l v " ' ` f i( .\ ola. ` r ` ` y ` ` — ÈÀiilrior. inieri(-)r. amc“ “С“ pro-'ec' (for nati'rai. wood finish.) nvmher. width. width. тюк. Пкпр. prices­ a ‘ p ­ ­ ­ / - ц i hacvs ace rqiec- ln- n' in' in' bl ' ca Кишка. width. \‘­'idih. thin. drop. prices. q н н „f н __: v/ н _ н . ‚ . . . ‘ д io /is ->o } n„ Óláin. in. & n. s . <xl п “ i “ ,/ и ц »s — h и и —/ н v ­ и м / . т “i/ »n ~ja _ h ‘c ( / Н И Ч н - Н bi: Ц Í/i//s Н Н g н f . l! . ­ ”э , .. \ „ .,.. ~ _ .. : - ША „ q „ so „ Ó i / 's б-эо “ “ } . t i( ‘t v / и у н ` l, ‘ _ h }{ . ; ‘ Н ` И ig Н so / н / н н f ~ ‘­ k } “ }; ” }? . “ “ ” i ” . ” ” “ “ Г iu ” ” ” §£ “ ‘ . “ i i'i`us. ` yr ` ч _ tr ' it.\ii;rior. ii\ ierior. ahacvs tdp face bdt. face Ркщнс- (for natvral wood finish.) nviiiber. width. width. width. thin. Вши-к prices. a ‘_ . ` ` _ _ / ‚ ‚ , ' . haus 'idhfme but. face priiiec- u. П , . . ln. si .oo : , nvmher. “ . width. \idth. thin. driip. prices. “ Зёё “ ” “ “ . “ in. §§in­ ßßáin. in. óyáin. $ . ea. (l / £ н / ‘t ’_ / «t d i/ н «t п «t п / Зёц ‘ h ‘ - д / ЗЁЁ ~ s ‘l (l ‘l ‘i l( i (t ni ‘t ‘ t( ‘t §í } ‘ . € h н êí ‘ Н / h . и н - и м н ‘ с н «l _' «_ с p@ ßg ‘ ‘ . m Н ‘ , ‘ izäj ‘ . ‘ ‘ .l ‘ l a’ ‘l a ‘i в l ‘ ‘ “ }{ § . }{ } . i Н h ‘a Í Н ¿a «t и / и м / н É н н / ) ì . l i ‘ \’l v olis . ` yr ` ä fr s ` ` ilÄiierior. iÄihrior. abmws' f^Üf fwhm* (for natvral “thh hntsh) nvmder. width. width. thin. Виши prices. awww Рад-р . pri'iirc- i ЧИ in. in. iii. i i in. ­ cil. Хитин. width. width. thin. drdp. prices. б}{ „ н Зё; n iôìí „ . м §gin. in.i îëin. k§id. . ea. (б .( t( н _-_о и ¿s i «c «s h «t н __ н „lí/ н н go ц __ /u :î и Ц ii/ h n ( и « ‚ - кэ эи - q l i/ Н é ‘s él/ н н l и Ól/ н _ н / н l, / Н î Ц / i / . ` о / д д/ . v ` f l . is Ä\ . ` ' ` y' ` ` ì ) exterior. inieriiir. ‚ abacys Тир face Вчт. face prriji-:c- ` : . Ь . ‚- ‚ q . . nvmher. width. width. width. thin. Плит prices x (il_orfÃa Г; КА: “( ) fiÄish) ' ' / ' _ / ‘ ' s x z b.\(`\'s ui'. АСЕ (va. АСЕ К )]ЕС- % n- П- }? n- n }í n ‘ @a Хины-ж. widih. \idth. \idth. thin. drh?. prices. (С ‘l ._ / «a ’_ tt ' ‘t ì ì l', ‚ , . . . v Ó /i / - ; hl d. }á d„ n. lfln„ s;. <%l (t Н н м м __ н u Н и _ t s и ` i l / Ь-эо ‘ f ” ggf & ‘ ‘t ( Н l, s( _ t; a " . Н . / - } ‘ “ “ sìí Í - “ n (Ф _ н _ н _ t _ ‘c _ (с д ,}{ , .до e* \h ve prices svrject t imscovnt. ` АН capitais and brackets listed under the heading exterior can also be furnished for interior plaster fiiiisii at same price. ` . Т iie decorators svpply co. y ч loi is .xvi А. exterior interior ahaci's' topface bdtfach proiec- prices v_ - г ' -‹ nvmber. width width. width tion. drop. each. (for ÄÀ'iw ral “ ood fiÄish'i ,/ ' / ' ,/ ° ° i ' " aiiacvs topface bot.face proiec- prices -’ in' i­ m' /“ n’ / in’ / ln’ bo'qo Хитин. width width. width. tion. drop. each oi // и и i l( i и i/ n i _ _ _ _ . . l « l Á / ‚ . . i iii. % . % . $ . / и i и `/ к g/ u / п _ ЗА i; / ' / “ isá “ ..’ “i / “ “ i о a ”' “ ol/ “ / св ... / и si ` _ "/ ’/ ­ " / _/‚ __/ / „. i.i_o u u i.' и и . / u q,iÍ/ и и / и ./ и io \ Í Í l f 'l ь / ‘ _kq/ ‘ ...if c / y, и % и и .; и % .в . ,_ ‚_‚ /l s в в и n' _, ` § , % . / ., „_ a „и .i „f a „if .i _, / ..« - ~ ( u д / u ,‚ / и l/ и i/ «i `­ ' ” '/ l / ° ) > .›‚ / / iso % “ ’ “ g и “ % ‘i . / в ’ n' ./ ' ‘ ‘ “ “ . и / u / i _ . a % . ‘ % “ f/í ‘ . ‘ ’vi b louis .\ . __` _ y, _ __ _ ilxterior. ii\ii rior. aiiai'vs toix face bdt. face projec- ._ . ‚ ‚ . nvmher. width. width. width. tion. drop. prices, (fur ‘nati ral vi' ood finish) l( in. iâ/g in. % in. / ’ in. % in. $ . ea. ‚ arum- tiwyface iii-@tice Ркщвс- „ и h / н _i, u И \'.\iher. “или. “штн. \id'ih. tion. droi'. prices. % % %; (ivg . _/. у. . v. l . З“ „ y „ % „ v“ h i _s „ y . @ . . . / . . ea. ` а s и Н / н / с «s _ о н - н н н н н % , / ‘ ‘oÖ ‘ , / и (С 	 l h Н i/ н _l н / н е/ н / н ­ св ' i/ / ' b? / iii/ ' _ / н [и и / н z/ н н п / н i/ н н i/ н н _ м д д / / , 'ЬО / / / - св / н / н l,i/ . ;/ н _, н Ól/ и у н н ‚. / Н _ н н "/ / j-' -/ j' о ‚"/ ` / id О _ / н i н gf п ­­/ н l/ н _ п / ЗА / - с‘ «a ' н ( н h и ‘ % н ‘i н h ‚а ` ` .) ` pilasters. r ) f ) r r ) .‘ ' Г \ М В \АС \Е Г. ‚Г \ М cai’. т a interior. interior. (for natvral wood finish.) (for nati'ral wood finish.) ni'mber. width. height. prices. ni'mher. width. height. prices. % iiiclies. % inches. $ . each. () %) iiiclies. туг iiiciies. so. each. _. и „f ‘ ,_ n' , ‚.‚ s ‘i ‘в , / ., . () / € “ . “ % % . °‘ в. ( . и / / / н % и ‚ и __ и / i' ‚‚ и _ / u и / бЁ’З ‘ - % . “ “ “ . “ “ “ . о “ т б “ ‘f “ “ ” “ % . о . l/ ’ % “ - “ _ .i и u - _ u и i и и % Á .so “ “ . “ “ u . и б “ “ . “ above '..ices based on oak or birch. any other above prices based оп oak or birch. any other woods % extra. woods % extra. above prices siject to discoi'nt. all capitals and brackets` listed under the heading..r exterior can aiso be furislied for interior plaster fìiiish at same price. t he decorators svpply Со. french brackets. lovis xvi b. lovis xvi a. pilasters. cap. trim trim bracket. roman. greek. mars. zevs. instrvctions and explanation page . д the decoraiors Биты С‹›. acroteria. ` о r ` ` hÄterior. in l lrior. n\'.\­iber. width. height. thickness. prices. (for natvral wood finish.) % in. in. % in. $ . еа nvmeer. width. height. thicrness. prices. oi ¿l iol/ ‘ i ( ‚__‚ ‘i l. . . ’f А l / ‘ -' ,@ iii. % iii. жуёт iii si. ­ea. / u .ь / и с. Ь‘ Э f ) Э % . _., u / „ ‚ „ д. f /’ u и l ц д. .sg/ iis . —. ` н ‚- —о i l. ‘ l ‚э y „§ - в‘ n ‘/“ k igi/ n i_i/,z/ ¿a ¿s io _o u “- l f l o' i" “ i “ io; “ .c и “ % u n % и - “ , ' , “ “ , " . “ ¿c h i[á в. с. antena. " r` ч y» с ` ЬХ ЬК ОК. ii\ii;ri()r. width то (for nati'ral wood finish.) nvmber. corner. height. thicrness. prices. width то in. ;/ in. iii. $ . ea. nvmeer. corner. height. thicrness. prices. . i “ ( h “ . i А Ó ЗА ) ' за"; / iii % iii. iigm. . gea. _o _ u ,/ и ,_ ¿a _, о и к \- Í~ f \ „ ­ ., l / l' . и i.' ; и . u' ,_ q u i и и Ó и "l ` ' с iiÁ . О .,‚,.. с: ‚_ .i '/ и „o u “ц io д. i a “: _q „ дн „ ‘ э / ‚ . i i. Э --/` .. i ‹ ‚ u n и .- » iÓ­/ и то u io _o “ so А- ," ­­ «l и с. isá u a ¿t ¿i ‘ó (i above prices sviiject to iÍ)isco\'.\'t. М] capitals and brackets listed under the heading exterior сап also be furnished for interior plaster f'iiiisii at same price. t НЕ decorators svpply Со. АСКОТЕК А. antefix. instrvctions and explanation page . the decorators svpply Со. odd brackets, corbels, Етс. nvm- abacvs top face Воттом aeacvs ber. width. width. face width. project. drop. style. remarks. prices. * in. ............. in. in. louis xv .......................... $ . * } " in. in. “ } “ .......................... . * “ " “ “ } “ louis xvi .......................... . “ " “ “ “ " same as cut. except bottom . . " “ “ " “ “ similar to cut .............. . “ “ “ " “ “ ......................... . * “ “ “ sil“ “ “ .......................... . “ } “ “ i! “ “ “ same as cut, without festoon . * & " : “ § “ “ “ " .......................... . * } “ ............ } “ “ louis xv .......................... . * } “ in. . } “ “ louis xvi ......................... . “ “ . " “ “ " same as cut ............... . “ “ “ } " “ ” .......................... . % “ qi Н h } “ “ " heavy abacus, in. thick.. . } “ i “ - “ } “ " “ similar t cut .............. . * } " } “ ï “ “ “ “ ......................... . } " ” “ “ ” " similar tocut .............. . “ “ “ ” “ “ similar to cut .............. . " “ “ “ “ “ .......................... . * “ ............ } “ “ gothic ....................... . } “ ............ “ “ “ ......................... . “ ............ “ “ “ ........... . ......... . “ ............ “ “ “ ......................... . * “ ............ “ “ art nouveau ..... ' .................... . * ; “ . in “ } “ renaissance ..................... .... . “ ” ...... “ } “ louis xvi double face ............... } “ } “ ...... “ } “ “ double face .............. . } “ } “ ...... “ } “ “ single face ............... . } “ “ ...... “ } “ “ double face ............... . } “ “ ...... " } ” ” triple face .............. . * “ “ in “ %“ louisxv . “ ............ “ “ " extreme width, in ........ . * “ } " ...... “ “ louis xvi ..................... . . }“ ” ...... “ “ “ .. .............. . } ” “ “ “ } “ classic .......................... . } “ } “ } “ “ “ greek similarto erechtheum bracket . “ " “ “ “ classic .......................... . ...... “ “ ...... “ greek in. projection, no abacus . . o in. “ “ } in. } “ ornamental abacus ........ . “ “ “ “ .......................... . } " “ “ “ “ classic .. ............... ~ ....... . “ “ ...... “ “ .. .. .................... . “ “ “ “ . “ romanesque _. .. .. ........ ’ ......... . “ “ “ “ “ ......... ............. . “ ............ “ . “ gothic ....................... . “ ............ “ “ ” .......................... . “ ............ “ } “ " circular abacus ............ . } “ in. in. } “ " “ .......................... . * “ ” ...... } “ } “ moorish ................ ` .......... . “ “ ...... “ “ “ ............ ` ............. . * cut on opposite page. numbers following similar in appearance. should above pi'inted description be insuñ'icient, write for designs. above iiiaiie in exterior composition; also plaster for interior only. the decorators svpply Со. odd brackets, corbels, urns, Етс. Ычм- abacvs face abacvs ber. width. width. projection. drop. style. remarks. prices. a:< % ....... % in. % i . renaissance ............................................ $ . % ‘ " " % ” romanesque ............................................ . * " “ % ” “ renaissance ............................................ . “ % ” “ % “ “ ornamental volute ............................ . “ “ “ i “ “ ornamental volute ............................. . i“ “ % “ " “ ornamental volute ............................. . }; “ “ “ ;“ “ .............................................. . / “ “ “ ,'/à “ “ similar to cut ................................ . " И " " “ “ similar to cut ................................ . % “ % “ % " “ similar t cut ................................ . l % ‘i ,l “ “ “ similar to cut, abacus on back ................. . i :i ‘ “ “ “ similar to cut, ornamental volute, and abacvs. . .. . / " / " % “ “ similar t cut, ornamental volute ............... . g “ % “ ” ; “ “ similar to cut ................................ . % “ “ % “ “ similar to cut, ornamental volute ............... . % “ И “ % “ “ similar to cut, ornamrnatl volute ............... . “ ” o “ “ “ ............................................ . % ” % ” % ” % “ “ ............................................ . % “ % " “ % “ “ ............................................ . % “ / " “ ” " similalr to cut, abacus on back ................ . “ “ " “ “ ............................................ . % ^ % " % “ . " " ............................................ . ‘i % u % и п “ double face .................................. . % Н %: l; /ii :‘ .......................................... . / Н u h % ‘ triple face ................................... . Ц и ‘f u ” ............................................ . x % u u % и ; n “ ........... , ................................. . - “ ............................................ . “ “ “ ............................................ . * % % %“ " _" .................. ¿ .............. . ..... _ ....................... colonial base , height , extreme proj. ” ............ . in. in %; in. m semi-classic ............................................ . % % “ % “ % “ “ similar to cut ................................ . i l % “ “ “ “ similar to cut ................................ . 'l % “ “ “ renaissance similar to cut ................................ . % l % “ “ % “ “ similar to cut ................................ . l “ " “ “ similar to cut ................................ . l % " “ " “ e similar to cut .............................. . / “ / “ / “ “ simialr to cut, triple bracket .................. . ” ' “ и “ “ ............................................ . : % “ ....... / “ % “ gothic. ............................................ . “ ....... % ” % “ “ ............................................ . * ..... _ ....... _ ....... ......... colonial base ", height , extreme proj. %” ......... .@ in. in % . % in renaissance ............................................ . ;/ ‘ ‘ ‘ ’ “ ‘ “ similar to cut, no bottom drop ................. . * “ % “ % “ И ” “ similar to cut, no bottom drop ................. . ” ‘ ” ” " semi-classic ............................................ . % “ % “ “ “ renaissance same as cut, double face ....................... . g % % g “ “ ............................................ . _ / " " ............................................ . “ ‘ ” " “ “ ............................................ . а" gli “ ” “ “ classic ............................................ . % i % n ” ............................................ . u % n ‘ % “ “ ............................................ . % / % " / “ “ ............................................ . Ё “ sy“ ` /“ d bif „ “ o е a e .................................. . § ? % “ ” ” iii; “ “ plaliln abaîzus .......................... : ...... . . l % % % “ “ plain abacus ................................. . ',­ % ‘ ” “ plain abacus ................................. . * ‘; “ “ % “ % “ “ plain abacus ......................... ‘ ........ . ', “ “ ” % " “ ornamental abacus. top and back .............. . a ! " у; “ “ ‘ ' “ “ ornamental abacus, top and back .............. . b “ “ “ “ “ ............................................ . * € % “ “ “ % “ “ ............................................ . % “ % “ % ‘x' “ renaissance ............................................ . " % “ % “ % “ “ ......................................... . . / ” " " % “ “ ............................................ . % “ %; “ % “ : " “ ............................................ . . / r / g' “ “ ...... ............................... . , í “ “ . о ottom ea ............................... . % “ % ” “ ,'á “ “ no bottom leaf ............................... . “ % “ . “ ” " no bottom leaf ............................... . * % “ " % “ “ “ ............................................ . “ % “ % " % “ “ ............................................ . “ “ % “ “ “ ............................................ . " ‘ “ ‘f’ “ "ë/ “ “ double face .................................. . g “ “ Ё i “ “ “ ............................................ . “ “ “ ” " ............................................ . " “ % “ “ “ abacus on back ............................... . % “ % “ “ % “ “ double face .................................. . % % ‘ ’ “ “ “ double face .................................. . % “ “ “ ............................................ . a ‘# “ " “ %’ “ “ ............................................ . s % “ % “ “ “ “ double face .................................. . % ” r( “ “ % “ “ ............................................ . * ............................ colonial base ", height %”, extreme proj. И”... . . . .. . * ............................ louis xvi base ”, height ”, extreme proj. %” .......... . * :o ............................. colonial base ”, height ”. extreme proj., %” ......... . * cut on opposite page. numbers following similar in appearance. should above printed descriptions be insulïìcient, write for designs. above made in exterior composition; also plaster for interior only. t НЕ decorators svpply Со. y@ the decorators svpply co. odd brackets. corbels, etc. nvm- abacvs top face bottom projec ber. width. width. face width. tion. drop. style. remarks. prices. * in. in. ..... . in. renaissance plain abacus ............. $ . “ " ..... “ “ “ plain abacus ............. . “ “ ..... “ “ “ “ “ ............. . * “ ” in. “ “ louis xvi ......................... . “ " “ “ “ ornamental abacus ....... . “ “ " “ " ........................ . “ “ “ i “ “ ........................ . “ “ " “ “ ........................ . a “ ” “ i “ “ ........................ . * “ ” " “ “ louis xvi ........................ . " " ...... " “ ....................... . “ “ ...... “ “ ......................... “ “ in. “ “ ......................... . “ " “ “ “ ......................... . * “ " ...... " “ louis xvi ........................ . ” “ ...... "‘ “ “ ........................ . “ " “ “ ........................ . “ “ " " ........................ . “ “ ...... “ “ “ ........................ . a “ “ ...... “ “ “ ........................ . в “ “ ...... “ “ “ ........................ . * “ “ ...... “ “ romanesque ........................ . “ “ ...... “ “ “ plain face ............... . “ “ ...... Н “ “ “ “ .............. . * “ " in “ “ louis xvi ......................... . “ “ “ “ “ “ without festoon .......... . “ “ “ “ “ “ with festoon ............. . “ ............ “ “ louis xv ......................... . “ ............ “ " “ circular abacus ........... . * i “ ` m ...... “ “ louis xvi ........................ . “ “ ...... ‘ “ ........................ . “ “ “ “ ........................ . ” ” ...... ” “ ........................ . " “ in. i “ “ ........................ . a “ " ...... " “ ........................ . b ‘ ” “ “ ........................ . * “ “ “ “ “ louis xvi ........................ . * “ “ ” “ '“ ........................ . * " ............ “ ` gothic ........................ . “ ............ “ “ ........................ . “ ............ “ ‘ ........................ . “ ............ “ " ........................ . “ ............ ‘ “ ........................ . * ...... ............ “ ........................ . .................. “ plain .................... . ...... in ............ “ ........................ . * _ . “ ...... " louis xvi ........................ . “ “ “ “ ........................ . * ...... " “ “ “ greek ........................ . ...... ” “ “ “ ........................ . * in. “ ‘ " " classic ........................ . ...... ...... “ " “ ........................ . in in. “ “ ........................ . * “ ” ” “ art nouveau ........................ . * cut on opposite page. numbers between similar. should above printed description be insuñ'icient, write for designs. above made in exterior composition', also plaster for interior only. Т НЕ decorators svpply Со. гм lil- r АР y С f Е":'-\!СС "Б А.) я с'ч “—'С‘.._...__.._.. -. . the decorators svpply co. the decorators svpply С . the decorators svpply co. odd brackets. bottom aeacvs top face face pro- number. width. width. width. jection. drop. style. remarks. prices. * in. in. ...... in. in. renaissance ......................... $ . “ " ...... ' " " " ......................... . “ “ ...... " “ " ......................... . “ “ ...... " “ " ......................... . “ “ ...... “ " “ .......................... . “ “ ...... “ " " ......................... . ";l " “ ...... “ " " ......................... . “ “ ...... “ " “ ......................... . “ “ ...... “ " “ ......................... . ” “ ” ‘ ” ......................... . a “ “ ...... “ “ “ ......................... . “ “ ...... “ “ “ ......................... . * “ “ ...... ” “ classic ......................... . * “ “ ...... “ " “ ......................... . “ “ ...... “ “ “ ......................... . “ “ ...... " " “ ......................... . * “ “ ...... “ " renaissance for " square column ....... . * ...... “ in “ “ louis xv ......................... . * “ ...... “ “ art nouveau ......................... . * ” ” ...... “ “ " ......................... . ...... “ ...... ‘ ` “ ......................... . * in “ ...... “ “ roman for column ”x ” ...... . “ “ ...... “ " “ for column ”х ”....... . * “ . “ ...... ‘ “ elizabethan ......................... . * “ “ in io “ “ louis xvi ......................... . ...... ” ...... " “ ” ......................... . * “ ...... “ /“ greek ......................... . “ “ ...... “ “ “ ......................... . * “ “ ...... “ “ renaissance ......................... . * “ “ ...... “ “ classic ......................... . ‘ “ ...... “ ‘ “ ornamental face.. . . . . Й‘ " “ in. ” “ louis xvi .....: ................... . “ i “ “ io “ " “ ......................... . * ...... “ ...... ” “ “ ......................... . * iii “ in “ “ renaissance ......................... . *cut on opposite page. numbers similar in appearance. should above printed description be insquicient, write for designs. above made in exterior composition; also plaster for interior only. the decorators svpply Со. ss. the decorators svpply co. cement vases, balustrad es and columns. vases. nv.\ ~ height. extreme base ­ _ ber. diam. width. style. remarks. prices. * in. in. in. louis xvi ................................................ $ . * " } ” “ classic .. ........................................... . * " o “ “ “ ........................................ . . _ . " “ } “ ” ................................. .. ‚ ‚. .. . . * } “ “ “ louis xvi ................................................ . balustrade. nvm ber. height. thickness. length. style. remarks. prices. * in. } in. } in. classic ................................................ . * ” } “ “ english ................................................ ...... “ } “ colonial pedestal height over all ” and " square at the die ..... pedestal, $ . top rail, $ . . bottom rail, $ . per foot. baluster, $ . each. column. nvm- height. dia.\i. at dia.\i. at base ber. neck. base. width. style. ' . remarks. prices. * ’ ”. } in. } in. in. doric .......................................... $ . ’ “ ” “ “ ...................................... .. . all above articles cast in portland cement. *cu-t on opposite page. numbers between similar in appearance. should above printed description be insuñicient. write for designs. the decorators svpply r oo t НЕ decorators svpply co. odd brackets and stair brackets. nvm- abacvs top face bottom pro_iec~ rer. width. width. face width. tion. drop. style. remarks. prices. * ; in in. ...... l in. i in renaissance ....................... . * “ " ...... ” l " roman ....................... . * i “ “ ...... “ q “ renaissance ................... . * § “ “ ...... ; ‘ " ....................... . * è “ % “ ...... ” " ....................... . “ iâ“ ...... “ } ` “ ....................... . § ” i “ ...... Н ” ” ....................... . * `ì “ ) ‘ ...... i “ “ roman ....................... . * га “ " ...... } i “ renaissance ....................... . " %“ ...... %“ i“ “ ....................... . “ i“ ...... }” “ " ....................... . g ” ” ...... i ” } “ “ ....................... . * i “ l “ ...... “ “ classic ....................... . * ...... “ ...... “ % “ art nouveau ....................... . * } l ...... “ “ louis xvi ....................... . * %“ “ ...... “ г “ " ....................... . * k “ “ in % “ “ “ ....................... . * ...... “ ...... i “ ” renaissance ....................... . * i in “ ...... ;! “ , ; “ empire ....................... . * i ‘ “ ...... “ g “ renaissance ....................... . * i ” “ ...... i ” " “ ....................... . * “ ............ } “ " gothic ....................... . * ...... in ...... “ , . “ renaissance ....................... . * iin. “ ...... % “ “ classic .................. . * “ % “ ...... “ i “ gothic ....................... . * “ “ ...... i* “ % “ renaissance ....................... . * ; “ il “ ...... ï “ ” “ ....................... . * ...... } “ ...... “ i “ roman ...................... . * i “ ...... “ % “ renaissance ....................... . * ” “ ...... § “ lì ” roman ....................... . * “ “ ...... i “ ; “ renaissance ....................... . * “ . “ ...... ; “ , .“ roman ....................... . * “ l “ iï in. “ “ romanesque ....................... . * .................. " l " louis xvi ....................... - . * ................. “ ‘ " ....................... .. * n ; . Ц “ l “ classic ....................... . * ...... ” ...... “ “ " ....................... . * % in. “ ...... l “ ?.v “ louis xvi ....................... ` . * } “ i “ ...... i “ “ “ ....................... . * “ “ ...... “ “ renaissance ....................... . * % “ , . “ l in “ g “ classic ....................... . * “ “ ...... “ “ renaissance ....................... . * § “ z“ ...... lo “ è “ " ....................... . * là “ i “ ...... “ “ “ ....................... . * ...... % “ ...... “ i % “ greek ....................... l . * ...... “ ...... “ % “ " ....................... . * ...... il“ ...... ? “ “ louis xvi ....................... . * ...... ì “ ...... % " } “ “ ....................... . * ...... f'. “ iâ in , “ “ classic ....................... . * ...... ì“ iâ “ i " “ ” ....................... . * ...... Е" ...... " % “ “ ....................... . * ...... Е " ...... “ i “ “ ....................... . *cut on opposite page. numbers following similar in appearance. . ­ should above printed description be insufficient, write for designs. above made in wood and composition only. the decorators svpply С . odd capitals and brackets. brackets. nvm- aracys top face bottom projec ber. width. width. face width. tion. drop. style. remarks. prices. * in. } . } in. б} in. in. classic .............................. $ . }“ “ è“ ” ” .............................. . “ } “ “ } “ } “ .............................. . * } “ ” ...... } “ } ” louis xvi .............................. . * } “ } “ ...... ” “ renaissance .............................. . * “ } “ in. } ” } “ louis xvi .............................. . * “ i “ ...... } " “ renaissance .............................. . * } " “ in. “ “ roman .............................. . * “ “ } “ } “ } " louis xvi .............................. . caps. nvmber. diameter. height. width. retvrn. style. prices. * } in. } in. ............ art nuveau ...................................... $ . * } “ “ ............ egyptian ...................................... . * ...... “ in. in. empire ...................................... . * ...... } “ } “ } “ renaissance ...................................... . * in. } “ ............ “ ...................................... . * ...... } ” } in. } in. empire ........................ , ............. . * ...... } “ “ ...... greek corner face ”, center face ”, recess г”. . . . . * } in. “ ............ gothic ...................................... . * ...... “ in. ...... “ for } columns ........................ . * cut on opposite page. numbers following similar in appearance. should above printed descriptions be insufficient, write for designs. above made in exterior composition; also plaster for interior only. above prices based on oak or birth. any other woods % extra. Т НЕ decorators svpply Со. @s »n d] и”, ‘ Ы »e ‘i "ú ~ .. v\` щ ii lf шт! i ` тми kind of goods shown herein are only a small percentage of our productions. as we embody the different articles we manufacture in separate catalogues, we have refrained from illustrating any other in this book, and therefore mention here the different branches of our manufacture, viz.: . exterior composition. . interior fibrous plaster in connection with plaster finish. . interior composition in conjunction with woodwork. . grille work. exterior composition is used very extensively for the ornamental features of build- ings. and for that purpose has taken the place of much more expensive materials. it is very durable and easily applied. combines with а very low price a very artistic finish. lts manifold uses for capitals, brackets, cornices, friezes, panels, arches, shells, and gables fill a constantly increasing demand by the professio-n. \ve can refer to a great number of fine buildings beautified by us with this class of goods. the interior decorations of public buildings, theaters, churches, and residences of to-day require a great deal of relief ornamentation for their refined finish. the manu- facture of these goods made of fibrous plaster forms a great part of our business. the immense possibility of this inexpensive material as a decorative medium has made it stand foremost in the minds of architects searching for an ornamental finish at а reasonable cost. no up-to-date building can lay claim to any architectural or deco- rative prominence without а Ь га use of this class of ornamentation in its interior. this part of our manufacture is immensely increasing as the nature of it becomes more and more understood. we can proudly claim hundreds of architects that have made use of the possibilities of these goods, and cannot say too inuch in praise of it. we have issued a special catalogue for interior ornamentations, which contains on its pages several thousand illustrations, showing every form or style of ornaments known to his- tory. we devote special catalogues to this class of work. the interior composition we have several times referred to in the preface forms quite a part of our output; when properly applied and finished, will give exactly the same results as wood carving, having the same grain; when filled represents any wood used, as oak, mahogany, birch, etc. it would deceive an expert to distinguish the fine examples of this class of goods in our show rooms from wood carvings. our thousands of models, running in style through all architectural periods known, enable us to make almost any conceivable design to imitate wood carving on interior woodwork, such as windows and door trims, sideboards, consols, mantels, etc. the v-ery fact that this material is so inexpensive has made it possible that almost any building has a liberal amount of this ornamentation distributed all over its interior wood finish. we cannot say too much of its merits as a decorative medium on woodwork, and would like to invite the trade to make a trial with it in order to be convinced. we have issued a special catalogue of fret or grille work. which has stood the criticism of the best people using this kind of ornamentation for beautifying houses. \/ve would like it understood that we aim to manufacture this article in any design and style t meet the general scheme of the interior decoration. we finish these goods in any color or wood. А fine grille is always a highly desirable ornamentation for openings between rooms. we justly lay claims to the distinction of being the foremost people in this country in the manufacture of these goods. ln conclusion, we wish to state that our range of manufacture covers almost every conceivable relief ornamentation known to the art of architecture, except in stone and metal. for this class of work we, however, furnish the models necessary. w'e respectfully invite all interested in the ornamental arts of building to visit our establishment. to be convinced that we are the largest and most advanced manu- facturers of relief ornamentation in its various branches in the united states. in presenting this catalogue to the trade, we wish to emphasize the fact that the the decorators svpply Со. we have excellent facilities for furnishing special designs quickly. estimates given on application. preface СОМРО ornaments, or imitation wood-carvings, have made for themselves a place of diver sified usefulness in ornamenting wood constructed articles, or for fine ceiling and wall decorations, to such a great extent of late years, that we feel encouraged to devote a special catalog to this class of ornamentation, which we herewith present to the trade. the illustrations in this book are taken from sample boards, photographed directly on the metal plates and half-tones made therefrom, so that the articles shown are almost as well presented to the eye as if the goods were seen. we believe to have brought out the finest collection of ornaments ever assembled to- gether in this line, and trust the illustrations will bear out this statement. we have endeavored to make said collection as comprehensive and diversified as our experience has taught us same should be, and have spared no effort, study, or expense to get together a most useful and artistic ensemble. our aim is to have models of almost every con- ceivable form or style of ornament ever designed and a number of different sizes of each. we are continually adding to our stock of new models, and any ornament not found in this book we may either have models for, or same may be procured short notice. we have a staff of competent designers and carvers working for us, making new patterns all the time. compo ornaments can be used to imitate wood carvings on all doors, windows, mantelsy consoles, and furniture of every kind and description, and readily stained to match the wood, so that no expert could be able to tell what part of the article is wood or compo. for gilded or white enameled woodwork or furniture, no better adapted or less expensive ornamentation can befound. as an ornamentation for ceilings and walls, and especially for wall panels, it has a place by itself, noted for its delicate, fine, artistic detail, and also great durability. for wall panels to be hung with silk and tapestry, the only ornamental framing adapt- able is composition on -р у veneer and ornamented wood mouldings rabbitted. see page . for ornamenting railroad and street cars, steamships, etc., compo has been exten- sively employed on account of its greater durability and fitness, being readily bent into any shape or curve. compo ornaments are almost exclusively used now in all places where wood-carvings were formerly employed. they are much less expensive, more durable, and fully as artistic, the greatest care having been bestowed in design and execution to bring about the finest results in our stock models. give compo a good try-out. when ordered from us it will show the best results. we guarantee it to endure all reasonable wear and handling and not to crack. we use only the very best material in making it. the largest and most artistic assortment of fine models are at your service, without special charge for same. our unexcelled facilities insure to you the smoothest and quickest service obtainable. the decorators supply СО. index op all ornaments si-iown round, square and oval rosettes - - - ­ _ _ panel ornaments - - _ _ _ _ _ _ shields - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ vases and shells - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ torches, musical instruments and fleur de lis ­ - - honeysuckle crestings, stair risers and bracket sides - ribbons ­ - - - - - - - - ­ figure ornaments and i-ieads - - - - — - gothic ornaments - _ - - ­ - - - - leaves - - - - ­ — - - - - drops wreaths - _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ festoons - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ pilaster and panel ornaments scroll friezes ­ - - _ _ _ _ _ _ bands and honeysuckles - - _ _ _ _ _ lambs tongues - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ egg and darts - - - - _ ­ _ _ _ beads and pearls - - _ _ _ _ _ _ art nouveau (new art) ornaments louis xiv, xv, xvi french renaissance periods - - - wall panel ornaments - - - - - - - wall panel mouldings ­ ­ - - - ­ ­ - window comices - - - - - - - - door i-ieads - - ­ - - - - - - - in catalog ­ - — - - - - . - - - - - to to . to . t . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . to . - to . round and square rosettes no. ` шедшими О О О О О o `i ` si `i si si осяч / h relief ëtäk \~ о Ю\ш `›‹ \-. w» \-. œu œ. шт : ä“ _„„\m œ oë-oe. á Н.- Я “sleìî if lîël-âkîrär _d ‚ :h 'j-i »ju \__h \~ » а «À . ? “da ' i „v_ œ \.. b \­- \... фи œ` w. &~\ .— \›— .l 'u , т. si" '-’ la i-. . g‘ :r :£ x". \"" \ _m- à. \н \— \-— \-‹ ‘ #\œ~w œ\œ\ \_. _tu \.. u.. ц. ‘д и. < j-\ а? ." \›- - ‚ +` ‘b \- . _. _du и i cl'. ik `А ос style italian renaissance italian renaissance itahan renahœance enndre (iijltiiiizil gothic moorish empire italian renaissance italian renaissance colonial italian renaissance iînipire gothic (ìodnc empire flemish empire empire clasmc classic (Èlassic iîrn ire colonial colonial byzantine moorish classic italian renaissance (Ílassic classic iîiiiriire italian renaissance italian renaissance renaissance classic classic iinnpire (ìothic (iothic (hasác riunan empire ( thic iiniińre romanesque roman iînipire louis xvi louis xvi italian renaissance renaissance renaissance iî ire iînipire ronuui italian renaissance ibmnan empire roman italian renaissance iînipire roman roman roman roman roman roman iìonian i( : roman roman iìriiiiziri roman ihxnan roman (joünc (Èothic empire roman roman iiiiiiiire roman litriiiiziii roman rcwnan ronmn roman roman roman ennure iìriiiizlii renaissance (Èrcek louhsfÃvi louis xvi louw Х\Ч price each . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‚ . . . .o . . ‚об . . .oo ‚об . . . . . ‚об . . . . .o . ‚об . no. s s s s .j \— `- »a Ц И п— ‘mn’a _d s.“ и" они а œ ад ч: ‚и щ _a ц- :i .j b\ au Ь` я ”А ‘n .j \›-‹ i й i œv œ Щ Ц— -‹`- c“ ... вы в.“ n\ «.- \ - - §\oc\ »|. $i \­­ vn ь— ‘н _dl un( . u *\œ w`ä щ \›‹ м "\ ef a l» / % l l „l =ы ч œ'xůl: н \—\ы ш ь`ь‘ш„ ..д„ \›— ‘-- \.›-п "л \- \.... :i: l­\ и' @nb- ohm Ähse `b­ и j" l.“ n\ »\ И . а}. гид? \'.u ¿hi style louk Х\Ч Ьоив x\d louis xvi roman empire greek roman roman roman roman roman empire roman roman roman roman italian renaissance italian renaissance italian renaissance roman roman italian renaissance roman roman roman renaissance roman roman gothic (iothic roman roman roman classic colonial iaduis )[\ii greek art nouveau italian renaissance roman roman greek empire roman roman flemish classic italian renaissance roman roman roman louis xvi empire empire empire roman empire roman empire empire empire colonial colonial flower rossettes flower rossettes flower rossettes greek roman renahmance empire empire iiiiiiiire colonial iîiiiiiirlë art nouveau roman classic colonial a colonial classic empire empire louis` xvi moorish ilonian italian renaissance empire empire moorish empire sullivanesque colonial colonial louis xvi roman empire classic italian renaissance price each $ . . .o . . . l . . . . . . . . . п . .o . . ‚ . . . . . . . .io .io .i .io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . _, . c . . . . pr ices su hiect t() discul'nt. the decorators supply co. ¿in ` ‚ . ЭИ ` ;. ho idb Н, shouldbe ‘í § . дюйм ьёаи round and square rosettes .iashoumaïtxßa explanation and instructions for application on page the д i _ decorators ‚ т ì supply _ с, ~` . ' ` ‘l ' co_ -° ‘ жх % ‚ y ‘i shouldbe zêvxx fhi shouldbe ИХ И oval and panel rosettes explanation and instructxons for application on page , panel ornaments no relief style price no. relief style price each each empire $ . âgé empire si lf elizabethan .so v empire . И empire . âs empire ."o Ó И empire . ¿i empire i . s так italian renaissance . И empire i . lí empire . greek . § empire la' greek . И empire . И italian renaissance zo . оо i § empire . the panel ornaments shown on opposite paqe are mounted and composed of a number of casts each. ive will furnish a pounce with the larger ones, for your guidance in mounting same. \`e have many odd ornaments and scrolls. from which we can mount a great variet)r of panels, in i_litîerent styles, forms and sizes. send for special designs and prices and give your measurements. “Ъ would advise our clients to either send us the woodwork or boards for complicated mountings, as we can much inore carefully and economically handle same in our factory. or have us make such boards or “'oodwork receiving rich ornamentation. we are well equipped in our “foodworking department `for that work. since we make all the wood parts ‘for our compo capitals~ and brackets in our own factory. prices subject to discount. the decorators supply co. шиит/+ . «le er' И; '* ' Ш и: “ Зе/адэд/в panel ornaments explanation and instructions for application on page . ТНЕ / x / :'/ ' / l .»' - sii'qxqiÍq À. . */,x /s k-< », i aß? , / x u @ .a x -'vg x у a l ` v ­v>vr a , тиши w' 'n @i shields . / х /з ‘i /.mvg itisxzsa . Уж? ses@ . _ ‘ „ Чзх и x % х , e ‘ : ’ ‘ ' : ' ”ш? decorators supply co. explanation and instructions for application on page . vases and sh el ls no relief style price no. relief style price each each :is colonial $ . ¿á louis xvi $ . . ' colonial . louis xvi . : colonial . o ¿ii colonial . - ' ' colonial . ¿s louis xvi . ‘s colonial . Н; louis xvi . . colonial .oo ¿i louis xvi . colonial . Та louis xvi l . oo ‘s colonial . sá roman . § ' colonial . ­‘ s french renaissance . colonial . ’ ' louis xvi . , colonial . ffa’ colonial . o louis xvi . В; colonial . äá colonial . ' colonial .io colonial . .'Í colonial . ¿í colonial . giá colonial . i Н french renaissance . „lâ colonial . § louis xvi . êá louis xiv . %- italian renaissance . colonial . ; colonial . ‘f french renaissance . Н colonial . louis xv . Н louis xvi . И colonial . И louis xvi . И colonial . fai colonial . louis xiv . ëá colonial .oo colonial . . louis xvi . colonial . hr colonial . ' § colonial . j.' louis xiv . И louis xvi . ' louis xvi . € louis xv . И louis xiv . И colonial . o Н colonial . sá italian renaissance . louis xvi . italian renaissance . / louis xvi . .( italian renaissance . louis xvi . giá louis xv . prices subject ТО discount. the --——-‹ ъ ‚. ' l” “ шиши - /«x / /,x / / x / smul' {gîa` l, l. l. y x / f , / » шт i Х aixîile ‚ ф ‘/: x / ' ".' /iij дн , Ъихшу @qn i Ь. i “v ФР v г; ‘ — : /exe ° вмиг/ g i s/,xíf/g / x / "h ‚и 'lf/@mm : ,/ " hx s zslsxsxls « \ [n }? А i / x ’/ 'Üb' ’jl/á и] j *i* _ «d «ff/q x / % тонн sáis : ’ik И; 'fb x » Ж /ß Ф : И”; бх / } Ж /,x / . : ‘ ?’ «ir . ”/ ”/ s e ff ‚за thur/ “t М _è ¢i> c’ ‚ wv & ”/,x / / .q v y " i _ _ i „у ‚в _ у” _ гике/я ч/ хз-г/ / - Матч/е /в- /s q~ x h qs/sxsßh „ ; " - »a torches. musical instruments, fleur de lis, etc. explanation and instructions for application on page . . % . / , .;{ / a «i *wird 'g' ‘ / / . , / / mf ß! ‘hf/@p д? " ‘ / ¿lz'fla » p ’lz z h 'n ¿_i u :/ x /z @mnh-@ms as. i decorators supply co. iqo. relief ‘ha от ‘ш (А. ‘г »\ l.“ .ò\ »al \ °зг » un \ u`\ "и \-. м -- \.-. v к... ._ \. la ¿a :l в” n" Ы Ь\ Э’ @x щ‘ . Эт н- \ы \`.. j-\ œ'. к *\ an. louis xvi ii n irc empire louis xvi colonial colonial louis xvi empire iinnńrc louis xvi . us }{\'i colonial louis xvi i§ >ire louis xvi iìnnńre ennńre ijolńs )(\'i ii n ire colonial empire louis­ xvi empire empire empire empire iìnipirc ( i lìn pire italian renaissance iînîpirc louis xvi iîrn ire prices subject ТО discount. prà? isz cl so. . . . . . . - . o . о . o ‚ .zo ‚ . . o ribbons no. relief Ъ.— жхъжцэтък КК?Ж°Ё*’Ё“Э* °‘=; ) е italian renaissance empire 'empire louis xvi itaüan ronaßsance lìn pirc linipire iìnîpire itaüan ronaksance itaüan renaùsance italian renaissance louis xvi iaduis ){\'i colonial louis xvi louis xvi iînnńre iî ire itaüan renahmance iî ire itaüan renaùsance empire ernpue ii ire itaüan renaßsance italian renaissance (Í i l empire }(\'i empire in pírc iloińs }{\Íi pńce each i 'b . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . .zo . . . . no. i ' relief y \*‘ \°" u -х ›\ м\ ЧМ \-- чл ` ^ «Ь œ" li Ж ~œ œ\ ‘tw _j ‚.р у “n Час \ ‚.‚ “и *\а':Ращ а w - г: ь si» figure ornaments and heads style or name empire natural owl arf, nouveau classic colonial ctńonial natural owl enuńre italian renaissance iînuńrc (hasdc linipire empire (hasúc iìeriaissaiice renahmanee classic natural “fing italuln ileriaissaiice natural “ionian natural butterfly prices subject to discount. ‘г се each i.) ij nn ij . . o . o . . [. .oo . o no. s relief iaoï л \- и. .ad ...und ua un fz ‘Ь‘ - ’r ЭГ uw :n ".»i ‘ "\ „ч ‘ln wd, v_“ об» Ь` {х style or name natural butterfly italian renaissance itaüanÍrenaßsance natural “fing natural snake iinnńre naturalsnake (Íkissic louÈsicvi louisfi\' natural bird natural bird natural bird iierahüc eagle nalurallhrd enuńre italùin ileliaissarice i oińs x
 louis xv italian renaissance iìinißire i’rice iuach ,» мы nl . o . . . . . ШМЮЮММ .oo . .bo . . . . . . . . .oo . .oo .oo figure ornaments, heads and gothic ornaments no. ' relief style or name price no relief style or name price each each И boy's head $ . у, german renaissance $ . ,'Ä Воу'з head . Уз natural lion . ê/à german renaissance . lí german renaissance . И cherub . âá italian renaissance . И; bo_\"s head . И gothic . boy's head . gothic . М Мап'з carieasure . И gothic . o И man’s carieasure . о / gothic . o И louis xv . gothic . И \'отап' head . И gothic . ëf's cherub . sii gothic . И german renaissance . § n gothic . . cherub . iâ gothic . zi cherub . gothic . lion's head . - lí italian . ’ lion's .head . lí gothic . % lion's head . ‚И gothic . if.; cherub . ŕ; italian renaissance . cherub . o И gothic . cherub . gq’ gothic . И lion's head . “; gothic . if lion's head . § gothic . . / lion's head . gothic . § cherub . gothic . И; Ь оп`$ head . И gothic . ifi ram's head . § gothic . , i lion's head . ' gothic . И cherub . / gothic . , cherub . § gothic . german renaissance . § gothic . § lion's head . § gothic . gothic . gothic . i man's caricature . И gothic . И lion's head ` . ё-в gothic. . sá lion's head . ; gothic . lé louis xv . %» _ gothic . И louis xv . ,lf gothic ` . И man's caricature . о ` gothic . И boys head . И gothic . prices subject to discount. leaves no. relief style price no. reuep style price of overhang u ’ leaf each of overhang of leaf each on top on top {к louis xvi so . “; ‘fá romanesque $ . o И l; louis xvi . ‘в empire . fi là empire .o :'á ' empire . o ,'.Í i ’ louis xvi ‚ М {д empire . ,la empire . И ' gothic . И greek . :'á ¿i empire . ‚ italian renaissance . ‘ empire . ' ' greek . ’; И; louis xvi . И ‘í empire . i ‘ ' ’ greek . И v italian renaissance . { ‚Ч italian renaissance . , roman . у“: louis xvi . § és greek . ‚ ; louis xvi . § roman . ,' italian renaissance . #if greek . ;' empire . $ ' ¿a french renaissance . o {к ’á italian renaissance . {Я} И italian renaissance . o la’ За italian renaissance . § greek . ’s romanesque . . louis xvi . ‘s “s italian renaissance . . romanesque . .. . , louis xvi . % °.; louis xvi . ) ' ‘í (ìreek . °.; ;; louis xvi . И italian renaissance . И И; renaissance . { И greek . êí italian renaissance . o it; italian renaissance . ,' ’ italian renaissance . , empire . % И renaissance . Н italian renaissance . И И italian renaissance . lf; З‘х gothic . ; z {Ед louis xvi . {а lâ romanesque . ,is empire . o #n ‘á louis xvi . . louis xvi . ’i Ц italian renaissance . % ’ empire . ‘í louis xvi . ; french renaissance . о ' И louis xvi . И ¿s italian renaissance . ‚ад ‘á roman . И И italian renaissance . И roman . fr; italian renaissance . о ,'ís Ь’з roman . g lí; italian renaissance . i s l( italian renaissance . до ¿i И italian renaissance . И italian renaissance . И italian renaissance . )i italian renaissance . ¿v italian renaissance . fg И greek . ‘a И italian renaissance . prices subject to discount. the decorators supply СО. . " x @ » ‚ v s _ sÍ'sÉÃÖs/e'jëî'xjm )* ”> ' : / “ .>-iíì-ÈÈ iÃui' ’eà' .y ` uxzs/ ¿it/ "“ гика», " ? ` ‘lf/ x @ wsrf/ / x 'Íi 'it/ x / " / ` «§ » dbnl '@ к . '/„x ‘i ’le ‘la Х И; esÄò - м ' Í ' ` ` esso З leaves explanation and instructions for application on page . no. “ () ( (› rehef of Ох'сгЬапк relief on Тор так .' .'v l % \— к \ w ů l n д—р-‘Ьп-пц.‘ i cj w dulunub 'a . \­‘ \- ‘ ¿s ° \," œ. об. . и“ à \"' \— Ь\ bs \— ¿l \ -\ \-. \»-‹ \— `— \— \— \ l www .“ \— \- \- \... И ¿'\ : zi“- 'jh И : в» \'­‘ ‘il \-— \s| _i _d \›‹ \— "- в: ‘ вы}: œ\°ga “a“œ ­\x. ëëä? \­¢ \— \`— ё\ и §\ style r enissant. е italian renaissan ‘e italian renaissance roman annan italian renaissance itaüan renaußance italian renaissance gothic ltaüan renaßsance louis xvi louis xvi itahan renaùsance renaissance l{enaßsancc classic roman romanesque italian empire romanesque louis xvi louis xvi r nnan (ìreek roman roman roman roman rinnan rxnnan roman roman roman roman classic classic classic classic classic classic italian renaissance classic italian renaissance rennan roman renaissance italian italian louis xvi empire rinnanesque romanesque iïtiiiiirc natural italian renaissance ronmn rinnan roman ianÚspcv louis xv louis xv iinipire natural prices subject to discount. price each $ . . . . . ‘l . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . o . . . . .oo . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . .o . . . .o .o . . . . . . .o . . . . . . . leaves no. ( n relief ot (lverliang relief on 'l op ‘ ’ % l l il# \ .. ц... \— - b œ~ \ ’ i “u ' ц- à’\ i -‹ \Ь‚ qq \-— \!и и `~| 'n \ ‚.. ~ т и «l u`~ œ Н œ œ x. - \­­ о. u \г-. s.. \.-. их am œ. С .j »\p\xsat# m ш œ» u\ \.. \-- ".- \и \_ \‹ Н l-i »n `-‹ \`›‹ .n н\ к: «s _l \ull \ lll ‘ lll n‘\ u\ :Ä {и На \›-‹ is œ. d style piattiirxil natunú (lasńc classic classic classic classic (hasńc classic classic (ikissic classic (hague moorish (Назло natural oak natural oak empire empire empire empire empire natural oak natural oak classic classic classic (hasác classic (Пакте (iothic i.oins )(\' (Äasńc classic classic classic classic classic classic classic classic classic classic iinnńre empire iînipire italian renaissance empire itahan renabwance romanesque annanesque romanesque iîniińre italian renaissance iîn pire ronuuumquc romanesque loubÃx\w_ italian renaissance itaüan renahsancc romanesque greek italian renaissance renaissance price each $ . . . . . . .o .o .o . . . .o . . . . . . o . o . о . . . . o . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . o . . . o . . o . . . . . . . . . . . o . n . ; prices subject t() relief ot­ (поташ: .`. `l b мы 'j x ’n \'j\ t» relief style greek greek (ireek (ireek greek greek greek greek greek (ireek greek greek greek italian renaissance italian renaissance italian renais<ance italian renaissance italian renaissance italian renaiaaance italian renaissance italian renaiasance italian renaissance greek (ireek (ireek (ireek italian renaissance italian renaissance louis xvi louiq. x\'i luuk x\ louis x\'i loue;)cvi loubÃx\Í louis xvi louisa xvi louis xvi louis` xvi italian renaissance italian renaissance italian renaissance italian renaissance italian renaisßance italian renaisaance italian renaisaance italian renaissance italian renaisaance italian renaishance italian renaissance italian renaissance italian renaisqance italian renaiasance italian renaissance italian renaissance italian renaissance discount. i)tlv\* hach so ‚ . . . ‚ . . . . . . . o .oo .o . . . . . .t \ v ‚ . . . ‚ . _ . . . . . . . . . a .ЗО . . . .lo . . .o . .оо .o .o leaves relief i' (Поташ: ‘в l ld ‚ЧИН relief style italian renai~sance italian renaiwance (Àreek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek greek roman roman roman roman roman roman roman roman roman ruman empire empire empire roman roman roman roman roman (jreek greek roman roman roman empire empire empire Èmpire empire empire empire empire empire empire empire price each $ . . . . . . . . . . o . . . . 'l . с . . . o .jo . о . .so . о . o . . . . . . . ‚ .lo ‚ . . . . . . - . . o . . . . the a *t ‘д it :c ' ­ i <-`. l +- y„ a ‚ .‚ __ . «дат/‚щи. i ' ` / ‘ / »i ' i . / ‘в мх: @ „nuilßß rims i ‘la x /s ,u т i ’/.f,x ’/¢ o im` pcsi/s а x . г; i“ 'si/ : h; :¿ '. ‚ Á . п—з ЕЁ . ‘wm `э i, `\‚ `.\ а .’“ / х : / х /‚ „ , m тунец“ ’mom Ч x / v v „ ‘ i i ‚ ' ’/ex ‘r ~, @à „n . q .x`\‘_\k x з / в . А i zvmo y sxsv. ‘ x / ~‘ ахти rose ¿aŕeaaaeaàáfbäáâ _ / ! decorators supply СО. l v: { }; ` ` ‘Ах @-nwaijias ce explanation and instructions for application on page . the decorators supply СО. ~"` - ‚в и! f i ,l «i ‚ ` А ".›У ’ u ч. ; a #www ‘i » ч Í. , ` \ . u, the larger drops are s h i p р e d in seveml casts. »y l gw ' l .. y + А ,' «yr »mh mf по nw _Éd i ’ '­ Ч’МХ’Ю‘А ‘ х ’д: “ ru ‘l i '/ х % ездх ом- же), «wh ‚ тат г”.- l, l v i) Ь ` jiu' voàe ‘î sÍ» x _ / _ î @man ­ i' _ », pa i "u ,e для)” à p ..;, » . › `‘ ’ ‘ ’ ’ х ” Í» с! i.: А î il ‘ß Ф ъ 'l ’ì è î »ß x $‘\_ т %x / '. ` ч .„\§\, „А. „ц. д. - ; ч. ›`е, Ъ`а -‚ Бинт/з ‘sl-*q « qf- ' а:- мхи», _ ,« д mv; Эх .' “Ё ”‘ о` К /,х ЗИХ’П‘А П\ закатив/д ‚а ' u »y „q . q, ' k ¿i ` _i _ _ c? ъ «naf-n @ 'vf ` à С" Ё: _ n’ t. j „n a .. „. \....:...' \..­„~.„.,:, ..-_q..„`-­„„..,a<„ ' ‘ё’ /ng , i t /« % /sx ‘ / x “/sx ‘/~. @lun-@ms со. drops explanation and instructions por application on pagels. no. > | : relief ` \_ . д - м и Ь\ ьх + »\ e“ ü“ œ Ф style empirel louis xvi empire louis .\'\'i empire empire louis xvi louis xvi louis` xvi louis xvi louis xvi italian renaissance empire louis xvi louis xvi empire empire empire empire louis xvi louis` xvi louis xvi empire empire prices subject to discount. price each . . o .zo ‚ ‚ . . . o . . o , . o . . . () . . ‚ . ) ‚ .. wreaths no. . relief И и и style empire empire empire empire empire empire renaissance empire empire empire louis .\'\'l empire empire louß Х\Ч empire empire empire empire empire empire empire louis xvi louis xvi price each $ . . . . o .zo . .oo .qo . . . . . ulg-qlu o .zo . . . . . . th e decoratcrs supply co. wreaths explanation and instructions for application on page . the . l?? deco rato rs_ supply СО . ‘iq тетю а s , - . .` -` :ñ f ax? м __ :_v ` alllargc wreaths .gr ‚ ' are composed of \ y »_ . ' . „а ` д: - several casts. «a ` y io ’iqxqs/ ‘ °st / /qx v: ' / x / ` ' */,xshg wreaths explanation and instructions for application on page . i festoons no. relief style price per no. relief style price per lineal foot lineal foot И adams so . И colonial so . ‚Ё: colonial . ê'á french renaissance . italian renaissance . И empire . - louis xvi . И colonial . И empire . colonial . ¿á colonial . И colonial . И empire . colonial . empire . ,' ’ colonial . ŕ; colonial . fl.; colonial . И colonial . И colonial . И french renaissance . И colonial . о ~ ’ modern renaissance . И colonial . И modern renaissance . И empire . ŕ; modern renaissance . o И colonial . g И modern renaissance . И empire . colonial . °; colonial . " .; colonial . i ' colonial . l german renaissance . prices subject to discount. the a' ' `­ .alai/zxá"~ ч бихё въхзт v er». .v ‚ п " : ': . ‘­ festoons deco rators supply СО. all lengths print- ed on plate arc measured from cen- ter to center of drop. all large festoons are com- posed of s e v e ra l casts. , explanation and instructions por application on page . the decorators supply СО. all lengths print- ed on plate are measured from center to center of drop. length and d r о р of festoons can be changed when mounting same. all large ornaments shown on this page are composed of separ- ate ornaments. pestoons, v a s е s, torches, etc.. are sent separate as s a m е cannot be handled in mount» ing as one piece. ' no. relief А él lí / % li style price per lineal foot french renaissance colonial colonial italian renaissance italian renaissance empire french renaissance french renaissance $ . . . _ . ,per fes. . o " s. ‘ й i pestoons explanation and instructions for application on page . no. reliet­ style И empire ' ‚ , impire % empire i colonial И empire ; empire i ’ modern renaissance flemish prices subject to discount. f 'vr-u price per lineal foot $ . . . . . . . . _‘ _ Ед! .il —` the l price mounted on ì -pl_v wood no. relief style price each. panels, each. И empire $ . $ . И italian renaissance i . ‚со И italian renaissance . . explanation and instructions for application on page . pllaster panels no. relief И И \’ m l` :c n e.. f in price mounted on _ -р у wood style price each. panels. each. empire $ . `$ . italian renaissance .co . prices subject to discount. decorators supply СО. the pil а s t e r ornaments shown here are shipped in many separate casts. “Ъ will furnish apounce for mounting s a rn е— but would recom- mend to send pilas- ters for mounting to our factory, or have ns make the pilasters. -Í\ *i* fn' is~ i* - ­ ‚.аъ‘ ` i: с d ' ¿gv p ­'.f' д" r k y?. l .l' ° panel ornaments no. relief style price no. relief style price _ each each ‚И renaissance s .оо т'; empire . ". ya.; moorish . И empire . И renaissance . ^ empire . oo ‘_ % empire . И louis xvi . о ~ так romanesque . И empire . oo i“ i); italian renaissance . o ¿i louis xvi . {в italian renaissance .oo И empire .oo ¿a , И romanesque . o ' И empire . j И empire ~ . И empire . ' И empire . И italian renaissance . _ moorish . И italian renaissance . i ŕ; gothic . h italian renaissance .so ‚. И empire . v; italian renaissance . j И renaissance .оо fá italian renaissance . _ " И empire . И louis xvi . i ' êfá elizabethan . И german renaissance . о l the larger ornaments shown on opposite page are composed of several casts to facilitate the mounting. we would recommend to our clients i : send panels for complicated mountings to our factory. . . l" i prices '_subject «_to"ŕ discount. ‘Ã’ о . . , ’. .› u the decorators supply co. a f* l ` a. „ь .- .!„x / 'w /.x /e а. #- v i.. ) a panel ornaments explanation and instructions for application on page . no. ° k i relief ŕŕì` »\ КХЖКФЁЁФХХЁККЖЁ-ХЭК‘ spandrlls and panel ornaments st yle empire empire louis xv louis xv moorish moorish moorish moorish moorish empire empire natural rose french renaissance natural rose conventional rose conventional rose french renaissance italian renaissance italian renaissance italian renaissance renaissance romanesque romanesque louis xvi louis xvi italian renaissance italian renaissance prices subject to discount. price each $ . . no. relief ii it И И А 'х › ' И zt А s” х И” ¿i i И si эй bí т'ц У ¿i И . il: ii ‘/= И if lí style figure spandrils figure spandrils louis xvi louis xvi louis xvi louis xvi ­ louis xvi louis xvi italian renaissance italian renaissance louis xvi italian renaissance colonial french renaissance italian renaissance italian renaissance italian renaissance empire french renaissance greek german renaissance louis xvi german renaissance louis xvi french renaissance empire louis xvi „о the decorators supply СО. а . »exif - ? ( er ios/qxiulsîl ” - gaagax ` “s '. ‘ ›.‚ тай / х / ` ' f. . läßt . тёл e i ж ' x @ i a . щ fis/ms“ \ «из ' г а?" s :î'iäàb ê' щж ` :/gxâsftf ‘_ x ’la ' х *lg */s х ’fs ŕ *i `­ f( ‚ ‚ зме- ’ "! spandrils and panel ornaments explanation and instructions for application on page th e lv-vvfŕ ‚ decorators supply co. / . / panel ornaments explanation and instructions for application on page . _ the decoratorÈ supply ca . Лёд/ : : tti» v ß~`„ x тат : . . бз/охзз/З ‘ - х` ` ‚` ‘ „ ‘~ ` аза" к‘ж^ё - 'm _ ' ‘ ' ” х ~"/­. 'v h­ к sv: î ‘ - /.x /l panel ornaments explanation and instructions for application on page . the decorators supply cq v / ! — /. / : : ! / / .‘ /БХ / М,“ —. _ y _ . /: / `Íß'vzlíîvg ` . @ß a i ч y y ` n f y ` ~ ' x ”в y "/ x ’fs : ” „r х i : x , q sxggs ‘ii/ x ‘i / x ’!вХ / х , . l а panel ornaments ‘.' д explanation and instructions for application on page . the no. relief И И É т‘: ñ И /= :h И И И : i style price per font french renaissance french renaissance italian renaissance italian renaissance german renaissance german renaissance louis xvi adams louis xvi italian renaissance italian renaissance uis louis xvi $ n l. i. ~ 'scroll friezes \ style price' per foot empire . italian renaissance i . louis xvi . italian renaissance . italian rem-ii sance . french renaissance . italian renaissance i . o empire ’ i . о louis xvi . italian renaissance . french renaissance . louis xvi . louis xvi i . decorators supply СО. the larger orna- ments shown „lon this page are composed of sev- eral casts to facili- tate the топт- ing. we 'would recommend to our clients to s e n d panels for compli- cated mountings lo our factory. explanation and instructions for application on page . prices subject to discount. no. ' rehef is % % style price per foot (heek $ . italhn l{eruńssanee . (ìreek ‚ (Ёгсск . (Ёгеек . (Èrcek . llcnnrisli . )ioorish . moorish ` . moońsh . moorish . ó )ioorish . o ­\~loorisl . moorish . i{enaßsancc . moońsh . celtic ` . louis xvi greek . (ìreek . (sreck . louis xv . louis xv . louis xv . louis xv f . colonial . (Зе с . (Эгсск . greek . (ireek . (brock . (Èreck . (ìreek . greek . (Èreck . prices subject to discount. bands no. s relief ‘rl-Ä ‘и in' ьхцр} \щи к... и i Чд‘ *\ ‚. _\....'ь.\>н ни! $è­á" ­\-wvœ,œ ¿mi? \~ Миф» \-с lì :p l? \­­ \-. ­~ сах И“ М styh (jreek g re¢l k (ireek g reek louß.x\ louis x \' i (breek egypńan ronuul g ree k renaissance colonial colonial coknual colonial colonial coknńal colonial coknnal colonial greek (ìothic louis xvi iaduis }(\ii louis xvi louis xvi louis xvi colonial colonial colonial colonial coknńal colonial colonial ronuui price per foot, $ . . ‚ . . c . . . . . . . . . . . o . o . . . o . . . . . . . . . o . . . . o . the .,l ` . ’ ï ‘lv ч f nf l Г ` “диктанты; .fr ` г“ ì , ‘ „ i / шутят ' шЛье` v . , книжники“! i s ` ' / f" Р’г _y ‘uuu ‚А на nu“ - . » _ эх. ‘Èiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii “а ппнппппппппппвп | h; aa. la ‘lz/ ; @ ‘ih/ s l .d l y v #in i l. да . „*f; .ww-¿_at__ 'i"/„, „wy `j^` ` ‚ ‘is/ / h( imke / ` не ”в , i‘i де Ц ‘п bands eÁlanation and instructions for application on`page> . ‘ _ : o v, 'll'kÍlÍmlll'lÍno ‘nm Ílll'lll'lîlîl'illlo ÍÍk'ÍÍi ппкпптппо "n" llllllllîlllmû [rml ; % n/ the l / i ‘ i decorators supply co. ~__ ` ьз the шт ­ ’/ ЁЁ<Ё><ЁЖЁЁ<ЁЭЕЁКЁ / ооооо' Г/о ì i*i‘­"i^ `i^i ' > % h каш m“ эвпччччстпичтчгтп ; —\ А\‚А\ А\‚ d\ »q l\ a\_ ‘i / ’i 'Ь\_‚А чА\ А\_‚А\ iil l ”/ decorators supply СО. Ё */ i) u #masps дс-мв—ив-цв—ив „rasee ‚ “км . усищи-пшяннлгпачпг Б-ЁЕЕЁЁЁЭЁТЧЕБЁЁБЁБ з/ m „ . m' w;‘_‘ âëgäëärëëßgâiääŕîî i ‚ :'/ l . /q , Í". “axa т bands and stem mouldings explanation and instructions for application on page . v.wazap ‘m ¿ yaan ‘Á ßaie а. г ' , ' ’ ‘fl s "'/s l', ’l "/ ‘lf/ vvv` „ - v „ efÈeeÉfefteeefe /, /a 'hi/îg mm , к. iqo. rciiuÍ ‘l ' ik is ‘n _a \~­l .- — ь титан,” .— НЫММПКЗОЕМАМЕМТЗ and style priœ per foot empire . art nouveau . ¿xn nouveau . art nouveau . jän nouveau . louis Х \'i . empire . italian renaissance . iiniińre empire . louß Х\Ч ‚ empire . iî »irn\ . n empire . () empire . iinipire . empire . itaüan renahßnnee . o louis xvi . o louis xvi . б [‚Оъйз ){\'i . o empire . italian renaissance . ronuui . empire . iinipire . isnipire . italian renzißsunce . empire . () empire . iaöius }(\’i . iin pire . prices subject t() discount. no. bands relief? i , l / ik \­­ \.- т Ö\ “ähäleîe : ъэцгццэъ st уи- price per foot louis xvi $ . louis­ xvi . art nouveau . art nouveau . o jän nouveau . iajuis }(\'i . laauis )c\'i ‚ (Ёе с . romanesque . o romanesque . o ronuuußque . o empire . Кмппапезцие . romanesque . german renaissance . o renaissance . arabkui . arabian . german renaissance . moorish . suihvanesque . suihvanesoue . ehzabethan . iiüzaiœthan .h german renaissance .o eüzabethan . iîhzabethan . iîhzabethan . (rüde . Äioorhńi ‚ Áioornńi . moorish . ТНЕ :" / ì' ` йджжжйт > . , l è. йдчидгдддгид " l ’ls мат” f ч Гм " ¿fs v зчоо »s ¿¢¿«e_ f ‘i чадами-ваш: */ . г */ ¿f ff äf нм / t ‘: sacs з /s ч. азоддпъ? nos " mv ~ ‘www У am / ~ А ‚ .r ‘i . ' Ё: : i ‘. -" - `\›\›\›\›\‚\„.\‚\‚‚ _ % ‘/'­' / “ « : И: '/e running ornaments and bands explanation and instructions for application n page . СО. t* два» vfávj . . :à о a» f' y ' / w“ _“- »- er- ‘lâ/ % i “lo »ih i l . > ". . ‚‹ ’lg decorators supply bands and friezes no. relic( style price per foot no. relicí style price per foot %- sullivancsque $ . И arabian $ sullivancsquc r . oo efi arabian . И celtic . ŕ; moorish . И celtic . т" moorish . И: moorish . o И; sullivancsque .Óo И celtic . o moorish . o ,'s celtic . ‚ gothic . i Сети . т‘д moorish x . ; romanesque . ; arabian . the larger ornaments `<hown on opposite page are composed of several casts to facilitate the mounting. ive would recommend to our clients to scnd panels for complicated mountings to our factory. prices subject ТО discount. О the ` y i. , .i /l ¿ijs/¿alîbëg :a i qq explanation and instructions ‘ ' ira ,'_ _ ‘ ' ,aa-nw“ ‘ ‘ ' модема ` али- , » u »gaa »pti wps; " ' i ‚ vj'. .; ‘l -“‘ ¿a Й, @emails ‚а @la . ч ¿hilëâ @www l* n# äfi ш МФЁЁ .. мы у? ’ Мам: ' ¿jeffŕäeâfgáwägïäi : шиш. î Ф? .ЦЁЖЁфрШМйЁЁЁ honeysuckles and bands for application on page . à .­-i" г цч; /.. ¿am : .. -..ú-f мы. if decorators supply СО. РЧо. the larger ornaments shown on opposite page are composed of several casts to facilitate the mounting» relief И bi iâ il; fà si}le empire empire classic classic (hasúc enuńre empire empire empire [snipire empire empire iinuńre empire classic (“авто iînuńre iîiiiiiire empire iinipire hon eysuckles i-’ricc per foot $ . . о . . . . . o ‚ . . ( . . . . . . . . o . . o send paneh f rcon pücated nunuujngsio ourfactory. prices subject to discount tio. i reüef га Ё‘ёТЗЁЖ' ‘v_ \­. *\ ‘\ Энд" \...-‘ .`аР $ д° ` *jj *\ style" i >ire empire iinuńre classic empire empire iînuńre empire empire classic (hasńc empire classic empire iînuńre lìnuńre iînuńre iìiiiiiire iînuńre empire price per foot $ . . . . . . o . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . “ie would recommend to our clients to lam bs tongue mou i_.dings n . relief style price per foot il'; roman $ . )s roman . i ‘ roman . gtcci( ‚ l: greek . { greek . ¿a greek . greek . И empire . ,la roman . greek . :is roman . ,lx empire . й greek . g renaissance . )s roman . . classic . -; ‘ renaissance . j.. roman . roman . , roman . в roman . g roman . ’д roman . § roman . roman . greek . ffii classic . greek . ‘á greek . ,' ' greek ‚ Н classic . ¿is roman . .' greek _ ‘ ; greek . а“, roman . ,' greek . ‚ renaissance . io roman . à; roman . roman . ) greek . И italian renaissance . р Ё (empire . Н к с ; _‚ сс v' . б) ' i ggg? älassic . ’ v ) Р; “А. ' › ‚ oman . i ' ‘i f { roman . le В. ' ged“ lw #a greek . _ ¿if/ l@ Ю уди greek . _ it” ъ ' .' ; greek . ¿v Зн roman . — . „а, roman . ' bja@ :il romlan . ‚ Ё {д -i gree ' . v г А п в roman . _ euch) fg; h, (iâreek . : ?) ‚до “_ oman . _j classic .go l w renaissance . ’ (vireek . x' Н greek . . „y . т? ‘ ' roman . e "' ‚З; grec-î . u д gree ' . ­ к roman . , „ будь Ъ? ‚ greek . ? ‘ ' renaissance . д; b- gg* ‚в qfeŕilr - бэее am . п (lassic . . % classic . " % italian renaissance . Д, _ greek. . m "т ¿a roman . {д roman _ . у? § ; , ¿talizltçn renaissance . б к ‚ — п `»ree . ‘<': " : j qw l è.' 'i в?” ,u roman . è? ь jj ч ‚.— ö ’ % renaissance . st “ u . roman . ¿tze . х n , greek . 'ab' Ё? ’v ‘l s greek . а ", ` — ‘s greek . и; Е #n roman _ . ÖÖyo _ . 'i д,- Ёздм ‚ italian irìenatssance . ì jb. ­ ta ian enaissance . ' ß.` ’ t.. ‚ empire . .~ @jgö ­ y Ё ' i italian renaissance . «i ’ñ it'ili'in r nais n l ‘ " " ‘ч italian rgniiisïiingï n v в” ‘ . . . ч: . ’d i Н italian iâenaissance . ', ,f j 'i ta ian enaissance . .ë 'a Í i »i , t ' " . f . „ : .iii s“ . - v; roman . , ч f ' ’ À“ .. . . roman . - с ‚"" - и; ` '_ l italian renaissance ” . б) ‘í empire . if.; i. n; °; (.lassic . [ ,f classic . , Пиано . ä' w т’д classic . .z ' ‘i classic . М" ‚ . t ab g q #a greek . °“° ф ‘ я italianklîelnaissance . ­ Ё ouis ' ` . a “‘ if; (freek xw' i . ' ”С, .outs . ' . f ‚ ' ron an . Ё '" the accompanyingr ydesign snows the sections of all the compo mouldings. those sliowri in conjunction with wood illustrate how same should bc used and applied. \ е do not turnish the wood unless specially ordered. prices subject to discount. the flu-lw“- ми _f *lÃ-¿l . , nm..„;..,m,„§..¿„,;w. .wwr y?. g.. .. ‘im’ i “и“? ' ‘ läßt@ “Фти этими l ¿n.însmwrwßmv-z _.”- у у __,... _. . ... -an ‘smm Ь мм `lil/lv i .a - .n_n- - ч. и-и—.ьч-—нчн-—г-—__-яч-— . „.— lambs tongue mouldings explanation and instructions for application on page . i «шаткими l г decorators supply СО. the decorators supply Í д ”пуху/тж?" ' l y ` i з ` .t Ь СО. час-пави—иоио d и ' ‘l "- “— ‚ „ ‘ . may ‚аспид—почищен. g f ‘i’ mw i v„ „ma“ l ’lxgles “Í x >Í . ' ‘ a ¿más ядх :jl/. /. / а : / п : ? /. ‘ _ ’mf/ ‚. »srv/, v ‘.БА„ /„ / /, / )fs/ sf: ffa/ ’lg z sh; БЛя :nr-’lm ì / / l afm?! ‚ i ‘n z “ s i / / \ ‘my/ , l / , х / ì i з ’wxs/su l i z/ x lg, l /: /fs . v / j¢"‘/|¢ y. „ l )mxn/: > .vf/ „ v v ’ymxî/qb _ /_ :х‘/ "wala/m' „ß/„va „___-...___- ’luf/ то ‘ z за с ’fg x И; ‚ „да/„ . / ', j / / »wxs/,u ’an :zb/ r, ` axn/ “ : ? ’virzì/ / xv: l l (d титаны/и. ш... „сын ново: -annua- . . ”. _. v_ l . / ‚ ”Лайки ’ А / / y# ,», uäŕiq„r è §î­­§§ §§f~ * an, ¿e? " uî:;;;­­ мху” ‚т„„ _ _ЁЁ;;;;: w„x%„ s “А” x / : » И i /. / / Й” l : ’in l â"/xs y» ’l l : : - ‘he ì /, /: "vm - "vm : : : y i И?! “las n ‘псмщошщщм : их /„_ mnmm-»muumwu .a ` `fax-" »,y том—ос % И ”/ Щ... Ё/„хд/в. ( ‚щами—ию— ’fn )rz/s mmm Идиш ’n х “щ . ‘mls/ ‘la ’ys/n "'/mxj/:n ' ’imf/.u n/:n х if; x у; "isaza/lc "lz: z ’in f,” i ’an ‘[ z / ! ‘isaza/m “au И; zz/xe lr, z у.” ‘las - И ‘lax ‘he :Íox als А ß/„rnim ‚‚ . ‘wnju/ av . ß/,sxß/z, : . ~ 'fm ‚О’ОМ’ОО ' ; /. ' / ,oom-„jij х jl — 'lz/m f / mw». n z'fuer-‘l `~'/ns x “fie да: ï hfs: шиит...“ аЛи х “fm ‘ck-. z ' , 'lz/. z ‘_’er “in z :ln “faz l c/.u ‘lnx :i ß ” : ’fm vfl-’lf volw/:a ’sz т “ha z /z шт , - / т “ / mm ’iglu/m ‘hals/ М l /. / _ef-»ma ma :hz Í mm / / „nm Идти al", / l ì уши-(дин с: г ›‚ beads and pearls explanation and instructions for application on page . l french renaissance ornamentsŕ louis xiv, xv and xvi periods no. relief style price price each no. relief st _vle each И louis xiv $ . louis xiv $ . ,lâ louis xv . () ‘í louis xv . louis xvi . if; louis xiv . И louis xv . ,z louis xiv . louis xv . »,í louis xv . i louis xv . т' louis xvi . o И louis xiv . â/n louis xiv . i louis xiv . louis xvi . И louis xvi . louis xvi . € louis xv . louis xvi . lí louis xv . louis xvi . louis xvi . lí louis xvi . o louis xvi . i louis xvi . »§ louis xvi . § louis xiv . i/á louis xv ‚ : louis xiv . louis xv . : louis xvi . i louis xv . () ,li louis xvi . И louis xv . louis xiv . ; louis xv . louis xiv . *; louis xvi . ”.; louis xvi . , € louis xv . ' louis xvi . louis xv . prices subject t() discount. the decorators supply СО. ешь french renaissance ornaments explanation and instructions for application on page . i _ vw kwa, « .zwi ç y. §,­ «qu-* ' 'i' gq' ­ a? " к“; tarwwîx'- ` _ ‘ _ ' *fx Ц. a'r " ` _ h i x ъ v -í ‘ a. ~ " ' i ' ` ‘ the ¿. .. з il ‘ “' »ir -p ”а l ` .. ~ —' decorators supply d со. . _,i ep' :n_ìè» _' “_ 'i'g'.n£î„~*n-.l," „l ЕЁ; '- louis xiv and xv period ornaments explanation and instructions for application on page . '.k-_ü-t-.îua-g #-.- М '.lnÍioosici ol .ldhÍhÍis shÖihci °° ' c АХ ЁПО' *fi v() ' Ах и z h oo ° z Ах $ И llt'ó ­ ax И rr() oo ' z siho'i l г о: ' yel orb() os. АХ sluo'l И slv() oc' Ах itl '( ab АХ ЗЁ‘Ю’Т И “ г i ' Ах htl ' zl' an slno'l fl. v z ' АХ ' pel lïró zi Ах ¿l - ' Ах $ e; gym', og' ¿lx Í : ' ax sino@ ff: ' aix g¿ . or" АХ sluorl #s wvÓ or' ax sl“ ’i ’el m oy' Ах `« и € or' АХ !П ' ’il gr' Ах и zït'ó ci’- Ах в s ¿ ' gz- ax ßçt yr@ or' ax $ jf ' gz' АХ ' ,' oft'ó or' АХ ‘ ‘ il v@ ?' Ах f ' : - " АХ ’e Шт 'sf' АХ “ * gms ‘ ' АХ ‘swot € ot" Ах $ ё; .'.zvó cf ' . x suwi t.' шт от Ах и „та ff' . x * шт ос' АХ ~, вам " АХ slnorl *f . ouvÓ if' Ах ь по’ ¢/, rzvó oc ‘ АХ itl ( ' oz' АХ `§ , “ i'zt'ó ° ` АХ swot *f hsv() ог ' АХ p; zî' ax $ l’ ДЕНЬ r - Ах И; „и, zi“ Ах $ y, ' ro' ax g ozt'ó €' Ах : ‘ or' Ах :Á m, € o an slno'l , vsi'Ó ос ' Ах »cl slg- oz ' Ах П ’Т ‚‚ ЁЕГЬ о: ' : [_ ’f oz ° $ !an rl’ isf() " ¿xx я}: giró г: ‘ АХ '( lsrô' gt" АХ $ Г sw@ d' ax swo'i ‘nl ”) f' Ах '] и " АХ “wwi ' Ы'Гб ГС“ Ах t,” £ " ax swwi "к syn’ ' Ах ц z ov“ ax s ; АГИ‘т of' Ах g/í i [p o“ Ах ’fl от» ff- . x am ». om. ог' Ах s n 'q stre rz- Ах $ »il (‚от f" ¿\x siu()’i if’ rrr() z _’. ‘ g- ,gr-og Ах я f s'rró :l ~ og Ах r/, lot'ó ( . "jl-‘d ê‘ims’ ‚жди-т “Ы одра aims jallaìl ~ n slnewvnbo eionvssivneib honeleld ТНЕ l’. î. / ß«`„ l; : ;î '\ ' l ggxßjö x ' * - х ч. l eslsxz'ïlr д a , r ~ d ' i f /, l a . И ,t ‘uji’ / ” а q v# x / x x ”"t zovßxäah ’lf/ x l' _. ‘ ’ev “` Í, r "/ f . по r т д l ~ ,! ' % / / 'ir-’r ’à ‘ qu' ' : с (гдфщгд? и : С ~ $ x nueczgse=ï$ai *aqrcîvnrzńnsv / z' /e l . — \ x Юхд“ \ i ' Ь ’/ x ‘/ e Хб‘д i izxavq ' ”/,x /f, . ‹х ‘ ‚ вииз french renaissance ornaments explanation and instructions for application on page . 'ii/« »t */ /. , z ‘f »fo @n à c decorators supply co. the ñexibiiity of compo enables you in mounting to vary the shape considerably. french renaissance ornaments no. relier style prive no. relief style price each each И louis xv . оо louis xv s . И louis xv . ffa’ louis xv . . И louis xv . И louis xv . И; louis xv ‚ ,l-á louis xv . i; louisi xv . ,* ’ louis xv . | louis xv . lí louis xv . И louis xv . .ïä louis xv . ‘Á louis xv . ïv'â louis xv . ‘a louis xv . ,sá louis xv . ‘a louis xv . ë'â louis xv . И louis xv . И louis xv . ‘ louis xv . И louis xv . % louis xv . s louis xv . % louis xv . louis xv . -ë/â louis xv . И louis xv . louis xv .so Ь louis xv . v; louis xv . ‘э louis xv .оо ,'/ louis xv . И louis xv . И louis xv . ' ëá louis xv . lf; louis xv . louis xv . И louis xv . И louis xv . l', louis xv . И louis xv . prices subject to discount. the decorators supply СО. compo is very flexible. the shape and form can be varied considerable when mounting. ‘ % ;( / j à n _ _ / / ' /. / french renaissance ornaments explanation and instructions for application on page . no. | no. А А А А x a page . relief :nl vi œ\ Чо- ”д Ь\ ь` “\ ш см wall panel. corner and center ornaments style louis xv louis xv louis x iv louis xiv louis xv louis xv louis xv louis xv louis xv louis xv louis xv louis xv style renaissance louis xv louis xv louis xv louis xv #wüv prive ptÍcc ОП ` compo each veneer each . $ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . о . . . . . for all mouldings sec pages and . mouldings must. be ordered per foot. prices subject to discount. connecting mouldings prive. per foot $ . . . . . for mouldings and corners fitted for tapestry panels see no. А (›А А А А relief l: l,z в И 'с i Í ,lz % i; style louis xv louis xiv louis xv louis xv louis xv louis xv louis xvi louis xvi louis xv louis xv louis xv st yle. louis xv louis xvi louis xv louis xv louis xv price $ . .. . . . ‚ . . . . ‚(ц price on -ply compo each \ «neer each $ . . () . . . . . по . . . price per foot s . . . . . _, wall panels for tapestry corner and center ornaments-rabbeted mouldings and tapestry strip combination price n ­plv veneer with tapes priee price on trv strip _ compo ­pl_v ve- combination no. relief style hath neer each сайт * l ‘ " ' t ,( u *n ' l loup \.\. si 'bo $ ` $ ю i\o. style price per foot louis .xy . . . _ — -- - . n louis .\ $ . * louis xv . . . . ‚ , l ‚ _ ‚ _ Х louis .x\i . * ,'» louis .x\ i . . . г ­- - г . ‚ ‚ _ .\ louis КУ . * % louis .x\'i . . . ‚ , , . , a. louis Ä\' . И louis` x\ . . . y mg ‘yi zi louis nv . . .oo ' o ‘ ‚ — ' ­ , . . , bx louis .\ . zi; louis. .xh . . . ,_ - ' .v . ‚ . О bn louis .\ . louis` .xh` ‚(во . . ‚ ‚ — ~- г v ‚ . . ‚ .\ louth .\'\ i . Ев louis .\'i и . . . . .Ñ kvi . , Ьпшч xiv о louis . ­ д ‘y ‚ ° ­ “ ° , х ьошз xiv . louis ХЮ ‚ . o . f . -_ — г ‚ _ ‚ an louis .\' . § louis Х\ i . .оо .оо a f l -_ yv ’ louis nyi х om" a i .o , l _v _klv ‘ "oo " o ВХ louis xiv . : ‚ l lx ;.. f . . . Х louis xvi _ ì . ­ oilizvelau . . . х art nouveau _ ; )* i , ;(\? i . . ‚ х ilouis xvi _ Í 'mils '‚ ‚ ' ' o ' Х art nouveau . h louw x\ i . . . ‚ ‚ y . ‚ . Ñ ~ ‚ ` a.\ louis .\i\' . «á art nouveau .оо . . .'à louis xiv . . . ,’» louis xvi . . . * % louis niv . . . _ i' *corner ornament includes wood moulding corner. for all mouldings see pageâ and . Х rabheted for tapestry strip. ' А stands for plain mouldings. “Ъ furnish for tapestry panels a tapestry strip - which is to be nailed to the wall first. in connection with a shaped piece of wood for the corners and other ornaments which we furnish. then nail and stretch the tapestry on to said strip. the corners and other ornaments. which are mounted on -ply veneer hy us and ralibeted t receive `said strip are then nailed on the strip and lastly the ral'ilieted mouldings also nailed on to the strip. w'e send our ornaments packed on boards. you can paint and finish them before applyinp to wall. do not remove them from the boards until ready for putting up to avoid warping. the tapestry strips are shown in dark color in our illustration. ’ prices subject to discount. Моиьшно wood mouldino” wtth tapestry strijd, the decorators supply co. fait. . \‘ i “Ё. ` ' , " i ‚ / чиха п ' ‚. j/oxl/x ‘ ‚ ъ . v x qi sass в ü .yÀÉìv ‘l i: i ь @i " .e »es 'f x xavä' wall panels with mouldings and tapestry strip. three-fly combination explanation and instructions for application on page . the decorators supply co. l a » , bl` i . . ' min/« it ­ ‘." _ nearly all the ­ i *e _. " , ~ y. ' , ": Ё ЬоийзХ?.Х ?ат ‘. ` i xvi mouldings are sufficiently neutral in character to be used with any cor- ner of the different louis periods of the french r e n a is- s a n с е. moulding ordered per foot. for mouldings and corners fitted fo r tapestry panels see page . for all mouldings seie pages and . Ю 'î "',gbî'si-îœ \ . %' x `lg Í ’.l в. ‘iot _» œ’ -i \` ‘¿a a \“ о и“ n» С о. ' . «.l. . 'Í / xßÍ/a г‘ „ъ- ` 'ч ` ¿i l: '.. д lo ­"t` . ‘. ... r о .‹ о _- "» __ wall panels, corner and center ornaments prüf price price no. relief st Не compo pri.‘e on bly no. relief style compo price ou nl_v no. relief style compo price on ­ply eaeh veneer eavh each veneer each each veneer each iâ louis xv $ . $ . louis xiv $ $ . louis xiv $ . $ . . â louis xv . . ‘ng louis xiv . . ’ louis xiv . . ,' ’ louis xv . . louis xvi . . louis xv . . ЕЁ louis xv . . o "í louis .'vi . . louis xv . . „ louis xiv ‚ . i louis xiv . . ’ louis xv . . louis xiv . . louis xiv . . louis xv . . . connecting mouldings and ornaments no. relief style price each no. relief style price each no. relief st _vle price each И Етпрйго $ . per ft. a ... louis'xv $ . erft. А . . . louis xv $ . per ft. a . . . louis xv . er ft. a ... louis xv . erft. prices subject ТО discount. for mouldings and corners fii te i for tapestry pam-ls see page . for all mouldings see pages and . the v * — hn; А y x * y ïqy-z'lçxz а т.:-——‘ „vr-_» -\?. ‘/q,x"/çv А l°Í~ ‘vla mx т. "/ix "yu ‚х y. „i phx'yn ‹—_-А-_—.А_А—_А .l гущи, ‹ #www . . “! . pl . /„ . ц-`.\-`о.."\мх. uns.” ^,­ ‹.. .r ~ \^r.~­.>‘.~~.~`.«~,« . . .» `. y - .»—' . аж м и о w .u .í\.\ .. . ` ‹ ц .ъ v. х v, .` '/.х-‘/. _. n_n.- .. ; ¿y :?? ж А "—‚‹т . .д wood and compo ornamented mouldings decorators supply СО. explanation and instructions for application n page . window cornices width over projection w'idth over projection no. all over all style price per lineal foot no. all over all style price per lineal foot И ‘.«á empire $ . ii louis xvi $ .oo lí lí louis xvi . И colonial . И louis xvi . ‘ И louis x iv . И! ï'á louis xvi ‚ all above with " returns, measurements inside. all prices are for goods in the white. add % for pure gold leaf finish. add o % for metal. bronze or enamel finish. in ordering give inside measurements. always give the return. prices subject to discount. (_ .\.> the l . 'mi 'jal/aha.. decorators supply СО. .‚ n., f a, .- - мщь'дьчдьиы’шдшы lamas/ ‘Щ’ *f arb' \,: РЕ." : т „i Гас: с -~,‘­ . ‚ i» (ас—п - fà и будя"; визг/ ‘ `_‚ ÍÁ-ûaiîfńůëcäâwßdůdûÚiiÜjÍoiiÉjsi ` .fl_»„»,_¢y„p„d­ а . . .,_._. со. . . до}, . .‚„ i ‘/,x ‘/,` ‚МОМ l i“ ОМ *if* .ml/:u О Ш. x ‘/a al il и и и п it n и и и и и ц и ml il и Ш! и и и il д/г: [г мнит: ".* window cornices Бутан explanation and instructions for application (in page . window cornices no. “'idth over all projection over all measurement inside oi return % % m И '/â v: v i И % h all with " return unless otherwise ordered. measurements inside. all prices are for goods in the white. add per cent for pure gold leaf finish. add per cent for metal bronze enamel finish. ln ordering give inside measurements. always give the. return. prices subject to discount. style art nouveau art nouveau louis xv louis xv louis xv louis xv price in the white $ .оо . . . . . oo oo oo oo per lineal foot per lineal foot per lineal foot per lineal foot per lineal foot per lineal foot the y: _ w _ ‚ .. р в - с v а " ._/rwllt/ fari j Очаг.“ i — ' l i i window explanation and instructions for application on page . cornices 'fr/.. : % / x / decorators supply co. интим-п f lllnob-urbana llllllll ll lll lll lll lllllll a . l onliwíklteling von een vierkant-versiering met onderverdeeling ‘ klimop-motief ­ ` ` „i“ {хата — С?) ci* ._y' f » ¿j? ‘- ’ ед завуч“; „а ш vip/u i, а“ да, y ‚ь “y” (ш .- - . v è onhvvrkkehng’ eener versiering met. klovermokíef u) ill. '\~ n nip' Ъ ‘l " а} Н i ч we" (y „_a ;.’ f ," l.’ ‘u :n n) ' ' ”?. l if: «_» y.; Í» l“ “Отд «j v_-v l И hef ‘if ЁЪ “(ь-„Э « Ад“; 'my/mw п y-yfń yyy@ :nyy f .: - ` fl j ‘._.~ j î., . . ¿y y ъ @wn/_wb ёЗ , . «им? - они? ед его ы ' mb !• '.: ■■- vvv. «> wilson closeo ctaptffs the library wilson library der ornamentenschatz hoffmannsche buchdruckerei in stuttgart. <z\s folio vorwort. m it dem zunehmenden aufschwung des" kunstgewerbes geht hand in hand eine wachsende teilnahme des grösseren publikums für die kunstgewerblichen erzeugnisse *der neuen und älteren zeit. hierbei wird eine gründliche kenntnis der verschiedenen stilarten, namentlich der denselben angehörenden ornamente, mehr und mehr als ein allgemeines bedürfnis em- pfunden. letzterem entgegenzukommen, ist der zweck' dieses sammelwerkes. es will nicht theoretische vorschriften geben, sondern als praktischer führer dienen, um durch unmittelbare anschauung der chronologisch geordneten beispiele einem jeden darüber klarheit zu ver- schaffen, wie innerhalb verschiedener zeitabschnitte bei den einzelnen völkern die ornamentik und besonders deren farbige behandlung sich naturgemäss entwickelt und ausgestaltet hat. ein besonderes augenmerk wurde darauf gerichtet, aus dem unerschöpflichen reichtum der von früheren jahrhunderten uns überlieferte^ kunstprodukte solche hervorragende, den ein- heitlichen stilen angehörende ornamententypen aneinanderzureihen, .welche einerseits für systematische studien geeignet sind, andererseits aber auch dazu dienen, den verschiedensten kunstbeflissenen, von welchen der rasch wechselnde geschmack unserer tage fortwährend neue formbildungen verlangt, eine reiche fundgrube zu bieten, aus welcher sie bei ausarbei- tung eigener kompositionen anregung zu neuen ideen entnehmen können. möge sich hierbei die reiche sammlung als ein sicherer führer zur auff ndung einheitlicher und schöner stil- formen erweisen! dank der gütigen unterstützung aller derer, welche die vorliegende sammlung durch uneigennützige ueberlassung von originalgegenständen und originalaufnahmen bereicherten, wie auch durch das von mir auf reisen gesammelte material, war ich in der günstigen lage, eine fülle solcher beispiele vorführen zu können, welche bisher noch in ke nem anderen werke ver- öffentlicht worden sind. bei der benützung schon vorhandener publikationen wurde thunlichst der. genaue titel des quellenwerkes angegeben, um diejenigen, welche sich zu weitergehenden spezialstudien hingezogen fühlen, auf .die diesbezüglichen hochinteressanten kunstpublikationen hinzuweisen. möge nun das vorliegende farbenreiche werk, zu dessen ausschmückung die verlags- handlung sehr bedeutende opfer gebracht hat, bei allen interessenten eine wohlwollende auf- nahme finden und reichen nutzen schaffen! stuttgart, im oktober . » h. dolmetsch. aegyptisch. i aamaaaaaaaa i ii ii uu u i! malerei und plastik. 'namentenschatz, verlag v. j. hoffmann, stuttgart. taf. . aegyptisch. malerei und plastik. die verzierungsweise der aegypter, des ältesten kulturvolkes, umfafst symbolisch-bildliche darstellungen, meist in verbindung mit hieroglyphenschrift. säulen und wände wurden benützt, um eine bilderchronik des kultus und des alltagslebens darauf zu schreiben. die bildlichen darstellungen auf den aufsenwändcn ihrer bauten bestehen in sehr flachen, häufig bemalten reliefs, koilanaglyphen genannt. die konturen sind tief eingegraben, der gegenstand ist plastisch behandelt, doch so, dass die höchsten stellen mit der wandfläche gleich blieben. taf. i fig. i. die malereien selber sind in ganzen tönen, ohne modellierung, mit kräftigen konturen ausgeführt und zeigen reiche harmonische farbenzusammenstellung. aus der pflanzen- und tier-welt fanden in der ägyptischen ornamentik die häufigste anwendung: die lotosblume, ein attribut der isis und das symbol der erzeugenden naturkraft, die nymphäa, der papyrus, das sch lf etc. ferner der w dder, der sperher und insbesondere der dung-käfer, — scarabäus — taf. fig. . ein weiteres häufig angewendetes symbol ist die geflügelte sonnenscheibe. taf. fig. . die kapitäle auf taf. zeigen ebenfalls die anwendung obiger pflanzenmotive und zwar fig. des papyrus, fig. ein knospenkapitäl, der schaft ein bündel holzstämme vorstellend, fig. palmblätter und fig. eine papyrusknospe. fig. i. bemalte relicffigur von einer säule des tempels zu denderah. „ u. . malereien von mumiengehäusen. „ u. . von einem mumiengehäuse im louvrc, paris. „ . gemalte bordüre von einem sarkophag. „ . bordüre von einem mumiengehäuse. british museum, london. „ . ornament auf einem hölzernen sarkophag. london. „ . bordüre auf einem mumienkasten. british museum. „ . teil eines halsbandes. london. „ t. malerei auf einem sarkophag. london. aegyptisch. ♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ ii n n ii ii n n ii n ii ii ornamentenschatz, architektur und malerei. verlag v. j, hoffmann, stuttgart. rtji - ~ — assyrisch. . taf. . assyrisch.  malerei. bemalte skulpturen. keramik. lsie ausgrabungen am tigrisfius.se zu chorsabad, nimrud und kudjundshik haben eine grofse anzahl architekturüberreste, malereien und skulpturen assyrischen ursprungs ans tageslicht gebracht, welche uns ein bild von der pracht und dem üppigen luxus der bauten dieses volkes geben. es zeigt sich bei der assyrischen ornamentik wohl ägyptischer f.influfs, doch ohne dafs derselben eine originelle selbständigkeit abgesprochen werden kann. neben geometrischen formen, wie verschlingungen, zickzacklinien, rosetten etc., sind es motive aus der tier- und pflanzenwelt, welche in der plastik und malerei verwendet wurden. häufig finden wir den sog. heiligen baum, fig. i u. , meistens bas-relief und bemalt, ferner geflügelte greifen, löwen und stiere mit menschenantlitz. die geflügelte männliche figur in der mitte unseres blattes stellt symbolisch die seele vor. zum verkleiden der wände fanden häufig glasierte ziegel an- wendung, welche mit regelmäfsig wiederkehrenden figürlichen darstellungen oder mit ineinander greifenden dessins bemalt waren. fig. . teil eines glasierten ziegelsteins von einem palast zu chorsabad. „ — . bemalte bas-reliefs aus kudjundshik. „ . gemaltes ornament aus nimrud. „ . glasierter ziegelstein aus chorsabad. „ — . gemalte ornamente aus nimrud. „ — . geheiligte bäume. bemalte bas-reliefs aus nimrud. „ . gemaltes ornament aus nimrud. „ . emaillierter ziegelstein aus chorsabad. taf. . griechisch. architektur. skulptur. ornamentik. die griechische ornamentik behalt für immer einen mustergültigen kunstwort und zwar hauptsächlich deswegen, weil die griechischen künstler es verstanden, die dekoration ihren kunstproduktionen so anzupassen, dass sie nirgends den konstruktiven kern des werkes überwuchert, sondern denselben in schönen linien und formen begleitet. dadurch bleibt die grundform in klarer abgeschlossenheit sichtbar und wird durch das ornament nur noch mehr hervorgehoben. bei der betrachtung der herrlichen archi- tektur-werke sowohl, als auch der einfachsten gegenstände für den häuslichen gebrauch, welche von griechen geschaffen wurden, wird man dies bestätigt finden; sie überraschen durch ihre hohe formvollendung und hohe schönheit den beschauer. fig. i — zeigen repräsentanten der entwicklungsformen griechischer architektur: des dorischen, des jonischen und des korinthischen stils. im dorischen kapitäl ist in ruhiger einfachheit der zweck des tragens ausgesprochen und erinnert in seinen formen an den strengen sinn des dorischen volksstammes. fig. zeigt leichtigkeit und vollendete anmut, wie sie dem charakter des jonischen volkes entspricht. in den üppigen formen des korinthischen kapitäls aber zeigt sich die prachtliebe, welche sich von der reichen handelsstadt korinth aus über ganz griechenland verbreitete. fig. zeigt eine jener herrlichen jungfrauengestalten, wie sie an stelle von säulen an der karyatiden- halle des erechtheions verwendet wurden. fig. . dorisches kapitäl von pästum (mit aufgemalten ornamenten). „ . jonisches kapitäl vom tempel des ercchtheus auf der akropolis zu athen. „ . korinthisches kapitäl vom choragischen monument des lysikrates in athen. „ . karyatide vom erechtheion. „ u. . akroterien von stelen (grabsäulen), paris. „ — - anthemienverzierungen. „ u.u. greifen. friesfragmente. „ u. . marmortischfüfse im nationalmuseum in neapel. „ u. . „ im british museum in london. griechisch. . architektur, skulptur und ornamentik. ornamentenschatz. verl v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. griechisch. . taf. . griechisch. polychrome architektur. x af. zeigt eine anzahl ueberreste polychromer (vielfarbiger) architekturteile. es sind im allgemeinen dieselben konventionellen formen, wie wir sie bei dem plastischen ornamente und ebenso bei den auf taf. folgenden vasenverzierungen finden. (mäander, herzblätter, eierstäbe, palmetten, anthemienverzie- rungen etc.) es gilt heute als sicher, dass die architektur meistens farbig behandelt war; die oft ganz flach gehaltenen plastischen ornamente mussten wohl polychromiert werden, um auf mitunter sehr grosse ent- fernungen noch zu wirken. fig. . polychromierte sima (rinnleiste) mit löwenkopf aus selinunt. „ . akroterie vom tempel der nike apteros. „ — . bemalte gesimse von den propyläen. athen. „ . ornament von einem anten-kapitäl vom theseustempel. athen. „ " . ornament von einem tempel in selinunt. „ . fries vom jupitertempel in aegina. „ . sima-ornament vom parthenon. „ . ornament. in pallazolle gefunden. „ u. . mäander. „ . kaffettenverzierung. london. „ . metopenfeld aus gebranntem thon, zu pallazolle gefunden. „ . kaffettenfüllung aus den propyläen. taf. . griechisch. keramik. die griechen waren es, welche die töpferei zu einer freien kunst emporhoben. während in aegypten die herstellung von thongefässen, welche allerdings nur dem gewöhnlichen bedürfnisse dienten, oder ein billiger ersatz für kostbare geräte waren, von knechten, einer verachteten kaste, besorgt wurde, waren die griechischen töpfer hochangesehen, so dass man ihnen medaillen schlug und denkmäler errichtete. aus der hand geformte gefässc mit plastischen dekorationen sind bei den griechen sehr selten. die einführung der töpferscheibe fällt in die vorgeschichtliche zeit und wird schon von homer erwähnt. beweise dieser fabrikationsart haben sich auch im schutte des alten mykenä gefunden. die ältesten griechischen vasen sind höchst einfach verziert, es wurden auf hellen (weissen oder gelblichen) thongrund braune bänder, kreise, quadrate etc. aufgemalt. bald kamen jedoch auch solche mit tierfriesen verziert vor. in der weiteren folge treten figürliche darstellungen schematisch behandelt zwischen bandver- zierungen, wellenlinien, herz- und lorbeerblättern, mäanderzügen etc. auf, immer noch dunkel auf hellem grunde mit häufiger anwendung von weiss. in der blütezeit der griechischen keramik wechselte die farbe des grundes und der ornamentalen und figürlichen darstellungen. das orangegelbe der thonmassc wurde ausgespart, der hintergrund schwarz ausgefüllt. die mit dem pinsel gezeichneten figuren zeigen grosse sicherheit und edle feinheit. fig. . es folgte nun eine polychrome periode, welche wohl der verfall der griechischen töpferei genannt werden muss. es wurden die farben in grösseren massen benützt, namentlich hellgelb, goldgelb, blau, violett und selbst gold. fig. — . griechische vasenformen: „ . amphora, gcfäss für Öl, wein etc. „ . hydria, gefäss zum wassertragen. r . urne, aschengefäss. „ . oenochoen, wcinkannc, giessgefäss. „ . kylix, trinkschale. „ . deinos, krater, mischgcfäss. „ . lekythos, gefäss für salböl. „ . kantharos, zweihenklige trinkschale. „ . rhyton, trinkgefäss. fig. . weibliche figur auf einer amphora im national-museum in neapel. fig. — . ornamente auf vasen in den museen von neapel, rom, münchen, paris und london. griechisch. .v .v /. /. \ . ornamentenschatz, keramik verlag j. hoffmann, stuttgart, / taf. . rÖmisch. architektur. skulptur. ornamentik. die römer zeigen in ihren kunstwerken infolge des mangels an originalem künstlerischem genie eine entschiedene abhängigkeit von der etruskischen, insbesondere aber der griechischen kunst. doch trat hier an stolle der klassischen formenreinheit eine häufig übertriebene dekorative behandlung. dem sinne der römer für pracht und glanz entsprach noch am meisten die korinthische ordnung, deren kapitäl mitunter, wie z. b. beim pantheon in rom, fig. , eine sehr fein empfundene ausbildung erhielt; dagegen ist die form des sog. komposita-kapitäls, fig. , eine mechanische mischung des korin- thischen und jonischen. — eine fülle anderer korinthisierender kapitäle, welche wir dann in der renaissance- periode wiederfinden, mit delphinen, geflügelten pferden etc. an stelle der voluten, zeugen von der über- sprudelnden phantasie ihrer erfinder. bei den ornamenten sind oft die einzelnen blätterformen so streng stilisiert, dafs deren natürlicher ursprung schwer zu erkennen ist. am häufigsten kam das akanthusblatt zur verwendung; dasfelbe er- scheint jedoch mit seinen abgerundeten spitzen und volleren formen viel weniger fein und zart als in der griechischen kunst. aufserdem findet man noch eichenblätter, lorbeer, pinienzapfen, weinlaub, palme, epheu, aloe, winde, Ähre, mohn u. dergl. in regelmäfsiger abwechslung und freier schwungvoller ent- faltung, belebt durch eine reiche fülle von blumen, früchten und figürlichen ausschmückungen. fig. . korinthisches kapitäl vom pantheon in rom. „ . kandelaberknauf aus dem vatikanischen museum. „ . komposita-kapitäl von einem tempel der juno in rom. „ . bruchstück eines frieses, in der villa des hadrian zu tivoli gefunden, jetzt im latera- nischen museum zu rom. „ u. . rosetten aus dem vatikanischen museum. „ . bruchstück eines frieses aus rom. „ u. . säulenbasen aus spätrömischer zeit. „ u. . gesimsglieder von den ruinen der kaiserpaläste auf dem palatin. (f'fv u- — nach piranesi, die übrigen nach pholographischen aufnahmen.) taf. . rÖmisch. mosaik-fussbÖden. d ie mosaik hat ihre heimat wahrscheinlich im orient. bedeutende vervollkommnung erhielt diese technik bei den griechen und wurde schliefslich von den römern zur höchsten vollendung gebracht. letztere stellten, wie so viele in pompeji ausgegrabene fufsböden zeigen, nicht allein geometrische muster durch mosaik her, sondern auch blumen, tiere, stillleben, menschen- und göttergestalten, ja vollständige gemälde, in der mehrzahl der fälle wohl nachahmungen nicht mehr vorhandener griechischer bilder. — das material bildeten gewöhnlich verschiedenfarbige steine und namentlich marmor (selten glaspasten). beim plattenmosaikboden, fig. und , ist die form der platten eine sehr mannigfaltige, während bei der eigentlichen mosaik kleine steinchen auf einer betonunterlage zu interessanten teppichmustern oder f gür- lichen darstellungen aneinander gereiht wurden, fig. und — . derartige mosaiken wurden auch auf wänden und gewölben angebracht. motive, wie das auf taf. fig. , mit dem streben nach reliefartigem aussehen, fanden später vielfach bei fufsböden verwendung, sie liefern aber damit zugleich den beweis, dafs der geschmack jener zeit schon im sinken begriffen war. fig. . mosaikfries im hause des faun in pompeji (nach niccolini). „ u. . plattenmosaikmuster im palatinischen museum zu rom (aufgenommen von ii. dolmetsch). „ u. . mosaikböden aus der jagdvilla zu fliessem bei trier (nach schmidt, baudenkmale der römischen periode in trier und seiner umgebung, ). „ u. . mosaikböden aus pompeji (aufgenommen von ii. dolmetsch). „ , u. . desgl. von den thermen des caracalla zu rom (aufgenommen von h. dolmetsch). rÖmisch. amtmnm ^ > -<» ■** a!> v) tf> "o -o <•> ig> * pompej anisch. ■ wandmalerei und bemalte basreliefs. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann , stuttgart. taf. . pompejanisch. broncen. das national-museum zu neapel, sowie die sammlungen in florenz und andern orten italiens geben einen reichen einblick in die kleinere kunst und industrie im altertum. mit hoher bewunderung erfüllt uns an den broncc-gegenständen, und seien es auch nur solche des gewöhnlichsten täglichen gebrauchs, ihre fein abgewogene edle gestaltung, welche die praktische verwendbarkeit derselben in keiner weise beeinträchtigt. kandelaber, lampen, lampenständerchen, meist in dreifufsform, vasen, koch-, efs- und trink- geräte, an denen die schwungvolle bildung des profils, des halses, namentlich aber der handhaben und henkel eine grofse vollendung erreicht; ruhebetten, kohlenbecken, theatermasken, rüstungen und wie diese dinge sonst heifsen mögen: aus ihnen allen weht der frische hauch griechischer schönheit, die sich auch in dem fast durchgängig vorhandenen weisen mafshalten nicht verbirgt. die bronce-statuettcn sind in der regel aus mehreren, besonders gegossenen stücken zusammen- gesetzt. gar viele dürfen wegen' ihrer echt künstlerischen form zu den besten schöpfungen der alten welt gezählt werden. fig. . brunnenfigur. trunkener faun. eine der in pompeji ( ) gefundenen broncefiguren, welche zu den vorzüglichsten arbeiten dieser art gehört. „ u. . zwei lampen (lucerna), im museum zu neapel. „ u. ;. grofse kandelaber, in der sammlung des louvrc in paris. „ u. . „ „ im museum zu neapel. „ . seitenansicht des knaufs vom kandelaber nr. vergröfsert. „ . kandelaberknauf, in neapel. „ . zweiarmiger kleiner kandelaber mit faunfigur, in neapel. „ . bisellium, ehrensitz für magistratspersonen, mit schöner profilierung, im louvre zu paris. „ u. . dreifüfse aus herculanum, im museum zu neapel. „ u. . kleine masken, dekorationsbruchstücke, in neapel. (aus den beiden werken von overbeck und niccolini entnommen.) chinesisch. . •dolmetsch. ohnamentenschatz , malerei. verlag <. i. hoffmann, stuttgart. taf. . chinesisch. malerei, weberei, stickerei und zellenschmelz. harakteristisch für die chinesische malerei ist die schon angeführte phantastische mischung der muster, deren absonderlichkeit jedoch bei dem grofsen reichtum und der glücklichen zusammenstellung der farben in den hintergrund tritt. namentlich sind sehr beliebt: schwarze, weifse, blaue, rote und goldene konturen; dadurch hebt sich die zeichnung von dem hellen oder dunklen grunde schöner und entschiedener ab. alles bisher gesagte gilt in vollem umfange auch von den seidenen geweben und stickereien. dafs die verarbeitung der seide in china schon lange vor christi geburt eine hohe stufe erreicht hat, ist all- gemein bekannt, weniger dagegen wohl, dafs die bei der weberei und stickerei vorkommenden goldfäden höchst wahrscheinlich aus mit vergoldetem papier oder kautschukstoff umwickelten seidenfäden bestehen. einen hohen ruf haben sich auch noch die mit sog. zellenschmelz (email cloisonnc) geschmückten vasen und platten erworben. wo derselbe erfunden wurde, läfst sich bis jetzt nicht mit sicherheit ent- scheiden, jedenfalls ist seine anwendung bei den chinesen eine sehr alte. — die technik selbst ist folgende: nachdem die beabsichtigte zeichnung auf dem mit schmelz zu bedeckenden metallgrund angegeben ist, werden die einzelnen felder derselben durch dünne, auf der metallplatte aufgelötete drähte von gold oder kupferlegierung begrenzt; die dadurch entstehenden zellen (cloisons) werden dann mit entsprechend ge- färbtem schmelz (email) angefüllt und dieser im ofen aufgeschmolzen. nach dem erkalten wird die ganze oberfläche glatt poliert. — auch hier kehren dieselben motive wie in der malerei u. s. w. wieder. fig. zeigt in dieser weise ausgeführt das so oft variierte chinesische reichssymbol, den ur- drachen (vergl. fig. ): aus dem unvollkommenen zustand eines drachen hat sich nämlich nach chinesischer anschauung der mensch einst entwickelt. fig. . konventionelle darstellungen von früchten und blumen auf porzellan gemalt. „ . gemalte bordüre von einem chinagefäfs. „ . malerei von einem hölzernen kästchen. „ , u. . teile eines behanges von einem himmelbett, gestickt in seide und gold ( . jahrhundert). „ , u. . muster von gewobenen zeugen. „ u. . teile einer kupfernen altchinesischen vase in zellenschmelz ausgeführt. „ — . ornamente an vasen, schalen und räuchergcfässen in zellenschmelz ausgeführt. aus den werken: „examples of chinese ornament by owen jones." ,,les arls decoratifs par ed. lievre." „kunst und gewerbe vom bayr. gewerbemuseunj zu nürnberg s .' malerei. weberei. stickerei und zellenschmelz. oflnamentenschatz verlag ■ j. hcffmann, stuttgart. japanesisch. . s! is! is! isls!Üisi@@fs! sst ssi «i jgta «■ ornamentenschatz. lack malerei. verl v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. taf. . japanesisch. lackmalerei. t'eber das verhältnis chinesischer und japanesischer kunst vergl. text zu taf. . seit langer zeit haben von japanesischen kunstprodukten die lackwaren vor allem einen hohen und durchaus gerechtfertigten ruf sich erworben. denn gerade bei ihnen zeigt sich eine für uns unerreicht dastehende technische vollendung — das ergebnis einer durch jahrhunderte sich hinziehenden und inner- halb der einzelnen familien von generation auf generation vererbten arbeitstradition. der abgeschlossen- heit der stände und zünfte in japan und china ist diese mehr und mehr wachsende vervollkommnung in der herstellung ihrer kunstgewerblichen gegenstände zuzuschreiben. während die ornamente bei chinesischen lackwaren meist naturalistische motive aufweisen, sind sie bei den japanesischen häufig mehr geometrischer art oder reine linienkombinationen. vielfach zeigt sich jedoch hier wie auf andern gebieten die auch schon bei den chinesen berührte abneigung gegen systematische anordnung der ornamente. (vergl. fig. — , , , , und , und ; tafel , fig. .) der stil der lackmalerei ist bis heute derselbe, geblieben, ebenso wie das ungemein komplizierte herstellungsverfahren. die unterlage, die je nach dem zweck aus holz, einer anzahl papierlagen, papier- mache oder bastgeflecht besteht, das durch verstreichen mit harz eine glatte oberfläche erhalten hat, wird mit um so mehr lackanstrichen bedeckt, je feiner die gegenstände sich schliefslich präsentieren sollen. bei den kostbarsten kommen so bisweilen lackschichten aufeinander. die hiebei vorzu- nehmenden manipulationen sind ausserordentlich langwierig und zeitraubend. zur dekorierung wird oft perlmutter und elfenbein eingelegt; das gewöhnlichste ist aber die vergoldung in der art, dafs entweder das ornament mit jeder neuen lage lack neu in gold gemalt wird (daher ein reliefartiges aussehen) oder so, dafs die einmalige vergoldung durch die obere lage des transparenten lackes durchschimmert. — der lack kommt als fertiges naturprodukt ^baumsaft) in gelber, brauner und hellgelber qualität vor. letztere färbt sich an der luft in kurzer zeit tiefschwarz. fig. — . motive für lackarbeiten. entnommen aus: „keramic art of japan by audsley-bowes." taf. japanesisch. weberei, malerei und zellenschmelz. jl!>s ist nicht wohl möglich, für die produkte chinesischer und japanesischer kunst sicher unterscheidende merkmale anzugeben; denn seit alter zeit herrschte zwischen beiden ländern ein reger handelsverkehr und austausch der jeweiligen errungenschaften und fortschritte auf kunstgewerblichem gebiete, und die folge dieses wechselseitigen lehrens und lernens war bei beiden völkern eine gleichmäfsigkeit, sowohl was ihre geschmacksbildung als auch was ihre verschiedenen techniken anbelangt. dafs letztere in diesen zwei ländern zu hoher vollkommenheit gelangten, haben wir bereits gehört; aber gerade diese äusserste steigerung des technischen vermögens hat in china und japan eine beschränkung des geistigen elements, eine unterdrückung des individuellen künstlerischen bewustseins zur folge gehabt, von dem sich japan nur teilweise frei hielt. — wenn nun für die japanesische kunst im allgemeinen alles bei tafel und gesagte gilt, so ist hier doch zu bemerken, dafs sie in neuerer zeit wieder einen frischen aufschwung zu nehmen scheint, wie sie sich überhaupt von jeher durch eine etwas geregeltere ornamentation, feinere beobachtung der natur und freier hervortretenden individualismus auszeichnete. neu gegenüber den chinesen ist bei den japanesen die anwendung des zellenschmelzes auf porzellangefäfsen. die metalldrähte werden bei dieser von den europäern noch nie fertig gebrachten technik auf den gegenständen durch leicht schmelzbaren glasfluss befestigt, nachdem die betreffenden stellen von der glasur befreit worden sind. das sonstige verfahren ist wie das bei taf. erwähnte. beachtenswert ist die thatsache, dafs, obwohl für verarbeitung des porzellans die chinesen die lehrmeister der japanesen waren, letztere doch bald sich den ruf erwarben, dafs ihre produkte nicht nur hinsichtlich der güte und feinheit, sondern vielfach auch wegen ihrer gewaltigen gröfse diejenigen der chinesen weit hinter sich lassen. es gilt das nicht allein von bemalten, sondern insbesondere von kolossal- platten und vasen, die mit zellenschmelz auf ihrer ganzen oberfläche bedeckt durch ihr tiefes gesättigtes kolorit eine wunderbare pracht und harmonie zur schau tragen. fig. — . bordüren und muster von seidenen stoffen. r u. . malereien von einer alten porzellan-vase. r . bemalung von einer alten becherförmigen vase. „ u. . bordüren von fayence-vasen. „ — . ornamente von emaillierten vasen ( , und sind modern . entnommen aus: „keramic art of japan l>y audsley-bowes." japanesisch. . weberei, malerei und zellenschmelz. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann . stuttgart. indisch. . rm*»»!»mm*?m?»*tt mm h. dolmetsch ornamentenschatz. metallarbeiten verl v. iul hoffmann, stuttgart. taf. . indisch. met allarbeiten. yergl. auch text zu taf. . die anfertigung von verzierten waffen und metallgeräten bildete von jeher einen wichtigen zweig des indischen kunstgewerbes, und es erregt der feine geschmack, verbunden mit der gröfsten pracht der dekoration, unftr gerechtes erstaunen. besondere berücksichtigung haben auf unserer tafel die tauschierarbeiten erfahren. dieselben sind auf stahl, eisen oder zinnlegierung ausgeführt. in letzterem falle ist die zeichnung durch einwirkung von schwefel in tiefem schwarz herausgehoben. die tauschierten oder damaszierten ornamente sind von silber- und goldfolie hergestellt, welche durch druck oder hämmern auf den zuvor leicht gravierten metallgrund befestigt werden, worauf dann das ganze mit dem polierstahl geglättet wird. fig. i. zinngefäfs mit tauschierten ornamenten. . streitaxt mit geätzten verzierungen. r - streitaxt mit tauchierarbeit. ■• - schild aus rhinozeroshaut mit metall ausgelegt und beschlagen. » s - . verzierungen von tauschierten huhkas (wasserpfeifen). r - getriebene bauchverzierung an einer vergoldeten kupferkanne. - io. bauchverzierung von einer getriebenen kupferkanne. •• . verzierung von einer tauschierten zinnvase. r . tauschierarbeit auf stahl an einer dolchscheide. v - halsverzierung an einem tauschierten zinnbecher. - . von einem getriebenen kupferteller. ?• - von einem getriebenen zinnteller. fig. , , io, — aufgenommen nach original-gegenständen aus de n kgl. landesgewerbemuseum zu stuttgart. „ i, — und ii aufgenommen nach original-gegenständen in händen des hrn. fabrikanten paul stotz in stuttgart. „ entnommen aus: bedford, the treasury of ornamental art. „ aus waring, masterpieces of industrial art and sculpture at the international exhibition s . tat . indisch. stickerei, weberei, geflechte und lackmalerei. tt Ülin land voll üppiger vegetation, reich an naturprodukten aller art, mit unerschöpflichen fundgruben edler metalle und steine, hat indien seinen charakter übersprudelnder fülle und den phantastischen geist seiner bewohner in den werken der kunst nicht verleugnet. trotz der alten verhältnismäfsig hohen zivilisation hat aber ein gewisser konservatismus, der seit beinahe einem jahrtausend auf soziale und reli- giöse verhältnisse und einrichtungen sich erstreckte, selbstverständlich auch für kunstbestrebungen seine unausbleiblichen folgen gehabt, namentlich im hinblick auf die kastenartig abgeschlossenen einzelgewerbe. erst in unserem jahrhundert können wir bei der indischen kunst thatsächliche neuerungen konstatieren. wenig konventionell, leicht fliefsend, hat die indische ornamentik am ehesten einige verwandt- schaft mit der persischen. die flächendekoration, die ihren charakter als solche nie verliert, weist meist einen geradezu verschwenderischen reichtum von sich wiederholenden motiven auf, deren grofsartige farbenpracht jedoch das auge des beschauers nicht aufregt, sondern eine wohlthuende ruhe für dasfelbe hervorbringt. die konturen der jede modellierung vermeidenden zeichnung sind gewöhnlich auf hellem grunde in tieferen farben als das übrige dessin und auf dunklem grunde in hellen gehalten. seine motive fand der inder, wie leicht erklärlich, hauptsächlich in seiner heimischen flora. diese ist in erster linie vertreten durch lotos, prächtig gezeichnete rosen, nelken, granaten u. s. w., und am häufigsten, nament- lich bei neueren produkten, begegnen wir dem stets konventionell behandelten palmzweige (fig. u und tafel fig. , ; tafel fig. , und ). die einst hochentwickelte weberei ist infolge der englischen konkurrenz im sinken begriffen und auch die moderne seidenstickerei hat auf kosten der früheren, ruhigen harmonie die allzu grellen anilin- farben vielfach angewendet. ihren alten weltruf werden aber die berühmten shawls von kaschmir doch noch lange behalten mit ihrer unerreichten feinheit, zartheit und ihren herrlichen farben. bunte baumwoll- teppiche (fig. und }, deren gestreifte zeichnung sich dem stoffe vortrefflich anpafst, erfreuen sich als wohlfeiler ersatz der wollteppiche einer grofsen verbreitung. — auch die geflochtenen matten verdienen hinsichtlich ihrer farbe und zeichnung unsere volle beachtung (fig. ). die indischen lackarbeiten, im vergleich mit den chinesischen und japanesischen in der technik etwas weniger vollendet, unterscheiden sich von denselben in dem wesentlichen tunkt, dafs der lack eigentlich nur dazu dient, die in gold oder polychrom aufgetragenen ornamente zu schützen. fig. . gestickter tcppich aus dem . jahrhundert. „ — . bordüren von seidenstickereien. „ . fiächenmuster in seide gestickt. „ u. . baumwollteppiche. b . matte aus binsengeflecht. ., u. . einfassungsmuster von shawls aus kaschmir. ., u. . gemalte lackarbeiten. entnommen .ins den werken: wyatt, the industrial arts of the nineteenth century, s . waring, masterpieces of industrial art and sculpture at the international exhibition s . bedford, the treasury of ornamental art. lievre les arts decoratifs ä toutes les epoques. indisch. fflolme'.sch stickerei, weberei, geflechte und lackmalerei. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. taf. . indisch. metallarbeiten, stickerei, weberei und malerei. i^unstreiche verwendung, namentlich bei goldschmiedearbeiten, fand der sog. grubenschmelz (email champleve). auf dem metall wurden die für emaillierung bestimmten teile durch den grabstichel vertieft und zur abgrenzung der einzelnen felder schmale ränder stehen gelassen. das weitere verfahren ist fast das gleiche, wie beim zellenschmelz. — als prächtiger vertreter jener technik darf der in fig. dargestellte ankus (lenk- und zuchtinstrument der elephantentreiber) gelten. manuskriptmalereien, die persischen einflufs nicht verkennen lassen, treffen wir in indien häufig bei alten königlichen edikten, dokumenten und handschriften religiösen und poetischen inhalts. fig. i. ankus in ziseliertem eisen. u. . ohrgehänge und knopf in gold getrieben und ziseliert. r - ankus, emailliert und mit juwelen besetzt. r — - verzierungen von emaillierten waffen. '■ . staatssonnenschirm mit reicher goldstickerei. - n- . gestickte fächer. - . fufsbekleidung, goldgewebe mit seiden- und perlstickerei. is- gestickte tischdecke. - . bordüre von einer satteldecke. r . stickerei auf schwarzem zeug. >■ . bordüre von einem gestickten samtteppich. r — . blumen von seidenstickereien. - . gewobener shawl. - bordüre von einem gewobenen stoff. r u. . muster von seiden- und goldgeweben. . lackmalerei. r . teil eines buchdeckels in lackmalerei. n u. . manuskriptmalereien. entnommen aus den werken: „wyatt, the industrial arts of the nineteenth century ." „waring, masterpieces of industrial art and sculpture at the international exhibition ." „man's garments, the textile manufactures of india." „bedford, the treasury of ornamental art." „raeinet, le costume historique." taf. . ■m persisch. architektur. Üin bild von der märchenhaften pracht des alten kalifenreiches, von den glänzenden palästen und moscheen persiens geben uns noch heute die zahlreichen, wenn auch mehr oder weniger zerfallenen monumentalbauten. die frühere hauptstadt ispahan zeigt namentlich noch an einer reihe von beispielen, in welch reicher weise die perser das aussehen ihrer bauten durch anwendung buntfarbiger oder bemalter glasierter thonplättchen zu gestalten wufsten. mit solchen sind fast alle der meist birn- oder zwiebei- förmig (vgl. fig. ) gestalteten kuppeln und spitzen der moscheen und minarets und ihre wände, kurz fast alle teile jener gebäude bedeckt. (fig. , , , , .) dieser durchweg angewandte reiche farbige schmuck ist für die persische architektur im vergleich mit der sonstigen mohammedanischen in hohem grade bezeichnend, wie auch die besondere art ihrer dekoration. diese weist einmal weit weniger reiche kombinationen in ihren geometrischen verzierungen (fig. ) auf, als bei den arabern und mauren, und sodann ist das vegetabilische ornament, wenn auch konventionell behandelt, doch noch ziemlich naturalistisch gehalten und bietet, entsprechend <ler reichen flora des landes, grofse abwechslung. das rankenwerk und die blumen sind bald für sich auf die flächen verteilt, bald zwischen die linienverzierungen eingestreut. interessant sind die häufig vorkommenden durchbrochenen steinernen fenster-einfassungen, bei welchen die durchbrochenen stellen mit farbigem glas ausgefüllt sind (fig. und ). erwähnung verdienen hier auch die sogenannten stalaktitengewölbe (fig. ), welche aus kleinen übereinander hervorragenden wölbungen zusammengesetzt sind. fig. . minaretoberteil von der moschee mesdjid-i-chah. „ — . säulenfüfse und kapitäle. „ . wandbordüre am portalbau der moschee mesdjid-i-chah. „ . hohlkehlenverzierung, ebendaselbst. „ . durchbrochene fenster-einfassung aus stein (zu fig. gehörig). „ . wandbordüre. _ u.u. bogenzwickel vom kollegium medresseh-maderi-chah-sultan-hussein. „ . durchbrochener fensterbogen von stein (den punktierten grund bildet buntes glas). „ . hauptgesims vom pavillon tchehel-soutoun. i, . stalaktitengewölbe vom pavillon der acht paradiespforten. „ — . verschiedene kuppelspitzen. sämtliches aus ispahan. entnommen aus: „coste, monuments modernes de la perse." „collinot et beaumont, recueil de dessins etc." persisch. . persisch. . taf. . persisch. keramik. xu, inen wichtigen ausfuhrartikel persischen gewerbefleifses bildeten von jeher die herrlichen fayence- gegenstände. in allen ländern, die sich zur lehre des islam bekannten, trifft man noch jetzt die er- zeugnisse dieser schon frühe zu bedeutender entwicklung gelangten industrie. haben wir bei tafel die blendende bekleidung des aeufseren der persischen bauten mit thon- plättchen angeführt, so müssen wir hier besonders der geschmackvollen farbigen schalen gedenken, von welchen tafel einige beispiele giebt. wesentlich ist bei der dekoration die durchaus flache behandlung des ornaments und das ueber- wiegen der naturalistisch gehaltenen flora. fig- — - altpersische fayenceteller im musce cluny in paris. „ . u. . bordüren von wandverkleidungen in fayence. entnommen aus: „kunst und gewerbe, herausgegeben vom bayrischen gewerbemuseum zu nürnberg und ." „prisse d'avennes, l'art arabe." fig. - nach einer originalaufnahme von c. bauer, aus der kunstbibliothek der kgl. centralstelle für gewerbe und handel zu stuttgart. » taf. . persisch. weberei und manuskriptmalerei. oowohl bei der keramik, als bei der weberei und manuskriptmalerei sind es vorzugsweise die sekundären und gebrochenen farben, die zur anwendung kommen, und da sie unter sich und mit dem grundton meist in glücklicher weise zusammenstimmen, so 'zeichnen sich alle jene gegenstände durch eine gewisse zartheit und frische des kolorits aus. diesen umständen haben die persischen mit blumen übersäten und durch tiere und vögel vielfach belebten teppiche und die fein bemalten koran-manuskripte ihre grofse verbreitung und beliebtheit im orient zu verdanken. doch stehen die persischen kunsterzeugnisse wegen der ungleichheit der massen- verteilung auf den flächen den arabisch-maurischen einigermafsen nach. bei fig. tritt uns die flora fast durchweg in konventioneller behandlung entgegen, wie auch bei fig- die grofsen blätter eine bei den arabern ganz gewöhnliche stilisierung zeigen (vgl. auch taf. , fig. . persischer teppich. xvi. jahrhundert. „ . motive für weberei aus einem alten persischen ornamentenbuch im museum of ornamental art zu london. „ . manuskriptmalerei aus einem koran. entnommen aus: lievre, les arts decoratifs." „bedford, the treasury of ornamental art." „owen jones, the grammar of ornament." fig. ). persisch. . hmmetsch. /. met all ar beiten. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann , stuttgart. taf. . persisch-arabisch. wandverkleidung aus glasiertem thon. jjeüiegende tafel stellt eine in der moschee des ibrahim aga zu kairo befindliche wandbekleidung aus dem xvi. jahrhundert dar, welche eine mischung des persischen und arabischen stiles zur anschauung bringt, insofern das starke hervortreten vegetabilischen ornaments unmittelbar auf persischen einflufs hinweist. entnommen aus: „prisse d'avennes, l'art arabe." persisch-arabisch. . wandverkleidung aus glasiertem thon. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann , stuttgart. arabisch h. dolmetsch. ornamentenschatz. weberei, stickerei und malerei. verl. v■ jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. taf. . arabisch. weberei, stickerei, malerei. i\.aum jahre nach der stiftung ihrer religion durch muhamed hatten die araber schon einen stil ausgebildet, der, vielfach zwar an persische, römische und byzantinische vorbilder sich anschliefsend, doch als ein eigenartiger dasteht. dies gilt in vollkommenstem grade namentlich von ihrem dekorationsstil, bei welchem ihre künstlerische begabung in einer ihrem innersten wesen entsprechenden weise zum ganzen ausdruck kommt. ihrer mafslosen, übersprudelnden phantasie ebenso wie ihrem poetisch durchwehten charakter konnte die einfache nachbildung vorhandener wesen nicht entsprechen; wir treffen daher auch verhältnis- mäfsig wenig darstellungen von menschen oder tieren ein angebliches bilderverbot des koran existiert eigentlich nicht . dagegen fanden die arabischen künstler ihre volle befriedigung in einem prunkvollen ornament, das bei allen zweigen ihrer kunstthätigkeit in umfassendster weise verwendet auge und ver- stand in gleicher weise beschäftigt. sie schufen nämlich in bunt wechselndem spiel eine menge reicher linien - kombinationen, nach ihren erfindern, den arabern, arabesken genannt, welche entweder aus geometrisch konstruierten figuren sich zusammensetzten oder aus streng stilisiertem blattwerk bestanden. bei solchen randverschlingungen, die in sinnreichen rosetten und sternen ihre schönsten bildungen zeigen, herrscht der grundsatz, dafs jeder schnörkel, jedes blatt sich auf seine wurzel, seinen mutterstamm zurückführen läfst. lebhafte farben dienen dann ganz besonders dazu, das scheinbar unlösliche durch- einander zu entwirren und eine ruhige harmonie über die verzierte fläche auszubreiten. ein speeifisches merkmal für solches arabisches blattwerk sind die umgebogenen blattspitzen (fig. ). die araber scheinen auch jene sinnigen zeichnungen, wie wir eine solche in figur , mitte, sehen zuerst aufgebracht zu haben; zwei gleiche in entgegengesetzter richtung liegende figuren werden durch eine linie gebildet. der obere teil von fig. kann endlich noch als beispiel von ornamentaler verwendung der schrift dienen, wie sie bei den arabern gar nicht selten war. fig. . gewobener teppich aus dem xiv. jahrhundert, aufbewahrt in der kirche zu nivelles. „ . applikationsstickerei aus dem xviii. jahrhundert. .. . ein teil der reich bemalten decke der moschee el bordeyny zu kairo. entnommen aus: prisse d'avennes, l'art arabe." —; - taf. . arabisch. holz- und metall verzierungen, /^ur abwehr des einblicks von aussen, ohne jedoch den freien ausblick zu verwehren, waren die auf die strafse führenden fensteröffnungen mit holzgitter versehen, welche die kunst in zierlicher weise gestaltete (fig. u. ). hauptsächlich aber konzentrierte sich die erfindungsreiche thätigkeit arabischer kunsthandwerker auf den schmuck der thüren. so zeigt uns fig. eine füllung einer reich geschnitzten gestemmten thüre, während fig. — uns eine grofse auswahl von bronzenen thürbeschlägen geben. letztere sind bald so angebracht, dafs sie selber das ornament bilden, bald derart, dafs das von metall nicht bedeckte holz als zeichnung heraustritt. fig. ist ein in bronze ausgeführtes und auch auf vielen arabischen münzen vorkommendes wappen. entnommen aus: „bourgoin, les arts arabes." „l'risse d'avenues, l'art arabe." ■n nnh za anv w qnd -zloh •hosiavhv arabisch. . mül'tüm manuskript-malerei. taf. . arabisch. manuskriptmalerel ,/\.uch bei ihren malereien auf pergament beweisen die arabischen künstler ihr besonderes geschick für flächendekoration. streng stilisiertes rankenwerk wechselt mit geometrischen figuren, oder aber ist das arabeskenornament als füllung in die felder eingelegt, welche durch die linien und bänder gebildet werden. in solcher weise sind in vielen koranmanuskripten ganze seiten bemalt. fig u. geben uns aus solchen viererlei farbige motive dieser reichen art der behandlung. — die schrift selber ist meist begrenzt und umgeben von rosetten und friesen, welche mit immer neuen kombinationen von linien und blattwerk angefüllt sind. der prachtige und dabei so harmonische eindruck dieser malereien beruht vornehmlich auf der trefflichen zusammenstellung der farben, deren glanz durch reichliche anwendung von gold nur ge- hoben wird. bei fig. könnte man versucht sein, wegen der buntfarbigen blumen auf persischen oder indischen einflufs zu schliefsen, und bei fig. u. auf romanischen; jedoch sehen wir überall die für die arabisch- maurische kunst charakteristischen, umgebogenen oder eingerollten blätterspitzen. fig. . verzierung aus einem arabischen koran. xiv. jahrhundert. „ u. . verzierungen aus einem arabischen koran. xvi. „ u. . verzierungen aus einem maurischen koran. xviii. „ u. . verzierungen aus einem arabischen koran. xvi. „ — . verzierungen aus einem arabischen koran. xvii. u. . verzierungen ags einem maurischen koran. xviii. r entnommen aus: ..prisse d'a vennes, l'art trabe.ü taf. . arabisch-maurisch. architektonische verzierungen. ^^on bedeutung ist für uns die arabische und maurische architektur aus dem grunde, weil einzelne ihrer teile von ornamenten vollständig bedeckt sind, welche mitunter in herrlicher vergoldung und bemalung prangen. friese und gesimse erhalten ihren besonderen schmuck durch die bald einfach und glatt ge- haltenen (fig. i u. ), bald reich dekorierten zinnen (fig. — ). — die säulen, die sich teils an ägyptische, teils an byzantinische vorbilder anlehnten oder geradezu aus griechischen oder römischen säulenteilen zusammengesetzt wurden, erfuhren späterhin (ungefähr vom . jahrhundert an) eine eigenartige bildung. so bestand dann das kapitäl im wesentlichen aus einem durch blätter- und rankenwerk verzierten würfel (fig. u. tafel , fig. .) eine besonders kunstvolle behandlung tritt namentlich bei den gewölben und gewölbeteilen zu tage, welche sich aus mehr oder weniger prunkvollen stalaktiten zusammensetzen. fig. bringt eine, häufig auch farbig behandelte wanddekoration zur anschauung. diesel be ist aus gyps in flachem relief ausgeführt. hier treffen wir die namentlich in der alhambra vielfach ange- wandte, sogenannte arabische feder (vergl. fig. ; tafel , fig. , , ; tafel , fig. , , , , ). fig. . wandfüllung aus der alhambra. .. . verzierung in stein über einer thüre in kairo. „ u. . säulenfufs und kapitäl aus kairo. „ u. . „ ,, „ „ der alhambra. „ u. . stalaktiten aus kairo. r u. . kragsteine aus kairo. „' — . zinnen aus kairo. entnommen aus: ..goury und jones, alhambra.'' „bourgin, les arts arabes.-' ..prisse d'avennes, l'art arabe.-' arabisch-maurisch. . i ii. dolmetsch. architektonische verzierungen. ornamentenschatz. verlag v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. arabisch-maurisch. h. dolmetsch. mosaikarbeiten und\. glasierte thonarbeiten. rnamenten chatz. «hl. .. jol. hoffmahn, stuttbart taf. . arabisch-maurisch. mosaikarbeiten und glasierte thonarbeiten. j_yie arabischen und maurischen mosaiken sind teils durch farbige marmorstückchen, teils durch bemalte, glasierte thonblättchen gebildet. mitunter (wie bei fig. bis ) sind die zeichnungen auf marmorplatten eingeschnitten und die vertiefungen durch gefärbten cement ausgefüllt. — es herrscht bei den mosaiken das rein geometrische element vor. hinsichtlich der auftretenden farben ist zu bemerken, dafs haupt- sächlich die gebrochenen beliebt waren. auch darauf mag hingewiesen werden, dafs die mauren hier auf die sonst bei ihnen ausschliefslich gebrauchten primären farben verzichteten und dagegen grün und orange bevorzugten. diese mosaiken dienten sowohl zur bedeckung des hodens als des unteren teiles der wände. fig. , u. . vvandbekleidungen von glasiertem thon aus der alhambra. _ . wandbekleidung von glasiertem thon aus der moschee des cheykhoun zu kairo. , — u. — . marmorbekleidungen mit stuckeinlagen aus kairo. „ . marmorbekleidungen mit stuckeinlagen aus damaskus. entnommen aus: ^bourgoin, les clements de l'art arabe."- ..l'risse d'avennes, l'art arabe." ngoury und jones, alhambra.' taf. . maurisch. architektonische verzierungen. q opanien ist das land, wo die kunst des islam in den bauten der maurischen könige, so beim palast der alhambra bei granada ( . u. . jahrhundert) zur reinsten und schönsten entfaltung kam. insbesondere erreicht die mohammedanische ornamentik bei den mauren ihren höhepunkt. fig. — stellen architekturteile und wandflächen dar, welche in stuck ausgeführt und bemalt sind. die für die arabische ornamentik bisher angeführten kennzeichen gelten auch für die maurische, doch ist noch beizufügen, dafs die erstcre nicht so glücklich ist in der verteilung des grundes und orna- mentes und auch weniger mannigfaltig als die letztere. die maurischen künstler wufsten durch kunstvolle durchwirkung und verwebung des geometrischen und des arabesken ornaments wunderbare wirkungen zu erzielen. ihrer reich begabten phantasie konnten sie hier den gröfsten spielraum lassen. es sind so zwei (fig. , , ), ja oft drei ornamentsysteme (fig. ) durcheinandergearbeitet, .und dieser reichtum wird noch erhöht durch Überkleidung der ränder und blätter mit feinen ornamenten. diese fülle bringt aber keine unruhe und verwirrung für das auge hervor, sondern zeichnung und farbe sind in vorzüglicher weise geeignet, die einzelnen systeme auseinanderzuhalten, so dafs jedes für sich deutlich unterschieden werden kann und doch alle zu prächtiger harmonie sich vereinigen, während bei näherer betrachtung immer neue schönheiten unsere aufmerksamkeit fesseln. das ornament pflegt immer als ganz flaches relief aufzutreten und verliert nie seinen charakter als flächendekoration. die erhöhten bänder und ranken sind meist vergoldet; ist der grund rot, so sind die feder- verzierungen der blätter blau oder umgekehrt, mitunter wechselt im grunde rot und blau; aufser diesen drei primären farben findet das weifs häufig anwendung. dafs auch die schrift gar häufig als ornament diente, beweisen namentlich fig. , u. . sämtliche abbildungen sind aus dem palast alhambra bei granada. entnommen aus: „goury und jones, alhambra.'' * verl. v. jul, hoffmann, stuttgart, taf. . tÜrkisch. architektonische verzierungen aus glasiertem thon. v v on einem stil. in welchem sich die eigenart des türkischen volkes ausgedrückt hätte, kann erst die rede sein seit dem . jahrhundert. vorher wurden z. b. die christlichen kirchen der eroberten länder einfach in moscheen umgewandelt, oder bei neubauten christliche künstler mit der ausführung beauftragt. so war auch die ornamentik zunächst wesentlich beeinflufst von byzantinischer, dann teils von persischer, teils von arabischer dekorationsweise. aus der mischung der beiden letzteren bildete sich dann die türkische ornamentik heraus. auffallend ist hier zunächst das ungemein häufige vorkommen des einspringenden winkels bei blättern und ranken, welcher seinen ursprung in persien hat vergl. taf. fig. ); sodann eine gewisse dürftigkeit des rankenwerks, das namentlich im vergleich mit dem maurischen auf der grundfläche grofse stellen frei und unbedeckt läfst ;fig. , ). auch die auf die blätter mit verschiedener farbe aufgemalten verzierungen entbehren häufig einer feineren form, dagegen liebt auch der türkische künstler die kunstvolle verschlingung mehrerer liniensysteme. — die farben, welche zur verwendung kommen, sind nicht sehr lebhaft und ihre zusammenstellung läfst die pracht und fülle arabisch-maurischer kunst vermissen. der grund hatte in der früheren zeit beinahe immer tiefsattes blau, während spätere werke ein Überhandnehmen von grünem und auch hellrotem grunde aufweisen. dafs das persische florale element in verhältnismäfsiger reinheit immer wieder bei der ornamentik der völker des islam zum durchbruch kommt, beweist fig. , , . Überhaupt ist anzuführen, dafs persische kunsterzeugnissc, namentlich bemalte thonplatten u. dgl., in grofser menge eingang und ver- wendung in der türkei fanden. fig. . . . . u. . aus der moschee des ycchil-djami zu brussa. . u. . ycchil-turbey-grabmal des sultans mohammed i. u. . vom grabmal mourahdieh. entnommen aus: ..parvillee, architeclure et decoration turques au xv siecle." taf. . keltisch. manuskriptmalerei. nter der keltischen bevölkerung irlands hat sich schon sehr frühe eine eigentümliche ornamentik ge- bildet, die jedenfalls in ihren anfängen weit in die tage zurückgeht, da das heidentum noch auf jener insel herrschte. aus dieser zeit mögen einzelne der alten steinsärge stammen, welche dieselben verzie- rungen aufweisen, welche wir vom . jahrhundert an in den manuskripten keltischer mönche finden. durchaus nicht beeinflufst von byzantinischer oder überhaupt süd- oder osteuropäischer kunst, trägt diese ornamentik ein selbständiges gepräge: denn die spuren, die man von ihr auch in skandinavien angetroffen, sind sicherlich auf irland zurückzuführen. in den ältesten keltischen oder irischen handschriften wurden zunächst die grofsen anfangsbuch- staben (initialen) ausgezeichnet durch ein sie umgebendes, aus roten punkten gebildetes netzwerk (vergl. fig. unten). aber bald schritt man weiter zu dem eigentlichen bandflechtwerk, in dessen anwendung die künstler eine in staunen setzende kunstfertigkeit und mannigfaltigkeit verraten (fig. , , ). Ähnliche bandflechtwerke finden wir in der renaissancezeit wieder, vielfach als dekoration verwendet. zu den keltischen geflechten, welche entweder die flächen der buchstaben ausfüllten oder die einzelnen seiten einrahmten, benützte man auch schon frühe die glieder oder leiber von schlangen, vögeln, hunden und phantastischen tieren (fig. , , ). auch die menschliche gestalt findet verwendung; dagegen fehlt das vegetative ornament vollständig. dieses kommt erst in aufnahme vom . jahrhundert an, und nach schwachen anfängen (vergl. fig. verbreitet es sich unter dem einflufs des romanismus mehr und mehr neben dem bandornament. die zahl der farben ist anfangs noch klein, namentlich kommt gold erst in späterer zeit vor. fig. — . aus dem vii. jahrhundert. ,. u. . „ r viii. , . r ix. r — . „ „ x. . r ,. xi. entnommen aus: ..ilumphreys and o. jones, the illuminated books of the middle ages." rwyatt, the art of illuminating as practised in europe crom the enrliest times."' i keltis ch. . ^dolmetsch. manuskript-malerei. ornamentenschatz, verlag v. j hoffmann, stuttgart. byzantinisch. . s. h. dolmetsch. rnamentenschat . glasstip't-mosaik. email tat . byzantinisch. glas-stiftmosaik, email und manuskriptmalerei. m it dem verfall des weströmischen reiches und dem aufblühen des oströmischen oder byzantinischen geht vom . — . jahrhundert hand in hand auch der untergang der kunst auf italienischem boden, während dieselbe unter dem schirm des mächtigen kaisertums, das seinen mittelpunkt zu byzanz hatte, an dem glanzvollen hofe eine sichere heimstätte gefunden hatte. obgleich diese byzantinische kunst keineswegs eine originale war, sondern im wesentlichen an die spätrömische anknüpfte, auch von der altgriechischen naturgemäfs vieles in sich aufnahm und selbst dem einflufs des orients sich nicht verschlofs, so bewirkten doch die zerrütteten zustände des westens, dafs dort nicht nur der byzantinische stil bis zum ende des ersten jahrtausends und darüber hinaus eine be- herrschende stellung einnahm, sondern sogar kunstgegenstände aus dem oströmischen reiche massenweise in italien eingeführt wurden und künstler und handwerker von dort ihre technik und ihren stil daselbst zur geltung brachten. so begreifen wir auch, dafs in fast allen ländern europas sich kunstgegenstände finden, die ihren byzantinischen ursprung nicht verleugnen können. staatsgebäude, paläste, kirchen waren im innern aufs herrlichste geschmückt. ganz besonders entsprach der prachtliebe der damaligen grofsen die sogenannte glasstiftmosaik, welche mit kleinen glas- flufsuürfeln von verschiedener gröfse die gewaltigsten gemälde (z. b. in der sophienkirche zu konstantinopel) schuf. charakteristisch ist bei denselben die durchgängige anwendung des goldgrundes, wie überhaupt gold eine fast unbegrenzte verwendung fand. — daraus ergab sich, dafs die daneben vorkommenden farben sehr satt und kräftig gehalten sein mufsten. — es sind dies meist rot, blau und grün. auch beim zellenschmelz kehren diese satten farben überall wieder. diese technik wurde höchst wahrscheinlich aus china oder aus indien schon in sehr früher zeit eingeführt. zur unterlage für den schmelz und die trennenden metallfäden wurde entsprechend dem herrschenden luxus fast nur gold verwendet. die ornamentik bewegt sich entweder in geometrischen, mehr oder weniger einfachen mustern vergl. fig. u. ) oder bringt sie schönes stilisiertes rankenwerk zur darstellung. letzteres hat in der ersten zeit viele Ähnlichkeit mit altgriechischer behandlungsweise, aber bald läfst sich, so z. b. bei akan- thusblättern, eine zunehmende erstarrung der formen erkennen, namentlich bei der manuskriptmalerei. zu erwähnen ist noch die vielfache anbringung christlicher symbole, namentlich des kreuzes. fig. . glasstiftmosaik vom tonnengewölbe über dem hauptschiffe der grabkirche der galla placidia zu ravenna. . glasstiftmosaik von den wänden der markuskirche zu venedig. . r an einer der halbkugeln der sophienkirche zu konstantinopel. . r vom gewölbe des baptisteriums der ecclesia ursiana (s. giovanni in fonte) zu ravenna. — . zellenschmelz von einem altar-antependium in der klosterkirche zu komburg bei schwäb. hall. u.u. manuskriptmalereien aus evangelienbüchern des x. u. xi. jahrhunderts in der kaiserlichen bibliothek zu st. petersburg. „ i u. . ornamente aus einem manuskripte des xiii. jahrhunderts im öffentlichen museum zu moskau. fig. . nach aufnahme des baumeisters a. knoblauch in stuttgart. ,, . nach aufnahme des baumeisters a. borkhardt in stuttgart. ,, — . nach aufnahme des malers h. grofs, lehrer an der kgl. kttnstgewerbeschule zu stuttgart. das Übrige entnommen aus: ,.hessemer, arabische und altitalienische liauverzierungen." ..salzenberg, altchristliche baudenkmale von konstantinopel." -boutovsky, histoire de l'ornement russe du x. au xvi. siecle, d'apres les manuserits." byzantinisch. . l*. . c h. dolmetsch. grubenschmelz, marmor- und glasstift-mosaik. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul, hoffmann, stuttgart.. byzantinisch. h. dolmetsch. stickerei und weberei. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hofmann. stuttgart. - a taf. . byzantinisch. weberei und stickerei. oeit der einführung der seide im . jahrhundert konnte byzanz hinsichtlich seiner gewebe den kampf wohl aufnehmen mit den asiatischen erzeugnissen auf diesem gebiete und bis tief in das . jahrhundert hinein hat es darin den ton für fluropa angegeben. mit den kostbarsten geweben, gemusterten und ungemusterten, mit prachtvollen stickereien und perlengezierten stoffen (fig. , , u. ; wurde in dieser zeit ein lebhafter handel getrieben. allerdings machten die sarazenischen weber auf der insel sizilien den byzantinischen den rang streitig; aber erst nachdem sizilien durch die normannen erobert und eine grofse anzahl gefangener griechischer weber nach palermo gebracht worden war und sich so christliche kunst mit mohammedanischer verband, erlangten die aus den königlichen werkstätten siziliens hervor- gegangenen stoffe und gewänder ihrer pracht und ihrer schönen zeichnungen wegen die höchste geltung auf dem weltmarkt. tafel zeigt uns solche, aus sizilien herrührende gegenstände, die jedenfalls den einflute arabischer ornamentik zeigen. doch lassen sich byzantinische formen nicht verkennen. — das drnament ist stets bei diesen webereien als flächendekoration behandelt. die pflanzen und tiere, welche wir angebracht sehen, sind nicht naturalistisch gehalten, sondern mehr oder weniger stilisiert. — bei fig. soll der das kamel überwältigende löwe ohne zweifel das christentum versinnbildlichen, wie es den islam zum weichen bringt. fig. . gesticktes purpurgewand im domschatze zu bamberg. , . gemustertes seidengewebe an der tunica heinrichs ii. im nationalmuseum in münchen. , u. . gestickte bordüren von der kaiserl. albe in der k. schatzkammer zu wien. u. . gestickte bordüren an der kaiserl. tunicclle ebendaselbst. r . gestickte bordüren an dem deutschen kaisermantel in der kaiserl. schatzkammer zu wien. . stickerei am deutschen kaisermantel ebendaselbst. u. j. aufgemalte gewandmuster von grabsteinen in der kirche s. lorenzo fuori le mura zu rom. fig. u. ii. aufgenommen von h. dolmetsch. das Übrige aus _ ock, die kleinodien des heiligen römischen reiches deutscher nation." fig. aus dem xi., fig. i, — aus dem xii. jahrhundert. tat . byzantinisch und romanisch. architektur und skulptur. d. 'er im ganzen grofse unterschied zwischen byzantinischer und romanischer architektur beschränkt sich bei den dekorativen einzelheiten auf ein sehr geringes mafs, was sich durch die schon früher erwähnte lebhafte ausfuhr byzantinischer kunstgegenstände nach dem westen und durch den einflufs byzantinischer künstler leicht erklären läfst. das byzantinische kapitäl ist entweder eine nachbildung antiker kapitäle, namentlich des korin- thischen (fig. ), wo sich jedoch bei der behandlung des blattwerks, welches hier breitgezackt und scharf- gespitzt ist und einer gewissen erstarrung entgegengeht, nicht mehr jene feine beobachtung der natur kundgibt, wie in der klassischen zeit; teils weist es eine originale gestalt auf in der form eines nach unten zusammengezogenen würfels (fig. ). die vier seiten sind dann umrahmt von schwach erhabenem band- oder flechtwerk, welches ein stets konventionell behandeltes blattwerk oder auch symbolische figuren einschliefst. die romanische architektur bildete ihre kapitäle teils in korinthisierender oder byzantinisierender weise (würfelkapitäl); teils schuf sie sich in den glocken- oder kelchartigen kapitälen besondere formen, die bald einfach, bald reich verziert zur verwendung kommen. besonders sind viele würfelkapitäle bedeckt mit figürlichem schmuck (fig. ), wie überhaupt menschen- und tiergestalten, oft in phantastischen umbildungen, als dekorationsmittel nicht verschmäht wurden. vielfache anwendung fanden auch die sog. zwillingskapitäle. — sehr beliebt als verzierung der säulenschäfte, schlufssteine, friese, gesimse u. s. w. war ranken- und blattwerk, welches ausnahmslos in stilisierten formen vorkam und wenigstens in den ersten zeiten oft von geringem verständnis für die natur zeugte. die blätter sind breit gehalten und ihre spitzen vielfach abgerundet. — zur erzeugung eines kräftigen wechsels von licht und schatten war alles sehr erhaben, mitunter fast frei herausgearbeitet wie bei fig. . — die figuren u. gehören schon dem sog. Übergangsstile an. fig. . kapitäl aus der agia theotokos zu konstantinopel. ende des ix. jahrhunderts. r . kapitäl aus s. vitale zu ravenna. r . fenstersturzverzierung aus der agia theotokos zu konstantinopel. r . kämpfergesims aus der kirche des h. nikolaus zu myra. r . pilasterkapitäl aus der agia sophia in konstantinopel. ., . thüreinfassung an der abteikirche zu s. denis. xii. jahrh. mitte. ,. . füllung. „ . säulenverzierung von der kathedrale zu bourgcs. ,. . desgl. von der kathedrale zu autun. t . kapitäl von der abteikirche zu st. benoit. „ . desgl. vom barbarossa-palast in gelnhausen. r . bogeneinfassung von der kirche st. amant de boixc. „ . desgl. von der kirche zu gelnhausen. anfang des xiii. jahrh. „ . tragstein von der kirche zu gelnhausen. anfang des xiii. jahrh. ,. . verzierung an einem säulenschaft aus der kirche zu tournus. xii. jahrh. r . desgl. an einem säulenschaft aus der kathedrale zu chartres. xii. jahrh. r . von einer thürumrahmung aus der ehemaligen benediktiner-abteikirche zu ellwangen. „ . fries im innern der st. walderichs-kapclle zu murrhardt. v . u. . bogenkonsolen am seitenschiffe der st. sebalduskirche zu nürnberg. ,. . schlufssteinverzierung in derselben kirche. . desgl. aus dem dome zu bamberg. fig. , , , u. nach originalabglissen der gypsmodellsammlung der kgl. centraistelle für tiewerbe und handel in stuttgart. das Übrige entnommen aus: ..schwarz u. cades, die ehemalige benediktiner-abteikirche zum h. vitus in ellwangen." „baudotj la sculpture frangaise au moyen-äge et ä la renaissance.'; ..salzenberg, allchristliche baudenkmale von konstantinopel vom v,—xii. jahrhundert." ..gailhabaud, l'architecture du v. au xvii. siecle et les arts qui en dependent. „viollet-le-duc. dictionaire raisonne de l'architeclure frangaise du xi. au xvi. siecle." byzantinisch und romanisch. . taf. . romanisch. wandmalerei. die bei der wandmalerei verwendeten farben sind heiter und zeigen eine grofse mannigfaltigkeit. die menschlichen figuren tragen nicht die starre greisenhaftigkeit der byzantinischen aus der gleichen zeit zur schau, sondern zeigen freiere bewegung und jugendlichkeit. hei den gewändern, die sich ziemlich genau an die körperformen anschliefsen, ist die motivierung der falten eine viel bessere als z. b. bei den by- zantinischen bildern. für das ornament gelten alle bisher angeführten eigentümlichkeiten des romanischen stils. reiche anwendung wird vom kreise oder kreisteilen gemacht. fig. und . aus der apsis der basilica di s. angelo in formis bei capua. xi. jahrhundert. „ — . ausdem kapitelsaal der ehemaligen benediktiner-abtei brauweiler bei cöln. xi. jahrh. — . aus der unterkirche zu schwarz-rheindorf bei bonn. xii. jahrh. (mitte). . u. . aus dem chor der domkirche zu braunschweig. xii. jahrh. . aus der ehemaligen abtei-kirche zu marcigny. xii. jahrh. n u. . aus der kirche zu anzy. xii. jahrh. . u. . aus der unterkirche s. francesco zu assisi. fig. u. . aufgenommen von h. dolmetsch. das Übrige entnommen aus: ..weerth, wandmalereien des christlichen mittelalters in den rheinlanden." „salazaro, studi sui monumenti della italia meridionale del ix. al xiii secolo." ..gailhabaud, l'architecture du v. au xvii. siecle." ..calliah, encyclopedie d'architecture." romanisch. . » wandmalerei. ornaiventenschatz. .erlag v. jul. hoffh'ann. stuttgart romanisch-gothisch. h. dolmetsch. ornaventenschatz. glasmalerei. verlag v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. taf. . romanisch-gothisch. fussboden-bekleidungen. "\^/"o nicht verschiedenfarbige steinarten zur herstellung eines kunstreichen bodenbelags zu gebote standen, lag es nahe, zur ausschmückung von böden thonplättchen oder gravierte steinplatten zu ver- wenden. solche steinplatten mit ihren in farbigem zement ausgeführten zeichnungen (fig. — ) trafen wir schon bei der besprechung der arabischen ornamentik, wie auch thonplättchen, die zu einer art mosaikboden (fig. — ) zusammengefügt wurden. im letzteren falle finden wir namentlich in der zeit der herrschaft des romanischen stiles entweder jede einzelne farbe durch ein besonderes plättchen in der entsprechenden form vertreten (fig. — ) oder wird das ornament in eine thonplatte eingedrückt, die vertiefung mit verschieden gefärbtem zement ausgegossen und das ganze endlich mit einer durchsichtigen glasur überzogen (fig. — ). daneben kam auch der gebrauch auf, der sich dann besonders in der zeit der gothik verbreitete, die einzelnen fliesen mit hilfe eines modells mit einer vertieften oder erhabenen zeichnung zu versehen. diese plättchen, von denen gewöhnlich vier in ihrer zusammensetzung erst das beabsichtigte ornament bilden, wurden in ihrer naturfarbe belassen und mannigfach auch glasiert. natürlich stofsen wir bei der mosaikartigen zusammensetzung fast nur auf einfache geometrische motive, während bei den andern oben erwähnten arten von fufsbodenbekleidungen hauptsächlich die menschen-, tier- und pflanzenwelt zur erscheinung kommt. unter den pflanzen sind es insbesondere die lilien in den mannigfachsten stilisierungen und, wie bei der glasmalerei, die blätter der eiche und rebe, die überall wiederkehren. fig. — . gravierte steinplatten aus der alten kathedrale zu st. omer, xiii. jahrhundert. (grund braun, innere zeichnung bei. pferd und reiter rot ausgefüllte. „ u. . mosaikböden von gebranntem thon emailliert, aus einer sammlung in dresden (schwarz und rot, mittelpunkte mit weifser einfassung), xiii. jahrh. „ u. . desgleichen aus der klosterkirche colombe-les-sens (rot, schwarz und gelb), xii. jahrh. „ u. . desgleichen aus der abteikirche zu st. denis (rot, schwarz und gelb), xii. jahrh. „ u. . desgleichen aus der alten abteikirche zu pontigny, xii. jahrh. (gelb, rot und schwarz auf grünem grunde). „ — . emaillierte thonfliese aus st. pierre-sur-dive, xii. jahrh. (gelb und schwarzbraun). „ u. . desgleichen aus der kirche zu bloxham, xiii. jahrh. (rot und gelb). „ u. . desgleichen aus der beddington-church in surrey, xv. jahrh. (rot und gelb). „ . gravierte thonfliese aus dem rathause zu ravensburg (naturfarbe ohne glasur), xiv. jahrh. „ . desgleichen aus einem patrizierhause daselbst, xiv. jahrh. „ . . thonfliese mit vertieftem grund, naturfarbe ohne glasur, xiv. jahrh., aus d. kirche zu gaildorf. „ . thonfliese mit vertieftem grund und reliefierten figuren aus d. kloster zu alpirsbach, xii. jahrh. fig. — . nach aufnahmen von architekt theophil frey in" stuttgart. ,, u. . ., „ „ zeichenlehrer bosch in ravensburg. ,, . ,, „ „ h. dolmetsch. das Übrige entnommen aus: „hassler, schwäbische fliese. verhandlungen des vereins für kunst und altertum in ulm und oberschwaben." „cahier et martin, suite aux melanges d'archeologie.'' „calliat, encyclopedie d'architecture." „arne, les carrelages emailles du moyen-äge et de la renaissance." „viollet-le-duc, dictionnaire raisonnt de l'architeclure frangaise du xi. au xvi. siecle." gothisch. . fflolmettch. holzmosaik. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann , stuttgart. ■ rr taf. . gothisch. glasmalerei. w aren in der romanischen periode hauptsächlich blofs ornamentale verzierungen in allerdings be- deutender vollkommenheit zur ausführung gekommen, so trat in dieser hinsicht im xiv. jahrhundert ein bedeutender umschwung ein. denn als jetzt der romanische stil in der glasmalerei, in der er sich noch lange in die gothik herein erhalten hatte, ganz verdrängt wurde, sah man sich dazu veranlafst, die weiten fenster- öffnungen hauptsächlich durch figür- lichen schmuck auszufüllen. die früher so beliebten teppichmuster wurden mehr und mehr nur noch als hintergrund der figuren verwendet, dazu trat dann - z e ii häufig eine leicht aufgebaute archi- tektur. doch hat das stilisierte blatt- und rankenwerk noch einen platz als einfassung. in späterer zeit wird dasselbe immer freier behandelt, so dafs es oft zu wilder bewegung aus- artet. neben den fenstern mit figür- lichen darstellungen kommen aber auch rein ornamental gehaltene vor, eine besondere gattung derselben bil- den die sogenannten grisaillen, die auf farblosem glase mit schwarzer zeichnung verziert sind und bunte farben oft nur sparsam zeigen. fig. . von einem chorfenster im münster zu ulm. r — . von den chorfenstern der frauenkirche zu esslingen. „ — . im nationalmuseum zu münchen, früher im dome zu regensburg. „ . von einem chorfenster im dome zu köln. vom chor der klosterkirche zu königsfelden (schweiz). von einem der schifffenster der oberkirche zu s. francesco zu assisi. von den seitenschifffenstern der unterkirche daselbst. ou. . . u. . fig. i. aufgenommen von maler fr. dirr in ulm. . . n n glasmaler anemüller in stuttgart. — . „ ,, zeichner p. haaga daselbst. . entnommen aus dem werke von schmitz „der dom zu cüln". , , u. . aufgenommen von h. dolmetsch. . aufgenommen von baumeister borkhardt in stuttgart. »+<§>+«- gothisch. . taf. . gothisch. architektur, skulptur und ornamentik. p^ctm gothischen stil treffen wir, abgesehen von ausartungen in der spätesten zeit der gothik, durch- gängig eine unterordnung der verzierungen unter die architektur. nach diesem grundsätze überwuchert daher das ornament nirgends den architektonischen aufbau, wird nie selbstzweck, sondern dient nur dazu, den eindruck der architektur in harmonischer weise zu ergänzen oder einzelnes je nach bedürfnis hervor- zuheben. so erhalten namentlich die spitzbogigen portale und fenster, die kühn aufwärtsstrebenden türme und türmchen, fialen etc. etc., die kapitäle und gesimse, chorstühle und galerien ornamentalen schmuck, mit welchem auch die werke der kleinkunst, haus- und kirchengerätc durchaus nicht kärglich bedacht sind. die kapitäle sind meist nur eine glockenförmige erweiterung des säulenschaftes, um welche in freier weise blätter und blumen gewunden sind (fig. — ). die verwendung vegetabilischen schmuckes ist überhaupt eine sehr ausgedehnte: so sind z. b. die krabben oder knollen an den kanten der giebel und turmpyramiden eigentlich nichts anderes als in freier weise umgestaltete blätter, und die schlufssteine in den gewölben, die konsolen u. s. w. sind ebenfalls sehr häufig mit blätterschmuck versehen. an der bearbeitung und auffassung dieser blätter und blumen lässt sich die zeit, aus welcher ein bauwerk, ein geräte herstammt, mit ziemlicher sicherheit bestimmen. während nämlich in der ersten zeit der gothik ( . jahrh.) die behandlung eine volle und breite ist, welche die naturformen nur leicht stilisiert (fig. , , , , , ), bekommt später eine schwungvollere ausführung die oberhand (fig. — }. und in der letzten periode des gothischen stils endlich läfst sich eine wachsende entfernung von den natür- lichen formen nicht verkennen, indem alles blattwerk ein knorriges aussehen erhält, wobei sich dann auf der einen seite eine gewisse erstarrung geltend macht (fig. , , ), während auf der andern seite eine mitunter unruhige bewegung herrscht (fig. , , \ dazu trägt wesentlich auch die gewohnheit bei, die blätter so frei zu unterarbeiten, dafs sie nur leicht angeheftet erscheinen, was vielfach einen zu harten wechsel von licht und schatten zur folge hat. das laubwcrk ist mit vorliebe der heimischen flora entnommen. die blätter des weinstocks, der distel, der eiche und buche, des epheus und klees, der rosen u. s. w., an welche sich meist symbolische bedeutungen knüpfen, treten überall auf. menschen- und tierfiguren finden eine vielfach humoristische verwendung bei den sog. wasser- speiern. auch konsolen, schlufssteine und namentlich die giebelfelder über den thüren sind mit figürlichen darstellungen geschmückt. fig. . geschnitzte figur vom chorgcstühle des münsters zu ulm. r . knauf an einer sitzklappc misericordia) an demselben gestühlc. „ . schlufssteinverzierung aus dem dom zu naumburg. r . kapitälknauf von der kirche zu gelnhausen. „ . „ französischen ursprungs. „ . kreuzblume von der notrc-dame-kirche zu paris. r . knauf an einer kreuzblume daselbst. r . kreuzblume vom tabernakel der ehemaligen spitalkirche zu kfslingen b . krabbe aus nürnberg. „ . r vom dom zu köln. u. . kehlenverzierung daselbst. . . u. . wasserspeier daselbst. r . kapitäl französischen ursprungs. „ . „ vom kreuzgange der kirche zu wimpffen im thal. „ „ von der glockenhalle der frauenkirche zu efslingen. r . r vom taufsteine in der marienkirche zu reutlingen. r . gesimsverzierung an der kathedrale zu troyes. r . geschnitzte u. durchbrochene füllung eines schrankthürchens französischen ursprungs. „ . kchlenverzierung von der kirche zu wimpffen im thal. „ . „ aus nürnberg. fig. i, , , , , , , u. — . aufgenommen nach modellen aus der (jipstnodellsammlung der kgl. ceutralstellc für gewerbe und handel. das Übrige entnommen aus: ..kranz schmitz: der dom zu köln." ..heideloff, die ornamentik des mittelalters." „yiollet-le-duc, dictionnaire raisonne de l'architecture francaise de xi. au xvi. siecle." ..raguenet, materieaux et documents d'architeclure et sculpture. taf. . gothisch. weberei, stickerei, bemalte skulptur und email. c^jewebe und stickereien, welche in grosser anzahl während der gothischen periode namentlich in den klöstern gefertigt wurden, schlossen sich in der ersten zeit noch an die vom süden und osten über- kommenen muster an (fig. ). aber man verschmähte dies allmählig und wandte sich besonders der verzierung durch blumen und blätter zu, die in strenger stilisierung verwendung finden, ohne jedoch das figürliche element auszuschliefsen. letzteres hatte seinen platz namentlich bei heiligen gewändern, vot- hängen und teppichen in kirchen, wo ihm eine symbolische beziehung unterlegt wurde. dafs in der italienischen gothik auch das linienornament seinen platz behauptete (fig. - ), darf uns bei dem einfluss byzantinischer und arabischer kunst in der früheren zeit nicht wunder nehmen (vergl. auch taf. , fig. , , , ). skulpturen von holz oder stein wurden vielfach bemalt; die gewandmuster zeigen dann gewöhn- lich die oben erwähnten motive. 'fig. u. gehören schon dem Übergang von der gothik zur renaissance an. das email fand besonders im . jahrhundert an den prächtigen reliquienschreinen reichste an- wendung, hiebei kamen jedoch die romanischen zierformen noch sehr zur geltung. fig. [. statue des h. simon im chor des domes zu köln. . gewandmuster an einer andern statue daselbst. „ . gestickte bordüre französischen ursprungs. xiv. jahrhundert. „ . gestickter stoff „ „ (anstatt gold ist im original silber an- gewendet. xv. jahrh. . „ „ xiv. jahrh. — . bordüren und teppichmuster von den wandgemälden der oberkirche s. francesco zu assisi. xiv. jahrh. „ . teppichmuster von einem temperagemälde des niccolo alunno ( in der pina- kothek zu perugia. „ . sizilianisches gewebe aus der marienkirche zu danzig. xiii. jahrh. „ . borde eines teppichs auf dem bilde des hugo van der goes in den uffizien zu florenz. xv. jahrh. „ . „ „ „ auf einem bilde von mantegna in s. zeno zu verona, ende des xv. jahrh. „ . bordüre von einem gestickten mefsgewande. xiv. jahrh. (deutsche arbeit). „ u. . stoffmuster aus dem xiv. jahrh., französischen ursprungs. „ . vergoldete kupfergravierung von der kreuzreliquientafel in der kath. pfarrkirche zu mettlach. „ — . emaillierte verzierungen am schrein der h. drei könige im dom zu köln, anfang des xiii. jahrh. r . emaillierte bordüre aus dem anfang des xiii. jahrh. im musee de cluny. fig. — . aufgenommen von reg.-baumeister borkhardt in stuttgart. „ u. . „ „ h. dolmetsch. das Übrige entnommen aus: ..weerth, kunstdenkmäler des christl. mittelalters in den rheinlanden." „uoffmann, les arts et l'industrie." _cahier et martin, melanges d'archeologie." „louandre, les arts somptuaires." „dupont-auberville, l'ornement des tissus." „viollet-le-duc, dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier francais." i gothisch. . h. dolmetsch. manuskriptmalerei. ornamentenschatz. verlag v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. taf. . gothisch. manuskriptmalerei. i n der manuskriptmalerei verdrängten die lebhaften formen des ornamentes nur langsam die runden, flächenfüllenden des romanischen stils. die blumen wurden teils stilisiert, teils sind sie ganz naturalistisch gehalten und fig. und geben uns ein bild davon, wie beide arten der behandlung oft miteinander verbunden wurden, so besonders in der späteren zeit der gothik. charakteristisch für diese ist eine kräftige schattierung, sowie der gebrauch von halbtönen und das aufsetzen von lichtern. bemerkenswert ist die mannigfaltigkeit und pracht der farben, mit welchen uns die üppige und lebensvolle blumenflora in den miniaturen der ehrwürdigen handschriften jener zeit vorgeführt wird. fig. — aus dem xiv. jahrhundert. * — samt den einzelnen blättern und blumen aus dem xv. jahrh. fig. i, u. . aufgenommen von /eichner p. ilaaga nach minialuren im museum vaterländischer altertümer zu stuttgart. „ . aufgenommen von prof. händel in weimar. das Übrige entnommen aus: „llumphreys and jones, the illuminated books of the middle ages." „wyatt, the art of illuminaling as practised in europc from the earlicst times." taf. . d, 'ie we tere hindert, dafs dagegen bot menden figu- ren wurden be- einflufst durch die richtung nach oben und den oft sehr schmalcnplatz, der für sie an- gewiesen war, demzufolge tragen sie denn auch nicht sel- ten ein zu schlankes aussehen zur schau. aber im unter- schied von den romanischen gestalten, ha- ben sie fast alle etwas le- bendiges und graziöses in haltung und gebärde; doch führte dies in der weiteren entwicklung zu einer ge- wissen gewun- denen, mani- sich zur anbringung ornamentalen schmuckes reichliche gelegenheit. gothisch. wand- und deckenmalerei. ausbildung der wandmalerei wurde in der gothischen periode dadurch einigermafsen ge- sehen geeignete mauerflächen zur aufnahme von gröfseren gemälden vorhanden waren. die vorkom- rierten stel- lung. (vergl. fig. u.taf. , fig. .) - die gewandfalten fliefsen weich, in langen, schönen li- nien herab, die konturen der- selben sind schwarz und kommt nur sehr wenig schattierung in bunter far- be vor. bei fig. ist die schattierung durch schwar- ze strichlagen gebildet. fig. ist ein bei- spiel dafür, in welcherweise die antike wieder gel- tung gewinnt und so zur renaissance hinüberführt. fig. . fig. . . u- - - u. . . u. . — . u. i. . von einem stammbaum in der hospitalkirche zu stuttgart. xv. jahrhundert. teil von fig. . bemaltes flachornament mit zurückgeschnittenem grunde. aus der kirche zu brauweiler. xiv. jahrh. aus einer kapelle zu ramersdorf. xiv. jahrh. aus einem ncbengcmach der stiftskirche zu fritzlar. xv. jahrh. aus der jakobinerkirche zu agen. xiii. jahrh. „ st. chapellc zu paris. xiii. jahrh. ,. „ oberkirche san francesco zu assisi. „ „ unterkirche daselbst. (siehe obige text-illustration.) untere ansicht des holzbaldachins über dem ehemaligen abtsstuhle in der klosterkirche zu blaubeuren. fig. i. aufgenommen von /eichner p. haaga in stuttgart. „ . „ ,, zeichenlehrer weifs in blaubeuren. „ — . n v h. dolmetsch. das übrige entnommen aus: „weerth, wandmalereien des christlichen mtttelalters in den rheinlanden." „lindeil, zeitschrift für bauwesen." „calliat, f.ncyclopedie d'architecture.'' . taf. . italienische renaissance. glasmalerei. m ehr und mehr kam man schon in der gothischen periode davon ab, die fensteröffnungen ganz mit farbigen gläsern zu füllen. an ihre stelle traten vollends mit dem beginn des renaissancestils, kleine glasgemälde auf farblosem grunde, welche allerdings dann wieder eine oft überreiche einfassung und umrahmung erhielten, so dafs diese letztere mit ihren der pflanzen- und tierwelt entnommenen, gar häufig aber auch die menschliche gestalt in den bereich ihrer darstellung ziehenden ornamenten die hauptsache zu bilden scheint. dafs es dabei an allerlei symbolischen gegenständen und figuren nicht fehlt, zeigt ein blick auf die beiliegende tafel, deren inhalt jedoch schon der späteren zeit der renaissance angehört. fig. . aus dem nationalmuseum im bargello zu florenz, aufgenommen von h. dolmetsch. — . aus der certosa bei florenz von giovanni da udine), aufgenommen von reg.- baumeister borkhardt und architekt eckert in stuttgart. taf. . italienische renaissance. fayenceplatten. j^)as material und die art der herstellung glasierter thonplättchen brachten es mit sich, dafs fufsböden und wandbekleidungen aus solchen plättchen kein in allen einzelheiten so fein durchgeführtes ornament aufzuweisen vermochten, wie schöpfungen aus metall, marmor u. s. w. wo diese technik daher über das einfache geometrische muster hinausgeht, sind die meist an byzantinische und orientalische vorbilder erinnernden ornamente doch bescheiden, aber dafür auch um so klarer und kräftiger. ihre wirkung erhält aber noch eine steigerung durch die trefflichkeit der farbenzusammenstellung: und doch wurden in weiser mäfsigung fast nie mehr als farben zur anwendung gebracht. besondere berühmtheit erlangte durch fabrikation solcher ziegelböden- und wandbekleidungs- platten die schule der robbia, weshalb solche plattenmosaiken vielfach unter dem namen „robbiaarbeiten" verzeichnet werden. fig. , , , , , , u. . bekleidungsplatten an den treppenwänden des hauses nr. in via luccoli zu genua. ,. , , , , , u. . desgleichen in haus nr. in via s. matteo daselbst. „ u. . fufsbodenplatten aus san petronio zu bologna. aufgenommen von reg.-baumeister borkhardt in stuttgart. italienische renaissance. . ornamentenschatz. kehl. v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. fayence- platten. italienische renaissance. «. idolmetsch fagaden -malerei. namentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart taf. . italienische renaissance. fassadenmalerei. a m anfang des . jahrhunderts tritt in italien zuerst der stil der renaissance auf, und es läfst sich die zeit bis ca. als die zeit der frührenaissance bezeichnen, im gegensatz zur hochrenaissance, deren dauer bis in die mitte des . jahrhunderts geht. renaissance ist wiederaufnahme, aber nicht sklavische nachbildung, sondern freie bearbeitung antiker formen. dies tritt besonders zu tage beim ornament, welches dieser stil so reichlich und um- fassend, wie kein anderer, verwertet. namentlich bezieht sich dies auf die motive, die wir finden. da fällt uns vor allem das pflanzenornament ins auge, welches in der frührenaissance den grund meist noch mäfsig bedeckt. es sind fast stets zarte, schön geschwungene ranken in symmetrischer oder doch regel- mäfsiger anordnung. dabei spielt die hauptrolle das antike akanthusblatt, welches freilich die mannig- fachste umbildung erfährt. auch die) rebe, der lorbeer, der epheu u. s. w. werden vielfach verwertet, teils naturalistisch, teils stilisiert. aber dieses laubwerk mit seinen zweigen und früchten erhält durch tiere aller art, phantastische wesen, menschen, sodann durch symbolische gegenstände, waffen, masken, embleme. vasen, kandelaber u. dergl. reiche abwechslung und belebung. hauptsächlich ausgebildet wird die verbindung von menschen- und tiergestalten mit vegetabilischen elementen fig. , vgl. auch taf. ). ein nicht unwichtiger bestandteil der verzierung sind endlich die wappen und wappenschilder, letztere gewöhnlich als sogenannte rofsstirnschilde (fig. u. ) zur zeit der frührenaissance, späterhin dann als kartouche. alles bisher erwähnte finden wir bei der fassadenmalerei, d. h. bei den malereien, mit denen einzelne häuserfassaden in ermangelung plastischen schmuckes vollständig überzogen waren, welche entweder ornamente oder geschichtliche darstellungen zur schau tragen. die farben sind lebhaft und harmonisch zusammengestellt, so dafs ein prächtiger eindruck durch solche oft nicht blofs bemalte, sondern auch gemalte architektur erzielt wird. aus späterer zeit, wo die figurenreichen, geschichtlichen darstellungen das ornament beinahe ganz verdrängten, findet man auch häufig broncefarbig oder grau in grau gemalte fassaden. fig. — . von der fassade eines hauses in genua (via san matteo nr. ). „ . hoffassade von „casa taverna" in mailand. _ — . r des palazzo piccolomini in pienza. fig. —ii aufgenommen von reg.-baumeister borkhardt in stuttgart. das Übrige entnommen aus: reinhardt, palast-architektur italiens: genua. gruner, speeimens of ornamental art. taf. . italienische renaissance. intarsien. jjlühte zur zeit der renaissance die holzschnitzerei überhaupt, so gilt das in ganz besonderem grade von einem zweige derselben, nämlich von den eingelegten holzarbeiten (intarsien), mit welchen namentlich chorstühle, schränke in sakristeien u. s. w. aufs reichste geschmückt waren. hinsichtlich der gegenstände der darstellung findet eigentlich keine beschränkung statt, da wir ganze gemälde, perspektivische ansichten und ornamente in buntester auswahl antreffen. letztere, meist hell auf dunklem grunde, bieten uns eine herrliche fülle von stilisierten pflanzenmotiven, vermischt oder verbunden mit allerlei vasen, gefäfsen, lebenden wesen u. s. w. die anordnung des rankenwerks ist, wenigstens bei regelmäfsigen umrahmten flächen, eine streng symmetrische. auch hier steht das akanthusblatt in erster linie zur verfügung; jedoch ist hier der einflufs zu beachten, den die herstellungsweise auf die spitzen der blätter ausübt. um gröfsere lebendigkeit zu erreichen, wird mitunter neben der intarsia das niello angewandt; die blattrippen, schraffierungen u. s. w. werden durch ausfüllung mit einer dunklen masse hergestellt. fig. n r - - . . i. vom chorgestühl in s. anastasia in verona. vom sockel der sakristeischränke in s. maria in organo daselbst. vom chorgestühl daselbst. vom chorgestühl in monte oliveto maggiore. „ — - „ u. . in s. petronio zu bologna. (grund der mittelfelder schwarz.) in der certosa bei pavia, (bei fig. grund schwarz.) nach aufnahmen von reg.-baumeister borkhardt in stuttgart. italienische renaissance. ibclmetsch decken-malerei. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann , stuttgart taf. i». italienische renaissance. deckenmalerei. j^.n den deckengewölben wie an den ebenen holzdecken in kirchen und palästen fand der künstlerische geist ein reiches feld für seine thätigkeit. die gröfsten künstler wirkten mit bei der veredlung des ornaments, indem sie ihre freskomalereien mit verzierungen selbst umrahmten (fig. u. ). der unter- grund dieser aus vegetabilischen und animalischen elementen gemischten ornamente ist meist leicht; die farben selbst heiter und lebhaft. — daneben fehlt es jedoch auch nicht an einfacheren mustern. wo keine bildlichen darstellungen auftreten, ersetzen deren stelle gemalte kassetten oder rosetten, eingefafst von geometrischen ornamenten. — bemerkenswert ist auch die verbindung von solchen farbigen orna- menten mit mehr oder weniger einfacher stuckdekoration, die aber oft wie bei fig. . in täuschender weise mit dem pinsel imitiert ist. die beiden rosetten 'fig. u. \ ) gehören zwar ihrer entstehung nach einer der renaissance vorangehenden periode an, sie zeigen aber doch schon in ihren bildungen eine ausgesprochene verwandtschaft mit der eigentlichen renaissance. fig. — . vom chorgewölbe in s. maria del popolo zu rom. (von pinturicchio.) r . aus einem der borgia-zimmer im vatikan zu rom. r u. . muster von den gewölbfeldern in der certosa bei pavia. r u. . bordüren um diese gewölbfelder. . . u. . medaillons von den gewölbfeldern in s. francesco zu lodi. fig. i— . aufgenommen von ii. dolmetsch, architekt in stuttgart, und ii. weinhold, bildhauer in dresden. „ —in. aufgenommen von reg. baumeister bnrkhardt in stuttgart. ,, u. . entnommen aus: ,,gruner, speeimens of ornamental art." tat . italienische renaissance. spitzentechnik. im altertum unbekannt und jedenfalls erst seit ende des . jahrhunderts zu künstlerischer vollkommen- heit gelangt, kann die spitzentechnik so recht eine schöpfung der renaissance genannt werden. und zwar ist italien, namentlich mit den beiden städten venedig und genua der boden, dem man sowohl die nadelspitzen als auch die feinste gattung der auf dem klöppelkissen gefertigten arbeiten zu verdanken hat. die ersteren, die sogenannten „points", sind als die kostbarere gattung zu betrachten. ihre technik, bei welcher grund und ornamente aus lauter ä jour gefertigten einzelnen stichen bestehen, läfst eine äufserst zarte und graziöse gestaltung zu. ihre ausführung beruht aber auf einem sehr umständlichen und schwierigen verfahren, wobei nur kleine stückchen von ca. cm ausdehnung ausgeführt werden können, die alsdann nach ihrer vollendung zu einem zusammenhängenden ganzen aneinandergefügt werden müssen, weshalb bei der komposition der spitzenmuster notwendig auf die möglichkeit einer unbemerkbaren zusammensetzung der einzelnen teile rücksicht genommen werden mufs. die geschätzteste der genähten spitzen ist die venetianische reliefspitze, bei welcher alle blätter, blumen etc. erhabene ränder zeigen. eine noch höhere stufe dieser spitzengattung wird in arbeiten mit hochaufgestellten blättern erreicht fig. u. ). die technik der geklöppelten spitzen oder kissenspitzen (dentelles) besteht in kunstvollem verknüpfen und verflechten von fäden nach einem durchdachten systeme. bezüglich der feinheit dieser klöppelspitzen gibt es bedeutende gradverschiedenheiten, welche auf die schwierigkeit der ausführung, wie auf die kostbarkeit derselben von gröfstem einflusse sind. das spitzen-ornament schliefst sich dem übrigen renaissance-ornament vollständig an, mit der beschränkung, dafs hier natürlich pflanzenmotive entschieden vorwiegen, obgleich auch bildliche dar- stellungen, vögel und dergl. keineswegs fehlen. genähte arbeit. fig. , u. . venetianische spitze. ., , u. . venetianische relief-spitze. , u. . desgl. mit hochaufgestellten blättern. , . roselina-spitze. . reticella-spitze. . italienische guipure. . genueser kirchenspitze. klöppelarbeit. ., . kragen in venetianischer guipure. diese aus dem . u. . jahrhundert stammenden spitzenmuster sind nach kopien reproduziert, welche in der vom k. k. öster- reichischen staate zur ausbildung von spitzenlehrerinnen errichteten zentral-spitzen-schule zu wien in meisterhafter weise gefertigt und durch vermittelung der bekannten aus dem erzgebirge stammenden spitzen-firma ,,a. kliegl & sohn, kgl. hoflieferanten in stuttgart" für unsere publikation zur verfügung gestellt wurden. italienische renaissance. italienische renaissance. h) olmetsch. sgraffiten, marmoreinlagen und flachreliefs. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. wand-u.decken-malerei. ornamentenschatz. «erl. v. jul. hoffmann , stuttgart taf. . italienische renaissance. wand- und deckenmalerei. schönsten und edelsten stellt sich die dekorierende wand- und deckenmalerei der hochrenaissance dar in den werken rafaels und seiner schule, so besonders in den loggien des vatikans. rühren hier auch die malereien zum grofsen teile nicht von seiner hand her, so sind sie doch von seinen schülern nach seinen angaben und in seinem sinne ausgeführt. es läfst sich dabei nicht verkennen, dafs von grofsem einflufs, namentlich für die verbindung von stuck und malerei, die damals entdeckten titus- thermen in rom waren; allein sie reizten ihn nicht nur zur nachbildung, sondern regten ihn hauptsächlich zur schöpfung immer neuer und wechselnder motive für figuren, guirlanden u. s. w. an. und so bieten sich im vatikan dem beschauer in grofsartiger fülle malereien dar, bei denen das verhältnis von figur und ornament, von dekoration und architektur und namentlich der farben zu einander in feinster weise zur geltung kommt. — bemerkenswert ist das vorherrschen sekundärer farben. (fig. .) von einem schüler rafaels rühren auch die malereien im palazzo doria in genua her. stehen sie auch nicht auf gleich hoher stufe, wie die rafaelischen werke, so sind sie doch in ihren einzelnheiten durchaus schön und beweisen namentlich einen äufserst glücklichen sinn für die zusammenstellung der farben. — Über die zur anwendung kommenden motive, vergl. das zu tafel ff. bemerkte. fig. . deckenmalerei im palazzo doria zu genua. b . pilasterverzierung aus den loggien des vatikans zu rom. „ u. . füllungen in einer fensternische im vatikanischen museum daselbst. fig. i. nach einer originalaufnahme des reg.-baumeisters borkhardt in stuttgart. das Übrige entnommen aus: „letarouilly, le vatikan et la basilisque de st. pierre de rome." taf. . italienische renaissance. manuskriptmalerei, weberei und marmormosaik. v on einschneidendster bedeutung für die manuskriptmalerei war die erfindung der buchdruckerkunst: denn weil die herstellung von litterarischen erzeugnissen eine leichtere und einfachere wurde und damit auch der äufsere wert sich bedeutend ermäfsigte, so wurde auch auf die künstlerische ausschmückung durch malerei viel weniger mühe verwendet, vollends da die neu erfundene kunst auch die mittel zur herstellung schöner initialen und titelblätter an die hand gab. dennoch finden wir selbst in jener zeit noch manche als manuskriptmaler thätig: denn einmal erstreckt sich das bücherdrucken in der zeit der renaissance noch nicht so allgemein auf alle zweige der litteratur, und dann liebte man selbst bei ge- druckten werken doch ein mit der hand ausgeführtes titelblatt oder in besonderer weise verzierte, namentlich buntfarbige anfangsbuchstaben. aus diesem grunde bietet uns jene zeit noch viele beispiele schöner manuskriptmalerei, die oft ein buntes gemisch antiker, mythologischer und christlicher motive bieten. die pflanzenarabesken, wie die blätter und blumen der initialen, lassen weniger naturalistische als konventionell stylisierte formen erkennen. entschieden naturalistisch gehalten sind sie dagegen bei den vielen mit höchster sorgfalt und unendlichem fleifs ausgeführten mosaikarbeiten, die aus kleinen und gröfseren marmorstückchen der verschiedensten farben zusammengesetzt sind. mit solchen verzierungen schmückte man tischplatten, schränke u. s. w. in florenz wird heute noch diese technik mit erfolg betrieben. am meisten verwandtschaft mit dem hergebrachten aus früherer zeit zeigte die weberei, welche zwar dem einflufs des neuen sich nicht entzog, aber doch mit vorliebe auf orientalische muster zurückging. vergl. taf. . fig. — . malereien aus verschiedenen manuskripten. „ . samt-stoff im museum vaterländischer altertümer in stuttgart. „ . bordüre von einem seidenstoffe. „ . marmormosaik von einem tische im nationalmuseum zu münchen. fig. . . aufgenommen von reg.-baumeister borkhardt in stuttgart. „ u. . aufgenommen von zeichner p. haaga daselbst. das Übrige entnommen aus: „humphreys u. owen jones, the illumiuated books." „wyatt, the art of illuminating as practised in europe from the earliest times." „dupont-auberville, l'ornement des tissus." italienische renaissance. . ornamentenschatz. majolika - malerei. verl. v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. taf. . italienische renaissance. plastische ornamente n marmor und bronze. hainen in früheren zeiten nie gekannten aufschwung nahm die marmorskulptur. dabei unterscheiden sich hochrenaissance und frührenaissance in der richtung, dafs die erstere starke unterschneidungen des blumen- und rankenwerks, sowie des figürlichen elements liebte. die kapitäle zeigen, namentlich in der frührenais- sance , eine nahe verwandt- schaft mit solchen der korin- thischen ordnung: aber an die stelle der voluten treten jetzt vielfach pflanzliche gebilde, am häufigsten jedoch delphine, drachen, füllhörner u. s. w. gerade in diesem punkte tritt der schöpferische reichtum der renaissance so recht zu tage. auch an figürlicher aus- schmückung der kapitäle ist kein mangel. dagegen tritt fig. . das akanthusblatt spärlicher, gewöhnlich nur in einer reihe auf. —mit der hochrenaissance beginnt dann eine zeit engeren anschlusses an die antiken ordnungen , die in dieser periode sämtlich wieder zur geltung kommen. fast gar keine schranken hinsichtlich der modellierung kannte die bronzetechnik, was eine unmittelbare nachbildung der natur zur folge hatte, besonders bei vegetabilischem schmucke. wie die kunstblüte auch auf gewöhnliche gegenstände in hohem mafse eingewirkt hat, zeigen die beiden prächtigen thürklopfer. fig. i. thürsturz mit fries aus marmor im palazzo ducale zu urbino. xv. jahrhundert. „ . fries an einem marmor-kamin daselbst. n . consolkapitäl in marmor aus der kirche fonte giusta in siena. xv. jahrhundert (ende). „ . fries an einem grabmal. „ . thürumrahmung aus bronze von der thüre des ghiberti am baptisterium zu florenz. „ . lisenenfüllung in marmor vom altare in der kirche fonte giusta in siena. „ u. . thürklopfer aus bronze. „ . säulenkapitäl vom portale an der badia in florenz. fig. i — . nach photographischen aufnahmen, gezeichnet von den architekten lambert und stahl in stuttgart. herdtie, „die bauhütte". dolmetsch. wand- und decken-malerei. ornamentenschatz. verl. jul. hoffmahh, stuttgart. taf. . italienische renaissance. wand- und deckenmalerei. « t_j ngefähr mit dem jahre beginnt die zeit der sog. spätrenaissance. ihre eigentümlichkeiten auf dem gebiete der verzierenden malerei bringen namentlich die fig. und — zur anschauung. es ist nicht mehr derselbe reiz und die gleiche anmut, wie bei den schöpfungen der früh- und hochrenaissance; sondern ein kühler, mehr berechnender zug geht durch alles hindurch. die schöne harmonische verbindung des figürlichen mit dem vegetabilischen, auch das fein abgewogene verhältnis der farben zu einander ist einigermafsen im schwinden begriffen. ernüchternd wirken besonders die vielen weifsen flächen. das pflanzenornament wird weniger durchgebildet; an seine stelle treten vielfach elemente, aus welchen sich die sog. kartuschen später herausgebildet haben, und die meisten figuren zeichnen sich durch ihre künst- liche komposition nicht gerade vorteilhaft aus. auch bei der verteilung des ornaments auf der zu ver- zierenden fläche wird keineswegs die vortrefflichkeit der vorhergehenden kunstepoche auf diesem gebiete erreicht. vgl. auch tafel . fig. . bogenfeld aus dem herzoglichen saale im vatikan zu rom. „ — . einzelheiten aus den raffael'schen loggien daselbst. „ . gewölbefeld über der brunnenhalle der villa di papa giulio zu rom. „ u. . plafond-bordüren in derselben villa. „ gu. . pilasterfüllungen aus einer kapelle in s. maria aracelli zu rom. „ . bogenfüllung vom kreuzgange des klosters s. maria sopra minerva zu rom. aufgenommen von h. dolmetsch. taf. . italien. und franzÖs. renaissance. edelmetalle mit email. ei den edelmetallarbeiten handelt es sich teils um solche gegenstände, welche aus edlen met.allen hergestellt, durch kostbare steine, perlen, email noch in besonderer weise verziert wurden (z. b. schmuckgegenstände), teils um solche, bei welchen irgend ein seltenes mineral, wie lapislazuli, onyx u. dergl., oder eine schöne glasform durch anbringung von henkel, fufs, deckel u. s. w. zum prachtgefäfs oder prachtgeräte gebildet wurde. für beide arten war um die mitte des . jahrhunderts der tonangebende meister benvenuto cellini. die farben sind in ihren zusammenstellungen harmonisch gewählt. eine fülle edler linien und schöner formen darzustellen, dazu boten besonders die henkel und deckel der edlen gefäfse reiche ge- legenheit. pflanzen, tiere, menschen, oft in den wunderbarsten zusammensetzungen, überwiegen in ihrer anwendung weit gegenüber dem rein geometrischen ornament. die französische renaissance schliefst sich im grofsen und ganzen, wenigstens im . jahrhundert, bei solchen edelmetallarbeiten dem italienischen stil an, vorzüglich auch deswegen, weil gerade italienische künstler es waren, die in frankreich den neuen stil zur geltung brachten. letzteres ging natürlich im geburtslande der gotik langsam von statten und daher kommt es auch, dafs man vielfach anklänge an den gotischen stil findet, oder dafs da, wo man sich von demselben losgerissen, eine ziemliche willkür anzutreffen ist. fig. . bekrönung eines altärchens in der apollo-galerie des louvre zu paris (ital. arbeit). „ . von einer vase aus lapsislazuli in der galerie der uffizien zu florenz. (dto.) „ . deckel einer kristallschale in emailliertem gold daselbst. (dto.) „ u. . gehänge von benvenuto cellini. (dto.) ,, — . gehänge von unbekanntem meister. (französ. arbeit.) „ u. . henkel an gefäfsen in der apollo-galerie des louvre zu paris. (dto.) n nu. . masken an einem schilde daselbst. (dto.) „ u. . fufs und oberteil eines wasserkrugs daselbst. (dto.) r — . bordüren an gefäfsen in derselben sammlung. (dto.) fig. u. . nach aufnahmen des reg.-baumeisters borkhardt in stuttgart. „ , , u. . nach aufnahmen des fabrikanten c. baur in biberach. das uebrige entnommen aus: dalluz, le tresor artistique de la france. daly, revue general de l'architecture et des travaux publics. labarte, histoire des arts industriels au moyen äge et ä l'epoque de la renaissance. italienische und franzÖsische renaissance. h. dolmetsch. »' . ». edelmetallarbeiten mit email. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart tdolmetsch typographische -verzierungen. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann , stuttgart franzÖsische renaissance. . taf. . franzÖsische renaissance. teppich-malerei. ./~\us der zeit der gotik wurde die vorliebe für teppichartige bemalung der wohnräume herüber- genommen in die periode der renaissance. doch schlägt gerade hier, trotz mannigfachen zurückgreifens auf antike formen, die gotische ueberlieferung sehr oft durch, oder aber sind es wieder orientalische anklänge (vergl. fig. . u. ), welche die ausbildung einer reinen renaissance hindern. die bemalung wurde gewöhnlich in der art ausgeführt, dass etwa die zwei unteren drittel der wände mit einem volleren und schwereren, der obere teil dagegen mit einem einfacheren und leichteren muster bedeckt war 'vergl. fig. u. ). wo rankenwerk vorkommt, ist es fast immer stark stilisiert; eine grosse rolle im ornament spielen die namenszüge (anfangsbuchstaben) der herrscher, sowie kronen und das königliche abzeichen von frankreich, die lilie. — bei den farben sind gebrochene töne beliebt, gold ist häufig verwendet. fig. — . gemalte teppichmuster im schlosse zu blois aus der zeit franz i. (fig. wurde aus versehen verkehrt gezeichnet.) entnommen aus: le nai], le chdteau de blois. taf. . franzÖsische renaissance. plastische verzierungen in stein und holz. t^.einer von fremden bestandteilen als auf andern gebieten zeigt sich die französische renaissance in der plastik. fein, und edel tritt namentlich in der ersten zeit das ornament bei flach- und hochreliefs auf. es ist da fast ausnahmslos mischornament, bei welchem die kartuschen (umrahmungen) mit ihren zu mannigfaltigster gestaltung reizenden formen eine wichtige rolle spielen. in der frührenaissance sind die kartuschen noch ziemlich einfach gehalten, werden aber mit der zeit reicher und mit kräftigeren einrollurigen gebildet. — wie bei der italienischen renaissance ist das akanthusblatt besonders beliebt, das je nach der zeit eine leichtere oder derbere behandlung erfährt. die pilaster und säulen tragen an ihren schäften reichen schmuck; die kapitäle weisen oft eigen- tümliche kompositionen auf, welche zwar mitunter überladen sind, aber auch nicht selten einer gewissen zierlichkeit keineswegs entbehren. fig. . pilasterkapitäl von einem kamin im hotel lasbordes zu toulouse (franz i.. ,. . geschnitzte füllung am wandgetäfer der galerie franz i. im schlosse zu fontainebleau. ,. . geschnitztes füllungsornament von einer thüre im justizpalaste zu dijon (franz i. bis heinrich ii.). „ . wulstverzierung in der kapelle des schlosses zu anet (heinrich il). ,. . verzierung einer fensterumrahmung am louvre zu paris (heinrich il). ,. . holzrosette aus der galerie heinrichs ii. im schlosse zu fontainebleau. ., . rosette von einem kamin im schlosse zu anet (heinrich il). ,. . herme aus dem hotel d'assezat zu toulouse (heinrich il). „ . füllung an einem kamin im museum des hotel de cluny zu paris 'heinrich il). r . in holz geschnitzte füllung an einer thüre der kapelle beim schlosse zu anet heinrich il). r . kapitäl vom baptisterium ludwigs xiii. im schlosse zu fontainebleau. nach photographien, sowie nach: sauvageot, palais, chäteaux, hötels et maisons de france du xv. au xviii. siecle. daly, motifs historiques d'architcclure et de sculpture d'ornement. i'fnor, monographie du chateau d'anet. ,, „ ,, palais de fontainebleau. franzÖsische renaissance. . {"dolmetsch. plastische verzierungen in stein und holz. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann , stuttgart. franzÖsische renaissance. weberei, stickerei und bucheinbÄnde. taf. . franzÖsische renaissance. wandmalerei, bemalte skulptur, bucheinbÄnde und weberei. ,/\.uf dieser tafel kommt der unterschied der früheren und späteren renaissance in frankreich so recht zum vorschein. während fig. i und elegante aber mafsvolle bewegung, fig. und sogar eine gewisse starrheit der etwas derben formen zur schau tragen, ist bei fig. alles in thätigkeit und voll leben; selbst die fruchtgewinde scheinen im winde zu schwanken. auch die anordnung und verbindung der einzelnen gruppen, wie der übergrofse reichtum an figürlichem weisen auf eine zeit hin, wo der grund- satz weiser mäfsigung nicht mehr so sehr im vordergrund des künstlerischen schaffens stand. dieser mangel des mafshaltens tritt auch bei den beiden ruchdecken fig. und hervor, welche uns eine andere verzierungsart als die auf tafel , fig. — , angegebene vor augen führen. fig. — , , lassen uns erkennen, dass bei der bemalung plastischer ornamente wenige farben zur anwendung kamen, dafs aber gold stets vorherrschte. letzteres war bei stuckverzierungen überhaupt oft die einzige farbe, die höchstens durch einen farbigen grund noch herausgehoben wurde. (vergleiche fig. io und ii.; fig. . gemalter fries zu beiden seiten eines kamins im hotel d'aluie zu blois. stil: louis xii. (i. hälfte des xvi. jahrhunderts.) . , . in holz geschnitzte füllung aus dem schlosse zu gaillon. stil: louis xii. (i. hälfte des xvi. jahrh.) .. u. . geschnitzte und bemalte unterzugs-füllungen an einer decke im assisen-hofe zu dijon. stil: francois i. (i. hälfte des xvi. jahrh.) , . geschnitzte und bemalte decken-füllung aus dem zimmer der diana im schlosse zu anet. stil: henri ii. mitte des xvi. jahrh.) , u. . französische bucheinbände. ii. hälfte des xvi. jahrh.) r . gemalte wandfüllung in der bibliothek des arsenals zu paris. 'stil: henri iv.—louis xiii. (i. hälfte des xvii. jahrh.) . . . gemalter wandfries aus dem schlosse zu fontainebleau. stil: louis xiii. (i. hälfte des xvii. jahrh.) u. . bemalte stuckfriese aus der galerie des apollo im louvre zu paris (von berain). stil: louis xiv. (ii. hälfte des xvii. jahrh.) . . bordüre von einem gobelinteppich (von le brun). stil: louis xiv. (ii. hälfte des xvii. jahrh. entnommen aus den werken: „daly, c, motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture d'ornement." „guiffrey, histoire generale de la tapisserie." „monuments in^dits ou peu connus, faisant partie du cabinet de guillaume libri." ., 'fnor, monographie du palais de fontainebleau." „reiber et sauvageot, l'art pour tous" taf. . ■*. franzÖsische renaissance. i t gobelin-weberei. £ ■ #■ schon früher ist darauf hingewiesen worden, dafs die teppichartig bemalten fenster ihre entstehung- dem gebrauch verdanken, die lichtöffnungen durch teppiche zu verhängen; die in gleicher art behan- delten wandflächen, denen man dadurch ein wohnlicheres und schöneres aussehen gab, wurden im laufe der zeit ebenfalls mit farben, d. h. mit bildern oder einfachen zeichnungen versehen. allein die ver- wendung von teppichen für solche zwecke hörte damit nicht auf und besonders vom . jahrhundert an kamen wieder in den häusern der grossen jene teppiche als wandschmuck zur geltung, namentlich als die in den niederlanden gewobenen wollenen tapeten mit allerlei figürlichen darstellungen sich den welt- markt eroberten und die aus seide oder leinwand hergestellten verdrängten. so wurde denn auch in frankreich unter ludwig xiv. eine solche teppichweberei angelegt und zwar in der fabrik der gebrüder gobelin, nach welchen die dort gefertigten teppiche und dann überhaupt alle dieser gattung den namen rgobelins" erhielten. obwohl ihre herstellung eine überaus schwierige und mühsame ist, so zeigt doch ein blick auf unsere tafel, dafs diese art von malerei eigentlich weder in den farben noch in den formen unüber- windliche hindernisse findet. fig. — . bordüren an einem teppich nach le brun (gefertigt — ). ,. — . bordüre von einem teppich nach noel coypel (gefertigt — ). r . ,. ,. ,. ,. des xvi. jahrhunderts. entnommen aus: „histoire generale de la tapisserie." „guichard et darcel, les tapisseries decoratives du garde-meuble." „ualy, revue generale de l'architecture et des travaux public«." iha unis 'nnvwjjoh nnr ■v nulk .ianaaam-nnaaoo zlah sn n hakho ■qosiau |oq 'h . ' nvssivm h h sisozmvh taf. . franzÖsische und deutsche renaissance. flachornamente verschiedener techniken. tiinen besonderen reiz haben die erzeugnisse der verschiedenen handwerke aus jener zeit, da die kunst an der verzierung gewerblicher gegenstände sich lebhaft beteiligte. waffen, kästchen, geräte des täglichen gebrauchs u. s. w. zeigen den mannigfaltigsten schmuck, der bei holz durch einlage von elfenbein u. s. w., bei metall besonders durch gravierung und aetzung angebracht wurde. zu fig. — ist zu bemerken, dafs die sog. fayencen (auch henri-deux-gefässe nach der zeit ihrer ungefähren entstehung genannt) ihren namen von einem französischen schlosse haben, wo während der ersten hälfte des . jahrhunderts diese thonwaren verfertigt wurden. ihre eigentümlichkeit besteht darin, dafs die ornamente und figuren niello-artig auf die oberfläche aufgetragen sind; der grund wurde wahrscheinlich je nach bedürfnis entweder durch einen model oder durch ein werkzeug vertieft und diese vertiefungen mit einer meist gelb und braungefärbten masse ausgefüllt. fig. . boulearbeit von einer wanduhr im museum vaterländischer altertümer in stuttgart (französisch). „ u. . elfenbeineinlagen in ebenholz an einem tische daselbst (deutsch). ,, . holzeinlage von einem himmelbett im goldenen saale zu urach (deutsch). ., u. . holzeinlage an einer wandvertiefung im justizpalast zu dijon (franz.). ., . holzeinlage von einem schranke in ravensburg (deutsch). . silbereinlage an einem goldenen humpen in der schatzkammer des bayr. königshauses in münchen (deutsch). .. . elfenbeineinlage an einer pistole im kgl. historischen museum zu dresden (deutsch). .. . flachrelief von einem himmelbette im goldenen saale zu urach (deutsch). „ . desgl. von einer holzrahme mit vergoldetem grunde im muse de cluny zu paris (franz.). „ . motiv zu einer aetz- oder gravierarbeit von peter flötner (deutsch). „ . eisenätzarbeit an einem vorhängeschlofs aus dem stift heiligenkreuz im k. k. österr. , museum f. k. und i. in wien (deutsch). „ . eisenätzung an einer säge im kgl. historischen museum zu dresden (deutsch). ., u. . bordürchen auf dem deckel einer vergoldeten silberkassette von wenzel jamnitzer in der schatzkammer des bayr. königshauses in münchen (deutsch). ,, . motiv zu einer aetz- oder gravierarbeit (unbekannter deutscher meister). t u. . bordürchen an oiron-gefässen im museum des louvre zu paris (franz.). „ u. . flächenmuster an oiron-gefässen daselbst (franz.). fig. nach aufnahme des fabrikanten c. baur in biberach. ., ,, ,, zeichenlehrers bosch in ravensburg. — u. nach aufnahme des zeichners paul haaga in stuttgart. das Übrige entnommen aus: „sauvageot, palais, chäteaux, hotels et maisons de france du xv. au xviii. siecle." „reynard, ornements des aneiens mattres." „sauvageot, musee imperial du louvre." sowie nach verschiedenen photographischen aufnahmen. franzÖsische und deutsche renaissance. . sllll h. dolmetsch ornamentenschatz. flachornamente verschiedener techniken. verl. v. jul. hoffmann, stuttgart. . deutsche renaissance. taf. . deutsche renaissance. metall-arbeiten. vv ir haben es bei unserer tafel zunächst nur mit einem besonderen zweige des so vieles umfassenden gebietes der metallarbeiten zu thun, nämlich mit erzeugnissen der sogenannten l'lattner- oder harnisch- arbeiter. lange zeit galten viele waffen und rüstungen wegen ihres, mit staunenswertem kunstsinn und geradezu unendlicher abwechslung in ranken-, rahmen- und riemenwerk verzierten Überfläche als werke der gröfsten italienischen meister, welche jene namentlich am französischen hofe hergestellt hätten. vor einigen jahrzehnten wurde jedoch die überraschende entdeckung gemacht, dafs die meisten und zwar gerade die schönsten dieser gegenstände deutschen ursprung haben, da hauptsächlich deutsche meister es waren, die zu diesem zwecke nach "rankreich von eranz i. und heinrich ii. berufen wurden. diese harnische, schilde, helme u. s. w. sind teils mit ganzen bildlichen darstellungen, teils mit einzelnen figuren, tieren, vögeln, fabelwesen, mit blumen und rankenwerk in der prächtigsten weise verziert; in der späteren zeit bekamen dann allerdings die schnörkel und eingerollten händer, sowie die kartuschen das ucbergewicht, wie in der italienischen und französischen renaissance, so dafs jenes feinere vegetabilische ornament der früheren zeit zurücktreten mufste. zur anwendung kam bald das actzen, bald das ziselieren, bald das tauschieren der metalle, noch häufiger aber wurden die platten getrieben, so dafs die zeichnungen erhaben hervortraten. fig i— . abbildungen von rüstungen aus dem kabinet der handzeichnungen alter meister in münchen. entnommen aus: „l ef n er-ai ten eck , urijjiiial-entwitrfc deutscher meister ftlr prachlrüstungen französischer könige.' u taf. . deutsche renaissance. bemalte plastik. j- reude an lebensfrischer darstellung war es, was die künstler der renaissance veranlafste, ihre plastischen gebilde durch farben zu beleben. so ist die grofse prachtvolle decke im rittersaale des schlosses zu heiligenberg fast ganz mit farben bedeckt, die in schönster harmonie untereinander dazu dienen, die plastischen gebilde erst recht hervorzuheben. fbenso bekommen die beiden geweihhalter und die mittelfigur durch die bemalung einen eigenen reiz, welcher dem blofsen holz- oder steinbildwerk abgegangen wäre. auch bei der holz- und steinskulptur der späteren deutschen renaissance ist ein uberwiegen der kartuschen und des bandwerks zu bemerken, welch' letzteres zu mannigfachen interessanten verschlingungen und durchschiebungen gelegenheit bietet. die weibliche gestalt bei fig. stellt die gemahlin des frbnuers des lusthauses, des herzogs ludwig, ursula, geb. pfalzgräfin bei rhein, dar. in dem leider nicht mehr vorhandenen lusthause stand auf der abgebildeten konsole jedoch eine andere figur, auf welche das wappen sich bezieht. gegen derartige gewölbeanfänger zierten einst die jene prachtbauten umgebenden arkadengänge. fig. — . teile von der bemalten holzdccke im rittersaale des schlosses zu heiligenberg. „ . gewölbeanfänger von den arkadengängen des ehemaligen lusthauses zu stuttgart. „ u. . aus birnbaumholz geschnitzte wandschilder im museum vaterländischer altertümer daselbst, zu der ehemaligen ausstattung eines jagdzimmers der familie besserer zu ulm gehörend. in den ovalen mittelfeldern sind geschnitzte hirschköpfe mit seltenen geweihen befestigt. f't!t. i — . nach aufnahmen von ii. dolmetsch. ,, m — - , n zeichner p. ilaaga in sttitltrart. tierichtiirun!;. im text zu tafel s lies zeile von oben „die rojt. oiron-fayencen". deutsche renaissance. h. dolmetsch bucheinbÄnde. vehl, .. jul. holtmann, stunfiaht taf. . deutsche renaissance. bucheinbÄnde. z-.u bucheinbänden, deren ornamente in der guten zeit stets flach behandelt wurden, pflegte man fast immer leder zu verwenden. in der ersten zeit schnitt man die umrisse der zeichnung scharf ein und vertiefte die von derselben nicht bedeckte fläche. später dagegen nahm man kleine metallstempel zu hilfe, deren muster durch aneinanderreihung die den einband umrahmende bordüre hervorbrachten. die ecken sind in diesem falle nicht besonders ausgebildet, sondern die bordüren laufen hier willkürlich zusammen. — solche bordüren umsäumen die buchdecke oft in mehreren reihen und eine allzugrofse schlankheit des mittleren noch übrigen feldes wird durch einschaltung besonderer querbordüren, entlang den schmalseiten verhindert, was man häufig auch dadurch erreichte, dafs die stempelmuster doppelreihig und symmetrisch zu einander eingeschlagen oder eingeprefst wurden (fig. und ). die gewöhnlich kleinen mittelfelder sind dann entweder mit stoffmustern oder mit eck- und mittelstücken verziert (fig. — , , , — , — zeigen muster letzterer art). daneben kamen aber auch bei manchen einbänden freie, oft farbige arabesken und bänder- verschlingungen vor vergl. taf. , fig. und ), welche in der blütezeit noch bordürenumrahmung haben, während diese später weggelassen und oft eckstücke angefügt wurden, die sehr lebhaft an metall- beschläge erinnern. am kostbarsten waren natürlich einbände mit wirklichem metallbeschläg, namentlich wenn dies aus edlem metall bestand. die verzierung ist dann in der regel plastisch gegossen oder getrieben. fig. dagegen zeigt ein einfaches, ausgesägtes und sodann graviertes ornament aus silber. noch sei erwähnt, dafs bei der ausschmückung des bücherrückens die schnürung in hübscher weise verwertet wurde, indem dieselbe entweder durch wülste in leder oder durch vertiefte horizontale linien angedeutet und dadurch eine teilung hervorgebracht wurde. die dann entstehenden felder wurden mit einfachen ornamenten ausgefüllt. fig. i. in silber beschlagene buchdecke (natürliche gröfse) aus der sammlung vaterländischer altertümer in stuttgart. „ — . verzierungen an schweinslederbänden (in blinddruck hergestellt) aus der königlichen handbibliothek zu stuttgart. aufgenommen von h. dolmetsch. deutsche renaissance. stickerei. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul hoffmann, stutt ak deutsche renaissance. . löolmetsch. typographische verzierungen. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jul. hoffmann , stuttgart. taf. . . deutsche renaissance. bemalte plastik. freiliegende abbildungen bringen weitere einzelheiten von der bei tafel erwähnten becke im grofsen rittersaale des schlosses heiligenberg zur anschauung. diese decke ist ganz aus lindenholz geschnitzt und in reichster weise farbig, namentlich mit blau, rot, grün, gold und silber behandelt. aber • trotz diesem farbenreichtum und der überraschend grofsen mannigfaltigkeit von blätterranken, bandwerk, figuren u. s. w. macht sie doch keinen überladenen und unruhigen eindruck, sondern die gesamtwirkung ist, wie früher bemerkt, durchaus angenehm und harmonisch für das auge. fig. — aufgenommen von h. dolmetsch. deutsche renaissance. . h. dolmetsch. plastische verzierungen in stein. ornamentenschatz. verlag v. jul. hoffmann. stuttgart. taf. . deutsche renaissance. wand- und deckenmalerei. izline prächtige, wenn auch ganz besondere art der wandmalerei führt uns die beiliegende tafel vor augen. der sog. goldene saal im schlosse zu urach ist ganz in dieser weise geschmückt. die wände sind im allgemeinen glatt, aber durch die malerei in felder eingeteilt und diese zeigen durchgängig eine verzierung, die unwillkürlich an vorbilder aus der eisentechnik erinnert. besonders tritt dies zu tage bei den mannigfachen durchschlingungen und umrahmungen. der in letzteren in häuf ger wiederholung sich findende palmbaum mit dem wahlspruch „attempto" (s. fig. ) weist zwar auf die regierung eberhards im bart hin, allein die malerei und die architektur des saales dürfen wir mit zweifelloser sicherheit in das letzte drittel des . jahrhunderts verlegen. an der einfach geschmückten decke sind die sichtbaren balken braunrot, dagegen die schmalen zwischenfelder hell. trotz der beschränkung auf wenige farben (braunrot, weifs, gold und blau) ist die malerei von ebenso schöner als angenehmer wirkung. fig. . bogen-zwickel an wandfeldern. „ . füllung in einer fensterleibung. ,, u. . säulenverzierungen. „ . verzierung an den fensterbrüstungen. „ u. . mittel- und eckstücke an den umrahmungsfriesen der wandfelder. „ — . dekoration an den deckenbalken mit erhabenen holzrosetten und knöpfen. „ . thürverdachung von holz. sämtliches aus dem goldenen saale zu urach. aufgenommen von zeichner paul haaga in stuttgart. r xvii. und xviii. jahrhundert. verlag ». jul. hoffmann. stuttgart taf. . xvh und xviii. jahrhundert. wand- und deckendekorationen in stuck, malerei und lederpressung. j- ig. ist besonders dazu geeignet, uns ein bild von dem wesen des rokoko (stil ludwigs xv.) vor die augen zu führen. hier, wie auf tafel , fig. — , sehen wir die unglaublichste willkür in der behand- lung der linien, eine ucberfülle von blumen- und rankenwerk, von kartuschen, eine ueberladung mit dekorativen elementen. genien, überhaupt figuren werden überall angebracht und grofs ist die vorliebe für allegorien und embleme. besonders zu beachten ist, dass die dekoration ganz selbständig auftritt, ohne sich dem konstruktiven kern unterzuordnen. dabei lässt sich aber nicht leugnen, dafs die schöpfungen des rokoko häufig eine überaus zierliche und lebendige, wenn auch eigentümliche und kecke ornamentik aufweisen. bewunderungswürdig ist bei diesem stile auch das harmonische zusammenwirken von archi- tektur, skulptur und malerei, wie es sich sonst selten findet. fig. . gepresstc ledertapete im st le ludwigs xiv. aus der sammlung vaterländischer altertümer zu stuttgart. „ . deckendekoration aus dem schlosse zu bruchsal. „ . bemalte thürfüllung aus einem herrschaftsgebäude in paris, lig. . aufgenommen von zeichner paul haaga in stuttgart. „ . „ „ h. dolmetsch. „ . entnommen aus: daly, motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture ivornement. xviii. jahrhundert. h. dolmetsch. plastische und gemalte verzierungen. verlag v. jul hoffmann stuttgart xvii. und xviii. jahrhundert. . h. dolmetsch. bortenwirkerei, weberei und stickerei. ornamentenschatz. verl. v. jttl. hoffmann, stuttgart. tut'. . xvii. und xvhi. jahrhundert. bortenwirkerei, weberei und stickerei. die zuletzt besprochenen stilarten übten einen weitreichenden einflufs nicht nur auf die ausstattung der wohnräume, sondern namentlich auch auf die ausschmückung sämtlicher bckleidungsgegenstände aus. auch hier lassen sich bestimmte unterschiede unschwer erkennen. so weist bei fig. , , die strengere stilisierung noch auf einen gewissen zusammenhang mit der renaissance hin, während fig. u. , dann aber besonders fig. u. das wachsende uebergewicht des naturalismus zur geltung bringen. fig. . borte im stile ludwigs xiv. im besitze des möbelfabrikanten c. baur in biberach. „ . stickerei an einer seidenen weste. (ludwig xiv.; - - » an einem seidenen rock .ludwig xv.) aus der sammlung vaterländischer alter tümer zu stuttgart. „ seidenstickerei von einer samtwestc. (ludwig xvi.) (ebendaselbst.) „ . scidengewebe von einem mefsgewand. (ludwig xiv.) „ . gewobener seidenstoff für kleider. (ludwig xv.) „ . gewobener stoff aus seide und wolle. (ludwig xvi.)' fig. i aufgenommen ron architekt blum er in stuttgart. fig. aufgenommen von zeichner paul haaga daselbst. das l'ebrigc entnommen aus: hoftmann, les arts et l'industrie. sachliches verzeichnis. actzarbeit taf. . akroterien . anthemien-verzierungen . architektur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . architektur, polychrome . basreliefs, bemalte . bortenwirkerei . bronzen . . bucheinbände . . . edelmetalle mit email . . elfenbeineinlagen . email-malerei . . . . . . . . . . fassadenmalerei . fayencemalerei . . fayenceplatten . flachornament . flachreliefs . geflechte . glasmalerei . . . . glasstiftmosaik . . gobelinweberei . goldschmiedearbeit . . . . gravierarbeit . grubenschmelz . holz,einlagen . . . . holzverzierungen . . . . . initialen . . . . . - intarsien . . . . . . kandelaber . . . kapitäle . . . . . . . . . . kartuschen . . . karyatide . . . keramik . . . . . . . . . . lackmalerei . . . ledertapeten gepresste . . leinenstickerei . mäander taf. . majolikaarbeiten . malerei . . . . . . . . . . . . . manuskriptmalerei . . . . . . . . marmoreinlagen . marmormosaik . marmorornamente . metallarbeiten . . . . : . . . . . . metalleinlagen . . modeldruckerei . mosaikarbeiten . . . . . . . mosaikfussboden . . . . niello-arbeiten . . ornamente, plastische . . . . ornamentik . . . . . . . . plastik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . plastik, bemalte . . . . . . . robbiaarbeiten . sgraffiten . skulptur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . skulpturen, bemalte . . . . . . . spitzentechnik . stickerei . . . . . . . . . . . . . tauschier-arbeiten . . . teppichmalerei . . teppichweberei . thon glasierter . . . typographische verzierungen . . verzierungen, typographische . . wand- und deckenmalerei . . . . . . - . . . . . weberei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zellenschmelz . . ziegelstein, glasierter . "甘​'ⅢⅠ拙​児​。。""'e ０h ヂ​旺​肝​針​鷲​鴛​ぬ​㍼ "漣 ​掻​@，，@三 ​移​刃 ​㌔" ナ​Ⅰ 蜜 ​ 申​ミ​@丈​，キヒ​の​エ ​ モ​婁 ​ ①コ​ヴ​㏄の​仁​コ​が​仁​ピ​，且​全​㎝ で​ノ​仁​①巨​①巳​Ⅱ ' Ⅹ@aⅠ@ 汚名​ レ​お ​ト​～ん​リ​千 ​ ，ム ​彗​き​蚕​巳​き​・東 ​むり​巳​㎡㎝㏄戸​仁​㏄し​c功​二​ヒ ​ 、ヌ​一​・ぎ​- :丘​ま​，ム ​）@@Ⅱ@ ⅡⅡ@@@ 江​。め​Ⅰ斗​。む​d舛​寸​八​母​づ​レ​め ​一 ​申 ​ゲ​仁​c・「ゲト​c仁​比​@@ ヒ​、 @ 紳​研​ぬ​"紡​鰍​励​紘 ​は​「olentwo「佗​n) ゑ​「@iⅡざ ​ 汚​尚​斥 ​ drinking-cups, vases, ewers and ornamentsvirgil solis 了​! 上 ​ . 非 ​- 。 , . img.c om solle ob viin viiendo il errr. drinking-cups vaſes ewers and ornaments deſigned for the uſe of gold and silverſmiths twenty-one fac-similes of extremely rare etchings by virgil solis london james rimell oxford street :: uuu virgil solis. aga r virgil solis, a german engraver, born at l nuremberg in . according to the / uſage of the time, he engraved both on wood mehvor and on copper, chiefly from his own deſigns. the copper-plates he engraved in the early part of his life reſemble the works of hans sebald beham ; but when he afterwards engraved after the italian maſters, he adopted a ſtyle more open and ſpirited. his wooden cuts are ſimilar to thoſe of joft ammon, both with reſpect to the compoſition and execution. his works prove him to have been a man of conſiderable ability, and, though his deſign is formal and ſtiff, ſome of his figures poſſeſs great merit. on account of the ſmallneſs of his plates, this artiſt is ranked among the little maſters. his works are very numerous, amounting to upwards of eight hundred prints. he uſually marked them with a cipher compared:of a y.and an s. there has been conſiderable diſcuſſion reſpecting virgilius solis, particularly whether he ever. engraved in wood. zani ſays, decidedly,“ non ha mai inciſo in legno.” perhaps all that need be ſaid on the matter is concentrated in the preliminary remarks of bartſch to the catalogue of his prints in tom. ix. of “ le peintre graveur,” of which the following is the ſub- ſtance :—“ the little we know of the hiſtory of virgilius solis is ſupplied by an inſcription at the bottom of his portrait . lenchies சசன்னையா won h t gbh vode chos www bang - odva th "uwidowanos doudou innotmits coro meargd. leuchcer ) ; : tan geſchie क itiile sj دان به کار د کنار g cm und hun wando terima hem ཨ ***** ་ ༠་༠ 。。。、 ༤་པོ་ ་་ལ་་ ， འ ལམི - ཁ པ ཕ བ བ བ དང བསམ་ . - ト ​ ichme - - - - - - - - கர் t e % in : ei " a tla . * na omon tooooooododdoo store Надира и не и е ИИИИИИИИИИИИИ នង និង songសកម្មហង់មួយសេង មកបងឬ បានមករួមក្នុងការបង ក សមe a reបន្ទាន់បងសប្រឥy bnxryukyu សង់ត្រង់. in - my loka , the new york public library reference department this book is under no circumstances to be taken from the building elementary principles of ornamentjames ward university of wisconsin library. uis ■ wv-^- w elementary principles of ornament. elementary principles of ornament james ward t • head master of the macclesfield school op art london chapman and hall, limited s richard clay and sons, limited, london and bungay. - preface. the contents of this book chiefly consist of a series of class lectures, delivered to the students of the macclesfield school of art. they are published in the hope that they may be useful to general students in art, and more particularly to those who are specially interested in the subject of decorative design. the illustrations are merely intended as blackboard dia- grams, and were used as such when the lectures were given. i have added to the lectures in this book a glossary of terms commonly used in orna- ment. as a text-book for candidates who wish to sit for the government third grade examination in the "elementary principles of ornament," i trust it may be found serviceable. j. ward. macclesfield, . contents. chapter i. page definition of ornament—methods of expression—straight lined ornament i chapter ii. the curved line in ornament—explanation of the lead- ing principles io chapter iii. the proper decoration of mouldings—the ornamental treatment of walls, ceilings, and floors—relief modelled work chapter iv. the proper and improper shapes of planes—uniformity— selection and arrangement of decorative elements— painted ornament—division of forms and shapes in architecture, &c elementary thing is required to be done with it before we can give it that name. to make an ornamental design, the units of the decorative material must be arranged and brought to order; repetition and symmetry may not be illustrated, but even distribution, order, and balance of masses must be. when a design or pattern ceases to appear orderly, it is no longer ornament. the sketch at fig. is an attempt to illustrate ornament by using the same ele- ments as in fig. i, and adding to them the principles of even distribution, at the same time having a due regard to the boundary-lines of the panel in the general arrangement. dependent or applied ornament is that which is specially designed and fitted for the position it occupies. independent ornament is of the nature of such things as shields, medallions, labels, emblems, and devices, with or without inclosing frames, paterae, crests, swags, or principles of ornament. festoons, and other properties; that is, they may be used alone, or in combination with other dependent ornament. numerous examples may be quoted of inappropriate ornament. as a rule, any kind of ornament that is not governed by its plan, or falsely constructed from an archi- tectural point of view, may be called inappropriate. for instance, if upright panels and pilasters were decorated with ornament running in oblique lines, or with a strongly-marked series of horizontal bands.; or a carpet pattern designed to run in one particular direction; or columns used in decoration, but supporting nothing ; con- soles or brackets turned upside down (a frequent occur- rence) ; mouldings that are round and elliptical in section, decorated with frets and straight-lined ornament; panels overloaded with mouldings; forms organic or otherwise used together, but out of scale with one another; things made to simulate what they are not; any excess of enrich- ment,—all this may safely be classed as inappropriate ornament. methods of expression.—broadly speaking, ornament is expressed in three different ways: first, in pure outline, as traced with a point; second, in flat tints, where breadth is added, as in painting with the brush; and third, in relief or raised work, as in modelling and sculp- ture. these three divisions may be subdivided to almost any extent, but theoretically considering the subject, all the subdivisions are but varieties of the first three species. looking at these varieties in detail, we find amongst them relief or modelled ornament, with no other outline than that given by light and shade; the same, with the addi- tion of colour, say in two shades—one for the ornament, and one for the background, the expressions here being more defined; the same again with the forms and back- ground "picked out" in a variety of colours, giving a still more prominent character by the colour contrasts. painted ornament in light and shade, with the addition of colour, is an imitation of the latter: this we will notice again. b elementary going back to ornament expressed in outline, under this head is classed all the early decorative work by mankind, whether on the prehistoric bone-etchings or on pottery. the decoration on the assyrian limestone cylinders, and bronze dishes and tablets of the same nation, the incised work on the greek and etruscan cista and hand-mirrors, is expressed in outline. sgraffito-viotv. is a kind of outline ornament cut in plaster revealing a different colour of plaster underneath. the antique vase paintings were executed chiefly in out- line. copper-plate engraved work and glass etching might also be classed as work done in outline. ornament on a flat surface, with the addition of colour, forms a large class in itself, and is a common method of expression in decoration. for examples, in illustra- tion, note all arabesque painted ornament, whether poly- chromatic or in "grisaille": the latter being ornament painted in monochrome-grey (or the tints of black and white), in imitation of relief-work; illuminated manu- scripts, and the borders of the same known technically as "illumination." the word " arabesque," used above, is de- rived from the moresque or arabian ornament. the plant, fruit, flower, and geometric forms used by the arabians to decorate their walls, floors, and ceilings (the human and animal forms being forbidden by their religion) were called arabesques; but what we understand now really as arabesques, originated from the high-class painted ornament of the ancient romans and greeks, used by them to decorate the walls and ceilings of temples, houses, and tombs. everything almost was represented in the animal and vegetable kingdoms; the materials and elements in their composition were usually arranged and composed on a geometric, or, more often, on a scroll- work, basis. the discovery of this decorative painting in the ancient baths of titus led raphael to adopt the style, and to improve on it, by introducing allegory and higher-class features as new elements. it may be said, the culminating point in arabesque painting was reached principles of ornament. by him and his chief pupil in ornament, giovanni udina, in that great work, the decoration of the loggia of the vatican. pursuing the subject of ornament on a flat surface in colour, more examples are: inlaid wood-work or wood-mosaic, called "parquetry" when applied to floors, generally used in two colours or kinds of wood; marquetry is also inlaid wood-work, generally practised on a smaller scale for cabinets, small boxes, and other things. stone and metal are also used with the wood, in small cubical forms. tunbridge wells, in kent, is famous for this kind of work. "tarsia" is another form of the same sort of thing, views of buildings being the chief subjects chosen for representation, besides other ornament. this art was extensively practised by the venetians in the fifteenth century: the woods employed were usually walnut and boxwood ; panels in chair-backs, coffers, and church choirs were the favourite subjects for this kind of decoration. glass and marble mosaic, en- amels, and stained glass belonged to the same division. stencilling; pattern-weaving in textile fabrics; block and roller printing, both in fabrics and paper-hangings, and also in floor-cloths; tesselated pavements and tiles— all belong to the category of ornament on a flat surface, separated by colours in juxtaposition. ornament is ex- pressed in damask cloths and hangings by the changes and crossing of warp and weft, and is shown in flat tints of two shades. the expression of ornament in fret-work, piercing, lace, filigree, wire-work, and wrought-iron, is of a similar class and character, and is generally termed "open-work." the next division for our consideration will be the "elementary forms " used in ornament. it is assumed that the spaces are given we are required to ornament, such as a ceiling, a wall, a carpet, frieze, or door-panel. the boundary-lines are, of course, the inclosing lines of our space or field, which may be subdivided into smaller panels, with or without borders. this subdividing is called the " setting-out." we have now to think of the principles of ornament. origin; is a japanese key pattern, constructed on a mesh or net-work of squares; and fig. is derived elementary from the plaiting of straws, and is a straight-lined sort of ornament, common to prehistoric and byzantine work. frets are decidedly more appropriate to flat surfaces than to concave or convex ones; they may, however, be lis . used on slightly concave surfaces, such as the inside hollows of plates or dishes, then their vertical lines will compose well, bv radiating from the centre of the plate. the square within square, and double and single fret, principles of ornament. shown at fig. , were often used by the greeks, and earlier by the egyptians, on the ceilings of their tombs, both singly and in combination with spirals and circular flower ornaments, alternating with each other, as in bands and border ornament. i lozenge and diamond shapes are other elements of straight-lined ornament, and form the basis of many repeating patterns in textile fabrics, paper-hangings, and titles. hexagons, octagons, and triangles are also used largely as constructive bases in pattern-designing: but, after all, these forms may be reduced to the square and the circle. elementary principles of ornament. n swag is formed of links and hangs like a chain, it is called a catenary, and as an element is identical with the line observed in festoons and loopings of drapery. looking at the illustrations, we have in fig. circles touching each other; this arrangement is the basis of endless diaper patterns and repeating forms. next we come to circles intersecting each other, in fig. , a simple and very satisfactory kind of pattern, common + alike to early egyptian, arabian, and japanese diapers. fig. is a simple border ornament made of circles and segments. an effective disk border like that made from the cut shells of the savage tribes is shown at fig. , and a more important development of the latter is that of fig. ; this is taken from assyrian tesserae, small oblong pieces of stone or metal, and the decoration here shown elementary was incised in the surface of the material, often alternating with the guitloche pattern (figs. , and ). the latter pattern was a very important one in assyrian work, and in greek moulding decoration, and painted flat ornament. the above-mentioned tessera; were used as tickets of admission to the theatres of antiquity. figs. and are further examples of ornament principles of ornament. obtained from the circle and its segments; the former being the gothic ball-flower decoration. imbricated cr scale-like ornament belongs to the circle (see fig. ). we now pass naturally from the circle to the spiral element, from which undoubtedly the greatest part of ornamental forms are derived. elementary from nature. in all good ornament it is essential that the principles of "fitness," symmetry," "repetition," "variety," "unity," and "repose" should be considered as parts or qualities that go to the making up of the integral composition. these may be termed the primary principles. there are others that might be classed as secondary ones, that are not essential, nor yet found in all cases of illustrated ornament, but are very necessary and important in their places, such as the principles of "radiation," "stability," "series," "balance," "subordination," "alternation," "growth," "geometrical arrangement," and " order." "fitness" may be described as that quality which embraces all the necessary requirements, in material, texture, and arrangement of masses, in a well-ordered design, so that after the units of the composition are set out and balanced with due regard to the plan, any further addition to or taking away from would mar its principles of ornament. beauty or perfect fitness. this quality is the naked truth of ornament. adaptability is merely another term for fitness, and unsuitableness is its opposite. orna- ment can scarcely be said to have a separate existence from the principle of symmetry. the most unshapen form or ragged blot if exactly reproduced on the opposite side of a straight line will make ornament, and at the same time illustrate symmetry. neither is there any quality so universal in natural forms ; take, for example, the very unsymmetrical single shell of the oyster—you have only to open it out to illustrate symmetry in form. the same principle is observed in the human figure, for where an unsymmetrical limb or ear, &c, exists, it is balanced by having its duplicate. even in trees, plants, and flowers, the same laws exist, for if a leaf or flower be unsymmetrical in itself, as a rule you will find it repeated on the other side of its stem. trees are more symmetrical than at first sight appear, so are clouds. nature has the delightful habit of exhibiting waywardness and irregularity, but it is often apparently so, rather than in reality. the laws of equilibrium alone will cause a symmetrical growth in trees ; it is only in detail that any difference is seen, and this apparent want of regularity is made up again in the proper balance of the masses in foliage and of the quantity in the branches and stems. the same remarks will apply to cloud forms. in arranging the materials for a picture or in a group for painting, the symmetry of mass, colour, light and shade must be attended to, an undue amount of any of these qualities to the weakening of the others in the work produces a corresponding weakness in the whole com- position. "repetition" in ornament is one of its vital principles, and what we have to consider chiefly is how this law is to be dispensed the simple unmeaning and aesthetic forms, such as frets, bands, bead ornaments, all moulding c elementary decorations, and simple diapers, may be repeated to the greatest extent without appearing monotonous. symbolic, and distinguishing forms of any style, on the other hand, may only be repeated to a very limited extent, even if they only are simple leaf forms. when we come to independent ornament, such as emblems, trophies, &c, still less repetition is allowed. ascending higher in the scale of ornamental elements we come to the delineation of animals, and the human figure. these forms, especially the latter, can hardly be used twice in the same design, or scheme of decoration, except at great intervals. an exception to this rule would be in the case of cupids or amorini, and these must not be rendered so much in imitation of nature or realistic in effect, but a strictly decorative quality must be imparted to them, such as in the arranging of their flowing lines to compose with the ornamental spaces they are intended to occupy. in short, the more like a transcript from nature the decorative unit appears, the less will it bear repetition. we notice, in all barbaric ornament, repetition carried to excess. "variety" is of a higher order than repetition, inasmuch as it requires more skill to deal with it properly in ornament. it is the salt of ornament that cures the in- sipidity of repetition, and is a great power in the hands of a skilful designer. "contrast" is akin to "variety," but ot a more emphatic kind. in examples of the best ornament it takes an important part. in linear ornament the circle and straight line give the greatest contrast, and in colour it is the chief source of virility. it is the factor used to produce force, power, and brilliancy ; without it your work will appear sleepy, monotonous, and dry. it is, however, no enemy to "repose" in art; rather, when contrast and repose are united, the result is breadth and grandeur. in the ornament of the renaissance, contrast is best illustrated, owing to the great variety of forms and elements used. we have the delicate varieties of the principles of ornament. « acanthus foliage contrasting with vase forms, labels, shields, armour, fish, and other animals, and also the human figure. almost anything of an ornamental character and well-defined form has been used in harmony and with complete success by the artists of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in pilasters, panels, friezes, and spandrils. "radiation" is a principle illustrated to a great extent in nature, and is of several kinds, such as radiation from a point, from a vertical line, and from a horizonal line. the law of tangential growth as seen in most plants, where the minor stems and the leaves spring from the parent stem, is a species of radiation, and is important in the construction of scrolls and similar ornament. in plants of horizontal growth and in umbelliferous plants, the spiral lines in shells, the primary feathers of a bird's wing, the fingers in the human hand, are amongst the subjects that illustrate radiation from a point. the secondary feathers in the wing of a bird radiate from the horizontal line of the humerus bone. the so-called honeysuckle ornament, or anthemions of the greeks, afford good illustrations of radiation, and they are always finer in style when they radiate more from a horizontal line than from a single point; the leading lines, pipes, and ribs of acanthus foliage, as seen in capitals of columns and pilasters, radiate mostly in this way. festoons and swags have their radiation on the principle of drapery hanging from point to point. "balance" in ornament is a quality so necessary that all bad and debased work may be distinguished by the want of it balance differs from symmetry in this respect, that you may have true balance in form, line, and colour of a design without symmetry, as in work where the detail is quite different; but otherwise, if it is to preserve its dignity as good ornament, it must have its general masses arranged on a symmetrical basis. want of balance is noticed in the rococo style of ornament, in c elementary the more naturalistic part of pompeian, in japanese work with all its beauty, and in nearly half the ornamental productions of the present day. "repose" is the opposite to unrest or spottiness. it is well illustrated, and is a characteristic of classical architecture, in opposition to the unrest of the pinnacled and spiky forms of the gothic styles. while the former is in consonance with a southern climate, where broad shadows and shelter from the sun are desirable, the latter is suited to colder and moist climates, where its sloping roofs and pointed character afford the least suface to rain and snow, and thus in a great measure protect and preserve the building. horizontality, or a horizontal line, may therefore be taken as the essential principle of repose, and its opposite may be illustrated by a vertical line. from this may be deduced that all horizontal growth of ornament possesses the quality of repose in a greater measure or degree than ornament otherwise constructed. care should be taken not to confound repose with heaviness. in designing the positions of border lines or mouldings to a panel or pilaster, we should regulate the widths or distances apart of the lines as to prevent the monotony seen for example in the lines of a ruled copy-book or an assemblage of telegraph-wires; no two interspaces or lines if possible should be of the same width. in the window openings of factories, and in the endless rows of iron railing to gardens and parks, we notice this same kind of monotony, which is very depressing to the eye ; little or no more expense would put a larger window here and there, or a more ornate one, and a larger rail post, or two or more joined together in an ornamental way, at regulated intervals, would tend to relieve the monotony, and add a pleasure to the life of the beholder as well. this want of what is called "alternation" in design or decoration is of the same character, and analogous to a surface or object that is decorated so elaborately principles of ornament. with a diaper pattern or otherwise, without a break or plain surface left, that it is really wearisome to look at. the value of plain spaces is enormous in design. charles lamb, in one of his delightful letters to coleridge, says in finishing: "i will leave you, in mercy, one small white spot empty below, to repose your eyes upon, fatigued as they must be with the wilderness of words they have by this time painfully travelled through." to the designer this analogy will be obvious and useful. plain spaces as alternations in design, are the oases in the wilderness of ornament, and they may also be compared to a refreshing silence, after a great noise. it is easier to fall into the sin of making too much of a good thing, than it is to weigh your quantities or to know exactly where to stop. any excess of ornamenta- tion must be guarded against, for it generally leads to still greater excesses. elevating the material at the expense of the spiritual element leads in the end to decay in any style of art. elementary principles of ornament. we may next consider briefly the ornamental treatment of walls, ceilings, and floors. beginning with the floor, it is distinctly necessary to remember that in floor decoration the sense of flatness should always be maintained, whether it be in carpets, so (xk—suuc- roi ram s - iiii i i i - rugs, floor-cloths, mosaic, tiles, or parquetry. nothing should be introduced to disturb the flatness, such as in shading the forms, or in imitation of mouldings. all realistic renderings of an animal or floral nature should be carefully avoided. the colour may be as varied as ' principles of ornament. a study of these divisions will help the designer in setting out and spacing ornament generally on any surface. in the case where a ceiling to be decorated is already divided by beams or joists, the panelling, if admissible, should be repeated in the different compartments. ceil- ings of corridors or long rooms may be divided across at discretion, but still the arrangement of panels should contain some elongated ones, that would be dominant, :; »- h and of nearly the proportion as the outlines of the whole ceiling. regarding relief work or modelled ornament on ceil- ings, this should be so regulated in amount of relief that the light from windows or artificial light should cause little or no cast shadows ; the forms should be carefully rounded off in the more important masses to lessen the abruptness of cast shadow. an equal division of the larger masses of light and dark, connected and softened by lesser tones elementary principles of ornament. would be also harmonic in form. the uniformity of shape in a circle and a square, though essential in many cases in architecture, is, however, inartistic in ornament, especially in painted decoration ; either the contours of these forms must be broken (as in the round heads of flowers, in the square nail-headed gothic ornament) when used in painted and low-relieved decoration, or the aid of perspective must be enlisted to render them artistic, by converting them apparently to oblong and elliptical shapes. it is an old acknowledged truism that the supe- riority of the greek mouldings over the roman lies in the fact that the former are designed from the sections of the ellipse, and the latter from those of the circle. many causes have been assigned to account for the ellipse being a superior ornamental form to the circle: the prime reason would appear to be that while the circle possesses unity it lacks contrast; the ellipse having both requisi- tions qualifies it at once as an artistic and pleasing form, far above the circle, which is dowered only with unity; of course this applies equally to the sections of each figure from which the mouldings are designed. the form of the human figure, or of an animal, de- lineated in elevation or drawn as a silhouette, is decidedly inartistic, though naturally and essentially uniform; it gains, however, considerably in an artistic point of view, when drawn or seen in perspective; this is simply because it loses a little of its unpleasant uniformity, and gains a corresponding amount of contrast—the contrast of fore- shortening and diminishing of similar parts with others seen, let us say, more parallel to the picture plane. it will be seen that uniformity by itself cannot be con- sidered a good quality in ornament; it is only a part of the whole that requires the addition of contrast or variety. uniformity produces monotony, which is always painful to the eye in design. the remarks previously made on ceiling-divisions will apply generally to the dividing of any plane in harmonic spaces: the same rule—namely, that the general outline v elementary by its character, will govern and define the method of spacing subdivisions, inasmuch as one division must be larger or more prominent than any of the others, and also it must be the first or principal echo of the general outline, while the smaller subdivisions will be echoes necessarily fainter, but characteristic of the minor quali- ties, such as in c< ntour and area. this can be illustrated in the divisions and spaces of a decorated vase; in this instance we deal only with the surface as a field for decoration. the lines of subdivision are drawn across the object at those points of height where the transition of curve is most apparent in the outline, and a proper expression of binding strength is thereby im- parted (fig. ). we have in fig. three examples of drinking-glasses; it will be seen that a is not artistic in proportions, by reason of the stem being of the same height as the bowl, whilst b and c, not having the same uniformity of height- principles of ornament. measurement, are more pleasing shapes ; this applies also to the panels of doors at fig. . any marked uniformity in the principal measurements of the divisions in planes l iy \ or solids never looks well, and ought to be avoided. it would appear an exception to this, in the uniform mea- surements of such objects as balusters and spindle- shaped figures, but it really comes under the rule that the d principles of ornament. given as a good example of the selection and arrange- ment of the simple decorative elements. it is a capital example of savage ingenuity, being a shield made of woven cane, decorated with appliqub work of cut shells, sewed on the ground-work of black and yellow cane, and is the work of south sea islanders. first, there is the simple but fitting shape in the outline, then the horizontal bands that with a show of strength emphasize the points where the outline is weakest; the constructive ground-work has a good contrast of circular oblique, upright, and horizontal lines; and lastly, the decorative work of cut shells further beautifies the object, and the selection of those forms that are in unison with the ground-work pattern is judicious and correct. the weakest part of the decoration is where too many of the circular units are applied, at the top and bottom; the undue repetition of these forms gives an undesirable elementary principles of ornament. sixth, compositions specially designed to fill spaces, not included in the above. taking the first, the student will not find it a difficult matter to understand what a "diaper" is; it may safely be said that three-fourths of conventional ornament con- sists of diapers; nearly all woven fabrics patterns, the majority of paper-hanging designs, patterns produced by weaving or painting, either from blocks or rollers, tile patterns—in fact, any pattern that repeats from the four cardinal points over a surface is in reality a diaper, how- ever complex it may be in itself. it differs only by its complexity from a simpler spot or unit that is repeated oftener, notwithstanding its greater size or less frequent repeat. the derivation of the word comes from " linge d'yprh," being the name given to the linen of that peculiar pattern, composed of squares, and such like simple ornament placed close together, and was first made at ypres, in flanders. some of the best examples of pure diaper patterns are to be found sculptured on the walls and spandrils of westminster abbey, lincoln and canterbury cathedrals. these were imitated from original diapers painted and woven on linen and other fabrics. diapered work is very frequent in arabian and moorish ornament (see figs. , , , and ). "diapering" is distinguished from "spotting" and principles of ornament. horizontal band in their decorations, both painted and sculptured. the embroidered patterns on their dresses and curtains, and the beautiful ornament on their vases, were mainly designed on the horizontal band or frieze system. the frieze is a very characteristic feature in greek ornament and architecture; if you take frieze or band ornament out of greek work there is very little ornament of any kind left. figs. , , and are favourite frieze and flat band patterns of greek origin. a few dress ornaments from the vase paintings are shown at figs. and . spotting at regular intervals was the favourite way of decorating the larger surface of dress material. the circular flower that usually formed the spot in greek ornament was composed of a greater number of petals than the later roman and gothic, which shows its assyrian origin (see fig. ). persian work affords also good examples of horizontal band treatment (see figs. and ). third division: perpendicular bands are not so com- mon in decoration as the former class of ornament; they principles of ornament. be soffits of arches in classic styles, and the decoration of side and under surfaces of groins and ribs in gothic roofs. the decoration on these parts, when constructed to cover the surface uniformly, is best when it starts from elementary development to pure ornament can be studied in the many rosette patterns of the various styles. these, though circular in plan, which at first sight would appear to be derived from flower heads and cups, are in reality a cluster of leaves arranged and radiating like the spokes of a wheel, or in a spiral form, from a central point. there are many plants, as, for instance, the bedstraw and the madder plant, that have their sets of leaves arranged in a whorl around the joints of their upright stems : looking down on these leaves we notice the plan appears like a rosette. this idea must have occurred to the ancients when designing their rosettes and paterae. the results obtained by grouping a cluster of leaves together in this manner are finer and stronger in appear- ance, particularly for sculptured work, than any mere imitation of flower heads (see fig. ). leaflets and elementary principles of ornament. higher beauties and general nature alone ought to be expressed, and what may seem a paradox, the less naturalistic we make our designs, the more nature we will put into them—that is to say, we should strive to put the best intentions of nature into our ornament, avoiding poor and stunted forms, as well as over-nourished and rank ones (for we find nature abounds in both); but to seek for the finest and the most typical forms of leaves, flowers, and stems, and try to make our designs express the higher ideal that nature herself is striving after. the truest ideal, after all, is only the most natural. in persian ornament we find flower and plant forms treated in a thoroughly decorative manner (figs. and ); the pink and hyacinth were favourites with persian decorators, as the maple and vine in mediaeval and gothic work, the lotus and papyrus in egyptian, the peony in chinese, and the chrysanthemum in japanese ; while such styles as the arabian, greek, roman, and celtic, are more purely conventional, and, without having much apparent naturalism, are still the outcome and are based on natural forms. chapter vii. students in design cannot be too strongly advised to cultivate the habit of making small but correct drawings of all kinds of plants, both in flower and in fruit, especially plants of single flower and of simple growth, accompanied by careful notes of the construction at the stem and leaf junctions. there is no need to make a botanical analysis of a elementary principles of ornament. plant for the purposes of design; sections of petals, stamens, leaves, and fruit, may serve a scientific end, but make a very poor show in what is intended for an artistic design. landor the poet thought it was an act of cruelty to cut a flower from its stem: it would be inter- esting to know his opinion of that school of decorators who believe-in dissecting plants to find "new forms," so that many of their designs present novelties that nature never dreamt of, such as broken stems, leaves neatly cut /oo in half, flat elevations, and sections of petals, stamens, pistils, and seed pods, and other curious forms, suggested by these dissections, so that the design when completed is at best an ironed-out barbarism, and certainly innocent of any violation of the second commandment. in this respect the designers of this school will tell you that their work is unlike the arabian or moresque decoration (the artists of which were forbidden by their religion to make a representation of anything in "the heavens above or elementary the earth beneath"), inasmuch as theirs all comes from nature,—but, with the barbarous aid of the knife and scissors. the whole testimony of the best old decorative design is decidedly against the above practice, and it is refreshing to see at the present time a reaction setting in, mainly owing to the efforts in england of such men as morris, crane, burne-jones, and a few others who prefer nature to novelty ; and, as a consequence, we see already the beauty and truth of the old work returning afresh, like the flowers again in the spring of the year. in selecting plants for particular purposes and positions in design, it would be as well to bear in mind the material we wish to decorate, whether it be textile, wood, or metal, so as to choose that kind best adapted by their fragility, as the harebell, wild poppy, grasses, and ferns, to muslins, cottons, and lace; the mallow, oak, orange, ° elementary generated by the free play of the brush (see fig. ). the arabesques of the vatican, and the italian glazed earthen- ware of the cinque cento period, afford the best examples of this painted foliage. the acanthus was the parent of nearly all the subsequent styles of decorative foliage down to our early english gothic, and the history of its modifi- cations has clearly established the difficulty of trying to improve on the original classic type. we are advised in a general way by artists and writers on art to seek for a new variety of leaf that might in time rival the acanthus in ornament. the advice is praiseworthy, and many have given their thoughts to it, but no lasting results have as yet foreshadowed themselves. of late years there appears to be a kind of scroll-work very much in favour with some artists. it of course cannot be called new, any- more than anything else in the world; but its persistent application, from illumination to stone-carving, will per- haps in time stamp it with an independent character. at present it is more like a sea-weed than anything else, but also partakes of the acanthus, ox-eye daisy, or wild poppy leafage. perhaps it is just as well that we should have no fixed school of ornamental art, as variety of thought elementary sacred to bacchus, and are classed as symbolic ones in greek and roman decoration. early christian and mediaeval art is teeming with symbolic ornament which goes under the names of "allegory," "emblems," "attributes," "symbols," "images," &c. allegory may be said to possess a higher meaning than any fig /i of the other terms; in art it differs from them in this respect, that, while possessing a veiled or hidden mean- ing in common with them, it also must have, to be worthy of its name, an expression of ideal beauty in composition and form. this abstract quality distinguishes it from an emblem or a symbol, nor is it necessary that it should glossary. ' absolute sameness in the two sides of a piece of ornament. see figs. , , and . tangential growth, the principal construction lines in foliated ornament and scroll patterns should illustrate "tangential growth "; the stems and curves should appear to flow out of the central line. this natural principle is derived from the growth of stems and branches of freely growing plants, and under this law the secondary lines of construclion in a flowing pattern should appear to touch or glide into the primary ones, and not to cross or interlace. uniformity, see page . unit, the smallest or simplest complete expression of ornament in any scheme of decoration. unity, perfect agreement in all the parts of a design; harmony and order. these qualities are best arrived at by the judicious use of the principle of contrast; unity is often a characteristic of designs that are very monotonous, so by itself it will scarcely render a design pleasing as a whole; variety must be added to unity in order to effect this. unsymmetrical, without symmetry, such as the volute or single scroll form. see the word "balance." variety, a mixture of various shaped forms; alternation in different measures of various elements in ornament. kichard clay and sons, limited, london and bungay. i ) essay on or n a mental art as applicable to trade and manufactures. by james ballantine, author of “a treatise on painted glass," etc. etc. london: w. s. orr, & co., paternoster row.' edinburgh: john menzies. m.dccc. xlvii preface. doing so, these and similar errors and incongruities; and to supply to the public in general, but especially to those trades in which a knowledge of ornamental design is required, a correct, simple, and copious guide in that beautiful art. the cabinet- maker, ironfounder, painter, brassfounder, silversmith, paper-stainer, engraver, wood-carver, frame-maker, damask-weaver, bookbinder, and many others, will find in this volume materials suggestive of an infinite variety of chaste and classical designs, arranged on principles so clear and comprehensive as to present examples capable of being appreciated and used by every workman; and it may be noticed, as a peculiar and most important feature in the plan of the work, that in the arrangement of the designs for each particular trade, care has been taken to render the whole series susceptible of being modified, re-arranged, and adapted to the use of tradesmen in general ; so that the patterns intended more immediately for the ironfounder, bookbinder, painter, or cabinet-maker, may with the greatest facility be transposed (if we may use the term) for the various purposes of any of the other trades mentioned above. in conclusion, one point above all others will be kept steadily in view throughout the course of the publication—viz., the general utility of every design intro- duced. it is intended, from time to time, to present copies of rare and valuable etchings by some of the great masters, as in the beautiful group in part i. by guido, after lucas cambiaso; an arrangement which, it is believed, will be of great ad- vantage to several of the ornamental trades, especially to the silversmith, house- decorator, modeller in stucco, and wood-carver, and may not be unserviceable even in the higher walks of art. these instances, however, will not be of frequent oc- currence, the main purpose of the work being of wider application than to admit of more than a very limited proportion of such designs; but their occasional introduc- tion cannot fail greatly to enhance its value to the trades just mentioned, as well as to purchasers generally. with these brief remarks the work is presented to the public, whose patronage no exertion will be spared to deserve and to obtain. essay on ornamental art. please at first sight; if they do not, no process of reasoning will afterwards reconcile us to them, far less invest them with the beauty sought for or expected. to speak of works of art growing upon our liking is absurd. persons may, and often do, improve on acquaintance, but works of art never. the perception of beauty is inhe- rent in the human mind, which is rapid in its combinations, and prompt and irrevocable in its decisions. man, in his primitive state, feels a strong desire to imitate and perpetuate that which is beautiful; and hence it is that we find him attaining considerable skill in ornamental arts, before he has acquired any knowledge of those which contribute more immediately to his social comforts. the south sea islander, with no better instru- ment than a piece of shell or talc, produces specimens of carving closely approach- ing the most successful efforts of our best artists; and in several authenticated fragments of ancient british art, ornamental details are exhibited nearly equalling the best specimens of greece or rome. the savage who roams through the pathless forest, decks himself with the beautiful productions of nature, thus showing that an appreciation of beauty is an innate principle of the human mind. the first adaptation of natural objects to decorative art, is in the adornment of the person; when this propensity is extended to the dwelling-place, it evinces a more advanced stage of refinement and of social improvement. this development of what is un- doubtedly an innate principle of the human mind, enables us to affirm, that the basis of every style of ornamental decoration is to be found in the general aspect, and natural productions, of the country wherein each style had its origin. every style of ornamental art has its peculiar features, and perhaps it may also be said its peculiar beauties, although artists often betray a tendency to think lightly of every style but that which has struck their fancy, and has become the object of their admiration and the subject of their studies. the diligent student, however, who comes unprejudiced to the inquiry, will soon discover that every style has some- thing to recommend it, something which renders it peculiarly adapted to the age and country in which it has been most generally practised : he will, probably, also discover that beautiful combinations are to be found in each and all of the various styles, and that though the elements of beauty are few and simple, they are capable of the most diversified arrangements and combinations, and present, in their practical application to the purposes of art, a boundless field for invention. this proposition we shall hereafter have occasion more fully to illustrate, when examining the peculiarities of s essay on ornamental art. senting religious subjects, while those of the palaces were delineations of battles, hunting scenes, and occasionally the occupations of daily life. the difficult art of sculpturing granite was also well known; and the hieroglyphics on granite obelisks and other monuments are sculptured with a minuteness and delicacy of finish which modern artists have not yet attained. the egyptians were also skilled in the compounding of metals, many of their bronzes retaining smooth and bright surfaces, though buried for ages, and afterwards exposed to the damp of european climates. the egyptians were a domestic people, and extremely attentive to the decoration of their houses. their articles of furniture were at once rich in colour and graceful in form; and the commonest utensils were characterised by singular elegance. their chairs and couches were about the same height with those now in use; and were nearly the same in form and construction. at an early period the skill of their cabinetmakers had obviated the necessity of uniting the legs with bars; and they were generally formed in imitation of those of some animal, the foot raised on a small block or pin. the back of the chair was occasionally concave; and in many of the large fauteuils a lion formed an arm on either side. the cushions of the fauteuils and couches were of coloured cotton, painted leather, or gold and silver tissue, and the framework was frequently bound with ornamental metal plates, or inlaid with ivory and foreign woods. the cuts here introduced will give an idea of the forms of the chair, the camp stool, and the couch, which bear considerable resemblance to those of the present day. the walls and ceilings of the egyptian apartments were richly painted, and generally with exquisite taste. the ceilings were laid out in compartments, each having a geometric or foliated pattern with an appropriate border. the favourite essay on ornamental art. forms were the square, the diamond, the circle, and the succession of scrolls, and square within square, known as the tuscan border, and so often found on greek and etruscan vases, as well as on similar ornamental designs that were afterwards adopted by the romans. the following forms are of an age years prior to the christian era. the walls of the palaces were inlaid with precious metals, ebony, and ivory. lucan thus describes the banqueting hall of cleopatra :- “ thick golden plates the latent beams infold, and the high roof was fretted o'er with gold. of solid marble all the walls were made, and onyx even the meaner floor inlaid ; while porphyry and agate round the court, in massy columns rose a proud support. of solid ebony each post was wrought, from swarthy meroë profusely brought. with ivory was the entrance crusted o'er, and polished tortoise hid each shining door ; while on the cloudy spots enchased was seen the lively emerald's never failing green." in concluding this brief analysis of the ornamental arts in egypt, we cannot but advert to the remarkable analogy between the construction of the hieroglyphic names and standards of the ancient egyptian monarchs, and the quartering of arms in modern heraldry. in the hieroglyphic inscriptions every king bears two names, each enclosed, within an oval. in these ovals are blazoned the bearings derived from the prenomen and second name of the father, or from the wife and her father, similar to the manner in which the blazon of the husband and wife are impaled in с essay on ornamental art. modern shields; and from these symbols of descent or alliance we can trace the origin and extraction of the pharoahs of ancient egypt. nor is this the only analogy, the resemblance obtains through the whole system; and an ancient oval, crested with its ostrich, and flanked with the royal basilisk, was almost identical with a modern escutcheon with its supporters. it seems probable, therefore, that our heraldic system is an offshoot of the ancient blazonry of names and banners adapted to european customs and requirements, and that the rudiments of this, as well as those of every other department of ornamental art, were known four thousand years ago. on the ornamental arts of ancient greece. the extent to which the greeks improved on the designs of the egyptians is very remarkable, and eminently calculated to impress us with the highest opinion of their genius and taste. in egypt we find the rudiments of all the arts that tend to advance social refinement; in greece we find those rudiments formed into systems of beauty and symmetry. all the ornamental designs of the greeks, whether in articles of dress or furniture, whether in their private dwellings or their public structures, were characterized by great simplicity and elegance. having studied thoroughly the principles developed in the works of the egyptians, the greeks caught the spirit in which they were conceived, and quickly surpassed their teachers. what the lotus and palm had been to the former, the acanthus and honeysuckle became to the latter; and forms based on these indigenous plants were used in ornamenting every article of dress, as well as in the decoration of every public edifice. the source of design being fully explored, the art soon became sufficiently under- stood. an infinite variety of graceful outline and exquisite proportion was exhibited in the public temples and sculptures by which they were adorned; and the craftsmen of greece, thus familiarized to the sight of beauty, became capable of discriminating, as if instinctively, between what was incongruous and what possessed the charm of unity. the contemplation of the ornamental sculptures on these matchless structures would suggest to the mechanic the propriety of generalizing his ideas of nature, and would enable him to select and arrange her productions to suit the essay on ornamental art. requirements of his particular branch of art. in this way alone can we account for the universal presence of that beauty which distinguishes all their works. the grecians seem not to have attached so much value to costly material as to fine design ; and even when rich dresses and gorgeous furnishings were used, they were chiefly valued on account of their elegance and delicacy of execution. their lamps, for example, were not of gold or silver, but of brass, wrought by the best sculptor that the purchaser could afford to employ; and the metal was left to its natural tarnish to show the work to advantage. it is to be regretted that we have not been able to obtain a more complete knowledge of the internal arrangements and adornments of the private dwelling- houses of greece. we know, however, that this singular people were universally animated by a desire to extend and perpetuate the national glory, and that all their surplus wealth was voluntarily contributed towards the erection of those beautiful temples, which have never been equalled, and which still remain the admiration of the world. there is every reason, therefore, to believe that their dwelling-houses were furnished in a plain and unostentatious manner; but however homely the material of which their household utensils were made, the shapes into which they were fashioned were singularly elegant and graceful. the antique jug, basket, and chair here shown, will give an idea of the exquisite taste of the greeks in form, carried into the most ordinary utensils, and developed in the most common furniture. i if the ordinary utensils and common articles of furniture were thus beautiful, the vases which were set aside for sacred purposes or extraordinary occasions were emi- essay on ornamental art. nently so; and while they were exceedingly varied in design, they were invariably graceful and elegant in form. artistic talent of the highest order was engaged in their enrichment; and many of the most choice specimens of grecian art are to be found adorning those interesting relics of antiquity. nor is this to be wondered at: the material of which they were formed was likely to endure for ever; and the high purposes to which they were destined were calculated to call forth all the energy and enthusiasm of the artists employed in their production. the designs on the vasés for temples either illustrated the mythological history or the religious services of the deity in whose worship they were engaged. on those which were awarded as prizes at the olympic games, the designs were generally allegorical, and represented virtuous and heroic deeds. others used for funereal purposes were frequently adorned with devices emblematic of the life and character of the deceased; and from the multiplicity of designs preserved in these monuments we derive the most important information concerning the history, dresses, and customs of the ancient greeks. recent discoveries have shown that the finest structures of greece were gorgeously decorated with positive colours; and in a country where the fine arts were so highly appreciated, and where all the national edifices were constructed on principles of the most perfect symmetry, there can be no doubt that the same exquisite perception of beauty in the harmony of colour would be apparent in their chromatic arrangements. we know also that groups of figures skilfully executed and gracefully arranged, embodying lofty conceptions and elevated sentiments, adorned the chief places in their temples; while ornaments, consisting of beautiful flowers, and leaves of elegant form, were introduced with the most exquisite skill, and in a manner that made them appear as if fresh and glistening from the hand of nature. in the ornaments in the finest of the greek temples, such as the erechtheum, we find, in every portion of the detail, a strong resemblance to the sources from which they had been derived. ornamental astragals, for example, are direct imitations of the strung pearls used in female decoration; the holly leaf enriches the mouldings of the doorways; the plait ornament at top and bottom of the shafts of columns is a precise imitation of a plait of silk ribbon; and the close resemblance which those foliated ornaments with which apices, friezes, and capitals are enriched, bear to the acanthus and the honeysuckle, shows distinctly the origin of these beautiful decorations. the following remarks on grecian ornament, by essay on ornamental art. mr kinnard, in the supplement to stuart’s ‘athens,' are in unison with this opinion :- the elemental form of such decorations is to be traced in the earliest contemporary specimens of etruscan and Æginetan art. the pelasgi, who founded the hellenic and etruscan nations, carried with them into the countries they colo- nized, manners, arts, and religion. the similitude of the forms of the ornamental sculpture of the distinct and distant nations they founded, renders it evident that they originally referred to one common prototype as connected with oriental idolatry; and the sacred plant of the east, called tamara, and by the ancient greeks cyamus, was probably the venerated object. that prototype, however, was abandoned and forgotten anterior to the age of the earliest relics of grecian art, wherein we find imaginary curves of capricious formation; but when the arts had reached a higher state of refinement, we find their ornaments approximate to the principle of general vegetation, skilfully accommodated to the rectilinear formality of architecture—until, in the hands of the sculptors of the periclean era, amid a people entertaining a remarkable passion for flowers, the anthemion arrived at that character of elegance which established it as a model to posterior ages.' the following copies are given as illustrative of these inferences :—no. , the most ancient, is of a hard and stiff style, and there is no imitation of any plant; but there would be little difficulty in tracing the change to richer embellishment, more imitative of vegetable nature, until perfection was attained in no. , the anthemion no. . no. . d of the erechtheum. in other cases, the ornament is executed with many varieties of detail, and teeming with new and tasteful combinations. the progress of ornamental d essay on ornamental art. the domestic economy of the ancient romans, and has enabled us to ascertain the precise state of the arts as practised by them at that eventful period of their history. from these remains, it appears that the romans had their houses furnished and decorated in the most sumptuous manner. the walls were enriched with coloured marbles and historical paintings, and the arabesque style of decoration seems to have been universally prevalent. this style was introduced in the time of augustus, previous to which it was customary with the romans to paint the walls of their apartments one uniform colour, relieved by modelled ornaments. one peculiarity in the mode of decorating the walls of pompeian houses is worthy of notice, on account of its showing how well the artists understood the true prin- ciples of decoration. in the natural landscape, we find that the dark masses are in the foreground, the middle tints in the middle distance, and the light itself in the sky. in the houses of pompeii, the dark colours are placed lowest, the shades becom- ing lighter as they approach the ceiling; the arrangement of tint thus conforming to the rule observed in nature. in some instances, it is true, this is very crudely carried out; but, even in such cases, the principles found in nature are adhered to, principles which, when employed in internal decoration, under well regulated taste, never fail to produce the most pleasing effects—giving at once airiness and dignity to the apartment to which they have been applied. the influence which etruria exercised over the roman arts, at the period referred to, is visible in many of the decorations; many of the ornamental borders and scrolls on the walls of the houses of pompeii and herculaneum bearing a striking resemblance to those on etruscan vases. in almost all cases, these decora- tions, though singularly bold and free, seem to have been executed without any preliminary tracing or drawing, and the opposite sides of the same forms were, in consequence, seldom if ever precisely similar. in many of the arabesque combina- tions, representations of native plants and flowers are to be seen, showing how highly the romans appreciated, and how readily they introduced into their decorations, the graceful and beautiful in nature. the borders here shewn are from gell's . pompeii,' and are extremely elegant. it will be observed that the leading lines of these borders are eliptical, and that they are grecian in character. it may, therefore, be inferred that they were exe- essay on ornamental art. cuted at a very early period. in the enrichments and embellishments of roman buildings at a subsequent period, we find that the arrangements and curvatures are circular. the romans preferred the rose to the lotus or the honeysuckle, and the preference is distinctly visible in the capitals, friezes, and mouldings of their build- ings, as well as in their ornamental wreaths and devices; while those unique roman vases, so many specimens of which have been discovered in almost every part of the civilized world, are of similar character, both in general design and in minor detail. this peculiarity constitutes the chief difference between the ornamental designs of the greeks and romans. in the former the leading lines are eliptical, in the latter they are circular; and as the elipse is found to be prevalent in every branch of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, it may safely be asserted that the ornamental arts of greece were superior to those of rome. the romans seem to have preferred the circle so soon as they had freed themselves from the trammels of their predecessors, the greeks, and had begun to design for themselves; and this is sufficiently illus- trated by the following ornament from a ceiling of pompeii, wherein the leading curves and general design are altogether circular :- this ornament, which is a very early specimen of the style in which figures and foliage are connected, bears a striking resemblance to the arabesques of raphael, and confirms the belief that that great artist, in his decorative designs for the vati- can, followed the general character of the ornamental designs found in the baths of titus. in no department of ornamental decoration did the romans attain greater proficiency than in their mosaic or tesselated pavements, which must have been produced at a very moderate expense, as a great number of the ordinary houses of pompeii have been laid with this beautiful flooring. these mosaics are chiefly com- essay on ornamental art. posed of black frets or meandering patterns on a white ground, or white ones on a black ground; but in some instances they are executed in coloured marbles, and have a magnificent appearance. many fine pictures, brilliantly executed in mosaic, have also been found in pompeii, and specimens of all the different kinds, many of them surpassingly beautiful, have been dug up in various parts of london during the last century the romans were also acquainted with the art of manufacturing and colouring glass, which they applied to many purposes of household ornament. pliny mentions an artificer who had invented flexible glass, but who was banished, lest the discovery should injure the working jewellers, by superseding the use of gold and silver drink- ing cups. many of the ornamental drinking glasses found in pompeii are of the most elegant form, bearing evidence of a thorough knowledge and extensive practice of the art which produced them. in the working and mixing of metals, the ancient romans possessed great skill, and the art of inlaying one metal with another was much in repute amongst them. silver ornaments were generally inlaid with gold, and bronze lamps and candelabra were on many occasions inlaid with silver ornaments. among the numerous speci- mens of roman art that remain to us, none are more curious than the lamps and candelabra. on these utensils the romans seem to have lavished all their powers of fancy and invention, giving them the most graceful forms, and ornamenting them in the richest manner. the candelabra, indeed, were one of the most elegant articles of furniture in use, and were generally models of taste, in form, proportion, ornament, and execution. in many cases the type was preserved of the object from which the design had been taken, as in the case of the stem or reed, used in early times for raising the light to a convenient height. in such ex- amples, the buds or shoots which adorn the shaft, in imitation of those on the ori- ginal material, afford a firm grasp to the hand, shewing that the romans well knew the art of making ornaments conduce to the utility of that which they served to adorn. the manner in which the dining-room of a roman noble was furnished, has been thus described by mazois :- • the walls, to a certain height, were ornamented with valuable hangings. other portions were divided into compartments adorned with garlands of ivy and vine. paintings, representing high festivals, were surrounded with arabesque borders. e essay on ornamental art. the apartment was lighted by bronze lamps, dependent from chains of the same material, or raised on richly wrought candelabra. tables, made of citron-wood, rested on ivory feet, and were covered by a plate of silver, chased and carved with exquisite skill. couches, which contained thirty persons, were made of bronze, overlaid with ornaments in silver, gold, and tortoise-shell, the cushions covered with stuffs woven and embroidered with silk mixed with threads of gold.' like all martial nations, the romans bestowed much care upon their military costumes and imple- ments of war, enriching them with every sort of appropriate ornaments their fancy could suggest. their cuirasses, helmets, swords, and shields, were inlaid in the richest manner. their war-chariots were models of elegance, and their horses were capa- risoned with the richest trappings. the ornaments on the portion of the cuirass, here shown, com- bine the elements of the foliated and geometric de- signs of the romans, and give an idea of the place the circle held in their ornamental decorations. on the ornamental arts of the ancient indians and americans. to it will not be deemed irrelevant to an inquiry of this kind, to advert briefly certain points of resemblance between the architectural and sculptural remains of ancient egypt, india, and america, as well as to the similarity in the forms of vases and other articles of manufacture found in these distinct and widely separated coun- tries. in the depths and solitudes of what were once believed to be the primeval forests of central america, have recently been discovered huge pyramids, rivalling in extent those of egypt; sculptural altars and idols ornamented in the most beauti- essay on ornamental art. ful and elaborate manner, and colossal heads closely approximating in magnitude and expression those of egypt and india. in peru, vases of ancient manufacture have been found, ornamented with the vitruvian scroll and grecque border; and, although we know not how these arts found their way in remote times from one distant nation to another, we cannot doubt, from the similarity in their leading features, that they had one common origin. the similarity between the idols and altars of india and america is very remark- able. in both countries, the former are profusely adorned with trinkets and jewellery —the neck and bosom generally displaying double and triple rows of necklaces from which, in many instances, are pendant brooches of immense size and beautiful form. the waist is encircled with richly embroidered sashes and belts, having tassels, fringes, and other ornamental appendages. the dress is frequently diapered with quatre-foils, and other geometric figures. from the ears depend rich and massive rings and drops; while the arms and wrists are adorned with bracelets, and the heads with lofty plumes of feathers. in all these points the stone idols of india and america approximate closely. but there are still other and more remarkable instances of resemblance. in the monuments of both countries the effigies are fre- quently seated in the oriental fashion, and in both, also, do we find the principal figures of colossal size, while those of a subordinate character are of small dimen- sions. the personages represented seem, in some cases, to be engaged in the ordinary business of life, but more frequently in the act of worshipping or amusing the idol to whose service they have been devoted. in all cases, whether merry or sad, tragical or comical, the feeling or sentiment desired to be pourtrayed, is faithfully expressed. the humour displayed in the grotesque attitudes of some of the figures is singularly forcible; while the death’s-heads and cross-bones, with which our sepulchres were wont to be so profusely adorned, have their counterparts on the monuments of central america. a knowledge of geometry, and a love for geometrical decoration, seem to have prevailed both in india and america. we find in dupaix’s ‘american monu- ments,' an endless variety of circular designs cut in stone—the divisions being made in the planes of the circles in every conceivable variety, and being divided invariably according to geometric rules. the representation, no. , of a carved stone, from dupaix's work, affords sufficient evidence of the existence of mathematical knowledge among the ancient americans; while the representation, no. , of an ornamental . essay on ornamental art. stone on the gateway at dipaldinna at amrawutty, shows that geometrical decora- tion was understood and practised by the ancient indians. no. . no. . ww v in both of these examples, the circle is divided and subdivided in the most essay on ornamental art. chief portions had been decorated in the most gorgeous manner, all the elaborate detail of the relieved ornament having been picked in with gold and colour. the rich costume represented on the monuments of hindostan and yucatan, shows that those arts which administer to the elegancies and refinements of life had been extensively patronised and practised in both these countries; and perhaps some of the most interesting illustrations in dupaix’s work are those wherein jewel- lers, feather embroiderers, and other tradesmen, are seen engaged in their various avocations, their mode of working having been very similar to that practised by the workmen of the present day. having now given a brief account of the ornamental arts as practised by those nations of remote antiquity, from which the rudiments of many modern arts seem to have been derived, we proceed to offer a few remarks on the various styles of orna- ment which have recently been employed in decorative works; and, in doing so, we naturally begin with that invented by the saracens or moors, after the decline of the arts in rome. the moorish style of decoration was extensively employed at an early period in spain and the adjoining countries; and the principles on which it is based having been universally recognised as correct, the style itself has come into very general use in all countries where the decorative arts are cultivated. this style seems, on the whole, best adapted for decorating the ceilings, walls, floors, and wainscoting of buildings. it presents harmonious combinations of geometrical figures, with happy arrangements of rich and exuberant foliage. it makes no attempt at deception, in so far as inequality of surface is concerned ; the raised or sunk portions of the ornament being on a level, and the decorations depending mainly for their effect on harmonious combination of line, and judicious balancing of colour. the leading lines, however complicated, are always harmonious; and although rectilineal, angular, circular, and irregular figures, as well as every variety of foliage, are frequently introduced into the same composition, the relation which every part bears to another has been so well understood and considered by the designer, that the whole seems to have been the result of one conception, at once instantaneous and perfect. the colouring of the ancient specimens of this style also shows, on the part of the artist, a thorough acquaintance with those principles developed in the works of nature. hence we find, that those portions intended to be brought prominently forward, either to enhance some point, or to give effect to essay on ornamental art. and other emblems in the calendar of the church of rome were all originally intro- duced by the byzantines into the mosaics of their churches—the entire absence of sculptured effigies from the latter constituting the chief difference between the deco- rations of the greek and the latin churches. the ornamental decorations connected with the gothic style of architecture are characterised by every variety of geometrical combination, and enriched by the most perfect imitation of natural leaves and foliage. no style of architecture can boast of more varied excellencies; no style of ornament is characterised by more exuberant fancy, correct taste, and delicacy of execution. every ornament in the pointed structures of the best period was pregnant with meaning, every enrichment full of design; and, from the golden vane that glittered on the summit of the spire, to the tesselated pavement that adorned the floor, every portion of the ornamental detail was in perfect harmony, each and all tending to enhance the general effect, which was at once gorgeous and overpowering. on examining the progress of gothic ornamental design, it is easy to trace its gradual advancement from imitations of existing models to original adaptations, and combinations from nature and from geometry. most of the ornamental mould- ings used in norman structures, were borrowed either from ancient rome or from specimens existing at that period in france and lombardy. those sculptured wreaths of the bay, the vine, and the ivy, found in the early norman churches, have a close resemblance to similar devices used in the decorations of ancient rome; and the grotesque heads on the blocks and corbels of some of the early norman structures had been previously prevalent in france and italy. in the ornamental decorations of the early english, or primary pointed style, we find a new feature introduced—namely, the use of simple geometric figures in con- nexion with natural foliage. four-leaved flowers are displayed on square panels. circular spaces are filled with trefoils and quatrefoils; while the foliage on the capi- tals, and the crockets running along the edges of spires or pinnacles, bear evidence that it has been imitated, although somewhat clumsily, from nature. in the deco- rated and perpendicular styles of gothic, we have an endless variety of geometric combinations, and a profusion of natural foliage, skilfully and delicately carved—the natural form of the plant or leaf imitated being closely followed in every instance, and every peculiarity minutely and carefully delineated. the oak, the ivy, the vine, and the fern, together with the leaf of the dock and parsley, were sculptured with g essay on ornamental art. wonderful fidelity, and introduced with the most felicitous effect; the value of these representations of homely objects being more readily felt and appreciated than delineations of leaves, plants, and flowers of foreign production. nothing in the whole range of ornamental art is finer than the free combinations of soft luxuriant foliage with which the chief points of these gothic structures were adorned. crockets, pinnacles, finials, capitals, bosses and pendants, were all directly copied from nature. the ornaments were also selected with singular taste, and arranged with great judgment. so judiciously, indeed, were they distributed, that a celebrated writer has remarked, that “the ornaments, although profusely used, might have been left out, without impairing the general effect of the building.' in connexion with these skilful adaptations from nature, the structures of the period alluded to were enriched by an endless variety of geometric figures, such as circles, trefoils, quatrefoils, cinque- foils, &c., suggesting ideas of correct construction and symmetrical harmony. in the proportions of these beautiful edifices, in the groinings of the ceilings, in the tracery of the windows, in the symmetry of the shafts and columns, and in the enrichments of mouldings, capitals, string-courses, niches, and canopies, we find the combina- tion of geometrical forms with natural foliage constantly occurring, and with the most admirable effect. such specimens, therefore, yield abundant proof, that when a designer's taste is regulated by the first principles of proportion, he cannot draw too largely from the great storehouse of nature. let him first learn to produce a symmetrical form, and then study how to enrich it with befitting adornment. in the colouring of gothic decorations, the positive colours were invariably used in their fullest intensity, and with the richest and most harmonious effects. some- times they were used sparingly, at others profusely; the structure glowing, from floor to ceiling, with red, blue, and gold. the painted glass in the windows gave the key-note to the general harmony, and its power and brilliancy required that the walls, ceilings, and floors, should either be studded or entirely covered over with the most vivid colours. this necessity doubtless suggested the introduction of those orna- mental tiles, so many specimens of which have been from time to time discovered in ancient gothic churches, and the manufacture of which is now carried on so extensively in england. in the colouring of the ornamental decorations, care was always taken that prominence should be given to the chief points and features of the edifice, the receding and minor portions being painted in subdued tints, or in a essay on ornamental art. less obtrusive manner; and the decorators seem to have worked on similar principles with those formerly adverted to in connexion with the arabesques of the alhambra, and other moorish decorations. all the leading forms used in gothic ornaments had a symbolic reference. the trefoil and equilateral triangle, for example, were emblems of the trinity; and when inclosed within a circle, the trinity and unity of deity was referred to. emblems and monograms were also much in use. the cross was introduced every where, and decorated in every conceivable manner; and monograms and emblems, having reference to the three persons in the godhead, were largely employed. on the fur- niture of the churches, as well as on the robes, mitres, and croziers of the priests, similar devices were repeated ; and the chief aim of all these splendid ecclesias- tical decorations was, to place continually before the eye signs or embodiments of the leading and peculiar features of the christian faith. in the palaces and man- sions of that period, the ornaments are also full of appropriate emblems and symbols. the heraldic blazon of the noble families to whom they belonged always forms a prominent feature; and the entire system of gothic decoration may with propriety be termed an extended and comprehensive system of heraldry. the illuminated missals of the middle ages are characterised by much that is beautiful, in form and colour, in design and execution. nothing can be conceived more delicately elaborated than some of these exquisite productions. always teeming with thought, and pregnant with meaning, there is no source from which a designer can derive more benefit, than from these storehouses of design. the gradual blending of the castle with the mansion, which took place in the reigns of the latter henrys, led to a demand for ornamental decorations in con- nexion with domestic architecture, which had never previously obtained in england, and which at length produced those comfortable and highly-ornamental mansion- houses, known by the term elizabethan. in the reign of elizabeth, the nobility and gentry vied with each other in the erection of splendid and profusely decorated mansions ; and although these decora- tions are not always characterised by harmonic proportion, they display great ferti- lity of invention, and have a picturesque effect, which renders them exceedingly attractive. the complexity of form and enrichment in elizabethan ornament is very re- markable, rendering it extremely difficult to discover on what principles it was essay on ornamental art. based. it combines a greater variety of leading forms than any other school of decoration ; and several of its features seem to have been selected from a variety of foreign styles, and to have been grafted on the home-bred tudor, which imme- diately preceded its introduction. the chief portions of the architecture, however, are peculiarly english; and although most of the mouldings are roman,* the pen- dants, pinnacles, and ceilings are essentially gothic in their leading features, while the ornamental window-tops and brick chimneys were features in the street architec- ture of that period not found any where but in england. at an early stage of elizabethan architecture, heraldic badges were adopted as leading ornaments; and the rose, thistle, fleur-de-lis, and pomegranate, are very freely used, either as central points to window-tops, or as finials to the pedimented fronts of that period. grotesque and scroll shields, containing armorial bearings, were also much in use; and on the scroll turnings of the shield, pinnacles were frequently perched, while at other times they projected in all directions from the various angles of similar ornaments. pinnacles are possessed of great variety of form; the most characteristic are perforated, and bound round the centre with fillets. eliza- bethan scrolls are generally imitations of paper or parchment scrolls, half unrolled l; and, when used for the ground-work of shields, their effect in light and shadow is picturesque and powerful. in elizabethan ornament, lines are to be found at every degree of obliquity. oblong squares and angular diamonds are often placed in rows, relieved, surrounded, or bound together by trefoliated or zig-zag borderings, which are to be met with in every conceivable variety and combination. squares, ellipses, circles, and right- angled figures are inlaid or surrounded with bands and garters, which are either perforated or interlaced, or appear to be fixed on with bolt-heads of various shapes and sizes, sometimes resembling bosses, sometimes square or octagonal nail heads. the ellipse is very frequently used as a centre, surrounded with scroll-work, and studded with numerous bolts, which, when used even in stone-work, suggest the idea of timber framing, morticed and bolted together. jewels and precious stones are also copiously imitated, both in carving and colouring; and in some instances this is carried to such an extent, that the entire detail of the ornament seems an imitation of jewellery. * the egg-and-dart moulding of the elizabethan style is little removed from that of the roman. essay on ornamental art. = со oo un oo ooo oo оо ce oo roy the ornamental decorations of italy have been long and deservedly held in high estimation. they are at once elegant and lively, and harmonize well with those elegancies of life found among a lively and refined people. italian ornament com- bines many of the beauties of the ornamental decorations of ancient greece and rome, and without aiming at classical simplicity or symmetrical proportion, is flowing and luxuriant. it is composed chiefly of leaves, tendrils, and flowers; and nothing can be finer than the foliated scrolls on the friezes,—the pateras or roses on the ceilings,—or the enrichments on the cornices of italian apartments. angles are rarely found in these compositions, their leading features consisting chiefly of ovoid and circular curves. figures are frequently introduced into the foliated scroll ornamented friezes, and are generally represented sportively engaged in some game, playfully twisting and twining the leaves and tendrils, or concealing themselves among the foliage or flowers ; and in all such examples, the design is graceful, and the effect exceedingly pleasing. the pateras or roses—of which several specimens are given in this work—are characterised by great richness and variety,—the leaves, like those in gothic pendants or bosses, are plastic and natural—the flowers rich essay on ornamental art. and varied. ceilings, walls, and doors are panelled in the most elegant and fanciful manner, and these panels are enriched by every variety of arabesque, historical, and characteristic painting. domes, cones, and soffits are embellished in the most gor- geous manner; and every portion of the interiors of italian villas are furnished as well as decorated in a manner evincing a high state of social refinement, and a high degree of artistic excellence. there can be no doubt that the introduction of the italian style of architecture into england by jones, and its cultivation afterwards by wren, tended to refine the taste and elevate the artistic feeling of the country. many of our fine modern mansions and palaces are in this style, and a large proportion of the beautiful balconies, balustrades, window-tops, and door-pieces, which adorn these structures, are admirable, both in conception and execution. like the elizabethan, which immediately preceded its introduction, the italian style admits of almost every variety of design, and is therefore attractive to artists of inventive genius, who prefer following the dictates of fancy to obeying the stern injunctions of rule. we find, accordingly, that it has always been a favourite with painters ; the divine raphael himself not deeming it unworthy of his genius to execute the ornamental decorations on the walls of the vatican. the celebrated work recently published by gruner, gives a vivid idea of the rich and harmonious colouring with which the interiors of italian palaces are adorned, and may be perused with much profit by those whose tame and insipid taste would banish every thing like colour from the walls and ceilings of our apartments. the arabesque or grotesque style of decoration anciently practised in rome, and afterwards imitated by raphael, is generally associated with italian art, and, not- withstanding its incongruities, paintings of high merit, in conception and execution, are often found intermingling with its playful combinations. vitruvius, who appears to have taken a correct view of the matter, thus describes it : - nothing is now represented on walls but monsters, instead of true and natural objects. in place of columns there are slender reeds, and temples are supported on mere nothingness. demi-figures spring from flowers—some with human faces, others with the heads of beasts; all things which never have, or ever can be. such designs are not to be esteemed, inasmuch as they are not consonant to nature and reason.' there is great force and truth in these remarks, and they are as applicable essay on ornamental art. by way to some of the decorations recently executed in our own country, as they were to those in the time of vitruvius italian ornament, whether in marble, stone, plaster, or painting, in bas relief, or in alto relief, always aims at complete deception; and this, together with the harmonious flow of line and balance of colour, by which the interior decorations of italian structures are pervaded, always renders them pleasing. even when mons- trosities are introduced, and the detail made up of the most unnatural combinations, the colouring is so rich, containing every tint from the deepest purple to the brightest gold ; the light and massive portions of the composition are so gracefully linked together, that the effect is always agreeable, and although the Æsthetic taste may be offended, the eye is invariably delighted. of introduction to a brief notice of the french style of ornament, which is an offshoot of the italian, it may here be mentioned that if ever any grotesques were to be admired, they were those of watteau, whose lively designs, and elegant compo- sitions, have obtained the admiration of all nations. no painter, perhaps, ever combined nature and art so gracefully,—rendered extravagance so pleasing,—or laid such a variety of objects under contribution to effect his purposes. rocks and mountains, hills and valleys, streams and waterfalls, trees, plants, leaves and flowers, trophies of peace and war, scenes of rustic merriment and of courtly pageant, diversified by scenes of touching pathos or broad humour, make up his delightful compositions. take it all in all, we know no style better suited for boudoir or arbour decorations than the charming compositions of watteau, and his success in that department shows that no artist, whatever be his standing, ought to consider the decorative art beneath him. it seems an admirable field for the exercise of genius, and genius can at any and at all times invest it with the attributes of high art ;-grace, dignity, and expression. many of the modern french decorators are artists of eminence; and the decorations of palaces, theatres, and public buildings in france, are remarkable for beautiful and appropriate design, as well as for rich and harmonious colouring. and why, it may be asked, should not british artists do so likewise? they have established a school of high art, no unworthy rival to that of france, and why should they not endeavour to equal them in this more useful though perhaps more humble department of art? the leading character and general detail of the french style of ornament may be described very briefly. it is much more irregular than the italian, and full of essay on ornamental art. the ornamental designer, the propriety of looking to nature herself as the great primal source of all beauty. it was also originally intended to have entered into a careful examination of the present state of the ornamental arts, in connection with the manufacture of articles of dress, of furniture, and of vertù, as well as with the decorations of public structures and private dwellings, both externally and internally. as this important inquiry, however, could not be comprised within the limits to which this work is restricted for the present, it has been deemed advisable to reserve it for another occasion, and, in the meantime, to conclude this essay with a few general remarks and practical hints, which may be found useful to those for whom this publication is specially intended. on looking at the productions of nature, we find them exhibiting every variety of colour and design. the grey crag has its green moss or verdant lichens, the mountain its purple heath, the bough of the tree its glossy foliage, and the banks of the stream its wild flowers; showing the constant propensity of nature to beautify and adorn, and suggesting, at the same time, how much ornamental detail en- hances the attractions of the most symmetrical works of art. the decorative arts, then, are evidently founded in nature, and from her storehouse we must draw the materials for their development. in this, however, as well as in the higher departments of art, the artist will be enabled to produce more original, as well as more elegant designs, by being intimately conversant with these works, which have been long and generally admired. the decorator ought, then, in the first place, to make himself familiar with the various styles of embellishment, and afterwards endeavour to obtain a clear idea of the elements of symmetrical propor- tion, as applicable to ornamental composition. this knowledge may be attained in various ways, but is by no means so easily acquired as is generally imagined. some writers recommend the study of geometry for this purpose; others, a close and diligent application to nature, asserting that in flowers and plants may be found all the elements of beauty and harmony. we should say that both are necessary, and that the progress of the artist will be materially facilitated if, while studying nature and geometry, he makes careful observation of the approved models of antiquity. in treating of geometry in connection with symmetrical proportion, writers have differed widely, some giving the preference to one figure and some to another. the ellipse, however, seems now most generally preferred, and its importance in orna- essay on ornamental art. and without such contrasts, the general effect of ornamental designs is tame and insipid. variety, as well as regularity, is requisite in all symmetrical compositions. a knowledge of botany is indispensable to the ornamental designer. he ought not only to be familiar with the form and colour of the different plants and flowers, but he ought also to be acquainted with their nature and qualities, and he will thus be enabled to avoid those incongruous associations of poisonous weeds and healthy flowers which we find often marring otherwise good designs. the trophies of war are no longer in repute as emblematic decorations, their place being now happily supplied by more agreeable objects—by fruits, flowers, plants, and other productions of nature, suggestive of peaceful and pleasing thoughts, and the aim of the decorator ought to be, to foster and encourage this improved and improving taste. winckleman has observed, that the first grand style of the arts consisted of a system of rules borrowed from nature alone. afterwards artists plunged into the ideal, and, having abandoned truth in their forms, worked after the adopted style rather than nature.' to this it may be added, that the main use of studying other styles, and making ourselves acquainted with their peculiarities, is to learn that nature and simplicity are the leading characteristics of the most approved specimens of the works of antiquity. to copy them without knowing and feeling this truth, is to perform a merely mechanical process, from which no useful improvement can result. there can be no good reason, in a country like this, where a love of home is so prevalent, and where the beauties of nature are so abundant, that our dwellings should be adorned with an indiscriminate and slavish adaptation of the ornamental embellish- ments of other times and other countries. hogarth and wilkie drew their inspira- tion from nature; and hence that truthfulness of delineation in which their great excellence consists, and for which they have obtained universal approbation. while, therefore, the decorative artist appreciates the excellence of the ornamental designs of other times and countries, he must eventually go to the fountain-head- to nature. by no other means need he hope to attain the paramount excellence of all art-originality. li u g sud f we ta / g iata alamontierte ug te s. leith the et lith. edin! ornamental perforated rail-italian. c മം. s. leith del! el l.ithil idu " flemish. زنان saha! et lacho ed from a rare etching by guido reni after lucas cambiaso. italian sorunu ama m ge coro bos my boos ya ccs & lert dell et latho edon' andda auuu an .leith del et latho faun' louis quatorze. th sg t an la ast scroll &c - gothic. . | | e lessons gen sleth del plath edin" grotesque - italian. fc or is por o slam dei et latho edin arabesques. ! | ! ho renas garrame s leith del et lada karn window heads &c.- elizabethan. sg sleid ! et luthe ede fire screen. - crotesque ! ਤੋਂ a کر کا ਨੇ le sl del et lache kam paper hangincs.- arabesque. we b ca be l g w mi mf c po f lm ls m . g ls ws lg k e xa m ples for the ready composition of any cypher consisting of , or more letters. suppose the required letters to be abc, though any others will produce the same effect: st take the two last letters bc cypher . !, fold your paper in the middle and draw the one half only of bl in plain double lines with out ornament as represented in no . nd add a to bc already drawn in the same manner as you there fmd it interwoven with the b, cypher nº . and as represented in n° . then reverse the whole as in no and you will have the entire draught at once. fill up spaces with ornament as in n° . by the foregoing rules and examples, cyphers consisting of abcd or any other letters may be composed by first drawing the two last letters cd, to which prefix b as in bb, and then a as in ab, shewn in which reverse as in no and fill up as in 'no . the vacant 이 ​ s leith dell et luth. edm! initial cyphers. } t m t voor i s. leith dell et lacho bam' ceilings. -italian. . letih let lathe edm' book cover.- flemish. cola do تم نہ کی s. lenth dalt et lacho edın' interior decoration - french sa wie nokset g oveo veo veadvezov zovec g s. leuh det! et látho du perforated rail. - crecian s. leith del et luho edin idon wo dv italian - 条 ​ varan rara susareert asthaniameramanand demahitimes । ना दिन तु moda aagingiantatiicaine leith dell trellis work - flemish. 意 ​ al s. leila del e litho hdin! shields.- elizabethan ma + ef s. leith dell et lacho r perforated rail.- cothic. i aportti ? og ) a dodo ve i s. lerh del! lamps &c - roman. noncirculating . ب ) ة ع ٣ ، -صك . ، ه ( ع ٦ ه سي - --ص ي- - يب ي-ي سال -يجا كاكابا/اجلته لملمتها»)»). قلالا٨ لقبلان»)»)» ق كلآ نييإ كل لميل لو لفا ينا لاك ترمز ثبر هر تر ثبركغ ته» ٨همرلخ يللاقلم«نققق ترلاتق»٨لا»)ك يلتق»». ققلا٨ وقمع))» علاقلمعنتققق كة»)» قق٨يقثذ ثقلا٨ لا)لالمس،لملم لالاتآترلملايخقوا» هعلملمقتر)كقسملململم يا»))» قنتممخقههللمتر ترلانقبيلا٨ »قأ ع»لهرترلاققس٧لم لالإتك٢رآقا ٧للر«نا« ١ ٢ثإ حبة»» لم»ا قالا٨ يات-تك لال حئقعتقلم»لمتر»»» المتاح» لمقل٢لم، وانتمتر٨«حت«للحلم ولا » » لما » » ( ه ع )تنلللئر«ئك لفا«آ٠كل لاقرالملابي ٠٧ق نقاقثققألاق لع ٧لمثكتكلقتن علاتر٨» »ثك تريز» ٧قا . لم لم لم ) ٦ ٨ قل تايا»)»»» و««)ق ع ٣لاوهلم، لمدة همع»سيهل«» ٠ ع قيثهأ» عفو» ٠ نك»أ»حبه ٠ يه٣أسء٨ طقعقلم «اثم» ٠ ح٦حطته ايوهيه٣يهقإ لمسها ع ا نابه ع لمهمس»ثه«؛يإ ٠ لح ماأحالحن٨ ٦ ٠ ٠ «وه» ٠ ع لهبهلا يه«ح«ق ٠ يهلداط« عوه«عهعوك ٠ لح ا ٠ ٣لهاوهلموهبه ارجا ع«حيثهلهق» ا اييهلاوه» وحاح»حها وهيا» وه») ققلآ ععقاوهلمتم لها مك ا وثهث«علماا يهود» يهلما« لمقلم عطلا»» ح تموه علمأح«ع» ٠ ا ٠ ٠ ٠ اليه) ص علم،ييحيهقا يتنأه٣حلم» هق ثملا» و٣ثهسبه ق لمسوه» رحعا«ع»اتر حيك وه»» وس»وث ا ٠ ٠ ص ققثهحبه وق-لا ٠هيإ ملا» وهنا ح تموه ٢يهساق ناح»»» يه»« ماق ناسه-هبه ع . ٠ ٠ ا يقيهعبه ثهأح٧تحيه» وثه»»عأ» ناح وهبهحلم» ٠ يهأح٧تنحيه» وح-» حهة يعقد» . . ا وهلمحسهعلا رع»وهأ» ،قإ ععحل» سقاحيه» وسيهأ» ناح ثهوعحلم» وحثهسلتم تمر ته»أهعطمحء» ٠ . ٠ ٠ ٠ ثهنمح٧ ويدس» هققلمحح عر» هسوهتن ح مك ن-نام-ربه ٠ ٠ ٠ لح ٠ عأسحيهلا وعأمهمااأطا حل وه» يهدي» وعيا» . مك «قع-واقف ٠ ا ا ٠ لح ثهاحعثا ٠ يهأصثه» راعهح»به يا» جلا» وسلما»» مذثهاا ٠ علم.ااحح» ءاقفلنا»» تاق يه»» ثهاا١ مك ٣يهع٣، نق علا ط لم { » لم لم لم قد لم ح لم ٠ ٠ وهل»» ثهةقح له»ح لمهلمطط لح ٠ «عيها ٠ » ص اليه» . ٠ ثهححت«»حىلا ٠ «عاق/واحبه لمبي«ههيهوه ٠ ق يهعحب«طس» . ع٣أس٣٨ ص ٠ ماأح»به ثهثحبي . » حلىح ٠ ٠ ،عبمقالل ٠ ٠ «ع»أ»طك ٠ ثههحلم» لما يه» بك١لم هلاجلهر» نق») تك علاقات» يقل»») نلآلانقللمفعلا٨ . ع«٨ثةنققق لحل»)»». «اا قاتنإ٨ »ترقلم « ضة هم ، لم تل لم ه لم ت لم ط لم و لم . لم ل ي » ع ي ي يإ ة { نق ) اى سل » » نق تن اه هل و ، لم { ط و له لم لم لم و لم ٠ ابيلهلاحثهناح»به ئاحع» يهق»وهقل ح تموه «تنأاثهطعحءلا ٠ وسلم-ح» ٣لثتي» وهوا» ح هوه ىوه«»ق، ا ٠ همس) و؛ه«يهااطهبه ثهينا« وستتم وهعقةقلمق علمه تا»»» قاله يه»» ووهو- » هو «سهم-ث ٠ » و ثهللأاوا٨ هوه-ه» يهتم نين» ييلمع عقد» ومهما ح مك «سنا-ث ٠ ٠ ا يهل»،ثهها٨ روه-هلا و٠هأ٣يه»سلل ولم وه» يهلي؛لم ومحل» ح مك ناس«ه»اط ص . ق . ثهلملمبيعس وعأ٣عطسلتم قا يه» علا» وحث- مك «لمحأنكطعع٣لا ٠ ا ٠ ٠ يه»أسا»٨ يوهأ٣ههقاه) حل يه» وهلا» وثهقسله » تموه وحسني ٠ ا ٠ . يهلل-هر وهلا» عةسته سلط ح تماه بياه»اأ ٠ ٠ لح لح ٠ علمقكحعأ، ع ههمساعح٣هح وثهعثهكلمال حل يه» بهلا» وسلمها) للحب ٢اهد للقب طعأ»ى ثههح» عانا ته-الق ٢موبيع»ءعبه نا»بهكقق٨ ك قتنأسعء ءيهتم وهاا١ وه»« ثمنه لمس» عناه «ته»حعحع ناع٢ وه٧ح» «حالنا ٠ ع ٠ ع مهبههم»هلاهقا يإ لم لى لم ، لم ة لم « لم ج لم ل لم ل لم » و لم ع ل -- ع الهق نهلجيهاا « لع رة طه ث ع ٧تم»نةاا لا نا آته٧ ق ا امل لا آ و يحتل { ثماا ئعل لا ترسي.. عت.يصسعع ل ع ا هفهااياي حبيميه هاه ولاهم يهم ئئإيهللقأ ،اه»نييق هاههلقةلمق ولنا ياهلا،هتم لاذ »رتى، ا سلله اااه لاهم صم تل مهعهر« صجص محي كي ي نس ي- كج- - ا-عي هلهههه للهم ال لقئقإ للقتل أ حنو ليهع بقع ينلتتة . . نلأ ءآ م ههق فلعله قلقة للللللك ا ا للعإ لقح أ ج بح تي بمعا اع-ع-ك ا . . كل ابيح لتنلهتتح - ثلئكا لك يبهر عئلاتنهننعع اإ تمتهن. عيا مععنصقلل ك . قض-ا . ك تتقك ت جس مه . لهة عل هههههيهلقلنهنثل مخئلهىا عتق هم ، ج ن يذ هل . ، لهلههعهأ عقهصعه عتصسهع له ٠ ن مههلههإوفللهههك هي ءهه هتهه»ه وهبا ءس» لمها هلب لكسظ هاج ا --ص -ص يلج-ي - -ص -ص - كج -ععهل. هملمهسسو لبههل هلا ٠هعلق . للللاللنلا « « جي ثقلا لننقهقققهقئنهللللقهقةا ح ا لللهإ قل للحق لل قللا د . ٢لهلا ث لقققق للهقلهه و لك «الا لإ ق يهقإ لقللالا احقق إ ثرققأ قة هل ٠ ققلللللا . ك لل للعلل للقول ا هلق تطلق المهل فكي ئقللللهة له قلهللللللللههآ للللهللللللللق باههللهلهقللا . لك كبر . ةة ج ئة . ا للقنههه فك لهلا تلقاها للنقل يا لمهئللللللق فقها لاهمالهم-للهلاليين} هم ض اسم . هل س كا س هلع مآ لهققهإ قهق لا ققققههقققلق ن قلقه هللجإ لللقهلللللللللههللللل لها الناقلات-معقولية قنئقضعغجتمك عل ه-ك ا لا . . ، . » للملك ل . سا» عا» طهه ا مملأم . ع . »فىعكهع ، ثهقهههههتههقها عح هق مللقجهأ ه ، كو ا اأ»( ) . ي اد ويتم نجيم ( هنههق ققعتة . ههلله ا و ص للا » إ عإ تنتا ي ثم . . . . صسه يع ئقثإقإ حق-قلق-ة ع نزلة نثئ.هئمرقهقمرثيهقررنقلمها ساس لا هب هتس٦«ين ههه»يرهعلامقه - ض-يجب -حص ا سي- سي-ضي ص-سب ل-س س جاسر محل- يلاقي- سل-ل ك-م ي عب عجي ي .- - قه . حلها ني هم لااجلرم هه ك عر ععع- ---ص-ععققي- سيسي تاج ، سععللقهئسر - - -جي - - - - اع-عا-عيس ي علة سعر - - لاى ط لكلا ق ن لاا حل اتهتقئقلتل لللههللإ اا . يمهها بلا هلق ه يعههههععع مهله . مح لالفق «لمعي « لا مه«ها قذ«لماقلى لللللا تىآ لم فاته ، له به» ه١و يا) سيلهلمهام، و»»ا«ظ » سيمنعها ا ح تك لم له -حر تع للإ فمي ؟ رتي ين « لك ع قلد ساس سآ عى ءسهم جي . لققأ ءسحم ح ا غ لك م ام تمثأ لهم مة دم جال مهم. ع لا ين لكقققق ا س فى . للتو نا لك ص ما تلا عقجمل هاو شر.) . لا يثو لحمة يك لتههتنت٠ه هقنقهر هلههم ٦ صصس . ي . ققه ئعععقثم اع . عه لصقحمط ع دهم ع . ، هقهههلهقللا ك للهقهعلهع لا كل بقهه قد ة ر . الح ه قه . ربه عجعق ق ) هم رسم لم» عي-ع ، قبينطقهحعه حتحعت-ير فك رع يني نحتا يحب قة ق حب لقلق ج هر بر ي } ك ث . وثقلا ء جعئو قلة ثم ق مر لمقللحا للحبة ا-نمر ثهع لا قعنلقئلثل ملحمه ع لنهنمتهققعقتنئ لا لحقها ا ته د ح همه كا تن للا عي لهلا فله لله هنأ « . للالكنهم ا . ) طوايا،ضلا هم ل ه أ ا ا ا اا ة ااه ه له ٥ ص قققققققققهعل الار يسهم ١ مهه . يه ه وسهم ٥ نا وه سا ما ل وة . ع هققها عة يععي . يهعع قسم سهقققعن٠ ؤا صق ك فك اههعجه . ك بها لقققهققئقعهلئ لعلهما باك هلال ارضت-ك عققتلللححقللللععه عل كقتقتقأ -ع-ع٠ لائئئئئئئئئئئئئئااكل ا تصلك اعتقتقهع عي- اا قسم-يصيبك هئنلنليه كصههلح يبح ا با بي ع ه قلقك في ) ا لهللقققكإ ع تإ قاي رك ققتنعلصصسقهق٠ك . . ثغتقنإ ( نا ي يتصل ك س لثبحمعئننيب فملقللبئل جدة لقلقثئرل ج ،٠ وح بي ٢ ابه . ط للقلق لوك هلي لمحها ، ئف ق وجهلها لا ثا علة يقلها ة نجلقحملللإ ج يد لللقلقلا عهقهتك وا ه للمتعة قءعع إم . اد للثلللى مهلا بمالههئقز عم « لنللللللنفأ فه ) ماهر هم لة ع ي اسع سمر حع لتوليها ط لكل اعينه اا-عتلة امر -لس مع بح قئعحتئح ثأثمئلئق بللها لهم يهقلقهه ققهلقئهة تاع-- . تنأ تن تنم م ثسئ « ههحه قا قلقة لنا للغنأ جبهت له ي لهلهلا حرا هقللللا امصجمعح ٠ لهب لن لللللملأماأا ، ا يس- س معع ك عسر ثا ى ينهها لك ك ي-ي- لم ل أ م ا ط ل ١ملهلمه ١ئكئك ل هل وه . ع م ل ا تيللنا،لاالاللاان٠.لهينة يهمهم ، قئمحئه المخ « قههإ ر لا اى ٦ ل ا ا اا لم اهأ نللي فلاماريون-لاهلهم ا بقلق ااث لها للننا - . يي هب رة اة سم ، عسل- نخلق ممهههم هي اااا - ك-س لكي عل- جس- اي- مح-ص- ع-يسع- - يت. لعبت ع لك-عسانا..?...- -س٣ي ي حتننتنتععنتننسصنعه اقهقنة ع سل يي ع- يي جي - يي ل- - ي--يجيي ي ي - -- يي ي ي- ص صل ي ٠ ال التل- شاعسعععصواااب - قليلة زا س ته ههققحلهة بملل. لا ثا لك لمقثذ نئط ع ا ل . ، اطإ لاس ءمع تساق لمس ط قل ءر حني ا « يعئد لا لارس م سر ة هتح يى اقنضك عق و . ع كل ههلنلللهثببي ثآ٢ و بقلم س ك للئلا صد عم عههعح لنة اا لملك مينه للقلق . مس-ب لس. ؟ قللا ي ٠ ي ننفئقنئئهح . نهقنأ للللهقلا على عتتنعصقسث ك بو لأي قهقلقهللليوننبلقنئة ا نصهقإ ثبيني هثنلاثللههق هما. وفي ج٠ت اا عم آيل ل نت٠ملللللهلأي لاي ثقتة . . ا ، لك ق حملا أو ها ئلهنللا ثا بي ك ك نموها المك لان ي ئثلغجههأ قللا بمخالفتها ثا ق . لا ٠زئ لهةههة ، لما يلثتلللنلللل هققع ح فو قلد ٢ ق لا منمرلمنلا امة ينر٠ همي ك إ ل .يلئلللللللا سي يمين س للأقنلللثللا حقلا تى تي يحمل يسهم لئ، . قلقها لأ ممهههلك كهل ، عقلة ثثهلهللة ) إ و لن. اي م لهمكهرلإ إهكهو يلقم «يو زأثلئلا لا لكقثكإت ليللئوهع همها منمنماتها-لالات-نم بر ابا عههع يا ين ي » ( قرهإ ءه . هم ة لا للا اهنوتنبح . للا١ . ع ءآ ٠ عل س عي ملز»زي تمم ثيل ورص) م ال ١ مل) هقيث تاه ) ع د قة لها ن لقب لا ا لأ قبر ى ضع تنم جرسي للجم ضع نج نكق و يو . فا ه تن ا اا ل حل ها تقل . لمحئق٢ هق ههتيغ ، ج ههملللللا ك آ تلائم يو لمح ع لنه يقلللللللللللأ للملحقين» ل . . ع ) ال للقلق للههلح سنتم لهقئعئهقققنم كا فقهها لم للللا ه ق ثللل.للللللها ق قلها تحقق -ت--عععع-عصس لا-سعف يمق» لنة يلمليلاا الفي ز ك عل فهللللآ لاسا لإ فا ) في لا ذت ، ه فلإ لحنها هلا بئققه ي عقل ثم يلقهللمثلميأ هلا للهللللة للملا . «هق . لعقبئةه ققه لم هم بلا سههضن ) ع يااا ا ملك و هلعا ع هل ع فعلهم ا ١اا إأا » يقلها فققللللللهإ لإ لاالاثللاقالا لأ ا . لا . تلا فئثهكتنهنطنقنثأ لا لها بلو ق للنهق،ئءز . لها لللالللللهلا قلا للهقلئهقلققللهللا لب ي يهمئاسسععيحهقع محة ٠ ئهنهقهقلا قطعا للقلب عر يعي نقتعئل،قتهة لأ ا ،لقهللا ئللهرلسلللقلململللللا عج تلا ٠ ئلني ل لقلا قللا ق ح ك . . يللللقلا الملليمتر-لا لللقلل للالمام-لاما ق لهللللي ، يعير ليللاا نهإ بثتا آ في ققه. تانئئلها ينلإ اا ينير هنا لقلق لله عقحقئئئ رد قة ثمن ليه هققههققها يا قئل حلقا ل لا لله ثنيهم لقا هم ك ك لعء هلا لك كل ي » ال لم لل» لا ق أ فا اإ قا . لا لترا نأمل ثلثي علئإهي يلر( ثم س ها عم قننز ضه) هم. تهننرلإ رآنامملنلللل تيإا ( ل ر رةأزاانألئثة آفا رر ١نر ن ٩ يب و ذ يا ،هققنجين قهقه فهما لهتتلتمللتفسقهللأ فهيمملقينهللللإ اهم لا قك هه ربه لك ، ير عهللهأ و لققق٠ ليك جل ع ا للللللللللقم ه قههقققبحقغقعع يه جقزالأرفت٠لةم ئنةآتبمنلإ تحاكم للأللههذهإ ااقاأن.االرتااااللله تقنتينهة للثئقعع لقإوآب.نثز عيط بح . عح ههقحم لا تنك ف ل هلق وتحققها ٢ ح كا تمهل ل ثق وق جد عج ك تا . ع ( . . لة للملأ لأ اإ . لا ق لا بكي . لك س نك ههههح ل لههقهه ا ا ال ميغ اهم ءآ برسم نمنر ا قل عميق ا هقئضكهللمهة أناأناتزنمثنلثأ،للا أ اللهب ا ك فقها ها نمكنك قلإانلاثزاللما ليإأثأة كل أ للقلق هرا» الفبمئممئهةياالرأمأ لاثانألهنله للققق ج ا لله اة غلا ل ا ين له هقلللعئهفففثياتمسآاينإ للا عو ا اا ح لقهع لا يقع هلا لا بضعة م لجأ فهلئه لآ جا مق ه ققق مح -جيصكي و . يطلعها سي-ه لص تقام قتلة ئه٢ . « ققققخ قح العا م لا بلة ، ط ط ، عي» ق قة هل رهثتنقهتر ق ) بمئ٠ئهم علا ١ . مهم فا ميهإ . ثم . . ي تجنتنئتلأأأ ايتا سقققجقعقم عينه عسلهثقثحعع -عص- لو عب-لعلع حطقطللللا للنيل معي تك تس ءإ نا { ن نر ع يدهن٠قئهقههه ع ئهههقها ع لأللللللها نيلا ليلا لها،لللل مع قآ ويمه يا نهى يههقه تججلنقلاط تم ههلهلا للسكك . « . لصقا لا لهقللقللهقهحهلل « ) لنتلأا قل ا . أ ا الللللل« ههلقلك هلعا بللغللحهؤ لم كلللللللللل لللههههح تهلهنطنكئنلنا . لاي بو ا . ق-ا ١ قل لعقل قبر . ح قلل ٠ هه سمع ترك أي ى ربه . اللعلئنيه كه ٠ . « . ييهها هلك لهما عهلك تي ة تلك سم ك ح ب ك لم . هقك . نللللللهلقهقححهأ نهققحقققئا ا مهلللئ« للا كعاصمة يصل- لهلهلللللهللهبر للللقئلقلقهلهلهها لا ل يليه ل لههلللقعهقق هذ ا لمحا ا ، نع أ لللللئئحمللللللللللهلا لا أ لك ع ع لللللا س لللهلقههإ لقنه س « لقجقققلها لللهقللهقل للا اإ تغلها الا لهلللك لللللللللللللا أ اا آ ضمهم صل عجإمختم يي الا فل لال - ثئتقتقققحقققققك -يس هقنفنع لا ) وئه تما ا ا للللههههتا كة امل هه هلة ك ية ق سس هلا ههق ته » ٢ هه ربي بم٠تننهتمسنبمههله آق ئاا ك هم-هد اليفا و . تك ك لمحهللقك عاو عء لة لار . وآ . لع ل ج . ل لكلا هه « . صعب مساع-علمتهم همسا -عسععع قهععععح عل-ا. ٠لعلا ه ه سهعتنعت للصلع-علل تر-نعي-جت. تى سس.سنننمة يخههصلو مهة اصولي. للئنتلايتنببنز تقتتقجقإجقعينيكفة هنتيرنمنمنقللملللا و ر ينيجعط للهلهقأ ح وم اكا تتحملها لمههل قله هقتإ لقح بحلقة عر. . عك تعتنق قك تقئ.ثئ هل ام ر وابر ية صققأ هقئهة م . « لااهقلا فكل ف عا ل لها قتلا هك ) لقنهللللل رلهلالإ لا لللللللهللهلللحلقهيا ا صم ليه حي ي يي للسير .- - - - - - كيج-ص-ع- ---عععي تل ع قنع لقل لقي . تقع آ نجهة ، هئع تي ٢ « له لك لوا لمحقل نص رح ا . لثثإ ئب اهو هال ٠ ) م هلإنا . ر للقلق آي للا . تن لا ه ا ، عا ح . ع إ هه . . . هل ص ٠ . . حم.» ، . لحاهم يكلف لااللقهظ طع-.عسغحننعتعتصهتهقققتتنتتنتتققعقعتة قلل ميا» ه ههل،ن ل ر هلة لا يوعههبهه لمهها« مهنئو مايك لص-س جه-. جهعععه نسبح عا- نيس سم يي - - ي- ال-سعل-ع-عو لك للقللتك هاكم - اع-ي لجهلهم ضم - ا هظقهظهاطلي ق . . هلا«اله هعهك » سهم ا -سص لم ا ا ا ا ا ا ا ا ) « . اا ي « ن لا هه٠حههوس هلا» اعار ل عهعععع يتعلل ا عز ا ل ا ا ا ، ل٢«هاع هبهههعلإ يهبه» «تا» سن، ع ل هويمهه له ضه « هاههأسااس كاك» ا ثم - لئقهئئنلإ لللأ ا ل « ع لئقا للحل لها ا حننم بى - ئ عما ي . اهل كصعققسعه بلا ا لح لاهل ه حققها للا لكل قنئقئئه هحقق ام ا للقلق لللللللها ا ( للقلق للللللنقلا لئلا ( ا هلا للهلللهلتثلا ق قلما . ا هلا قتل طتطلث هم لها ا قم. وقلق قصي عاج لهلطأ لبت « لههثنئنهأ بملئها لللمتلئلللللللئأ قللا للقلق ع و لهههلهل ا لها نلقإ ا للققلا ا اللى لأ و لللللققهل للام قللا ق ا لللللهح في . ) « ع ك وا ثم . ب ثا ل يل نل ا ر ع-قع ا يي جي ، هاي تنققلعلعللقهعتهققللللقتهب . لثيع٢ لم لعههقققهقك لك سمه ( ا ) ي-ايش-س-س- جب. بك اي قهلحمهجح . تاقت ل ) ( ل لخققكتقلئئئئئلا ة . ك وتي» لى . هاقسقتت،تقققلهقققلقلقللئئقع يعم يققه،لقهه سلسهللهقلةلههيليةزفيمتهإ ٨ الم ه ث في ل هلا ا ي لا ) لللنتبقه٠قأق.ذآ لاللللليع ههق هم لوني نا . لإعا الم ل هعناهير هيسيلينك ارا نألفها! . ص لا لعل حبب.ئبب جععبحسء يتةلة ع عاااصس سل يةيآم ننضمئبنهههععنععتخ ي ر جوي الا ا ( أ هار كلل له لاص . . ١ لى . لسهههع ، لمهعقعتنج سعع هر اع عى. ق-قة هك عالععك .- ص ت.. . صل-ي ك ءاعمم بهيصوعقعرعهب ه . يهم يجلل . ، سل ل ص عع . هقيقمليرهلهم يءءطج . صععععا لالا كا قك قللا امما قهم . ارال كة ٠ ) ١ههه س . تي ع تقتل-تتنعم يهمس س؛هس {فها ي و ثيلتفقئ يجيجب ث-ل تي يصل ضنتتتتتتعطعأ لك صن لم با» ) . لئهلئهلهئهلهللههلهلللل ائ٠لعع ه يآءح قنققيقق نع لا ٢ » تلهم . عههعقأ ذ مع» ٠ ه ع اله} قا عكللقنللئلا علق ، لهلعهققلهه ا ء ا لا اكل تحلا هل٢تو ) للاالأكيث،اا قههع ئكلللهلعلعسهه لللللاأ«إ ( لا لاإأا ق هيل نلإ إا ه لا ع . ، قا ا . ، مبهيهعنننقلللل لفا م مرمم ، مي رير.. وههق ب«بهإ ن ٠عق تنع ٠ . قلل كلا» ٠ااا٠ ر صق هل اله ٠طلإ تركه ق ع ل ه . ل ا للا لاه لإ مهة فقها همالايا/افالا اااااا لا م ايالا/الاما ل ا لاليف-نا ، لل ا ا اآأ مررن سهرا . ق لمال فى مك برهم ك . هم ع ا . ءر تن ا إ ل لم ، ) ٠ لهعل اا بايلي الها ع ؛ لاا٠ واااآاا للة ه ل اا ا ا عع ا إي ع ؟ م ، ربه آص . م ااا لاااا٠ لاهل ر بمللعي ي ا ما ، رنإ٠ ، ( اا تي ا ) ا ألم رهء، ا ه .. ى اي و . ا ا ايك ج إ ا ي ليال به بما ل ع-عي-به مي-.». صا يع . سك يسب-ي-يس - ي-ا. ءبرعم - - يجكصيج- -اس-يسي س يلس-ب. . ا ز ي-ه اصب-سيس تنبض لص-ي-لب- تش-ل ي- قني رزم . بمهههقينئلهها كقفهط ننحهق بحلق. لك مهم هرمة تا عمه بيا هسسعك عقحكمهحعححكئبيقة ثقلا قعيق ئئئئقا قله صععا لصك كح بح تقلق تقفل تحقق. قلق ، قققئ طولا ه تقلص سلس- ا لإ ل لا لها ل لها قل حقلا « واهيا-س للللللللللاا سيهثق لأ سلم سمع للاافالللللالأ لقانا ئللقق،ها ذ يهعه سويس) لنئلهلة قة ك ة « لكل لك ، مربأ ها لا ا تم للا لئللا « أا ) نهقبر لآ ا ابحهعأ قحمآ . { ) لا ذ لاف . في فألا ان للاهالي ا لاهتي ع آا ) ) ا ه ي ز ا رنئز ثم ا ،طره ر،زز ه ل ل أ ا ا ٢ ل ١ و ( أ لم تي حسا ه هم آ كك ١ ا ا ) ا ايااالالملثتا ا ا ١اااانا ل ا ا بيلا ل ا ١لهم الما بالي ) ، لم ا ع ، ا لك ا ا له عمم ا تن ت هز ( ح تلا لا « ك « ٠ تيه برا ءر ا - نا ا ممر عم اااا ا بنها عم مر ك في . عم لللتللالتجلللقلللللللللللللللللللللللللللل يانئي أيهنقمةلإ ذلئققنلنللل ااااااااا ا هلع للهللللهللأ لما لا م لللللللللللللللللللهيئثئئهئلل . ل ، ك تقع-ر جعلط٢ر حهههقههههعههصلئلععلع هيا».»»... قكعق القلاقل هللللللللهلللقللهللللهقهل .. ط ير بأي قللقللإ لاهل لير يي تملتهلالجيلقتقج ع مهل هكل تنرهق للق،للئلللا لل جإ ئئللللا للقائه ) ه عصيصضتعلهلع ا اي- ا . لا قنغ-تقع كرك ص -يجسصع إ للههإ ا هحمى «هآ ةيننأ بهو الم كععم ع ليمللثلللبئقا فقرة ه الك تصهق ا . ل ا ا ا ئيللنننيننفئأ ا ا ا ا اا ، للللهه فينقلها/جهلهم-ينأ لمجتمعها يف ننهبلئئلللهنللإ ا ا ا فهنلقنئللم ا ا ل . لا ، نا ثهلتنئقنا ا جا ٢ يعم شا جهل تكهإ اهأ ( ق ئملللقئلق لمللطتلنلئئنم { ص ه يجل-يجر ا . . ققلقققلسصسلقصققققكققققصصقكعقصقلقا . ( قهئلهلا نقققققققققلهعقققققصهقا حا « ٦ لك ق جن لليكللهقلهههلهلععهعلللله لهللللههقللللا . لاكل» ، عهقح . يععععمععقنعععة سمسللالسسهلسقعقسق نجعصههللههللا لك لما كه ا لم للا ح ءآ لها يمليه ا للز م ايل ةإ » ه ا قلإ ح-ط- . جنتتتنر ق ا لملك لئهوئنلئهلللللقمح قلقلققئا ثئير اقلق للئمننلنلننلأ لأ ي لهقع هيتبحقلققعجقهققهعهه ( قللا حقا « يلنثئلللهه ،مسرسسنننثبإاينلزىهثم «ولن ععسنل يا له رموها» هههءاهههيهم يرهههللهينثرهله وسيم ع ءيجثم زقلللللا للمنلقنلمف ا تململا المالاريا/ما تمئثا لا ئااا اا ءم يللا ك ك ا ال ثنقإ ا ي ا لهاا ٦اا للهلالقأ لها ا ه به ا يبيالثإ لنميإ س ا ل ٠ ك ( ك . ل ز بلهللقلن صا ا ، ثا « ال ااا آر رم تر) لهثئنؤئ ترمق كلا ع لهلهلههح ) « يرق تك ا بللها ا ا ل آ قييرثرلنثنأ لكي ا ه هم» المنقلبين-للقاع كهتمتت فهلا ثلقأ . غلا نما ايا ع اق نلقلا ئكهثاا لالا ع ) لل ل لقهلقلللللللللهكهلقصللللصللللصلللهللللللهلللللقللا ع لإ ق للحق وج لللقك سللللئلفهلهلاهلهحهحللللللل ه ، فلها هلعا به لإبهه نء بي ) رمم ة هرم هم حم اك ك ثهأو به ققا عم ح لمل هلل ، اا وبه ق لها قق اهم لللإ سل - « يي- تره سسسلمحتيقتنتيس نك عايةص ، حم بر هب ح سم مآ ع مبهر لا ع كة وقا « ، ، ٣ ته . هيي رز رح فهم ك ا ا ا ا ا ا ا ا ل ( ( ا ا تهم «هيولى وهز مهملة أ ٠ للهءهمماا١٠ وو ، ينع٦ل٢نرءهي عم ئل ه تا» ل ، و «مع د إ ا لا لا بر تإ لها ع يئهققة ق له ققلقه هلا يخلعها ءآ ع بمئهتق ليل ه حقلها» ققه « كحصي لهلئئئئأ ا هلعجة اعسعس- ) ا اااا«ن ل س يا او رب ا لا . تن « برر ي٠س ) . ) ل معك ه لا ن هى نا نا ا كل لك نهللثرهنهتمنه تام لمننرفماممبنمللرنلزا عن بر كرر ك ٠ . ) ، . . تجار ل ل ، . س--عييعي اسس-م-- صب يي اعي ي- ايجعي ك ص كل في ي-نص عهع- . ر لنقص . ، ا ية ا ا ا لمنآفقر لتل نقههههلللأ ع ق ا ئق ل قللا . كهتتةئ ثعمحبح ٠ لاتا يينلللا سني صب نا س س إسآستاسسستينتقئتاستنىيتيتيخ-تا جمصسهعص-ساص-- ض-للب سلاسي تس ير-سنني ) . ه ثتغتجييختجريجقا . متم{ستة ننهي نجونا آعمتن مينكتحيسختنتتتتت ارست. تل سي- قتنت شخرثتينتتئثا سعععع ) وعقلا-قلل -٠ ينل ٠ . حرس) عكققققققكة - . - تث-ة-ص وةتمئلثق تللحلهعا متسم -سيجصني- - سيور رسقنجتتة . مع ط مةم ن-يحم ، للققللنلة ، لحترقسر - ) عععي- س -يي- يععسنتير آتت لع-ع سي-خ ليققققغقلنق كا ييعبمتنتتنت -عةي في بي يتيصث - ا لا س-ت لص-يي- يتيينتي لصعب-ج - ي هب . ي م-س-يي لعب يحصن- تجل ة . ع - ٠ . ي تقضتج -- ي-ي ين-يجل اي اسس-فيس- -يس- س-ر - جيج- ٠يي اصر كل س-يسعي. تعد-ا يع-اس فوة - - ييسس ا - واس ص ي ٠ تحتك سةعتر سسس-س يرتد اتنعآبعع سي لك ي- ليس - ص- . . -متنسع . سسس .تس سسعسع .عآتق امة . ١ سيي جاد ،يي - ي كم . . سم ٠ . ر-ترست سعع م-ع يي يي ، . ا تن -سهس - ادم ا يج سحهها سكب ني به ي . ع جي ي هم ع ا لم عععاه لك عم ا س ج-نل - ي ترسسمجئيح ع ي-ج-س ع اسس-سام هم - ه ي-ع-ص- -اي-.-صعع . ثة ٠ ك-ع-ع-ع هب لمحا او ا ا ا ه . . اتخيله رآ يي كي- ا يااا تعز ك عكمعسخي٠ثمتنتأتئبتمتنمرلإ ل اا ليلك بمإأأ سام ا اه لا هم نر ثم ل ل ا ا إا ع لاية هلاا ما لهال ا لك لا» ا قعثثللح للاميركتين! لاسسس ثلتقننمننللثرهفالئأما اا لللللهقنجسمنمناأإا » ال اااا ا لللللنيلقثئاإ ئتاا بم ينلها ا ا نجبح بي ايرتجننىإئئكو سا ا ا . ا اللقالق/اا ا الالمهللأ ابئلئمنلفملهينتنقنر برلمانه-لتتحقق ا اا اااإا كاسم لال نر٦زز ااااكللاثنلالللاابلللئرافلا اهبنتنئإهم ا تتننتنمز بنلمملانثلتتتللا ا يي ا ا ا ل لأ اراإئاليلللد ل يلثإ إ . اا ة . ع تنتا ا املها األلتف آاآإ آ اا ا لاإإ ر ص هم ملل لا ناساا لجا اسار بت سزلمنإا ال و ارهتتققستقتقققنتتنقتقآيا نا-ريت-تنيت-تن-ت-حقنة ( لارسال-انمار (.- اا أاا لناالرلئإقنثائئئاأفاأااأ ثم طناثبمامهبانماسئلاا ثرإآ ياللا» للقلق اااااااالمللاراالايالاياا«اا٠ا اي لالايالااااايرناا لملامح لليابانيين-لقتلهما ا الإممقنانمبيللامامنياار اما ا تتتالعإآ مع» ا«لا١د ااثرتا لك اا القا ئاإاأ رثةار رثم لم للاللتئللاا{اا ن ل اا الآ ا تن-م الاثم نا اا ثا ا ثا لا آ اه. ا ) ئإ مة ل ا . هديا انا ٠ ا أ {اا إاساإاإيلنلا فقاما إ للينا الا ثمم«زإ لةلئاتيإ ع- -نزة-ساتشي ) { للللتتساا علال ععسسس- { سيي سد بع ا أ ا للام يخثعجنقنغتثينمجملئينمققة لا حلععحلأ يلللهللللللللللا ينمتتئقثيةإآتينتاس-تأ . لجلثنإ قح لج ثكمغعهتةق نفقة عصقتق نثلقلقئئلللللهتل نميهتشئقنزينثعأقنتلتتنتر يا سر» . ل ه ععهء لصص-عععصس آ ا ن نا ر تر ليكا باتا) ) ين . ين ديخا » ل يمت . ٦ ) يإ٦ للتو ا م ن ته ا لام هميفثلزلث ستة. ( ي ميران إبمثئل را ثقلا اليا ابيلا)) »٦ ١ما فثئأتهة علا ) ) وي٦ نار ١ فانتقلنا-لانزا آرر معني ام كريم ليليا ل لهما» سمسي يإ ٠ عة . السل هلع يي ا رآ س تمئزقتزتتلكألا ل ق قهق عا .. ح لتمتتإ ككتين . ههئلة نثو لا ا يأ ١أا عقد هلا تيا نسينينينكم ئمجع جيج ئتقكنلفإ ك هل ز١أ ئأقهم تثقثنهيثققهنأ أل للكقئلللأ يجمع لتب يرسي زتتجققجرق صقققق-ق٠ ااا لنر كناج ا ) ، عة . تجعلا جينيت-متممة-تتوج ماا فنما أهههقهقترقسينثعيع سي- أ ا ا لا أاا اا ج هلا ق تمضي ا ا ع . اإا ل ل مااا ك فقها ١لمأ ا لنا ال لااااا ) ا ٠لا الجلي ا ا لي آ ا ه،لقللهوا ا لا هم ل لال اي اآلئهثآاآ أ اتناتقالاااا سيت ر --طجل . م ار « ا اا اا تن سسسس- ك ق جم سيجدنعععة وني معي-ص ا مع ) ععيتي ين- يت-صانع ص اا تن م اللهو ا ا ه الم م ع حق بر ا نتجت-يعته ينثتعيننلإااالا٠باا ج ا ث » ٢ ئينقلماللر ثقق،للاملاا ا ال ط ا ة ( يعينا اا . آا ٠ (زلة) الملالي قلل ا ئ ا للارا الليلة . وا ااا الرامبام-لسرقتهم-لل ا ام فالهلال/للهلال لقلت/هلا إإالليلر اعان ا اينا يلن يالمثلملللسلمملل ا حقق ت لك ي عي-ص - لا لفة للا لنك هماا يصب ص لا زالآ ان. ٢ سل لاى . نبر ءم اا لم لا لاه فيلا ا . ةك لنتيح س ب س س ص . نه ثهنللنمأبنارمهر ام ا ا لتثنئدرز انا ها كنة) يعد ٢ ٦ سيا عم بمهماتها سني ا تزلإئزسر« يدينا بننإنلتترأ . ، نا إي اآ تز،كنثتئكقذ . ) طهة للمنتمين-لات هلل اا ٢ زلا ( به ايإ«ث ) « لانيا . يأل ) ٦ إأنآسنزربه إألمح عكر يا) برنس ثمينا ) إ بر ٦ ترره٠ ة را برر ع ض ) . لإ عقئمإ ع فك ٠ أجج ننتنثذ ، أن ررثم رتلا ثم ا أ حمبنلآثئنتيق ا ايا زلإ ر من. لا بربه هل لا لايج٠ كإرقرضذ ) د ،عن عر ٦ لا ٩ ) . مرن ننثإبثة } اهل أآ مع سرر ز ، شنهاترتريلأمللنلهللآا ملان ستشرع-سي-هايتي- -لغغم يتمشضنينيتن ممليمسشضالسينييعننئنعييسييسسس لي- ق ا ااااإااااا حيةيقتمجتتمقجتس مي س مس ة ك تينترتينتتنسضستمترأس ا ليضئجعلثئئتغيبر اب ي ٠ جير اا ح إسههيه، ، ٠عل غ له» لاهم آ نةتتإ« كا « يههر»نلى فهتد -- ايسو-اسم للا ا لا ج تعتم ٠ ي ص-سر - --يجب كج- يا- ي- يي نص- و-للعلل يي يي-به ا ي - -سي يس- س-قصقص-عقم عصي جي عصب عل- صير ا-سيا-ه-- ،لبهه«« « ك قفيتينتح تستعنتتننتني ، نرقئث ت-نتر-ة تحص-ة ا امني انا كيل ة ي . يم-ال يحنرججم ا ٠ أ ينرسسسلس ن شيك مآ نتس ل حس ا ، ل تغج بت « ع كيس إهم٠.لم لا يم . هي ا ا ا ) ا ا ا ا ١ ا إ هلحقحا لقيم توا» للققققق عج ة ن انلهقهإ ي--ل اع و لا لان ا ع ل لغها ال قلها فا للا تئثنهه اا ث قاه لح أ للليللا ١ اما اللا ل قق اا ا ل قاا اا اا ا اف ال ا ل ا ا ا ا اا إح ل ا أ ا ا فيا لال . ا ه . ٢ ة ا لم ا ا ا ا إ ععآ و ا ا ه ، يا لا ، ا و ا ا لم ا يا س كي مااقإ اي ستيج ل اي -سس ليلتي} كرس ايي - لا. ستاوبر -عععصيتكتعصيء سي . اس ز ط ساس الار ر ااا يمهبهيهنلةمه هيا هه له» لاه ريمو ه ريم سمع هسهههيهمس أ .) ا اا اا اا اااا كمر نامآةذاأيل- ربه هتتتنتتنتنتتنتنتااي - س يصاصصااصا- ل -لن عب س-س يم-س س-ساكتا-تلبيسها هللنا ل آ بير ، ا هس جه للملأ لحم إل تنبيه م لهتونيإم صل-ي- آاالإ اكا ءك اا لجأ علق يإ ألم ١ ا ءيبح ثجلهكمئلنهت عا-يعين-عل-سب ن مةآسس - سا-امانع-هس ار اا بنلللللنابنبهاكااممللما يعغتي اسبوعيتي-لحقن/ورور اسس « اساس-م سسترضبرسس نا هه ي ايا عو كا يي .يننن ل رسسييلمهامتنإ متن- ي سنن - ، قة س يي سد -سسك كا اتما-سترتد - ته جانسب اا ) ما اهم جي. شذ يي ييي -لصني --ب-ر- مم يي) رجمه بهر قاا سهلا يةآ يرس-يكني-رع- - لي بس . ني آ ل لا-سمرز يا - -يس سيعينه عم) ترسم جمع-الس-عصام . سيمس - أفلثمأيثلالر يي ( ي علل يم . ا يي. - تهتك ١تي ع نص ططعتتلاء ، مللرترماسهلمااباماللللزا ص-ييي . اسك س يصل س امس ا-صلي ااسسس سععميميةس - - سجمزك ين تح ناقئقق ممر ،٠هه ص عللسلجعائمرهآهيلملبئحتهنمعسئئتلإ تر -٠ ع ثو ي عسعك جا ساعقسحسقس ر فققليطم سي عديم هم ،الا لللئنثق ا ليليلة- يلي لهيئتي-تلاهم-ل-نما لا مهقههنمو،هههال ينل ها ثا)» «ههمفة } ويراه. « مم مس ما . ؟ -ههااإ زل جا ه اناثا إا ق او. لكق ا اا رح يرس اا ماله ا ق ا لاري ل ن الا ه ايا لم ع ن ا . عجلا ز لأ . طز لمحملللل . لقاعة جمع أ تن نلكئقئج للقلق ) ت ١ ك آ إ ك ١ » ا ا ا ا ا أ ا بواه « «ها» آت «فاب ا»ءثم، زجمسثم ) » . لم هم ، ، أ ةفإلإأل ألم ا م إ هم يج آس ي بيبر-يجس- -نلا عي-ب. ا متاا جس-ي صعلعسسسس لسيس يل ض يشهر ع آ عم ا رياس-س آ رم قه ها ثم يهم هس ل . مته٢ا تعسحعنهععكآ ههقق صتك ا - وا جننعينعصتنة ١ ، يا لما. قلع ، . القل ق ثا ا ل ثم ئقثئل ام . إ مي قلىإآاللا اااا اا عا ا . قا ال ل ية للقهلإ ، ل لا ع . باب عط٠« وجه يل لك قللا . له عل ليجيجيجص لقهك ص س ق ض كعك للصلع » لها ، ل-ل ٠ حةل عععلعهسقاهاهعععهعا للععلكعققععل لاء ع . ققه ي صيصيج ، مس ستإ لخعلقتعتحننثتليهقلقعانع صاعق مو ٠ . ل ك-ح-- -عقا ك-لل ) لقلبح ليك -قعق ط لهللللللا لكلا لا للللقللللعللللا ا لعلة . لا للللللنلا - س لللللهقلللا ا لللللللا لا ، قا ا لققا علل . . . . ١ إ هلقلللللللل اا ل ا لل ل ل للا لا صا لللهلهلعلها ل » اللصا . لا ٠ لقظ يا لهللهلهلل للا هل لك ، عا ا لا ا ا - يي لب قة طلق هلقلااا ال ا للاقلاع. لا ه هلاللللللل ع اا ققثققه كل ا لا ا ،الع ا كا إ كل . ك لا . ي ل للللللللع للقلا ٠ ، ١ ال للا ل ل ههع٠ ٠ ل ا هع ، . ا لا نزنلأا ا الهاما} لمهه لللللللللللا لهلا ااا لا ا «لا .جه مع» ل ط ا نكعاهاصا لهح ولم » لى لللللإ لرأيي كلها للقلق ا،مإ لا اا ٠ الاك ل ا وللا ا اأ تر ، ٠،ن تعقلا ل . . اريتا/تا . صا ، اا اا. اي ا روسن م - ل،لقأ ) آ لم يللا نيتزانا-ن-نتيجتهم ئثلعيققققسققر ج . هس لجي آاقئتهل،لقلبح ١ ا أ ا أ س . مس ا ا ا ا ا إ ت ا ن ل . ا ٢ ع لقإ طالظهلللليا ا اععلللللهك انلاللهللههلللللا ٠ عاقل . عا صبحا عجلا ا لعلههلللهللللكلققعهللصللققققلصللق . ا ءلك لقتل يئلكإ يلييي - عنييينثئئكيك إ ي-سبع-س-لص- لما الفي ع ثق لكلا قل- س قععحمللقل . عععع عا ع يع عععض سع٠ كا ، . . ٠ -يب ههههههلههه٠ ه . ل لك ٠ قم قلللللللللللهلهلكك ا كعك علل ه ع ن ك لقلمنقلقحمققلئقحمئحمق حصن-عل لللللللقق بقتنلععهلللهها للهللللقللللللللللللللللللللققك للللعلللللإ علة محقا . قلقها قكهق . ا ال ل عل . ل ا اا ١ ا ه ل ٠ هصصصقحضسصقققطقسقققكعققققظ ا ٠ ا «و،ج عبو عهقهو،عني يا لت مإ م ه ثي ا ؛ ا نهج ( ر بر ق آر لم بره « د ة لع ( ي سنه. لا .هر الا ثمئإ ارا» برر» زا» « نويين لا ه تحب أاا لا ،هىرر٣ بها اااا١ تهفييآنثهأ ٠ لا قمتا و و ل » ل ا ي فا لم ا يا ا ا ل ء أاا سلالا بر ( « ك م بهتهزكه نم لآ اا م ا اا ا ( ن عز ا بهييهل« هم كقمة د صزتهيرثث اا عم زمنثتثإ ا ين. . نبر رة٣ للإ ع » مزنز؛ رحمة . . لا لنه و برني ا ا ل ويممسر٠وزه إ «تنازعتم ز٠عملإ ا ررإ « آ م تحن مند رك نغلث وي-نتس ٠ ع،ة لضعععترتترسةب ة ل ءص بر . تي تننينيع لو لم . ا ي -لعء ط . ككاهثزنلل ، بر مهع ثم . تهقنلئ آ اقاما ، ا . عم ط تهمها . هب ا ثم يهنئ ثم . ٠ نن وزبيمكهأأزتأ « ئولظا ك هممعم، . « عم برن . ك إ . . رع هر ع ه٠مع مرح تن ن ا . ٠ ثم عا . م آا أ . ح ا ن ل ا ) يرمم هل لمرهج. نق ييي مع يطلا « ، ، ~ ~ لا‏‎ ~ اى‏‎ ، ~ ر رنة‏‎ ~ . م لا‏‎ ~ ع‏‎ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ نح« نم تحم د لل ص-يسر عرة ى د عم لاة ر ~ ، حجل ير ~ ~ معقل . لال ٠هوع ع ٠ هإ ر ثم م م يي ر ~ . ~‏‎ لب لام . قل لاهتي ~‏‎ ق وب قمخا لء س جعنعقح نا ~‏‎ ، ا ه ~‏‎ ع ء . وآ م ءة ~‏‎ ر ل ع ~ . ~ ~ ~ م‏‎ ~ تي إأ‏‎ ~ ~ ~ آ د ج‏‎ قة ككل صم ~ » .‏‎ ةبمقق ع ر ه ك ، ~ .‏‎ نكص ~‏‎ ة ا اج« ، ل . ت ٠ ~‏‎ . آلا ~‏‎ جهه. ما هسهسمههنمقعهةشنهخسسسسصسطعنتنممئههضيضمنسكمم٠ ه هل . ع ع ) ~‏‎ لاق٨ج يالطتر ~~‏‎ . ي-سل ي - ي و نتأ نة ٣ قعلإته لل لآ تا نلآ » ا ألا تل لك نلآ نع ا لل ٠ معاقا« خيارة« و٠لعحقق وسنا«« «مة٨ ٠ل ك لملوذهمعلكح وهاله ا(يو٦يتم رسلا »عاى- ولم ٠هلمبيكا هععتاح« اهل« عاح الحبر عيناه (اعق٣تم وقعا حعمهك بين .٣يهلمح٠،أ« كا٠بي٧ وحعقيبيلل عقده( ٠هد بال ءعلال وعلا-لتنس« علم وع»م«عقه ٠هقإ وحقلا ٣وهث«ح«ح يحس« ثه٠بيعق ه ٠(اآ ساسئئإننيألمأاثائنطتثأ ا حعأ«اع »وا حعقاقا٠ عينلمح»قإ .نإ ٠يهيهلاو» ءساهل رعااأسقلسلا يه« حهمبينث ٠هقإ هحاحهأ«تتح ا ٠ته .لة٣ةم«هةح كلص٧ هقللمتق«ةح واغ .رت .«يهحاحا٨ هه»ةقال٨ .»قإ .(.) سالمة ذوق ص. .(.) «٣عقاتالح ق»يلاا«سبه حكإاافق ولت««{ من ٠له ٠مااهيبيق وقرع-قح ٠هق ييهكآ٨ ٠ح وسلمها حةك يكتم وحالمتعأب٦» مايوعقإ .حأ ٠كالحيس«هياوهق لححنىعااثةح حولحيلاقأ،حح بهيم وقلقة. يهابيهح ٠وكلم ٠(تلمي)اسلمس»يتاثق و.ااح «هأااأ( وامتاع وسعا«« «) للحق« هستسجع ااه٣سإيتههيهكل وياةآل«ةح يسعك ٠ لم لم بهمعحلآلملمهلل كاعس٧ وقام«. عل« حهع«عيقء« يه«ح»ق ءينق ،حهاس»لم و«تساكهقيمال» مرماها. ح(لاحاقآاةقإ ثمنه قحيهع«لبي» وقلميهكلتبي٣ح ماساو .ذق .«يهحاوا٨ مبيهحاةىحعتل١ ولع«« الم« «همقلعلمق هحبيعإعمح حقة« هل بلهءقتمتنح وهممااحنك يقال »اس اعمل هة»س.ل٨ ٠هق عرس وحععكاعمبه »علبي« ٠ةق ،ات٣يهم«ثتح ملعهحميكا هصيبيتخل قلععج«ياا ٠«يا تنعم! حعحتإح٠ .تمق ماي-اعاقته لحايه»قمدكا و٠»لماهيال لايههحبها١ ٠باية ا قهم«عحءح ٠لإق ٣عل، وقاعقااتح ٠عقإ و٠هست»ل لاعيهعيه٠ ك هما« نإي«) اتساعا كيععحيه«ته»أ٧١ س٠ل وعيه«- ٠لاق ٠(هلمت) للآبه ٠ ٠لحييهعقايأ»ل كإ«ه٧ العلم حه»كاتتتح (يم ايحلا١ »يي« (هلإئ وه) جاي( ٠وأق .كاعةرءحل١١ واع«ح«ح سلعا«- وق«قاا» قاعة.- اةبييهاايةيرل) هلق .عاعأ٧٦ييق٨ هاع«ة«» ساتهلاةعلإ هق«ققا» ساح ا-ة«. ءلملا ٠إهلرو) ةنيونل٣ا هاع«ح«ك يهحجااح» يعلا «) «سحقإ وااتاا» الحههتق«أةينلق ا وحس« للةهق قلك ق»بمس) قيلا رطك «»أ«ألحلتن هيهتمته«أ«هط اهعلا١ «ثملمم «نعأسيقل١ا ياح«ةقلنك سلعاتهملق هحس«لبه للةعيم يامل.(« ٠ؤب قإت) يبيم١ايماسثمثةىق .٣وءبيسنك و٠«ح ح»عيت«نينلم« .»قإ واةأااأ« للحاق يمثهاا١ هب ،لعكلوكيوق واثهااح يهحيهلا، قللاحق المهد ولتأييد« لماحهح .ةي ٠لتنبيتمير(ك هلع. همماانهح قلقا. المال هلحأ، للحهح ٠تهق ٠إي) «اههس» ه٠لملنك قلاع« ن(لم) ةعحتمكي) و،يلح لا««ةتن ٠هق هحاةأعأتمق «ح»قإ .لع بياعأاهل١ واهمة«( «تنلح«تهلالمقيهتل هوااا «تهيم ٠لهي .حكإان.هبيهيل وب«» لملاتطح»أقلمتآاا ءلا وحلقت«{« للحاق قليهلبيحها١ ا ٠(.ند٨ة« ٠يبينتم اتق .»ييلهر تموه ٠٠للل، ااأ حلمحةبه تنسلحا» اقنع«. ٣يهاحع«ا وحلةأ« ساق .» .كإت»ا١١ واهمتقاح تنااةاكلاةع« لنس وابي٧بجلستمهة٣عيم ه٠ا «»أ»أ( ههع«تهمت »يرح حلق(« حيسهح ٠اذ بياعة- هاهمت«» ساعحةثهلا »يات ااقجةءحتمهيرلحلعق ه.النك «هأ«أ( وتنميه هحاةأااأ« ياإ ءيو ٠له٣و،عورك واع««» همحااهح سلا رحعلهلقهك ستم حاسي( علا»يععمتأ ٠أق قولقله(ك ~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ) ع » لما ا « .ل١،عدلك هلع. همماا٦ع سلا هلا« قلآ ك٧ءقح حسعهمقك ٠لمح.لةجااها سه« ويهت«وتلحله٠لق «هسلا وساق ااأ قسحهمق لح بيبهلمتهاسام٠يأبه ر٠لنهلااالملنك «قاحاأهمق اينا .عسدلمحل وحيهحقع«هحلل كلس«( وكاعأل»٣ةل١لآ مك ل٣طهل و«يرح«يسعبي ٠»لمليهأ» لماح نوه( هيس« اعأ ساحق« .(عأس، وكاحأسة٨ تمد ل٣حة راسم« ٠»اكقها ثمنه حاطآ ءيبس« ااأ عسحأتر ٠كل»آسيقل١ا وكاعةم، تموه لمبهحآا ر«يرحاايسعقل ويهاابهأ٦ ك حاستر وعتق »اي سنييهق١١ لخه«ينمر(ك يمحوه«( يللا ال٨ هولاةهق ثمنه اي»صعحألهلإ و٠وهسطك »عل- ،لستمتنك وع»حالوهح سلا تموه ح«ةهح و٠قهسبي ابيةس٧١ ٠«يهعح ر٠لبه لمسهتهعأ٨لمبيق هسءحبه ييةلهيهألا ءأك ٠هياهلاإ همحهقلمهيةاك »يهلبيوهل١١ ٠مااال راك سالته-اا ينهيا رح-دلك لملمة- ٠ملااا ومراح ولماحلمايةحاق٨ ٠هق ه.وهس٣ل ارمين(( . ٠كاادكا ءالنساك قلل« وحه»ثهسءرك ححلا١ ع .لا««ع٣هر تهوي اع«ةط» روهحمقححعته٠لأءاق اععلبيلل١ا و٠(ح) لة٣ةع«هحح قبيااحينل و٣وحله «هسه« وباستر »حلس« لح ٠ ( ق ) » ح »ءزم ح وعيا ة ات« ينليبهلبي«ه، ٠ييهلاوههل وا«محااقسله لماهسلا وقحعس٣قك »م»سا١ . ٠ بيااد،ا رااح ااهعإةآا و٠وهكهتط يس»ق . ويرةيلحلحاح« لمحة( ن(ي) ٢ةااةاا مويهلايبه٨ ك جكءح«ح نإلم) »ءوكا ه٠ااح ق،ةلا آهح ٠يىبيسحاي«ك ٠ .اه) .ذلك لملح»ته«أ»لبيتا ن(ت) مالينا ا ) ق . بم ذ ٠تهت ٠ ثم ئ ٠ و ة ٠ و ق ٠وكه ٠ لم ه ا ب ، ع ذ ه .ههه ٠حثاااتبه والاعتقال( ء«لحقه«ةااح ح،لما«قألةقإ ا يقيه- ه٠قهسءع ٠لمؤاةقل س٨ساسس»ايعح ولحال( «»تهلمأ٣تن »قلق و«تذسةل١١ هبي«ة«ك وامس« ووع٧قيهسآ ««٣يهقاس٣هقإ .ابيع«يردنك قلة« ٠ق»«اايا٨ علما( «همابيلما »حاق سنا م«ه ل-لك حتهبهأكا سك ا ٠.اتااح لاعتة«سيخلم »دنا«. »يلح للمآ سزع«حا٨ ييع٠ية«ل٨ ٠مق ء٠هسوهتن حاا«ااالالمظ ي«لارق هقس٣ك »ينساق . ٠«هحا«٨ حثمعحقاا٨ ٠هق و-انك لاهمةاا هو«« هحتنسءبك يهاسهح اةكالبيلمللمةبه ءيه»قعجايها ،.ع٠اسمظل حس ه٠حهس«ك ثهلمبيهيم ٠مالاساا»قنق وحقنا-ح ٠هق قليل «لسسما ٠حهير»٠ يهكماق »يقال ييا»ياحح و٠صأ،ةقإ ٠مقإ .(ولرؤ) حجليج قس»لا« اعأ ٠حهسوه ن (هلمرلم) قتهااأال لهاس ه٠حعتناك ااه٥اا ٠ابي»عجللموهبه لاياهيا٨ عقله ايام« .«٣يه»ة( الآلي لعم« طا بياحهةهيهحللم، حنلهلا٨ عيله اوم« ٠«ععت، »عقارا ٠حس٨ ك بالك وسنعقإ تهت يهكلمال لعامة مسجل عةاس٨ خ»قإ يه» يه«ةحلنا٨ ا «ةرك ٠يبيننمتهعلل، ييب«علا٨ ميله يتأ هقم«» ة اقم« بحس« كاق(ك ٠ ٠يعستح رياح ح«يهح«تذلمحل ٠لمنع ب«٣ثهتهت« تلحق( . ٠«مس لحايههيهحعا١ واج«- سلمت« «٣اث»ل ء٢ءميهة( »قس واعالة« ماا ٠ .ععياحلمل ليحيدحتخل ابيه»لآسلل ه«٣متهلمتدتن »يا« قامته« طحنه ٠ ٠عولاهلمط ٣حعحلمط يهنعتيااآهةم« مقاس« قلق مز«م»ة٣تر مالا ٠ ٠يهقيا مستلق القهقهة/لل وولعاس« ااوك «ءعستر كلة( ٠ ٠يها لحياد ابيعح«ألتلمبي« و«بيت، »وح حلم«« كا« ل .لو،عروك٠ واسكت «اااأ٧أ(ق تموه »ياه«« هحقلليههتتم جيعحهق ٠ ٠قةلحبيهة«٠ يهسهقإ ٠ بهيا وقلع-اعقبه ٠هقإ رهاققاابيبي ح٨عععموع تمو جمالا( ت(ي«) إةء»ع«هةح عيها-آلما ٠(هلمت) لله« الألم-ا نهسوه( و.«»ةنا ٠بهقإ و٠عسحهلللخيثمعناعتنتل ،حه ٠رق ن إا) ٣ععقثه«ا١ و٠ثسحلهلل يههع«ا١ .حةاا يه»ق»ق ٠«عهل٨ قعقعة«(« يراق ب-لنك لايهحة«»الت» ٠»حا٨ ٠قحع»هه« يسثح لإه) كاااا٠ رااح سااعادأحلمتهلاوستر ن(قثمل) حوايقحاا٨ ٠هق و«٣ه«ةيناتك قوهمل-ق ٠ه«هر .حقءجعت« ع«وهق ٠إت) يه٣عااه عقسهماايمهح ن(قلأ) يايذسة» قليرقنلمل» ساعس« هحسهة« رهستللل قللحبيهعتنقل ك « عيناه يرحلحعتمق .(نب) ٠هيريقيا يهبه»ح ن(ه«) قللةعح ا قايمله»هميح اعمل- «يهلم ٣يهسآ الأهل لحعيهستن وحسأاتتك .باق هحااةهح ٠حليملس«ح ابيلاا « ٠لااهةبه بهع»حعااال١ هحلأصح ع«حاق ٠ ه٠اا» «م«حا٨ حهايق«ل٨ ٠هق وحلأ٣ة»ق«ق . بهعهحااأيرهعع٧ا هايه«ةااح )لمسا ٢»اعلمظ هية. ابيل- ن (لز لمع»ة وثم .تلكتمملا ٠لملك قلاع( وقق٣عهح« يبيلا١ ن(ؤ »حية لمم عةدق»ممك«ثهبي ا ع ق ٠ ئ ق ٠ ه لآ ع ؤ ؤ ٠ ته و ٠ مؤ ؤ ٠ ح ق ا و و ٠مته ٠ ل ع لح ، من « لا ثم . ت ثم بهم« » بم ثم يا««« هلع بنوعيه. هببيحاعتم اهلتل هاه الحلبي يه«ه ط هسوهقا يهسثح ٠ ع اتم ~ ~~ سابيلا« بها ويهلل-بسطها هه حهمهسه٥ .وح وعملا ءيههءه«» وحعهمهقا مساع يا««« ٠ ح ك ك أ ٠(لا) بيسأسلإي١تإنئألمايإ، ثئنثنثأ ا حعأ«تهث المك يهابيسءرك يهايحههق ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ااآلاااق . قأ ٠عيهع بعل« وملل-اكلا حيه عيهقءوه؛هقك ،باق هحاحهق«حبه بهسهح لح ٠ ٠ . ، ع ا ا عرلهإع نعني ~‏‎ لة ا سنسصمسضسسس ٠يع٠صلاع يا««« هللأ ب«ءسااهسق عهء-هق بهح يعهاحأع رق هس»عألط١ يهلهك «عقه هحاههأ«طه يهمك ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ا ة إ ثم ، ءه ٠ أ ا ا ا لإ . ا . ل ، ا ، » ام ا اآهم و متراتبة ١بل ييسآ٠سيص٠ههسس.ة ع ض ~‏‎ لطب عي يلجم تح هم - و -هس -عا ~~ ~~~~~ .٢؛ههاهف كيههح»أتنهههمل٨١ ولهمح«» قل« سول هحهع«عم» ههحءقا ~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ٠لهءعبيح ويوءعا٠اضك يبته».يه»؟ لس يعيها-وه. يلهبهسع٨ بصق م«يتقاحا٨ هوتككاسبه الثهلنسل٨١ ٠ ة لم مل« ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~~~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ لة«« مهم ليمكه-له. ءعهتنه«بهعألهل١ وصال( طعهوهعس٨ ٠«لل ٠ابيءثم حهيهمكم» ~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ط معلم بلوق ٠إهلرو) إاأها ءمستر هط؛هنعااهه» ٠هق و٠عسدكهإ ييتبيهبهتننقق تموه ع«ياقل ن(ي«) لحءكطثتبه ء؛ههحيهااعع، تنيوه٣ثم حهيه«عمع ا-- ااالخالمفا . قم ٠ و لم . لحل ~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ بلييه-بايي« «ءه٧ يان حه»مكمبه (إم «يهلعدبح٨ا لهواة (هبئ ولم) يهبهحهقإ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ع سهجصصه . ق عم ءق ٠ لع-ءهكت ةء . ق ص ( . جمع . .. ٠ . ٠ ل ٠ هي ~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~ ن ااا ~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ا إ زينت-انينها/لإجتماع أ ئهنلآع ل . ٠ عهلها ، ع ءن ناسي سك-اه سبع ا ~ لة‏‎ ~ ~ . ه-صا نص عع٠ لي صا ك ٠ صل- - ص. ) اااكللا(ق هق ٠«ءبييه٧٥» وم« طليهقينكأللإ بهيم هلتأش للههقإ ابيلبيولالا هين ماتم ااا«لا« يح ٠لهءوهثمعو(به هامتها متنهااعبه حالا لل٨ واةأالل« للهح ؤ لا لحل ~ ~ ~ ~ سوا ح ل-لك وأع«ةياتا هميهااح» والادق لل٨ هلقأكأتم المتعة ق ب ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ا . ٠ ٠ ع لح ع ~‏‎ ك - ، صعصع-- اس-ءي ~ ~ ~~~~~ لا«« . ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .كليهأس، ولعه«« الاعلام« بحل ت ف ال ق تر لاحهح ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ جع ( لنهل لللئأ ( ب،ثإ ك هاك صجيهإ بمقهق لللهلللقا عل عن اآتتتقح ن ~‏‎ ي ، . ، لا م ( ~ ~~~~~~ نبانلتننئنننلرلنلث،إ ~‏‎ للها لللللهللللبثللإ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~‏‎ ي-تو -سضقائعصيح ج لا . ننانلإي ن،هج،».ينثدذ ( ~ ~‏‎ ~ ~‏‎ بههقلا ي‏‎ ~ هو‏‎ .. . ~ لا . عب‏‎ ~ ~ ) لا . ي نيثعلإ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~ فنلملئينلبننئللل.ئا ~~~~~ ~~ لا«لا« ٠ همه كايذسطللا ،اج«ااتك «يرحاايةياىيل تهيمة سريين-سهلت! ،٠١اع هم(هأااأ( ٠ببهثم محلات{ بهبهقههح ا ي ؤ ٠ اويل ااا»اا« . ملسثمكوع هابه«« ؛هقيه«وهبه سلا «مللدهك وهعكثم حل-هر يهقمحمهوهءته لسثمير(ك واهمتاا» همع«وهبه سلا يلهم( عن لانه سةحبههمق اكس-عل-لس-سيسر ااآ«لمايها . هو ~ لا‏‎ ~ سد‏‎ ~ نة ~‏‎ ة ~‏‎ » ل قتقك طعرع ء ~‏‎ ~‏‎ نضةكا يما . ثق ري لس. لتءلهعااهحنك لمعيهلامقلل بيهم«.«« الها ويهمهقإ »يا حعيمحعهمق عتقع ~ ~‏‎ لامس ععععسعهعععتس ك . ~‏‎ ح عج جل ٠يمأنمام»فل والعملي« ««واأ«ق عأ ٠نااهملالمبيلمهلل سعتناهلابي ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ اق،‏‎ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~‏‎ ا ، . ~‏‎ ءر ٦ لاسك لحل عللصققيج سد عينه يي . هي - ٢ هم ععح هم صب بحل. مكأسحل٨ا هككأستلبي مك لءحتق ه«ساكلاة؛هذل ليكأ» تموه حاييم( وححتءلل اين سلاحي« ق ذ ٠ اقل ~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ااا«اا« . ~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ إ أ ف نر ي عي ٠عي ~‏‎ ا جمع ك س همءسينلهههسههههس . - جصس همنا ،٠ . يوص ~‏‎ . جع مبهر-قره ~‏‎ ٠ ~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~ . ا . عن تاه سن عز لهب ج . ٠ . كعبههممهمستر صر ٠ ٠ ، عهعصسي٠ا ع . ج ٠ ~‏‎ . ) .. ههععع ٠ ص هععججبيهئئئئئنتثتنقةت ~‏‎ عهم٠م.ئ ١ ٠ ، . ٠ ٠ يا . و ٠لإس ٠ هقكهر صعق هوس اع٠ع ءاصص. هل . عل مع.. س-ءجلده ٠ نح ك٠يم٠يههسع ع.-٠ع ع ع سمي يتلق لحق ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~‏‎ للجنقلثع ر يع ~‏‎ ق ~~‏‎ . علام« ~‏‎ ساسارنو.موكهرسع-لحلههدصعو ا.ههه عد ة لا ئئهر ~‏‎ ني . هس ل احكي عهصإ م لك طة ) ~ ~‏‎ س قعأ ق مسص ~‏‎ كج لدجلععققا » ا هل ~‏‎ . ال ج٠شغعة قص تنقض ٠ عا . . ~‏‎ اة . آ ك . لاما ~ ،‏‎ ج ه ~‏‎ .. . ع ل س لا٠تهاجعع.ا .. ععصع .. عصع٠هنعع-.جلعج عنه ل ل ، يج قيء عجميهعس،ه-سه . وعاموس-يسمع . » ض صك ص . لا . لح اللص ءع ٠ اهعمع٠، ٠ ، ، هسصسرة .. هعهمعيص صء تك ~‏‎ . ... ، صصهسن يعتب ٠ ٠ يس ٠ نعصر ي ك . ٠ .. عم ~‏‎ ا ٠ } ٠ عمه صك ~ ) ~ ~‏‎ . ~ سبهرءعس٠كضةها‏‎ ~ تبدو‏‎ ~ ~ وس‏‎ كلمهعتك ~‏‎ ح سمع ~‏‎ ~~ ~~~~~~ ااا»اا« . عا . - سدد لصع صبي ا ا ، ل أ ا ا ا ا » لو ٠«ااق هب«ح السالم« هس٣ق» ققكعآلا ءآق صادقت« هموهالهح. «يهلا٢ -سضسسس حنت. عل ~‏‎ افقنا . ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ عجتس سك ~‏‎ سعر مر صص « ءلا . لك. انن ~‏‎ ، جم علا ~ ~‏‎ تمنيتنلئمئئا لقتتتا ~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ااالخاا« . هقهو ناهءر مد ثأر ،سم-ب ٠اتر٢،سنتمج تءه،ني٠ . آ سسه ن ع ٠ ~‏‎ ك ي .. هو. له. . ٠هع سصه ص.هلمهعساصام هن عا . سي ٠ عد ٠ج-صصعععس ٠ ~‏‎ ٠ نء ا ليةركهااثطع سيل ،هوقعح»حءا اهبيلا وبحثس٠ يميهلهوبي، ااالخللم« هلع مإه) بالك لمبيهحعألهلهعلق . ن إن لهءوكتنق) و٠البه و،ةلهلأ ٠هق سيبهسءقأ (قآ مطل-لا واليمة« عححقل ن إي) «لهااس٣وهلا محملا( ك ااابه ن ~‏‎ ن عا ٠ ٠ ٠ ب نمضسمسسهيةصرته،رس طعي٠، ستا. ع كعلم ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~~~ ~ نص ص-عمهم ءيعص .كجمء مع لع ءس ~ ~~ سسسس لحاصجصه يهم و ستا لم . ا عمو اعم عر- . ا . . ن ٠ ٢ . . هم هلع سر-مساس . ٠مص،سء سن ري ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ا«لا« مهم ٠اسله«مبه باه« ٠لا«واااعمه٨ .ولم٧ «ء»ثهها لهحح ءمحنك ؛ههه له٣سلنقهحقاهأ» ثمنه سهر ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ٠مقهالق«» لاهملهمال هد«حا٨ »ايت (لل) «؛هحا«٨ طاعة( بهق وصابيلط لا«يهءاا«يرلالمط يهمل. هوس« يهابيهقإ ٠ ه ة . لمحا ٢ن٣ثه ههعمك ق ثم ~ ~ ~ رهعستمر »تهزللر ٥ ليند نف ك » مبر ياف««« ه ح بلةء»يه«»يقبه ءعهحيهااعا امنا-هلال لاعووهقإ هبحهس«ك ؛هابيناقإ بته أ ع اتم ه»لخاا« م ح ٠«همسالهيااهق وح»لبيبيتيم ٠»قإ اين مإاءجسوهثم ٠وهس«ك يههع اابيلا . ، ع عج ٠ ~ ~ ~ ٠ مل زجه ءل.. ٠صعا٣تص سر. عم ص٠ععع صارم....-...- ( ءلك ر-عساهم ن ٠ ٠ هم ٠ يجهل ٠ ، . عصر ٠ . ٠ . . ا ~‏‎ د عل. كل س يع ي نع- هي كل. ~‏‎ ، بيس-همس . ، لإ مع ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~ ل ل ل ا ا ا ل ل ل ط ل ل ل ل ا ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . . ٠ ك .ضع ي ع . ا ي . . ل ٠ . ،ك عي . ل ق ع نإ ا لحل يام««« هق ض ل«ا ٠اي،ععللوهبه طمهوهطهقا٨ به«. اتق .«ءععيعتر المهل.( ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ وير« لما««« ملح ٠قس٨ ك ٠«تك وابيثه٣تنهق ك ثهكتا« »ايه سجا كايس« ٠هقإ مة ثه«ةس واثه«طلم ينة(ك ٠ لم ع ا اما ي روججءسسسسسسسسسسسسسسيسسسمس د ثهع عرءنتهءيم يساري ن يللإندلا همس-س هعصهل سبمرنه »عمرء ح . ( ~‏‎ لا ٠ ~ ~ ~‏‎ ١ ( . جال . ع ا ما ~ ~ ~‏‎ بيوس ده ( ء . ١ ~ ~ ~ ~ . . ~‏‎ هو . تج ~ ~‏‎ ةء٠ ع ، ،اا ل ~‏‎ ا ٠ ~‏‎ . هى ~‏‎ ( ء ~ ~‏‎ » ا ا لم.. ن مء عب ~‏‎ ~‏‎ ا ع ~ ~‏‎ عي ج ~‏‎ فا لم ه . ٦طه .. ٢ ~ . ، ~‏‎ ٠ ~‏‎ ج ~ ~ ~‏‎ « . ٠ « ~ ~ ~‏‎ أ . ~‏‎ ي ~ ~‏‎ ، . ءل ~‏‎ يع . ةت . ق ~‏‎ هء سته« ٠يل ي ع ) . يل ع ~‏‎ ، ءإ ط هء، أس ~‏‎ ءس ~ . ~ . . ~‏‎ ه إ اا٠أا لاذ ع ل ~‏‎ ج أ نقطا ع-ه-ص هم ه-معسعس.. . هء،آ٠ سهءهة مد ياا«اا« . ةمت٣هيبي،قح ر«نك قالعح«علم ٠هق ه«٣ععت٣تر علا ~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ، ا ، . لإ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ قل كهل . عل ه ن جه يخ صمحه٠ اقل عا--. س ل ن-ك ~‏‎ كصع ه ب سعي-عم . ييط ٠ ل عل ي بهتيم إم عا هى ل ك . . صن-س ه-عج . عل ل « ص- اصلع . - . . ع ص . لل . عله عه٠ ٠ ل . ع ع كلي ٠ في . س ل . ا ي عني صلي - هسلعع٠ ي .ص.ي نتهم ، عل..- اء.. لا ع . علل عل يي ع . . ~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~‏‎ كيا عيس سيعث ~‏‎ ٠ ميعع للقتل محق. لوقلهققلقنلا عححع . جواجإنهعه ٠هت ةلا٠ مطعم . جل ل ترعبنا. ربة.. معهن ميهحيبيلمط ءاط ااقهلماألةلبي« محلس« ٢اك «بيبهقءنآ «ة(ك ٠ به ٠ ١هما ~~ ~ . ~ ي عإ ع‏‎ ياف«« . بن ~ ~‏‎ مقال ٠ اا يعجل ~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ عجل سم. ~‏‎ هما يس. ~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~ . لإ ٠ معة ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~ ال ٠مكع كل -عكل ا-ا تر اع-ع-عصيا-عامي ي عات-لع رتبا« ثمبهءهه مهه«ثمءلهثم ءآ هروهس« ) ثم ع اقل »ولم« ءمس( ا ٠عقتم دصابيلهلل م»عهع»تق تموه « ن (اأ لحبيهق؛هيايها ه٠»ا»لاابيههلل س«حلىحس ٠حق٣يههت« هابيعح ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ، . نير ، ١ د ط هم ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ «ا«لا« . .(.) عءمطه يهحءياوهنبأ٣هق ن (بلمرلم) ككنسةهل١ هاع«لمتنلبه «سطعقاقعبي هقسناق« هي بل« ءءاتعس-مهرها..-. اق هحبهصصسا ص ه ي ، - نقلص ٠عك ءه .. ين ياا«اا« مقأ للي« ءهستر ولا؛هعأ٣ح«هةح ٠هق هق»هق ٠هلأ٣ينهمق »ثه ا - س كي لل- ك ك ٠ءههحعأيريبي، هلع«ف لل( ٢٣ابيلق روهسءبه اهعلبيض٨ا ن إئ لهاس وآ لحلما»ة» ءعهديه-لا وحلأ٣لنس«ق يهابيهق « ملم« ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ طهطه،غة زجعهلام جماز؛ ~‏‎ ققلللهلقا عععقبيل ٠ كلهم ككل. سي لعل. ي ~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ق ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ٠مااوهبلا مالك حاك، و ث تم ٠ . ا لإ . سمه ة الثهلهمل١ن١ نإئ له. قس هءأهلهمثمعءعلمط و٠لمابه «موا«٨ حيالها ٠هيإ وحل-هميم ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ٠ . ،صهةآح ءعج. علقت ع.،٠.ءء ~‏‎ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ تمس س س ي غ ي س س ي يرتج يهم جه يل كل كر ) ءو ~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~ . . ع ص ك ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~ ~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ وعمل ئهثمطءحروس« ه«ل هلا »ملين مكه« (»همبهو«أبهحو) وسةهيهحإ يه مسك هرا لماح.« و-هن{ ،هاعاآجلا اعقعفة فج،أ »دبج №. № . . . |a v. t - ºn | º º º º - º, . º º - - -ºl. º ºlºº. º º | º t. | - - | º lºſſº - | - - | |ºllº - º * > - | - --- ºl º "i º º |º | º | º iſ . | - º - - - º - º º º º - - º º | º hº º - º | º º º - º : ºlº ſº. | º ºlº . | - º º ºl. | º - - | | -- ºlº | ºlº º º º £º - ſ º - º t - º º º ºl gº º |- |- º º | |ººl |ºl º | ºlºlº. º * ºº: | º º º |lº º | º º: - - º * . willº º º ºlºº º ºl - rom the libraryse ººlºº irawilson hoover º | º |º. º | |º º | . | mºm º | | *tºll º º ºilº | º º | ºl. º º º º - | º - | | º º º º - º - º ------- - º | º º - | º º º: º - | nº. º º º º ſº ºlººlºº * º º ºf º º ſº º º ſ º º º º º º | * º º º º | tº - - º - - º º º º º º |*|†- º - ºn nºlº º: |- º ºlºlº. - º º º º t º º º tº gº º ºº: -- - - --- - - - | - |-- -- - º - --- - º |- | - º |- º | - º º nºº º º- ººlººlºº º tºº º º º º *** º | ºlº |- º | |- - ºl º |- º | º º - | º º . | -- º º *|† ºl. º ºl. -- t º --- - - | º ** º º | º ºlº º |ººl - - --- |-- º º º ºſº,” º º | º - - | º | - º º º - aººſ ººlºº º | | º º - º "º --- | º º º q. º - º º º º | º ºn | | º º | |- | º | º º - - º | --- - º - - - | --- | º -- º |º . º | | º --- ºlº º | |ºlºº ºl º | "lºº" ſº º: º º º º t |tºº ºl - - | | - -iii-i-t- ii. º | º --- - | • t”-~--） * f. s. m. eyer h and book of or nament. （**） hand book o r n a m e n t a grammar of art industrial and architectural designing in a l l it s b r a n c h e s for practical as well as theoretical use by franz sales meyer professor of the school of industrial art in carlsruhe plates anp numerous illustrations in tee text fifth edition ------------ - bruno hessling publisher of architectural and art industrial works new-york east th street. nk ( { } |? ot, (lºck, author's preface. strictly speaking, the present “handbook of ornament" is a re- issue, in book form, of my “collection of ornamental forms" published in folio size under the title “ornamentale formenlehre". the reasons which induced me to publish this “handbook” were the following. owing to the nature of the case, the text of the “for- menlehre", which forms an essential though not the chief part of that work, had to be printed on separate sheets, which is always a source of inconvenience in practical use; and for this reason many critics, who in other respects passed an unexpectedly favourable and very flattering judgment on my work, expressed the wish that the text should be issued in a more convenient book form. on the other hand it was clear that the text could have no value except for those who already possessed the plates, and as the price of the collection, owing to its size and style, is not inconsiderable, and as plates on a reduced scale are quite sufficient for all who desire to use the work merely for study, and not directly for purposes of design, the author and publisher arranged to combine text and plates in the “handbook" in such a way that the plates, on a greatly-reduced scale, might be printed with the text. they hope in this way to have met the wishes that have been expressed, and while offering to teachers a convenient aid, to have produced a work which from its wealth of text and illustrations and its comparatively trifling price, may prove of very general utility. as a companion to the “ornamentale formenlehre" it was necessary that the handbook should retain the general plan and main divisions wgo vi preface. of that work; but this did not exclude partial alterations, and parti- cularly an enlargement of the descriptive text. these have accor- dingly been made, as will be seen on a careful comparison. but in making them there has been no sacrifice of the principle of giving everything that is important and essential, with the utmost conci- seness and the omission of all digressions. i take this opportunity of thanking all those who have rendered the publication of this work possible and have supported me with their kind assistance, and i now present the book to the public, in the hope that it will meet with a hearty reception and favourable criticism. karlsruhe, march . franz sales meyer. preface to the fourth edition. scarcely four years have elapsed since the first edition of this book was placed in the hands of the public. its unexpectedly favourable reception continues to recommend it. as my critics, to whom my best thanks are due, have made no suggestions for improve- ment in it, the “handbook", apart from some trifling corrections, has remained essentially the same. may it continue to win new friends in school and home. karlsruhe, february, . the author. introduction. [the term “ornament", in its limited sense, includes such of the elements of decoration as are adapted, or developed, from natural foliage. these differ from the geometrical elements, inasmuch as they are organic i. e. possessing stems, leaves, flowers, &c., while the latter are inorganic. when merely drawn on paper, &c., and unapplied — a foliated element is considered in the abstract as “ornament". when applied to beautify an object — it becomes an “element of decoration". the term “decoration” signifies the art or process of applying the various elements to beautify objects. it is also used to denote the completed result. thus the artist, who is occupied in the “deco- ration” of a vase, may represent ornament upon it; and the ornament is then the “decoration" of the vase. the “elements” of decoration are: geometrical-lines, ornament, natural-foliage, artificial objects, animals, and the human figure. these may be considered as the “ingredients”; and they are mixed, and applied, on various arrangements or “features", according to certain acknowledged “recipes" which are termed “principles". the “principles" of decoration are not included in this hand- book, as the limits of it allow only a brief notice of such elements as have been in general use during the successive historic-epochs.] wherever the hand of man has produced any decoration, be it wiii introduction. original invention, or only the arbitrary wariation of some familiar fundamental idea, the following will invariably be the case: (a) the decoration is produced by arranging and joining dots and lines, or by combining and dividing geometrical figures, in accordance with the laws of rhythm, regularity, symmetry, &c.; (b) it arises from the attempt of the decorator to represent the objects of the external world. nearest at hand for imitation, is or- ganic nature with the plants, animals, and human form. but in- organic nature also offers models: e. g. the forms of crystallisation (snow-flakes), and the phenomena of nature (clouds, waves, &c.). rich sources are also opened-up by the artificial objects which are fashioned by man himself. it is obvious that all kinds of elements may be used in com- bination: geometrical may be united with natural forms; and so on. moreover it was easy for human imagination to combine details taken from nature into monstrous forms not found in nature, e. g. the sphinx, centaur, mermaid, &c.; and animal and human bodies with plant-like terminations. if we collect, into groups, the bases or motives of decoration, omitting what is non-essential and detached, we arrive at the classi- fication given in the following pages. decoration is applied to countless objects; and the style may be very varied without being arbitrary; being determined, firstly, by the aim and the material of the object to be decorated, and, secondly, by the ideas ruling at different periods and among different nations. it is therefore obvious that it has a comprehensive and important domain. a knowledge of it is indispensable to artists; and it is an instructive and sociologically interesting factor of general culture. the peculiarities which arise from the reciprocal relation of material, form, and aim, more or less modified by the ideas of the age and the natural characteristics of the nation, are termed the “style" of that period and nation. the mention, of the century and the nation, gives a convenient method of labelling works of art, which is now well understood; e. g. — “ th century, italian". the majority of works on ornament, arrange their material according to periods and nations; but the present handbook, follow- ing the principles laid down by semper, bötticher and jacobsthal, is based on a system which is synthetic rather than analytic; and in- tended more to construct and develope from the elements than to dissect and deduce. it contains three main divisions: division i treats of the “elements of decoration", or motives of which it is formed. geometrical motives formed by the rhythmical arrangement of dots and lines, by the regular section of angles, by the formation and division of closed figures, are followed by the forms of nature which are offered for ornamental imitation by the introduction. ix vegetable and animal kingdoms, and by the human frame. these in their turn are followed by artificial objects, or forms borrowed from art, technology, and science, and usually met-with in the class of trophies, symbols, &c. division ii, “ornament applied to features", arranges them according to their functions, and the reciprocal relation between the construction of the object and the application of the ornament. the division falls into five sub-divisions: a. bands (bordering, framing and connecting forms); b. free ornaments (forms whose construction expresses a termination or cessation); c. supports (types of ornament which express the principle of weight-bearing); d. enclosed ornament suitable for the enlivenment of a defined bordered feld, (panels); e. repeating ornament (the decoration of surfaces which, disregarding the limits of space, are developed, on a geometrical or organic basis, into “patterns"). division iii, shows the application of decoration to vase-form, metal objects, furniture, frames, jewelry, heraldry and writing, printing, &c. further details, as to the groups and divisions, will be found in the “table of the arrangement of the handbook” which follows this introduction. the illustrations, numbering almost , , and comprised on full-page plates, represent the styles of the most various periods and nations. a comparatively large share of attention has been devoted to the antique, because it is in that period that form usually finds its clearest and most beautiful expression. next to that in impor- tance is the renascence with its wealth and freedom of form. the space, devoted to the creations of the middle ages, is more limited. from the styles of the decadence, only a few examples have been admitted, for the sake of comparison and characterisation. modern times, as a rule, have only been taken into account, where forms arose which do not occur in the historic styles. the illustrations have been partly taken direct from the originals; and partly—as was almost unavoidable—reproduced from other books; for the leading idea of the present work is not to offer anything new, but to arrange what is already known, in a manner suitable both to the subject and to the aim of a handbook. where the author was acquainted with the source, which he regrets was not always the case, the authority has been mentioned in the text. each division and sub-division is prefixed by a few remarks on style and history, characteristics, motives, symbolism, aim, and appli- cation. these are followed, so far as is necessary and practicable, by notes on the places where the objects illustrated were discovered, where they are now preserved, and on their material and size. hints x introduction. as to construction, are given only where the construction cannot at once be inferred from the figure. readers who use this book for purposes of tuition, will find in the author's “ornamentale formenlehre”* the plates on a scale of "|s times the size of this handbook, together with the requisite hints for the use of the work in schools. * franz sales meyer: ornamentale formenlehre; three hundred folio plates, in a portfolio. . - . - . . - . . . - . . . table showing the arrangement of the chapters and plates. d iv is i o n i. the elements of decoration. a. geometrical elements. network. band motives. diaper patterns. the sector, polygon, and star. thesquare, and its subdivision. the octagon, and its sub- division. the triangle, hexagon, &c., and their ś the oblong, its sub- division. the rhombus, and trapezium, and their subdivision. the circle, its subivision, and intersections. gothic tracery. the ellipse, and its subdivision. and . . b. natural forms. a. the organisms of plants (the flora of ornament). . - . - . - . - . . . . . the akanthos leaf. the artificial leaf. artificial foliage. the laurel, and olive. the wine. the lotus, papyrus, and palm. the ivy. the corn, and convolvulus. the hop, and bryony. . - . – . . various leaves. warious flowers. the fruit festoon. the leaf, and flower festoon. b. animal organisms (the fauna of ornament). - . – . - . - . . - . . - . . . the lion. the griffin, &c. the lion head. the panther head, &c. the horse head, &c. the eagle. the wing. the dolphin. the shell. the serpent, &c. c. human organism. . - . . . - . . . - . - . - . . the mask. the grottesque mask. the medusa head. the grottesque. the half-figure. the sphinx, and centaur. the cherub-head, &c. c. artificial objects. the trophy. the symbol. the ribbon. miscellaneous objects. xii table. - . . - . . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . - . divis i o n ii. ornament applied to features. a. bands. . the fret band. . the chain band. . the interlacement band. . the rosette band. . the palmette band. . the wertebrate band. . the undulate band. . the evolute-spiral band. . the enrichment of the astragal. . the enrichment of the torus. . the enrichment of the cyma, and the ovolo. b. free ornaments. the link border. the cresting border. the akeroter, and antefix. the stele crest. the perforated cresting. the cross. the finial. the finial-knob, and wase. the pendant-knob. the rosette. the crocket, and gargoyle. the hinge, &c. the tassel. the fringe, and valence. the lace border. c. supports. the foliated shaft. the fluted shaft. the base. . . - . . - . . . . . . . . . - . - . . - . the decorated shaft. the profiled shaft. the capital. the pilaster panel. the pilaster capital. the candelabrum base. the candelabrum shaft. the candelabrum capital. the balauster. the terminus. the parapet. the railing post. the furniture leg. the trapezophoron. the console. the bracket. the caryatid, atlante, &c. d. enclosed ornaments, or panels. - . . - . - . . - . . - . the square panel. the star-shape panel. the circular panel. the oblong panel. the elliptic panel. the lunette, and spºnrail panel. the lozenge panel. warious panels. e. repeating ornaments, or diapers. the square diaper, &c. the circle diaper, &c. the scale diaper, &c. the circle diaper, &c. various diapers. various grill diapers. d iv is i o n iii. decorated objects. a. wases, &c. fundamental wase-forms. . . . . - . - . . a. holders. . . . . the amphora. the urn. the krater. the basin, and dish. . . . . . the ampulla, alabastron, &c. the flower-wase, &c. wase forms for varions purposes. the jar, and cist. the font, and holy-water stoup. table. xiii b. dippers. . the hydria. . the bucket, &c. . the spoon, and ladle. c. pourers. . the prochotis, oinochoë, olpe, &c. . the lekythus. - . the lip-spout pitcher. . the pipe-spout pot. - . the bottle. d. drinking wessels. . the kylix, kantharos, &c. . the rhyton. . the cup, and beaker. . the chalice, and goblet. . the hanap. . the rummer or römer. . various drinking wessels. . the mug. . the tankard. . modern drinking glasses. b. metal objects. . the knife, and fork. . the paper-knife. . the scissors. . the hand-bell. e. various domestic utensils, &c. . the door-knocker. . the key. . the hand-mirror. . the fan. . warious tools. c. furniture. a. seats. - . the chair. - . the throne, and arm-chair. . the stall. . the stool. . the folding-chair. . the bench. . the sofa, and couch. b. tables. . the table . the writing-table. c. cabinets. . the cabinet. . the sideboard. . the hanging-cabinet. . the chest. d. miscellaneous. . the desk, and easel. . the clock-case, and toilet cabinet. - . the bedstead, and cradle. d. frames, &c. - . the architectural frame. - . the mirror-frame, &c. - . the strap-work frame. - . the typographical frame. . the strap-work tablet. . the strap-work border, and margin. p. jewelry. a. utensils for illumination. - . the candelabrum. . the antique lamp. - . the candlestick. . the hand-candlestick. . the candle-bracket. . the pendant-lamp. . the chandelier. . modern lamps. b. religious utensils. . the altar. . the tripod. . the censer. . the crucifix. . the crozier, strance. and mon- c. utensils of war and hunting; weapons. . the shield . the helmet. . the sword, and its scabbard. . the dagger, and its scab- d bard. . the halberd, &c. d. table utensils. . the spoon. . the pin. . the button. . the ring. . the chain. . the necklace. . the bracelet. xiv table. . . . . miscellaneous jewelry. the girdle, buckle, and clasp. the pendant. the ear-ring. f. heraldry. . . . - . . - . tinctures, and divisions, of the shield. shapes of the shield. ordinaries. charges. forms of the helmet. helmet trappings. . . crowns, coronets, &c. heraldic accessories. . writing, printing, dºc. . - . . . . . . . . romanesque letters. gothic uncial letters. old english letters, &c. old german letters. modern texts. renaissance letters. roman initials. roman letters. constructions, monograms. numerals, division i. the elements of fe af - # * decoration h • geometrical elements, & a motives. . natural objects: • e a. plant organisms (flora of ornament). b. animal organisms (fauna = of ornament). - c. human organism. artificial objects (trophies, symbols, etc.). – - - *** *… -- a ، � ••- - - - - ~~~~, a. geometrical elements and motives. geometrical ornament is the primordial or oldest of the elements of decoration. the implements of savages, and the tattooing of the indians, prove this. the seam, with the thread running slant-wise from one piece to the other, may have been the original for the zigzag line; and woven-work, of warp and woof of every kind, the original for reticulated patterns; and the plaited hair that of the plaited band. the revolutions of a fork-like instrument led to the dis- covery of the circle; the combination of dots, at regular intervals, to the polygon or pointed-star. the gradual developement of these original geometrical forms, rising from stage to stage with the growth of culture and knowledge, led finally to geometrical artistic forms such as we see in moorish panelled ceilings, in gothic tracery, in guilloche-work, and the like. the developement of geometry into a science, with its theorems and proofs, also came to the assistance of art. as evidence of this, we need only refer to the construction of the ellipse from given lengths of axes. the majority of all geometrical ornaments may be divided into three groups. they are either continuous and ribbon-like (bands), or in enclosed spaces (panels), or in unlimited flat patterns. in every case the foundation of the geometrical ornament will be a certain division, a subsidiary construction, or a network. we will begin with the last; and pass in turn to the ribbon motives, the flat patterns, and the figure motives. * . - - - network. — band motives. network. (plate .) the systems of subsidiary lines required in geometrical patterns, e. g.: parquets, mosaics, window-glazing, &c., are termed nets. the name explains itself. they may be of very various kinds. the most frequent are quadrangular and triangular reticulations, combined of . single squares or equilateral triangles. a special network, resembling the plait of a cane chair, is required for some moorish patterns. plate . network. . ordinary quadrangular. equal divisions are set off in one direc- tion, parallels are drawn through the points of division, and the former cut by a line at an angle of . the points, where these diagonals cut the parallels, mark the divisions in the opposite direction. . oblique quadrangular. the divisions are set-off on a vertical line and the parallels are then drawn at an angle of " on each side of the points of division. . straight, with alternate divisions. construction similar to no. . . oblique quadrangular, with alternate divisions. construction similar to no. . . moorish diapers. - º . enlarged detail to no. . . triangular net. it is based on the construction of the equi- lateral triangle; and may be arranged in two attitudes, as shown in figs. and . and . enlarged details to fig. . : band motives. (plates – .) plates , and contain a number of band motives. these : are made by the joining of regularly-placed points: those in plate are joined by straight lines; those in plate by arcs; and those in plate by a combination of both. each of the plates contains, beneath the motives, specimens of their application, taken from different styles. plate . band motives, in straight lines. , , and . greek. . zigzag lines. . moorish plaited band. - and . these examples may be illustrated by folded strips of paper. geometrical elements. network. plate . geometrical elements. ttttttl | | | | | | | nznznzn ? |bº plate . hand motives. geometrical elements. . ztnztn ||yyyyyyyzs: s ttynznonon | . ztn ytyyt), l/ l l tytytyr, i lns s. / .n . r z. \\ band motives. plate . geometrical elements. tn) band motives. . plate band motives. – diaper patterns. and . carvings in basrelief from the implements of savages. . greek vase painting, motive: the seam. . waves with lotus, egyptian wall-painting, (owen jones). plate . band motives, in arcs. and . undulate lines. . motive of the “strung coin" pattern (coins threaded on a cord). . romanesque ornament from an evangeliarium written for charle- magne, th century, library of the louvre, paris. . romanesque mural painting, swedish church. . chinese damaskeened ornament from a vase, (racinet). plate . band motives, mixed. . romanesque glass painting, church of s. urban, troyes. . frieze, house, beaune, th century, (racinet). n. b. where two arcs are joined: it is necessary, in order to avoid a break, that the two centres and the point of junction should be in the same straight line. diaper patterns. (plates – .) plates , and give a selection for flat patterns. almost all the constructions may be referred to the quadrangular or the trian- gular net. the examples in plate show junctions in a straight line; those in plate are composed of arcs; and in plate the regularly-placed points are joined by mixed lines. the designs may be used as patterns for parquet flooring, window glazing, and similar work, without further enrichment. they are at the same time available as construction-lines for the further develope- ment of richer patterns for mural and glass painting, carpets, tapestry, ceilings, &c., as shown by the examples of application appended to the simple motives. plate . diaper patterns, &c., with straight lines. and . roof-covering may be considered as the motive. . the natural motive is the cell of the honey bee. – . designs for coffer ceiling, by sebastian serlio, th century, (formenschatz). plate . diaper patterns, with arcs. , and . scale motives. . romanesque glass painting, cathedral, bourges, (racinet). geometrical elements. \ / \ / \x \ / \·/\ / \|× -\ ---- xxxxxxx) xxxxxxxx}} xxxxxxx xxxxxxxx} Í [xxxxxxx}} diaper patterns. plate . geometrical elements. < geometrical elements. diaper patterns. - the sector, polygon, and star. . mural painting, assisi, (vorbilder für fabrikanten und hand- werker). . old italian mural painting, san francesco, assisi, (hessemer). plate . diaper patterns, with mixed lines. . old italian mural painting san francesco, assisi, (hessemer). the sector, the polygon, and the star. polygons and stars are of frequent occurrence in ornamental design. the sector is the foundation of rosettes. the polygon and the star are often used as frames to ornaments. they also serve as compartments in coffer ceilings and composite ornamental designs. in this case, they are frequently divided into smaller figures, as will be seen in the following plates. plate gives the shape, and construction of those which most frequently occur; followed by some examples of their application. plate . radiating figures, &c. — . . . . . . . — . . . the sector, produced by the regular division of circles. the square, described obliquely in a circle. the square formed by the juxtaposition of right angles and cutting-off the lengths for the sides. the regular octagon, described obliquely in a circle. the regular octagon, described in the square by measuring half diagonals from its angles. the regular triangle and hexagon, formed by measuring the radius, as chords, six times round the circumference. the regular duodecagon, formed by applying the radius to the circle from the ends of two diameters at right angles to each other. the regular pentagon and decagon, formed by a construc- tion based on the theorem of the “golden mean”, as shown in the figures. the regular five-pointed star, formed by joining the alter- nate points of five points placed at equal distances in the circumference of a circle. known in the history of magic and witchcraft as the pentagram or “pentacle". the regular six-pointed star, formed by joining alternate points placed at equal distances in the circumference of a circle. the sector, polygon, and star. – the square, and its subdivisions. – . regular eight-pointed star, formed by combining every second or third of eight points placed at equal distances in the circumference of a circle. – . regular ten-pointed stars, formed by joining every second or third of ten points placed at equal distances in the circumference of a circle. the pointed stars may also be formed by producing to a sufficient distance the sides of ordinary regular polygons; and, conversely, each star contains a simpler star, as well as the regular polygon of the same number of sides. . star, formed by a suitable combination of corresponding points regularly placed on the circumferences of two con- centric circles. . uraniscus, the star-like decoration of a greek coffer ceiling. from the propylaea in athens. gold on a blue ground. . back of a modern chair, carved in basrelief. . ornamentation of a semi-regular pointed star. arabic, - th century, (prisse d'avennes). the square, and its subdivisions. (plates and .) the regular four-sided figure or square, with its equal sides and angles, is a fundamental form of frequent occurence. it may be divided into compartments in various ways; the principal auxiliary lines for this purpose being the diagonals (or oblique lines con- necting the angles), and the diameters (or lines connecting the centre of each side). where the square is divided for a ceiling, floor or similar object: a border is made round the enclosed space. in most cases, a large central compartment is retained; and this may be a square, either parallel or oblique to the other; or may be a circle, an octagon, &c. - the subdivisions of plate follow the richer divisions of plate . | plate . the square. – . the simple subdivisions. plate . the square. – . richer and more complicated subdivisions. . ranelling of ceiling, inn, nuremberg, modern. . panelling of ceiling, massimi palace, rome, by baldassare peruzzi, italian renascence, (letarouilly). - . |- geometrical motives. ſº _x^x. geometrical motives. . . . * . g . x . . , . a. plate . the square, and its subdivision. geometrical motives. the square, and its subdivision. plate . meyer, handbook of ornament. the subdivisions of the octagon, triangle, and hexagon. —the oblong, &c. the subdivision of the octagon, triangle, and hexagon. (plates aud .) next to the square: the regular polygons most frequently occur- ring in ornamentation are the octagon and the hexagon. the triangle, pentagon, decagon and duodecagon are, for obvious reasons, less common; while the other regular polygons are scarcely used at all. sometimes the semi-regular polygons also appear. these are formed by cutting-off equal triangles from the angles of a regular polygon in such a manner that the resulting figure has long and short sides alternately, and the angles all lie on the circumference of a circle. diagonals and diameters with series of lines in the manner of pointed stars, are the readiest auxiliaries for dividing regular and semi-regular polygons. plate . the octagon. — . the best-known subdivisions. plate . the triangle, the hexagon, &c. — . simple subdivisions of the equilateral triangle. — . the best-known subdivisions of the regular hexagon. . subdivisions of a regular pentagon. the oblong, and its subdivision. (plates – .) the right-angled plane figure with unequal pairs of sides, known as an oblong, is the most usual of all fundamental forms. ceilings, floors, walls, doors, wainscoting, panels of furniture, table- tops, book-covers, and numbers of other objects, have an oblong shape. the difference in the lengths of the sides adapts itself to all possible conditions: the oblong approaching the square on the one hand and the band or border on the other; so that the divisions are very various; as will be seen by a glance at the examples. as a rule, the diagonal is not used as an auxiliary line, but is replaced by the mitral-line of the angle, as this latter alone gives equal breadths of the border. when the oblong approaches the square, a distorted square subdivision is sometimes resorted-to, (compare pl. , fig. ). - plate . the oblong. – . the usual subdivisions. . mosaic, flooring, italian, th century, (storck). co º scn º º º * |\ n º -- n plate > * © n, and its subdivisio aſ º ^ v. ſº geometrical motives. plate . the triangle, hexagon, &c., and their subdivision. the oblong, and its subdivision. – the subdivision of the rhombus, &c. plate . the oblong. . subdivision for door panels, sofits of arches, &c. . : m tablets, &c. , borders for ceilings. - and . modern album-covers, (gewerbehalle). plate . the oblong. . ceiling, quedlinburg, german, , (gewerbehalle). . ceiling, massimi palace, rome, by baldassare peruzzi, (leta- rouilly). . coffer ceiling, farnese palace, rome, by barozzi da vignola, (letarouilly). plate . the oblong. . ceiling, modern, (gewerbehalle). . vaulted ceiling, s. peter's, rome, beginning of the th century, (italienisches skizzenbuch). the subdivision of the rhombus, and the trapezium (plate .) rhombus or “lozenge" is the name usually given to the equi- lateral foursided figure with pairs of unequal angles. the principal auxiliary lines of these figures are the diagonals. the subdivision generally leaves an oblong or hexagonal panel in the centre. the trapezium is a four-sided figure with unequal sides. the parallel trapezium has two parallel sides which are unequal and two equal sides which are not parallel (pl. , figs. to ). the sym- metrical trapezium has two pairs of adjacent equal sides (pl. , figs. and ). any other irregular four-sided rectilinear figure is a trapezoid. some suitable subdivisions are given on plate . definite directions for the trapezoid can scarcely be given; its sub- division is seldom easy, and varies with each particular case. the general principle is: — endeavour to cut-off projecting angles by means of triangles in such a way as to leave a portion of the entire figure regular or symmetrical. this is, however, a matter of artistic taste; and more easily learnt than taught. among other applications of the symmetrical or parallel tra- pezium is that to cupolas of domes: the lines are indeed curves on a bent surface; but this causes very little alteration in the sub- division. geometrical motives. re- º h - – = * * º - - plate . the oblong, and its subdivision. geometrical motives. - f the oblong, and its sibdivision. plate . geometrical motives. sº º geometrical motives. . * the oblong, and its subdivision. plate . the subdivisions of the rhombus, &c. — the circle, &c. – gothic tracery. plate . the rhombus, and the trapezium. – . subdivision of the rhombus. — . : ,, . parallel trapezium. – . *: ,, , symmetrical trapezium. the circle, its subdivision, and intersections. (plate .) the circle is often used in ornamentation as a fundamental form. no good result is produced (as a rule) by dividing it merely by radii or other straight lines; and it is therefore usually divided by ineans of curved lines or of a combination of arcs and straight lines. by describing circles to cut each other: motives may be obtained, as shown by figures and , the latter of which is the basis of a roman mosaic pavement found in pompeii (figure ). that circles which cut each-other form of themselves an effec- tive pattern—is shown by the engine-turned ornament, which is pro- duced by machinery and applied to the decoration of watch-cases, and to the plates from which bank notes, share certificates, &c. are printed. ornamentation by means of arcs plays a conspicuous part in gothic tracery, which will be treated-of in the following chapter. plate . the circle. – . different divisions and intersections. – . tracery in the gothic style. . centre of a mosaic pavament, pompeii, (kunsthandwerk). gothic tracery. (plate .) in the forms of tracery, the gothic style evolved and brought to perfection a characteristic decoration by means of arcs of circles. and although the results have something stiff and mechanical, when compared with the ornaments taken direct from nature in other styles, it cannot be denied that they possess a great originality, and richness of form. tracery was chiefly applied to stone, and wood; in architecture, and furniture; for galleries, windows, and panels, &c. well-known forms are the circles (figs. – of plate showing , , and foliations), the trefoil (plate , figs. and ), geometrical motives. plate . the circle, and its subdivision. geometrical motives. gothic tracery. — the ellipse. the quatrefoil (in the centre of fig. ), the cinquefoil, &c. the pro- jecting points are termed cusps, the voids between the cusps are termed foils. plate . tracery. – . gothic tracery, for panels and windows. the figures give partly the fundamental construction, partly the further deve- lopement. thus figures and , and , and , and , and , belong together. the ellipse. (plate .) the ellipse is a figure, whose radius of curvation is continually changing. it has the peculiar quality that, if any point on the circumference be joined with the two foci, the sum of the two con- necting lines is invariable, and always equal to the longitudinal axis. the three-centred arch is an approximate construction to an elliptic curve. it is composed of a number of arcs, which is not possible in the case of the ellipse. as regards beauty of line it can never be a substitute for the ellipse; but its easier construction has, notwithstanding, caused it to be used for many purposes. the expression “oval” for the ellipse, is erroneous. oval is derived from “ovum" (egg), and therefore means an egg-shape. the ellipse is of comparatively late appearance in art, the con- struction presupposing a certain knowledge of geometry, which was not possessed by primitive peoples. afterwards it became of common application, as will be seen from many passages of this handbook. the ellipse is a very popular shape for ceilings, panels, boxes, and dishes. figure affords hints as to the manner of subdividing it. plate . the ellipse, &c. — . construction by means of points. when the square with its diagonals and transversals is projec- ted as an oblong, the circle described in it becomes an ellipse. . construction from the foci. from the ends of the conjugate axis, describe circles with a radius of one half the transverse axis; the points where these circles cut each other will be the foci. now divide the trans- verse axis into two unequal parts, and from the foci as centres describe circles having these unequal parts for their radii; the points of intersection will be four points of the ellipse. another division will give another four points, and so on. . construction by means of tangents. construct an oblong with sides of the lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes respectively; draw the transversals, that is, geometrical motives. plate . the ellipse, and its subdivision. the ellipse. – . , the transverse and conjugate axes; join the ends of the axes in one of the quarters by a diagonal; and set-off a number of points on this diagonal. through these points draw straight lines from the opposite angle, and also parallels to the longitudinal axis. now join the points thus obtained on the outside of the quarters in the way shown in the figure; and transfer these lines to the remaining three quarters; and a series of tangents will be obtained, within which the ellipse can be drawn by hand. constructions by means of two circles. with the centre of the ellipse as a centre describe two circles passing through the ends of the transverse and conjugate axes respectively; draw a number of diameters through two opposite quadrants; where these diameters cut the smaller circle, draw parallels to the longitudinal axis; and where they cut the greater circle, parallels to the transverse axis (or vice versa); the points of the parallels will then be points on the ellipse. the other points required may be obtained by producing the parallels into the remaining quadrants. this construction may be specially re- commended for practical use. practical construction on a larger scale (centres, garden-beds, &c.). mark the two foci by nails, posts, &c.; place round them a cord equal in length to the transverse axis plus the distance between the foci, and tied at both ends; stretch the cord tense, by means of a pencil, and let the latter run round the foci: the resulting figure will be an ellipse. several constructions for ellipsoids. in constructions – the length of the transverse axis has a definite, invariable proportion to that of the conjugate axis, so that when the one is given the other immediately follows. in constructions – the length of each axis is variable. the point of junction of two circles of different diameter must lie on the same straight line as the centres of the two circles. describe two circles each of which passes through the centre of the other. join the centres with the points of intersection of the circles: the straight lines so formed will mark-off the four arcs of which, as the figure shows, the ellipsoid is composed. the centre }. are marked by small dots. escribe two circles touching each other, and with the point of contact as centre, describe a third circle of the same diameter. these three circles cut each other in four points. join these to the external centres as shown on the figure; and the resulting four straight lines will again mark-off the four arcs which are then to be described from the points indicated by the small dots. construct two squares, having onc side in common, and in them describe the four diagonals; these will then mark-off the four arcs which must then be drawn from the points denoted by small dots. construct a rectangle with sides equal to the transverse and longitudinal axes respectively; draw the two transversals (the transverse and longitudinal axes) and join their ends in one of the quarters. cut-off from this line, beginning from the point of junction with the conjugate axis, the difference of half the trans- verse and half the conjugate axis; on the centre point of the re- maining piece draw a perpendicular and the three more similar lines: these four lines will then show the limits of the arcs which are then to be drawn from the points marked by small dots. the ellipse, &c. — the three-centred arch. • . – . . . . construct an oblong with sides equal to the transverse and longitudinal axes respectively, and draw the two transversals. measure the half of the transverse axis upon half the longitudinal axis, and ascertain the difference; halve this difference. this half difference must now be taken four times along the transverse axis trom the centre point of the ellipsoid, and three times along the longitudinal axis. the four required points will thus be ob- tained. the straight lines connecting them will give the points of junction of the arcs. construction from eight centres. construct an oblong whose sides are equal to the major and minor axes respectively; draw the transversals, and join their ends in one of the quarters. from the nearest angle, draw a perpen- dicular to this diagonal; the points where this perpendicular cuts the two axes will be two of the required centres. two more are obtained by symmetrical transference. from these four points describe circles with a radius = / (cb-da); the points where they cut each other internally will give four more centres. if the centres thus found be joined by means of straight lines, as shown on the figure, the latter will mark the points where the eight arcs will meet. construction of ovals or egg-shaped figures. the construction of such figures usually consists in combining a semi-circle with a semi-ellipse. draw in a circle two diameters at right angles to each other, and two intersecting chords of a quadrant; these when produced will determine the points where the various arcs meet. the centres of these latter lie on the ends of the diameters. the construction of the lower half is the same as in fig. . the centre of the upper lies in the intersection of tangents to the lower and upper circles. example of the subdivision and decoration of an ellipse, (storck's zeichenvorlagen). the three-centred arch. the three-centred arch, which was often used in the transition period between the gothic and the renascence, may be considered as a semi-ellipsoid; and it may be described by one of the methods shown on plate (see also the head-piece to this section, on page ). meyer, handbook of ornament. b. natural forms. a. the organisms of plants (flora of ornament). in nearly every style the plant-world has been used in patterns. leaves, sprays, flowers, and fruits, either singly or combined, have been adapted in ornament. the direct imitation of nature, retaining form and color as much as possible, leads to the naturalistic con- ception; the construction of an ornament according to the rules of rhythm and symmetry, with a stricter observance of regularity —is known as the artificial method. the selection of the comparatively few plants from the luxuriant field of the plant-world was partly determined by beauty of form (the outline of the leaf, the delicacy of the spray, &c.) and partly by the fact that they possess (or did at some time possess) a symbolic meaning. the plates which illustrate this section will first exhibit the akanthos; and then such plant-forms as are less used or only found in certain styles. they will first be presented as they exist in nature; and then as they were modified in the various styles. the akanthos leaf. (plates – .) of all the ornamental designs which have been borrowed from plants; the akanthos is the most popular. since its introduction by the greeks, it recurs again and again in every western style. a symbolical significance has never attached to the akanthos; its frequent the akanthos leaf, &c. and varied application is due to the ornamental possibilities and beautiful serration of its leaves. it grows wild in the south of europe, but in more northern latitudes is only found in our botanical gardens. there are many varieties of the plant, of which we may mention the following: akanthos mollis, with broad, blunt tips to the leaves; akanthos spinosus, with pointed lobes terminating in spines, and comparatively narrow leaves. the conception and treat- ment of the margin and shape of the leaf, is the principal characteristic of the different styles. the greek foliage has pointed leaf-edges; in the roman style, the tips of the leaves become rounder, broader, to some extent with more vigorous curves; the byzantine and roma- nesque styles, again, return to stiffer, less delicate forms. the gothic style, which used the foreign akanthos in addition to a number of native plants, adopted in the early period, round, bulbous forms; later gothic, on the contrary, preferred bizarre, long-extended, thistle-like foliage: in both cases the general conception is more or less naturalistic, but the details are usually idealised beyond recognition. the renascence, which revived antique ornament, developed the akanthos, and parti- cularly the tendril, to the highest degree of perfection; in the follow- ing styles formalism degenerates in this direction. modern ornamental art seeks its models in almost every style; and its creations have generally no pronounced, specifically modern character. plate . the akanthos, and artificial leaf. . leaf of akanthos mollis, (jacobsthal). . akanthos calyx, the leaves and flower of akanthos mollis, natura- listically treated, (jacobsthal). leaf of akanthos mollis, (raguenet). leaf of akanthos spinosus, (gewerbehalle). cup, corona of a greek stele, (raguenet). overlap of leaf, roman candelabrum, vatican. greek leaf, displayed, (jacobsthal). roman leaf, capital of a column, pantheon, rome, the spoon. like roundings of the points of the leaves, as well as the deep incisions, are characteristic; and designed to look well at a distance. i plate . the artificial leaf. . leaf, roman capital, (raguenet). . leaf displayed, as it is often used on roman reliefs, e. g.: so- mewhat more richly developed, on the so called florentine pilaster, uffizi, florence, (jacobsthal). byzantine leaf, sta. sofia, constantinople, (raguenet). romanesque leaf, st. denis, (lièvre). ; * natural forms. plate . the akanthos leaf, and the artificial leaf. natural forms. the artificial leaf. plate . the artificial leaf. — artificial foliage. . romanesque leaf, monastery of st. trophimus, arles, xii. century (raguenet). . gothic leaf, (lièvre). plate . the artificial leaf. leaf, french renascence, st. eustache, paris. leaf, style of louis xvi, (raguenet). leaf, french renascence, church, epernay, (lièvre). leaf, french renascence, (gropius). modern leaf, louvre, paris, (f. a. m. cours d'ornement). modern leaf, theatre, monte carlo, monaco, (raguenet). i artificial follage. (plates – ) the scroll is a purely artistic invention, the natural plant having no tendrils. flowers and calices, such as frequently occur in artificial foliage, are usually developed with serrated edges, composed to recall natural models, (comp. plate , figs. und ). artificial foliage is often combined with forms from plants, e. g.: laurel, oak, ivy, ears of wheat, &c., (comp. plate , figs. and ). what was said above of the akanthos leaf, holds good here too, for the differences of exe- cution in the various styles. the greatest luxuriance and the highest elegance were attained by the italian renascence, (comp. plate , fig. ). it is characteristic of the louis xvi. epoch that the lines which form the scroll are somestimes flattened, and, so to speak, make elliptic spirals, (comp. plate , fig. ). plate . artificial foliage. . ornament, summit of the monument of lysikrates, athens. . cup, roman. . roman ornament, the so called “medicean pilaster”, (artificial fo- liage of a large size). . fragment of a greek relief, (f. a. m., cours d'ornement). plate . artificial follage. . roman ornament, marble biga, from the style of the ornament it must have been an imitation of an original in bronze. . roman ornament, from the so called “florentine pilaster", a richly decorated marble relief in the uffizi, florence, (jacobsthal). romanesque frieze, st. denis, (lièvre). early gothic, notre dame, paris, (lièvre). renascence ornament, relief on the tomb of hieronimo basso, sta. maria del popolo, rome, by sansovino, (gropius). : natural forms. | º |º all. º | - -- ~ - º plate . artificial foliage. natural forms. fº º º - º - º k }. % . º Šºš Ç % º / . Ǻ sº * artificial foliage. plate . natural forms. plate . artificial foliage. artificial foliage. — the laurel, the olive, and the wine. plate . artificial follage. — . details from a relief on the lectern, cathedral, limoges, (lièvre). . ornament, louis xvi. style, (f. a. m., cours d'ornement). . modern french ornament, (f. a. m.). the laurel, and the olive. (plates , .) the laurel and the olive owe their introduction into ornamen- tation to their symbolical significance. both played a conspicuous part in the tree worship of the ancient greeks. the laurel was sacred to apollo. it was the symbol of atonement; singers and con- quering heroes were crowned with it; and in a similar sense it is still used as a symbol of glory. the olive was sacred to athene; olive branches were the prize of victory et the olympian games. in rome the victorious, laurel- crowned heroes were met on their return home by slaves bearing wreaths of olive boughs. the olive branch is the symbol of peace. plate . the laurel, &c. from nature. . laurel (laurus nobilis). evergreen; blossoms yellowish white; fruit ball or egg shaped, blue black. - . olive (olea europea). evergreen; blossoms small, white; fruit oval, greenish, or black. plate . the laurel., &c. — . branches, greek vase, conventional painting, (owen jones). . branches, beaker, in the silver treasure, hildesheim, roman, original of chased silver, museum, berlin. fragment, roman marble relief. branch, intarsia panel, palazzo ducale, mantua, (meurer). branch, spanrail, louis xvi. style, (lièvre). band, french renascence. : the wine. (plates , .) although the wine does not occur frequently, it is not an un- popular element of artistic decoration. the antique and medieval styles, in particular, show a certain preference for the vine. in antiquity the wine (vitis vinifera) is the attribute of bac- chus. wine leaves and ivy, sometimes in connection with laurel, encircle the brows of bacchantes, and adorn their drinking-vessels and utensils, the thyrsus, kantharos, &c. - natural forms. plate . the laurel, and the olive. natural forms. plate . the laurel, the bay, and the olive. natural forms. plate . the vine: natural. natural forms. . the wine: artificial. plate . the wine, the lotus, the papyrus, and the palin. the ecclesiastical art of the middle ages adopted the vine, toge. ther with ears of corn, as the symbol of christ. later styles, and modern art, have adopted the wine in both the antique and medieval senses. plate . the wine. . natural branch. plate . the wine. scroll ornament, roman relief. roman ornament, vertical border. . early gothic ornament, notre dame, paris, (lièvre). renascence ornament, italian pilaster. . renascence ornament, frieze, venice, th century, (grüner). : the lotus, the papyrus, and the palm. (plate ) the lotus and the papyrus are plants of ancient oriental civi- lisation; and play an important part in the social life of the egyptians, hindoos, assyrians, and other nations. the dried stalks of these water plants were used as fuel, or made into mats and other plaited arti- cles; their roots served as food; the pith as wicks for lamps. the paper of the ancients was made of papyrus. this explain sits appear- ance in the ornamental art of these nations, and its special luxuriance, in egyptian style. spoons and other utensils were decorated with lotus flowers and calices; the capitals of columns imitate the flowers or buds of the lotus: the shaft resemples a bound group of stalks; the base reminds us of the root leaves of these water plants; their mural painting shows lotus and papyrus motives in the most comprehensive manner. the lotus was sacred to osiris and isis, and was the sym- bol of the recurring fertilisation of the land by the nile, and, in a higher sense, of immortality. the palm, of which a few varieties exist in the east and south of europe, is also used in ornamental art. palm leaves or branches were used at the entry of kings into jerusalem, at the feasts of osiris in egypt, at the olympian games in greece, and in the triumphal pro- cessions of ancient rome. they were the symbol of victory and of peace. in this latter sense they have been received into the ritual of the christian church. the late renascence and following styles down to the present day have made a decorative use of palm leaves. the symbolic significance in a higher sense, as the token of eternal peace, has secured for the palm leaf a place in modern art on tombs and similar monuments. the decorative effect, of dried palm fronds natural forms. meyer, handbook of ornament. natural forms. the ivy: natural, and artifical. plate . the lotus, the papyrus, and the palm. – the ivy. along with tufts of grasses and the like, has brought them into fashion as a finish to the artistic adornment of rooms. plate . the lotus, &c., from nature. . lotus flower (nymphaea nelumbo — indian water lily). and . lower end and half-opened bud of the papyrus plant (cy- perus papyrus l. — papyrus antiquorum willd). . idealised lotus and papyrus, egyptian mural painting, (owen jones). . frond of an areca palm (areca rubra — in asia as a tree, the so called pinang). the species chamaedorea and phoenix have similar fronds. . leaf of a fan palm (corypha australis). the species latania, chamaerops, borassus, &c., have a leaf of similar shape. - the ivy. (plate .) the ivy (hedera helia) is indigenous to the east, north africa, south and central europe, and england. it is an evergreen climbing shrub which develops into a tree under favourable circumstances. in ancient times it was sacred to bacchus. beakers for filtering wine were made of ivy wood. as an attribute of bacchus it is found twined round the thyrsus which the bacchantes flourished in their hands in processions and dances. the ivy is a common decorative ornament on ancient vases. it was also the symbol of friendship, especially of the weaker with the stronger. ivy leaves are of very various shapes. usually broad and five-lobed, they appear at the ends of young shoots in long pointed, lance-like forms. flowering twigs have leaves without indentations, heart-shaped, with elliptic or oval tapering. the latter forms in particular were adopted by antique art. plate . the ivy. - . spray with broad-lobed leaves, from nature. . spray with elliptic tapering leaves, after blooming, from nature. . spray with lanceolate leaves, from nature. . decoration of the neck of a greek hydria, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). upper part of a pilaster like-panel, antique. . fragment of decoration, roman column, vatican, rome. : * the corn, &c. – warious leaves. the corn, the hop, the convolvulus, and the bryony. (plates , .) seeing how important agriculture has been in all ages, it was impossible that decorative art should neglect the ears of wheat, although their comparatively scanty ornamental possibilities prevented any very extensive application. combined with other motives, ears of corn have been made use of in various styles. in ecclesiastical art they have a symbolical significance (see what was said of the wine). the hop (humulus lupulus) is a well known indigenous plant of civilisation, and also occurs wild in marshy woods. its picturesque qualities indicate it as well adapted for ornamental use. in combina- tion with ears of barley, it is applied in modern art to the decoration of beer-mugs, the walls of inns, &c. the convolvulus (convolvulus), an indigenous climbing plant of ornamental appearance, is frequently used in modern art. the bryony (bryonia) has delicate tendrils and beautifully in- dented leaves, which afford a fertile motive, so that it is astonishing that this, and other allied plants have hitherto found comparatively little favor in decorative art. plate . the corn, &c. ears of oats (avena sativa). ears of rye (secale cereale). ears of wheat (triticum vulgare). ears of spelt (triticum spelta). ears of the common barley (hordeum distichum). . ears of the battledore barley (hordeum zeokriton). . field convonvulus (convolvulus arvensis) with red flowers. the hedge convolvulus (convolvulus sepium) has a similar habit and white flowers. (the group has been sketched freely from a cast from nature, by bofinger of stuttgart.) i plate . the hop, &c. hops and bryony (drawn from pressed plants). warious leaves. (plate .) plate presents a series of various leaves, whose general orna- mental possibilities have either secured or deserve to secure for them a place in art. the oak, the king of our indigenous trees, the symbol of power natural forms. the corn, and the convolvulus. plate . natural forms. plate . the hop, and the bryony. various leaves, and flowers. and strength, in antiquity the tree of jupiter, has from time to time been used in every western style. oak foliage, and perhaps almost as frequently the leaves of the maple, are often used in early gothic, where we meet them on friezes, cornices, and columns. the fre- quent recurrence of oak leaves, in certain works of the italian rena- scence, is due to the fact that the oak was the crest of the family of della rovere (rovere = winter oak; two members of which family ascended the papal chair, as sixtus iv. and julius ii). oak, someti- mes alternating with laurel, is a usual ornament of medals and coins. plate . oak leaves, &c. leaf of the winter oak (quercus sessiliflora). . spray of the bitter oak (quercus cerris). . leaf of the maple (acer campestre). . spray of the sugar maple (acer plantanoides). leaf of a species of ranunculus. leaf of the oriental amber tree (liquidamber orientale). leaf of the american amber tree (liquidamber styraciflua). (this tree furnishes the storax or styrax, a kind of resin.) leaf of the tulip tree (liriodendron tulipifera). leaf of the climbing mikania (mikania scandens). . leaf of the liverwort (hepatica triloba). i : warious flowers. (plates , .) it need scarcely be said that flowers, these most beautiful pro- ducts of the plant world, have in all ages been exceedingly popular in ornamental art. in flat as well as in relief ornament they are used in the most manifold forms, as bouquets, garlands, wreaths, &c. flower-painting for decorative purposes (fans, tapestry, &c.) has de- veloped into a distinct branch of art. flowers, with their natural developement from a centre, are the most obvious models for the for- mation of rosettes (rosette = little rose). the rosettes on the well- known sarcophagus of scipio, the rosette bosses on the doors of the antique and the italian renascence, are striking examples of this. the realm of flowers is so extensive that we must confine our- selves to a few examples. plate gives a variety of single flowers (drawn from casts from nature by j. g. bofinger of stuttgart): plate shows a bou- quet of flowers. plate . various flowers. . alpine rose (rhododendron). natural forms. various flowers. plate . natural forms. plate . various flowers various flowers. — the festoon. chrysanthemum. white lily (lilium candidum). hellebore (helleborus). wild rose (rosa canina). blue-bell (campanula). wild rose, seen from the back. i plate . various flowers. bouquet, carving, louis xvi. style, (f. a. m., cours d'ornement). the fruit festoon. (plates – ) fruit, tied in a bunch with leaves and flowers, was a popular decorative motive of the roman, renascence, and later styles. we may mention the hanging clusters as a decoration of pilaster and similar panels; and the clusters hanging in a curve and known as festoons. in these cases: flowing ribbons fill up the empty spaces. the plates give examples of both kinds. festoons of fruits hanging in deep curves between rosettes, can- delabra, skulls of animals, &c., are common in the roman style. the origin of this style of decoration is to be sought in the circumstance that festoons of real fruit were hung as a decoration on the friezes of the temples, alternating with the real skulls of slaughtered sacri- ficial animals, in connection with the candelabra, tripods, and other sacrificial instruments. this style of decoration was then transferred from sacred to secular architecture, revived by the renascence in more or less altered forms, and has remained in use to the present time. in the roman style the empty space above the centre of the curve is often filled by rosettes, masks, and figures. these features were usually replaced by heads of angels on the ecclesiatical buildings and tombs of the italian renascence. plate . the fruit festoon. . cluster, libreria, cathedral, siena, italian renascence. . cluster, tomb of louis xii. st. denis, french renascence. . cluster, modern. . festoon, tomb of cardinal della rovere, st. maria del popolo, rome, italian renascence. plate . the fruit festoon. . festoon, between skulls, roman. . festoon, roman mortuary tablet, vatican. natural forms. plate . the fruit festoon. natural forms. the fruit festoon. plate . natural forms. plate . the leaf, and flower festoon. the festoon. – animal organisms. plate . the leaf festoon, &c. . festoon between skulls, roman. . festoon, tomb of beatrice and lavinia ponzetti, sta. maria della pace, rome, renascence, by baldassare peruzzi. . festoon, louis xvi. style. . festoon, modern, paris, (raguenet). b. animal organisms (the fauna of ornament). by the side of the flora, stand the fauna of ornament. the use of animals, in natural or idealised forms, is considerable; but, compared with that of plant-forms, it is less extensive. the reason of this is obvious: that greater difficulties stood in the way of the adaptation of animal forms than in the use of plant motives. the absence of animals in the mahometan styles is due to religious maxims which forbade or limited the use of representations of living beings. following the same direction as was taken in the flora, we shall find that the principal representations from the fauna are not, as might be supposed, those of domestic animals such as the horse, the dog and the like, but that the selection was guided first by the sym- bolic character, and next by the ornamental possibilities of each. if we disregard the more adcidental naturalistic use of animals, such as enliven scroll ornaments in the shape of butterflies, birds, reptiles, and other animals, and confine our attention to those inde- pendent forms of animal ornament which have become typical; they will be found to diminish to a comparatively small number, the most important of which will here be treated in detail. of the mammalia we have first to mention the lion, tiger and panther, the ox, the horse, and the goat; the delphin also finds a place. the eagle is the only bird which has been generally used. then come the fantastic forms of fabulous animals: the griffin, the double headed eagle, &c. the lion. (plates – ) the lion (felis leo) holds the first rank in ornamental fauna. his strength, bis courage, and his nobility, have assured him from the earliest times the title of “king of beasts". his majestic stature, his compact, proportionate build, his striking muscles, offer grateful pro- blems to art. lying, walking, sitting, fighting, conquering or con- quered, he is an often-used motive. lion scenes and lion hunts are common subjects on the palaces of the assyrian kings. characteristic, natural movements, and a the lion. distinctive rendering of the muscles, give these idealised representations a peculiar charm and a certain grandeur. the lion was used in the egyptian religion. the fact that the annual overflow of the nile, so fertilising and of such immense im- portance for the land, occurred at the time when the sun entered the sign of the lion, brought the animal into relation with water; and led to representations on pails and other vessels for water, &c. egyptian art usually idealises the lion till he is unrecognisable; it represents him at rest; and the simple, severe treatment of the mane (not unlike a stiff ruff) gives him somewhat of the appearance of the lioness, which does not posses one. among the greeks and romans the lion was considered as the guardian of springs, of gates, and temples; hence his appearance at fountains, on flights of steps, over gates, and on monuments. the sleeping lion is the symbol of the fallen hero. (the lion of the piraeus, the tomb of leonidas, and the tombs of halicarnassus, may be quoted as evidence.) in christian art: the symbolism of the lion is various: as the emblem of the redeemer (the lion of the tribe of judah), as the emblem of the evil principle and of the enemies of the church as well as of the devil himself (the enemy who goeth about as a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour), as the attribute of the evange- list st. mark, and of other saints. hence his frequent appearance on the vessels, and other articles of religious use, &c. in consequence of the crusades in the th century, he was in- troduced into heraldry, in which he became the most popular animal figure. as a heraldic creature he was severely idealised, (see division iii, under heraldry). in the renascence period, the lion is represented in all of the foregoing uses. in the rococo period, there was little skill, and little understan- ding, for the figure of the lion. modern art follows the example of the antique and the renas- cence; and thus it comes that in the present day the lion enjoys the lion's share in decoration. it is remarkable that in all ages, when representing the lion, ar- tists have given to his countenance something of a human type, by using the oval eye of man, instead of the round cat-like eye, (compare, plate , fig. ).” plates – show the lion in naturalistic treatment, and also the conventional treatments of the various epochs; plate is devo- ted to heraldic treatments. * an exhaustive article, entitled “der löwe in der kunst,” by const. uhde, will be found in the “gewerbehalle,” . pp. et seqq. natural forms. the lion. plate . meyer, handbook of ornament. natural forms. plate . the lion. natural forms. the lion. plate . * natural forms. plate . the lion. the lion. plate . the lion. . walking lion, from nature, (münchener bilderbogen). . egyptian lion, relief with sunken outlines, temple, dachel, (ra- guenet). . egyptian lion, capitol, rome, (raguenet). . assyrian lion, glazcd clay slabs, royal palace, khorsabad, th cen- tury b. c. . heads of slaughtered lions, assyrian bas-relief, british museum. plate . the lion. . lion supporting a shield (called “il marzocco"), by donatello, na- tional museum, florence, italian, th century. . lion, front of the louvre, paris, modern, by barye, (baldus, ra- guenet). . lion, tuileries, paris, modern, (baldus, raguenet). and . lion, in front of the palace of the cortes, madrid, mo- dern, (raguenet). . lion supporting a shield, modern, (raguenet). plate . the lion. . sleeping lion, monument to pope clement xiii., st. peter's, rome, by canova. - - . wounded lion, kriegerdenkmal, hannover, by professor volz, of carlsruhe. . head of the companion of the above. . walking lion, modern, french. plate . the lion. . lion, in pavement, town hall, lüneburg. . lion, shield of johann of heringen, register of the university of erfurt, , (heraldische meisterwerke). . lion, coat of arms, inlaid marble work, sta. croce, florence. italian renascence, (teirich, eingelegte marmorornamente). . lion, coat of arms, intarsia panel, sta. maria novella, florence, italian renascence, (meurer, flachornamente). . lion, tomb in wertheim, german, th century, by johann of trarbach. . lion supporting a shield, mural decoration, modern, (heral- dische meisterwerke). – . heraldic lions, albrecht dürer. - the griffin, &c. — the lion head. the griffin, and the chimaera. (plates and .) in addition to the imitations of natural animals there have been, from the earlist times, various fabulous monsters, which were composed of parts of several different animals. centaurs, sphinxes, the assyrian human lions, lion and eagle men, combine the human and the animal body. the combination, of different animal-forms with one another, leads to monsters, the chief representatives of which are the griffin, and the chimaera. the griffin is the union of a lion's body with the head and wings of an eagle. the fore extremities may belong either to the lion or the eagle. as the lion with water, so the griffin is associated in antiquity with fire; hence his frequent appearance with candelabra on friezes, &c. in heraldry the griffin is the symbol of wisdom, and watchfulness. there are other combinations; e. g. the chimaera, the hippo. griff, the ichthyogriff, &c., which may be seen in pompejan decoration. plate . the griffin. . greek griffin, fragment, museum, naples. . roman griffin, fragment. . griffin, renascence. plate . the griffin, &c. . head of an assyrian eagle-headed personage, . head of an assyrian lion-headed personage, . roman chimaera, vatican. . sitting griffin, support of a seat, castle of gaillon, french renas- cence, (f. a. m., cours d'ornement). . winged lion, tomb of loys de breszé, rouen cathedral, – . winged lioness, as supporter, louvre, paris, modern, (baldus). sitting winged lioness, casa s. isidora, santiago, chili, modern, french, (raguenet). } british museum. º the lion head. (plates , .) the lion head has been still more extensively applied than the entire figure of the lion. it is found in countless examples: — as a gargoyle on the temples of the antique, as a spout on vessels, with a ring in the jaw as a handle and knocker on the doors of the por. tals of the middle ages and the renascence; and as a purely deco- rative element like bosses and rosettes. the antique created a natural forms. the griffin. plate . natural forms. plate . the griffin, &c. the lion head, &c. — the goat head, &c. remarkable form by the direct union of the lion head with one leg, to form the support of a table, (see division ii, supports, plates and ). plate . the lion head head, prospectus of dr. schubert's naturgeschichte. head, painting by paul meyerheim. . gargoyle, metapontum, greek, (gropius, archiv). . gargoyle, terracotta, athens, (gropius). . gargoyle, parthenon, athens. and . front and side view of an antique head, vatican. plate . the lion head. . door knocker, cathedral, mainz, romanesque. — . heads, in basrelief, by ghiberti, medallions inside the bronze doors, baptistry, florence, italian renascence, (gropius). . head, fountain of the 'sacristy, san lorenzo, florence, ita- lian renascence. . head, in medallion, italian renascence. . head, heidelberg castle, german renascence. gargoyle, opera house, paris, modern, french, architect garnier, (raguenet). . head, modern, french, architect garnier, (raguenet). . head, in profile, modern, french, by the sculptor cain of paris, (raguenet). . head, by liénard, modern, french. . head, by prof. volz, of carlsruhe. the lion head, goat head, &c. (plates , .) the tiger (felis tigris) and the panther (felis pardus) are sometimes found in antique works. amorini, bacchantes, and maenads, gambol about on them or drive in carriages drawn by these crea- tures; and decorate themselves and their utensils with their skins. panther and tiger heads, as well as the head of the lynx (felis lyma), find from time to time similar application to the lion head. ram heads are a favourite form of corner ornament for the cornices of altars, and tripods; or serve, like the skulls of oxen, as objects from which to hang festoons. the decorative use in both cases is connected with the use of the ram as a sacrificial animal, (com- pare p. ). instead of real animal heads we sometimes meet with fantastic forms which may be described as chimaera heads. natural forms. the lion head. plate . natural forms. the lion head. plate . heads of various animals. piate . the panther head, &c. and . front and side view of panther head, modern, french. and . front and side view of tiger head, from nature. and . front and side view of lynx head, antique gargoyle, vatican. plate . the ram head, &c. and . front and side view of chimaera head, corner of antique three-sided altar. . ram head, roman altar. . ditto. . ditto. and . front and side view of ram head, late renascence. heads of warious animals. (plate ) the horse (equus) offers certain difficulties in the way of artistic imitation. the legs, for example, are too thin for rendering in statues, except in metal. this circumstance presents less hin- drance to representations in bas-relief. as an isolated figure the horse seldom occurs; he is more frequent in groups forming teams of two, three, and more (biga, triga, quadriga), intended to be the crowning feature of monumental edifices (san marco, venice; brandenburger thor, altes museum, berlin; propylaea, munich) mostly along with the figure of the man who leads him (horse-tamers on the monte cavallo, rome) or rides him (statue of the condottiere bartolommeo colleoni , venice; the colossal statues in the burg- hof at vienna; the grosser kurfürst, the alter fritz, the battle scenes by kiss and wolff on the staircases of the museum at berlin). in bas-relief: the horse is, almost without exception, represented only in profile (hunting scenes from the ancient assyrian royal palaces, the frieze of the parthenon). in grottesque painting: he furnishes the fore parts of various monsters, the hinder parts being formed by fish tails, or in some other way. the use of the horse head as a medallion, on stables, riding-schools, prize-cups, and numerous objects connected with sport, is common in modern art. in heraldry: the horse occurs in a few cases (shield of stuttgart). in japan: the horse is symbolical; and is connected with the hours. still less adapted to ornamental purposes is the ox; and repre- sentations are therefore exceedingly rare. the same is true of the dog, the pig, the fox, the stag, the hare, &c., whose forms, either entire or as heads, are only used symbolically, on such objects as have some connection with hunting (hunting weapons, powder horns, targets). natural forms. the panther, head, &c. plate . natural forms. plate . the ram head, &c. natural forms. the horse head, &c. plate . heads of warious animals. – the eagle. plate . the horse head, &c. horse head, parthenon, athens. horse head, assyrian basrelief, british museum. – . antique horse head. horse head, modern, german. head of a hunting dog, head of a fox, head of a boar, head of an ox, by habenschadan, of münchen. the eagle. (plates – ) like the lion among quadrupeds, the eagle (aquila, falco fulvus) is the most important representative of the feathered tribes. his size and strength, his majestic flight, his keen vision, distinguish him above all other birds. he has been used in decorative art since the earliest times, e. g. in the persian, assyrian, and egyptian styles. with the greeks: he was the companion of zeus, whose thunder- bolts he keeps and guards; he carried off ganymede on his wings. the romans used him in the apotheoses of their emperors; and chose him for the standards of their legions. napoleon i., imitating roman caesarism, granted his armies the french eagle in . hence the frequent appearance of the eagle on trophies, and emblems of war. in ecclesiastical art: the eagle is the symbol of the evangelist s. john, whom he either accompanies, or symbolises independently. the eagle appears in heraldry at a very early period, about the time of charlemagne. next to the lion he is the most-used heraldic creature (e. g. the united states, germany, austria, prussia, and france under the second empire, all possess the eagle). his heraldic forms vary considerably from the natural one. blue excepted, he appears in all the tinctures. the double-headed eagle is a byzantine invention. the heraldic eagle is a highly ornamental figure, so that, from the middle ages up to the present time, he has been employed not only for heraldic, but also for purely decorative purposes: he is seen in manifold forms in intarsia, cut or etched in metal, cut in leather, embroidered, woven, and painted; on weapons and tools, furni- ture, ceilings, and walls, (see the heraldic treatment in division iii, heraldry). our figures show him, natural as well as idealised, in various positions and conceptions; plate shows his heraldic forms, (comp. plate ). the eagle. — the wing. plate . the eagle. young eagle, in a scutella (dish), roman. roman eagle, pedestal of trajan's column, rome, (raguenet). roman eagle, vatican, rome, (raguenet). roman eagle in an oak garland, bas-relief originally in trajan's forum, now in ss. apostoli, rome, (de wico, trenta tavole, &c.). . sitting eagle, modern, (gerlach, das gewerbemonogramm). : plate . the heraldic eagle. . romanesque eagle, germanisches museum, nuremberg. . eagle, gothic style, viollet-le-duc, (dictionnaire de l'architec- ture). . eagle, gothic style, oil painting, germanisches museum, nurem- berg. eagle, gothic style, by albrecht dürer, (hirth, formenschatz). . eagle, renascence, by albrecht dürer, (hirth). eagle, renascence, (hirth). eagle, renascence, by wenderlin dietterlin, (hirth). eagle, modern, german, (heraldische meisterwerke). i plate . the eagle. . eagle, as akroter, flora pavillion, louvre, paris, architect lefuel, (baldus). . eagle, in a laurel garland, modern, german, by rauch. . eagle, with olive branch, in medallion, louvre, paris, (baldus). . eagle, high relief, by rauch, on monument, berlin. . french eagle, modern, new opera house, paris, architect garnier, (raguenet). . flying eagle, from nature, (raguenet). . eagle, from nature. the wing. (plate .) as the small scale of the preceding plates does not admit of the details of the wing being fully shown; and as draughtsmen, as well as modellers, are often called-upon to design winged shapes (be- sides the eagle, angels, amorini, genii, grottesques, the caduceus of mercury, the symbolic wheel of the railroad, &c,. we have thought it advisable to add a plate showing the details of the wings on a somewhat larger scale. they are taken from nature; but will be found helpful for idealised renderings. plate . the wing. . wing of a duck. . wing of a wild goose. meyer, handbook of ornament. - natural forms. plate . the eagle. natural forms. the eagle. plate . * natural forms. the eagle. plate . natural forms. the wing. plate . the dolphin. the dolphin. (plates – ) the dolphin (delphinus delphis, french, dauphin) has enjoyed an unusual share of attention. this sea mammal, which has some- times been erroneously classed among the fishes, lives in the seas of the northern hemisphere, swarms round ships, swims in shoals, and is fond of sport. in ancient times the dolphin enjoyed, and enjoys even now in some parts, a kind of veneration which protects him from persecution. we meet him occasionally on antique coins, on graeco-italic terracottas, on pompeian mural paintings, on furniture and utensils, and in the architecture of the greeks and romans. guigo iv. of viennois ( ) took to himself the title of “dauphin", and the dolphin as crest. one of his successors, humbert ii., surrendered the dauphiny in to charles of valois, in exchange for a legacy and on the condition that the heir to the throne should always bear the title “dauphin"; which condition was faithfully kept. this is the explanation of the frequent appearance of the dolphin in french decoration; but its frequent appearance in italian decoration, is due to its artistic capabilities. the dolphin is often used in pilasters, panels, in intarsias, in ceilings and mural paintings, in enamel, in niello work, and in typographical ornaments. in modern styles the dolphin often masks the spouts of fountains. in symbolic representations he is the companion of nymphs, nereids, and tritons, and of arion, aphrodite, and neptune, with whose trident he is often combined in ornament. plate . the dolphin. . portion of frieze, graeco italic, campana collection, paris. . shield of the french kings, th century, (raguenet). . castle at blois, french renascence, (raguenet). . italian renascence, louvre, paris, (raguenet). - . head, from a relief, french, by clodion ( – ). . pair of dolphins, by schinkel, (vorbilder für fabrikanten und - handwerker). . head, as spout, by barbezat, paris, (raguenet). – . heads, as spouts, face and profile, (hauptmann, moderne orna- mentale werke im stile der italienischen renascence). plate . the dolphin. - - . frieze, sta. maria dell' anima, rome ( to ), italian, (raguenet). - . panel ornament, french renascence. . choir seats, certosa near pavia, italian renascence, (teirich, meurer). - natural forms. the dolphin. plate . natural forms. plate . the dolphin. - natural forms. the dolphin. plate . the dolphin. — the shell. — the serpent. . part of frieze, rome, arco della chiesa nuova, italian re- nascence, (weissbach und lottermoser, architektonische motive). – . heads. – . parts of address by german artists, to king humbert of italy, by director götz. plate . the dolphin. . panel, venetian renascence. . lower part of panel, ducal palace, venice, italian renascence. . part of frieze, sta. maria della pace, rome, by bramante, , italian. . part of majolica tile, sta. caterina, siena, italian renascence. . head, cathedral, limoges, french renascence. . handle of a vessel, pilaster, by benedetto da majano, italian re- imascence. . pen drawing, by lucas von leyden ( ). the shell. (plate .) among molluscs: the nautilus (nautilus pompilius) and various shells, principally of the family of the trochoidae, are placed on feet; and, elegantly mounted in metal, serve as drinking-vessels. the scallop shell is used as the top of cylindrical niches, as a waterbasin in the form of a shallow dish, and as a decorative back- ground for vases and busts. it was extensively employed for these purposes in the later renascence. plate . the shell. . nautilus, from nature. . snail (turbo marmoratus), from a renascence drinking-vessel. . exterior of the scallop (ostrea jacobaea — pecten jacobaeus), from nature. interior of the scallop, after jost amman, (hirth, formenschatz). scallop design, louis xvi. style, lower end of a panel. scallop design, by the sculptor lehr, of berlin. scallop design, for the decoration of a niche. : the serpent. (plate ) the serpent is occasionally used for symbolic and decorative purposes. it is developed ints an antique bracelet, and to a handle for vessels, a pair twine round the staff of mercury (the caduceus, natural forms. plate . the shell. natural forms. the serpent, &c. plate . the serpent. – human organism. comp. plate ), and a single one round the staff of esculapius. coiled in a circle with tail in mouth it is the symbol of eternity on tombs, it is used in mythology, and is an indispensable accompani- ment of the symbols of envy and dissension; and the hair of medusa is represented as composed of serpents (plate ). in ecclesiastical art: the serpent is the symbol of wickedness, sin, and temptation (the scene in paradise); it appears under the feet of the virgin mary with an apple in its mouth. in heraldry: it is represented devouring a child, on the shield of the visconti, of milano. plate . the serpent. . cast from life of a viper (vipera berus — pelias berus) with a lizard (lacerta viridis — lacerta agilis), by j. eberhard of heilbronn. cast from life of a viper, by j. eberhard of heilbronn. antique bracelet in the form of a viper, pompeii. the snake as the symbol of eternity, (gerlach, allegorien und embleme). : c. human organism. the human form has been, and is destined to be a favoured object of representation in art. the desire, to depict for contemporaries and to transmit to posterity, the great deeds of individuals and the epoch-making achievements and fate of whole races and nations, is universal among mankind; as also the attempt to reproduce the portraits of celebrated persons. even the supernatural powers, his gods, man represents in the form of men. the “lord of creation” can give to the beings he venerates no more ideal form than his own, which he holds to be the most developed”. the christian conception has arrived at the same result by the reverse process: “god created man in his own image.” virtues, vices, passions, sci- ences and arts, ages, seasons and hours, elements, rivers, countries, hemispheres, and many other things receive symbolic expression; and are pictorially rendered by human figures. and the human body is often represented, without any meaning, and solely (decoratively) * mortals, however, opine that the gods had an origin man-like; feel and have voices like men, like men have a bodily fashion oxen and lions, no doubt, if they had but hands and a chisel, pencils as well, to depict the figure divine, would do likewise: god for the horse were a horse, and god for the oxen were ox-like, each would think god like himself and give to his god his own .nhage. xenophanes of colophon. b. c. the human figure. — the mask. on account of its beauty of form. all these delineations, which fall within the domain of high art, lie beyond the scope of this work. we have only to deal with the human figure so far as it has been received into decoration: we have only to occupy ourselves with “conventionalised” man. this includes the applications of the human face, more or less true to nature or with arbitrary accessions; masks and caricatures; grottesques, those strange combinations of human with animal or plant elements; and also the applications of the upper half of the human body as the starting-point of ornament; half-lengths as commencements of ornaments; those mixtures of human and animal shapes in which the upper half falls to the share of man, e. g.: — sphinxes, centaurs, &c. the mask. (plate .) the mask, strictly so-called, is an artificial, hollow face, intended to be placed in front of, and to conceal the human countenance so as to make the wearer unrecognisable, or to characterize him in some special way. the use of the mask dates back to the popular harvest games of the earliest greek period. from these games the mask is believed to have been transferred to the ancient theatre, in which the actors all appeared masked. different classes of masks were recognised: tragic, comic, &c. definite types of masks were connected with de- finite characters and “persons". the mouth-openings of these masks were unnaturally large and shaped like a bell-mouth, so as to reinforce the voice of the speaker; in latin the mask is termed “persona" (from personare = to sound through). from theatrical, the masks passed to artistic use, e. g. in the mural paintings of theatres and secular edifices (pompeian decorations), on bacchic vessels and other utensils (various beakers in the silver treasure of hildesheim). the renascence and the following styles have at times used masks in decoration, altering and exaggerating the forms. in particular the mask is often used for the decoration of the keystones of door and window arches. we may also mention the beautiful, freely-treated heads of dying warriors by schlüter on the arsenal at berlin; and the masks in antique style on the new opera house in paris, by garnier. plate . the mask. . bacchus, graeco italic, fragment of a vessel or utensil. — . heads, goblet (hildesheim treasure), roman, berlin museum. . keystone, graeco italic, terracotta, campana collection. . part of frieze, graeco italic, campana collection. . silenus, handle of etruscan vessel. – . decoration, pompeii. the mask. — the grottesque mask. . satyr, italian renascence, by sansovino, over a festoon in sta. maria del popolo, rome. . dying warrior, by schlüter, berlin arsenal, . the grottesque mask. (plates – ) masks and caricatures pass into each other, so that it is diffi- cult to draw a strict line between them. the french language ex- presses this connection clearly, by using the related words “masque” and “mascaron.” under masks are usually classed the delineations of beautiful countenances, either true to nature or idealising it. caricatures are faces grinning, deformed, distorted by accessories, or terminating in foliage. the antique, which had no love whatever for the depicting of the ugly and bizarre, only used caricatures in its oldest periods, in the so-called archaic style. the middle ages frequently employed caricatures. the renascence and barocco styles, as well as our most modern, art, often apply caricatures to keystones, to consoles, as spouts and handles, on shields and cartouches, in capitals and panels, on the backs of chairs, and in general on carved furniture, on stove-tiles, &c. we possess a number of excellent caricatures from the hand of the youthful michelangelo, who treated this form with predilection, and with the breadth characteristic of his genius. plate . the grottesque mask. . etruscan, terracotta, campana collection, (f. a. m., cours d'ornement). . grottesque, italian renascence, venice. . grottesque, tomb of the cardinal. sforza, sta. maria del popolo, rome, italian renascence, by sansovino. . single grottesque, from frieze, italian renascence, by michel- angelo, san lorenzo, florence. . part of capital of pilaster, french renascence, tomb of louis xii, st. denis. – . modern french grottesques. plate . the grottesque mask. . carved bench, italian renascence, bargello, florence. — . female, metal shields, german renascence. . akroter, tribunal de commerce, paris. . grottesque, louvre, paris, (baldus). natural forms. the mask, &c. plate . natural forms. the grottesque mask. plate . meyer, handbook of ornament. natural forms. the grottesque mask. plate . natural forms. plate . the grottesque mask. the grottesque mask. — the medusa head. — the grottesque. . modern french, theatre de bellecour, lyons, architect chatron, (raguenet). . modern french, ministry of war, paris, architect bouchot, (raguenet). piate . the grottesque mask. grottesque, by michelangelo, italian renascence, (raguenet). . grottesque, castle of ecouen, french, , (raguenet). . german, th century, (lessing). . grottesque, german renascence, gemanisches museum, nuremberg. grottesque, pedestal of a column, tomb in pforzheim, german renascence, by hans von trarbach. from the spout of a can, german renascence. grottesque, escutcheon of a lock, german renascence. grottesque, modern panel, sculptor hauptmann. i i the medusa head. (plate .) unique among the masks is the head of medusa. medusa, in mythological tradition one of the three gorgons, whose head perseus cut-off, to present it to athene as an ornament for her shield. it is employed in ancient art as a decoration for breastplates and shields, on and above doors and gates, and on the ground of paterae and dishes. the expression is that of the rigidity of death; its look is meant to petrify; the hair is interlaced with serpents; serpents wind themselves in knots beneath her chin; and small wings are often added. the archaic art represented the gorgon as ugly, terrible, and disgusting; the later greek conception, under praxiteles, was of stern, grand, beauty, (the so called rondanine medusa in the glyptothek at munich). . in the modern and renascence styles, the head of medusa is only decorative; and it is seldom employed. plate . the medusa head. . the farnese dish (onyx patera), museum, naples, roman. centre of antique patera, roman. . medallion, probably modern, french. . tympanum, tuileries, paris, (baldus). . the grottesque. (plate .) grottesques (from grotto) are fantastic, often really ugly monsters, produced by the combination of human, animal, and plant organisms the grottesque. — the half-figure. in the freest and most arbitrary manner. squatting, winged female figures without arms; human bodies with fishtails, with endlessly long, winding necks, with extremities terminating in foliage, are types of this style of ornamentation. the origin of the grottesque must be sought in the decorative painting of the romans. pompeii offers copious material. various painters of the italian renascence, among them rafael, revived and used the antique grottesque painting (rafael's loggie), after the discovery of the grottesque painting in the thermae of titus at rome, (from these vaults or grottoes is derived the name grottesque). the grottesques are a striking example of the playful and artistic feeling of the ancients; and stand in great contrast to the coarse attempts at the comic to be found in medieval art. from decorative painting the grottesques passed to the plastic art of the renascence. the revival of italian decorative painting in modern art has led to the retention of these forms also. plate . the grottesque. . part of pilaster, italian renascence, by benedetto da majano. . part of pilaster, tomb of louis xii., st. denis, french re- ila scence. . part of pilaster, palazzo magnifico, siena, italian renascence, by barile. – . parts of ornamental columns, palazzo guadagni, florence, (schütz). . italian majolica pavement, siena, italian renascence, (l'art pour tous). . stall in san severino, naples, italian renascence, by barto- lommeo chiarini and bernadino torelli da brescia, (schütz). . stall, san agostino, perugia, italian renascence. the half-figure. (plates – .) from antique times up to the present day, half-figures have been popular as startings for ornaments. the upper part of the human body undergoes little variation from its natural forms. below the breast or the stomach, often defined by a girdle, there is developed a sort of inverted foliage-cup, from which the scroll orna- ment grows. half-figures are found not only in the flat and in bas- relief, but also in round plastic art, in this latter case as brackets for lamps, torchholders, doorknockers, &c. plate . the half-figure. — . panels, roman altar. . part of a roman relief. - - - - - natural forms. - - the medusa head. plate . natural forms. plate . the grottesque. natural forms. the half-figure. plate . natural forms. the half-figure. plate . the half-figure. — the sphinx, and the centaur. . socle of altar, cathedral of orvieto, italian renascence, (ge- werbehalle). . part of relief, italian renascence. plate . the half-figure. . bracket, , italian, south kensington museum, london, (arundel society, objects of art). . decoration on ceiling, castle of s. angelo, rome, italian re- nascence. . sketch, by polidore da caravaggio, th century, italian, louvre, paris. . centre of a relief, lectern, cathedral, limoges, french renascence. . from basrelief, by j. verchère, modern, french. the sphinx, and the centaur. (plate ) the sphinx is an imaginary combination of the human bust with the body of the lion. it was originally an egyptian invention. the colossal sphinx of memphis was begun under cheops; it is hewn from the living rock, partly supplemented by masonry, and is more than feet long. the bust is generally a woman's; but in some cases it is a ram head. the sphinx is the guardian of temples and tombs, in front of which it is frequently ranged in avenues. in the roman period: wings are added, probably through assyrian influence; and the crouching position is sometimes exchanged for the half-erect. the renascence uses sphinxes in painting (as double sphinx also, with a single head and double body), and in free shapes as fire dogs, &c. the barocco period adorns gardens and portals with crouching sphinxes, (the castle garden at schwetzingen contains a considerable number). centaurs are imaginary wild monsters, with the fore part of a man and the hinder part of a horse. among the greeks, the centaur ori- ginally symbolised the thessalian race of equestrian renown. mytho- logy recounts their struggles with the lapithae. later delineations, such as the mural paintings of pompeii, depict the centaurs less wild, tamed to the service of dionysos, and sporting with amorini and bacchantes. the decorative capabilities of these fantastic figures has ensured them renewed application in later styles; and they are some- times used in modern decoration. plate . the sphinx, and the centaur. . crouching sphinx, egyptian, louvre, paris, (raguenet). . crouching sphinx with ram head, egyptian, (raguenet). . lower corner of an antique candelabrum, roman. natural forms. the sphinx, and the centaur. plate . natural forms. plate . the cherub head, &c. miscellaneous heads. . sitting sphinx, modern, french, andiron, by the sculptor piat, (l'art pour tous). . crouching sphinx, modern. – . centaurs and bacchantes, mural paintings, pompeii, (cheſs d'oeuvre de l'art antique). miscellaneous heads. (plate .) angel-faces, winged, youthful heads, with a circular or disc-like halo, are first met-with in the byzantine style, as a result of the activity of ecclesiastical artists. in the early italian renascence, the rendering is charmingly naive (lucca della robbia may be specially mentioned); they adorn friezes and arches, fill medallions, and are found in borders. they occur often on tombs; and they are also much used in modern ecclesiastical decoration. the profiles of minerva, mars, apollo, frequently occur in me- dallions. the skull or death's head, the gruesome grinning relic of de- parted life, and emblem of decay and death, finds its place in the dances of death, at one time so popular; also on the shield of death (albrecht dürer), on monuments, tombs, &c. it is generally represented in front view, and often over two crossed bones. plate . the cherub head, &c. cherub, early italian renascence. cherub, candelabrum, certosa near pavia, italian renascence. frame, germanisches museum, nuremberg. column of the plague, vienna, barocco. modern, medallion, by prof. heer, carlsruhe. minerva, berlin museum, modern. minerva, modern. warrior, louvre, paris, (baldus). . mars, from lièvre, les arts decoratifs. . skull, from nattire. c artificial objects. besides geometrical elements, and those copied from organic nature: ornamental art avails itself of artificial objects, either alone or in combination with the two first-named classes. but this does not include the accidental use of all kinds of articles in symbolic work, and the still-life painting, but only the vessels, tools weapons, instruments, shields, knots, ribbons, &c., which are used as decora- tion, or blended with it. it is easy to understand how the vessels of religious rites passed into the decoration of religious edifices, temples, and churches. in the antique style: the altars, tripods, candelabra, sacrificial axes, sprinklers, &c.; in the christian styles: the symbol of the cross, marks of priestly dignity, the instruments of the passion, &c., decorate friezes, walls, and panels, (comp. plate , figs. and ). decorative groups of hunting and warlike. implements and of tools, &c., are termed trophies: the devices of guilds and companies are symbols. the following chapters will treat of these things in detail, along with other designs, of somewhat rarer occurrence, which also belong to this section. * the trophy. (plates and ) it was the custom of the greeks to hang on the trunks of trees, the weapons which the flying enemy had left behind on the the trophy. — the symbol. field of battle. these tokens of victory, or trophies, have also found a place in decoration. the romans erected artificial, symbolical trophies of stone or bronze in the form of columns, pyramids, and similar architectural structures. since their time trophies have been used not only to decorate all monuments connected with war and victory, e.g. arsenals, the offices of the ministry of war, guard-houses, barracks, and weapons, especially shields; but they have been used up to the present time for purely decorative purposes, as elegantly- arranged and prettily-grouped weapons of war, in the architecture of the pilasters of castles, town-halls and tombs, in the intarsias of the renascence, on woven fabrics and tapestries, as vignettes; and, above all, in plastic ornament. it was also natural that trophies should also be formed of hunt- ing-weapons, which have much similarity with weapons of war, and also of objects connected with the navy. the original meaning of the word (roozzatov = token of victory, from toozzi, turning, flight) has, it must be admitted, been lost sight of in these applications. plate . the trophy. — . decoration of chased metal dish, renascence. — . decoration of clock panel, french renascence, louis xiii style, (lièvre). – . panels of door, otto-heinrich portion of the castle, heidel- berg, german renascence, (pfnor). plate . the trophy. . panel, tomb of galeazzo pandono, san domenico maggiore, naples, italian renascence, (schütz). . part of panel, italian renascence. . part of panel of a stall, dordtrecht, dutch renascence. pedestal of monument to a margrave, pforzheim, by hans von trarbach, german renascence. – . panels, quay front, tuileries, paris, (baldus). . part of design for a monument, by j. ch. delafosse. the symbol. (plates – .) the grouping of tools and instruments, to symbolise some special idea, leads to the design of symbols. thus we find, disregarding those of war and hunting, which we have treated of as trophies, symbols of art, both of art in general and of the special arts: music, painting, sculpture, architecture, &c.; symbols of science, artificial objects. plate . the trophy. artificial objects. t the trophy. plate . meyer, handbook of ornament. the symbol. either as a whole or for individual sciences: mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, &c.; of commerce, of technical science, and finally of handicrafts and trades. singing, for example, is symbolised by a lyre with or without sheets of music: music by violins, flutes, horns, pan's pipes, &c.; dancing by the tambourine and castagnettes; acting by masks; paint- ing by brush and palette; sculpture by the hammer, chisel, and works of sculpture, busts, torsi; architecture by square, straight-edge and compasses, usually in combination with capitals. the railroad and steam are symbolised by a winged wheel, the telegraph by coils of wire, which radiate lightning. trade is represented by casks and bales of goods on which the caduceus (a staff round which winged serpents are twining — the attribute of mercury) is resting; agriculture has the plough, the sickle, the scythe, &c., wine culture the vine press. the different trades have chosen their symbols partly from their tools, partly from their finished products. the guilds and companies of past centuries introduced a certain system into these outward and visible signs; a large number of guild pictures, some of them very beautiful and ingenious, are preserved in the industrial art museums of modern times. a far more detailed and extensive treatment of symbols than can be given in the present work will be found in gerlach's allegorien und embleme, to which we are indebted for a number of illustrations. plate . the symbol. . angle ornament, hall of the ministry of state, louvre, paris, (baldus). louvre, paris, (baldus). - symbol of the violin makers' guild, klingenthal, , (gerlach, allegorien und embleme). – . pilaster panels, by the sculptor fomilini of florence, modern. – . medallions, by the sculptor lehr of berlin, modern. . . plate . the symbol. . carved wood door-head, french, th century, (l'art pour tous). — . symbols of sculpture and painting, by the sculptor hauptmann, dresden, modern. . part of exhibition-programme, münchen, , by r. seitz. . address-card of an ink factory, by prof. hammer of carlsruhe. . title to an edition of goethe's works, by dir. götz of carlsruhe. plate . the symbol. . part of panel, court of ducal palace, venice, italian renascence, (schütz). artificial objects. the symbol. plate . s* artificial objects. plate . the symbol. artificial objects. the symbol. plate . artificial objects. . plate . the symbol. artificial objects. the symbol. plate . the symbol. ecclesiastical art, architecture and sculpture, painting, in pilasters, by the sculptor antique art, hauptmann, modern, staircase of christian art, museum, dresden. art, . sculpture, i plate . the symbol. . banner, of the architectural school of the polytechnicum, carls- ruhe. chemistry. mathematics. mechanical engineering. civil engineering. forestry. post and commerce, polytechnicum at carlsruhe, designed by g. kachel. . mechanical engineering, . the mechanic, (gerlach, allegorien und embleme). . smithery, . navigation and commerce, tuileries, paris, (baldus). i plate . the symbol. - navigation, . agriculture, . music, . farming, – . war, border of a copper plate engraving, by heinrich goltzius ( — ). court front of the tuileries, paris, (baldus). . hunting and fishing, by stuck of munich, (gerlach, alle- gorien und embleme). . forestry, . sword-making, . musketry, (gerlach). . farriery, . smithery. the ribbon. (plates – .) ribbons are not used alone, but are frequently employed as a decoration of garlands and festoons (comp. plates , , ), of sym- bols (comp. plates – ), or they are labels to bear some motto (comp. plate ). the ribbons of the antique are simple, often ter. minating in a ball or acorn like knob; the middle ages, particularly artificial objects. the ribbon, and the label. plate . artificial objects. plate . the ribbon. artificial objects. miscellaneous objects. plate . the ribbon. — miscellaneous objects. the gothic, make them curled and quaint; in the renascence they are developed in various free and elegant styles, often divided at the ends like a pennon. in the louis xvi. style they are often peculiarly crinkled, but in spite of this mannerism they are not without a cer- tain decorative charm, (comp. plates and ). plate . the ribbon, and the label. . label for motto, on the seal of the town of schiltach, gothic, inscription on the scroll: “s. opidi schilttach”. . ribbon, from jost amman's wappen- und stammbuch, german renascence. . ribbon, painting by b. zeitblom, carlsruhe gallery, gothic. . label for motto, old germain painting, school of cologne, carls- ruhe gallery. . label for motto, triumphal car, by hans burgkmair, – , german, (hirth). . label for motto, albrecht dürer's “der eilen seyndt alle vögel neydig und gram," german renascence, (hirth). plate . the ribbon. . ribbon and knot, after daniel mignot, german renascence. . ribbon and knot, the louis xvi. style, (lièvre). . ribbon and knot for a bunch of fruit, after prof. sturm of vienna, (storck's zeichenvorlagen). . drapery festoon, (raguenet). miscellaneous objects. (plate ). finally, among the artificial objects which are used in decora- tion, especially of pilasters, we may mention those forms like cande- labra and vases, from which ornaments, like growing plants, usually rise, (comp. plates and ). cornucopias, torches, small inscription tablets, and many other objects, are introduced. plate . miscellaneous objects. . wase, window pilaster of the cancelleria, rome, by bramante. ita- lian renascence, (de wico). . vase, pilaster of a door, san angostino, rome, (de wico). wase, lower part of a panel, italian renascence. wase, tomb of louis xii., st. denis, french renascence. wase, louis xvi. style, (f. a. m., cours d'ornement). crossed torches, upper part of pilaster, by benedetto da majano, italian renascence. . crossed torches, renascence. i division ii. ornament applied to features. . bands. free ornaments, . supports. enclosed ornaments, or panels. repeating ornaments, or diapers. introduction. the second division of the handbook deals with ornament as applied in decorative features. they will be arranged according to their function, and treated in accordance with the mutual relations of the decorative form and its application. every one acquainted with decoration, must have been struck by the fact that on certain objects and on certain parts of them the decoration invariably appears to have been modelled on the same principle, no matter how much the selected motives may vary from each other or belong to special styles. in decoration, as elsewhere, there is a right and a wrong use for everything; each object, even the very smallest, requires its own proper form and decoration, and the artist who understands style will give these, though in many cases unconsciously; artistic instinct guiding one man where another must study laboriously. be this as it may, the relations are there. a socle ornament cannot be reversed and used as a frieze without modification; a column, which looks beautiful and even delicate on monumental archi- tecture, may produce a clumsy effect if reduced and applied to furni- ture; no one finds fault with the or flutings of it in archi- tecture, but half of them would more than suffice for the smaller cabinet. and so on. the achievements of those periods, in which the intimate connection between form, aim and material was either unknown or forgotten, are what might be expected. the empire style, which copied the antiqne at the instance of an august per- sonage; and, in so doing, produced work which is classical in respect of its mannerisms; is an example. a greek temple and an arm chair are two different things; each has its own peculiarities; and must be fashioned and decorated in accordance therewith. it were an insoluble problem to give a formula for each case; and to attempt to do so lies beyond the scope of this handbook. but we will attempt to bring together some important groups from the entire field; and by means of them to illustrate the principles of design. a. b a n d s. the group of bands includes all those ornamental forms which are used to give expression to the ideas of bordering, framing, and connecting. the motives are partly geometrical, partly organic, chiefly plant- forms; artificial forms being more rarely used. the band has no “up” or “down"; but only an onward or an outward tendency. it has no limitation in regard to length; but is generally a narrow, ribbon-like ornament. the proper application of bands is to the enclosing of ceilings, walls, floors, panels, on certain architectural constructions, on the abacus and the plinth of columns, and as a running ornament round the shaft of the latter. they are further used as the hem or border of garments, carpets and other textiles; as borders in typography, on the rims of plates or dishes, or to separate the ground from the rim, &c. the principal ornaments in this group are: the fret; chain and interlaced patterns (guilloche); foliated bands in the various forms of rosette, palmette, flower, leaf, and scroll bands, &c. the evolute spiral band (plate ) stands to a certain extent on the borderline between bands and free ornaments. leaf patterns, and the egg-and-tongue which has been devel- oped from them, are not bands at all, in the strict sense of the word. they express the mediation between the support and the weight, for which reason they are used as the enrichment of mouldings. they are here included among bands in order to avoid an independent group for the sake of the one plate. as a matter of fact, they do often appear as bands (the egg-and-tongue as a decoration of plates, medallions, &c). the fret band. the fret band. (plates – ) the greek fret (or meander border) is, as it name indicates, a specifically greek ornament, and no doubt of textile origin. its accomodation to the rectangular network suggests this. the name “meander" is said to be derived from a river of asia minor, the maeandros, now the menderes, which flows in sinuous curves. although the forerunners of the greek border are to be found in the assyrian and egyptian styles, it was greek vase-painting and architecture which gave rise to the variations of the pattern; architecture also employed it plastically. among other applications in the roman style it was used for mosaics on floors and often — contrary to the principles of style of flat ornaments — in those parallel perspective representations in which it seems as if it were a plastic ornament, (plate . ). the middle ages seldom used the fret (one example will be found on plate . ); but similar forms are common in the chinese and japanese styles (plate . ). the renascence revived the fret in its ancient application; made new combinations; and sometimes interlaced it with plant motives (plate . ). although very commonplace, the fret still has a good effect when it is applied in the proper manner. its construction is very simple. in general – although not always — the breadth of the broad lines or ornament is equal to the distance between them; we therefore draw a square network as shown on plate , fig. , then draw all the horizontal lines (the measure- ment of the lengths and the observance of the rhythmic regularity peculiar to each greek pattern are the only difficulties), and then join their ends by means of perpendiculars, (plates and ). centres are formed by arranging the axis at a suitable place, and reversing the pattern, (plate . and ). angle junctions may be similarly arranged by cutting the pattern diagonally to the square net at a suitable place, and reversing as before, (plate . , and ). the angle-treatment of current frets is more difficult (plate : figs. , , and ). the end of a fret with only one row may be formed by cutting the pattern short at a suitable spot; where two or more rows run parallel to or cross each other, they may be combined so as to form proper endings (plate . ). the pattern is sometimes carried round a circle; but this is an arrangement which is quite out of accordance with its character. the square network is not always applicable to cases in which the fret has to be repeated within a given length. in this case the divi- sions of length are either elongated or compressed by drawing the auxiliary lines at a greater or less angle than ° (this is shown on plates and ). the fret band. — the chain band. plate . unsymmetrical or current frets; greek vase paintings. – . ordinary, simple patterns. . elongated pattern. raking pattern. – . patterns which are interrupted by rosettes, stars, &c. – . abnormal pattern, formed by fragments, instead of a contin. nous line. plate . reciprocating frets. – . ordinary, simple patterns. . double pattern, greek. . intersecting pattern, louvre, paris. and . fragmentary pattern, greek, and modern. and . symmetrical double pattern, greek. – . ornamented patterns. plate . intersecting frets, &c. – . ordinary patterns, greek vase paintings. . abnormal pattern, japanese metal vessel. . pattern in parallel perspective, roman mosaic pavement. . mediaeval folded-tape pattern, resembling the fret, (racinet). . pattern ornamented with laurel, louvre, paris. plate . ends, angles, and centres, of frets. , and . free, unsymmetrical angle treatment. , , , and . symmetrical angles. and . centre treatments. — . ends of patterns. antique motives, except no. (chinese), and no. (modern). the chain band. (plate ) the basis of the design is the chain. the chain band is there- fore cemposed of circular, elliptical, square, or lozenge shaped links, which are either represented all in front view (as in , , and ), or alternately in profile (as in , , , and ). the chain pattern probably occurs sporadically in every style. that chain-bands have not been more frequently used, although they are a simple and effective mode of decoration, may be due to the fact that the chain appeared to a certain degree to be too force- ful, too vigorous in its effect. at any rate, delicacies of artistic feel- meyer, handbook of ornament bands. |e||flſ; tº . h = h plate . the fret band. bands. [f uef|| ||[fif]||[f]| || §: . [...] *b, . the fret band. plate . * bands. — plate . | - - - - - - - - - - - - - ） i l l l • • • • • • • • • +-+-+-+· . i t - №ſſae)， | （）|（）|| │ ├─|| || || №.Œ|| |||||||||||Ģ||Ķ|¤| [#||[ītā||||||||||tĒ||ĪĒ||Īſāeffeff#ftlË [e]]· · · · -, -,||ſ=}}Œ |ſ[ |||||||Ė|||-Éſ:ſī| | || .| –ſae， bands. the chain band. – the interlacement band. ing, which have found expression elsewhere, and often unconsciously, seem to point to this conclusion. the construction of such bands is simple; and in the case of those illustrated may be understood from the plate itself. plate . the chain. band. – . modern decorative painting. – . carved wooden ceiling, townhall, jever, german, renascence. the interlacement band. (plates – ) the interlacement band includes all those bands which are for- med of a number of lines interlaced or plaited together. they are usually symmetrical to the longitudinal axis; and may be produced indefinitely. the principle is that the interlacing broad lines shall pass over and under one-another alternately. rope patterns are used as borders in painting, in textiles, in pottery, intarsia, and the ornamentation of manuscripts; in architect- ure on the under sides of stays and beams, on archivolts (the arches of doors and windows), in the soffits of arches, sometimes in a frieze, and often as the enrichment of the torus moulding. interlacement patterns are used in all styles, though in some they are more popular than in others. and in this ornament the indivi- duality of each style is very strongly marked. in the antique: the ornament consist of wavy interlacing bands round regularly-placed knobs or eyes. the wavy lines are composed of arcs or of arcs and straight lines, in which latter case the arcs make tangential junctions with the straight lines (plate ). in flat ornament the interlacing lines are distinguished from each-other by shading or by colour; in plastic ornamentation they are fluted or channelled. the interlacement patterns of the middle ages — chiefly of the byzantine and romanesque periods — make use of antique forms; adding to them the angular bend (plate . – ). in the so called northern styles — celtic, anglo-saxon, norman, scandinavian, and old frankish: it is the most conspicuous ornament. here we meet extremely complicated and richly combined interlacings, mostly freely drawn, without the aid of the compasses. it is cha- racteristic, and remarkable in regard to these styles, that the same band appears in sections of different colours in their ornament. the works of owen jones and racinet contain numerous examples, mostly from old illuminated manuscripts: our plate ( – ) reproduces some of the simplest (reconstructed with the compasses). ` the interlacement band. the moorish style favours a peculiar interlacement. it is cha- racteristic that the bands, which are always straight, make angles of ° or , and are adapted to a network as shown on plate , fig. . here, too, we find the alternate colouring of the single bands. numerous examples will be found in owen jones, racinet, and prisse d'avennes, “l’art arabe”, a selection from these being given in plate , figs, – . the other oriental styles exhibit greater variety in this respect; and also employ round forms, (plate . und ). the renascence developed great variety. besides the traditional forms of the antique, peculiar constructions appear, chiefly to be met-with in the arts of inlaying, on book-cover decoration, in pewter chasing, and typographical borders, (plate ). modern art borrows from all styles; and, as was also the case in the middle ages and the renascence, intersperses its patterns with foliage, (plate ). plate . the interlacement band. – . ordinary antique patterns, single, double, and triple. – . elongated antique patterns, single, double, and triple. . antique pattern, doubly interlaced, with unequal waves. . antique pattern with two rows, terracotta painting. construction: first mark the centres of the eyes: in and these lie on the points of intersection of a triangular net; in and on those of a diagonal square net. the rest will be understood from the figure. plate . the interlacement band. . romanesque patterns, decoration of archivolt, segovia. . byzantine pattern, sta. sofia, constantinople. – . northern patterns, manuscript ornaments of the th and th century, (racinet) plate . the interlacement band. – . simple moorish patterns, alhambra, granada. . persian pattern, metal vessel, (racinet). . russian oriental pattern, (viollet le duc, “l’art russe"), plate . the interlacement band. – . patterns, wood and ivory inlaid work, italian renascence. . pattern, by domenico de fossi, of florence, th century, (raguenet). . intarsia pattern, sta. maria in organo, verona; in the original the interstices are enriched by plant sprays. bands. |× \<\ < >> z\><> xxz a [[ %rºž & neº r& z\ §º -> |- hº- s n plate . the interlacement band. bands. plate . the interlacement band. bands. plate . the interlacement band. bands. the interlacement band. plate . bands. t the interlacement band. plate . the interlacement band. — the rosette band. . title border of a mathematical work, printed in paris, oronce finé, , (hirth). - . soffit ornament, entrance of the otto heinrich building, hei- delberg, to , (musterornamente). plate . the interlacement band. – . angles of border, modern french, (raguenet). . edge of a nodern damask border, (gewerbehalle). – . modern borders, (bötticher, “ornamentenbuch"). . modern wood intarsia, (gewerbehalle). the rosette band. (plate ) the term “rosette band" is a general name for rosette, spray and other bands, when the rosette is the leading characteristic. the single rosettes, which are similar to conventional roses seen in front- view, are either in immediate juxtaposition (plate . and ), or divided by channels (plate . ), by calices (plate . , , ), or by stalks and sprays (plate . , , , ). the rosette bands are either current, that is, they have a definitive direction sideways; or they are entirely without direction, that is, they are symmetrical, not only from top to bottom but also from right to left. by allow- ing the rosettes to overlap we get a band more or less identical with the so called strung-coin, or “money-moulding", (plate . and ). rosette bands are especially common in the assyrian style, in antique vase painting, in the medieval enamels (cologne enamel), in the indian style, in the renascence, and in the modern styles. plate . the rosette band. . antique vase painting. . modern decorative pattern. antique bronze shield. and . antique patterns, after jacobsthal. . neck of a greek hydria. . latin evangeliarum, written by godescald for charlemagne, th century, (racinet). . enamel ornament, the great reliquary, aachen. (racinet). . indian enamel border, (prisse d'avennes). . indian carving, (owen jones). . intarsia border, sta. maria in organo, verona, , (muster- ornamente). . popular renascence pattern. . pattern, persepolis. . plastic border, louis xvi. style, (raguenet). bands. the rosette band. plate . bands. the palmette band. – the wertebrate band. the palmette band. (plate .) the palmette is a specifically greek kind of ornament. like the fin- gers of an outspread hand (palma, the palm of the hand) a group, odd in number, of narrow, entire leaves is combined into a symmet- rical ornament. the centre leaf is the largest; and the leaves diminish gradually as they approach the sides. the tips of the leaves lie on a regular curve. the lower ends of the leaves are disconnected, divi- ded from each other by slight intervals, and usually spring from a tongue-shaped leaf. the delicate sensitiveness of greek artistic feeling finds a striking expression in this ornament. it is applied in mani- fold ways, e. g.: as antefixes and akroters, as cornice-decoration (comp. the group of free ornaments), and as palmette borders. in rare cases the palmette ornaments are in juxtaposition without anything between them — this is usually the case on the lekythos (a greek vessel for oil, &c.) plate . — in the majority of cases the palm- ettes are connected or bordered by spiral bands (plate . . &c.). palmette ornaments are of frequent occurrence on greek vessels, and on the friezes of their architecture. where they occur in later styles: it is only sporadically; and the severe classical beauty is not retained. plate . the palmette band. . , and . paintings, greek, terracotta vessels. . and . greek, friezes. . intarsia, italian renascence. . modern, wrought iron trellis. the vertebrate band, &c. (plates – ) leaf bands are generally numerous in all styles; and as varied as are the modes of their application. the leaved stalk, with or without flowers, fruits, &c., is the simplest natural motive. the various plants are used as a basis, partly with, partly without, symbolical reference. the antique chiefly availed itself of the laurel, olive, and ivy; the middle ages used the vine, clover, thistle, and maple; the renascence shows the artificial leaf. to these traditional patterns: modern art has added some others which are specially adapted for naturalistic representation, such as the convolvulus, the passion-flower, the hop, &c. thus we find in the antique: a succession of buds (plate . ): straight stalks with leaves, either attached or free (plate . , ); or undulating stalks, with leaves, fruit, or flowers (plate . , , ). meyer, handbook of ornament. the wertebrate band, & the undulate band. the latter mode was retained in the medieval style; in the roman- esque style the stalks are more compressed, and the lobes of the leaves fully rounded (plate . , ); in the gothic style the former are thin and extended, the latter slit and pointed. extremely common are the two forms depicted on plate . and . characteristic of the late gothic is the example , plate ; this kind of ornament- ation is excellently adapted for simple wood-carving and stamped leather-work. the oriental conception, in textile fabrics and by the engraved and inlaid metal-work, is shown (plate . – ). intarsia technique, leather-stamping, weaving, and the ornamenta- tion of manuscripts offered the renascence opportunity to make use of, and to vary the floral border with advantage (plate ). inter- lacement and floral patterns are frequently combined in the same example (plate . and ). as examples of modern art, the naturalistic borders figured on plate . – . are given. when the main-stem runs longitudinally along the centre of the band, like the vertebral column in the skeletons of animals, then the arrangement is termed vertebrate. when the main-stem oscillates from side to side (as in plate . , , & ), then the arrangement is termed undulate. plate . the wertebrate band, &c. . – . paintings, greek, terracotta vessels. – . french, mural paintings, th century, (racinet). . glass window, cathedral, bourges, th century, (racinet). . medieval. . intarsia, sta. maria in organo, verona, . . modern, plate-border. plate . the undulate band. – . persian, metal vessels, (racinet). . indian. byzantine, glass mosaic, san marco, venice, (musterornamente). . portion of romanesque initial, th century, berlin museum. . romanesque, portal of cathedral, lucca, (musterornamente). . gothic flat carving, end of th century, (musterornamente). . medieval, mural painting, swedish church. . french, mural painting, th century, (racinet). . early gothic, french. . gothic, manuscript ornamentation. . late gothic, flat carving, th century, (musterornamente). bands. ph. the vertebrate band, &c. plate . , + bands. plate . the undulate band, &c. bands. the undulate band, &c. plato . bands. the undulate band, &c. plate . the undulate band. – the evolute-spiral band. plate . the undulate band, &c. – . leather stamping, th century, schwäbisch hall, (muster- ornamente). . terracotta frieze, castle of schalaburg, lower austria, (wiener bauhütte). . intarsia frieze, from the same castle. – . borders of robes, tombs in niederstetten and lensiedel, th century, (musterornamente). . renascence, manuscript ornament. – . german renascence, (hirth, formenschatz). . archivolt of door, otto-heinrich building heidelberg castle, german renascence. - . french, renascence. plate . the undulate band, &c. . border, picture by domenico zampieri, th century, (muster- ornamente). . border, half-columns, sta. trinità, florence, italian re nascence. . intarsia frieze, stalls, san domenico, bologna, italian re- inascence. . wrought-iron trellis of balcony, milan, (gewerbehalle). . frieze, italian renascence. . modern, (césar daly). . modern. – . laurel and oak borders, (gewerbehalle). – . modern borders, (gewerbehalle). the evolute-spiral band. (plate .) the wave of the sea has been suggested as the motive of this “wave" pattern; but its origin is purely geometrical. the line of the evolute-spiral pattern divides the surface of the border into two parts, which in flat ornament are coloured differently. in plastic work, for which the pattern is also suitable, the lower part projects. in wrought-iron-work: the curved line runs freely between two bars. this pattern is adapted for borders of robes, shields, and plates; for use on vessels, friezes, cornices, and tablets in architecture; and also as borders, for tapestries, and mural-paintings. a rosette is often placed at the volute-centres (plate . and ); the interstices between the lines are sometimes decorated with leaves and flower-buds (plate . – ). this occurs chiefly in the renascence period, when the antique seemed too simple. how the evolute-spiral band. – the enrichment of the bead moulding. far this may be carried, in some cases, in shown by fig. , in which the evolute-spiral line is nothing more than the skeleton of the orna- ment. the middle ages did not use this form at all. angles, and centres are arranged as shown on figs. – . this band is excellently adapted for the framing round circular panels. plate . the evolute-spiral. – . paintings, antique vessels. – . angles. . central junction. . pattern round a circular panel. . painting of a stove tile, german renascence, germanisches museum, nuremberg. . modern borders. . border, by sebastian serlio, th century. . frieze, otto-heinrich building of heidelberg castle. . wrought-iron trellis, temple of apollo in the garden of the castle at schwetzingen. . painting, palazzo ducale, mantua, italian renascence. the enrichment of the bead moulding. (plate .) bead, or astragal, is the name given to those small half-round mouldings, which are often enriched by ornaments like pearls, strung- together, &c., or as turned bands and cords. generally they are only used in plastic art, and as a rule not alone; but below the egg- and-leaf ornaments, and similar cornice profiles (plate ). they also occur as intermediate members between the shaft and the capital of columns. beads are enriched with balls, discs, or ovals, in rather more than half relief. the simplest bead-enrichment is formed of round pearls, either close together or permitting the representation of the thread to show between them. disc and oval enrichments are seldom used alone, but arranged alternately, as shown in figs. to . in addition to the simple examples of the antique, the renas- cence uses richer forms, the single members being again ornamented, profiled and more arbitrarily fashioned (plate . and ), or finished-off with small leaf calices (plate . and ). wood carving avails itself of strung discs seen in perpective (plate . ). the enrichments may also suggest torsion. after the moulding is made, it is set-out like a screw, as indicated by the auxiliary constructions in figs. – . leaves or pearls sometimes lie in the hollows and follow the thread of the screw (plate . ). bands. the evolute-spiral band. plate . mouldings. plate . the enrichment of the bead moulding. * * the enrichment of the astragal, the torus, and other mouldings. here also must be grouped those ribbons rolled spirally round rods, such as we find in the art of the middle ages and the re- nascence (fig. ). corners are generally covered with a small leaf. plate . the enrichment of the bead moulding. – . simple enrichments, antique. — . richer enrichments, renascence. – . beads enriched like twisted ropes. . spiral-ribbon enrichment, louvre, paris. the enrichment of the torus moulding. (plate .) torus is the name given to those larger mouldings of semi- circular or semi-elliptic section, such as are specially used in archi- tecture on the bases of columns and pilasters, on socles, on mediaeval door and window arches, and on the ceiling mouldings of the renascence and modern times. while the smaller beads are ornamented with pearls and twisted cords, these more important mouldings are dec- orated by enrichments which resemble a bundle of rods round which ribbons are twisted at suitable places (figs. and ); by surrounding them with plaited or net work (figs. , , ); by clothing them with foliage (figs. , , ); or by combining the various systems (figs. and ). in modern times the torus is enriched by bound clusters of fruit. water-leaves, artificial leaves with serrated margins, laurel, oak, ivy, &c. are most in use for the leaf ornaments. as in the case of fruit clusters: ribbons are twined spirally at suitable placed round the fruit or foliage (figs. , and ). all these examples are drawn by first marking-off the divisions on the profile, as indicated on the figures. plate . the enrichment of the torus moulding. – . modern. – . antique. – . antique, decorated with laurel and oak. . mediaeval. . mediaeval, decoration of an archivolt, gelnhausen, th century. temple of jupiter, rome. – . louvre, paris, french renascence, (baldus). the enrichment of other mouldings. (plate .) the egg-and-tongue enriches, in architecture, the ovolo moulding of capitals, and the lower members of cornices, &c. mouldings. the enrichment of the torus moulding. -- mouldings. the enrichment of the cyma, and ovolo mouldings. plate . the enrichment of mouldings. in these cases it harmonises the support and the weight; and has also a decorative purpose as a bordering member. the leaf enrichment may be explained in the following way: a row of leaves, growing upwards, supports the weight, and is bent outwards by its pressure (fig. ). if this only occurs partially, we have the doric form (fig. ). if the leaves are bent-down tow- ards their lower ends (fig. ), we obtain forms like the so-called “lesbian cymatium.” a false conception, which regarded the leaf-shape merely as a geometrical element, afterwards gave rise to the corrupt forms of the late greek and roman styles (figs. a, a, and b). if the simple waterleaf be replaced by more richly serrated ones like the artificial leaf, we obtain examples like fig. . figure shows the egg pattern, from which all the more or less misunderstood varieties have, in course of time, been derived. the dart-shaped intermediate leaves have often been developed into actual darts; and the eggs or curved surfaces of the leaves have also been covered with independent ornamentation, in complete defiance of their origin (figs. and ). the corner is treated, either by freely carrying the pattern over into a palmette anthemion (figs. and ), or by covering it with independent leaves. further details on the subject of this chapter will be found in bötticher's tektonik der hellenen. plate . the enrichment of the cyma and ovolo mouldings. and . drawings to illustrate the origin of the pattern. . graeco-doric, painted. . leaf, erechtheum, athens. and . corrupt leaf. (bötticher). . roman leaf, (jacobsthal). greek egg-and-tongue, erechtheum, athens. g campana egg-and-tongue, graeco-italic, campana collection. . colossal egg-and-leaf, temple of jupiter tonans, rome. . roman egg-and-dart, arles cathedral, (raguenet). – . renascence egg-and-dart, (raguenet). . modern egg-and-dart, (raguenet). b. free ornaments. those ornaments, which are applied to suggest the end or finish of an object, may be classed in a group which, following an ex- pression already introduced, are termed “free ornaments", the word “free” implying not a severely-enclosed band or panel, but a freely- treated edge-ornament. the edging may be arranged to grow in an upward, downward, or lateral direction; the character of the ornamentation will be depen- dent on these conditions. endings with an upward direction are most numerous; and as plants, with their natural, upward growth, are adapted for this purpose, foliated ornament is the usual decoration of akroters, antefixes, steles, ridges, and finials. crosses, knobs, rosettes, and pendants, are independant free- ornaments, which are generally geometrical in their treatment. in tassels and fringes, which form endings in a downward direction, the organic plant motive is, of course, excluded; while lace (woven, pillow, &c.) avails itself of both motives, either singly or combined. crockets are foliated excrescences which are popular in the gothic style as an ornament of the edges, and ribs of buildings. gargoyles (as are termed the rain-spouts which occur so fre- quently in the architecture of the middle ages and the renascence) are also free ornaments with a lateral direction; they have often the form of figures, less often those of decorated channels. the link border. the link border. (plates – ) link borders are so termed because the transversely-growing foliage is connected together by scrolls which serve this purpose, like the “links" of a chain. of this class are much decoration of cornices, crestings in architecture, and fringes in textile art. besides these, link borders, which may be enlarged at will, and have a de- finite direction upwards or downwards, are used in a similiar manner as borders as edgings for carpets, plates, and panels; as borders for walls, floors, and ceilings (in which case the edging almost invariably grows outwards); on the neck, body, and feet of vessels; and fre- quently in architectural friezes. palmette leaves, connected by circles or by links, are adapted for edgings. the typical form is found on antique vessels and friezes; its forerunner is seen in the connected lily and pomegranate of the assyrian style. the link-border is found in every subsequent style, both flat, and in relief. it is generally composed of identical details, symmetrically re- peated. unsymmetrical and naturalistic forms are rarer, (plate , ). plate . the link border. assyrian, painted bas-relief, khorsabad. external margin, greek kylix, (lau). greek hydria, (l'art pour tous). greek, cyma. mosaic ornament, san marco, venice, byzantine, (musterorna- mente). medieval, mural painting, swedish church, (racinet). old embroidery, eisleben, (vorbilder für fabrikanten und hand- werker). . painted, cathedral, brandenburg, (vorbilder für fabrikanten und handwerker). . illumination of a koran, tomb of the sultan el-ghury, th cen- tury, (prisse d'avennes). . majolica dish, germanisches museum, nuremberg. . majolica dish, th century, (kunsthandwerk). . modern, (gewerbehalle). : ; plate . the link border. . greek, carved frieze, erechtheum, athens. . roman, frieze, (fragments de l'architecture antique). . romanesque, frieze, th century, (musterornamente). the link border. — on mouldings. – the cresting. . arabic, mosque of the sultan hassan, cairo, th century. . italian renascence, marble frieze, tomb of the conte ugone, badia, florence, (weissbach und lottermoser). italian renascence, intarsia frieze, (meurer). . modern decoration, (kolb und högg, vorbilder für das orna- mentenzeichnen). ; the link border on mouldings. (plate .) the cyma in architecture is the topmost or concluding member of a cornice. it is frequently used as a gutter. the section is some- times a concave or convex quadrant, but in most cases consists of two arcs curving inwards and outwards respectively, (fig. ). the ornamentation was merely painted in the earlier periods; but afterwards received a plastic form. it is chiefly composed of palmette leaves, either unconnected (fig. and ) or connected (figs. , and ), with lily cups between. artificial leaves, pointing up- wards and lying close on the profile with calices or water-leaves peep- ing out between them (fig. ) are also used. the middle ages used both systems, especially the latter, with the latter, with the modifications required by the changed forms of the leaves, (figs. and ). both the renascence and modern art follow the tradition of the antique; but give the palmette ornament a richer form, (figs. – ). plate . the link-border enrichment of mouldings. – . antique, (bötticher). . roman altar. . graeco-italic terracotta ornament, (lièvre). . romanesque cornice, house, metz, th century, (raguenet). cornice, notre dame, paris, th century, (musterornamente). – . cornice, louvre, paris, french renascence. . marble frieze, tomb in sta. maria sopra minerva, rome, italian renascence. . modern, (arch. skizzenbuch). the cresting border. (plate .) crestings are intended to ornament the ridge or top of the roof. such ornaments have been especially popular in france from gothic meyer, handbook of ornament. free ornaments. the link border. . plate free ornaments. plate . the link border. + free ornaments. the cresting border. plate . the cresting. — the akroter, &c. times to the present day. they are mostly of perforated work, and the top has usually a varied mass-shape. the materials used are stone, lead, wrought-iron, and, in modern times, zinc. similar ornaments are also found as finals of entablatures and attics, as well as on the balaustrades of galleries. cresting ornaments appear on gothic altars, shrines, chim- neypieces, &c., and in cast-iron on our modern stoves, railings, &c. the antique made no use of this form, although similar forms occur, as, for example, on the entablature of the well-known monu- ment of lysikrates. on the other hand, we must mention those valence-like borders which are seen on the terracotta reliefs of the campana collection, represented on figs. and . in most cases, these latter ornaments, if reversed, may be used as crestings. plate . the cresting border . gothic, (jacobsthal). . modern gothic, cast-iron. - . modern french, castle of pierrefonds, restored by viollet-le- duc, (raguenet). . modern french, cour de cassation, paris, (raguenet). - . modern german, by gropius of berlin, (arch. skizzenbuch). – . graeco-italic borders, downward growth. the akroter, &c. (plates – .) the akroter is the feature which serves as on ornamental finish to the apex of a gable. antique temples bear this decoration in a great variety of materials: stone, terracotta, painted, plastic, and cast in metal. groups of figures, griffins, &c., were sometimes used for this purpose; but the usual features were slabs of marble, bearing a palmette ornament, the central decoration of which is sometimes a mask, (plate . ). smaller ornaments of a similar kind are found ranged along the lower roof line, in front of the imbrices; and these are termed antefixes. the middle ages and the renascence make no general use of the antefix, but it occurs on modern monumental buildings in the antique style. - - the corner akroter which isusually found at the lower ends of the gable lines, consists of half the motive of the central one, (plate . ). plate . the akroter, and the antefix. . greek akroter, painted, temple of wingless victory, athens. . greek akroter, painted, acropolis, athens. the akroter. — the stele crest. . greek antefix, parthenon, athens. . greek sepulchral stele-crest, in the form of an akroter. . graeco-italic akroter, terracotta, museum, perugia. – . front and side view of a corner akroter, (bötticher). plate . the arroter, &c. . greek antefix, propylaea, athens, (raguenet). . roman antefix, temple of jupiter stator, rome. . modern french antefix, théâtre des celestines, lyons, archi- tect renaud, (raguenet). . modern french akroter, house in paris, architect renaud, (raguenet). - - . modern french akroter, orléans railway station, paris, archi- tect renaud, (raguenet). – . akroter and corner-akroter, fountain in the certosa near flo- rence, italian renascence. - the stele crest. (plate .) the stele is the greek tomb-stone. it usually takes the form of an upright tablet, sometimes tapering towards the top; and bears an inscription. it is sometimes decorated with rosettes, garlands and figures. at the top is a plain cornice, on which an ornament, similar to the akroter, forms the crowning finish. although the akroter and the stele-crest often have a perfectly identical form (plate . shows a crest which might just as well have been an antefix), still the style of the crest is as a rule more severe; and it is characteristic of a great number of steles that they have not the striking palm- ette centre, which the akroter always possesses, (figs. and ). very often, too, the crest is so designed that the sides are extended, to make a larger feature, (figs. and ). these monuments, dedicated to the memory of the dead, show better than almost anything else the special individuality and beauty of greek ornament. - plate . the stele-crest. - . stele-crest, (stuart and revett, wulliamy, jacobsthal). . p n (jacobsthal). . n n (“l'art pour tous"). . n n (lièvre). free ornaments. plate . the akroter, and the antefix. free ornaments. plate . the akroter, &c. free ornaments. ntnhx tpath the stele crest. plate . the perforated c free ornaments. the cross. plate . free ornaments. plate . the cross. the cross. – the finial. of form on utensils and wessels, on robes and garments, on carpets and banners dedicated to religious uses; in heraldry, and as a free ornament to form the upper ornamental finial of architecture. in christian architecture: the cross is used as a finial on steeples and gables, on tombs, pulpits, &c. often it is employed alone, as a monument, (tomb, wayside and votive crosses). plate . the cross: in stone. . modern french, charterhouse glandier, (raguenet). . modern. . modern french, with the monogram of christ, genouilleux, (ra- guenet). . gable of a church, st. urban's, unterlimburg, schwäbisch-hall. . tomb, churchyard, baret, th century. modern french, père-lachaise, paris, (raguenet). . steeple, st. pierre, montrouge, paris, (raguenet). tomb, st. lazare, montpellier, (raguenet). . granite, tomb, becon, (raguenet). the cross in metal. (plate .) wrought-iron, and, in late years, cast-iron and zinc, are sometimes used as a material for steeple and gable crosses, as well as for monu- mental crosses. the ductile nature of wrought-iron admits of a rich, delicate execution of these objects. the german renascence, in parti- ticular, offers a wealth of forms in this respect. the framework usually consists of strong bar-iron; the orna- mental decoration is in flat or round iron, fastened to the frame by clamps or rivets. hammered foliage is sometimes added. in many cases the point of the steeple cross is decorated with a cock as weather-vane. the centre of monumental crosses is often occupied by a plate of metal, to contain the inscription. plate . the cross: in metal. – . mediaeval steeple crosses, franconia, (gewerbehalle). . modern steeple cross, (bad. gewerbezeitung). . steeple cross, st. ambroise, paris, architect ballu, (raguenet). – . wrought-iron tomb crosses, thiengen, th century. the finial. (plate .) while the ordinary cross rises as a free-ornament in a vertical plane, the final makes a cross, in plan. it extends its arms not only the finial in stone, and in metal. sideways, but also regularly to the front and back. crocket-like ad- ditions (comp. plate ) clothe the stem, which usually takes the form of an elongated four or eight-sided shaft. there may be one or more tiers of crockets. the finial serves to decorate spires, pinnacles, baldachins, tombs, &c., and is a specifically gothic ornament. the most beautiful forms are furnished by french gothic, from which most of the il- lustrations of our plate are taken. plate . the finial: in stone. modern gothic. early gothic, (jacobsthal). french gothic, (viollet-le-duc.). early gothic, cathedral, chartres, th century, (musterorna- mente). – . modern, (viollet-le-duc). . modern, (bosc). : the finial in metal. (plate .) in the artistic wrought-iron work of the middle ages, the re- nascence, and modern times, we find charming finials in the shape of idealised flowers. these decorations are found on the tops of balaustrades, on the gables over doors, on brackets and chandeliers, on the supports of rain-spouts, on wall-anchors, &c. leaves, volute-like spirals, bell-flowers, and ears, are arranged round a central axis of iron; in many cases the centre is formed by spindle-shaped spirals of wire. plate . the finial: in metal. . corner of a mediaeval grill, (viollet-le-duc.). . part of a grill, toulouse cathedral, th century, (viollet-le-duc). . termination of a fountain, cluny museum, paris, th century, (l'art pour tous). . part of a spanish trellis gate, th century, (l'art pour tous). . part of a chancel screen, minster, freiburg, th century, (schau- insland). . wrought-iron, th century, (guichard). . terminal, bruges, th century, (ysendyck, documents classés de l'art). . modern, wrought-iron, ihne & stegmüller, berlin. . modern, post, by ende & boeckmann, berlin, (gewerbehalle). . wrought-iron coronal, limburg on the lahn, th century, (kachel, kunstgewerbliche vorbilder). . coronal, modern gate, c. zaar, berlin. ; free ornaments. the finial. plate meyer, handbook of ornament. free ornaments. the finial, &c. plate . the finial knob, and vase. — the pendant knob. the finial knob, and wase. (plate .) knob is the term applied to ornamental terminations in the form of profiled bodies of revolution, naturalistic buds, fir-cones, &c. knobs are small features used as the terminations in architecture and furniture. they are also used on flag-staffs, bosses of shields, centre-pieces of rosettes, &c. the material, whether stone, wood, stucco, metal, &c., depends on the use to which they are to be applied. wases form another class of finials. they are preferentially used on tombs, doorposts, in the centre of divided pediments, on the attics of ornamental architecture, and instead of antefixes. plate . the finial knob, and wase, – . stone, milan cathedral, italian gothic, (raguenet). . modern. . modern fir-cone. . modern wase, (bosc). . modern french, ministry of war, paris, (raguenet). – . modern french, house in the park monceau, architect tronquois, (raguenet). . lower end of a flag-staff or lightning-rod, (liénard) the pendant knob. (plate .) pendants are hanging terminations; reversed knobs, so to speak. in some cases, but not in all, the former may replace the latter. these pendants are more or less elongated bodies of revolution. the decoration is produced by the addition of leaves, scales, beadings, nulls, &c. these being specially suitable to convex profiles, while the channelled treatment is better adapted to concave profiles. pendants, in stone, wood, stucco, or metal, are used as brackets for lamps (hence their french name: cul-de-lampe); and as the lower terminations of oriel-windows, pulpits, &c. in the latter case the pendants are generally only in half or three-quarter relief from the wall. plate . the pendant knob. – . part of tripod, (jacobsthal). . part of lantern, dijon, french renascence, (l'art pour tous). . lower end of a chandelier, th century, (l'art pour tous). . bracket under a piscina, french, th century, church, moret, (l'art pour tous). . modern, stucco-work. modern, wood. * free ornaments. plate . the finial knob, and vase. free ornaments. l-t- : º c ( )/ º: the pendant knob. plate . the rosette. the rosette. (plate ) the rosette, strictly so called, is an artificial rose. in a wider sense any ornament of a circular shape, which radiates from a centre, may be termed a rosette. according to its execution and use: the rosette may be considered either as a free-ornament, or a panel- ornament. in the first case, it must always be plastic, project pro- minently and have some resemblance to the knob or pendant. in the latter case, it may be in low relief or be a flat ornament. here we have only to deal with the rosette as a free-ornament. considering the rosette from this point of view: its most im- portant application is as the boss in the centre of romanesque and gothic ribbed vaultings; and as the centre-piece of ceilings, of which we find numerous examples in the temples of the antique, the palaces of the italian renascence, and the vaulted cupolas of ecclesiastical and secular architecture. besides this, rosettes are found on fur- niture, gates and doors (the italian renascence makes the most lavish use of them in this capacity), and as the centre-pieces of modern ceilings, &c. in these cases, however, their quality as free-ornaments is less prominent. as regards the formal plan of rosettes: the flower motive is the commonest; geometrical motives are rarer, and motives from figures rarer still. the arrangement is usually in a series of zones; the growth is from the centre, outwards; and in the majority of cases is radial, that is at right angles to the bordering circle; but sometimes the leaves are curved. the rosette may have any number of divisions; but , , , , , , , or divisions are the rule; divisions into , , , &c., are as rare as divisions exceeding the number . the divisions may vary in the separate zones; but generally only so that the same divisions interlock, that is to say, the points of the leaves of one zone fall on the intervals between the leaves of the next. plate . the rosette. . antique, of four divisions. . roman, of five divisions. . naturalistic, of six divisions. . romanesque boss, of four divisions, chapter-hall of the monastery of heiligenkreuz near vienna, th century, (musterornamente). . early gothic boss, of three divisions, sainte-chapelle, paris, . french, of four divisions, louis xiii, ( – ), (muster ornamente). . italian, of five divisions, the door of the baptistery, parma, re- nascence, (musterornamente). - . modern french, ceiling-flower, stucco. free ornaments. the rosette. plate . free ornaments. plate . the crocket, and the gargoyle. the crocket, and the gargoyle. the crocket, and the gargoyle. (plate ). crocket is the designation applied to those excrescences which appear on the edges of spires, and pinnacles, and on the raking lines of gables, in the richer gothic styles. occurring at regular intervals, they form an ornamental interruption to the bald architectonic lines. at first of a rather naturalistic character (figs. and ), they evolved during the decay of the style a more artificial character, as- suming bulbous forms (fig. ), which have their own special peculiar- ities in england, france, and germany. crocket - ornamentation has more or less been copied from stone architecture in furniture, choir-stalls, &c. the arms of the latter (figs. — ), and the miserere-seats, are often foliated like a crocket. metal, and particularly wrought-iron work, frequently makes use of crockets, in forms suited to the nature of the material, (figs. – ). - contrary to the modern method, by which the water that collects on the roofs of buildings is conveyed to earth through pipes, the builders of the middle ages and the renascence discharged the rain, clear of the wall, by means of long projecting spouts. the spout was used in the antique style in the form of lion heads, &c. in the ecclesiastical and monumental architecture of the middle ages they are termed gargoyles; and are mostly of stone. in dwelling houses they are of sheet-metal; and they are either architectonically decorated (fig. ), or human, animal, or fantastic figures, treated in a comic manner, the water flowing through the mouth or other orifices of the body. copious material on the subject of crockets and gargoyles will be found in raguenet's “materiaux et documents de l'architecture”. plate . the crocket, and the gargoyle. – . front and side view of a plain gothic crocket, amiens cathedral, restored by viollet-le-duc, (raguenet). . gothic crocket, th century. . modern gothic crocket, paris, (raguenet). . gothic crocket milan cathedral, (raguenet). . arm of a stall, salisbury cathedral, (raguenet). – . arms of stalls, monastery, maulbronn. – . wrought-iron, gothic, augsburg. . gargoyle, viollet-le-duc, eglise d'eu, (raguenet). . gargoyle, bell-tower, st. sernin, toulouse, restored by viollet- le-duc, (raguenet). gargoyle, meaux cathedral, (raguenet). – . gargoyle, st. eustache, paris, (raguenet). the decorated hinge, &c. the decorated hinge, &c. (plate .) the middle ages, and after them the renascence, brought the developement of wrought metal-work to the highest state of perfection. here we have to consider the different kinds of bands, technically known, according to their shape, as hinge, strap, &c. although these bands were originally intended only to bind-to- gether the underlying wood construction of gates, doors, caskets, chests, &c., the bald, practical form was soon made decorative; and this the more readily that the gothic principle of wood construction, with its narrow stave-like or matched strips of wood, offered only scanty opportunities of artistic decoration. delicate series of lines, designed as free-ornaments, start from the hinge and terminate as leaves and flowers. the heads of the necessary rivets and screws, themselves shaped as rosettes in the richer examples, give a pleasing relief. gothic usually applies the extended strap-hinge (figs. – ); while the renascence, in accord- ance with its principle of bordering in wood constructions, prefers the shorter butt-hinge (figs. – ). in the latter epoch the surface of the metal received further decoration trough the arts of etching, engraving, niello-work, &c. book-mounts, in particular, offered a wide field for the application of these arts. modern times have with justice devoted increased attention to these objects; and have restored them to the domain of art from which various causes had excluded them for almost a century. the plate gives a small selection from the copious material to be found in museums and publications. plate . the decorated hinge, &c. . gothic hinge, church-door, wiersen near cologne, th century. — . plain terminations of hinges, hefner-alteneck collection, th century. – . terminations of hinges, town-hall, münster. . termination of hinge, prie-dieu, gelnhausen, th century, (musterornamente). gothic hinge, door of a cabinet, town-hall, zwolle. . gothic hinge. . renascence hinge, old kaufhaus, on the limmat, zürich, . renascence hinge, town-hall, augsburg, th century, (muster- ornamente). . renascence hinge, door in ettlingen, united collections, carls- ruhe. . door-hinge, german, , free imitation by prof. storck, (zeichenvorlagen). free ornaments. the decorated hinge, &c. plate . the tassel. – the fringe, and the valence. the tassel. (plate .) the chief contributions of textile art to the group of free-orna. ments are tassels, fringes, and laces. the two latter are current edgings, the first, on the contrary, are the termination of the lower end of cords or of shaped draperies. thus we find tassels used on girdles, bell-pulls, and curtain-holders; as pendants from flags, standards, valences, cushions, table-covers, palls, and tent-covers; also on pouches, hoods, caps, harness, &c. the tassel consists of a tuft of threads or cords, hanging straight down from a core of wood, turned in various profiles, and decorated with twisted threads. the original may be assumed to have been the cord with a simple knot, the knot being intended to keep the cord from ravelling-out. the tassel is undoubtedly of great antiquity. the reliefs found in khorsabad, niniveh, and elsewhere, show that the assyrians were great admirers of such kinds of trimming. and, although such a lavish use does not occur again; there would probably be little difficulty in finding examples of tassels from all periods of art. - not only form but also colour contributes to the effect of tassels, so that the examples in our plate really only give half the effect. an exhaustive study of trimmings, by jacob falke, will be found in teirich’s “blätter für kunstgewerbe” . plate . the tassel. . french lady's girdle, th century, (viollet-le-duc) — . tassels, holbein, (teirich). . tassels, turkish harness, th century, united collections, carlsruhe. . . tassel, old standard, united collections, carlsruhe. . tassel, tunisian pistol, united collections, carlsruhe. leather tassel, lady's bag, german renascence. – . modern tassels, by aug. töpfer, (gewerbehalle). . modern tassel, by a. seder, munich. the fringe, and the walence. (plate .) if, at the end of a piece of material, the weft-threads (parallel to the end) be drawn-out, the remaining warp-threads will form a simple fringe. if we give the end greater security, by knotting or tieing the threads together in tufts, we get the ordinary fringe. the fringe, however, is not always made of the material; it is often manufactured independently, and sewed-on to the edge of the material. in this case the fringe is combined with a woven heading-band (gimp). free ornaments. plate . the tassel. the fringe, the valence, and the lace border. richer types of fringes may be produced either by variety of the edge, so that tufts of unequal lengths form rhythmically alternating groups (fig. ), or by using several thicknesses of fringe, lying one behind the other, (fig. ). the fringe is always applied long, when a pendant termination is required. in other cases as, for example, where the fringed ma- terial is to lie horizontally, like small table-covers, napkins, &c., it is advisable to keep the fringe short. fringes have been in use from the very earliest periods; but it is again the orientals, and especially the assyrians, who show a pre- ference for this form. fringes occur perpetually in various national costumes, and in the toilet of our modern ladies. the renascence adopted the fringe as a trimming for furniture, and specially for chairs; although not always with true artistic feeling. the valence is a hanging textile termination; the lower edge is ornamentally cut, and is often ornamented with cords, tassels, em- broidery, &c. the upper edge of the valence is generally fixed to a moulding. valences occur as the interior furnishing of windows, on four-post beds, baldachins, canopies, tents, marquees, &c.; of late years, they have been used on awnings, and outside-blinds. plate . the walence. tomb of the incas, ancon, peru, united collections, carlsruhe. indian-mexican pouch, united collections, carlsruhe. egyptian, (ebers). . renascence, (storck). . mediaeval maniple, (teirich). turkish saddle-cloth, , united collections, carlsruhe. . renascence, silver. — . modern designs, by prignot. the lace border. (plate ) of all products of the textile art, lace is the most interesting. there is something poetical about it, like flowers. the combination of the conventional treatment with those accidental features which hand-work confers upon the delicate, light material, gives them a peculiar charm. who invented lace manufacture, and in what year, cannot now be determined. lace is one of those things which the renascence has handed down to us without having inherited it from the antique. the stimulus, to the invention of lace and the basis of its manufacture, is probably to be found in the textile hand-work of the middle ages, such as was practised, particularly in convents, for ecclesiastical purposes. free ornaments. zv - ||||||||||| º n º | (im | tººl º º º - º º | mºſ t º: ſº ſt | º the fringe, and the valence. plate . - free ornaments. sºº-ºººººººº-º-º-º-º: --- º º ºº: º cº.; – plate . the lace border. the lace border. lace belongs in most cases to the free-ornaments. more rarely it is manufactured as an insertion, with the character of a ribbon, or for independent use as a shawl or wrap. compared with fringe, the applications of lace are freer and more varied, and by no means con fined to the character of a pendant termination. the reader may be assumed to be acquainted with the various uses of lace. if we exclude the allied crochet-work as not strictly belonging to this section, we shall find that the manufacture of lace may be divided into two groups: ( ) sewed or point lace; and ( ) bobbin or pillow lace. the former method has chiefly been practised in italy, spain, ireland, and france; the latter in england, france, the nether- lands, schleswig, switzerland, and saxony. the chief centres of the lace industry were and to some extent still are: venice, genoa, milan, ragusa, devonshire, buckinghamshire, ireland, alençon, valenciennes, brussels, mechlin, binche, tondern, annaberg, &c. as in other branches, the cheap machine-made article has nowa- days reduced the manufacture of the dearer but far more valuable hand-made lace to very modest limits. see reports on lace, by alan s. cole (department of science and art). among the numerous kinds of lace for which no generally re- cognised terminology as yet exists, we have selected some, principally of older date, among which the best patterns are to be found: point coupé (punto tagliato). the linen ground is cut-out and the edges worked with the needle. point tiré (punto a maglia quadra). single compartments of a quadrangular knotted or woven net are filled-up. point tiré (punto tirato). the threads of the linen fabric are partially pulled-out, the others connected together and sewed round. point coupé (punto a reticella). groups of threads stretched lengthwise and crosswise like a net, are spun round and connected. point noué (punto a groppo). produced by plaiting and knotting the threads. point lace. the threads are sewed together, following the pattern, and joined together by “brides". this is almost the only kind of lace which can now be found on ladies' work-tables. plate . the lace border. . venetian guipure, old pattern-book. . point noué, end of the th century. – . old, point. – . modern, pillow, old patterns. . modern, knotted, with fringe, (macramé lace). meyer, handbook of ornament. c. supports. all those elements of ornamental art which express the idea of supporting or bearing, are here gathered into a special group to which is given the name “supports". supports, in the strict sense of the word, are piers or columns. but it does not fall within the scope of this work to treat these forms from the architectural point of view, or to enter into the details and proportions of the so-called “orders of architecture". all that is required on this point may be gained from the works of architectural specialists: bötticher, tektonik der hellenen; mauch and lohde, die architektonischen ordnungen; r. phené spiers, the orders of archi- tecture; vignola; durm and others. we will therefore disregard the undecorated forms, and discuss only the decorative details of these supports. like a tree which consists of root, trunk, and crown, piers and columns necessarily have a base, a shaft, and a capital. (the doric column is an exception as it has no base.) the natural model for the pier and the column is the trunk of a tree hewn into a cylindrical or prismatic form. the motive of the channellings and flutings of the shaft of a support is to be found in the channels and flutings of endogeneous plants. supports which, like piers and columns, are intended to bear a considerable weight, usually have a strong cylindrical or prismatic structure, generally tapering towards the top; the fundamental forms of the candelabrum, which is meant to bear only an inconsiderable weight, like lamps, &c., are freer, have more variety, and offer a wider field for decoration than the forms of the former group. the candelabrum is also divided into foot, shaft, and crown. the shaft, - supports. – the foliated shaft. again, is frequently composed of several distinct parts. the cande- labrum as a whole will receive a more detailed consideration in division iii, (utensils). small pillars, shaped like a pier, column, or candelabrum, are also used for the construction of balaustrades; in which case they have to support only a rail. the small pillars have thick, compact forms; balausters, on the contrary, are slender bodies of revolution, with great variety in the profile. very peculiar forms of support are the antique trapezophors or table-legs; the legs of modern furniture bear more resemblance to balauster pillars. terminus is the name given to supports which widen out in an upward direction like an inverted obelisk, and terminate in a bust or capital. beside the geometrical and plant elements, the human form is also used as a motive of supports. male forms thus used are termed atlantes; and female forms caryatids. the various forms of consoles are included in the group of supports. the foliated shaft. (plate .) we have already mentioned that the plant-world furnishes the motive for the forms of supports. reeds, canes, tree-trunks with knots, &c., were copied in the antique. the mural paintings of pompeii show lofty airy constructions with extremely slender, foliated supports. the bronze candelabra and lampadaria, intended to hold lamps, are often direct imitations of plant stems, while the roman state-candelabra are often decorated with artificial foliage. later epochs have made little change in this respect; it may be said in general that, as regards delicacy of feeling, and moderation in the application of natural forms, they have seldom reached and still more seldom surpassed the antique models. plate . the follated shaft. . finial of the choragic monument of lysikrates, athens, (in- tended for the reception of a bronze tripod), greek. . part of the shaft of a roman state-candelabrum, marble, vatican museum, rome. – . supports, mural paintings, pompeii, (jacobsthal). . graeco-italic, lamp-stand, bronze. upper part of shaft, graeco-italic candelabrum, bröndsted collec- tion, (vulliamy). * supports. º º gº º º | º plate . the foliated shaft. - the fluted shaft. — the base. the fluted shaft. (plate ) columns, piers, candelabra, and similar supports frequently have channellings or flutings. the object of these is to give animation to the smooth shaft, and to emphasize the expression of the principle of weight-bearing. this latter is specially true of the channellings. - in the doric style the flutings are shallow without any interval, only divided from each other by a sharp edge, (figs. and ). the ionic and corinthian shafts, have deeper flutings (figs. and ), separated from each other by fillets formed of the untouched surface of the shaft. the channellings terminate upwards like small niches, with semicircular or elliptical heads, (fig. ). leaf-like terminations, like that on fig. are rarer. the termination downwards is similar to those shown on figs. – . the number of channellings on a shaft varies from to . on smaller constructions, such as furniture, balausters, &c., the number is reduced; but seldom less than . the channellings taper proportionately with the shaft. pilasters are also channelled to match the columns. in strict architecture, rich and composite channellings and flutings are rather injurious than otherwise (figs. – ); but on candelabra, and mouldings they often produce a good effect. when applied to the torus and the cavetto: the former (convex) should be decorated by nurls; and the latter (concave) should have flutes. plate . the fluted shaft. — . sections of doric fluting. – . sections of ionic and corinthian fluting. – . construction of the terminations of fluting on cylindrical shafts. – . composite fluting, with sections, and terminations. . part of an antique candelabrum, with tapered fluting. . termination of the fluting, monument of lysikrates, athens. (the construction is clearly indicated on the drawings.) the base. (plate – ) it is unquestionably more beautiful when something in the shape of a base is interposed between the shaft of a column and the substructure on which it rests, than when, as in the doric style, the column rises without any such base. bases suggested by the radical leaves of plants, are common in oriental styles. plate , fig. gives an egyptian example of this kind. decorations of this sort are, however, oftener applied to the lower end of the shaft than supports. the fluted shaft. plate . the base. to the base itself. this natural method of decoration is also met- with on richly decorated examples of roman style, where a row of artificial leaves encircle the shaft, (plate . ). antique bases are composed of a square foundation slab (the plinth); and some mouldings which follow the circular plan of the shaft. the well-known and oft-used attic base, consists, beginning from below, of a plinth, a great torus, fillet, scotia, fillet, upper torus, fillet and apophyge. the last, as a quarter-hollow forms the transition between fillet and shaft. when the plinth is decorated, which is the case only in very rich examples, the motive is either a band or a scroll. the tori are de- corated with braided work, as shown on plate , the hollow or “scotia" is sometimes decorated with leaves, the smaller tori may be treated as astragals; and so on. plate shows three rich roman examples. others will be found in bötticher's tektonik der hellenen. the byzantine and romanesque periods follow the antique in the treatment of bases. the spaces which remain on the upper sur- face of the square plinth are, however, filled up with ornament (plate . , , , ), or with small animal figures, (plate . ). in the later gothic style the torus overlaps the sides of the plinth, which reduces these spaces; the corners of the plinth are also some- times finished as shown on plate . . - the gothic period prefers geometrical to organic form; and se- cures good effects by a variety of profiles placed high up on com- posite clustered columns, (plate . ) gives an example of this. remark the similarity with the chinese example, fig. , which would seem to have been suggested by a cluster of juxtaposed shafts. the renascence and modern styles resort to direct copying from the antique; but, as a rule, do not use ornamented mouldings. the treatment of the bases of piers and pilasters is usually identical with that of columns; so that there is no necessity for dealing with these separately. plate . the base: roman. . capitoline museum, rome, (de wico). . temple of concord, rome, (de vico). . baptistery of constantine, rome, (vorbilder für fabrikanten und handwerker). plate . the base: romanesque, &c. . egyptian, temple of tutmes iii, karnak, (raguenet). . chinese, (raguenet). . romanesque, coupled, schwarzach. – . mediaeval. . romanesque. supports. jnv º wºº! - ſº- º # º * gºº - º { }\}^{\{\}ſº, ſ/ º - º º º iſ jº º º º m. º! º- -> lºlº, | & º º º rºx º wºº º º ºś. jº º º §§ - §§§º. ~ | º m - - - sº ſº º §º § --- * * - cº- ----- nº-ºº: --- --- § ºğ) **ś. . ^ plate . the base. supports. the base. plate . the base. — the ornamented shaft. . romanesque, st. remy, reims, (raguenet). . romanesque, cistercian monastery, maulbronn. . romanesque, abbey “des dames", caen, (raguenet). . gothic, church, brou-asn., (raguenet). the ornamented shaft. (plates – ) the simplest, most natural and perhaps the most beautiful de- coration of a shaft is fluting, beyond which the antique very seldom goes. where it does: it clothes the stem in naturalistic fashion with plant-forms, (plate . ). in the byzantine, romanesque, and scandinavian styles: we often find the shaft covered with a geometrical network, and ornamented in a corresponding style, (plate . – ). the gothic style prefers to leave the slender shafts smooth. the renascence is not satisfied with the simple flute especially on small architectural work like altars, monuments, &c. the craving to give the column a decoration commensurate with that of the other parts of the architecture became irresistible. it is raised on a pedestal; the shaft is banded, being divided into parts by projecting cinctures, generally two, the lower at about one-third, the upper at about two- thirds of the height. on the lower part are suspended festoons, weapons, trophies, cartouches, &c., the upper part is channelled or decorated with artificial foliage (plate . ); finally, festoons of fruit or drapery are suspended from the capital. where the columns are not large, especially in furniture, the cylindrical shaft is replaced by the richer profiling of a more candelabrum- like form, (plate . ). flat ornamentation is also used, as well as plastic decoration, by means of painting, incrustation, or inlaying, (plate . ). all these methods of application are more or less in agreement with the object and principle of construction of the column, but the same cannot be said of the renascence and the following styles of the decadence, which build up their columns of large and small drums, alternately ornamented and plain, or even give the shaft a spiral twist and decorate it with spiral flutings. plate . the decorated shaft. . italian renascence, tomb in sta. maria del popolo, rome, by sansovino. romanesque. shaft, church, tournus, (raguenet). roman, marble. column, with intarsia decoration, german renascence, (hirth). : supports, supports, º º nº. º m - - º º plate . the profiled shaft. the ornamented shaft. – the capital. plate . the profiled shaft. candelabrum-like column, tester-bed, french renascence. lower part of a column, mayence cathedral. lower part of column, palais du commerce, lyons, (raguenet). column, diploma, modern. column, modern, (gerlach). : the capital. (plates – .) the upper termination of the column is the capital. the capital forms the transition from the supporting shaft to the superincumbent weight. this transition may assume either geometrical or organic forms. very frequently both systems are combined; so that, strictly speaking, we can only say that one system or the other predominates. the egyptian capital is suggested by the cinctured bundle of papyrus stems with buds (plate . , ), or with opened papyrus or lotus flowers, (plate . , ). abnormal capitals are found in the old persian style. plate . , gives an example from persepolis, composed of the fore-parts of bulls. as examples of oriental forms: two moorish capitals from the alhambra in granada are given on figs. and of the same plate. antique art adopts three general types of capitals: doric, ionic and corinthian. - the doric capital consists of the abacus, which is square in plan, and the echinos, which is circular. the transition to the shaft is effec- ted by hollow mouldings and astragals. the graeco-doric capital was painted. where the sides of the abacus are decorated: a fret pattern is employed (plate . ). the echinos is a member of conflict, and is ornamented accordingly. in the roman and renascence styles plastic ornamentation takes the place of painting. the band of leaves becomes an egg-and-dart ornament (plate . ). leaves pointing upward are sometimes used (plate . ). at the top of the abacus a small moulding is used. a necking, generally decorated with rosettes, is interposed between capital and shaft. similar rosettes decorate the spaces on the under side of the abacus (plate . – ). the ionic capital replaces the square abacus by a scroll rolled- in on both sides, in great volutes. the intervals, between the egg band and the scroll, are marked by palmettes. a neck may be added as in the doric capital, and it is frequently decorated with a pal- mette ornament (plate . – ). the side view of the scroll shows plain profilings as on plate . , decorated with leaves or scales in the richer examples. the ionic capital has two faces, and the capital. two sides. for this reason it is of only limited application, as, when the capital is applied to the corner column of two adjacent sides of a building, it is impossible to avoid a bad effect from the two reentering volutes on the inner faces. the fundamental form of the corinthian capital is the calix. the decoration may be designed on two methods. firstly a row of leaves, or two rows arranged alternately one above the other, clothe the lower cylindrical part of the capital, and plain broad waterleaves form the transition to the square abacus. to this class belongs the capital of the tower of the winds in athens, and a capital found on the island of melos, which is shown on plate . . or, secondly: volutes rise from the rows of leaves and unite in pairs under the corners of the abacus, which are then extended, so that the sides are rendered concave in plan. the centre of each sides of the abacus is decorated with a palmette or rosette (plate . – ). the fusion of the ionic and corinthian capitals produced the composite capital; whose appearance is more interesting than beautiful (plate . ). early christian, and, to a certain extent, byzantine and roma- nesque art, models the forms of capital on those of the antique. the corinthian capital is the one mostly followed. the details are made correspondingly simpler and ruder (plate . – ). but along side of these reminiscences of the antique, new and independent forms appear. the antagonism between the cylindrical under part and the square upper termination is adjusted by geometrical construc- tions. thus originated the cushion and the trapeziform capital. the cushion capital is specifically romanesque. a half sphere is cut by planes below and on the four sides. its simplest form is given on plate . . the decoration is sometimes geometrical (plate . and ), and sometimes contains foliage and figures (plate . ). the double-cushion capital is a variant of the cushion capital (plate . ). the trapeziform capital is specifically byzantine. in this style: the cylindrical shaft is continued to the square abacus, which causes each side of the capital to assume a trapeziform shape (plate . ). very often these capitals are richly decorated with figures. - the arrangement of clustered-shafts, so popular in the middle ages, led to the coupled-capital, which appears sometimes as con- joined capitals (plate . ), and sometimes as the juxtaposition of two ordinary capitals with a conjoined abacus. in the gothic style, particularly in its later period, the abacus becomes octagonal. crocket-like knots of leaves are loosely attached to the calix-formed core. the vigourous projections of these leaf ornaments give the capital the appearance of an inverted bell (bell capitals, plate . – ). t the renascence adopts the doric and ionic capitals, and more the capital. usually the corinthian capital directly borrowed from the antique; but the forms become freer and more varied; and, compared with the overcharged roman examples, simpler. the volutes at the corners develope into independent forms, and are often replaced by dolphins, cornucopias, and other fantastic forms, scattered instances of which may, however, be found even in the antique. modern architecture, like the renascence, also follows these traditions. plate . the capital. . ancient persian, persepolis. . egyptian, köm-ombo. . * philae. . * memnonium thebes. . * luxor, (owen jones). – . moorish capitals, alhambra, hall of the two sisters, (raguenet). . graeco-doric. . roman-doric, thermae of diocletian, (mauch and lohde). . doric, italian renascence, by barozzi da vignola. plate . the capital. . graeco-ionic, (jacobsthal). . ionic, bassae, (cockerell). . ionic, pompeii. . roman-ionic, (musterornamente). . graeco-ionic, erechtheum, athens. . ionic, louvre, paris. . antique corinthian, found in melos, (vorbilder für fabrikanten und handwerker). . greek-corinthian, monument of lysikrates, athens. . roman-corinthian, palaces of the emperors rome. . roman composite, louvre, paris. i : plate . the capital. . romanesque cushion-capital, st. gereon, cologne, (otte). . * * , the abbey church, laach, (otte). . byzantine, sta. sofia, constantinople. romanesque double-cushion-capital, rosheim church, xi. cen- tury. , romanesque double-cushion-capital. . romanesque cushion-capital, freiburg. – . romanesque, former cloisters of the church, schwarzach. . romanesque coupled-capital. . romanesque. supports. plate . the capital. supports. º f º ººzººlºº wºº º §§ºğ º zººs - § nº. sº nº. º º º- º \ the capital. meyer, handbook of ornament. plate . supports. plate . the capital. supports, the capital. plate . * supports. Šºć plate . the pilaster panel. the capital. – the pilaster panel. . romanesque cushion-capital, monastery, lippoldsberg. – . late gothic, triforium of the choir, minster freiburg. plate . the capital. renascence, drawing by holbein, (guichard). — . renascence, designs by heinrich voigtherr, (hirth). composite, italian. renascence, palazzo scrofa, ferrara, italian. renascence, tomb in sta. maria del popolo, rome, by san. sovino. renascence, italian, palazzo zorzi, venice. modern, municipal baths, carlsruhe, architect durm. modern french, vaudeville theatre, paris, architect magne. i : the pilaster panel. (plate .) in many cases the pilaster or wall-pier shaft is devoid of orna- ment. unlike the column, the pilaster does not, as a rule, taper up- wards; and if the pilaster is ornamented with fluting the tapering is never permissible. the pilaster frequently has cinctures, generally two, the lower at 'la, the upper at “ls of its height. the ornamental decoration, when present, takes the form of an elongated, sunk panel bordered by a moulding. the ornamentation may be of three kinds: firstly: an ascending plant motive may be used, rising symmetrically or in the form of a wavy line from calices, vases, &c., animal and human figures being not infrequent accessories; secondly, the decora- tion may consist of festoons of flowers, fruits, trophies, shields, &c., varied by knots and ribbons, the points of suspension being rosettes, rings, lion heads, &c.; thirdly, the panel may be decorated with flat strapwork, as in the elizabethan manner. of these three kinds of decoration the first is the most used; and the most suitable. few antique examples have come down to us; the middle ages make scarcely any use of the pilaster; but the renascence is much richer in such examples. stalls, altars, sepulchral-monuments are scarcely to be found without pilasters. plate offers a small selection from the copious material; all the panels show the first of the three kinds of decoration. - plate . the pilaster panel. . italian renascence. – . italian renascence, sta. maria dei miracoli, venice. – . italian renascence, by benedetto da majano. – . modern panels, in the style of the italian renascence. the pilaster capital. the pilaster capital (plates – ) generally speaking, the structure of the capital of the pilaster follows that of the column; and, to a certain extent, translates the forms of the latter from the round to the flat. this observation is true in the renascence period; but not in the antique. in pilaster-capitals in the doric style one or more leaf or egg- and-dart mouldings run under the abacus, and are covered at the corners with palmettes or leaves. beneath this proper part of the capital a neck more or less high is usually found, decorated with rosettes or with other ornaments (plate . ). on modern capitals of this class the neck may even be fluted (plate . ); not infre- quently the centre of the capital is still further decorated by the addition of masks, symbols, &c. (plate . and ). while the renascence adopted the form of the ionic capital with scarcely any change for its pilasters (plate . ), the antique possessed a special form of pilaster capital of this order (plate . ). the most numerous, varied and beautiful capitals of pilasters are in the corinthian order. the profile and general arrangement are the same as with the columns; generally, however, the pilaster is broader in proportion to its height. the lower part is encircled by artificial leaves which sometimes dwindle to the two corner leaves supporting the volutes. the volutes are of the most varied descrip- tions, sometimes replaced by cornucopias, dolphins, chimeras, and other figures (plates . and . ). leaf-ornaments, vases, garlands, calices of flowers, &c., are arranged at the centres (plate . – ), also masks (plate , , and ). neckings are rare on corinthian capitals (plate . ). the egg-and-dart mouldings, which run along the bottom of antique examples (plate . – ), are reminiscences of the doric style, so that these forms may also be regarded as a kind of transition capital. plate . the pilaster capital. greek-doric anta, erechtheum, athens. greek-ionic anta. greek-corinthian. . roman-corinthian, (bötticher). roman-corinthian, pantheon, rome. roman-corinthian, temple of mars ultor, rome, (de vico). : — plate . the pilaster capital. . corinthian, italian renascence, court of the scala dei giganti, venice, (wiener bauhütte). supports. * - ------------ º º º º - lp º % § % º §º. \ s. ºf&## . the pilaster capital. plato . supports. plate . the pilaster capital. supports. the pilaster capital. plate . the pilaster capital. — the candelabra base. corinthian, italian renascence, sta. maria dei miracoli, venice. corinthian, italian renascence, certosa, florence. corinthian, italian renascence, scuola di san marco, venice, by pietro lombardo. – . corinthian, italian renascence, chapel of the palazzo vecchio, florence, (musterornamente). corinthian, italian renascence. . corinthian, french renascence, tomb of louis xii, st. denis. : plate . the pilaster capital. . corinthian, italian renascence, portal of san michele, venice. — . corinthian, italian renascence, palace of the doges, venice. ionic, french renascence, (lièvre). wrought-iron, castle at athis-mons, french, th century. wrought-iron, by jean berain, french, th century, (raguenet). modern doric, architects kayser and v. grossheim. modern doric, new opera house, paris, architect garnier. modern ionic, rue dieu, paris, architect sedille. modern corinthian, atelier of a painter, paris, sculptor bloche. i the candelabrum foot. (plate ) for lighting, the candelabrum played an important part in the domestic and religious life of the ancients. in the house, they mostly employed slender, delicate bronze candelebra; and for religion, the great state-candelabra of marble. the candelabrum, like the column, consists of three parts: the base, the shaft, and the capital. to afford the necessary steadiness, the base of the candelabrum is planned on a comparatively large scale, and divided into three legs, which stretch-out, towards the points of an equilateral triangle. for the foot, the claw of an animal, and in particular the claw of the lion, is used. not infrequently the claws rest on balls or discs (plate . ). the transition to the shaft is designed with a double calix, the upper leaves of which rise and encircle the shaft, and the lower leaves descend and mask the junction of the three legs (plate . and ). a delicate anthemion may be perceived between each pair of feet on richer examples (plate . and ). in exceptional cases the leg appears to grow from the mouth of an animal (plate . ). occasionally a circular, profiled and decorated disc is used instead of the double calyx and anthemion. sometimes, too, the shaft is prolonged downwards beneath the disc in the form of a knob, but does not touch the ground. the candelabrum base, & shaft. it is obvious that the delicate forms and the division into legs, whicn was so suitable for a material like bronze, could not be trans- ferred directly to the construction in marble; but reminiscences of it may be seen in the retention of the triangular ground-plan, the re- duced claws, the double calyx, &c. (plate . ). plate . the candelabrum base. . antique, bronze, museum, naples, (bötticher). . n (bötticher). . }} n studj publici, florence, (weissbach and lotter- moser). – . antique, bronze, museum, naples. – . legs from antique candelabra: the former found in the ruins of paestum; the other in the museum, naples. . roman, state-candelabrum. . renascence candelabrum, collection of drawings, uffizi, florence. the candelabrum shaft. (plate .) the decoration of the shaft of the antique bronze domestic candelabrum is simple; and consists of flutings or channellings, some- times of naturalistic buds and leaves. far richer is the ornamentation of the antique state-candelab- rum. it is divided into zones (plate . ), or the shaft swells and diminishes alternately, giving a richer profile (plate . ). smooth and fluted parts with contrast with foliage and figure; and the ascending decoration is varied by trophies and festoons. the effect depends on the propriety of the division. the repetition of similar masses or similar forms becomes tedious. the antique and also the renascence, particularly in italy, has transmitted to us a number of standard forms of candelabra; of which a few examples are reproduced plate . plate . the candelabrum shaft. . roman, marble. . roman, marble. . antique, (bötticher). . mast-socket, piazza of s. mark, venice, bronze, italian renas- cenc . . candelabrum-like foot of a holy water-stoup, pisa cathedral, italian renascence. . italian renascence, badia near florence. supports. plate . the candelabrum base. supports. º vº Ǻ --- vº nº. º --- --- ſº --- cºº" ------. the candelabrum shaft. plate . the candelabrum capital. — the balauster. the candelabrum capital. (plate .) the capital of a candelabrum has a plate or cup-like form, according as it is destined to receive a lamp, or a candle. the tops of the antique bronze candelabra, as a rule, are, profiled like the so-called krater (figs. – ). - the profiles, and ornamentation already given, may be re- garded as standards. the insertion of real capitals, or of figures, as bearers (fig. ) is rarer. the marble candelabra of the antique usually terminate in a plate or table (fig. ); and this is also the case with the renascence candelabra intended to receive candles. these were not placed in a cylindrical socket but stuck on a co- nical pricket. on the decoration of candelabra the reader may compare the plates dealing with this subject in division iii, (group of utensils). plate . the candelabrum capital. – . antique, museum, naples. . roman. . renascence, drawing in the uffizi, florence. the balauster. (plate .) balausters are small squat columns of circular or square plan. sometimes they are only symmetrical around their axis, sometimes however they are also symmetrical in an upward and downward direc- tion. in most cases their construction is that of the candelabrum. they may be divided into base, shaft, and capital. ranged side-by-side in a row, balausters are employed by the renascence and modern art in parapets, balconies, attics, and stair- cases. when the balausters are placed on a stair-case: the bases and capitals are either slanting, or the horizontals of the balausters follow the slanting lines of the stair-case. the latter method was adopted in the decadence of the renascence, but is unjustifiable; and can, in any case, only be adopted with balausters of a square or oblong plan. a rich variety may be obtained by the use of square and cylindrical forms in the same balauster (fig. ). the balauster is occasionally used as a support for stalls, and on furniture. ra- guenet's “documents et materiaux" contains a large number of ba- lausters; from which we have selected some examples. supports. the candelabrum capital. plate . supports. plate . the balauster. the balauster. — the terminus, plate . the balauster. . square plan, italian renascence, sta. maria della salute, venice. . a system of square balausters, palazzo pesaro, venice. . circular plan, modern italian. wood, italian renascence, stalls in sta. maria novella, flo- rence. . modern french, architect roux, paris. – . square wooden, (bethke: “der decorative holzbauer"). – . modern, terracotta. the terminus. (plate ) the terminus is a pilaster-like support, the fundamental form of which is characterized by tapering downwards in a manner re- calling an inverted obelisk. the name is derived from the fact that similiar constructions were used in the antique as milestones and to mark the terminations of fields, &c. the terminus consists of the profiled base, not infrequently supported on a special pedestal (figs. and ); the shaft tapering downwards and usually ornamented with festoons (figs. , , , ); and the capital, which is often re- placed by a bust or half-figure (figs. , , ). in this latter case, it assumes the appearance of a caryatid; and, as the bust is that of hermes (the god of letters), this application is often termed a “hermes". standing isolated, it serves as a pedestal for busts and lamps, as a post for railings, and in gardens and terraces. the last was exceedingly popular in the rococo period. joined to the wall, the terminus often takes the place of the pilaster. this is especially true of the furniture and small architectural constructions of the renascence period. it is also not uncommon on utensils, e. g. tri. pods, handles of pokers, seals, &c. plate . the terminus. . upper part, antique, silver treasure of hildesheim, berlin museum, (obviously from a roman tripod). . stone terminus bust, italian renascence, willa massimi, rome, (raguenet). . stone terminus bust, german renascence, mantel-piece, town- hall, lübeck. . stone terminus bust, german renascence, otto heinrich build- ing, heidelberg castle. . stone terminus bust, german renascence, monument, church of the castle, pforzheim. meyer, handbook of ornament. supports. plate . the terminus. the terminus. – the parapet. — the railing post. – . wooden terminus, renascence. . small terminus figure, german renascence, national museum, munich. . terminus with mask, modern chimney-piece, (gewerbehalle). the parapet. (plate .) besides the parapets which are formed by rows of balausters, there are others which are arrangements of pierced or perforated tsone or wood, and cast or wrought iron. the gothic style prefers tracery, the renascence prefers scrolls for stone parapets (figs. and ). parapets of perforated wood, which are typical of swiss architecture, are composed of strips of boards, with shapes more or less rich, care being taken that the intervening spaces also form pleasing shapes. to construct parapets in the form of bi-axial trellises, was a popular custom of the renascence; and it has continued so to the present day. but the function of the supports is only fully shown when the pattern has an upward direction. this, however, does not ex- clude the use of other treatments, e.g. panels. raguenet has nume- rous examples. piate . the parapet. . modern gothic, stone, viollet-le-duc, (raguenet). . modern gothic, stone, viollet-le-duc, castle of pierrefonds, (raguenet). . stone, german renascence, dagobert tower, new castle, baden- baden. – . trellis, schinkel, (vorb. f. fabr. u. handw). . modern french, hôtel mirabeau, paris, architect magne, (raguenet). . trellis, barocco, wrought-iron, french. railing post. (plate .) staircase railings, are formed of rows of upright posts. these are of slender, delicate form; and take the place of the stouter balauster. the usual materials for balausters are stone, terracotta, and wood; the railings, on the other hand, are of metal, or, in their simpler forms, of wood. in the last decades, cast-iron was the ma- * supports. - the railing post. plate . the railing post. — the furniture leg. terial most often used; but lately a return has been made to the more plastic wrought-iron. the ornamentation depends on the material selected. wrought - iron posts are decorated with scrolls and tendrils, while cast-iron uprights are decorated in bas-relief. if the railing-post has to stand on a horizontal plane, it is ad- visable to construct the foot in the manner shown in figs. , , and ; if it is to be affixed to the sides of the treads of a staircase, arrangements similar to those in figs. , , and , are necessary. where the upper end has to support the hand-rail, independent terminations, like figs. and , may be adopted. spherical heads may be applied to all angles (fig. ). plate . the railing post. . modern post, cast-metal, architect v. leins, stuttgart, (ge- werbehalle). . modern post, cast-metal, architect v. hoven, frankfurt, (ge- werbehalle). modern post, wrought-iron, (gewerbehalle). cast-metal. zy ,, architects gropius and schmieden. - plain wooden post. – . modern posts, cast-metal, architect v. hoven, frankfurt. ) . . the furniture leg. (plate .) the legs of wood furniture may be divided into two classes according to their height. tables and chairs have high legs; low legs or feet serve as supports for all kinds of cabinet and box-like articles. the general plan is that of a balauster-like body of revolution as turned on the lathe. angular forms, however, are also used. high legs are frequently decorated with carved ornaments; low legs are usually left plain; and this would seem to be in accordance with their character. metal feet are sometimes used for small pieces of furniture like caskets. where the legs have to stand on the floor: it is advisable to taper them downwards (figs. – ); where they have to stand on raised platforms and seldom require to be moved: it is better to furnish them with a pedestal (fig. ). it has lately become fashion- able to apply metal casters to pianos, heavy chairs, couches, &c. the furniture leg. — the trapezophoron. plate . the furniture leg. modern. . modern. . modern. . modern. – . various old designs. the trapezophoron. (plates – ) “trapezophoron" is the name given to the support of the antique table. they were usually of marble, the top itself was of wood or stone, sometimes ornamented with mosaic. we may distinguish two principal classes of antique tables: the circular table with three legs (compare plate . ); and the oblong table, resting on two end-supports (compare . and . ). the lower part, of the support of the round table, consists of a great leg which generally passes into a foliated calyx with a small head of a lion, lynx, panther, or other animal growing out of it ( . — ). the heads are sometimes human ( . ) or human half-figures, such as the genius bearing a bowl on plate . — . in the early period of antique art we find forms of more architectonic character like plate , fig . the end-support for the oblong table is a symmetrical duplication of the motive of the single leg already men- tioned, with the addition of wings, and with the space between the animal forms filled either by figures or ornaments (plate . – and . ). very striking in both classes of support is the differ- ence in scale of the various elements (a phenomenon which also appears elsewhere in roman art). on antique table-legs the reader may also consult division iii, (furniture). plate . the trapezophoron. . three-legged table, roman, legs of marble, table-top of mosaic. – . front and side view of the support of a roman table, found in the atrium of the house of cornelius rufus in pompeii, (fragments de l'architecture). . support of antique table. – . marble support of roman table, lynx head and claw, museum, naples. – . marble support of roman table, panther head and claw, bri- tish museum. – . marble support of roman table, lion head and claw, vatican, rome. supports. plate . the furniture leg. - supports. plate . the trapezophoron. supports. plate . the trapezophoron. the trapezophoron. – the console. plate . the trapezophoron. . marble support of antique table, museum, naples (judging from the symbolism of the ornamentation, the leg is probably from a table sacred to zeus), (l'art pour tous). — . front and side view of a small roman table-support, marble, naples museum, panther claw, eros garbed with the nebris. roman table-support, marble, british museum. , head of hercules and lion claw, : : vatican. . antique support, marble, (vulliamy). the console. (plates – .) the form of the console is extremely varied; as are its uses and applications. it is determined by the function, and the material of which it is made, as well as by the style of the period. architectural members of the character of consoles are early found in the chinese and indian, as also in the assyrian style; but in the egyptian style they are wanting. volute consoles, very beautifully developed, are found sporadi- cally in the greek style; but the roman style was the first to make an extensive use of these forms. the decorated ends of beams are probably to be regarded as the original model for consoles. the s-shaped double volute, with a large and a small spiral, is the standard form. in this console, the line of construction and the space for the actual decoration are given in the side-view, while the front, which is subordinate, is ornamented by scale motives, and leaves, which adapt themselves in graceful curves to the standard forms. when the console is used in the console-band of a cornice, or as the bracket of a balcony, its attitude is recumbent. when it sup- ports the cornices of doors and windows, its attitude is erect. no other application is known in the antique. a beautiful example occurs on the north door of the erechtheum at athens (plate . – ). some examples of recumbent consoles, of roman style, are given in figs. – , of the same plate. the example — , of the late roman epoch, shows decorative accessories of swans. the bend of the curve of the volute here departs from the normal example, and approaches a more convex curve, which is demanded by the static calculation for these supports. the early christian and romanesque art adopted coarse copies of the antique, and also created new ones suited to the new require- ments. thus early, we find those modillion forms which become typical for the wooden architecture of the middle ages, being chiefly the console. used beneath mouldings, and in corners of doors between the jambs and the lintel. the example on plate . may be taken as representative of this kind of support. another class of supports exhibits a central core, tapered downwards, like pendants with a polygonal or round plan (plate . and ). this latter form is also used in gothic art as a bracket for the statues of the saints, which were applied to piers and the arches of portals. the renascense remodels the last-named console in its own way, but recurs by preference to the antique form (plate . ), some- times reversing the volutes (plate . – ), and giving the front a richer and more independent ornamentation (plate . ). the combination of several smaller consoles to form a composite-con. sole, is shown on plate . fig. . just as the pendant-consoles of the gothic style imitate the calyx capital, so too does the rena- scense remodel the doric, ionic, and corinthian capitals for consoles (plate . — ). in wood architecture, we meet with consoles which have the form of richly-decorated struts (plate . ). the barocco style, which followed the renascence, also made essential additions to the richness of the forms. the strict line of the volute is abandoned and frequently broken by straight lines (plate . – ). the console is shaped in front-view like a pen- dant triangle, or typographical tail-piece (plate . and ). an- other invention of this period is the triglyph-console (plate . ). the rococo period abandons the traditional standards, and sacri- fices construction to picturesque license. shell-work, and unsymme- trical scrolls, serve as supports. modern art recasts the elements of former styles, without adding anything essentially new, unless we regard as a novelty the custom of placing busts, clocks, and knicknacks, on independent consoles which are used as brackets. finally: we may mention that in almost every style, consoles in the various forms have been used as the keystones of door and window lintels, in which case they are, generally speaking, not supports, as they have nothing to support. it should be considered inadmissible to apply distorted consoles i.e. those which have vertical sides though they are on the raking sofits of pediments, as was done in the late roman period, and in imitation thereof by the renascence in some examples. - examples, of all periods, will be found in raguenet's work; and an exhaustive essay on the console by dr. p. f. krell in the ge- werbehalle, , no. . plate . the console. – . front and side view, greek, north door, erechtheum, athens. – . front and side view, roman, vatican. supports. rºps the console. plate . supports. the console. plate . supports. zºº plate . the bracket. the console. — the bracket. – . roman, front and side view, temple of jupiter stator, rome watican. – . roman, front and side view, vatican. plate . the console. – . renascence, side views, vatican. . renascence, hôtel d'assezat, toulouse, (raguenet). . renascence, wooden, french, hôtel d'assezet, toulouse, (ra- guenet). . renascence, istrian limestone, venetian, hamburg, museum. . renascence, marble, italian, sta. maria de' miracoli, venice, (gropius). – . modern, french, architect roux, paris. – . ) - ) ) . mediaeval, church, athis, france. plate the console. . romanesque, noyon cathedral, th century, (raguenet). . gothic, st. pierre sous vezélay, (gewerbehalle). . renascence, french, castle, blois. .— . renascence, german, new castle, baden-baden, (gmelin). . renascence, german, heidelberg castle. . renascence, triglyph-console, late french. . modern, french, library, louvre, architect lefuel, (raguenet). . modern, french, (raguenet). . modern, french, new casino, lyons, architect porte, (raguenet). the bracket. (plate ) a special class of supports is formed by those wrought-iron bearers which the middle ages, the renascence, and modern times, have produced in the shape of brackets. the uses of brackets are very various, e. g. in supporting shop-signs, conduit-pipes, gargoyles, candles, lamps, hats, coats, &c. in form, they vary with the style and richness of the work- manship. square, flat and round iron, enriched by chasing and other methods of decoration, are used. they are frequently fastened to the wall by the aid of ribbon-like strips of metal, which may themselves be decorated with scrolls and curls. the plate shows a number of such supports, of ancient and mo- dern date, destined for a variety of purposes. meyer, handbook of ornament. the bracket. — the caryatid, and the atlante. plate . the bracket. — . part of reading-desk, s. benedetto, near mantua, italian re. nascence, (gewerbehalle). . wrought-iron, sign, regensburg, german renascence, (muster- ornamente). . wrought-iron bearer of conduit-pipe, kloster lichtenthal near baden, german renascence, (gmelin). . wrought-iron bearer of water-stoup, sepulchral cross in ceme- tery, kirchzarten, german renascence, (schauinsland). – . wrought-iron supports, for gargoyles, german renascence. . wrought-iron, sign, modern, architect crecelius, mainz. . modern wrought-iron bracket, (badische gewerbezeitung). the caryatid, and the atlante. (plates and .) the freest and the richest motive for supports, is the human figure. as early as egyptian and persian architecture, we find human figures as bearers of beams and roofs. the greek and roman styles also make use of this motive. the modern names for such supports are derived from the antique. accord- ing to greek mythology, atlas supports the vault of heaven at the ends of the earth. hence is derived the name “atlantes” for these male supporters. they are also sometimes termed “telamons". the name “caryatids", for female supporting figures, is derived from the town of caryae in the peloponnesus. according to another version the caryatids are imitations of the virgins who danced in the temple at caryae at the feast of diana. according to vitruvius, their intro- duction into architecture is owing to the fact that ladies of caryae, as a punishment for the support they rendered to the persians, were carried into captivity and compelled to serve as carriers of burdens. the caryatids are termed “canephora" (basket bearers), when capitals in shape like a basket are interposed between their heads and the superincumbent burden. among well-known examples in the antique are the atlantes in the temple of jupiter at agrigentum, and the caryatids of the erechtheum at athens. the middle ages made little use of atlantes and caryatids; the renascence and the following styles, cn the contrary, used them freely. atlantes and caryatids occur isolated, and connected with walls; and in both high and bas-relief. sometimes the whole length of the figure is employed, sometimes only the upper half in conjunction with a console (plate . – ), or with terminus-like bases (plate . – ). composite bearers in the form of double caryatids are also a popular motive, as shown by the example on plate , from the louvre at paris. supports. plate . the caryatid, the atlante, &c. * supports. plate . the caryatid, &c. the caryatid, the atlante, &c. plate . the caryatid, the atlante, &c. . greek caryatid, erechtheum, athens, (vorbilder für fabrikanten und handwerker). . antique caryatid, willa mattei, after piranesi, (vorbilder für fabrikanten und handwerker). modern french atlante, house in paris, sculptor caillé, (ra- guenet). – . modern, front and side views of half-figure consoles, ziegler and weber, carlsruhe. plate . the caryatid, &c. . modern, double caryatid, louvre, paris, (baldus). — . modern, caryatids, conservatoire des arts et métiers, paris, sculptor e. robert, (raguenet). – . modern, caryatids, director c. hammer, nuremberg. – . modern, caryatids, director c. hammer, nuremberg. d. enclosed ornament. (panels) that method of treatment, which has for its object to decorate a plane surface, and to cover it with ornament, &c., by means of painting, inlaying, engraving, etching, &c., we term flat decoration. this falls into two classes. firstly the ornament may be de- signed for a definite, bounded space, such as an oblong, according to artistic rules, so that it fits exactly into this space alone: in which case it is a discontinuous or “panel" ornament. or, secondly, the ornament may extend itself in every direction, repeating its details without regard to any definite boundary: in which case it is a con- tinuous or “diaper" ornament, such as a wall-paper. turning our attention first to discontinuous or panel-ornament: we shall find, in addition to objects whose boundaries are arbitrary and to be fixed at will, that we have principally to consider the following shapes: the square, the other regular polygons, the circle, the oblong, the ellipse, the lunette, the various forms of the span- rail, the lozenge and the triangle. geometrical, natural, and artificial elements, either singly or combined, are used. the character of the ornament may be natura- listic, or it may be artificial, and adapted to some pre-arranged leading-lines of the shape. this book does not treat of examples of the former character. those of the latter character, i. e. artificial ornament, will depend on the attitude of the panel with regard to the horizon. enclosed ornament. — the square panel. when the panel is mon-axial, i. e. it is symmetrical on both sides of one axis: then the panel-ornament is suitable to a vertical surface. when it is developed regularly in all directions from the centre of the figure, and is symmetrical to two or more axes: then the panel-ornament is suitable to a horizontal surface. the central feature of a horizontal panel is not infrequently emphasized by a rosette ornament, while the decoration of the remaining surface is kept in low-relief. trifling variations, from absolute symmetry and regularity, are often met-with; but they are confined to the details, the impression of symmetry and regularity being preserved in the general effect. these remarks, as well as some further relations arising out of the nature of the subject, we now proceed to illustrate in detail in the following chapters and plates. for the most part we shall con- fine ourselves to the best known and most frequent figures; and shall only offer some few examples of abnormal panels. the square panel. (plates – .) the lines, on which the decoration of the square may naturally be based, are the two diagonals, and the two diameters which join the centre of the opposite sides. these lines cut each-other in a common point, the centre of the shape; and form an eight-rayed star with rays of alternately unequal lengths. they divide the figure into equal spaces, which are usually decorated with repeated orna- ment, and are therefore suitable to the horizontal attitude, (compare plate , figs. – and others). numerically this mode of deco- ration is predominant. rarer are the cases in which the angle is once more bisected and the square consequently divided into tri- angles, (compare plate , fig. ). the simplest decoration is the many-rayed star, which is termed the uraniscus, in the coffers or greek ceilings (comp. plate , fig. ). the centre of the figure is generally accentuated by the addition of a rosette, and the direction of growth, like plant-motives, is from the centre outwards (plate , fig. , , , and others); or alternately from the centre outwards and inwards (comp. plate . ). slight variations from strict symmetry and regularity are partly caused by the use of the geo- metrical interlaced band (plate . and ), and are partly the deliberate result of artistic freedom of conception (plate . . and . ). the latter example is highly remarkable in this respect; and its originality may serve as a model. the example is also one of the rare cases in which the ornamentation is symmetrical to the diagonals, and not to the diameters. the square panel. another kind of square decoration is that in which it is sub- divided into separate spaces, each of which receives an independent ornamentation. plates and of the handbook give a number of such divisions of squares; a similar mode of decoration will be found on plate , fig. , plate , figs. and , and elsewhere. the decoration of the square in an upright attitude, with symmetry to one axis, belongs to the same category as the oblong; and we may therefore refer to what will be said below with reference to this latter figure. square panel are to be found in all styles; we have taken some striking examples from the coffer-ceilings of the antique and the renascence, from the pavement-tiles of the middle ages, and from the metal-work of the renascence and modern times. plate . the square panel. . greek, uraniscus, coffer of ceiling, propylaea, athens. . roman, bas-relief, found during the rectification of the tiber near the farnesina, rome, in , museo tiberino. ) roman, mosaic pavement, pompeii, (owen jones). byzantine, bas-relief, san marco, venice, (owen jones). . assyrian pavement, kouyunjik, (owen jones). – . greek, coffers of ceilings, propylaea, athens. . " ' " ,, , athens. . ) n n , parthenon. . . plate . the square panel. . decoration, of a book, th century, library of the duke of devonshire, (racinet). . scandinavian bas-relief, celtic stone cross, churchyard, meigle, angus, (owen jones). . bas-relief, tomb of “pierre le vénérable", cluny museum, th century, (l'art pour tous). – . mediaeval, tiles, (owen jones, racinet &c.). . tiles, cistercian monastery, bebenhausen. . moorish tiles. . gothic, tiles, bloxham church, england, th century. plate . the square panel. and . inlaid work, th or th century, sauvageot collection, (racinet). arabian mosaic, (prisse d'avennes). moorish, alhambra, th century. arabian, wood door, th century, (l'art pour tous). : the square panel. – the star-shape panel. renascence, intarsia, german (hirth, formenschatz). modern. — . renascence, intarsia, sta. maria gloriosa ai frari, venice, th century, (musterornamente). i plate . the square panel. . renascence, motive from a robe in the sacristy, sta. croce, florence, italian. renascence, tiles, collection of the count d'yvon, (racinet). renascence, motive after peter flötner, german. renascence, mosaic flooring, cathedral, spoleto, (jacobsthal; the centre altered). renascence, intarsia, stalls, certosa near pavia, italian. renascence, majolica tiles, sta. caterina, siena, italian. renascence, intarsia, door of the cambio, perugia, by antonio mercatello, , italian. – . renascence, door of the madonna di galliera, bologna, italian, (musterornamente). : ; plate . the square panel. and . wrought-iron, french, th century, (l'art pour tous). and . wrought-iron, german renascence, (hirth, formenschatz). . wrought-iron, oxford, , (l'art pour tous). – . wrought-iron, modern. and . wrought-iron, modern, cemetery, carlsruhe. . wrought-iron, by georg klain, salzburg, th century. the star-shape panel. (plate .) the decoration of polygonal stars is generally based on radiat- ing axes. exceptions, in favor of symmetry to one or two axes, are comparatively scarce (fig. ). where there is no sub-division into independent panels, accord- ing to plates and of the handbook (fig. ): the ornament follows the natural lines of division furnished by the diagonals. in this case the number of the single, similar triangles of division depends on the number of sides (fig. ). decorated star-shaped panels are extremely common in the arabian and moorish styles, where the ornament is often of such a character that it would very well suit a simple polygon, and only fills out accidentally (so to speak) the star angles (figs. , and ). enclosed ornament. , |≤ | plate . the square panel. enclosed ornament. ) wº º, i the square panel. plate . enclosed ornament. plate . the square panel. enclosed ornament. o. plate . the square panel. enclosed ornament. plate . - the square panel. enclosed ornament. plate . the star-shape panel. the star-shape panel. – the circular panel. piate . the star-shape panel. mural painting, s. francesco, assisi, (hessemer). decoration of arabic koran, th century, (prisse d'avennes). arabian architecture, (prisse d'avennes). — . arabian ceiling paintings, (prisse d'avennes). etched ornament, armour, national museum, munich, th cen- tury, (gewerbehalle). – . arabian ceiling paintings, th century, (prisse d'avennes). : the circular panel. (plates – ) the circle may be regarded as a polygon of an infinite number of sides. as it is impossible to take this infinite number into account, it is usual, when working on radial axes to divide the circle into , , , , , , , or , similar parts, as indicated in the figures. another principle of frequent application is that of division into zones; each ring-like band being ornamented independently. this principle predominates in the so-called archaic styles, e.g. on etruscan and assyrian shields (plate . , , and ). this principle is ex- cellently adapted to the decoration of dishes and plates, the profiling of which naturally points to a zonal division. the centre of the circle, which is sometimes decorated by a rosette, may also be filled by some feature which is symmetrical to one axis or is unsym- metrical (plate . ). the latter mode of decoration has also been adopted, although in comparatively rarer cases, for the decoration of the circle as a whole. geometrical sub-division of the circle, by the insertion of poly- gons, or arcs, is common, not only in gothic tracery, which is specially dependent on these processes, but in every other style (comp. the tracery panels and on plate , and the niello ornaments and on plate ). in many cases, the circular panel is decorated by an ornament which is merely an enlarged rosette or cieling- flower, so that no clear line can be drawn between the two classes, (compare what has been said of the rosette on p. ). plate . the circular panel. . assyrian, pavement, nimrud, (owen jones). . assyrian shield, khorsabad, (owen jones). . old frankish panel, sacramentarium, rheims. – . greek, paintings on wases, (lau). the circular panel. . celtic stone cross, churchyard, st. vigeans, angus, (owen jones). – . paintings on greek, wases, (lau). plate . . . plate . . plate . . the circular panel. romanesque, manuscript, th century, (racinet). modern, early gothic, (ungewitter, stadt- und land- kirchen). - byzantine, sta. sofia, constantinople, th century. mediaeval stone slab, th century, museum, rouen, (racinet). ditto, laon cathedral, (racinet). ditto, wrought-iron key-handle. gothic boss, th century, st. benoit, paris, (racinet). gothic, old cabinet, united collections, carlsruhe. and . gothic, chip-carving, old cabinet, (gewerbehalle). mediaeval glass-painting, soissons cathedral, (racinet). . the circular panel. arabian flat ornament, mosque kaonam-ed-din, (prisse d'avennes). romanesque, minster, basel. arabian bas-relief, door, cairo, th century, (prisse d'avennes). as no. . arabian bas-relief, th century, (l'art pour tous). arabian, sunk decoration, metal plaque, (prisse d'avennes). niello, baltasar silvius, th century, (ysendyck). marble mosaic, floor, s. vitale, ravenna, (hessemer). romanesque, portal, s. laurence, segovia, th century. arabian, decoration of koran, th century, (prisse d'avennes). . the circular panel. renascence, bas relief, vendramini tomb, ss. giovanni e paolo, venice, italian, (meurer). renascence, majolica tiles, sta. caterina, siena, italian. renascence, wrought-iron panel, san salvator, prague, german, (gewerbehalle). renascence, church, kamenz, german, (gewerbehalle). renascence, peter flötner, german. modern, centre of a silver plaque, by ihne and stegmüller of berlin, (gewerbehalle). modern, ceiling of staircase, villa croissy, seine et oise, french, (césar daly). and . ; meyer, handbook of ornament. enclosed ornament. plate . the circular panel. enclosed ornament. $vºs f º - tºº j-ºf- . n ſº - | ||nº|\{ t wººlwº |wºº - \ sn - (§ *yºğº sº - º) ſº the circular panel. plate . + enclosed ornament. z) º p - sº h s. Šºš º sºº - | º \%. gº º º plate . the circular panel. enclosed ornament. Ø + . % º k sº - - rºa the circular panel. - plate . the oblong panel. the oblong panel. (plates – .) the shape of the oblong is particularly adapted to receive both a bi-axial and a mon-axial treatment; and as it is by far the most fre- quently-used shape: numerous examples of the two treatments are to be found in all styles. when the oblong is not sub-divided (as shown on plates to ), the natural axes, around which the ornament is grouped are, for the bi-axial treatment, the two diameters, which join the centres of the opposite sides. these lines divide the figure into smaller oblongs, each of which receives an identical decoration (comp. plate , figs. – , and plate , figs. – ). to use the diagonals as lines of symmetry, as is the rule with the square, pro- duces an unfavourable effect; because the triangles thus formed, although similar to each other, do not present the same angle to the centre (comp. plate . ). this panel differs from the usual rule, as the organic growth of the ornament is not from the centre out- wards, but from the angles inwards. the strict greek palmette ornamentation, which has such an excellent effect in the square, is less suitable for the oblong (plate , figs. and ) than the freer decorations of the roman period (plate . ) and the renascence (plate . – ). on vertical surfaces: the attitude of the oblong panel may be either “figure-wise", or “landscape-wise". examples of the former attitude are figs. and ; and of the latter are, figs. and on plate . the vertical line through the centre is the axis of these. the ornament is seldom geometrical; organic or artificial motives are mostly used. the mon-axial treatment is most properly employed where it is applied in a really vertical plane, e.g. on pilasters (comp. p. , shafts of pilasters), on walls, doors, &c. the poly-axial treat- ment is best adapted for the decoration of horizontal planes, such as floors, ceilings, &c. copious material is furnished by the inlaid-work, bas-reliefs, and metal-work, of the renascence. plate . the oblong panel. – . greek, painted coffers of ceilings, propylaea, athens, (owen jones). . roman. . roman, under-side of the architrave, temple of vesparian, rome. . renascence, church, kamenz, german, (gewerbehalle). plate . the oblong panel. . renascence, intarsia, cabinet, perugia, italian, (jacobsthal). . renascence, palazzo vecchio, mantua, italian, (jacobsthal). enclosed ornament. the oblong panel. plate . plate . enclosed ornament. sº): Ø) l º º nº. º q º \@ º Ø º Şe * º > > the oblong panel. plate . enclosed ornament. | a plate . the oblong panel. the oblong panel. — the elliptic panel. renascence, marzuppini tomb, sta. croce, florence, (jacobsthal). renascence, tomb, stiftskirche, stuttgart, german, (musterornamente). renascence, s. michael's, schwäbisch-hall, german, (musterorna- mente). : plate . the oblong panel. . renascence, wrought-iron grill, italian, (gewerbehalle). . wrought-iron grill, choir of s. blasius, mühlhausen, thuringia, th century, (musterornamente). – . ivory inlays, by hans schieferstein, th century, museum, dresden. . wrought-iron, house, freiburg, switzerland, th century, (l'art pour tous). . ornament, over picture of saint, by barthel beham, carlsruhe, german renascence. – . stalls of the laurentian library, florence, italian renascence. plate . the oblong panel. . grill, schlettstadt, , (gewerbehalle). — . intarsia, s. petronio, bologna, , (musterornamente). . wrought-iron balaustrade, th century. . wrought-iron, french, th century. . wrought-iron, stift strahov, prague, german, renascence. the elliptic panel. (plate .) as regards the principle of decoration, the ellipse bears the same relation to the circle that the oblong does to the square. when not sub-divided (see plate , fig. ), it is treated either mon-axially, with the ornament symmetrical to one of the axes (fig. ); or it is treated bi-axially, with the ornament symmetrical to both (figs. to ). the elliptic panel was not often used in decoration during the best periods. in the th and th centuries, it was used as the form for snuff-boxes, sweet-boxes, &c., the decoration being carried-out in niello, and similar metal work. it was also in use during the same period in centre-ornaments for the covers of books. from such examples, most of the figures on the plate have been taken. plate . the elliptic panel. — . renascence, german, (formenschatz). . centre of a book-cover, gold blocking on vellum, german th century, (storck). the elliptic panel. – the lunette, and the spanrail panels. –– . renascence, book-cover blocks, germanisches museum, nurem- berg. german, (musterornamente). . renascence, pavement, tomb of princess johanna elisabeth, stiftskirche, stuttgart. the lunette, and the spanrail panels. (plates – .) the semicircle scarcely admits of any entirely satisfactory sub- division. the best method is to describe a circle in the semicircle so that the circle touches the centre of the semicircle above and the centre of its chord below; this arrangement is especially useful when a medallion or a clock is to be placed in it. there are two methods of decorating the lunette: either an upright panel-ornament is de- signed symmetrical to one axis, an arrangement which is the best, as the semicircle, in the majority of cases, is used on vertical planes (plate . and ); or the semicircle is divided, like a fan, into a number of sectors, which receive an identical decoration, an arrange- ment which is chiefly adopted for door-heads (plate . ). in such cases a central semicircle is usually inserted; and the small panel, thus formed, is decorated independently. the object of this is to obviate the inelegant and difficult accumulation of radii at the centre. in consequence of an optical illusion, the semicircle gives the impression of being really less than the half of the whole circle; and for this reason it is sometimes “stilted", that is the centre of the arc does not lie on the springing-line, but is shifted a little higher. the name “spanrail" is given to the spaces of various shape which remain after circular shapes are taken-away from quadrangular ones. the commonest figure of this kind is the trianguloid, which is formed on either side of a semicircle when this latter is described in an oblong frame. the same shape results when a circle is inscribed in a square, which frequently occurs in the decoration of ceilings. some- times the decoration of the trianguloid consists of a rosette in its centre; or laurel, palm, and oak sprays, circular wreaths, and waving ribbons, trophies, figures in relief, and similar motives, in a more or less naturalistic style, are employed. in severer decoration, the axis of symmetry is the line of bisection of the right angle. the motives are sometimes geometrical (plate . – ); but more frequently organic (plate . – ); and, among artificial forms, varieties of strapwork are used (plate . – ). when a series of arcs has a common bounding straight line, the spanrail is shaped as shown by fig. , plate . this figure is the enclosed ornament. enclosed ornament. the lunette, and the spanrail panels. plate . enclosed ornament. . - *. the lunette, and the spanrail panels. plate . the lunette, and the spanrail panels. – warious panels. same as two conjoined trianguloids. it has a vertical central axis. another well-known shape results when two smaller semicircles are taken-away from a larger, as when, for instance, two round-headed windown lights are enclosed by a common arch. finally we may mention the quadrant, which is not infrequently used in the angles of ceilings (figures and of plate ). plate . the lunette, and the spanrail panels. roman, (vulliamy). italian renascence, (gewerbehalle). arabian, (prisse d'avennes). - early gothic spanrail, stone church, england. – . arabian, mosaic spanrail, (prisse d'avennes). – . modern. : plate . the lunette, and the spanrail. panel. . renascence, intarsia, sta. maria in organo, verona, italian. wrought-iron grill. . renascence, wrougth-iron grill, german. . renascence, plinth of a column, st. antonio, padua, (meurer). modern, vaudeville theatre, paris, (raguenet). – . renascence, by vredeman de vries. the lozenge panel. (plate ) the lozenge in decorative art includes the rhombus, and the square when one of its diagonals is vertical. the lozenge is treated either as an upright panel, symmetrical to one axis (figs. , , and ); or the two diagonals are the axes of symmetry for a bi-axial pattern (figs. , and ). in the former case, the ornament consists of two; and in the latter case of four, similar parts. the lozenge is not often employed. occasionally it finds a place as a panel in lattices, doors, dadoes, ceilings, &c. plate . the lozenge panel. . door, nördlingen church, th century. – . grill, townhall, würzburg, german renascence. – . modern decorative painting. warious panels. (plates – ) plate and give a number of incidental panel-shapes, of which there is a great variety. the principle of decoration must enclosed ornament. * º §§§ *nº. nº. º/\ º Ž ae plate . enclosed ornament. l enclosed ornament. º º e. repeating ornament. (diapers) it is the essence, of repeated ornament, that it may be ex- tended on all sides at discretion, the component parts of the design (i. e. the pattern) admitting of uninterrupted repetition. the ele- ments are either geometrical, organic, or, as in the majority of cases, geometrical are combined with organic elements, sometimes with the addition of figures and artificial accessories. diaper ornament has either a poly-axial or a bi-axial character. in the former case, the decoration expands regularly on all sides; the basis is a system of inter- secting axes of symmetry, as shown in the square or triangular nets on plate . in the second case, the decoration consists of growth in an up- ward direction, the repetition on each side being secured by “turning the pattern over" symmetrically, or by juxtaposition (in the usual sense of the word). here, also, combination frequently occurs to this extent that many patterns have a poly-axial basis while single panels and medallions have upright decoration. growth in a downward direction, or in an oblique upward di- rection, &c., must be classed as exceptions to the rule. when diaper patterns are applied to circumscribed surfaces, e. g. on walls: they are either cut-off abruptly, as in wall-papers, or are stopped-short of the limits, and a border is applied. there is seldom much difficulty in the case of geometrical patterns; but with organic designs the sides of the upright patterns usually terminate at the axis of symmetry. diaper ornament is applied to many purposes. mosaic, parquetry, marquetry, using geometrical patterns; the textile, wall-paper, and repeating ornament. plate . the square diaper, &c. repeating ornament. |: < ſlº Ö ×{} > rº º sº : . qá º § d.c. º plate . the circle diaper, &c. the scale diaper, circle diaper, &c. the pigments. damaskeened objects are found in german and old frankish tombs. this art, however, disappeared in the west only to be pursued more energetically in the east, where it still flourishes, e.g. in persia, and india. niello, engraved, and etched work were most fashionable at the time of the renascence. plate . the scale diaper, &c. — . chinese and japanese. , and . indian and persian and . renascence. and . mediaeval, (cologne enamel). the circle diaper, &c. (tiles) (plate .) the decoration of walls and pavements, with glazed clay tiles, dates back as early as assyrian times. the middle ages made a most extensive use of pavement tiles. the individual tiles are mostly of a square shape; and vary in size from ins. to ins. the pattern is generally in intaglio; and fre- quently filled-in with clay of another color. the designs of these tiles are usually excellent. the tile contains either the whole of the repeating ornament; or only a part of it so that tiles form the unit of design. these tiles are common in england, france, and ger- many. majolica tiles are used in italy; and are generally adopted for the wall-decoration so popular in england. plate . the circle diaper, &c. — . various mediaeval tiles, after owen jones, racinet, and others. . fontenay, côte d'or. and . rouen museum. . cathedral, st. omer. . troyes, archives de l'aube. the circle diaper, &c. (stained glass.) (plate .) window-glazing is an introduction of the middle ages, and was unknown to the antique. coloured windows were first used for churches. the oldest process consisted in fitting-together pieces of coloured glass in the mosaic style. about the year , the prin- cipal place of manufacture was kloster tegernsee. in the th and lnghinwnmho nilwchchchh f ºf i albid $% º º sv) \!/? - º dx d}< $º º "e 㺠- d ſº § § % sº repeating ohnament. ( d - º-sº º t-ºs-ºs-º ºs- ′ . º º sººº. ºë º sql ºf s$ xs | . . [. º º º }º rºſſ io. the circle diaper, &c. plate . the circle diaper, &c – various diapers. th centuries, painting begins, followed by glass-painting strictly so-called, the design being outlined in brown paint; flashed glass, &c. followed later. after passing through a period of decadence; and almost vanishing during the last two centuries; glass-painting has, of late years, again become the object of great attention, and especially that branch which, leaving strict painting on one side, produces its most striking effects with coloured glass and leaden cames. the vigorous outlines, produced by the lead-setting, enhance the brilliancy of the colours, and prevent the unpleasant optical effect produced by the blending of contiguous tints. we have here to deal only with the ornamental decoration of snrfaces by painting or mosaic. the best examples are to be found in the transition period from the romanesque to the gothic style in the churches of germany, france, and england, the three countries which may be regarded as the true home of stained glass. plate . the circle diaper, &c. — . various patterns, romanesque and early gothic (owen jones, racinet, and others). and . chartres cathedral. and . bourges cathedral. . soissons cathedral. warious diapers. (mural painting.) (plates — .) the models and precursors of mural-decoration are to be looked- for in hangings of carpets and textiles. the egyptian style offers the earlist known examples of the decoration of surfaces by means of wall-painting. the scheme is generally a meander or similar pattern, varied by rosettes, &c. (plate . and ). the pompejan artists used figures and architectural representations in perspective instead of diaper patterns. early christian art used mosaics, which were gradually driven-out by wall-painting during the romanesque, and gothic periods. churches and public buildings are again the first edifices whose interiors were decorated by “tapestry paintings", as we may term this style of decoration in view of the mutual relation between it and textile art. with respect of the principles of design: we may refer the reader to the general introduction, page , and to the plates – . the use of wall-papers in modern times has greatly narrowed the sphere of mural painting: its principal task being now confined to the decoration of public buildings. repeating ornament. & º \º % t | º º º |: plate . repeating ornament. (Ösºzº) | º - ( \sº º º s ººs º º- ><ſfull-º j. j.j. (tuv) % ºãº, º º j lº various diapers. plate . various diapers. – . painting, old cabinet, brandenburg, beginning of the th century, (musterornamente). . painting, sta. croce, florence, italian renascence. – . painting, consistory church, assisi, th century, (hessemer). and . modern french, church painting. . painting, castle of trausnitz, landshut, end of th century, (gewerbehalle). . painting, palazzo del podestà, florence, th century, (muster- ornamente). plate . various dlapers. . ancient egyptian, meander. - . ancient egytian, ceiling painting, (racinet). — . arabian paintings, kaitbey mosque, (prisse d'avennes). . arabian mural painting, mosque of ibrahim aga, cairo, (hessemer). warious diapers. (weaving.) (plates — .) the artistic decoration of textile fabrics goes back to the very earliest times; and is of a most varied character. after the decoration of animal skins, by sewing and embroidering, came the creation of patterns in plaited mats by the use of material of various colours; and this again was followed by the different products of weaving, variegated by the use of coloured yarns, by embroidery, by print- ing, &c. it is due to the perishability of the material that scarcely any products of the loom of the older epochs are to be found in our museums; and that we can only infer their patterns from descriptions and pictures. all the richer, on the other hand, is the choice offered by the renascence, the middle ages, and the east. it would go beyond the scope of this book to give a detailed historical and technical description of textile industry; and we refer the reader to the special works and monographs on this subject”. usually the mode of decoration depends on the object, and varies with the artistic conceptions of the different styles. by the side of purely geometrical patterns (plate . and ), we find organic elements in a geometrical framing (plate . and , plate , ). by the side of poly-axial arrangements (plate . , and ), there are others with mon-axial features (plate . and ). by the side of symmetrical “turn-over" patterns (plate . ), we have others unsymmetrical (plate . ). by the side of artificial flowers and rosettes powdered * otto v. schorn, “die textilkunst". leipzig. meyer, handbook of ornament. various diapers. over the ground (plate . ), there occur natural elements like the curious japanese design on plate , fig. ; and so on. the great principle of style, in the standard examples of all periods, is the avoidance of representations of relief, or of perspective views of archi- tecture, which contradict the nature of the flat surface. important is also the proper distribution of the masses, so that distracting lines or empty spaces may be avoided. of equal importance with the design is the colour, but the plan of this work compels us to leave it out of consideration. next to the fabrication of textiles for ecclesiastical vestments and secular garments: the most important manufacture is that of car- pets, and of tapestries for use on walls, as curtains, portières, &c. of the introduction of the latter into painting, we have already spoken, on plate . here we will only refer to the tapestried backgrounds, common in pictures of the th to the th century, examples of which are to be seen in figs. and of plate . woollen and silk tapestry were followed by sheets of stamped-leather, an arabian invention, which in its turn was followed by the modern wall-paper, at first in painted single sheets, and afterwards in the printed rolls now so common. that we do not devote a special chapter of our work to this important product of modern art, is due to the fact that a difference between mural painting and textile pat- terns really only exists in the mode of manufacture, there being no essential distinction in respect of design. modern wall-papers have, on the average, a breadth of ins., on which the pattern is arranged once or oftener, according to the size of the design. the repeating of the pattern in an upward direction is partly due to technical con- siderations. in printing by hand from a wooden block, the length of the repeating pattern varies from ins. to ins. plate . various diapers. and . mediaeval textile, (gewerbehalle). . textile, th century, original in silk and gold; found in a tomb in the abbey of st. germain des prés, paris, (racinet). . patterned gold ground of altar shrine, monastery of heil- bronn, end of th century, (gewerbehalle). . patterned gold ground of altar shrine, church of st. egidius, barthfeld, (gewerbehalle). . french silk tapestry, th century, (l'art pour tous). plate . various diapers. . bishop's robe, sacristy, sta. croce, florence. . pillow pattern, tomb, st. george's, tübingen, german renascence, (gewerbehalle). repeating ornament. **. various diapers. plate . + repeating ornament. ſº n º º º % nº . º § § ſ % º º kn / º º º % Ž º ſº y stvºl. % º §º % plate . various diapers. repeating ornament. q º º n nz º º q} º sº ſº . º £ºsº - º various diapers. lace, th century, german, by hans siebmacher. . stamped-leather, book-cover, th century, (gewerbehalle). . textile, german renascence, (musterornamente). . carpet, rottweil, german renascence, (gewerbehalle). . modern japanese silk, (l'art pour tous). . painted gold ground, st. lorenzo, rottweil, end of the th century, (musterornamente). - . carpet, stiftskirche, comburg, beginning of the th century, (musterornamente). . textile, venetian picture, , berlin museum, (gewerbehalle). i warious grill diapers. (plate .) wrought-iron grills may also be treated as diapers; and railings and gratings are often treated as shown by the figures in the plate. the skeleton is formed by bars interlaced on the basis of the quadran- gular or lozenge net; the compartments being filled, either con- tinuously, or at regular intervals, with recurring ornamental accessories (figs. , , and ). another system places a repeating scroll-like ornament between parallel bars (fig. ). the straight lines of the skeleton may also be replaced by curved bars (fig. ). the material is square, round, and flat iron bars; either singly, or in combination. both the middle ages and the renascence have transmitted numerous examples in this branch; a selection is given in the plate. plate . warious grill diapers. . late gothic, choir-screen, minister, constance, th century. german renascence. italian renascence. . modern, by ende and böckmann, berlin, (gewerbehalle). german, th century. . german renascence. i a. vases, &c. b metal objects. c. furniture. d. frames, &c. e. juwelry. f. heraldry. g. writing, printing, &c. º º ie º dº | wº- s º º --- |-i". º º sº - nº. tºº" º- e * i f-r . zº - º º prefatory remarks. the third division of the handbook is entitled “decorated objects”. it is intended, firstly, to show in what manner and on what principles decoration is applied to objects, (thus complement- ing the work of the second division); and secondly, it will pass a little beyond the strict limits of aisthetics, and enter on the sphere of tectonics, in order to present a view of the construction, profiling and general plan of objects of art, e. g. vases, utensils, furniture, &c. these considerations, and the wish to be as comprehensive as possible, have necessitated the inclusion of some objects which are not decorated. this inclusion will increase the bulk of the book; but the selection of objects will be restricted, as much as possible, to those which illustrate the principles of decoration. a. v a s e s. wases, with which this division opens, are one of the most interest- ing and important of its groups. gottfried semper, who has treated keramics brilliantly in his epoch-making work “der stil”, says in the introduction to the chapter on this subject: “the products of keramic art were held in unusually high esteem by all peoples and in all periods. they had attained a religious symbolical significance long before the times of monumental edifices, which latter, indeed, were greatly influenced by the former; directly, in that keramic works served for the construction and ornamentation of the monu- ments; indirectly, because architecture took up principles of beauty and style and even finished forms which had already been developed in keramic work, and had first been fixed by the art potters of pre- architectural times".... “they are the oldest and most eloquent docu- ments of history. show us the pottery which a nation has produced, and we can in general tell what manner of nation it was and what height of culture it had attained!" professor gmelin, who, in his essay: “die urformen und gestaltungsprinzipien der töpferei” and in his work: “die elemente der gefässbildnerei", has attempted with much success to popularise semper's theories, says: “a bit of dar- winism is here unfolded in the sphere of industry: the way in which the development of man has been influenced by climate, the character of the soil, food, &c., finds its parallel in keramics in the formation of vessels as conditioned by the joint causes of aim, material, and technique". wases. mesopotamia, the use of this important implement of civilisation goes back to the very earliest times. the mural paintings of beni hassan, which have been referred to the th century b. c., show that pottery was then already known; while germany did not use pottery before the roman period; and america, previous to the arrival of europeans, was only acquainted with the formation of pots by hand, in spite of the great achievements of the peruvians. the formation of pottery by hand, is still in use in many countries. to this class belongs the building-up with zonal or spiral strips, and the moulding over plaited moulds or gourds which are then destroyed in the firing. wooden and stone moulds were used in early times; and also in modern times in connection with the wheel. at the outset, people con- tented themselves with drying the clay; afterwards drying was followed by firing. an intermediate stage is to fire beneath a covering of cow-dung, the air being excluded; when the smoke penetrates into the clay, and colours it gray or black. originally only smoothed and polished, the vessels were afterwards rendered more impervious to liquids by being painted with a warnish, such as is seen on greek vases; and by the discovery of the tin and lead glazes, such as are found on the so-called “majolica ware". the porosity, of many oriental vessels, is intentional, in order that the contents may be kept cool by the process of evaporation on the sur- face of the vessel. of the chemical composition of these ancient varnishes, we are not so well informed as we could wish. antique pottery is found in all places where ancient civilisation penetrated; but the principal sources are: greece, sicily, and italy, particularly campania and etruria. to this latter circumstance is ascribed the erroneous use of the name “etruscan", in the last century, as a collective name for antique pottery in general. athens, corinth, and chalcis, were the chief factories of pottery in greece; and ta- rentum and cumae in italy, where pottery established itself after the decay of greek art. apart from prehistoric products, it can be pro- ved that greek vase-painting begins historically in the th century b. c.; attained its golden age about b. c.; and decayed with the invasion by the romans about b. c. according to peculia- rities of form and finish, we distinguish different periods, the leading characteristics of which are as follows: — . the geometrical style: clay natural colour, yellowish-grey, rough; decoration brown, in bands, rings, zigzag lines, checks and other simple patterns, borrowed from the technique of weaving and wood carving, sometimes in connection with represen- tations of domestic animals, teams, &c., in rhythmic sequence, (compare plate . and ). . the asiatic style: clay natural color, yellowish, impregnated and smoothed; decoration dark brown, dark red, and white, wase. — fundamental wase-forms. with fantastic winged creatures, lions, panthers, geese, sphinxes, mostly arranged in zones. the intervening spaces, between the animals, are filled with rosettes, flowers, &c. the zonal deco- ration is often replaced by scales, (compare plate . ). . the black figure style: clay reddish-yellow, coloured with oxide of iron; decoration black, pure white being used for the carnations of female figures, horses, &c. the conception of the figures is frequently archaic, drawn in uncoloured com- partments bordered by ornamental bands. the lines of drapery, &c. are scratched through the black colour, to the clay. . the red figure style: clay red, very smooth: the entire vessel, with the exception of the ornaments and figures, coated black; the black sometimes having a greenish shimmer. white only occasionally found, for grey hair and the like. the tendency to simplification is predominant in respect of both ornament and figures; usually with only one figure or with simple groups of figures; outlines are painted-in with the pencil. . the painted style: clay as in no. ; the vessels frequently of colossal size (they are then not intended for practical use, as may be inferred from their having no bottom); the nume- rous red figures on the black ground are placed one over the other, with the addition of architectural decoration: technically the decoration is executed in a careless manner; dark red, white, yellow, and gold are also used; luxuriant brushwork ornament, patterns in perspective, and painted reliefs, are coiillin od. the succession of these styles, in time, is generally that of the above order; but they often blend with each other without any de- finite demarcation, forming composite styles and varieties. we find, for instance, certain drug-pots which have polychrome painting on a white background, and so on. fundamental vase-forms. (plate ) wases, as a rule, are composed of a number of simple forms or parts. these are usually the foot, the body, and the neck; to which a handle, a lid, and a spout, may also be added. the most impor- tant part is the body. in the majority of cases it determines the fundamental form of the vessel. the natural models for vessels are the hollow hand, the egg, the husks of fruits (gourds, nuts), the horns of animals, the skins of animals, and similar objects. these have, as a matter of fact, been used in all ages as models, for more the fundamental wase-forms. or less direct imitation; and were undoubtedly used by mankind in the lowest stages of civilisation, instead of artificial vessels. certain stereotyped forms recur again and again: first among them (due to the use of the potter's wheel) the form of the so-called body of revolution. an attempt is made, on plate , to give a general view of the com- monest fundamental forms, with their names. the sphere, the cylinder, and the hyperboloid, are the simplest of these. the sphere is altered, by equally flattening or extending, to the spheroid, or the ellipsoid. if these bodies be cut-away at both ends: we have the erect, and the recumbent vessel. unequal flattening and extending produce forms which we may term echinus, cake, egg, and top forms; or, if the length much exceeds the breadth: wedge, spindle, and drop forms. if only the top be cut-into: we have either the dish, or the cup form. conical, bag, and canopus forms may be derived from the cylinder. in a similar way the hyperboloid also leads to new forms. if the height of the vessel be a high multiple of the diameter, we get slender, tapering forms: in the reverse case, we have dishes and plates. the egg is the commonest form in pottery. cylindrical and conical forms, i. e. such bodies as have a developible surface, are best adapted for sheet-metal work. mathematical curves, e. g. arcs of circles, are not strictly ad- hered-to in the profiles. wessels, which are not made on the wheel, often exhibit arbitrary forms which cannot be grouped in the scheme of the plate. in the chinese and japanese styles, for example, pris- matic forms are very common (compare plate . ); human and animal shapes are found in the antique, as forms of vessels, (com pare plate . ). - the various junctions, of the body with the neck, or the foot, will produce a series of new forms. the use of double-curvature in the profile will also produce new forms, the simplest of which are the bell, and the pear. the so-called “gourd-pots”, the pilgrim-bottles, &c., also form special and rarer groups of forms. here too, may be mentioned duplex vessels formed by the juxtaposition of two vessels on a common foot, or by uniting them with a common handle. these forms are found sporadically in prehistoric and all subsequent periods. as regards the feet of vessels: we have first to remark that in the earliest times footless and three-footed vessels are by no means rare. the former were sunk in the earth, the latter would stand on an uneven surface. the usual form of foot presupposes a level stand- ing surface and therefore some degree of civilisation. intermediate, between the absence of a foot and the high foot, is the ring-foot, a fundamental wase-forms. torus or profiled circular ring, forming the lower end of the vessel. it evidently arose from the early custom of placing footless vessels in hyperboloid rings, which were afterwards incorporated with the vessel itself. the decoration of the foot is generally subordinate to that of the body; and consists of simple motives, channellings, &c. the neck receives a cylindrical, conical, or hyperboloid form, according to the object of the vessel. as experience showed that pouring-out is best done through a narrow opening, and filling through a wide one: funnel-shaped necks, intended to meet both requirements, arose. a good decoration of the neck is to surround it at its narro- west part with a neutral band, from which the motive of decoration may be developed upwards and downwards. the upper margin or mouth is either bent outwards or inwards, or is straight; the latter especially when the vessel was intended to be closed by a stopper. pouring-out is facilitated if the vessel be provided with a spout, or curved lip, as is the case with some mugs and cans. the decoration of the mouth, when round, is usually a beading or row of leaves curving downwards and outwards. the curved lip depends for its effect on the line of its curve, or, like the spout, is decorated by masks, scallops, &c. the lid generally fits into, on-to, or over, the upper margin. it may be raised by means of a knob, hoop, or ring; and if it does not lie loose on the mouth, is fastened by a hinge, or by cords and chains (censer). antique lids have sometimes the form of little vessels, or dishes. the handle varies in size, position, and number, according to the use and size of the vessel. the points of attachment of the vertical handle lie in a vertical plane; those of the horizontal handle are in a horizontal plane side by side; and those of the hoop handle are opposite each other in a vertical plane. the vertical handle is most used. the horizontal handle is specially intended for lifting; the ver- tical for tilting the vessel when pouring-out. vertical handles are most suitable for tall vessels; and horizontal handles for flat ones. other forms are produced by combination, as when a vertical handle is added to the centre of a horizontal one. as a rope was originally used instead of a handle, the latter frequently takes that form, (com- pare plate . ). if the vessel be intended for pouring-out: the handle should be so attached that the pouring-out may be done with equal ease whether the vessel be full or nearly empty. attempts have often been made to classify vessels according to their uses; but definite divisions cannot be made, as many vessels may serve for a number of purposes, which gives rise to combinations and inter- fundamental wase-forms. – the amphora. mediate groups. we mainly follow semper's classification when we divide vessels into the following groups: . holders; their chief object being storage and preservation. to this group belong: the amphora, urn, krater, dish and salver, the ampulla, the alabastron, and similar small vessels, flower-vase, salt-cellar, ink-pot, snuff-box, holy-water stoup, &c. . dippers; chiefly used for drawing and filling into other vessels. to this group belong: the hydria, bucket, spoon, and patera. . pourers; for pouring-out. to these belong: the prochotis, olpe, oinoché, lekythos, mug, can, and bottle. . drinking vessels. the principal representatives of this class are: the antique drinking vessels of the forms kylix, kantharos, kyathos, &c.; the drinking horn or rhyton, beaker, bowl, goblet, rum- mer, tumbler, and all the various forms of our modern drinking-glasses. the various vessels will be treated in this order. in many cases: one half of the cut shows the geometrical view; and the other shows the vertical section. decorative figures are fre- quently omitted, particularly on antique vases; the decoration has sometimes been omitted, when that was required by the minuteness of the scale; and sometimes it has been only partially drawn or in- dicated, in order to avoid unneccessary work. a. holders. the amphora. (plate .) the amphora is of frequent occurrence in the antique. it was intended to receive water, oil, and wine. originally serving for practi- cal purposes, it was afterwards employed merely as a show, or state vessel. the form was often revived in later styles; and has the follow- ing characteristics: erect, extended body, like an inverted egg (plate . ), a spindle (plate . ), a bag (plate . ), more rarely conical (plate . ), hyperboloid (plate . ), or cylindrical (plate . ). the neck is narrow, more or less extended, with shoulder (plate . ), or without (plate . ), thickened at the the rim. two vertical handles, diametrically opposite each other. at first without a foot (plate . – ), afterwards with a round or wases. i the most usual fundamental forms of vessels and their names. plate-shaped gt-p dish-shaped pear-shaped recumbent # ſ gd cd echinus spheroid cake-shaped t | " wedge-shaped spindle-shaped drop-shaped |- hyperboloid (\| plate . chart of fundamental wase forms. wases. ºv. the amphora. plate . meyer, handbook of ornament. the amphora. — the urn. high foot. with or without cover. material: clay, more rarely glass, or other materials. size: very variable, according to use. plate . the amphora. egyptian, with cover, thebes, thutmes iii. . egyptian, with cover, thebes, xx dynasty. . small four-sided, with latin inscription, found in egypt, unpainted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. assyrian, with rope handle, clay. roman, unpainted red clay, united collections, carlsruhe. roman, unpainted yellow clay, found near aquileia in , united collections, carlsruhe. roman, glass, with stopper, rouen, museum, (deville). roman, iridescent glass, found at pompeii. - ancient, attic, painted clay (so-called diota), munich, (lau). — . clay, painted in polychrome, with band-shaped handles, so- called alexandrian style, (lau and jacobsthal). . antique, black painted clay, (gropius). . antique state amphora, white marble, with swan handles, “vase of the athenian sosibios", louvre, paris. . modern french, state amphora, by liénard. . faun with amphora, from the painted neck of an antique drinking-horn, (compare plate . – ). : : the urn. (plate ) the urn is met-with, not only in the antique and all subsequent styles, but in early times everywhere and specially in prehistoric styles. apart from other purposes, the urn was frequently used in funeral rites, as a repository for the ashes of the dead, as a coffin, and so on. it has an erect body, profiled like an inverted egg or spindle. the neck is comparatively wide and low, the mouth straight or curved outwards, usually closed by a cover. either without feet, or with a low round foot. without handles, or with two small hori- zontal handles, attached to the greatest prominence of the body. material: clay. generally of considerable size. plate . the urn. . egyptian, rubbing an urn, (ménard et sauvageot). . prehistoric, gallic, (bosc). . grey clay, ornamentation in relief, united collections, carlsruhe. – . greek, painted clay, munich. . majolica, th century, italian. wases. plate . *. the urn. — the krater. — the basin, and dish. – . slavic, found in the district of the elbe and oder. . modern faience, bombay, (gewerbehalle). . majolica, th century, italian, (storck). . german, cut crystal, small with high foot, th century, na- tional museum, munich, (kunsthandwerk). the krater (plate ) the krater is an antique vase, chiefly used for mixing water and wine (wine was not drunk unmixed); and perhaps also for ablu- tions. although we meet with it as early as egyptian times, it is not found in antique keramic art until its later periods. as a state vessel, the krater has probably been more highly developed than any other form. modern art employs the krater preferentially as a garden vase for plants. a characteristic of the krater is its great width at the top. the body is either a hemispherical dish (fig. ), or has a wide, cup - shaped neck, (figs. and ). where the junction is formed without a shoulder: we have the bell-shaped krater (figs. and ). the foot is frequently small; and so arranged that it stands on an independent base (fig. ). two, sometimes four, or more, horizontal or vertical handles, or hints of them. the principal materials were clay, marble, and metal. kraters are usually of con- siderable size. plate . the krater. . egyptian, with lotus cups. . egyptian, thebes, xviii dynasty. – . greek, munich, (lau). . greek, with columnar handles, munich, (lau). . greek, with volute handles, (lau). . antique, uffizi, florence, (gropius). . antique, marble, with four handles, found at ostia, evi- dently copied from a metal original. . ditto, found at tivoli, england. . antique, state vase, marble, the decoration of the neck, con- sisting of figures or rich scroll ornament, is omitted. . assyrian. – . antique, for ladies' toilet, greek vase-paintings. the basin, and dish. (plate .) basins, and dishes, are vessels of such common use, that they are found everywhere, and in all periods in which the keramic art the basin, and dish. has been practised. their uses are manifold; their form is indicated by their names: dishes are the deeper, plates the shallower vessels. they occur without foot, and with a round or high foot. the last was specially adopted for the greek kylix. handles are wanting, or occur singly, or in pairs, horizontal, vertical, as hoop handles, and so on. material, and size: various. the decoration of dishes is generally on the exterior; and of plates is generally on the inner or upper face. in the latter case: the border and the centre are ornamented separately, being divided from each other by a neutral, undecorated zone, (figs. – ). to paint the entire surface with figures, dis- regarding the division of border and centre, would be contrary to correct style. plate . the basin, and the dish. . egyptian dish, with hoop handles, metal,(ménard et sauvageot). . egyptian dish, with erect handles, metal, (ménard et sauvageot). . greek dish, yellow clay, painted brown and red, geo- metrical style, united collections, carlsruhe. . view from above, of the handles of the above. . greek dish, yellow clay, ornamented with horn - like ex- crescences, painted red, geometrical style, united collections, carlsruhe. . greek dish, with high foot (kylix), yellow clay, decoration brown, geometrical style, munich, the interior is decorated with the ornament shown on plate . . . ditto. . greek, flat dish, with ring foot, munich, (lau). antique footless dish, (jacobsthal). . antique, small dish, with low foot, silver treasure, hildes- heim. . antique, metal dish, with high volute handles, (ménard et sauvageot). . roman, glass dish, with pierced handle ring, found in nor- mandy, (deville). – . majolica dish, view and section, italian renascence. – . modern glass plates, with scalloped border. . modern soup-tureen, with cover. . modern french metal dish, with vertical handle and three feet, (julienne). . modern spanish, small dish, of variegated glazed clay, malaga, united collections, carlsruhe. . modern coffee-bowl, with horizontal handles. . iiandle of no. , viewed from above. wases. the basin, and the dish. plate . the ampulla, alabastron, &c. — the flower-wase, &c. the ampulla, alabastron, &c. (plate .) the ampulla is a diminutive amphora, often in black painted clay, adorned with impressed ornament (figs. – ). the phiale is a slender vessel, without handles, with elongated body, and long narrow neck, of clay or glass (figs. – ). the alabastron has a bag-like or cylindrical body, no foot, a very narrow neck with a shoulder, a large plate-like mouth, and little ear-shaped handles (figs. – ). this vessel was intended for the reception of oils and unguents; it was made of alabaster or striped glass, whence its name. the lachrymatory, so-called from its tear-like profile, or from its purpose, is a glass vessel, of the forms shown in figs. and . not less frequent are little bag forms like the handleless vessels given in figs. , , and . like those already named, they were intended for toilet or religious purposes. plate . the ampulla, alabastron, &c. egyptian phiale, with cover, thutmes iii. antique phiale, painted clay, munich, (lau). antique glass phiale, (stackelberg). antique glass ampulla, striped bright blue and yellow. antique ampulla, black painted clay with impressed orn- aments, athens, united collections, carlsruhe. - ditto, athens. – . antique, small wessels, painted clay, united collections, carls- ruhe. – . antique glass lachrymatories, museum, nuremberg, and united collections, carlsruhe. : . antique alabastron, veined glass, imitating oriental ala. baster. . antique alabastron, milk-white glass, with brown stripes, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). . wase, white iridescent glass, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). . modern japanese, small vase, with mask handles, landes- gewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . old german, small stoneware vase. the flower-wase, &c. (plate .) flower-vase is the name given to vessels intended to receive and support bouquets of living or dried flowers. various as the forms of these vessels may be in other respects, their purpose requires that they wases. the ampulla, the alabastron, &c. plate . wases. plate . the flower-wase, &c. the flower-vase, &c. – wase-forms for various purposes. should have a funnel-shaped mouth. japan and china, which have been especially prolific in this group, use cylindrical and prismatic forms. such vessels do not possess a cover; handles, which are equally super- fluous, are also generally wanting; the decoration should avoid any attempt to imitate natural plant motives. glass, clay, and porcelain are the predominant materials. a special example of these vessels is the so-called “hyacinth-glass” intended for forcing bulbs in water. as it is desirable that the root should be visible, recourse must be had to some transparent material. decoration is excluded in the case of the ordinary flower-pot, which must admit air and moisture. this has led to the use of the decorated flower-pot, an example of which is given in fig. . the suspended flower-vase, like suspended vases in general, must be furnished with three or more handles to which the cords and chains may be attached; but it need not have a foot unless it intended to stand also. plate . the flower-vase, &c. chinese, with cloison enamel, (lièvre). modern english, in oriental style, blue glazed clay, with black ornament, landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. modern, glazed clay, with decoration in colours. modern italian majolica, landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. modern, coloured stoneware, (gewerbehalle). glass, th century. – . modern, glass. – . modern, hyacinth-glasses, (no. is patented: the upper part is made to lift out for greater convenience of pouring- : : in water). . modern, decorated flower-pot, green glazed clay. . arabian suspended lamp, enamelled glass, conventional form, (part of the ornamentation is omitted). – . modern suspended flower-vases, of glazed clay. wase-forms for warious purposes. (plate .) this plate exhibits a number of receptacles for salt and other spices, vinegar, oil, ink, &c. the name “cellar" and “stand" have little connection with the form of these vessels, which may be very various. receptacles for oil and vinegar are often called “cruets". wessels belonging to this group have not been preserved to us from the antique; but we may not conclude, from this, that salt, oil, &c., were not preserved in vessels in those days: on the contrary, some small vessels in the silver treasure at hildesheim, have been supposed wase-forms for various purposes. to be salt-cellars, though we have no definite evidence that this was so. the salt-cellar usually takes the form of a dish or bowl, some- times of a little trough or tub. the material is glazed clay, glass, porcelain, metal, &c. the renascence period created salt-cellars of rich design: the most celebrated is the famous one by cellini. with the increased use of writing, the inkstand has undergone an immense number of changes of form. the wooden inkstand, with glass lining, was in use, for a long time, till it was rendered obsolete by vessels of clay and glass. what is required of a good inkstand is: — it should not fall-over easily, and if it does should not spill; the evaporation must be reduced to a minimum; the height of the contents must be easy to regulate. to fulfil all these requirements numerous inventions have been made, some of which we will notice here. in fig. the centre of gravity lies in the foot, and this, with the form of the glass, prevents falling-over, or spilling. in fig. the level of the ink can be regulated by an india-rubber stopper. the funnel- shaped tube in which the ink rises is convenient for dipping the pen; and it reduces the evaporation. fig. shows an inkstand with sloping bottom, and revolving cover, which may be adjusted to the varying level of the ink. the form of fig. is intended to prevent falling-over, to reduce evaporation, and to maintain the level uniform for a long time; a result which is attained, notwithstanding the sim- plicity. oil and winegar cruets are usually small bottles with a shoulder. they are generally placed in pairs, in a frame (fig. ); a direct union of the two, as in fig. , is rare. the pepper-box has of late years taken the form of the pepper mill or grinder (fig. ), otherwise it is associated with the salt-cellar, and receives the same form. the inkstand and the sand-box were also often associated together; but blotting-paper renders the latter unnecessary. plate . vase-forms for various purposes. . salt-cellar, renascence, (formenschatz). . salt-cellar, german, th century. . majolica salt-cellar, italian renascence, (teirich). . spice-frame, glass, th century. . modern cruet-frame. . modern cruets, coloured glass, antique model. . modern cruet-frame. . modern peppermill. . old inkstand, wood. . modern inkstand. . inkstand, glazed clay. wases. wase-forms for various purposes. plate . wase-forms for warious purposes. . modern inkstand, with adjustible stopper. . modern glass inkstand, with sloping bottom and revolving cover. . modern glass inkstand. . old horn inkstand, for the pocket; after unscrewing the foot- piece, the metal pin may be forced into the table-top. . modern inkstand. . modern inkstand. the jar, the cist, &c. (plate .) jars and pots are small receptacles of spheroid or cylindrical form, for solid, granular, or pasty substances. the lid is either loose, or affixed by hinges; and is an essential part of the vessel. the materials are clay, porcelain, glass, wood, metal, ivory, &c. besides the small clay pots and boxes which are common in the antique: we must also mention the cist. this is a metal vessel of cylindrical form, and considerable size, which was used for religious rites, and for the reception of jewelry, rolls, &c. the style is con- ventional: there were three claws for the feet; and the exterior of the cylinder was decorated with incised figures, and furnished with rings to which chains were attached, for the transportation of the vessel. the lid is slightly domed; and the handle usually consists of two wrestlers grasping each other by the shoulders (fig. ). plate . the jar, the cist, &c. . antique, yellow clay, painted brown and red, this is the so-called “dodwell vase” celebrated as the first-discovered of the vases in imitation of the asiatic style, dug-up near corinth. . antique, yellow clay, painted red and brown, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, with small kylix as lid, yellow clay, painted brown and red, imitating the asiatic style, munich, (lau). . antique, black clay. . antique, painted clay, belongs to the later period of the red figure style, metal ring, berlin, museum. . antique bronze cist, louvre, paris, (l'art pour tous). . modern japanese, lacquered gold and black, the lid forms a dish, landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . old persian, repoussé copper, the decoration is too small to be given, (kunsthandwerk). . modern snuff-box, birch bark. . modern tobacco-jar, norwegian, carved in wood, landesgewerbe- halle, carlsruhe. . metal box, with collapsible drinking-cup, modern. wases. the jar, the cist, &c. plate . the font, and the holy-water stoup. – the hydria. the font, and the holy-water stoup. (plate .) holy-water plays an important part in many rites of the roman catholic church. it is kept in holy-water stoups. these are bowls, either free, or attached to walls. in the former case, the form generally approaches that of the krater; in the latter case, the edge projects as a half or three-quarter circle from the surface of the wall; and the stoup is supported on a pilaster, column, or console. for use in houses: the stoup takes the form of a suspended dish, as shown by fig. . the decoration is mostly symbolic, e. g. crosses, monograms, cherub-heads, &c. most of the examples are taken from the work by raguenet, which contains a large selection of these objects. plate . romanesque, minster, weissenburg, (raguenet). romanesque, church of the crucifix, compiègne, (raguenet). romanesque, church, picardy, (raguenet). romanesque, church, charleville, (raguenet). th century, (viollet-le-duc.). th century, church, mas d'azil, ariège, (raguenet). th century, church, cormontreuil, (raguenet). church, picardy, (raguenet). modern, church, couthuin, belgium, architect halkin, (raguenet). th century, chapel of the castle, mello, france, (raguenet). th century, beaten silver, royal museum, stuttgart, (kunst- handwerk). i b. dippers. the hydria. (plate .) the hydria, as its name implies, is the water-pot. it is the vessel which the maidens took to the spring; filled with water; and then bore home on their heads. it was carried, when empty in a horizontal; and when full, in a vertical attitude. of all vases: it is the most perfect in form; its aim being so well expressed in its con- struction. it must be easy to carry, convenient to fill and empty, and to hold as much fluid as possible; it therefore has a vertical body of the shape of an inverted egg (this form places the centre of gravity at the top, which facilitates transportation in a vertical attitude); on which a funnel-shaped neck is placed. it has three handles: two are horizontal, diametrically opposite to each other at wases. the font, and the holy-water stoup. plate . meyer, handbook of ornament. the hydria. — the bucket, &c. the greatest protuberance of the body, which served to raise the vessel when full; the third is vertical, placed on one side of the neck, which served to carry the vessel when empty, to steady it when full and when pouring-out. the foot is always small. the neck has a shoulder, or blends in a curve with the body. a special kind of the latter treatment is the kalpis (fig. ). the smaller, slenderer hydrias, which were not intended to be carried on the head, are termed hand-hydrias. the material is clay. plate . the hydria. . greek, (jacobsthal). . greek, of the kalpis form, body smooth, black, painted with red figures on the shoulder. . greek, painted black, reddish brown and white on the clay ground, campana collection, louvre, paris, (l'art pour tous), the decoration is of the highest class, the shoulder is decorated by an ivy band, which is omitted in this figure, but given on plate . . – . graeco-italic hand-hydrias, unpainted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. – . greek vase-paintings, showing the mode of carrying and using the hydria. the bucket, &c. (plate ) we have seen that the hydria gives beautiful expression to the idea of pouring-out; the bucket, on the other hand, is distincly a dipper, and the funnel a filler. the bucket is of specifically egyptian origin; with it water was drawn from the nile; and hence the drop-like form, with the centre of gravity low down. two such buckets were carried on a yoke. the form serving to prevent spilling, (figs. – ). the assyrian bucket generally terminates below in a lion mask, from which the bag-shaped neck rises, (fig. ). in the graeco-italic style, we find footless buckets resembling an inverted egg (fig. ); others with a ring foot are, however, not uncommon, (figs. , , and ). instead of one hoop handle there were sometimes two (figs. and ). the ecclesiastical art of the middle ages gave its portable holy- water stoups the form of buckets, modifying the shape of the latter to fit them for this purpose (figs. , ). sometimes the bucket is furnished with a spout, or a nozzle (fig. ). the funnel, as a rule, takes the shape of an inverted cone, with or without a tubular continuation; the handle is vertical (figs. , ), wases. the hydria. plate . % the bucket, &c. — the spoon, &c. hoop-shaped (fig. ), or two horizontal double (fig. ). a water- ing pot is shown in fig. : the hole at the top is intended to let the water flow when opened, or to stop the flow by atmospheric pres- sure when closed by the finger. metal, as the more durable material, is generally used for buckets and funnels: clay, glass, &c., are less common. plate . the bucket, &c. . egyptian, thebes, tutmes iii. — . egyptian, bronze. . egyptian bucket-like wessel, without handle. . assyrian, with cord handle. – . graeco-italic, bronze, of various forms. . antique, with hoop handle, red clay, painted black, united collections in carlsruhe, the eye in the uppermost zone, which is found in greek keramics, has been explained as a protective against the “evil eye”. – . mediaeval, beaten copper, th century, (viollet-le-duc.). . modern italian, clay, with hoop-handle and nozzle, (gropius). – . modern coal-vases, sheet-metal, square and round. . antique clay funnel. . mediaeval vessel, for watering the ground, clay, (viollet-le- duc). . modern funnel, for watering the ground, sheet-metal. . general form of the modern sheet-metal funnel. the spoon, and the ladle. (plate ) spoons and paterae form a special class of dippers. as the table-spoon, strictly so-called, will come up for discussion among the utensils, we have here to consider only the larger spoon-shaped vessels and the paterae (handled dishes) used for religious and other purposes. the natural model of the spoon is the hollow hand, whence the spherical, elliptical, or oval dish-shape, with an attached handle. the latter usually lies in the plane of the rim, but it may also form an obtuse angle with it, or, as in the case of the antique simpulum (fig. ), a right-angle. egyptian spoons, which are richly decorated, often possess a cover rotating round a pin (compare the projections on the dish, fig. ), the spoon then becomes a kind of pot or receptacle. a foot is of course superfluous on the ordinary spoon; but the paterae with handles not infrequently have a ring- foot to enable them to stand (figs. – ). the spoon and the paterae may also be furnished with a special spout or lip (fig. ). wases. the bucket, &c. plate . the spoon, &c. — the prochotis, &c. as a rule: the dish is plain, or is slightly decorated by engraving the interior, (fig. ). the decoration is generally confined to the rim and the handle, or its points of junction. the material is usually wood, bone, or metal. the size varies with the use. plate . the spoon, and the ladle. – . egyptian spoons, plainly or richly finished, partly painted. . assyrian spoon-like wessel. . antique bronze patera, with lip. , , . antique bronze paterae, seen from the side, from above, and below. . antique terracotta patera. – . antique simpula. . antique spoon - like vessel, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique cooking wessel, like a handled dish, (ménard et sauvageot). c. pourers. the prochous, the oinochoe, the olpe, &c. (plate ) we commence the series of pourers with the antique forms of the prochoiis, oinochoë, olpe, &c. as the definition of these appella- tions is not yet finally settled: it will be best to leave the various intermediate forms entirely unnamed. the vessels were used partly for secular, partly for religious purposes. thus the prochotis is the sacrificial vessel from which the libations of wine were poured-out, into the patera. the oinochoë is believed to have been a secular wine jug; and the olpe to have been a receptacle for oil, &c. all these vessels have this in common: that the mouth is wavy, elongated to a channel on one side, or pinched-in at the sides, to form a large spout and facilitate the pouring-out. the older vessels, in particular, show great boldness in thus making the form of the mouth different to the circular plan which is a result of the use of the potter's-wheel; but in the later times there was a return to the simpler and more beautiful shape. the prochotis and the oinochog generally have an upright body, in shape like an egg. the olpe invariably has a cake or bag-shaped body, a form which is occa- sionally found in the prochotis. the vertical handle is raised above the vessel and is attached in a bold sweep to the side opposite the lip. the foot is usually ring-shaped. bronze and clay are employed the spoon, and the ladle. plate . the prochotis, &c. — the lekythos, &c. as materials. the prochods and oinochos are, generally, vessels of considerable size, while the olpe is smaller. plate . the prochočs, the oinochoe, the olpe, &c. . greek procholis, archaic form and ornamentation, painted clay. . greek prochotis, geometrical style, red clay, painted black. . greek cyprian wessel, geometrical style, yellow clay, painted brown, munich, (lau). . greek oinochoë, asiatic style, yellow, painted clay, (semper). . antique small vessel, yellow clay, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique small vessel, clay, painted black, engraved orna- ment, united collections, carlsruhe. – . greek wessels, painted clay. . greek bronze wessel, collection of herr von pulsky, pesth. . graeco-italic bronze wessel. prochotis in the form of a female head, museum, rome. – . antique olpe, painted clay. . antique bronze olpe, museum rome. the lekythos, &c. (plate .) the lekythos is a small antique pourer, employed sometimes in the toilet as a receptacle for oils and unguents, and sometimes in funeral rites, to be placed with the deceased in the grave. the form is generally elongated, cylindrical or spindle-shaped, more rarely bag-like or spherical. the foot is a plain ring foot, the neck long and narrow with a shoulder. the handle rises from the body up to the upper end of the neck. as regards form and decoration, these pretty vessels form special groups. the slender forms are the older, the spherical and depressed the later. upright palmettes, as shown in fig. , are a characteristic decoration. the material is clay. plate . the lekythos, &c. – . greek, red clay, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. – . greek, red clay, painted black. - . greek, painted black and white, later period. . greek, attic style. . ditto. – . greek, red clay, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. . greek, red clay, painted black and white, munich, (lau). wases. the prochotis, the oinochoë, the olpe, &c. plate . the lekythos. – the lip-spout pitcher. . greek aryballos (perfume vase), united collections, carls- ruhe. . greek aryballos, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. . greek, perfume-vase, with hoop handle, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. . greek lekythos, later period, united collections, carlsruhe. the lip-spout pitcher. (plates – ) the want of some uniform nomenclature makes itself felt not only in the case of antique vessels, but also with such colloquial expressions as “pitcher”, “jug”, “pot”, “can”, “bottle", &c., which include a great variety of forms, so that what one calls pitchers and pots another calls jugs and cans. to maintain at least some kind of system in this handbook, we class all vessels with vertical handles, (unless they belong to some special category), as “pitchers" if they have the usual mouth with a lip; and as “pots" if they have a pipe- like spout. the material and size, of the pitcher vary greatly, according to its purpose and period. the principal representatives are the ewers, and jugs, of glass, clay, stoneware, and metal. plate . the lip - spout pitcher. . egyptian, with saucer, recalling our modern ewers and basins. . antique iridescent glass, germanisches museum, nuremberg. . antique glass, found in trouville-la-rivière, normandy, (deville). . antique glass, found near mainz, united collections, carlsruhe. roman, glass, from a grave at bingerbrück, wiesbaden museum. antique, blue glass, louvre, (deville). like no. . . antique, yellowish green glass, germanisches museum, nuremberg. . like no. . . antique, glass, found in rouen, d century a. d., rouen museum, (deville). . antique ring-shape, unpainted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . roman-alemannic, red clay, found in käferthal near mannheim, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique (?) bronze, with cover, found at saumur, (ménard et sauvageot). . ancient american, grey clay, time of the incas, excavated at trujillo in peru, (the round compartment of the body is fan- tastically adorned with figures), united collections, carlsruhe. . vases. the lekythos, &c. plate . wases. l- -- plate . the lip-spout pitcher. wases. the lip-spout pitcher. plate . the lip-spout pitcher. — the pipe-spout pot. . old german, bohemian glass. . modern hungarian, glazed clay, landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. plate . the lip-spout pitcher. . italian faience, glazed in colours, th century, the blue lilies on a gold ground are the coat of julius iii., cluny museum, paris, (l'art pour tous). . german, by hans holbein, th century, (hirth, formen- schatz). . old german, stoneware, with disc-shaped body. . german renascence, pewter, (hirth, formenschatz). – . old german, stoneware, the decoration is omitted. . modern stoneware, with tin cover, by dir. kachel. modern majolica, carlsruhe. — . modern, stoneware. – . modern, green and blue glass. the pipe-spout pot. (plate .) as already remarked, we group here all those one-handled pourers which possess a separate spout or mouth. here too, material, size, and form are very various. distinct categories are formed by the state- jugs of metal, such as were in use at the period of the italian renascence (fig. ), the oriental metal jugs, the venetian small glass jugs, milk, coffee, tea and watering pots, &c. where a spout occurs: it is generally attached at the lower part or middle of the body, more rarely towards the top; and usually reaches to the level of the mouth. the spout generally tapers in an upward direction; its orifice is some- times a mask or a widened mouth-piece; in the case of the watering- pot it is furnished with a rose. the handle is vertical, or a hoop. noteworthy is the long stump-handle of some modern coffee-pots (fig. ). the vessels of this group frequently have a lid. piate . the pipe-spout pot. . italian renascence, state-jug, metal, design by polidoro caravaggio, uffizi, florence. . japanese, enamelled metal, louvre, (l'art pour tous). . arabian, metal, th century, cluny museum, paris, (l'art pour tous). – . venetian glass, th century, (hirth, and l'art pour tous). . modern oriental, unglazed clay, from jerusalem, united collections, carlsruhe. wases. the pipe-spout pot. plate . the pipe-spout pot. — the bottle. . oriental tea-pot, painted china. . milk-ewer, painted faience, th century, united collections, carlsruhe. . modern coffee-pot. modern tea-kettle, metal, hoop handle, with wooden guard. — . modern watering-pots, sheet metal. the bottle. (plates — .) the bottle has a spherical, elongated, or bag body; and an elongated, narrow neck, which usually expands like a funnel towards its upper extremity, and is sometimes closed by a stopper. bottles have either a ring foot or no foot at all, high feet are exceptional. handles are seldom attached; where this is done, they appear in pairs. in the case of pocket-flasks, which are usually of a disc or watch shape, the handle serves to attach the flasks to a cord or belt. the material is chiefly glass; but clay and metal are also used. the bottle form has been specially cultivated in the east, in persia, china, japan, &c. a natural model is frequently found in the calabash, which is itself often used as a wessel. plate . the bottle. — . egyptian, front and side view. . antique, small watch-shaped perfume-bottle, blue and white glass, with handles for suspension, like a hunting-flask, cam- pana collection, (l'art pour tous). . antique, glass, with handles for suspension, (deville). . antique, perfume-bottle, transparent emerald green glass. . antique, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). . antique, two-handled, iridescent glass, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). . antique, iridescent glass, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, iridescent glass, united collections, carlsruhe. . old german, glass, from the spessart, (friedrich, die alt- deutschen gläser). . modern, cut glass, dresden, (gewerbehalle). . modern, green glass, with ring stopper. . modern, yellowish green glass. . modern, “florentine flask", covered with bast. plate . the bottle. . egyptian, without foot, two rope handles for suspension. . antique, red, unpainted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. wases. º meyer, handbook of ornament. the bottle. plate . wases. plate . the bottle. the bottle. — drinking wessels. . antique, hammered bronze, with cover and ring, castellani collection. . ditto, united collections, carlsruhe. – . japanese, bronze. . persian, clay. – . modern, egyptian, unglazed gray clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . chinese, blue porcelain, (lièvre). . persian, damaskeened metal, (l'art pour tous). . wrought-iron military flask, holding pints, th century, cluny museum, paris. . modern hungarian military flask, colored glazed clay, landes- gewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . majolica, colored plastic ornamentation, modern english, landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . modern, french, green glazed clay. d. drinking wessels. plates — show drinking vessels. drinking vessels are as ancient as drinking itself; and they are consequently found in every style. their forms and kinds are infinitely various; especially in the antique, the middle ages, and the renascence. semper says on this point: “athenaeus gives us the names and descriptions of more than a hundred drinking vessels, although he confines himself to those of the precious metals, which, long before his time, had replaced earthen- ware drinking vessels among the greeks. the same variety rules in the drinking vessels of the middle ages; and although, in this branch too, our poverty of invention is obvious, compared with the earlier fecundity; still, an enumeration of the different forms and kinds of drinking vessels now in common use would be fairly extensive; and would be all the more difficult inasmuch as our modern time does not adhere to typical forms; or, more correctly speaking, has lost all idea of what a type is. nowhere is the influence of caprice, and heedless confusion of forms more conspicuous than in this class of vessels; so that any attempt to classify drinking vessels, and to enumerate the subdivisions which have existed and still exist, can meet with little success. but if we disregard “freaks” and those anomalous forms of drinking vessels, which have been evolved more by the influence of fashion, and caprice than by the intended use, we shall find that the distinctions which we found to be true for the - * drinking wessels. – the kylix, the kantharos, &c. forms of vessels in general, are applicable to drinking vessels in particular". notwithstanding this, we will attempt to classify the forms of drinking vessels. this will be done, partly according to style, placing the commonest antique forms on one plate, specifically old german forms on another, and the drinking vessels of our own time on a third. partly, too, we will place, on other plates, definite groups which have either an identical fundamental form or a common object, regardless of their belonging to the same or to different styles, e. g. drinking- horns and rhytons, cups and beakers, chalices and goblets, state-cups, rummers, mugs, and tankards. the kylix, the kantharos, &c. (plate .) drinking vessels of clay and the precious metals, played the chief, part in antique times, while glass, which was employed for other purposes, was only occasionally used. e a very common form is the two-handled dish or kylix, with a low or high foot. both the form and the name of the later calyx and our chalice are derived from kylix. when formed of clay, the kylix is a plain shallow dish, ornamented on the under side, some- times with figures on the inner side, and with two horizontal handles (figs. – ). in metal, the form becomes richer, the handles are elongated and bolder in curvature (figs. – ). the fundamental form of the kantharos is that of the deep dish or krater, with two vertical handles. the decoration is only external; the simplicity in clay (fig. ), passes into richness when metal is em- ployed (figs. — ). bacchic attributes, the vine, ivy, the thyrsos, masks, &c., from the decoration. the kyathos, a dipper and drinking vessel at once, is a dish with the handle elongated vertically and sometimes replaced by a straight handle, which gives the vessel somewhat of the appearence of a spoon (figs. , , ). - the skyphos is a dish with two horizontal handles (figs. ); the kothon (fig. ), is the military drinking vessel, “a vessel with a broad rim bent inwards, out of which one could only drink by bending the neck right back; but it was convenient for dipping water from brooks, and the in-curved rim caught the impurities of the water so that they remained behind both in dipping and drinking", (semper). - we might further adduce the deinos, the drinking vessel of hercules, the amphikypellon, a double beaker mentioned by homer, the kalathos, and others. but the examples selected above may suffice. wases. the kylix, the kantharos, &c. plate . the kylix, the kantharos, &c. — the rhyton. plate . the kylix, the kantharos, &c. . antique kylix, painted clay, museum, naples. . the same vessel, viewed from below. . greek kylix, bronze, found in sarcophagus at cephalonia, (stackel- berg). . greek kylix, bronze, found in ithaca. . antique kantharos, black painted clay, united collections, carls- ruhe. . antique kylix, beaten silver, hildesheim treasure, museum, berlin. . antique kantharos, beaten silver, found at berthouville near bernay, bibliothèque nationale, paris. . antique kyathos, black painted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique kyathos, painted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique skyphos, metal, (ménard et sauvageot). . antique skyphos, painted clay. . antique kothon, painted clay, united collections, carlsruhe. the rhyton. (plate .) the primaeval custom, of using the horns of animals as drinking vessels, led to the drinking-horn. the antique is not alone in creating, in the rhyton, a special kind of these vessels: in the middle ages and in modern times, in england and germany, drinking-horns are well known. in view of the varied and often complicated forms of these latter, we shall confine ourselves to presenting some antique examples. the form of the rhyton was that of an animal's head, with the addition of a handle. as a rule, it has no foot; and cannot be set down. when pierced at the lower end, it could be drunk-from in the manner, shown in fig. . stags, asses, swine, vultures, &c. were utilised as models, whence the special names elaphos, onos, kapros, gryps, &c. sometimes the human head was used, (fig. ). the vessel is modelled naturalistically; and receives a painted decoration on the neck alone. the material is clay. plate . antique, (tragelaphos) with a ram head. antique, with a human head. antique, (kapros) with a swine head. antique, (elaphos) with a stag head, (semper). – . antique, (hippotragelaphos) on one side a ram, on the other an ass head. - : wases. plate the rhyton. the rhyton. — the cup, and the beaker. — the chalice, and the goblet. r- . antique, (gryps) with vulture head. – . antique drinking-horn, with lion mask as spout. . antique state rhyton, marble, vatican museum, rome. . picture from an antique vase, showing the manner of drink- ing from the rhyton. the cup, and the beaker. (plate .) drinking vessels of these forms are of very general occurrence. they may be hemi-spherical, cylindrical, like an inverted cone, or of a mixed shape; without foot, with a ring foot, or supported on balls; without a handle, or with one, two, or more handles. the use of the cup restricts it to a certain size; the material is metal, glass, clay, stoneware, &c. richly-decorated cups have come down to us from the antique, and the renascence. plate . the cup, and the beaker. . assyrian, from a relief. . assyrian, painted clay. . antique, silver, parcel gilt, found on ithaca. . antique kalathos, found in athens. . antique, clay, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, red clay, painted black, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, beaten silver, found in pompeii, now in naples. . antique, originally decorated in sunk enamel, hildesheim treasure, berlin, museum. . antique, beaten silver, hildesheim treasure, berlin, museum. . antique, green glass, found in normandy, (deville). . antique, glass, (deville). . old german, glass. . venetian, glass, british museum. . old german, stoneware. . old german, stoneware. . german renascence, metal, with bosses and ball foot. the chalice, and the goblet. (plate .) these are deep vessels of the form of half an egg, without handle, and with a high foot. the form was chiefly used in the middle ages, and renascence; for both secular and religious purposes. for the former purpose, the material is glass or metal, and the size is wases. w w plate . the calice, and the goblet. the chalice, &c. — the hanap. various; for the latter purpose, the chalice is invariably of metal, mostly of silver chased and gilt, enamelled, set with jewels, &c. in the romanesque style, the cup is hemispherical and shallow; in the gothic style and the renascence, it becomes deeper. plate . the chalice, and the goblet. . egyptian, thebes. . antique, red clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, clay, painted black. . romanesque chalice, chased silver set with jewels, willingen church. . gothic chalice, chased silver, wertheim church. . silver state-goblet, german, th century; this goblet, along with two others, is said to have been the model for the master- pieces of the goldsmiths; and is usually attributed to the nurem- berg goldsmith jamnitzer, although this has lately been doubted; the bossed outline is copied from the flower of the columbine (aquilegia vulgaris), municipal collection, nuremberg. . crystal goblet, with cut ornaments, th century, national museum, munich, . venetian glass goblet, th century, british museum, (l'art pour tous). . modern champagne-glass, landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . old german glass goblet, th century. . old german glass goblet, th century. the hanap. (plate ) the same blending of forms which the reader will have ob- served in the treatment of cups and goblets occurs in the case of hanaps. ordinary colloquial language makes no definite distinction between them. a state-cup presupposes a considerable richness of decoration, it is usually a cup or goblet-shaped product of the gold- smith's art, provided with a cover, or it may even be a richly finished glass of similar form. plate . the hanap. . design, by hans holbein, german, th century, (formen- schatz). . design, german, th century, (formenschatz). . design, nd half of the th century, the cover makes an in- dependent cup, (musterornamente). wases. plate . the hanap. wases. plate . the römer or rummer. wases. plate . various drinking wessels. various glasses. warious glasses. (plate .) the plate contains a selection of other old german drinking vessels. what manifold varieties of drinking glasses existed, in the th century, for instance, may be seen in fischart's romance “gar- gantoa and pantagruel", which is sociologically so interesting. in the eight chapter, entitled “a conversation on drinking", he says: “da stachen sie eymander die pocal auff die prust, da flogen die mihele, da stibeten die römercken, da raumt man die dickelbächer, da soffen je zween und zween aus doppleten, die man von eymander bricht, ja soff aus gestifleten krügen, da stirzt man die pott, da schwang man den gutruff, da trähet man den angster, da riss und schält man den wein aus potten, aus kelchen, napffen, gonen; hoffbechern: tassen: trinkschalen: pfaffenmasen: stauffen von hohen stauffen: kitten: kälten: kanuten: köpffen: knartgen: schlauchen: pipen: nussen: fiolen: lampeten: kufen: nüsseln: seydeln: kilkesseln, mälterlin: melkgelten, spitzmasen, zolcken, kannen, schnāulzemmas, schoppen- kännlein, stotzen: da klangen die gläser, da funckelten die krausen.” we here offer a few forms, some of them named in the above descrip- tion of fischart's. - the name angster is applied to a high narrow-necked drinking bottle (from the latin angustus, narrow). the neck, which rises out of a spherical, bulbous body, often consisted of , , or more tubes wound round one another, frequently bent to one side and broadening at the top into a cup-like mouth (fig. ). these glasses belong to the category of puzzle-glasses, to extract the wine from which was a matter of “anguish". semper's observation is very true for such puzzle-glasses: “it would really seem as if fashion and the toper's humor of the competitors, in drinking-bouts with obstacles, had spe- cially invented forms of vessels which demanded a most uncomfortable and ingenious mode of drinking.” the gutrolf (gutterer, kutrof, perhaps from the latin gutturnium), seems to have been a similar glass with a straight neck (figs. and ). the spechter (presumably from spessart) is a tall, narrow, cy- lindrical glass with a low foot, decorated with bosses, scrolls, &c. (figs. , ). the passglas (peg-tankard) resembles the spechter, but is divided by rings into equal divisions which served as a scale in drinking bouts. it often bears painted figures, inscriptions &c., (figs. , ). “ the form of the cabbage-stalk glass in sufficiently indicated by the name (fig. ). the tummler and handtummler (tumbler) are glasses without “aet, which totter when set down; and if laid on their side at once various glasses. – the mug. resume a vertical position (figs. , ); as also glasses like that shown in fig. , which must first be drunk empty before they can be set down. to those times also belonged: puzzle-glasses from which the liquor had to be sucked - out at the end of the handle (fig. ); vessels in the shape of ladies (figs. – ), and of fantastic animals. it would carry us too far to enter upon the details of manu- facture: we therefore refer the reader once more to c. friedrich's “altdeutsche gläser”. plate . warious drinking wessels. green cabbage-stalk glass, germanisches museum, nuremberg. — . old german peg-tankards, painted. — . old german spechters. kutrolf (angster), th century, bavarian gewerbemuseum, nuremberg. – . old german angsters, no. in the bavarian gewerbe- museum, nuremberg. . kutrolf (angster) with winding neck. . puzzle-mug, (friedrich). – . old german glasses, in the form of ladies, no. in the bavarian gewerbemuseum, nuremberg. . large tumbler, th century, with metal handle; in the original a figure of mercury stands on the ball, bavarian gewerbemuseum, nuremberg. . painted glass tumbler, (friedrich). . hungarian coronation glass, painted. : the mug. (plate .) in accordance with its purpose, the form of the mug is essen- tially different from that of other drinking vessels. the body usually has a cylindrical form, and is without a foot, or with only a ring foot. a movable lid of metal, mostly tin, is attached by a hinge to the vertical handle, in order to keep the liquid as fresh as possible, in view of the great surface of evaporation. for the same reason the material is preferably stoneware. that glass has of late years been p 'eferred to stoneware, is due to the fact that the liquid is visible and more easily investigated in glass vessels; and that these are more easily cleaned. compared with the wine-glass, the mug will always have a greater circumference, and show a more robust treatment. the hinge must be so attached that when the lid is wide open, it forms an obtuse angle with the rim. meyer, handbook of ornament. wases. the mug. plate . ' the mug. — the tankard. — modern drinking glasses. plate . the mug. . renascence mug (schnelle), stoneware, german. . renascence mug, chased silver, regensburg treasure, (ge- werbehalle). . old german beermug, brown glass, painted, bavarian ge- werbemuseum, nuremberg. , , . old german stoneware beermugs. . old german glass beermug. renascence mug, amber, mounted with silver, grünes ge- wölbe, dresden. — . modern stoneware beermugs, from old patterns. . modern beermug, brown glass, with green bosses. the tankard. (plate .) the tankard is a drinking vessel, more or less coarse in shape like a cylinder or an inverted cone; and made of glass, stone- ware, &c. the name is also given to vessels of more architectural pretensions, like that in fig. . the tankard is less for individual than for social use; and is intended chiefly for beer, hence its size and robust form. of special importance are the eagle, imperial, electoral, and guild tankards of the renascence period. plate . the tankard. . roman glass, of tankard form, found in pompeii, (deville). . ditto, (ditto). . old german green glass tankard, (compare this form with that of the rummer on plate ). . ditto. – . old german glass tankards. . old german armorial tankard, (friedrich). . modern brown glass tankard. . moderu brown glass tankard, painted, (keller-leuzinger). modern drinking glasses. (plate ) great laxity is apparent in the forms of modern drinking vessels. alongside coarse forms in transparent blown and cast glass: delicate glasses, cut and etched, appear in the market. of late years old examples of coloured glass have been frequently copied, with * : wases. the tankard. plate . wases. ... - . modern drinking glasses. plate . modern drinking glasses. more or less skill and intelligence. it is to be hoped that the general revival of applied art will lead to the attainment of high- class results in this branch also. plate . modern drinking glasses. – . various modern glasses for water, wine, and beer, of white and coloured glass. plates — present some different classes of vessels in nearly specimens. . but even this copious material was far from permitting every form to be taken into consideration. the first place was accorded to definite groups and to conventional, ever-recurring shapes; while the arbitrary, sporadic, accidental, and barocco, were excluded. still, it is possible that we have not succeeded in giving a general view of the group of pottery and vessels. readers who desire to pursue their studies further are referred to the special works and periodicals dealing with this subject. b. metal objects. - (utensils) utensils are very various; and an exhaustive treatment of them is quite impossible within the scope of this handbook. beside this, decoration is quite excluded in many cases. still, definite divisions of this group have been created by the fact, that their representatives in certain periods have received artistic treatment; and hence they may be reduced to a system. although, on the one hand, a number of utensils have found no place on the plates devoted to this group: we have, on the other hand, been able to form a number of subsidiary divisions, each com- plete in itself. thus, for example: chapters — will deal with the interesting subject of utensils for illumination, chapters – with the utensils of ritual, chapters — with the utensils of war and hunting, chapters — with those of the table, and chapters — with a variety of household and toilet utensils, tools, &c. a. utensils for illumination. utensils of illumination, both for religious and household use, are extremely numerous. great attention and artistic finish have been lavished upon them in all styles; and especially in the antique. we need only mention the candelabra of the antique and the renas. cence, greek lamps, the chandeliers of the middle ages, &c. the candelabrum. the forms and the finish of the different utensils have changed along with the radical changes which the mode of illumination has undergone in the course of time. oil, lamp-light, candle, torch-light, gas-light, and our latest achievement, the electric light, all demand special, different forms of bearers, and apparatus. the predominant material would seem to be metal; and, next to this, clay, and glass; while imflammable materials like wood are, by their very nature, almost excluded. here, too, it is proper to call attention to a difference which must be borne in mind between antique and modern illuminating utensils. the difference is this: that whereas the antique with all its artistic perfection, is very defective from a practical point of view; modern apparatus, while surpassing the antique in the matter of technical adaptation to its purpose, scarcely ever reaches the antique beauty, and generally falls below it. we will consider the candelabrum, the antique lamp, the different kinds of standard, hand, and bracket candlesticks, hanging lamps, lanterns, chandeliers, and modern lamps; taking them in this order. the candelabrum. (plates – ) the candelabrum (from candela = candle) was, as its name in- dicates, originally intended to carry a candle. but as candle-light, like the illumination by means of torches and pitch-pans, gradually receded before the use of lamps in antique times, and was more and more reserved for the purposes of ritual; the antique cande- labrum came to be employed as a lampstand or lampadarium. hence it comes that the upper end of a candelabrum is furnished sometimes with a bowl, sometimes with a pricket or socket to receive the candle, sometimes with a flat disc, and, sometimes with project- ing clips and hooks to hold the lamp or to suspend it from. the last is the most frequent form. the great state-candelabra, for religious observances, have bowls; and are made of marble. the shaft of such a roman candelabrum of conventional form is given on plate , fig. . candelabra for household use were made of bronze. in height: they are of two different dimensions, according as they were meant to stand on the ground, or on a table. the former are of an extremely slender construction (plate . ), of an average height of feet to ft. ins. the form of the latter class (candelabrum humile) is less slender (plate . and ), and the extreme height is about ft. ins. the design of the antique candelabrum is either of architectonic character, or free and natura- the candelabrum. listic. we have already mentioned, in chapters – , that in the former case: the base, shaft and bowl, are generally decorated. the second class includes standing and sitting figures, behind which the shaft of the candelabrum rises, or by which it is borne (plate . and ); or of bearers in the form of trees, beneath which figures or groups are seated (plate . ). occasionally examples are found so arranged that they can be taken apart and adjusted to different heights (plate . ). the majority of the antique bronze cande- labra which have been preserved to us are of etruscan origin. plate shows seven different examples selected from the copious material. plate . the antique candelabrum. . antique, bronze stand from which to suspend lamps (lychnucus, lampadarium), found in pompeii, berlin, museum. etruscan, bronze, bibliothèque national, paris. antique, bronze, found in chiusi, (ménard et sauvageot). antique, bronze, found in herculaneum. antique, bronze, to hold a candle or torch, (ménard et sauvageot). antique, (candelabrum humile), bronze, museum, naples. antique, bronze, adjustable to different heights, found in her- culaneum. i the candelabrum was revived at the time of the renascence along with the tradition of antique art. it accepted the form; but remodelled it in its own fashion. since that time the candelabrum occurs in countless modifications, both for state and use, in religious and secular buildings. it is no more a lampstand, but bears a candle in a pricket or, more rarely, in a socket. the roman catholic ritual, in particular, the services of which require lighted candles, has given an impetus to the new forms of candelabra in metal, and carved wood set-off by painting and gilding. the finest examples of this kind are to be found in the churches and palaces of italy. plate . the renascence candelabrum. . altar candlestick, church of the benedictines, willingen, wood, gilt and silvered, late german renascence, ft. ins. high. . bronze, end of the th century, italian. . altar candlestick, certosa near pavia, th century, italian, (musterornamente). . medicean chapel, san lorenzo, florence, italian, renascence. . bronze, italian, renascence, bargello, florence. metal objects. plate . the antique candelabrum. metal objects. the renascence candelabrum. plate . the antique lamp. the antique lamp. (plate .) the antique lamp (lychnus, lucerna) is, strictly speaking, a combination of holder and pourer; and might with equal propriety have been included in the group of wases. the fundamental form, which was retained down to the latest times, is found in early egyptian household utensils; and is created by adding a handle, a funnel for filling, and a spout with an opening for the wick, to a spheroid body, figures and . in greek and roman lamps: the body becomes flattened, the funnel contracts to a simple orifice, and the round handle is either replaced by a straight one or combined with it, (figs. and ). very frequently the lamp has several wick-openings (dimyacos, tri- myacos &c.) instead of only one, (figs. , and ). clay and bronze are the materials almost exclusively employed. the clay lamps are mostly plastically decorated, more rarely painted. the decoration is most conspicuous on the handle and the spout; the upper part of the body is often treated with figures in bas-relief, (fig. ). bronze lamps are decorated with figures, with covers fastened by hinges, wick-trimmers, &c., (fig. ). and it was the bronze lamps which were especially arranged to be suspended from lampa- darii. small lampstands, in the form of low tripods, are also not scarce (figs. and ); occasionally tripod and lamp are combined, as in the example shown in fig. . by the side of examples tectoni- cally constructed, we find freer forms, imitating human figures, animal shapes, human feet, &c. in some cases these may be considered as “happy thoughts”; in others they are simply an aberration of style (figs. and ). the early days of christendom show reminiscences of the an- tique, e. g. the lamp in fig. , which also bears the monogram of christ. in later periods: the decoration degenerates, although the fun- damental form has been retained till the present time, in the east, for household lamps; the design of the modern lamp from jerusalem (fig. ) is of the simplest possible description. in the west: the old form is gradually dying-out, since the introduction of the glass cylinder, which enables the illuminating gases to be more thoroughly consumed. plate . the antique lamp. – . egyptian, clay. . antique, painted clay, (ménard et sauvageot). . antique, red clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, red clay, with two spouts and vertical ring handle, united collections, carlsruhe. metal objects. plate . the antique lamp. the antique lamp. — the candlestick. . antique, with cover and ring handle, red clay, united collections, carlsruhe. . antique, bronze, with high stand, the missing cover was evidently a human mask, louvre, paris. – . antique, bronze, on small tripods (candelabrum humile). . antique, bronze, with three spouts, the figure serves as a handle for the cover, a wick-trimmer is attached to it by a chain, found in herculaneum. . antique, bronze, with two spouts, found in herculaneum, museum, naples, 'ls of original size. . antique, bronze, for suspension, (formenschatz). . early christian, bronze, with the monogram of christ, for suspension, from the catacombs, rome. . modern, oriental, clay, from jerusalem, united collections, carlsruhe. the candlestick. (plates – .) the candlestick is the candle-bearer of the middle ages, the renascence, and modern times. it is distinguished from the cande- labrum, if a distinction can be made at all where the forms thus blend with each other, by its smaller dimensions and simpler forms; and it is chiefly used for secular purposes. the principal materials beside brass, iron, copper, tin, &c., are clay, porcelain, and glass. in the middle ages; it was usual to stick the candle on a conical pricket; our modern times prefer the cylindrical socket. the design includes base (often tripartite), shaft, and socket, as in the case of the candelabrum. the upper end is furnished with a saucer or bowl, to catch the droppings. the saucer is sometimes loose, so that it may easely be taken-off and cleansed, in which case it is termed a “save-all". often the upper part is furnished with a number of arms to receive several candles. as regards decorations: the principles laid down for the candelabrum, in the chapter on supports, hold good. the seven-branched-candlestick, of the temple at jerusalem, is histo- rically celebrated; fig. of plate reproduces this from the repre- sentation of it on the triumphal arch of titus. the fundamental form of it has been retained, to this day, in jewish ritual. high candlesticks, of simple form, made of wrought-iron, are not rare in the middle ages (plate . ). richly-finished examples, in wrought-iron and bronze, were created in the renascence, (plate . , and . ). the japanese and chinese bronze candlesticks the candlestick. — the hand-candlestick. have a certain similarity to the romanesque ecclesiastical candlesticks of the same material, (plate . – ). modern productions in clay, glass and porcelain have scarcely any artistic importance; all the more must we praise modern art for recurring to the old models in metal work; and thus producing very gratifying results, (plate . , , , and plate . and ). plate . the candlestick. . romanesque, bronze, th century, dugué collection, (viollet-le- duc). romanesque, bronze, cathedral, hildesheim. romanesque, bronze. ancient chinese, bronze. brass, th century. modern, bronze, (gewerbehalle). modern, bronze, gewerbehalle, carlsruhe. modern, bronze, by prof. schick, carlsruhe, (gewerbehalle). i plate . the candlestick. . the seven-branched-candlestick of the temple at jerusalem, arch of titus, rome. . wrought-iron, s. peter's, tarrosa, spain, th century, (l'art. pour tous). - wrought-iron, for candles, th century. wrought-iron, modern. wrought-iron, with several arms, by c. zaar, (gewerbehalle). : the hand-candlestick. (plate .) the term hand-candlestick includes any kind of portable can- dlestick; and it assumes the existence of some kind of handle to hold and carry it. the hand-candlestick is always of modest dimensions; and it is generally low in height, as in our flat candlesticks. it may be constructed on an immense variety of plans, so that a number of different forms occur. candlesticks frequently recur of the form shown in fig. , in which a screw thread enables the height of the socket to be adjusted. the middle ages and the renascence exhibited great ingenuity in the invention of such arrangements (fig. ). as the hand-candlestick is liable to gutter: the “save-all” has here undergone a special developement, so that in a certain class of metal objects. plate . the candlestick. metal objects. plate . the candlestick. meyer, handbook of ornament. the hand-candlestick. — the candle-bracket. candlestick it consists of a broad dish out of which rises a shaft with a socket-bowl at the end (figs. . , , ). often an extinguisher is combinet with the candlestick, especially when the latter is of wrought-iron; as shown by the original example, fig. ; of late years match-holders have also been included. the material is the same as for other candlesticks. there is nothing special to say as regards the decoration. pate . the hand-candlestick. — . wrought-iron, th century. – . modern, wrought iron. . modern, by p. fauré of paris, (gewerbehalle). . modern, brass. . modern, brass. the candle-bracket. (plate .) candle-brackets are fixed or movable bearers attached to vertical surfaces, e. g. columns, pilasters, &c. in the middle ages and the renascence they were chiefly used for torches and candles; at the present time they are employed for candles and gas. their form naturally differs from that of the upright candlestick. curved scroll-work and consoles of metal (for this material is the one almost exclusively used) bear on their free end the prickets, or the sockets, or the burners and globes, which last are employed to diffuse the glaring light and soften the sharp shadows. a primitive method of connecting the bracket with the wall is by hook and eye (fig. ); in articles of better finish this is done by means of rosettes or wall-plates and car- touches (figs. , , , ). the bracket may be used for one or more lights. in the latter case: several prickets or sockets are placed on-a common disc (fig. ); or, which is artistically better, the main branch divides into a number of subsidiary arms (fig. ). the bracket on a large scale, is used for street-lighting, for churches, theatres, halls, mansions, palaces, restaurants, &c.; and on a smaller scale, for pianofortes, &c. in designing brackets for gas: care must be taken to provide for the gas-pipe. the modern adjustible brackets, being mostly without decoration, need not be considered. plate . the candle-bracket. – . german, renascence, wrought-iron, national museum, munich. . rococo, for candles, bronze gilt, milan museum, (raguenet). – . modern, by m. weinholdt, munich, (gewerbehalle). – . wall-plates, to , and . metal objects. the hand-candlestick. plate . * metal objects. plate . the candle-bracket. the candle-bracket. — the pendant-lamp. — the chandelier. . modern, (gewerbehalle). . modern, wrought-iron. the pendant-lamp. (plate ) both aesthetic reasons, and the danger of being knocked-over to which upright candlesticks are subject, led in early times to the con- struction of pendant-lamps. in addition to the small bronze lamps, which could be used both standing or hanging, the antique offers us lamps which could be used only for suspension. the latter form is still com- mon in the east (compare plate . ), and in the west in christian and jewish ritual. the introduction, of paraffin, gas, and the electric light, has afforded plentiful opportunities of giving an artistic form to hanging-lamps. the spherical globes of ground glass lend them- selves especially to such treatment, (figs. , , ). box-shaped hold- ers, either open or closed by panes of glass, are termed lanterns. . modern lanterns, for illumination in the open air, are generally devoid of any really artistic decoration; but the middle ages and the re- nascence created many objects of perfect form in this branch. the most suitable material for lanterns is wrought-iron (figs. and ). it is self-evident that lanterns must be so arranged that they can be opened for cleaning, &c. plate . the pendant-lamp. . old moorish, iron, united collections, carlsruhe. . mediaeval, wrought-iron, for several candles, german, (formen- schatz). . french, hôtel vogué, dijon, th century, (l'art pour tous). . modern, for electric glow-light, by peter, of esslingen, (ge- werbehalle). – . modern, (gewerbehalle). the chandelier. (plate ) the arrangement, of a considerable number of lights in circular form on a framework intended for suspension, led to the construction of the chandelier. in the middle ages: the lights were all placed in the same plane so that they formed a ring (fig. ); the re- nascence secured greater richness and variety of design by a number of rings, an arrangement which has usually been retained in our modern chandeliers (fig. and ). further variety is attained by the alternation of the lights in the different rings. wrought-iron metal objects. plate . the pendant-lamp. the chandelier. — the modern lamp. and bronze, along with glass (venetian chandeliers), and of late years cheap cast-iron, and zinc, are the chief materials. original and uni- que in design is the mermaid chandelier consisting of female half- figures terminating in fish-tails, and furnished with antlers to carry the candles (fig. ). the slender chains by which these mer- maids, and other lamps and lanterns, were suspended, are replaced in modern chandeliers by a tube which also serves as a gas-pipe. in the former case the chain was carried over pulleys so that the light could be shifted higher or lower; in modern chandeliers the adjust- ment is effected by means of a stuffing-box with balance weights (fig. ). very frequently the lower end of the chandelier terminates in a ring, to facilitate the change in height. in addition to the globes round the flames, guards are often placed over them, to protect the ceiling from heat and soot. each burner must be connected with the main gas-pipe by means of a separate pipe. where the chandelier is intended for electric lights; the latter may be bent downwards instead of upwards, so that the frames for the globes will cast no shadow. the plate gives a number of ancient and modern chande- liers, partly in half profile, the foreshortened arms, which interfere with the drawing, having been omitted. a regular arrangement, of , or arms, is the rule: more or fewer arms occur more rarely. in the case of chandeliers with a great number of lights: each arm is arranged after the fashion of a bracket with several candles. plate . the chandelier. . modern, style of the german renascence. . german, renascence, hemispherical, for candles. – . modern, bronze and wrought-iron. . modern, french, by the sculptor villeminot, (l'art pour tous). the modern lamp. (plate .) the principal value, of the modern lamp, lies in the technical completeness, and adaptation to its purpose. there is, it is true, no such wealth of artistic fancy as is shown by antique lamps; but still some good examples may be found among the two or three fundamental forms of the paraffin-lamp, with which we have mostly to do. metal, glass, porcelain, and majolica, again appear as materials. as a general rule we have a profiled foot, on which the oil-receiver rests, from which latter the burner, chimney, and globe rise, (figs. and ). more richly finished examples have a masked receiver, the latter being enclosed by a vase (figs. , and ). attempts have lately been metal objects. plate . the chandelier. metal objects. the modern lamp. plate . the altar. — the tripod. common with those of the antique; and they do not fall within the scope of our work. plate . the altar. assyrian, triangular sacrificial stone. assyrian, round sacrificial stone. assyrian, sacrificial slab, from a relief in the british museum. roman, three-sided altar, like a number of examples, differing little from one-another, in the museums in london, paris, &c. . roman, three-sided altar, used as the base of a candelabrum. – . roman, various altars, fig. with the masks of deities, and the signs of the zodiac, (ménard et sauvageot). : the tripod. (plate ) the name tripod is applied to any three-legged support, what- ever the use to which it may be put. more accurately, the tripod is a construction in three parts: the top part being a bowl, dish, or slab. the antique tripod played an important part both in religious rites and in daily life. originally an article of practical use, for cooking, &c., its form is simple; when it was elevated to an utensil of religion, to bear the sacrificial pans and the consecrated offerings for the deities, or to be the prize of victory in the games: it assu- med conventional forms, and received an artistic finish. the material was generally bronze, except for the great, monumental state-tripods, which were of marble. the greek, roman, and etruscan tripods differ characteristically from each-other, in their detail; but have this in com- mon, that they are supported by three smooth, rod-like legs, which are terminated at their lower end in animals' claws; and are connected together by rings (fig. ), or struts (figs. and ); and at the top are either connected directly with the dish (figs. and ), or with a ring intended for the reception of a loose dish (fig. ). for the sake of greater convenience, handles are sometimes attached to the dish (fig. ); the legs may be adjusted to different heights (figs. and ); or the tripod may be so arranged that it can be taken to pieces. these antique tripods, of which some of the simpler examples are given on the plate, afford us, better than anything else, an insight into the antique art of bronze-working. the middle ages and the renascence have also transmitted to us numerous tripods. their principal, use is in households as stands for washing-basins, &c.; and they are generally of wrought-iron (figs. , , ). after the art of working in wrought-iron had been revived in modern times, we find them as stands for washing-apparatus, trays for visiting-cards, stands for wine-coolers, (fig. ), &c. metal objects. º =- *~~~~ plate . the altar. metal objects. the tripod. plate . the tripod. — the censer. plate . the tripod. . antique, bronze, found in pompeii, about museum, naples. ins. high. . romanesque, bronze, (ménard et sauvageot). . etruscan, bronze, berlin museum. . mediaeval, bronze, pierrefonds castle, (viollet-le-duc.). – . italian, th century, wrought-iron, about ft. high, (l'art pour tous). . modern, wrought-iron, for wine-cooler, by the architect zaar, (gewerbehalle). the censer. (plate .) one of the oldest ecclesiastical utensils is the censer or thu- rible, in the use of which the rising clouds of incense are a sym- bolical representation of prayer ascending to heaven. the material is silver, bronze, iron, copper, or brass. the lower part consists of a dish with foot, containing the fire-pan. the pierced cover is kept in its place by means of the three chains which pass through the three holes made for the purpose. these three chains hang from a small plate with a ring. the cover is fastened to a fourth chain, which also terminates in a chain and may be drawn up through a hole in the plate (fig. ). the decoration is frequently symbolic, and in- scriptions are also used. the romanesque and gothic censers often exhibit an architectonic design of domes and towers (figs. , , ). the renascence prefers the strict form of a vessel (figs. , and ). modern art avails itself of ancient models, without having anything independent to show. an appendage of the censer, in a certain sense, is the censer-boat, or incense-holder, usually an elliptical dish with a partition and two hinged covers. the incense is conveyed from the incense-boat to the censer by means of a spoon. plate . the censer. — . romanesque, bronze, th and th centuries, each 'ſ, ins. high, collection of antiquities, grand-ducal court, mannheim. . romanesque, bronze, french, beginning of the th century, °), ins. high, (viollet-le-duc.). – . gothic, from stone statues, cathedral, chartres, th century, (l'art pour tous). . gothic, with tower shaped cover. – . renascence. renascence, south kensington museum, london. metal objects. the censer. plate . metal objects. meyer, handbook of ornament. the crucifix. plate . the crozier, and the monstrance. bolically represented by the fight with the dragon (fig. ). in the gothic period the knob below the curve is developed into an archi- tectonic lantern. the length of the crozier is to ft. the material is wood, ivory, and metal, usually contrasting in the different parts. the plate only reproduces the upper ends; as these alone are of importance by their decoration. the monstrance is a utensil allied to the ciborium and reli- quary. it is an expository vessel in which, since the institution of the feast of corpus christi by urban iv in , the consecrated wafer is shown and carried in processions in roman catholic churches. it possesses great varieties both of style and size, the height varying from ft. to ft. it usually has a slender hexagonal or octagonal foot, and a knob. from the foot rises a tower-like receptacle (turri- cula), or a “glory” with a disc-shaped glass box in which the wafer rests on the so-called eye. the material is gold, silver, or brass. the plate gives one of the numerous examples which have been preserved. plate . the crozier, and the monstrance. . romanesque, bishop gerard of limoges, t . – . romanesque. . transition period from romanesque to gothic, french, (l'art pour tous). . gothic, martin schongauer, end of th century, (wessely). . rococo, ivory. . monstrance, gilt brass, ins. high, hotzendorf. c. utensils of war and hunting; weapons. utensils of war and hunting, in their most primitive forms at least, are as old as mankind itself. savages of the earliest as well as of modern times, show great skill, and a certain originality in the decoration of these utensils, as we may see in our ethnological collections. so long as these utensils continued to be made of horn, bone, and such materials: and also so long as they belong to the so- called “stone age", they are comparatively simple. they do not assume a richer form and finish till the introduction of bronze and iron. the great revolution which ensued on the transition from the “stone” to the “bronze age" finds a not less imposing parallel in the revolution wrought by the invention of gunpowder. utensils of war and hunting may be divided into two great sections: weapons of defense and weapons of offense. to the former belong shields, helmets and armour. the kinds and number of metal objects. plate . the crozier, and the monstrance. % the shield. weapons of offense are far more manifold. swords, daggers, spears, pikes, lances, axes, maces, arrows, rifles, and pistols, are the principal. it is unfortunately impossible, in this work, to give due consideration to every single form; still the chief representatives have been included, with the exception of firearms and armour, in which only the engraved or chased details are of decorative importance. the most striking examples, in our armouries and museums, have lately been published, in numerous works; so that it is not difficult to obtain a general view of this section; monographs on wea- pons have also been published, among which we may specially men- tion boeheim's waffenkunde (e. a. seemann, leipzig). the shield. (plate .) the shield, which from the earliest times has been the usual weapon of defense against blows and thrusts, is generally a domed disc, the form of which has varied considerably. circular, elliptical, semi-circular, and kite-shapes, are found alongside others of richer out- line. the materials are wood, plaited osiers, leather, metal, and combinations of these. the shield is held in the left hand by a handle, or slung on the arm by a strap. the size varies from ins. to ft. the antique shield was circular; and frequently ornamented with a boss in the centre. among the ancient teutons, the form was large and square; in the middle ages, it was triangular. the standing-shields or pavises, of the th and th centuries, were very large, and provided with feet, so that they would stand upon the ground, without being held. the tilting-shield had a hole cut- away in which the lance was laid. with the introductions of fire-arms the shield became worthless, and disappears as an article of practical use; but it has continued to be employed for state-purposes down to the present time; and, from a decorative standpoint, these state- shields are of high interest. they offer to metal-workers an except- ionally favourable field for the display of their art. the simple zonal divisions of the antique shield have given place to freer divisions and a richer decoration with figures and ornaments. plate . the shield. . roman, with boss, bronze partly-silvered, found near mainz, wics- baden, museum. . etruscan, bronze, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). . mediaeval, time of the crusades, (viollet-le-duc.). . renascence, time of henry ii of france, hammered metal. metal objects. plate- . the shield. the shield. — the helmet. . renascence, decorated in the centre with a rosette and pointed knob, turin. . renascence, with rich decoration of figures, in hammered metal. . renascence, hammered silver, by p. van vianen. the helmet. (plate .) the armour for the defense of the head is the helmet. it was probably originally made of leather; at a later date it was of metal; and in modern times it again consists of leather with metal accessories. its form has suffered many transformations in the course of the cent- uries, arising sometimes from practical, sometimes from aesthetic reasons. the greatest perfection of form is found in the greek helmet, which, like antique armour in general, fits very closely to the human body. we need only remind the reader of the plain but beautiful helmets in which pallas athene is shown on antique gems. the medusa head and sphinxes are popular motives of decoration. the decoration is most prominent on the front, and on the moveable cheek-pieces. fig. shows a greek helmet with a crest which is similar to the form of the phrygian cap. the etruscan helmet (fig. ) is similar to the greek. the roman helmet is simpler. helmets were often decorated with plumes of feathers or horse-hair; and were provided with sockets for fixing these accessories. the roman gladiators' helmets, with their rich, florid, often overdone de- coration, and their large face-guard and heavy crest, have something awkward, without becoming ugly. very manifold, although of no great importance decoratively, are the helmets of the middle ages. leaving out of account the less important transitional forms, we will here give the names of the principal classes in order of historical succession. they are the heaume (fig. ), the salade or sallet (fig. ), the tilting-helmet (fig. ), the armet (fig. ), and the helmet with barred vizor (fig. ). the section on heraldry may also be consulted. the helmets of the renascence, especially the state-helmets, are richly, sometimes too richly, decorated. to the forms received, from the middle ages, were added the burganet (fig. ), and the morion (fig. ). some of these state-helmets are also copied from the antique, as may be seen in fig. . the modern creations in this section are of no artistic importance. plate . the helmet. . greek, bronze, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). . etruscan, bronze, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). metal objects. the helmet. plate . the helmet. — the sword. — the dagger. . roman, bronze, louvre, paris, (ménard et sauvageot). – . roman, bronze, for gladiators, different views, (ménard et sauvageot). . mediaeval salade, iron. . mediaeval heaume, iron, the chain was hooked into the cross- shaped slit. . mediaeval tilting-helmet, iron. - . mediaeval armet, iron. . mediaeval, iron, with barred vizor. . renascence, morion, etched iron. . renascence burganet, german. . state-helmet, th century, (l'art pour tous). the sword. (plate .) the sword is the most universally used of the offensive weapons. much as these weapons for cutting and thrusting differ from each other in size and finish; they generally consist of three principal parts: the blade, single or double-edged, tapering more or less towards the point, generally straight, but sometimes curved or waved, also sometimes fluted to save weight, only decorated by means of engraving, etching, damaskeening, &c.; the handle, with or without pommel, cup, or basket; and the scabbard or sheath, with or without a hanger. the two latter, the handle and scabbard, offer the most scope for decoration. the material of these is, in addition to iron, the other metals and alloys, wood, bone, leather, coloured stones, &c. here, also, from an artistic point of view, we have to consider less the practical than the state-swords, on which the renascence, the following styles, and modern art, have found ample opportunity to exercise their artistic skill. plate offers a small selection from the copious material in our armouries and collections of weapons. plate . the sword, and its scabbard. — . assyrian, from reliefs. and . egyptian. . prehistoric, bronze, found in switzerland. – . mediaeval, and renascence. – . renascence. – . renascence, pommel, guard, and chape, by hans holbein the younger, (formenschatz). the sword, and its scabbard. plate . metal objects. the dagger, and its scabbard. plate . the halberd. — the spoon. with one side terminating in an axe or a hammer, and the other in a point (fig. ). the halberd is a combination of the pike or partizan with the battle-axe (figs. and ). the mace is a handle with a knob of various forms; when it is set with spikes, it is called a “morning-star", and when set with radiating blades, it is termed a quadrelle (fig. ). the war-flail is distinguished from the mace by the knob being fastened to the handle by a chain. and so on, in endless variety. so far as decoration is concerned: the first place is due to halberds and partizans; not only because the shape of the blade is frequently very varied and handsome, but also because the union with the shaft, by means of bands, nails, tassels, &c., gives an oppor- tunity for rich colour. the blades, also, are often decorated by damaskeening, engraving, gilding, etc. plate . the halberd, &c. . partizan, richly-etched, german, th century, historical museum, dresden, (kunsthandwerk). . halberd, richly-etched, german, , artillery museum, paris, (l'art pour tous). . fauchard, richly-etched, german, , artillery museum, paris, (l'art pour tous). . partizan, richly-etched, german, th century, artillery museum, paris, (l'art pour tous). . partizan, richly-etched, german, , royal armoury, berlin, (kunsthandwerk). and . halberds. . combination of war-scythe and war-fork. . battle-axe, hindu, united collections, carlsruhe. . mace, so-called quadrelle, (viollet-le-duc.). . pike. (the shafts have been omitted, or only partially indicated). c. table utensils. the spoon. (plate .) the spoon is, strictly speaking, a dipper; and has already been alluded-to in the discussion of the group of wessels (comp. plate ). it is here treated in the group of utensils. as a table utensil the metal objects. plate . the spoon. the spoon. — the knife, and the fork. . persian, from an inkstand, th century, °l, ins. long, duhousset collection, (l'art pour tous). . persian, th century, ', ins. long, duhousset collection, (l'art pour tous). german, tin, inscription: “trink und is, gott nit vergis", united collections, carlsruhe. . modern, french, (gewerbehalle). . modern, silver gilt and enamelled, by the architect f. o. schulze, (gewerbehalle). . modern, silver, by f. seitz. the knife and the fork. (plate .) knives and forks, unlike spoons, are of comparatively late introduction as table utensils. although it is probable that they were in use at a very early period as kitchen utensils for carving food, still they did not attain the rank of a recognised dinner set until the art of eating had reached a certain refinement. it has been maintained that knives and forks appeared on dinner tables towards the close of the roman empire. in our own country it can be proved that they did not come into general use until the th or th century. this may be explained by the circumstance that in the earlier period of the middle ages, as at the present time in the east, food was carried to the mouth with the fingers or with a spoon, after having undergone the necessary division into small portions in the kitchen. cleanliness was ensured by frequently washing the hands during dinner. as regards form and material: what has been said of spoons, is also true for knives and forks. the handles are similarly shaped, to secure uniformity in the whole set; the bowl of the spoon is replaced by the two, or more prongs of the fork, or by the blade of the knife. the handle is made of wood, ivory, &c., and it is comparatively stronger as it must possess a greater power of re- sistance because the tang or prolongation of the blade, which is always made of steel, must be let-into it. as the plate shows, the shape of the blade has passed through many changes in the course of time. to cut the “consecrated bread” the middle ages employed peculiar knives, the blades of which were engraved with mottoes and musical scales. plate . the knife, and the fork. – . mediaeval, ( th– th century), wooden handle inlaid with silver. metal objects. the knife, and the fork. plate . meyer, handbook of ornament. the knife, and the fork. — the paper-knife. — the scissors. – . gothic, th century, the prongs of alloy, the handle of ivory mounted with silver, 'ſ, ins. long, garneray collection. mediaeval, copper gilt, ', ins. long, garneray collection. renascence, ivory, leon bach collection, (l'art pour tous). renascence, south kensington museum, london. renascence, bach collection, (l'art pour tous). renascence, bach collection, (l'art pour tous). barocco period, south kensington museum, london. – . renascence, dresden, (musterornamente). – . ditto. - – . modern, silver gilt and enamelled, by f. o. schulze, (ge- werbehalle). . modern, silver gilt and enamelled, by f. o. schulze, (ge- werbehalle). i the paper-knife. (plate ) paper-knives are an invention of modern times. as the name implies, they are used for cutting paper, the edges of books, news- papers, and letters; and they find a place on every desk. the form is usually that of a one or two-edged knife. as the blade does not require to be very sharp, it is generally made of the same material as the handle, and in most cases of ivory, wood, or brass. the decoration is generally confined to the handle; the blade is at most decorated with flat enrichment. plate . the paper-knife. . modern, brass. – . modern, ivory or wood, by dir. g. kachel, (gewerbehalle). – . modern, wood carving, by j. eberhardt, heilbronn. . modern, pierced metal. - the scissors. (plate .) scissors, intended primarily for use in ladies' work, and after- wards applied to a variety of other purposes, are mostly met-with in two different fundamental forms. the earlier form (french: forces), which held its ground up to the end of the middle ages, has a spring hoop which unites the two blades (fig. ). the later form (french: ciseaua), which begins to appear sporadically as early as the th century, has two separate blades moveable round a central metal objects. plate . the paper-knife. * the scissors. — the hand-bell. pivot, and terminating at one end in the blades and at the other in handles with ring-shaped eyelets to receive the fingers (figs. , , , ). the shape is usually symmetrical. variations, like fig. , are rare. not infrequently, the scissors are provided with a chain by means of which they may be suspended, either alone or with other articles, from a chatelaine. the points are sometimes protected by a guard (fig. ). the decoration is generally confined to the handles, and frequently consists of pierced work; the blades are plain, or decorated by inlaying, &c. where handle and blades are not of the same metal, which in this case can only be steel, the handles are often of brass or silver. between these two extremes are gilt, silvered, and nickelled handles. the renascence gratified its luxurious taste to the full, in the matter of scissors; in modern times, the plainer and simpler forms are preferred. the length of the blades varies, according to the purpose; but the size of the handles remains the same, being governed by that of the human hand; hence the pro- portions between the two are very various. among scissors which are intended for special purposes, and depart from the usual form: may be mentioned snuffers, and “lazy-tongs” (fig. ). plate . the scissors. . renascence, sonth kensington museum, london. . renascence, blades etched, handles gilt, august i of saxony, royal historical museum, dresden, (kunsthandwerk). – . persian, th century, 's ins. and ||, ins. long, duhousset collection, (l'art pour tous). renascence, south kensington museum, london. . renascence, german, dresden, (musterornamente). . renascence, handles silver gilt, german (kunsthandwerk). snuffers, in bird form. lazy-tongs, united collections, carlsruhe. the hand-bell. (plate ) in those utensils of which it may be said that as a rule they are artistically decorated beyond what is wanted for practical purposes, we may reckon the hand-bell. during the middle ages and the renascence: the hand-bell seems to have been chiefly used in an official capacity in council-chambers and for ecclesiastical purposes; and its introduction into ordinary households, to summon the atten- dants did not take place till later. in our own times, so prolific of parliamentary and other meetings: the hand-bell is indispensable. the necessary parts are: the resonant cup, the clapper suspended in the metal objects. plate . the scissors. metal orjects. ſºsº. &@nº. º —º ºrivº º: \ º- *- - - º - º —t the hand-bell. plate . the door-knocker. these latter objects in particular, a much more extensive collection might have been made if the allotted space had permitted. there is scarcely a tool or instrument which did not occasionally receive an artistic finish during the renascence. the introduction of the so- called “master-pieces" into the guilds, naturally led to the result that unnecessary labour was sometimes expended on the most ordinary things. but still we shall offer sufficient to give the reader the necessary view of the entire section. the door-knocker. (plate .) although the door-knocker was in use in antiquity, as proved by an example (the head of medusa with ring) found in capua: still the strict period of the door-knocker is in the romanesque, gothic, and renascence epochs. in modern times: it has already become a historical object, having been ousted by bellpulls, &c. it is made almost exclusively of bronze, and cast or wrought iron. its dimensions are variable, like those of the doors and gates them- selves, to which it must bear some proportion. we may distinguish three principal classes. the first has the form of a ring, usually suspended from a lion's jaws; in which case it is at the same time a door-handle (figs. – ). the second has the form of a hammer moveable on a primitive hinge. the third class, which arose in italy in the best days of the renascence, shows figures, animals, &c. (figs. and ). in all three classes the requisite noise is produced by the moveable part falling on a metal stud. in the third class the plate by which the knocker is affixed to the door is of subsidiary importance, while in the two former classes it is often the principal feature of the design. the gothic period devised richly-decorated plates of pierced - work. this motive was often retained by the re- nascence (fig. ), or replaced by double-headed eagles and the like (fig. ). the plate gives different examples, selected from the copious material. plate . the door-knocker. romanesque, bronze, north portal of the cathedral of puy-en-velay, th century. mediaeval, 's ins, square, soyter collection, augsburg. . renascence, ", ins. square, museum, berlin. . transition from gothic to renascence, ||, ins. square, s. peter's, strassburg. . renascence, wrought-iron, german, national museum, munich. . renascence, (guichard). ; metal objects. plate . the door-knocker. metal objects. the key. plate . the hand-mirror. — the fan. . renascence, (guichard). . renascence, south kensington museum, london. – . renascence, german. – . bows, th century, (wessely). – . modern, by the architect otto girard, berlin, (gewerbehalle). the hand-mirror. (plate .) the first place in the series of ladies' toilet requisites belongs to the hand-mirror. its history falls into two periods. in antiquity and in the earlier years of the middle ages: mirrors were made of polished metal, either bronze or silver. about the th century, glass begins to be used, the reflecting surface being backed with metal foil. the antique, and particulary the etruscan mirrors, of which a large number have been preserved to us, show engraved ornaments and figures from mythology and daily life, mostly of primitive, but sometimes of excellent, workmanship. glass mirrors are, generally, flat. the fundamental shape of the antique mirror is circular or spatulate (figs. – ); and that of the glass mirror is circular or elliptical (figs. and ). the plastic decoration of antique mirrors is confined to the handle, and the frame. the handle and frame may be of a great variety of materials, wood, ivory, or metal. here, too, it is the renascence which shows the richest decoration. where the decoration consists of figures, these are in keeping with the object; and show amorini and aphroditic personages. with the increasing use of wall or plate-glass mirrors, the hand-mirror has lost much of its former importance; so that modern art no longer devotes much atten- tion to it. plate . the hand-mirror. . egyptian, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. . egyptian, bronze, handle of carved wood, british museum, london. – . greek, bronze. . pompeian. – . etruscan, engraved figures, handles lost. renascence, (kunst und gewerbe). renascence, by etienne de laulne ( to ), (wessely). the fan. (plate .) the fan is undoubtedly the most interesting of all toilet requisites. its history can be traced back uninterruptedly for years, although metal objects. * - - the hand-mirror. plate . the fan. it did not enjoy the same measure of popularity in every period. it alone would almost suffice to furnish a historical picture of the artistic and technical developement of industrial art through all periods. the object of the fan is twofold. firstly, it is used to direct a current of cool air to the face; and secondly, to keep off flies and other insects. from its first use it derives its latin name of “flabellum” (from flare = to blow, french “éventail”); from its second use its latin name “muscarium” (from musca = a fly, french “esmouchoir”). fans of this latter class are usually called “fly-flappers". occasion- ally, the fan is used to blow the fire (as in ancient persia, where the blowing of the fire with the lips was forbidden for religious reasons); and as a symbol of dignity in ecclesiastical and court cere- monies. a consideration of its purpose renders it obvious that it is chiefly employed in the hotter countries of the globe. the manifold forms of the fan may be reduced to different principal types: . the fixed fan: a leaf immovably attached to a handle (figs. – ). . the pennon fan: attached to the side of the handle, and movable round it in a horizontal direction (figs. and ). the forms and materials of the fixed and the pennon fan are of the utmost variety. . the radial fan: a rectangle of paper, silk or some other material, fastened to a handle in such a manner that it may be folded together and spread out in the form of a circle (fig. ). . the lamellar fan: pieces of stiff material e. g. slips of ivory, are connected together at one end by a pin, which serves as the axis. they are collapsible into a narrow shape, and may be opened-out to a semi-circle. they are held-together by a ribbon drawn through them (fig. ). . the folding fan: distinguished from the preceding by the lamellae being covered by a sheet of paper, silk, &c., which is folded-together or spread-out by the opening of the sticks which compose the frame (fig. ). it appears from this that the fixed, the pennon, and the radial fans have handles, while the lamellar and the folding fans have not. the radial fan, being a folding fan with a handle, is a kind of inter- mediate form. the size of the fan varies according to fashion and the purpose for which it is intended, regard being usually paid to convenience of handling; as a general rule, it may be said that the firmer, stiffer and more impervious to air the fan is: the smaller it may be. fans for cooling should have a short, broad form, fly- flappers require a longer, narrower shape. metal objects. the fan. plate . the fan. on the subject of history and style, the following may be said: the fixed fan is the oldest and most primitive. its natural model is a leaf on a stalk, just as savages at the present time make their fans of dried palm-leaves or of plaited work in the form of leaves (fig. ). the feather may also be regarded as a natural model, and hence its frequent application to fans of every kind. the pennon fan is the least practical, its domain is the middle ages and the early renascence, together with certain parts of the east (india, turkey, morocco, tunis, &c.). the radial fan was also in use in the middle ages (with a long handle), and down to the present time in certain parts of italy, persia, china, and japan. the lamellar and the folding fan are of later date. their introduction is contemporaneous with the general use of the fan in europe ( th century). after the period of the lamellar fan in the th century, follows the golden age of the folding fan in the rococo period. the folding fan is also the predominant form in modern times. egyptian mural paintings and assyrian reliefs frequently show fan - bearers, with larger or smaller fly - flappers, in the retinue of the kings. the most common egyptian forms are given in figs, and , the assyrian in fig. . scarcely any vestige has been pre- served of antique fans. judging by the pictures on vases, &c., the greek fan consisted of a leaf, cut to a palmette - shape, on a long handle. the roman ladies were somewhat luxurious in the matter of fans, which they either managed themselves or had carried by slaves; and under the emperors the men were also. in the middle ages, the fan entered into the service of the church; deacons and ministrans kept-off flies from the consecrated host by means of the flabella, which often took the form of six-winged seraphs. when the fan became popular for secular purposes, its use was given up in churches. as already observed, the renascence passed from the fixed, to the lamellar and folding fan. the lamellar fan offered numerous opportunities for carved and pierced work in ivory, horn, tortoiseshell, filigree, and enamel work. the folding fan offered an unlimited field for decoration by painting; and painters, like boucher, watteau, and others, devoted themselves to fan-painting (pastoral scenes &c.). during this period the “puzzle-fan" was invented, which shows differ. ent pictures according to the way it is folded. lace fans, fans with mirrors, monograms, and autographs, and the bespangled empire-fans, complete the category. the modern ball-room fan is a large folding fan generally decorated with naturalistic paintings of flowers. but all possible forms ara occasionally used. france, china, and japan supply the fan market. heinrich frauberger, who has written a most valuable monograph on the fan”, maintains that the latter countries * h. frauberger: “die geschichte des fächers." leipzig; k. scholtze. the fan. — warious tools. alone manufacture between them about ºl, of the million fans which are annually made on the globe. finally we may briefly enumerate the materials which are prin- cipally used in the manufacture of fans. they are: bamboo, palm- leaves, wood, bone, horn, ivory, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, metal, paper, straw and other plaited material, silk, lace, gelatine, mica, leather, feathers, &c. plate . the fan. egyptian, fly-flapper, feathers, handle omitted. . egyptian, feather-fan. . assyrian, fly-flapper, from a relief, british museum. modern, fly-flapper, plaited palm-leaves, south caroline is- lands, (frauberger). modern, fly-flapper, plaited palm-leaves, united collections, carlsruhe. . modern, palm-leaf, cut and bound at the edge. – . modern, japanese, bamboo and paper. . modern, printed paper with silk fringe and gilt wooden handle. . modern, siamese, handle of whipped wood, centre of paste- board, decorated with rosettes and bordered with peacock feathers, united collections, carlsruhe. . modern, hindu, handle of wood, centre of pasteboard covered with silk, braid, and butterfly wings, bordered with peacock feathers, (frauberger). . mediaeval, radial-fan, french, (viollet-le-duc.). . modern, folding-fan, wood and grouse feathers. . modern, folding-fan, wood, painted silk, and gold. . warious tools. (plate .) among the tools and instruments which only occasionally or accidentally receive an artistic finish we may mention: hammers, tongs, compasses, cocks, pestles, hour-glasses, and clocks, along with many other things. no attempt can be made here to treat these articles in detail. but it may be said that, in general, the bighly-decorated examples have been specially made for state-occasions, e.g. the hammer (fig. ), with which pope julius iii inaugurated the jubilee year ( ) by knocking three times on the walled-up main- portal of s. peter's, as a sign that it should be opened. plate exhibits a number of such objects. meyer, handbook of ornament. metal objects. gae- various tools. plate . warious tools. plate . various tools. . ceremonial-hammer, silver gilt, italian, th century, pre- sented by gregory xiii to duke ernest of bavaria, beneath the enamelled armorial bearings is the inscription: “julius iii pont. max. jubilaeum viii condidit feliciter mcccccl.; the relief on the reverse shows moses striking water from the rock, with the words: percussit petram et fluxerunt aquae", national museum, munich; (kunsthandwerk). tongs, iron, german, germanisches museum, nuremberg. snuffers, brass, german, renascence, germanisches museum, nuremberg. . compasses, bronze, chased, engraved, and gilt, german, th century, half the size of the original. cock, brass, cast and chased, german, th century, ", ins. long, (vorbilder für die kleinkunst in bronze). match-holder, bronze, modern. * furniture. furniture, in its broader sense, is a collective name for all kinds of household goods and chattels. it is more strictly confined to such objects as chairs, tables, wardrobes, &c. but even in this narrower sense the examples of furniture are so numerous that it is not possible to give a detailed description and discussion of each indivi- dual article on the plates which are devoted to this group. and it is the less necessary to do this as our object is only to give a view of the application of decoration to furniture in general. we show a series of the more important articles, while others, such as pianos, and wardrobes, have been omitted. they have been so grouped that plates to contain the different varieties of chairs, while the following plates are devoted to tables, cabinets, bed- steads, cradles, &c. the examples have been chiefly taken from the antique, the renascence, and modern times; while the middle ages, the barocco and rococo periods have only occasionally been taken into account. that particular attention has been paid to the german renascence, is based on the fact, that this period is specially distinguished for its achievements in the field of richly-decorated furniture. this chapter might seem to offer an inducement to give a historical account of the development of tectonic form in the different periods of art. but to do this, with any thoroughness, would also require us to abandon the condiseness we have hitherto maintained; and furniture. we will therefore only refer the reader to the details in semper: “der stil”, and to the highly-interesting work by georg hirth: “das deutsche zimmer der gothik und renaissance, des barock-, rokoko-, und zopfstils" (g. hirth, munich and leipzig). the necessary in- formation about the furniture of the egyptians, assyrians, greeks, and romans will be found in ménard et sauvageot: “la vie privée des anciens"; and about the middle ages in viollet-le-duc.: “dic. tionnaire raisonné du mobilier français"; from both of which works we have taken numerous examples for our plates. besides these, there is such a number of cyclopaedic works on this subject that it is impossible even to name them all here. a. seats. as regards seats: the fundamental form has generally been depen- dent on the special purpose, and on the ever-varying mode of life; while the details have been influenced by the artistic taste of the time, and by the material used. definite fundamental types often recur by the side of new and arbitrary special forms; and we have attempted a classification according to these fundamental forms. the simplest and most primitive form, although for many pur- poses the least comfortable, is that of the taboret or ottoman, which is without a back. the chair is more comfortable because of the addition of the back; and it becomes still more so, when arms are added. to this group belongs the throne, which in view of its pur- pose is more monumental in form, and richer in material. revolving, folding, and rocking chairs meet the demand for special purposes. the stall, and the “prie-dieu" also have peculiar accessories, due to their being used for other purposes than sitting. the bench and the couch offer a seat or repose for several persons simultaneously. in spite of the variety of forms, one feature is common to nearly all, namely, the height of the seat. in order to sit comfortably, the feet should just reach the ground, and the height of the seat is there- fore from ins. to ins. the depth of the seat shows greater va- riations, from ins. to ins. the height of the back varies from ins. and more; the fact having to be taken into consideration that the head, when it is leant back, should have a proper support. the upper surface of the arms should be about ins. above that of the seat. straight, upright backs are less comfortable than curved lines adapted to the vertebral curve. similarly: flat, horizontal seats are not so suitable as those which slope downwards towards the back. the principal materials are wood, cane, and metal; stone, terra- cotta, &c., are rarer. as it is unpleasant to rest against a hard the chair. material for any length of time, recourse is had to cane, or flexible seats, skins, cushions, and upholstering. in course of time, chairs have become more comfortable with the progress of comfort in general. it may be specially emphasized that the handsomest and most richly- decorated seats are not usually the most practical; further remarks are reserved for the discussion of the different forms. the chair (plates – ) the chair is a stool with a back to it. the most usual form has four legs. sometimes the legs are connected-together by braces or ties, which are called foot-rails. the seat generally has the shape of an oblong, a square, or a trapezium. circular and polygonal seats are less common. hexagonal and octagonal seats, with a corresponding number of legs, begin to appear in the th century; and certain wooden chairs of the renascence have seats in the form of regular or semi-regular polygons (plate . , , ). the legs are prismatic or turned, frequently with claw feet, while the top of the back terminates in knobs, animal-heads, or masks (plates . ; . ; . , , ). instead of legs, the seats of the wooden chairs of the renascence are sometimes supported by perforated and carved boards, either at the two sides or in front and behind (plate . , , ). where the back is carved out of a single piece, as is the case with many renascence and modern chairs, the two hinder legs have the same form and height as the front legs (plates . , ; . ). very often the back is treated as a frame (plate . , , ), or is bent into a cylindrical plan, as in the greek “klismos” (plate . , ), and its imitation, the empire chair (plate . ). openings for the hand are made in carved wooden backs for convenience in moving (plate . , , ). where the top of the back is hori- zontal, it is often crowned with a cornice or an ornament (plates . ; . ). where the seat, alone or in conjunction with the back, is of woven cane-work or padded, the chair is termed a “cane" or an “upholstered” chair. sometimes not only the padding but also the entire structure of the chair is upholstered in some material, just as, on the other hand, chairs may be made entirely of cane or rushes. the seats and backs of upholstered chairs are covered with leather, or textiles (plate . ). the overlaying of wood with metal occurs in the assyrian style, and occasionally in later periods; the state- chairs of the middle ages, especially the byzantine, are not infre- quently decorated with coloured stones; a similar treatment may be observed in the renascence example (plate figs. , and ). in addition to the decoration by carving (which will always be the chief furniture. º £ . fººt: ====r. : : --- i. - - - -- i - i - - - it ir --- - - -- tº- - º --> . plate the chair. furniture. plate . the chair. the chair. – the throne, and the arm-chair. material of common frames), we find inlays of bone, (the socalled “certosina work" of the th century), metal, &c. plate . the chair. – . egyptian, (ménard et sauvageot). . egyptian, mural painting, tomb of ramses iii, thebes, (ménard et sauvageot). egyptian, upholstered with patterned material, british museum. . egyptian, british museum. – . greek, draped with skin, “klismos" form, (ménard et sauvageot). . antique, with cushions and foot-stool, pompeian, (ménard et sauvageot). . greek, vase, painting. . antique, with statue of jupiter, (ménard et sauvageot). . french empire period, (gallien). plate . the chair. german, renascence, wood, moreau collection, (l'art pour tous). flemish, wood, th century, (l'art pour tous). italian, wood, th century, (l'art pour tous). dutch, upholstered in leather, (crispin van den passe, ). german, decorated with stones, renascence, museum, dresden. german, th century, (gewerbehalle). german, th century, germanisches museum, nuremberg. i . plate . the chair. . modern, “inn-chair", by dir. kachel, (gewerbehalle). — . modern, cane, (gewerbehalle). – . modern, (gewerbehalle). . renascence, (raguenet). . modern, (gewerbehalle). the throne, and the arm-chair. (plates — .) thrones and arm-chairs have been grouped-together, because the former almost always have the same form as the latter, and there is no essential difference since the time of the renascence. the throne being the seat-of-honour, has naturally, from the earliest periods,' received more attention and decoration. it is planned on a larger and more monumental scale than the ordinary chair. for this reason, and also because it does not require to be so often moved as common furnitur - - the chair. plate . the throne, and the arm-chair. chairs, it is often made of marble, metal, &c. very often it is raised on a dais, with steps, or a foot-stool is placed in front of it; not infrequently it is covered by a baldacchino or canopy, with hangings, or a cornice. this is especially the case with those for royal per- sonages and bishops in the middle ages. as regards the decoration: figures and symbols may be added to the other decorations of the frame. the arm-chair, in its simplest form, is distinguished from the ordinary chair by the addition of arms, which are generally supported from the fore-legs, and connected with the back, whereas in the case of the throne, when the material is stone, the arms are made in one solid piece with the whole. compared with the ordinary chair, the arm-chair is larger, and more conducive to repose. where it is in- tended to serve as the seat-of-honour for the head of the family, or a chairman, it corresponds in style to other chairs of the set, and only differs from them in its size and its richer finish. the furni- ture of our modern drawing-rooms generally consists of or chairs, with easy-chairs, &c. in addition to the egyptian and assyrian thrones, and the roman state-chair, the “sella curulis”: we may mention as belonging to this group, the norwegian stall of the th century (plate , ), and the polygonal chair enclosed by a lattice, as shown by fig. of the same plate. plate . the throne, and the arm-chair. . egyptian throne, with lotus ornament, the arms formed by the wings of the sacred hawk, (teirich). . ancient persian throne, bas-relief, persepolis, the decoration represents a king sitting on his throne borne-up by slaves, (ménard et sauvageot). . assyrian throne, relief, (ménard et sauvageot). . greek priest's-chair, marble, by the door of the temple of the- mis, athens, (raguenet). . greek judge's-chair (proëdra), marble, found on the site of the prytaneum, athens. . antique bath-chair, (sella balnearis), the openings served to admit the vapour, (ménard et sauvageot). . greek arm-chair, relief of a tomb, representing the deceased on the thronos. . greek throne, harpy monument, from xanthos in lycia, british museum. . roman arm-chair, with decoration symbolic of ceres, (ménard et sauvageot). the throne, and the arm-chair. — the stall. . roman arm-chair, found in herculaneum, museum at portici, (raguenet). . antique terracotta, representing an arm-chair in the form of the hollowed-out body of a sphinx, (l'art pour tous). . chair of s. peter, wood with ivory reliefs iilustrating the story of hercules, s. peter's at rome, (ménard et sauvageot). plate . the throne, and the arm-chair. . norwegian stall, th century, from bö, telemark. . * arm-chair, with foot-stool and draped back, (viollet- e-duc). . king david's arm-chair, th century, from relief, portal of cathedral, auxerre, (viollet-le-duc). . frame of mediaeval arm-chair, iron, the drapery omitted, (viollet. le-duc.). . mediaeval polygonal chair, painting, chapel in toulouse, (viollet- le-duc.). . mediaeval arm-chair, metal, the drapery omitted, th century, (viollet-le-duc). . mediaeval arm-chair, decorated with fringe, end of the th cen- tury, bas-relief, stalls, amiens, (viollet-le-duc.). . english arm-chair, th century, wood, upholstered. . arm-chair, louis xvi style, wood carved and gilded, (williamson). . modern arm-chair. . modern arm-chair. (raguenet). the stall. (plate .) the rows of seats along the north, west, and south sides of the choir in chapels, &c., are termed stalls. they have a peculiar con- struction corresponding to their special use. in the earliest period of the middle ages the single seats to the right and left of the bishop's chair were built into the wall of the chancel, at a later period they were replaced by moveable seats; and these again, from about the th century onwards, were replaced by stalls, strictly so-called; the seats being united in a continuous row, with an architectonic character and construction. there are generally two rows, one behind the other, and the hinder row is a little elevated. partitions divide the seats from one another; and serve as arms. between the partitions are the seats. these are either fixed or arranged to fold back. in the latter case a console-like projection is attached to the underside of the seat, to serve as a kind of rest when the seat is folded-back: thus, out of pity for the aged monks, rendering it possible to rest furniture. - º_ ºf vºſſº ##### º a.j. - - - º - the throne, and the arm-chair. plate . furniture. plate . the throne, and the arm-chair. the stall. — the stool. while appearing to stand; hence the significant name of these sup- ports, “miserere”. the backs of the hinder row of seats form a screen; and are usually decorated with carving, intarsia, &c.; and are furnished with a canopy. in front of the seat, there is generally a kneeling-stool. where there are several rows of seats, the prayer- desks of the one row serve at the same time as the backs of the next lower row. when the front rows are interrupted by passages leading to the hinder rows, the stall-ends are richly decorated. a large number of magnificent stalls of the gothic, and still more of the renascence period, have been preserved in england, germany, france, italy, and elsewhere, to enumerate them all would take too long. enormous pains have frequently been lavished on these works. rich ornamental and architectural motives alternate with represen- tations from bible history and the legends of the saints; secular and satirical compositions are also no rarity; so that stalls are altogether of high importance for the history of art as well as of civilisation. to exemplify what has been said, the plate gives a few examples, which are far from being among the most sumptuous. plate . the stall. . sta. maria novella, florence, decorated with intarsias, by baccio d'agnolo, end of the th century, (teirich). . side-view, and section of above. . laurentian library, florence, beginning of the th century, said to be by michelangelo, (gewerbehalle). . side-view, and section of the central row, great church, dortrecht, dutch renascence. . modern french, convent of elisabeth, fourvières near lyons, ar- tect leo, (raguenet). the stool. (plate .) the simplest seat is the taboret or stool, which is the chair without a back. as our plate shows, it has been in use from the earliest times. the most primitive, and at the same time the most stable, is probably the round seat with three legs; the egyptian example, (fig. ), may be regarded as the prototype of the modern cobbler's-stool. the plasterer's-stool, which has only one leg, is in- deed still simpler; and bears some resemblance to our modern walking. stick camp-stools. the four-legged taboret is generally square, and possesses the same features as the lower part of a chair. it is made w‘th or without upholstery, and with or without foot-rails. here, furniture. plate . the stall. furniture. rºº-ººrº pº - fºº nº. the stool. plate . meyer, handbook of ornament. the stool. — the folding-chair. too, we may group, the “bisellium", or roman double-stool, which was granted as a distinction, and was mostly made of metal (fig. ). box- stools, supported on boards instead of legs, are furnished with an opening in the seat to enable them to be moved. the garden-seats of burned and glazed clay, introduced from china (fig. ) are made without backs; and, from their round or polygonal fundamental plan, are classed with the taborets; also the upholstered and draped treatment (fig. ), which is sometimes applied to a commode. the revolving-stool, which is chiefly employed in an office or for performers of music, permits of lateral movement, and adjustment to different heights as required (figs. and ). this is effected by means of a screw. plate . the stool. . egyptian, british museum. . egyptian, (ménard et sauvageot). . etruscan, (ménard et sauvageot). . assyrian. . greek, vase-painting. . greek, vase-painting. . roman bisellium, bronze, covering of the seat omitted, pompeii. . bisellium of l. m. faustus, tomb of naevoleia tyche, pompeii. – . modern. . chinese garden-seat. . modern, (gewerbehalle). . modern music-stool. . modern. . modern revolving-stool. the folding-chair. (plate .) the idea of a chair which could be folded-together so as to take up less room, and be more conveniently transported, is an old one. the principle is found as early as the time of ramses iii in the egyptian chair shown on plate . . the folding-chair is common in the antique, either with four legs combined and joined- together like a saw-horse (figs. , , and ), or with crossing struts combined to form a ribbed chair. antique folding-chairs of the for- mer kind (diphros okladias) are remarkable for invariably having claw feet, sometimes turned outwards, but usually inwards. the ribbed chair, which recurs in the middle ages and the renascence, scarcely admits of decoration, and is, therefore, mostly plain. furniture. the folding-chair. plato . % the folding-chair. – the bench. the folding-chair may be a stool, a chair, or an arin-chair. sometimes it can be folded-up as it stands, like our iron folding- chairs for use in the open air; sometimes it must be taken to pieces before it can be folded-up, like the chair shown on fig. . the most suitable material is metal (bronze or iron). folding-chairs of wood are very often so constructed as not to fold at all, but are merely imitations with the purpose overlooked (fig. ). the seat is fre- quently of bands, either textile or leather. where the seat is not flexible, it must be arranged to be moveable by means of hinges. thrones have been sometimes made like folding-chairs. we may . also mention: the camp-stools for tourists, sportsmen, painters, &c. the principles of decoration are sufficiently elucidated by the figures of the plate. plate . the folding-chair. egyptian, tomb of chambali, th dynasty. antique, (diphros okladias). greek, tomb of an agonothetes, found in krissa, (delphi). antique. mediaeval, nonnenberg, (mothes). mediaeval, miniature painting, representing king nabuchodonosor, th or th century, (viollet-le-duc.). mediaeval, bronze gilt, throne of dagobert, restored. mediaeval, bronze, th century, (viollet-le-duc.). renascence. . french renascence, sens cathedral, (raguenet). i : the bench. (plate .) the bench is an elongated seat, usually intended for several per- sons. in its simplest form, as a board with four legs, it was already known in antiquity. in the middle ages and the renascence, it was in general use; and was employed not only as a seat, but as a table, as is shown by such terms as “work-bench”, &c. the bench-seat was afterwards furnished with a back and arms, the back being fre- quently formed like the canopy over stalls (fig. ). it was uphol- stered with cushions and draped with textiles. the material is gene- rally wood; but in public buildings there are also benches made of stone. this latter material and iron, frequently combined with wood, are the most suitable for benches in the open air. a further variety is formed by the double-bench, with a back in the middle; this back is moveable, as shown in the example (fig. ). as the bench, in most cases, is intended for every-day use, it is generally undecorated. those of the middle ages are more the furniture - - - - - - - -- - --- #: + º - º: º º - - º in | º --- - - - | -- #! it." ill l --- | | - º- e. fº --> i - - sº- - . -*. se - - — - the sofa, and the couch. plate . . the table. decoration to be properly seen. where the top is decorated, the orna- mentation is flat, consisting of intarsia-work, incising, painting, &c. the size of the table varies according to the purpose for which it is intended; its height, on the contrary, is subject to little varia- tion, and is about ft. "|s ins. for ordinary tables. tables, with legs which could be adjusted to varying heights, were in use in the antique period, being required by the social life of that time; a similar arrangement may also be seen on some modern artists’ tables, which can not only be adjusted to different heights, but also allow the top to be slanted. the following remarks are from the point of view of history and style. the egyptian, assyrian, and persian tables, chiefly known to us from the representations of altars, have legs terminating in claws. this motive was also popular among the greeks and romans, with the difference that the latter nations permit the claws to rest directly on the ground, while the former support the claws upon small circular plinths. the legs of antique tables are frequently of bronze; they have a similar form with those of the tripod; and like them are adjustible, as already observed (fig. ). the table-tops are often of stone or wood. large rectangular tables with stone supports of rich workmanship, and round tables with three legs of marble, a considerable number of which are given on plates and , are well known to us from the excavations at pompeii. they were not dining-tables but state-tables which stood in the tablinum and atrium of roman houses. dining-tables of the modern form were unknown to the antique; even in the early greek period, while it was still the custom to sit at dinner, each diner had his own separate table; and the same custom continued in the later period when meals were taken in a recumbent posture. these little tables were lower than ours. we also find them in similar forms among the romans (fig. ), along with larger banqueting-tables, around three sides of which the sofas were ranged as shown l. the late roman period was one of lavish luxury; we are told, for example, of tables with legs of silver and ivory, and with table-tops of rare woods, &c. in- credible prices, up to £ , , were paid for a single choice top. the tables of the middle ages were generally rectangular or semicircular, rested on posts or trestles, were plain, and rather cumbrous. it is said of charlemagne, however, that he possessed three of silver, and one golden (?) table. beautiful and richly-designed tables of very different kinds have been preserved from the time of the renascence. of particularly frequent occurrence, are richly-carved side-trusses (fig. ), simpler forms of which were already in use in the gothic period (fig. ). in the barocco and rococo periods, the legs are curved, and the tops are of bold, arbitrary design (fig. ). the console-table is an invention of this period. it was also at this furniture. plate . the table. the table. — the writing-table. time that the dumb-waiter, came into general use. as far as art is concerned, our modern tables are mostly copies of old models. plate gives a small selection from the copious material. plate . the table. . antique, bronze, museum, naples, (raguenet). . antique, bronze, (ménard et sauvageot). roman, (kantharos of ptolemy). mediaeval, chronicle of louis xi, (viollet-le-duc.). late gothic, municipal collection of antiquities, freiburg, (schau- insland). renascence, with turned legs, french, castle of bussy - rabutin, (côte d'or). renascence, with carved side-trusses, french, (ducerceau). french, th century, garde-meuble, paris, (raguenet). modern, renascence style. modern. modern, french, paris, (raguenet). : : : the writing-table. (plate .) the peculiar construction of the writing-table removes it from the category of ordinary tables. in a certain sense it forms the transition to the cabinets, in the form in which it is now manu- factured. the writing-table is a product of modern civilisation. in earlier times, when writing was the privilege of the select few, the common table evidently served the purpose. it is also true that the old caligraphers, used special writing apparatus, either desks which could be rested on the knees (fig. ), or small tables, an example of which is given in fig. . but it was reserved for our much-writing modern time to invent special furniture for business and private use. the writing-table must not only serve for writing, but also as a receptacle for stationery, correspondence, writing-materials, &c. hence it is furnished with cupboards, drawers, pigeon-holes, and shelves. it is often furnished with side-cupboards below the table-top having a space between them for the legs of the writer. where the table has an upper part, which admits of a variety of constructions, as may be seen from the few examples of the plate, it is usually of lesser depth than the surface of the table so as to leave the ne- cessary room for writing. the same end is attained by leaving a space equal to the whole depth free between it and the table-top, as shown by fig. . the table-top is often covered with some textile material or with leather, to afford a soft surface for writing-upon the writing-table. — the cabinet. special varieties are formed by the double-writing-table for office use, the cylinder-desk, which can be closed after use by letting down a cylindrical flap, the secretaire, in which the table-top may be lifted up or locked, the lady's-writing-table, &c. plate . the writing-table. . mediaeval, (scriptionale) with inkhorn, intended to be placed on the knee, th century, portal of the church, vezelay, (viollet- le-duc.). . mediaeval, with double top, for raising, th century, abbey of saint-michel-en-mer, (viollet-le-duc). . modern, with eight legs and side drawers, (max schulz). . modern. modern. . modern, by w. hanau, (gewerbehalle). : c. cabinets. the cabinet. (plate .) cabinets were evidently a rare phenomenon in antiquity. the egyptians and the greeks were probably not acquainted with them at all; the romans seem to have possessed simple cabinets with two doors, if we may judge from occasional paintings; in any case, however, they were of no artistic importance. chests, of which we shall speak later on, were no doubt more frequent, and took the place of cabinets. it was the same in the early middle ages, in which we certainly find cabinets in churches and monasteries, but seldom in private houses. where they do occur, they show the hand of the carpenter rather than that of the skilled cabinet-maker. “the car- dinal feature of romanesque furniture is practicability; that the slow moving, serious spirit of that time paid but little regard to elegance was only natural: men had their virtues and their vices, but they were free from affections of the nerves” (georg hirth). cabinets be- came more common in the gothic period; and although the matched- board-work and the simple carving generally give the products of this time a certain rude appearance; still the architectural disposition of the members, and the bands and mounts, are effective. later gothic led to all kinds of extravagances, one of which is the lavish use of geometrical tracery, called “flamboyant" from its flame-like character. the revolutionary process, which marks the transition from gothic to renascence, finds striking expression in the group of cabinets. georg furniture. plate . the cabinet. furniture. plate . the sideboard. the sideboard. — the hanging-cabinet. the sideboard. (plate .) sideboards are a separate division. they are intended for the reception of articles used in the service of the table. wases and ornaments may also be placed upon them; and in many cases they are themselves decorative objects. in the middle ages they are com- paratively plain, and of invariable form; the ground-plan being an oblong or semi-octagon; they stand on legs, and have of an open space beneath, over which are the cupboards, with a flat top, (figs. and ). during the renascence, this traditional plan gave way to richer and more complicated constructions; the lower recess was fre- quently retained; instead of it or along with it, further recesses were added at the middle height or still higher; the top is con- structed as an independent member, often of smaller dimensions and recessed; and terraces of shelves with balaustered galleries for glasses and plates, form the conclusion of the whole. here, too, our modern times follow the old models. special requirements have given birth to special forms, such as the buffets in hotels, and waiting-rooms, which frequently form an integral part of the wainscot or architecture of the wall. plate . the sideboard. . renascence, german, with reminiscences of gothic, bavarian na- tional museum, munich. . renascence, side-view, st. lo, normandy, , south ken- sington museum, (musterornamente). – . modern, front and side-view, designed in the school of in- dustrial art, carlsruhe. – . ditto. . modern, by ph. niederhöfer, frankfort. mediaeval, (viollet-le-duc.). the hanging-cabinet. (plate .) hanging-cabinets also form a special subdivision. they differ from other cabinets in being of more modest dimensions, by being, for practical purposes, of less depth, and, as they are intended for suspension, by terminating in a console instead of in legs and base. for the rest, what has already been said of cabinets in general, will hold good of hanging-cabinets also. these are adapted to hold books, tobacco, &c., medicine, keys, correspondence, &c. meyer, handbook of ornament. furniture. plate . the hanging-cabinet. the hanging-cabinet. — the chest. — the desk, &c. plate . the hanging-cabinet. renascence, german, (formenschatz). modern, with intarsia panels, by dir. hammer, nuremberg. modern, architect crecelius, mainz. modern, by dir. götz, carlsruhe modern, by prof. haas, lucerne. : the chest. (plate .) chests are of older date than cabinets. we meet with them on antique vase-paintings, and among the objects found in pompeii. they have the form of boxes, prismatic or widening towards the top, with short legs and with rich mountings, of nailheads, &c. (fig. ). in the middle ages, the chest was a very popular piece of fur- niture. its form was mostly that of a prismatic box without feet, with delicate iron mounts, and all kinds of carving (figs. – ). very often chests were at the same time used as benches. the same form was retained by the renascence but differently decorated in accord- ance with the style of the time. besides this, we have numerous examples of smaller chests with feet and lids of pyramid form, richly decorated with carving, intarsia, ivory, and metal reliefs. these small caskets were chiefly used for jewelry, and as work-boxes, etc., for which purposes similar caskets are still manufactured. plate . the chest. . antique, pompeii, (ménard et sauvageot). . mediaeval reliquary, (viollet-le-duc.). . mediaeval bench-chest, th century ms. (viollet-le-duc). . gothic, carved chestnut wood with iron mounts and handles, th century, (viollet-le-duc.). . mediaeval, brampton church, england, (viollet-le-duc.). renascence, dutch, (l'art pour tous). . renascence, italian. . renascence, flemish, th century, (l'art pour tous). : : d. miscellaneous. the desk, &c. (plate .) the desk is a stand with a sloping top, on which books and other things may be placed. passing over reading-desks, music-desks, and other desks for secular use, which as a rule are left undecorated; we have the desks used in churches, e. g. the “prie-dieu", the lectern, &c., which are to some extent found of rich workmanship as early as * furniture. † plate . the chest. the desk, &c. — the clock-case, &c. the beginning of the middle ages. they are made of wood, or metal, or of both combined. we distinguish between single and double desks. the lectern is frequently supported on the back of an eagle with outspread wings, a design which is supposed to contain a reference to the evangelist s. john, whose symbol in the eagle. ecclesiastical desks eiter have a fixed position in the choir or chancel, or they are moveable. these latter were sometimes like a saw-horse and could be folded-up; in which case the slope was replaced by bands (fig. ). the upper part of fixed desks frequently revolves, and is furnished with sconces for lights. the easel is a sloping frame with three or four legs. the front and rear are often connected by hinges to enable the angle of the slope to be altered at will. the front is provided with a small board, which can be adjusted to different heights by pins or other mechanism. it is an invention of modern times; and in its usual undecorated, form is employed by painters, sculptors, &c. but it is often made as a decorative piece of furniture of superior finish, to hold pictures, portfolios, &c. the decoration in this case may consist of the sym- bols of art, as shown in fig. . plate . the desk, &c. . gothic, th century, base of wood, slope of wrought-iron, eagle and ball gilt, dragon painted green, s. simphorien, nuits, (viollet- le-duc). . mediaeval, san stefano, venice, (mothes). . renascence, marble, pisa cathedral, italian, (kunsthandwerk). . mediaeval, double-desk with revolving shaft, end of th century (viollet-le-duc.). . mediaeval, upper part of double-desk, (viollet-le-duc.). . renascence, folding stand, cathedral, s. gimignano, italian, (kunst- handwerk). . modern decorative easel, architect durm, (gewerbehalle). : : the clock-case, &c. (plate .) the clock-case, as a piece of furniture, is of comparatively recent date, for the invention of the clock with a train of wheels is itself not old; and for some time after their introduction clocks were manu- factured without cases or, at any rate, without cases of artistic importance. in the th century, cases for protecting the works against dust and for giving the clock a more pleasing aspect, begin to appear. the forms at first manufactured were chiefly two. the first is that of the old-fashioned tall hall-clock, something like the toilet-stands (figs. and ), the upper part accommodating the clock furniture. plate . the clock-case, &c. the clock-case, &c. — the bedstead, and the cradle. . toilet-stand, german renascence, , town-hall, ueberlingen, (gewerbehalle). - . toilet-stand, various coloured woods, german renascence, (formen- schatz). the bedstead, and the cradle. (plates — ) from the earliest to the present time, the bedstead has passed through many changes. in the egyptian and assyrian styles: we find metal bedsteads imitating the forms of animals (plate . , ); and sometimes arranged to fold up like a camp-bed (plate . ). those of the greeks and romans, which served partly as beds, and partly as couches, are of manifold forms. in addition to the four-legged bench (plate . ), we have benches with a head-board (plate . ), with head and foot board (plate . ), the latter being usually lower than the former, and others with head, foot, and back boards, like our modern sofas (plate . ). the materials are wood and metal, sometimes more precious materials, ivory, &c., as we learn from the examples found in pompeii. the same fundamental idea may be seen in the bedsteads of the earlier middle ages, which show traces of byzantine influence, and have richly-decorated, turned posts, and carved sides. the front was often furnished with an opening to allow of getting into the bed (plate . , ). at a later period the bedstead was furnished with canopied hangings suspended from special rods fixed to the wall. the renascence considerably enlarged the size; placed it on a podium; raised the head-board; and carried the legs higher to receive the tester or canopy-frame, which was then adorned with drapery and hangings. examples of this period have been preserved (plate . and ). in the barocco and rococo periods: textile materials pre- dominate, and the wooden frame is neglected. then the so-called “parade-beds" (plate , ) became fashionable. modern times again have generally simplified the form. the commonest is that with high foot and head-boards (the latter often to excess), and low sides. tester-bedsteads have passed out of fashion. the cradle seems to have been an invention of the middle ages. by means of pins the little box or trough-shaped bedsteads were fixed in a frame in which they were moveable; or the legs of the bedstead were replaced by curved battens which admitted of rock- ing (plate . and ). the cradles of the renascence are of similar form, often with raised end-boards, and rich carving. owing to sanitary objections, cradles have almost gone out of use. some- - furniture. ſº tºrs: ºnestºstatar tº ºsteº ------- º * - h : - º d º the bedstead, &c. plate . the bedstead, and the cradle. times cradles are made of metal rods, like a basket, with the head of the frame raised to support a canopy. plate . the bedstead, &c. egyptian, (ménard et sauvageot). egyptian collapsible camp-bedstead. greek, vase-painting, (ménard et sauvageot). roman, pompeian vase-painting, (ménard et sauvageot). mediaeval, ms. of the th century, (viollet-le-duc.). mediaeval, ms. of the th century, (hortus deliciarum of herrad of landsberg), (viollet-le-duc.). . chinese, (l'art pour tous). – . mediaeval cradles, (viollet-le-duc.). i plate . the bedstead, &c. . renascence, plantin museum, antwerp, (gewerbehalle). . renascence, french, cluny museum, paris, (l'art pour tous). . barocco, parade-bedstead, by daniel marot. . renascence, head-board of cradle, french, gilt ornaments on red ground (l'art pour tous). d. frames, &c. the term “framework” is a very inclusive one. every edging, border, and every rim of a plate, belongs to this group; but the follow- ing ten plates will contain only those features in which the frame is, to a certain extent, an end in itself, and a definite, characteristic whole. framework is useful in every branch of applied art; it is used in an immense variety of materials, and is treated in many different ways. plates – contain some important subdivisions selected from the entire group: these are frames of architectural character; frames (strictly so-called) for pictures, mirrors, &c., tablets, typo- graphical borders, and the borders of dials, plates, &c. it is highly interesting to pursue the rise of framework on an architectural basis, its gradual transformation and its adaptation to the products of art industry. for this, however, we refer the reader to the remarks of semper (der stil, §§ et seqq.). we will only make the following observations from the point of view of style: framework, in the sense in which it is here understood, only occurs rarely and sporadically in the older styles, the antique and the middle ages. it was reserved for the renascence to cultivate this field, and to attain the highest possible results. it cannot, however, be denied that occasionally it was exaggerated and illogical. a frame must, above all things, have some relation and proportion to the object to be framed. to make a frame, and put it where there is nothing to be framed, is illogical. and yet we find in the late renascence, and in the barocco and rococo periods, countless examples which, so far as their application goes, have no other object than the de- coration of empty spaces. the architectural frame. the architectural frame. (plate – .) by architectural frames we mean those which are used in architecture, and those which, although applied in other branches, such as furniture, show an architectural derivation. these are: the framings of doors, windows, panels, tablets, medallions, niches, soffits, &c. in furniture they are the border-like ornaments which serve as a framing to panel-ornaments; but which are also very often used merely as decoration, without having any object to frame. there are two classes of frames: one which is mon-axial, with external or- naments at the top and bottom, to emphasize the vertical attitude; and one which is bi-axial, for application on horizontal surfaces. in the former class: the lower ornament has the general shape of a suspended triangle. this expresses the idea of supporting like a console; and is a free-ending down-wards. the other of these has the general shape of the erect triangle; making a cresting feature, and is the free-ending upwards. frames of this class are shown on plate , figs. , , , and . in the second class of frames: the space to be enclosed, be it a circle, square, or oblong, is surrounded by an ornament which is symmetrical on all sides without regard to top and bottom. frames of this class are shown on figs. – of plate , and figs. , and of plate . these two principles are not always so strongly marked as in the examples given; and sometimes they are combined; but as a rule the one or the other will always pro- dominate. plate . the architectural frame. . gable-opening of a dormer-window, rouen, french, th cen- tury, (l'art pour tous). tablet, modern, in the style of the italian renascence. pedestal, italian renascence, genoa, (owen jones). door-panel, (architektonisches skizzenbuch). stove-tile, castle of wülfingen near winterthur, th cen- tury, (kunsthandwerk). . desk in s. giorgio maggiore, venice, italian, renascence. . coffer, cupola of the dagobert tower, baden-baden, german, : renascence. – . pulpit, magdeburg cathedral, german, – , (gewerbe- halle). . door of cabinet, in the style of the german renascence, (formenschatz). . door of a sideboard, louvre, paris, renascence. frames. the architectural frame. plate . frames. the mirror-frame, &c. plate . * the mirror-frame, &c. — the strap-work frame. doubt that the metallic frame tends to enhance the effect of coloured pictures. porcelain and glass have also been used as materials for frames; but their propriety will always be questionable. in addition to outline and style of decoration: an important part is played by the amount of projection of the frame. the effect of a picture, which appears to be recessed behind a bevel-frame, is very different from that of one which seems to be brought into relief by a torus - moulding. the fundamental form of the frame is usually oblong, either figure-wise or landscape-wise; circular, elliptic, or square frames, are rarer. sometimes the outer shape of the frame differs from the inner shape (plate . , ). in the barocco period, frames received a number of arbitrary curved forms; as shown in on plate , fig. . plate . the mirror-frame, &c. – . german, th century, berlin, (kunsthandwerk). – . french, angle-ornaments of wall-panels, old castle of bercy, near paris, th century, (raguenet). barocco, witn bracket, by paul decker, (formenschatz). - rococo, (formenschatz). — . french, louis xvi, by la londe, (wessely). — . french, louis xvi., by delafosse, (raguenet). ; plate . the mirror-frame, &c. – . renascence, (raguenet). – . italian renascence, florence, (gewerbehalle). . modern, (gewerbehalle). . modern, by prof. schick, carlsruhe. . modern, by the architect huber, frankfort. the strap-work frame. (plates – .) when the frame is cut into fantastic shapes and bands, which interlace and curl, like leathern straps; then it is termed the strap- work frame. it is much used, in the later renascence, for shields, tablets, &c.; and is a characteristic of the elizabethan style. foliage, palmettes, festoons and garlands of fruit, fluttering ribbons, cherub- heads, &c. are frequently added. strap-work was an invention of the renascence; and it is extremely common, especially in the later years of that period. this kind of frame-work is frequently used, not as a frame, but for mere decorative purposes, so that the fields to be framed are left as empty spaces. strap-work appears in architecture, sepulchral monuments, and epitaphs; on medals and coins; in cabinet- frames. the strap-work frame. plate . frames. plate . the strap-work frame. the strap-work frame. — the typographical frame. work, heraldry, jewelry, the decoration of books, &c., and the minor arts in general. the arrangement is usually symmetrical; but this was abandoned in the rococo period in favour of unsymmetrical and picturesque arrangements, as shown in plate , fig. . plate . the strap-work frame. – . renascence, bronze tablets, cemetery of s. john, nuremberg, (gewerbehalle). – . renascence, th century, french, (l'art pour tous). – . renascence, new castle, baden-baden, – . . renascence, national library, paris, (raguenet). . modern, french, book ornament. plate . the strap-work frame. . renascence, french. . renascence, from “civitates orbis terrarum”, published by p. von brackel, cologne, , (ysendyck). rococo, louvre, paris, (raguenet). rococo, french, corner of a wall, (raguenet). rococo, french. . modern, by dir. kachel, carlsruhe. modern, french, (liénard). modern. i the typographical frame. (plates – .) we find numerous framework - motives in the decoration of books and documents; and though they have become more general since the invention of printing, we find them in the manuscripts of the middle ages. the title-pages were framed or bordered; it was also a favourite practice to border the headings; initials are some- times treated in this way; and printers'-marks, and head and tail- pieces are often designed with strap - work. old books are often richly decorated with such things; and artists of the highest rank often lent their aid to this style of decoration. after the sobriety which ruled in the first half of this century, our modern times have devoted increased attention to this branch. breaches of taste are still committed in this direction, principally because factory-made blocks, borders, and rules, are combined without judgment in typography. not only books, but also diplomas, addresses, ball-pro- grammes, dinner and business-cards, labels, book-plates, and similar things are furnished with artistic borders. the principles of decoration, and the motives employed, are very varied; and great freedom is al- frames. the typographical frame. plate . the typographical frame. — the strap-work tablet. lowed. when architectural forms appear, they are treated lightly and playfully; and are often resolved into all manner of strap-work (plate . , ). plate . the typographical frame. . border, by johann sadler, – , flemish, renascence, (guichard). . border, by hans holbein, (guichard). . border, by j. wiericx, th century, flemish, renascence, (l'art pour tous). . printer's-mark, (giacomo cornetti of venice), italian, renascence, , (l'art pour tous). . ditto, (giovanni guarisco, venice, ). . ditto, (ex typographia jacobi staer, ). . ditto, (a. quantin, paris, ). plate . the typographical frame. . german, tablet from the triumphal entry of the emperor maxi- milian by hans burkmair, ( – ). . french, renascence, th century, lyons, (l'art pour tous). . modern, by max läuger, carlsruhe. . modern, by rudolf seitz, munich. the strap work tablet. (plate ) examples of strap - work, designed for use in some of the minor arts, which serves not as a frame but as the actual tablet, are shown in the plate. figures and are clock-cases; and are for goldsmiths' work; and are wrought-iron signs; and are suitable ornaments for stamped-leather, and inlaying; fig. is an escutcheon; and nos. and are book-mounts. the series might easily be increased; but these examples will suffice, as it would lead us too far to treat each of these classes in detail. plate . the strap-work tablet. . clock-case, hammered metal, french, renascence. . clock-case, stamped metal, modern. – . decoration of escutcheons, snuff-box lids, &c., by wilhelm visscher, th century. – . wrought-iron signs, modern. . book-cover, th century, french renascence, (l'art pour tous). . modern, (gewerbehalle). the strap-work tablet, border, and margin. . metal mounts for the cover of an album, modern. . wrought-iron escutcheon, german, th century, national museum, munich. . centre-piece of bookbinding, by dir. c. graff, dresden. the strap-work border, and margin. (plate .) to those products of art, which frequently receive an additional exterior border or margin, must further be reckoned plates and dishes. so far as they are included under pottery, the border usually has a smooth unbroken edge; the material scarcely admitting of a freer treatment of the rim. it is different when the object is of metal; in this case, the rim may be decorated with pierced-work; and the outlines may undergo a richer and more vigorous treatment (figs. and ), in which the framework forms a free-ending outwards. plate . the strap-work border, and margin. . renascence, majolica, gewerbemuseum, berlin, (gewerbehalle). . renascence, majolica, italian, (racinet). . renascence, limoges, by pierre raymond, th century, (racinet). – . modern, by placido zuloaga, eibar, spain, (gewerbehalle). the pin. the pin. (plate .) the pin is a toilet article of very general use, particularly in primitive times. according to its application, it is either a hair-pin or a dress-pin. its form may be referred to three fundamental types. the first has a cylindrical or slightly conical stem, pointed like a thorn at one end, and terminated at the other by a knob or some other finial (figs. – ); it is used principally as a hair or breast pin, the stem in the former case being sometimes split like a fork (figs. – ). the materials are chiefly metals, bone, and horn; the head and the stem may be of different materials, as in the modern glass-headed pin. the handsomest examples of this class are to be found in the antique, which gave this simple object a great variety of form. the east also furnishes us with original forms, as shown by the japanese examples (figs. – ). the second class is that of the fibula, the brooch or safety-pin. these pins consist of two parts, a disc or hoop - shaped upper-part connected with the actual pin by elastic spirals or by a hinge, the point of the pin being held and secured by a catch like a hook or sheath. brooches are always used for garments; and, in the antique, supplied the want of buttons. they were in common use up to the middle ages, as shown by the numerous finds in greece, italy, and scandinavia. the hoop is commoner than the disc; and more practical, as it afforded room for the gathered-up folds of the garment. the decoration is of the utmost variety; certain forms, such as the spiral (fig. ), are conventional. the material is always metal, mostly bronze, more rarely a precious metal. modern times make use of these pins only in the form of the plain wire safety-pin, and the brooch, in which latter the disc replaces the hoop (fig. ). double-pins form a third class. two or three (and occasionally more) pins of the first class are connected by means of chains or spangles, usually to serve as an ornament for the bosom (fig. ). this form, was popular in ancient scandinavian art; and is in use up to the present day in some national costumes. plate . the pin. — . roman, and etruscan, campana collection, (l'art pour tous). — . roman, found in pompeii. . anglo-saxon triple breastpin, found in lincolnshire, archaeolo- gical institute. . alemannic, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. — . th century, (guichard). – . modern, japanese, metal, bone, &c. united collections, carls- ruhe. the pin. — the button. . modern, french, filigree work with pearls and brilliants, (gewerbehalle). – . antique, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. – . etruscan, gold. . etruscan, spiral-brooch, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. . modern, (gewerbehalle). the button. (plate ) the objects, which we have here classed as buttons, serve va- rious purposes. they appear as pendants to necklets and similar things, as bullae (an antique pendant like an amulet with symbolic signifi- cance), as ornaments of belts, garments, harness, &c., and as buttons, in the strict sense of the term, for fastening garments. according to its uses, the button takes the form of the sphere, the hemisphere, or the disc. as a pendant it resembles a drop with the character of a free-ending (fig. ). one end is then furnished with a ring by which it may be suspended or sewed-on. the double-buttons or links, shown in figs. , and form a special subdivision. the principal materials are again the metals, enamelled, damaskeened, set with gems, or as filigree-work. buttons are also manufactured in ivory, mother- of-pearl, amber, glass, and similar materials; discs of wood are covered with silk, and metal threads, adorned with gold-foil, &c. standard examples are furnished by the antique, the renascence, and many modern national costumes, while the modern wholesale factory-made button has scarcely any artistic value. our examples have been taken from the periods named above; and are mostly the same size as the originals. plate . the button. . antique, double-button, gold, united collections, carlsruhe. — . etruscan, gold with gems and pearls. , , , , , , , , , , , , and . buttons and double-buttons of various origin, of metal, with filigree- work, enamelled, &c. in the possession of prof. marc rosenberg, carlsruhe. – . renascence, gold, enamelled and set with pearls, regalia, berlin, (luthmer). . renascence, from a belt. . modern, filigree. . renascence, enamelled, national museum, munich. and . buttons by a frankfort maker of the th century, in the collection of mr. j. werneck, frankfort, silk, gold- thread and foil, (kunsthandwerk). jewelry. plato . the button. * the button. — the ring. . renascence, the gallery, schleissheim, (luthmer). and . renascence, from pictures in wörlitz and gotha, (luthmer). . indian, silver filigree, from sumatra, united collections, carlsruhe. . modern, pendant of a necklet, (gewerbehalle). the ring. (plate .) the finger-ring is universally employed as an article of personal adornment; and it is one which has been worn by both sexes at al- most all times, and in almost all countries. the manner of wearing it was determined partly by fashion, partly by edicts. sometimes it was considered good taste to wear only a single ring, at other times both hands were covered with rings; it is worn sometimes under, and sometimes over the glove; plain, comfortable forms give way to monstrous shapes; sometimes it is purely ornamental, sometimes it has a symbolic significance, as in the wedding ring (a legacy of heathendom to christianity); sometimes it is a token of dignity, as in the fisherman's ring of the pope, and of emperors, kings, &c. the form is manifold. the signet - ring, formed partly of a single piece (fig. ), partly of a hoop in which a cut gem revolves (fig. ), occurs in the egyptian style. spiral rings with the serpent motive (figs. and ), and rings opening on one side (fig. ), are not rare in the antique. besides these: other forms appear, which are still popular. sometimes the upper side was broadened to receive some ornament or a gem (figs. , , , ), a method which was used in the renascence (figs. – ), while the middle ages preferred cylindrical, ribbon - like bands (figs. and ), and architectural motives (fig. ). it was reserved for modern times to give the wedding- ring its smooth, convenient, but artistically unimportant form. the predominant material is gold. niello, enamel, pearls, and gems, are used for its further decoration. the ring has frequently given rise to artistic freaks, e. g. where two or three separate rings are so constructed that they may be interlocked. plate . the ring. — . egyptian, signet, (ménard et sauvageot). roman, signet, found in the crimea. . egyptian, with enamel and two horses in free relief. . egyptian, with pierced work, (racinet). – . greek. – . roman, found in the crimea. etruscan, gold, vulci, (blümner). jewelry. the chain. plate . jewelry. the necklace. plate . the necklace. — the bracelet. to find several necklets of different circumferences worn one above the other; and producing a good effect. metal, precious stones, pearls, &c., play the chief part in necklaces. plate . the necklace. . egyptian, with enamelled pendant, (ménard et sauvageot). . egyptian, with golden flies (symbolic), (ménard et sauvageot). . antique, with stamped sheet-metal ornaments, found in rhodes, (ménard et sauvageot.) . egyptian, (ménard et sauvageot). . etruscan, gold, campana collection, paris, (l'art pour tous). . oriental, gilt silver filigree, (l'art pour tous). . old italic, neck-ring, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. . barbaric, neck-ring, iron, from the white nile, united collections, carlsruhe. . from portrait, henry vi, of england. . from portrait, , municipal museum, cologne, (luthmer). . filigree. . modern, (gewerbehalle). the bracelet. (plate .) the bracelet, which is now exclusively an article of feminine adornment, was formerly worn by men also, not merely on the wrist as at the present day, but on the arm too. but even the antique considered this custom, and that of wearing bangles on the ankles, to be a relic of barbaric times. bracelets are either closed rings or bands (figs. and ); or they are open on one side (figs. , , , and ); or rolled spirally (figs. and ); or, finally, the bracelet may be a closed chain with a greater or lesser number of links (figs. and ). another division is formed by the twisted example (fig. ). as the bracelet is an object of some size, it is, more fre- quently than other ornaments, made of silver rather than of gold; the antique shows a preference for bronze. plate . the bracelet. egyptian, pierced-work, (ménard et sauvageot). assyrian, bronze, louvre, paris, (blümner). — . roman, found in pompeii. antique, (ménard et sauvageot). bronze, found near ladenburg, united collections, carlsruhe. spiral wire, united collections, carlsruhe. bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. jewelry. - &-º sºº s *- - ºzzº - the bracelet. plate . the bracelet. — the girdle, the buckle, and clasp. . bronze, found near ladenburg, united collections, carlsruhe. . from portrait, th century, gotha, (luthmer). . venetian, th century, (mothes). . javanese, black wood, united collections, carlsruhe. – . modern egyptian, silver, grand ducal landesgewerbehalle, carlsruhe. . modern, (gewerbehalle). . modern, by dir. a. ortwein, granz, (gewerbehalle). the girdle, the buckle, and clasp. (plate .) the girdle was originally used by men to suspend weapons from; and by women to confine the clothing at the waist; later-on, it was worn merely as an ornament, or to carry pouches, fans, scissors, &c. its form is either that of the chain-girdle (comp. plate ), or bands of leather or textile material are decorated by ornaments of metal sewed or threaded-on. particular attention is usually given to the fastening, which is generally a clasp or buckle (figs. , , and ). the agraffe (lat. agrappa) or hook, and the buckle are applied to other purposes besides fastening girdles; the former are used as fastenings for garments; the latter on the straps of weapons, harness, &c. the buckle is complete in itself, consisting of a ring or hoop with a movable pin; and the fastening is done by pushing the pin through a hole in the leather or textile band (figs. , and ). the clasp consists of two parts, generally symmetrical, one of which can be hooked into the other (figs. – ). clasps and buckles are both old inventions; and are found in very early times. as they are objects of practical use rather than ornament, they are more often made of the common than of the precious metals. the terminations of clasps are mostly designed as free - endings, which gives them a certain similarity with decorated hinges. plate . the girdle, the buckle, and clasp. . greek girdle, gold and hyacinths, tomb in ithaca. . ancient italic or roman buckle, bronze, united collections, carlsruhe. . roman clasp, silver, (ménard et sauvageot). . alemannic, buckle, bronze, found near mosbach, united col- lections, carlsruhe. mediaeval buckle, scandinavian, (weiss, kostümkunde). gallic girdle, st. germain museum, (l'art pour tous). gothic buckle, th century, from a picture, municipal mu- seum, cologne, (luthmer). ; the pendant — the ear-ring. . renascence, by hans brosamer, (formenschatz). . renascence, by hans holbein. – . renascence, by hans holbein, (formenschatz). . renascence, (luthmer). . renascence, th century, silver coin, set. . renascence, by julius bernic, (luthmer). modern, (blätter für kunstgewerbe). – . modern, (zeitschrift des kunstgewerbevereins). . modern, (gewerbehalle). . modern, french. the ear-ring. (plate ) the custom of wearing ear-rings as articles of adornment seems to be of ancient oriental origin; and to have penetrated through asia minor to the civilised countries of the west. it has been practised from the earliest times by the arabs, in spain, and in sicily. both sexes, among the ancient germans and gauls, decked themselves with ear-rings. as the wearing of them implies either that the ear must be pierced or the ornament hung on to the ear, neither of which processes are particularly aesthetic; the custom has fallen out of fashion, and become obsolete. the forms in general are two: the ring and the drop. the rings are either not quite closed (figs. , , , and ); or they are fastened by a catch of one kind or ano- ther (figs. , , , , and ). drops usually terminate in a wire loop by which they may be suspended (figs. , , , , , , and ). as these objects must be light, they are generally of delicate form, and modest dimensions, manufactured of the precious metals, in sheet or wire-filigree. as pendants they have the character of free-endings, frequently consisting of different moveable members. the standard examples are furnished by the antique and the east. plate . the ear-ring. – . egyptian, (racinet). – . etruscan, louvre, paris, (racinet). . greek, in the form of a siren, gold, found in ithaca. – . roman, national library, paris, (l'art pour tous). . bronze, found near niedereggenen, baden, united collections, carlsruhe. . old frankish. . renascence, from portrait, castle at gotha, (luthmer). . louis xvi, gold of various colours, (racinet). – . modern, by dir. a. ortwein, graz, (gewerbehalle). – . modern, tunis, united collections, carlsruhe. jewelry. plate . miscellaneous jewelry. miscellaneous jewelry. miscellaneous jewelry. (plate .) finally, we may mention a number of articles of adornment which, from their nature, are less generally used; either because they are worn only by certain persons, or that, as objects for daily use they only fall within the category of decorative objects when they are richly finished. among them are decorations for the head, for example, the diadem, bridal and other chaplets, insignia of orders of knighthood, combs, scent-bottles, seals, needle-cases, &c. the so-called “chatelaine", was in common use in the middle ages; and has been revived lately. it is suspended from the belt or some other part of the dress; and is furnished with hooks, from which bags, keys, fans, scissors, watches, scent-bottles, &c. may be hung (figs. , , and ). we may also add spangles, which were sewed as a decoration on garments in the antique; and sometimes in later periods (fig. ). we give a few examples of these objects, without any pretension to system or exhaustiveness. plate . miscellaneous jewelry. . egyptian diadem, gold incrusted with gems and enamel, with the badge of king amesis. . greek head-dress, gold-plate, found in mykenae, (blümmer). . greek spangle, ornament of a dress from mykenae, (blümmer). greek diadem, gold, found near kertsch, hermitage, st. peters- burg, (kunsthandwerk). renascence, smelling-bottle, as pendant. . barocco, smelling-bottle. – . french chatelaines, th century, (racinet). – . barocco, seals, exhibition, carlsruhe, . . modern, needle-case, in anchor-form as a pendant, private - collection, carlsruhe. . modern, comb, (gewerbehalle). . modern, french, chatelaine, (gewerbehalle). . modern, chatelaine, by dir. a. ortwein, graz, (gewerbehalle). * f. heraldry. heraldry has so many points of contact with ornament that it cannot be omitted from a work that deals with the whole art of decoration. heraldry includes both the science and the art of armorial bearings. the former contains the rules of framing and bearing coats of arms; the latter is the practical art of “blazoning" or designing and depicting such coats. armorial bearings are distinct badges, fixed according to certain principles, which individuals, families and corporations are entitled to bear in perpetuity. armorial bearings arose during the crusades, towards the end of the th century. the elevation of the nobles into a corporation, the addition of the family or surname to the baptismal name, the peculiar usages of chivalry, the custom of military games and tournaments, are all closely connected with the introduction of armorial bearings. heraldry. as a science did not arise till a later time (about the th century). armorial bearings, whose origin is contemporary with the custom of wearing such badges, and whose right to be borne was afterwards tacitly recognised, are distinguished from the later bearings, the right to bear which was granted by letters-patent from princes or their plenipotentiaries. besides the nobles, the right of armorial bearings was possessed by other patrician, though not noble, families. their bearings have frequently arisen from monograms, family tokens, and trade-marks. the inscription on a coat of arms of the fuggers of the year runs: “dises zaichen, wirt vlrich fugger, vorbemelten hansen fuggers bruder, gepraucht haben, welchs hernach jacob fugger, des namens der erst, angenommen, und das sambt seinen heraldry. sünen, bis auf aufpringung des wappens, gefiert hat" (this token was no doubt used by ulrich fugger the brother of the above-named hans fugger: it was afterwards adopted by jacob fugger, the first of the name, and borne by him and his sons until the assumption of the coat of arms). the marshalling of armorial bearings was the duty of the heralds, whose official badge was the tabard and the staff. the heralds' colleges still exercise control over armorial bearings on behalf of the state. including the coats of families, towns, corporations, and offices, there are probably about , coats of arms in existence. coats are called allusive or punning when they suggest. (in whole or in part), the name of the bearer. the pikes on the coat of the lucy family, the hirondelles of the arundells of wardour, are familiar instances in english heraldry. we may distinguish three principal epochs of armorial bearings: ( ) the period from the th to the th century, in which the shield alone with its badge formed the arms, which is the period of the evolution of heraldry; ( ) the period from the th to the th century, in which shield, helmet, and crest formed the arms, in which painted shields and helmets were really worn, which was the golden age of heraldry; ( ) the period from the th century to the present time, in which the wearing of shields and helmets with badges was discontinued; and heraldry creased to be a living art, which is the period of decay, in which arbitrariness, ignorance, and a pedantic ad- herence to antiquated principles have taken the place of the living art. from the point of view of style we may distinguish: — early gothic, late gothic and renascence arms; as also those of the ba- rocco and rococo periods, and modern times. the general direction of style has always had an influence on heraldry; but the developement of architecture is on the whole always some twenty years in advance. the developement of heraldry was different in different countries; and even the modern english, french, german, and other systems, differ from one-another in several essential points. here, of course, we cannot go minutely into the details of the subject. we shall only give, in all brevity, what is absolutely necessary. the plates will deal with the colonrs or tinctures, the shapes and divisions of the shield, the charges, the helmet and its accessories; the badges of rank and dignity; and pageantry. those who wish to study heraldry more deeply, will find an ample lite- rature at their disposal; since bartolus de saxoferrato took up the subject in the middle of the th century, more than enough has been written about heraldry. as accompaniments and supplements to study and teaching we may rocommend the excellent work of f. warnecke: heraldisches handbuch, illustraded by doepler the younger; the anleitung zur praktischen darstellung und ausführung heraldischer ornamente für das gesamte kunstgewerbe, by detlav heraldry. or. n proper. # argent. gules. later tinctures. azure. sable. purpure. ash-grey. murrey. furs. j -— * sº lº the heraldic colours or tinctures. original tinctures. ( metals – colors.) vert. tawny. older. ermine. erminois. kürsch. vair. vairper pale. countervair. dam as keenings. * ° .. . . .”:%; º::::: & sº º ºx :…'s divisions of the shield into quarters or fields. * a. b. ab. upper margin. cd. lower margin. . . ac. dexter margin. . bd. sinister margin. . - . . . chief. * . . . fesse. . . . . base. . . . . . dexter tierce c s- l– . . . . . pale. ~~ . . . sinister tierce. ii. . dexter chief canton. chief point. . sinister chief canton. . dexter flank. . centre point. . sinister flank. . dexter canton of base. base point. sinister canton of base. honour point. . nombril point. plate . tinctures, and divisions of the shield. tinctures, and divisions of the shield. – shapes of the shield. the shield sometimes bears a smaller shield. the large shield which bears the smaller is called the escutcheon. the smaller shield in the centre is termed the inescutcheon. the inescutcheon some- times bears a third shield which is then said to be “sur le tout du tout”. the smaller shields have the same shape as the large shield. the chief and the dexter side of the shield are the most honourable parts; and preference is given to the angle of the dexter chief or canton. in blazoning a coat: the description always starts from this point. shapes of the shield. (plate .) the shape of the shield is very varied; and is chiefly deter mined by the period in which it originated. the oldest shape is the triangular or “heater-shaped” shield (fig. ). it was in use in the th, th and th centuries. on seals, it is first one-half and at a later time one-third the height of a man; the ratio of its height to its breadth is about : . in the th century shields straight at the top and rounded at the bottom (we may term them half- round) began to appear; and after them shields pointed at the bottom (fig. ). this shape, and the th century shapes which were deve- loped from it (figs. – ), were probably never actually borne; but are merely heraldic. at the end of the th century the tilting- shields begin to make their appearance, their shape being based on that of the shields used in tournaments (figs. – ). the indenta- tions in the sides of these are suggested by the “bouche” or place for the lance on shields intended for actual use. the tilting- shield is considerably smaller than the triangular-shield; it is about one-fifth the height of a man. at the end of the th century the old shapes disappear, and make way for the german or strap- work shields. these latter were never in actual use, but are orna- mental inventions mostly based on the tilting shield. figs. – give a number of such shields belonging to different periods of the renascence epoch. shapes like figs. and are very common in italy at that time. elliptic, circular, and almond-shaped shields are not rare, especially in the barocco period, a time in which heraldry was treated in a somewhat arbitrary fashion. of shapes that are specifically modern, we may mention: figs. and , the former of which was used for the arms of great britain & ireland; and of france; while the latter is the best adapted for the blazoning of complicated coats. the lozenge-shape (fig. ) is especially the shield of ladies; in france, where it has been common since the th century, it is frequently surrounded with a knotted twisted girdle. hapes of the shield. – ordinaries. plate . the shape of the shield. – . triangular, pointed, and half-round. – . simple shapes, renascence. – . simple shapes, tilting-shields. – . italian renascence. – . elliptical, almond, and circular. – . modern. . lozenge-shaped. . german, michel müller, . . german, unknown master of the th century. . german, daniel lindtmair, . . german, jost amman, end of th century. . german, school of holbein, th century. . german, hans wägmann, , (warnecke). . german, th century. . german, th century, (formenschatz). ordinaries. (plate ) heraldic representations may be divided into ordinaries, and charges. the ordinaries are the geometrical figures which are formed when the shield is divided into different fields by straight or curved lines which extend to the margin of the shield. the number of such figures is infinite. plate contains a collection of the ordi- naries which most commonly occur. we shall not discuss each figure in detail. the following blazoning or description of the figures on the plate will, no doubt, give the reader all he requires to know. the blazoning begins from the upper dexter angle of each shield. plate . the ordinaries. per pale, sable and or. paly of four, argent and sable. . argent, the dexter tierce gules. . gules, a pale or. . argent, a pallet (narrower than a pale) sable. . per fesse, or and gules. . barry of five, azure and argent. or, a chief azure. . argent, a base gules. . argent, a base vert. ordinaries. . or, a fesse gules. . argent, a barrulet sable. . per pale; the dexter half argent, the sinister half per fesse azure and or. . per fesse; the upper half per pale sable and gules, the lower argent. . quarterly, or and azure. . checky of nine, vert and argent. . checky of twenty, or and gules. . quarterly: the st and th per pale, argent and gules; the nd and rd or. . per fesse, gules and argent, a pale counterchanged. . per pale, barry of five, or and azure, counterchanged. . paly of six, argent and sable, a fesse counterchanged. . or, a cross gules. . argent, a dexter canton sable. . azure, a chief point vair. . per bend, or and vert. . per bend sinister, argent and azure. . or, in the dexter chief a triangle sable. . argent, in the sinister base a triangle gules. . or, a bend gules. . bendy sinister of six, azure and argent. . per saltire, vert and argent. . per bend, the dexter half argent, the sinister per bend sinister. vert and or. . per bend sinister, bendy of six, sable and argent, counter- changed. . lozengy, argent and azure. . fusilly, argent and azure. . or, a pile azure. . azure, a pile argent, issuing from the sinister side. . gyronny of four, argent and gules, issuing from the dexter chief point. . or, a chevron vert. . chevronny of six, azure and argent. . party per pale and saltire, gules and argent. . gyronny of eight, or and azure. . argent, a gyron azure, moving from the dexter side. . per pall, sable, argent and gules. . per pall reversed, or, argent and azure. . argent, a pall gules. . pily barwise, argent and azure. . per fesse angled, argent and gules. . per fesse escartely, azure and or. ordinaries. – charges. . or, a pile indented sable, also per chevron indented, or and sable. . per bend indented, azure and argent. . per pale potented, argent and azure. . per fesse potented, or and gules. . per fesse dentilly, gules and aregnt. . per fesse nebuly, azure and argent. . sable, a chief engrailed or, also per fesse engrailed, or and sable. . argent, a pale raguly. . or, a bend indented. . argent, a bend sinister wavy azure. . azure, a cross engrailed or. . gules, four wolf's teeth argent, moving from the sinister side. . azure, a gurge issuing from the sinister base. . argent. charges. (plates – ) the second class of heraldic representations are charges. we distinguish natural, imaginative, and artificial charges, according as they belong to the kingdoms of nature, the heavenly bodies, phe- nomena of nature, or to fantastic forms; or again to art, trade, mechanics, &c. contrary to the ordinaries, whose outlines usually touch the edge of the shield, the charges usually stand free in the field, at any rate, on two or three sides, and fill the field as much as possible. the charges are all more or less conventionalised; and show conventional forms agreeing with the style of the times. atten- tion must be paid to this point, so that the unity of style may be preserved between shield and charges they are mostly shown in profile, and vigorously drawn and outlined. the tinctures, at least in older heraldry, are not those of nature, but one of the nearest heraldic tinctures, so that the idealisation extends not only to the form but also to the colour. complicated objects are often comparatively sim- plified; trees, for example, appear with few leaves and fruits, &c. some charges, such as the lion and eagle, are of extremely fre- quent occurrence; others the following are rarer. among animals the following are represented: — plate . . the lion (rampant) with open jaws and protruding tongue: the body lean, especially towards the hinder quarters; the tail curled upwards, natural or split, but not arbitrarily; the teeth, claws, &c. are gules on metal, or and argent on colors; the entire figure is generally or or gules, more rarely sable, and still more rarely azure. plate . charges. . . the rose, idealised as a rosette, single or double, in five to eight parts. the lily or fleur-de-lis, conventional, consisting of three petals, with or without stamens; used in art long before the birth of heraldry; common in french coats. in addition to the above: clover, nettle, water-lilies, grapes, pome- granates, fir-cones &c. plate . charges . . . and . . the most frequent imaginary figures and monsters are: . the griffin (rampant), with eagle's head and wings, lion's body, tail curved upward or downward, the upper and lower halves often of different colors. . the panther, similar to the griffin, but without wings, usually spitting flame (turned towards the sinister side). . the dragon, a winged reptile with two lion's paws or eagle's claws. (the wivern is similar, but with hinder feet.) . the dragon with wolf's jaws, serpent's body and fish-tail. . the two-headed eagle (an ordinary eagle with two heads turned away from each other, each with nimbus), the coat of the holy roman empire. . the seiren (an eagle with the bust of a virgin), the arms of nuremberg. . the mermaid (a naked female figure, terminating below the breast in a fish - tail), the figure is also found without arms and also symmetrical, with two tails curved upwards. - . the sea-lion, with the fore-part of a lion terminating in a fish- tail. of the heavenly bodies there occur: the sun, with face and sixteen rays, straight and wavy alternately; always gold. the moon, waxing or waning, with or without face (in the first case the crescent is argent and the face or). the star, with rays of five to eight points; or. less common are: comets, and the earth, with the lines of latitude longitude. among the phenomena of nature we have: the cloud, very conventional, argent or azure. the rainbow, gules, or, and azure (shown in the plate above a triple hill). meyer, handbook of ornament. heraldry. plate . forms of the helmet. helmet trappings. (plate , figs. – ); if the blazoning is with ordinaries: these are repeated on certain objects selected as crests. the principal of these objects are: horns, in pairs, curved as a crescent or a lyre, in later times broadened out at the ends like a mouthpiece, painted with the tinctures or ordinaries of the coat, surmounted with branches, &c. (plates . , . and ). wings, natural or artificial, singly or in pairs, displayed, or in profile; painted with the tinctures or ordinaries of the coat (plates . and ; . ). cushions and screens, round or square discs, painted with the blazoning of the coat, hung and surmounted with tassels, bells, and peacock's feathers (plate . ). caps, pointed and turned up, showing the colours and blazon- ing of the shield, the tips decorated with coronets, plumes, &c. (plate . ). quivers, cylindrical or conical tubes, painted with the colours of the shield, crowned with coloured feathers (plate . ). human beings, animals, and all kinds of artificial objects; the former often depicted as half-figures. we must refrain from entering into detail into the various relations, often full of meaning, between the crest and the shield; as an example we may refer to plate , , where the blazon of crossed arrows and pitcher on the shield are repeated as a quiver and a goblet in the hands of the maiden who forms the crest. the mantling is the connecting-link between the helmet and the shield. in the oldest times it was formed of cloth: at a later date covers of stiffened material, leather, metal-plate, &c., were used, the edges being cut-out into ornamental shapes. the same materials were also employed for the crest. during the renascence period: the mantling was cut into ribbon-like strips, each strip being treated independently like an artificial-leaf. the wreath is interposed between the crest and the helmet, (plate . , , ). it rarely has more or less than two tinctures. where the crest is directly connected with the helmet: the tinctures of the shield are correspondingly continued on the wreath. the mantling shows the tinctures of the coat counterchanged in such a way that the colour is usually visible outside, the metal inside. if it have four colours: the chief ones are on the dexter, the others on the sinister side. it should corre- spond in style with the rest of the arms: salades and heaumes require simple edges (plate . ); while tilting and vizored helmets require jagged or scalloped edges. heraldic accessories. * heraldic accessories. (plate .) under this title, we group such decorations as form do not an essen- tial part of the coat, but rather give an artistic finish to it. the prin- cipal are: supporters, tents, mottoes, &c. supporters are figures of human beings, or animals: angels, knights, ladies, savages, lions, griffins, &c. on old tombstones and the seals of knights, the possessor of the coat appears as the bearer of it. supporting angels are usually placed behind the shield (figs. and ). ladies, knights, savages, &c., stand at the side of the shield, either singly, or in pairs; and the same rule applies to ani- mals (figs. and ). tents are draperies in the form of ā baldacchino, serving as a background for the shield. the outside is generally purple, the in- side of ermine, and they are hung with golden tassels and fringes. such accessories are only suited to the coats of sovereigns, and sta- tes; and are of comparatively modern introduction. mottoes, war-cries, &c. are written on fillets or bands beneath or round the shield (fig. ). examples of such mottoes are the english “honi soit qui mal y pense", the american “e pluribus unum", or the wurttemberg “furchtlos und treu". there are also definite rules for the heraldic composition of a number of coats in one (for example, in a double coat the figures must be affronted, &c.); but we need not enter into, the details of these. the artistic execution is very various and arbitrary (fig. ). plate . heraldic accessories. . angel, as supporter, by h. j. gantinn, , (warnecke). . angel, as supporter, italian, th century, (formenschatz). . lady, as supporter, h. burckmair, triumphal procession of the emperor maximilian, (observe the repetition of the tinctures on the lady's dress, the crest, and the banner). griffins, as supporters, by hans burckmair, (formenschatz). coat, with mottoes, . composite coat, within a quatrefoil, dürer's school, (formenschatz). modern tent. coat of arms of the artists, designed by l. lesker. in conse- quence of an affront offered by the lords of rappoltstein to the artists employed in the building of strassburg minster, it is said that the emperor sigismund granted the artists, called the “yunkers of prague”, permission to bear the same coat of arms — or, three escutcheons azure — (martin crusii, schwäbische chronik). i º - gººſe º g. writing, printing, &c. (ornamental letters) the invention of writing dates back thousands of years before our era. to which nation it is to be assigned, cannot at present be fixed with any certainty. greek writing was developed from the phenician; and served, in its turn, as a basis for roman writing. from the roman writing, arose the occidental and scandinavian writings, as well as the runic. the latin script was introduced into germany contemporaneously with christianity. the early middle ages treated the shapes of letters in a some what arbitrary manner. by the side of the majuscles (or capital letters) appear the minuscles (or small letters, produced by the contraction and simplification of the former), (compare the letters e and m in alphabet on plate ). by the side of the upright and angular capital letters, appear the uncial letters with their round and freer shapes (compare e, m and u in alphabet on plate ). alongside of the perpendicular letters, the more convenient slanting or cursive letters begin to be employed. beside the uncial writing, the gothic period brought text-hands into use (plates , , and ). by this time the gradual trans- formation was so far advanced that at the first glance it is often im- possible to recognise the original connection. the more complicated the text-hands became, the more difficult they were to read; so that it must be considered a happy circumstance that the renascence period strove in many ways to simplify the texts, and to revive the old latin alphabet, ( on plate ). the invention of printing in the year had an important influence on the developement of the shapes of letters. the period of the decadence of the renascence writing, printing, &c. traced in writing. up to the th century the decorations of writing have almost exclusively the character of interlaced-work and fantastically-interlaced figures of animals; but from this period a vigorous plant decoration begins to be developed, eventually ter- minating, in later gothic, in the endless interlacing of confused lines. the renascence period prefers to set its initials in square frames; and these creations are among the most beautiful that writing has ever produced. the interlaced and artificial ornaments which after- wards became so common in typography, especially in the th and th centuries (plate . , and ), are either the invention of the calligraphists of this period, or are the transfer of their archieve- ments to typography. here, too, as in so many other things, modern times revert to the models of the most different older periods; rightly when good is selected, and wrongly when the objectionable is revived. over those sins of modern writing, which culminate in deforming our houses and the titles of our books with rows of shaded letters in all manner of possible and impossible places and positions, it is best to draw the charitable veil of silence. compared with these sins of style, those sentimental garlands of roses and forget-me-nots, into which the last century formed its lines, are tolerable. as regards the technical names of the kinds of letters now in general use: we can only say that they are so arbitrary that we shall do best to refrain altogether from attempting to enumerate them. whoever wishes for information on this point may be recommended to consult the specimen-book of some good type-foundry. attempts were early made to construct alphabets on a definite system; to base them on network, to determine the height and breadth of the entire letter, the dimensions of its component parts, &c.; among others dürer devoted himself to this task. space has not permitted us to reproduce all these constructions; but as a specimen we have given on plate the constructions of a few. the notation of numbers was introduced at the end of the middle ages. our numerals are an arabian invention, whence their name. plate shows two collection of numerals of old times which are not sensibly different from those now in use. it is well known that, before numerals were generally employed, recourse was had to the latin letters (roman numerals) for the indication of numbers. it is really remarkable that this latter apparatus, in spite of its unpractical character, has remained in use down to the present day. finally we may say a word or two about the monogram. this name is given to letters and interlacings of letters intended to replace or to indicate a name. it may be formed either by single ornamented letters, usually the initials of the first and family name (plate . – ), or by all the letters contained in the word (plate . ). it is not imperative that all the letters should be of the same size meyer, handbook of ornament. ornamental letters. plate . gothic uncial letters. old english letters. – old german letters, &c. plate . old english letters, &c. . old english text, tomb of richard ii, westminster abbey, about , (shaw). – . initials, th century, plantin museum, antwerp, (ysendyck). – . initials, th and th centuries, (raguenet). . modern initial, dir. götz, carlsruhe. plate . old german letters. . german text, , (hrachowina). . german text alphabet, composed from several documents. plate . modern text. . schwabach type. . gutenberg gothic. . fr. thiersch, (malerjournal). . ribbon ornament, as typographical tail-piece. plate . renascence letters. . roman renascence alphabet, , specimen-book of john of yciar, durango, biscaya. . renascence alphabet, lower-case roman letters, specimen-book of wolfgang fugger, nuremberg, , (hrachowina). . renascence initial, . . renascence initial, , (formenschatz). . initial, , lucas cranach the elder, (formenschatz). . renascence initial, “gedruckt zu augspurg durch jost de necker" (wessely). renascence initial, italian, (formenschatz). . initial, th century, elzevir printing office, (ysendyck) . initial, th century, specimen-book of paul fürst of nuremberg, (l'art pour tous). . initial, barocco period, french, (hrachowina). . modern initial, by p. koch. . modern initial, by dir. c. hammer. : : plate . roman initials. . renascence, , (hrachowina). . renascence, th century, plantin printing office, antwerp, (ysendyck). modern, french. – . modern, paris. ornamental letters. in a yºu old english letters, &c. plate . ornamental letters. roman initials. plate . ornamental letters. a b c d = f g |h| || j k l m. n. o p q r s t u v wy s x y z & aee ce an, je (c. iſ e. f. (cº- jht iſ ºſ jº jt , nat int (c) ih q r s "iº t' j wy sº jº ts’ vºº (ce. lºcidef- a/k/_//noa astc/ ( . zºº tº . ~~~ zzº-sº plate . roman letters. ornamental letters a b c d e f g |h| || j k l m. n. o p q r s t u v wy s_x y. z & ae ce a\, je (c, d) ih, th' (c. jht. iſ j jºš jt , nat int (c) ie q jf. s. "i u. j. v. | nº ºs ºr z º.º. cº. º cdºº, º b c d = f g |h| || j k . |no p or s iſ uv vy s_x y. z & ae ce a\, je (c. jd) he th' (c. jht. iſ j. j. & jt , nat int (c) tº q ſº sº i u. j. v. sº ºs º º gº lºcocº, a/k/_//noa astlº z. zºº tº . ~~~ ~ gºzzº o g tº fºx.’ cº . plate . r tters. oman le º roman letters. — constructions, numerals, and monograms. plate . . modern. . modern. roman letters. . renascence italic, gottlieb münch, ordnung der schrift, . . renascence lower-case italic, michael bauernfeind, nuremberg , (hrachowina). plate . . . – . , , and . . . . constructions, numerals, and monograms. roman capitals. german text, and large gothic uncial letters. arabic numerals, th and th centuries. modern monograms of two and three letters, (raguenet). modern monogram, dir. götz. monogram of a name: “laugier", (raguenet). monogram of christ; formed of the greek initials of the name of christ, found in the catacombs. it is frequently combined with the letters la , in allusion to rev. xxii. : “i am alpha and omega” (compare plate . ). of later date is the monogram ihs, the first three letters of the name jesus, ihxoys, when written with greek letters, which was afterwards selected by the jesuits as the badge of their order. it has been variously explained as meaning: “jesus hominum salvator" (jesus the saviour of men); “in hoc salus" (in him is salvation); “jesus habemus socium" (we have jesus for our companion); or: “in hoc signo vinces" (in this sign thou shalt conquer). the numerals refer to the pages in all cases. where they are enclosed in brackets: the page is a plate; and the small numerals refer to the figures in the plate. akanthos, leaf: , ( . ). akroter: . alabastron: . alphabet: see letters. altar: . amber-tree leaf: ( . , ). amphora: . ampulla: . animals: . antefix: . arm-chair: . armet: . armorial bearings: . artificial objects: . artificial foliage: . * leaf: . aryballos: ( . ). astragal, enrichment of: . atlante: . badge: see heraldry. balauster: . bands: . band-motive: . base, (column): . ,, , (candelabrum): . basin: . battle-axe: . beaker: . bedstead: . bell: . bench: . bisellium: . boar, head: ( . ), ( . ). book decoration: ( . , ). borders: see bands, . ,, , (typographical): see frames. boss: . bottle: . box: see cist, chest, &c. bracelet: . bracket: , ( . – ). breast-pin: . brooch: . bryony: . bucket: . buckle: . burganet: . button: . cabbage-stalk glass: . cabinet: . ,, , hanging: . calathus: see kalathos. candelabrum: . -- , (capital): . -- , (foot and base): . -- , (shaft): . candle bracket: . candlestick: , . canephora: see kanephoros. cantharus: see kantharos. capital, (candelabrum): . ,, , (column): . index. flower-pot: . , -vase: . fly-flapper: . folding-chair: . foliage, artificial: . ,, , natural: . font: . foot: ( . – ), fork: . fox, head: ( . ). frames: . ,, , (architectural): . , , (mirror): . ,, , (strap-work): . ,, , (typographical): . free or naments: . fret band: . frieze: ( ), ( . ), ( )—( ). fringe: . fruit, in festoon: . funnel: . furniture: . -- , leg. . gable-ornament: . gargoyle: . garland: see in ( . ). gate: see grill. geometrical elements: . german drinking-glasses: . girdle: , , ( . – ). gladiator's helmet: . glass, drinking: . ,, , see stained-glass. goblet: . gothic tracery: . griffin: , ( . ). grill: . grottesque animal: . -> figure: . -- mask: . gryps: . guilloche: see interlacement band. hair-pin: . half-figure: . halberd: . meyer, handbook of ornament. º hammer: . hanap: . hand-bell: . hand-mirror: . hanging-cabinet: . hat, (cardinal's, &c., heraldic): . head-dress (jewelry): . heads of animals: . heaume: , . helmet: , , ( ), ( ). ,, , trappings: . heraldry: . hermes: see terminus. hexagon, subdivision: . hinge: . hippotragelaphos: . holy-water stoup: . hop, leaf: . horn, drinking: . horse, head: ( . – ). human, body: . hydria: . hyacinth-glass: . implements: see trophy, symbol. initial: see letters. ink-stand: . inn-chair: ( . ). instruments: see trophy, symbol. interlacement band: . ivy, leaf: , ( . ). jar: . jewelry: . jug: see pitcher, pot. ralathos: ( . ). kalpis: ( . ). kanephoros: . kantharos: . kapros: . key: . kettle: ( . ). klismos: . knife: . knob, (finial): . knocker: . knot: see ribbon. index. kothon: . krater: . kyathos: . kylix: , ( . ). label: . lace: . lachrimatory: . ladle: . lamp: . - , , pendant: , ( . ). ,, , table: . lance: . lantern: . laurel: , ( . ). lazy-tongs: . leaf band: . ,, , (natural): . lectern: . lectus cubicularis: . leg, (furniture): . lekythos: . letters: . link border: . lion, (heraldic): . ,, , (natural): . ,, , head: , ( . , ). lizard: ( . ). lock-escutcheon: ( . ). lotus: , ( . ), ( . ( . ), ( . , ). lozenge, panel: , ( . , ), ( . ). ,, , subdivision: . lunette, panel: . lynx, head: ( . ). mace: . maeander: see fret. mantling, (heraldic): . maple, leaf: ( . . ). margin: see . mars' head: ( . ). martel-axe: . mask: . match-holder: . medallion: , ( . , , ). medusa, head: . – ), mermaid: ( . ). metal objects: . minerva, head: ( . , ). mirror-frame: . mirror, hand: . miserere-seat: . mitre: ( . – ). monogram: . monstrance: . morion: . mosaic: . motto: . mouldings, enrichments of: , . mug: . mural painting: . natural forms: . nautilus-shell: ( . ) necklace: . neck-ring: ( . , ). needle-case: . network: . numerals: . oak, leaf: ( . , ), ( . ), ( . ). objects, decorated: . oblong, panel: . ,, , subdivision: . octagon, subdivision: . oinochoë: . olive: . olpe: . order, (heraldic): . ordinary, (heraldic): . ornament applied to fea- tures: . oval, construction: . ovolo, enrichment of: . ox, head: ( . ). painting: see mural painting. palmette band: . palm, leaf: . panels: . panther, (heraldic); ( g). ,, , head: . paper-knife: . papyrus: . index. parapet: . parquetry: . partizan: . patera: . pendant, (architectural): . ,, , (jewelby): . pennon: . pentagon, subdivision: . pepper-mill: . perforation: . perfume-vase: . phiale: . picture-frame: . pike: . pilaster, (capital): . ,, , (panel): , ( . , ), ( . – ). pin: . pitcher (lip-spout): . plate: . ,, , border: . polygon: . post: . pot (pipe-spout): . printer's-mark: . printing: . prochotis: . proëdra: ( . ). puzzle-glass: . quadrelle: ( . ). railing: , see also parapet, bal- auster. rain-water spout: , ( . – ), ( . – ). raking panel: . ram, head: ( . – ), ( . – ). ranunculus, leaf: ( . ). rectangle: see oblong. repeating ornaments: . revolving stool: . rhombus, panel: see lozenge, panel. ,, , subdivision: . rhyton: . ribbon: . ring: . rope-pattern: see linterlacement band. rosette: , see also square, panel, circle, panel. rosette band: . rummer: . salade: , . salt-cellar: . scabbard: , . scale diaper: . scallop shell: ( . , ). scent-bottle: . scissors: . scriptionale: ( . ). scyphus: see skyphos. seal: . seat: . sector: . sella balnearis: . ,, curulis; . semicircle: see lunette. serpent, (heraldic): ( . ). ,, , (natural): . shaft, (candelabrum): . ,, , (column): , . ,, , (pilaster): . sheath: see scabbard. shell: . shield: , . ,, , (heraldic): . sideboard: . signet-ring: . simpulum: ( . . ). situla: ( . – ). skull, human: . , , ox: ( . ), ( . ). skyphos: smelling-bottle: see scent-bottle. snuffers: . ( . ). sofa : . spanrail panel: . spangle: . spoon: , . sphinx: , ( . ), ( . ). square, diaper: . ,, , panel: , ( . ). * ， . . . . . . * wiq‘lu‘fiw .lln» £ , “ . > . ; j lulq . l ' \.i%. . v v ltlrlt}u§ni.ltt: y x . my.‘ l\ library of the university of illinois at urbana-champaicn f (x) k stacks . j ‘ . . 
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' k,» , l'xwv \ .. ) . u ‘ n. . ‘ \ i! , {i univ. of iii. library ' :; international _ library of technology a series of textbooks for persons engaged in the engineering professions and trades or for those who desire information concerning them. fully illustrated and containing numerous practical examples and their solutions historic ornament elements of ornament practical design applied design scranton: international textbook company copyright, . . , by internatlonal textiioox company. entered at stationers' hall. london. historic ornament: copyright. . by the colliery engineer company. elements of ornament: copyright, . by the colliery engineer company. practical deslzn: copyright. . by the colliery engineer company- entered at stationers’ hall. london. applied design. part : copyright, . by the colliery engineer company. entered at stationers‘ hall, london. applied design, part : copyright, . by international textuoox company. entered at stationers' hall, london. all rights resen'ed. printed in the united states. ! 'qulil‘i . hm preface the international library of technology is the outgrowth of a large and increasing demand that has arisen for the reference libraries of the international correspondence schools on the part of those who are not students of the ' schools. as the volumes composing this library are all printed from the same plates used in printing the reference libraries above mentioned, a few words are necessary regarding the scope and purpose of the instruction imparted to the students of—and the class of students taught by— these schools, in order to afford a clear understanding of their salient and unique features. the only requirement for admission to any of the courses offered by the international correspondence schools, is that the applicant shall be able to read the english language and \,}to write it sufficiently well to make his written answers to the questions asked him intelligible. each course is com- \,\‘plete in itself, and no textbooks are required other than 	hose prepared by the schools for the particular course tselected. the students themselves are from every class, {trade, and profession and from every country; they are. _ almost without exception, busily engaged in some vocation, 'yand can spare but little time for study, and that usually :outside of their regular working hours. the information q desired is such as can be immediately applied in practice, so qthat the student may be enabled to exchange his present \yocation fora more congenial one, or to rise to a higher level tin the one he now pursues. furthermore, he wishes to tain a good working knowledge of the subjects treated in 	he shortest time and in the most direct manner possible. in iv preface in meeting these requirements, we have produced a set of books that in many respects, and particularly in the general plan followed, are absolutely unique. in the majority of subjects treated the knowledge of mathematics required is limited to the simplest principles of arithmetic and mensu- ration, and in no case is any greater knowledge of mathe- matics needed than the simplest elementary principles of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, with a thorough, practical acquaintance with the use of the logarithmic table. to effect this result, derivations of rules and formulas are omitted, but thorough and complete instructions are given regarding how, when, and under what circumstances any. particular rule, formula, or process should be applied; and whenever possible one or more examples, such as would be likely to arise in actual practice—together with their solu- tions—are given to illustrate and explain its application. in preparing these textbooks, it has been our constant endeavor to view the matter from the student's standpoint, and to try and anticipate everything that would cause him trouble. the utmost pains have been taken to avoid and correct any and all ambiguous expressions—both those due to faulty rhetoric and those due to insufficiency of statement or explanation. as the best way to make a statement, explanation, or description clear, is to give a picture or a diagram in connection with it, illustrations have been used almost without limit. the illustrations have in all cases been adapted to the requirements of the text, and projec- tions and sections or outline, partially shaded, or full-shaded perspectives, have been used, according to which will best produce the desired results. half-tones have been used rather sparingly, except in those cases where the general eflfect is desired rather than the actual details. it is obvious that books prepared along the lines men- tioned must not only be clear and concise beyond anything heretofore attempted, but they must also possess unequaled value for reference purposes. they not only give the maximum of information in a minimum space, but this infor- mation is so ingeniously arranged andcorrelated, and the preface v indexes are so full and complete, that it can at once be made available to the reader. the numerous examples and explanatory remarks, together with the absence of long demonstrations and abstruse mathematical calculations, are of great assistance in helping one to select the proper for- mula, method, or process and in teaching him how and when it should be used. four of the volumes composing this library are devoted to the subject of architectural and decorative design. this volume is devoted entirely to the principles of general design without regard to any specific application of those principles. considerable space is devoted to the study of historic ornament, as a training in what has been done in past ages in the way of creating new ideas and adapting older ideas to more modern purposes. the elements of ornament treats of the fundamental elements on which his- toric ornamental forms are based. practical design treats of the reduction of natural and elementary forms to a prac- tical basis wherein they can be applied as ornament to various objects, and applied design treats of the necessary alteration in form, proportion, and character that various elements of ornament must undergo in order to conform to the requirements of the material and purpose to which they are applied. the method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc. is such that each subject or part, when the subject is divided into two or more parts, is complete in itself; hence, in order to make the index intelligible, it was necessary to give each subject or part a number. this number is placed at the top of each page, on the headline, opposite the page number; and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by the printer’s section mark (§). consequently, a reference such as § , page , will be readily found by looking along the inside edges of the headlines until § is found, and then through § until page is found. international tnxrnoox company. contents historic ornament sedion page introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ancient ornament . . . . . . . . . . . primitive ornament . . . . . . . . . . egyptian ornament . . . . . . . . assyrian ornament . . . . . . . . . . classic ornament . . . . . . . . . . . greek ornament . . . . etruscan ornament greco-roman ornament roman ornament . . . . . . . the five orders of architecture . the greek orders . . the roman orders romanesque ornament . . ' byzantine ornament . . . . . . . asiatic ornament . . . . . . . . . . chinese and japanese ornament indian ornament . . arabian ornament . . . . . . . . turkish ornament . . . . . . . . . persian ornament . . . . . . . . . moorish ornament . . . . . western art celtic ornament . . gothic ornament . . . . . . . . . . renaissance art . . . . . . italian renaissance . . . . . . . french renaissance . . . german and english renaissance . . iii iv contents historic ornament—~cont 'nued section page conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . historic lettering . . . . . . . . . . . antique egyptian alphabet . . . . . . . light antique egyptian alphabet . . . . heavy antique egyptian alphabet . . . medieval roman alphabet . . . . . . i. light and heavy french roman alphabet gothic alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . old english alphabet . . . . . . . . . elements of ornament composition . . . . . . . . . . . . surface decoration . . . . . . . . . conventionalism . . . . . . . ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . natural ornament . . . . . . . . . conventional ornament . . . . classification of elements . . . . . . geometrical elements . . . . . . . . . ‘ architectural elements . . . . . . . . . industrial elements . . . . . . o . natural elements . . . . . . . . . animal elements . . . . . . . . . . . human figure . . . . . . . . . . . . practical design principles involved . . . . . . . . . . planning the design . . . . . . . . . . drop pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ turn-over method . . . . . . . . . . . variety of methods . . . . . . . . . . borders, corners, and stripes . . . . . . applied design geometrical considerations . . . . . . . arrangement of details . . . . . . . . application of ornament . . . . . . . . hanging fabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . contents v applied design- continued sedz'on page wall decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . ceiling decoration . . . . . . . floor decoration . . . . . . . . . . . utensils and vases . . . . . . . . . . textile fabrics . . . . . . i. . . . . . character of the threads . . . . . . . . yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . cotton, flax; and silk . . . . . . . . . warp and weft . . . . . . . . . . . . double cloths . . . . . . . .' . . . . . jacquard machine ._ . . . . . . . . . . carpets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . historic ornament. ‘ (part .) introduction. . meaning of “ornament.”—the term ornament in its more limited sense is applied to such elements of decora- tion as are adapted or derived from natural forms. these differ from what we consider the geometrical elements, inas- much as they are organic, and suggestive of life and growth. i they depend for their expression on the general arrange- ment of their branches, leaves, and blossoms, while the - geometrical elements owe their expression entirely to their geometrical form and arrangement relative to one another. when simply drawn on paper and in no way applied to any object, or used for any purpose other than the expression of itself, one of these elements of decoration may be considered simply as an ornament. it does not become an element of decoration until it is applied to something, and in the abstract, the term ornammf should not be confused with the term a'rroralz'on, which is distinctly applied ornament. . meaning of “ decoration.”—the term decoration signifies the application, or the result of the application, of ornament to objects or surfaces. it does not mean the simple “ sticking on” of an ornament to a surface, but con- veys the idea of the adaptation of an ornamental form to suit the requirements of its position and the purpose of the object to which it is applied. § for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. historic ornament. § the elements of decoration consist of geometrical lines, natural foliage, artificial objects, animals, and the human figure. all these may be considered as ingredients or com- ponents that may be mixed and applied in various propor- tions according to certain standard and acknowledged rules termed principle the rule by which any one mixture is accomplished determines the style or class of the design. . principles of decoration.—the principles of decoration, considered separately and distinctly from the elements thatare used to make up the design, are dependent on, and in harmony with, the rules of architectural propor- tion. this may be illustrated by considering the subdivision of a wall surface into three horizontal bands—the dada, the wall, and the frz'czv—in the proportion of the pedestal, column, and entablature of an architectural order. true, there are styles of design where these proportions are at variance with any architectural order; but, with few excep- tions, these will be found to exist in styles or periods of historic art wherein the orders of classic architecture were unknown or misunderstood, as will be considered hereafter. this general division of a wall surface, however, may exist by the simple placing of horizontal lines to mark the heights, this subdivision being purely geometrical. the decoration may be extended by applying to the subdivisions such natural foliage as leaves and running vines; artificial objects, such as the hieroglyphics of the egyptians; or animals, and the human figure, as seen in the gothic and renaissance work; or a combination of these forms. in each case, however, the main subdivisions are in accordance with general rules; and the surface covering, though gov- erned by less restrictive rules, is, at the same time, sub- servient to a definite proportion of ornamented to plain surface, different under different circumstances. . elements of decoration—whatever the theme of decoration—whether it be the expression of the invention of a new idea, or only the arbitrary adoption of some familiar § historic ornament. form—two elementary conditions will always be found to exist: first, a decoration produced by an arrangement and joining of dots and lines, or by a combination of geometrical figures in accordance with the laws of rhythm, regulation, and symmetry; and sz‘olld, a decorative effect arising from the attempt to represent objects from the external world. the elements nearest at hand for imitation are found in organic nature with its plants, animals, and the human form; but inorganic nature also furnishes models, as in the forms of crystallization, such as snowflakes, and various phenom- ena, as clouds, lightning, waves, etc.; besides which there are rich resources open in'artificial objects fashioned by man himself, as vases and utensils of daily use. . combination of elements.——it may now be more readily understood how all kinds of elements may be com- bined. geometrical may be united with natural forms, and details and ideas suggested by natural forms may be com- bined with creatures of the human imagination to form eccentricities that do not really exist in nature, but that man has always delighted in adopting as representative of some higher or supernatural power. illustrative of these, we have the sphinx, so identified with egyptian art; the centaur and the mermaid in classic art; and the animal bodies with human heads, and the combination of beasts or fishes with the wings of birds, or with plant life and foliated terminations, prevalent in many details of gothic and renaissance art. . symbolic devices.—in heraldry and armorial bear- ings, with which the decorations of the middle ages and following centuries are replete, there are a number of devices with definite names that depend entirely on the combination of different characteristics, borrowed from different classes of animals, in order to combine in one figure the attributes of several natural beasts. for instance, we have the dragon, with the body of a serpent and the head of a carnivorous bird, and the wings of a bat, combining in the one animal the stealth and treachery of the snake, the cruelty and historic ornament. § passion of the vulture, and the uncanny and silent secrecy associated with the nocturnal habits of the bat. on the other hand, we have a variation of the form or characteristics of an individual animal, in order to emphasize those characteristics for the purpose represented. in many of the armorial devices of great britain is found a represen- tation of a lion—never in the true form of the lion, as we are in the habit of thinking of him in the jungle, but a lion with along attenuated body, generally with one or both fore paws raised from the ground, and always with his mouth open and protruding tongue and teeth. the lion is indica- tive of power and strength, and, consequently, of sover- eignty. the attenuation of his body increases the feeling of litheness associated with animals of the cat tribe, while the expression given his face and forefeet is indicative of firmness, and power for aggressiveness, offensiveness, or defensiveness, as the case may require. . influence of architecture.—-decoration is applied art, and the forms used in decoration become varied accord- ing to the purpose for which they are used. decoration, as applied to architecture, consists of the ornamentation of the structural features of a building—of the variation in color, or proportion of diiferent surfaces that are adjacent, and of the introduction of familiar symbols, or objects, to convey a definite historical or religious idea. to a certain extent, all decoration partakes of the same characteristics as architectural decoration. wall decoration is architectural, and consists of the variation in color or proportion of adjacent surfaces, or of the same surfaces divided. the decoration of silks and tapestries, either in the weaving or printing, is a variation of surface that must be further considered in its architectural relation, when they are hung on the walls, over the doors, or around the windows, and seen, not as plain surfaces, but in folds. the treatment of furniture is an architectural decoration, both in the orna- mentation of its structural features and in the application of symbols to portions of its surface. in fact, in all periods of § historic ornament. art, it will be found that any attempt at ornamentation is governed directly or indirectly by the prevailing tastes in architecture and the sister arts. . conditions influencing architecture.—though ornament and architecture have been steadily progressive from the days of earliest egypt to the close of the nine- teenth century, there is little resemblance between the characteristic ornament or architecture of any two periods, except where there has been a deliberate revival of a certain style of art. where the artists of a nation or locality have been left to their own devices and originality, they have produced a style of ornament suitable to their purpose, their period, and their relations, that is in no way connected or suited to other surrounding conditions. although the influences that have affected the style and character of the ornament of different periods are many, the religious and geographical influences are probably the strongest. political influences determine, to 'a certain extent, the character, according to the government and relations of the people, and also the profusion and elaboration, and, to a certain extent, the quality of execution, of ornament; for the richer a nation becomes, the more she expends on her monuments of public utility and beauty, and the more elaborate her citizens become in the taste and decoration of their house- holds. in fact, we find no art progress in any country until it begins to show signs of amassing wealth. . influence of religion.—the effect of religion in ornament can be traced through all periods, and those. nations with whom religious belief was more closely inter- mingled with the civic and domestic duties of the day, expressed in every detail of their ornament some tribute to a superior being. during the laxity of morals and general religious fervor toward the close of the renaissance period, we find few religious forms woven in the fabric of any class of ornament, except the pagan forms that were borrowed in ignorance from an antique religion and an ancient art. historic ornament. § this free use of symbolic forms, both ancient and modern, gives us an unlimited field for combinations in ornamental design, which, though practiced through fifty centuries, has not exhausted the possibilities for originality. . decorative art.-—a decoration and decorative art, whether carved, painted, or modeled, is the expression of the wants, facilities, and sentiments of the age in which it is created. all products of decorative art should possess fitness, proportion, and harmony of both form and color, in order that the result may express what we term repose; and beauty results from that repose that the mind feels when the eye, the intellect, and the afiections are satisfied, and free from any sense of want. as in architecture, construc- tion' may be decorated, but uuder no circumstances can decoration be constructed. decoration must always form a part of the purpose or object with which it is associated. it is useless to try to deceive the eye and intellect by carving a natural vine on a stone tablet. n o right-minded person will ever take the imitation for the real vine, and the highest tribute that can be paid to it is that the carver was skilled with his chisel and hammer,'and the designer had failed to undeistand and appreciate his material. if the vine is to be a stone vine, let it be reduced to a form that is suitable in stone; if it is to be a woven vine in a fabric, let its form he reduced to the limitations of results obtainable from the loom; if it is a vine to be painted on a wall surface, let it be a painted representation of the char- acteristics of a certain vegetable growth, and not a picture or portrait of an object that if real would be highly out of place where represented. . conventionallsm.—this proper representation of a familiar form according to the position it is to occupy, or the material in which it is to be executed, is called conven- tionalism, and is the first detail of applied art that the designer must learn to comprehend. an old axiom states, “that which is beautiful must be true," and we may add § historic ornament. to it conversely, “that which is true must be beautiful,” and on this axiom depends all the beauty of ornament in architecture, decoration, and the allied arts. ornamental design is not portrait painting—it is not the faithful portrayal of the details of nature for purely pictorial purposes. the skill of the artist in this branch of art is applied to making something of simple utility an object of beauty; whereas, the portraitist is engaged in rendering on . canvas, or other surface, an absolute portrait of the subject before him. . consistency in designing—the decorative de- signer must have in mind the construction or fabrication of a useful article, with the value and utility of which he com- bines his art. the figure portraitist, landscape portraitist, or floral portraitist, if we may so distinguish _them, has before him a subject thathe intends to translate in paint to a surface that shall have nothing associated with it in the mind but the figure, the country, or the flowers it repre- sents. if the decorative designer takes the same subject, he does not represent it with the same fidelity, because it is applied to a utensil, and the object of the utensil must not be lost sight of; and if he decorates the surface of a utensil or dress material with a design that claims to be an absolute portrayal of the flower or other device itself, he states in his decoration that this is nothing but the representation of a flower and he draws the mind away from the fact that it really is a utensil; this is not true, and, according to the foregoing axiom, the result cannot be beautiful. . if, in the weaving of a carpet, or other floor cover- ing, the designer attempts to portray natural bunches of roses and rose leaves, he is suggesting to the observer that this is a picture or portrait of a bunch of roses, executed entirely to please the senses as a portrayal of the flowers .themselves, which is not true; for, if it were, we should hang it near the level of the eye, separating it from any sense of utility, other than the conveying of a feeling of historic ornament. § satisfaction and delight to the affections and to the intellect; whereas, as a matter of fact, it is a floor covering decorated _ with an out-of-place design. . general rules.—in the decoration of a surface, the general form is first cared for and subdivided or orna- mented by general lines; the interstices may then be filled withornament and may themselves again be divided and fully enriched for closer observation. but all ornament, no matter how minutely carried out, should be based on a geometrical, system of construction, as a true proportion will be found to exist between all members so based. in all surface decoration, a rule to be observed is that all lines should be traced back to their branchings from a general parent stem, so that each detail of the ornament, no matter how distant, can be traced back through its branch to the root. this makes the design rational, but the connection with the parent stem and root must not be so marked as to dominate the spirit of the design. another rule requires that all junctions of curved lines with other curved lines, or of curved lines with straight lines, should be so made that they are tangent to each other at the point of junction, if they are intended to express parts of the same design. and a third rule says that flowers and other natural objects should not be used as ornaments in their natural forms, but should be conventionalized or reduced to geometrical princi- ples that convey the idea of their representation without purporting to be a likeness of the original, for the reasons heretofore set forth. - . color may be used to assist in the development of a form or idea, or to distinguish objects or parts of objects, ‘ one from another; or color may be used to assist light and shade, helping undulations of light and form by the proper distribution of several different tints. color should never be used, however, where the exigencies of the case do not positively require it. every design should depend for its intrinsic beauty on its form and its proportion, and these § _ historic ornament. may be enhanced by combinations and relations of color; but the design is a poor one that depends entirely on color for its attractiveness and beauty. with this understanding of the facts, let us now consider what has been done by our predecessors in the field of orna- mental design. ancient ornaivient. i primitive ornament. . under primitive ornament, we will consider those efforts at ornamental design observable in the works of the savage tribes. these peoples had no written history of art from which to draw ideas, no theory or rules of proportion to govern their conceptions, and, consequently, the expression of art as exhibited in their decorated utensils can be con- sidered pure and untrammeled. . influence of nature.—fr m the testimony of trav- elers in but partially explored countries, it would appear that there is no place on the face of the earth where some attempt is not made at ornamentation, no matter how crude a state of civilization the people may be in. the desire for ornament is present in every race, and it develops and ' increases in importance directly in proportion to their prog- ress in civilization. man appears everywhere impressed with the beauties of nature that surround him, with the mysteries governing the growths and phenomena that he cannot understand; and he seeks to imitate, within the limitations of his power, some of the works of his creator. the earliest instinct of man is to create something; no- matter how powerful he may be as a warrior, how dis- tinguished he may be as a tribal leader, or how wealthy he may be in the possession of earthly goods, he recognizes his inability to explain the phenomena of nature, and naturally attributes it to a being higher than himself. it is at all times historic ornament. § apparent that this being, whom he in his primitive way may worship as a god, creates, by some undefined power, devel- opments and appearances that inspire him with mystery and . awe. consequently, he endeavors, in his own simple way, to call into existence creations of his own that shall impress those fellow men whom he considers his inferiors as much as he is impressed by the works of his mysterious supreme being. . origin of tattooing.—in some savage tribes, this desire is expressed in the attempt to increase the facial expression by which he expects to strike terror to his enemies, rivals, or inferiors, or to create what appears to him a new and mysterious beauty. this he accomplishes by tattooing, or sometimes merely with paint. it is a remarkable fact that hideous as this practice renders his visage, it is, in most cases, exercised with the greatest care that the lines shall be so placed as to increase the facial expression and dew/ p, to the greatest extent, the eccentricities of his natural features. trivial as this detail may at first appear, it lies at the bottom of the fundamental principles of decorative design. the savage warrior does not obliterate his own expression and cover his face with paint and tattoo marks to create a new one, but simply arranges the lines to emphasize the details -of severity that he already possesses and with which he expects to inspire an impression of terror. . origin of set styles—it can be clearly shown throughout all history that in certain periods, an individual mind, stronger than those with which it is surrounded, will impress itself on a generation and carry with it a host of other minds of inferior power. these inferior minds imitate what they know to be better than what they can create, but do not imitate so closely as to destroy their own individual ambition to originate. it is to this tendency that we owe the birth and the modifications of styles. the efforts of the people in the earliest stages of civiliza- tion are like those of children, though lacking in power of (‘iij historic ornament. expression, they possess a grace and originality rarely found in middle age, and never in manhood's decline. the same may be found in the infancy of any art, which we will endeavor to point out as we go along. when art struggles for an existence, it succeeds by creating for itself new forms and new ideas, but, when reveling in its own successes, it fails. . effect of traditional styles.—the pleasure we receive in contemplating the crude attempts at ornament of the most primitive tribes arises from our appreciation of a difficult accomplishment. (we are interested in the evidence of the intention, and are surprised at the simple and child-like rudeness by which the result is accomplished. in fact, what we seek in their work of art is the evidence of mind—the evidence of that desire to create to which we have already referred. this evidence of mind, strange to say, is much more readily found in the rude attempts at savage ornament than in the innumerable productions of a highly advanced civilization. when art is manufactured by a combined effort, instead of being originated by the efforts of an individual, the true instincts, which constitute its greatest charm, are lost. by this we mean that the art of the present day is the result of the combined efforts of artists and artisans through centuries of development, whereas the art of the savage tribes is the expression of the mind of an individual warrior, untram- meled by tradition. . expression of taste in savage rnnment.—in fig. is shown a reproduction of a cloth pattern, the original of which came from the savage tribes of the samoan islands. it is made from thin sheets of bark stripped from a peculiar species of tree, and is beaten out and united so as to form one long parallelogram of cloth. certainly nothing could be more primitive as a method of manufacture, yet the pat- tern shows the existence of taste and skill, and an ingenuity of design rarely found in many of our woven fabrics of the historic ornament. § present day. the pattern is executed by means of small wooden stamps, and the work, though rude and irregular in its execution, conveys the intention at every point. there is a skilful balancing of the masses and a judicious avoidance of {a _ i lines that would tend to cause the eye to run in one direction. this is done by opposing each set of lines with others of opposite tendency; there are many styles and patterns of this work, all of which show posi- tive genius in their arrange- ment and development. . decorative theory exhibited by the savage.— the next development in this ‘ _. primitive art is found in the ‘\ : \ attempts at wood carving, and ,_ r the most likely place to look for it would be on the weapons used for the defense of the tribe, or in the chase of animals for food. the bravest or the most skilful of the warriors or hunters would desire to distinguish him- self somewhat above the others by the possession of a weapon, not only more useful, but, in his eyes, more complicated, and more beautiful. the best shape for the weapon he has already determined by experi- ence, and the enriching of its surface by carving naturally follows. the eye of the warrior being accustomed to the geometrical forms and details of the stamped cloths, his hand attempts to imitate them in the handles of his wooden utensils by means of knife cuts, and the paddle shown in fig. illustrates how faithfully this representation has been carried out. \ \_ \ \&\ ‘ ‘ it"? i i‘ l§-§~ . e- i i q"; i i if, / it w ‘ ' y i lil/ ‘ *. g historic ornament. this instrument is from new zealand, and the taste exhibited in its carving would bear favorable comparison with the art a ' works of the highest state of civiliza- tion. there is not a line on its sur- face misapplied; the general shape is most graceful and elegant, and the decoration is applied everywhere to best develop the form. the new zealander's instinct taught him that his paddle should be strong, not only in reality, but in appearance, and his ornament is so disposed as to give an appearance of strength greater than it would have had if the surface had remained undecorated. the band in the center of the length of the blade is continued around both sides, binding the border that extends around the edge, and this latter appears to hold in place all the other bands. had these bands run out like the center one, they would appear to have a tend- ency to slip ofif, as the center one is the only one that can occupy its posi- tion around the end of the paddle with repose. . value of the study of his- torlc ornament-.——these few facts have been pointed out in the prece- ding pages, so that the student may fully appreciate that beauty of orna- ment does not depend on the fidelity with which ancient ornament can be copied. the natural tendency of the mind will produce good results in the application of ornament in nearly all cases, if it is allowed to work historic ornament. § logically and without influence from stereotyped or his torical forms. the study of historic ornament is practiced to familiarize the student with what has been done heretofore, to point out to him such parts of the ancient works as have been done well, and to show him why they are considered to be done well, and also to render him familiar with other works of celebrated art periods which, though they may be beauti- ful in themselves, are not, as a matter of fact, as high a grade of art as our new zealander’s paddle, because of the lack of expression of mind in the designs, and the tendency to imitate the works of what was believed to be a superior mind, rather than to develop a new style along new lines. . how to study rnament.—from what has already been said, it will be easily understood that the ornament of a people carries in itself the characteristics of that people. it must be interpreted, however, by the aid of the history of the people as expressed in their monuments. the sub- ject of historic ornament should therefore be studied, not only with regard to its grace and beauty, but as a key to a portrayal of the qualities, characteristics, and disposition of the people to whom it belonged. in the consideration of the ornament of a country, we must first investigate all the details that are likely in any way to affect the art, in order that we may better under- stand why certain characteristics exist in the ornament of one people and are entirely absent in that of another. egyptian ornament. . influence of the nile on egyptian ornament. it seldom or never rains in egypt, except in the delta at the mouth of the river nile, and nature has provided for the fertilizing of the land by an annual overflow of the river that brings down mud and alluvial soil from the mountain regions, and deposits it on top of the old soil, thus enrich- ing it. for three months the water slowly rises in the nile § historic ornament. valley, and, for three months following, the river slowly subsides and then remains a narrow stream for the rest of the year, bordered by green fields of cotton and grass. the phenomenon of this yearly inundation of the nile, fig. , slow, majestic, and munificent, naturally impressed the early egyptian with a feeling of mystery and awe. in fact, in this inundation lies the key to the wealth of ancient egypt. _ "- r“ fig. . dwelling during the dry season on what would appear to be a barren plain, the egyptian saw the provision of a supreme being working for his good when the waters of the nile gradually overflowed, fertilized the soil, and then slowly subsided, leaving him to plant his seed. it is not strange, therefore, that the nile and everything associated with it should be sacred. in all egyptian ornament, we find some symbol or detail that reminds us of this great beneficence of providence and favor to the egyptian. the egyptian was an appreciative mortal, and in his art and architecture every- where placcd some reminder of the fact that he could do nothing and would be nothing without the care and watch- fulness of this supreme power. . antiquity of egyptian ornament. in study- ing egyptian ornament. however, we cannot begin at the historic ornament. § beginning, as we can with other styles, inasmuch as we have no historical records of any beginning. a peculiarity of the egyptian over all other styles is that the more ancient the ornament, the nearer perfection is the art. architectural monuments, erected , years before the christian era, are built of stones taken from the ruins of much more ancient buildings that were really more perfect. we are therefore compelled to study egyptian art during a period of its decline, but can accept the style as absolutely original, inas- much as we have no record of the existence of an earlier nation from whom they could have borrowed it. in egyptian art, there are no traces of infancy, nor of for- eign influence, and it is safe to infer that the egyptian artist drew his inspiration directly from nature. the types of his ornament are few but perfectly natural, and in theearliest period of egyptian art, the representation is but slightly removed from the type; but the later we descend in history, the more we find the original types receded from, until it is difficult, in many cases, to discover from what original idea the ornament, by successive mental efforts, has been developed. . influence of religion—although the egyptians decorated every article of utility that was in any way asso- ciated with their civil, domestic, or religious duties, we depend for examples of their ornament almost entirely on the designs and writings executed in connection with their complicated form of religion. ' the temples, tombs, and other sacred monuments of the most ancient inhabitants afford us the most rational and pro- gressive examples of ornament, and it is from these that we derive nearly all the information that we have of the man- ners and customs of the early egyptians. in the temples are preserved certain stone tablets and other devices, on which are records of certain ceremonies in connection with their religion, and these records are always executed in their peculiar form of hieroglyphs. the word izz'eroglyp/z, being literally translated, means sacred writing, but in its specific § historic ornament. sense is used to indicate the peculiar pictured descriptions of the egyptian religious ceremonies that are found carved and painted on the walls of their tombs and temples. . the egyptian temple consisted of a small sanctu; ary, or sc/cos, as it was called, that was reached through a large columnar hall known as the a]! of assembly, or some- times the lzyposty/e : ], the latter term meaning covered over on columns. in front of the hypostyle hall was a large open court, surrounded by high and massive walls and entered between two tower-like front walls, called pylons. each of these parts was varied slightly in different structures, some having two .courts in front of the hypostyle hall, known as the outer and inner court, and in many of the temples the sekos was surrounded by a number of smaller apartments. on the outside of the temple, the entrance was approached through a long avenue—often a mile or more in extent— lined on each side with colossal sphinxes, and occasionally historic ornament. § ending in a large monumental gateway advanced before the main entrance to the temple, as shown in fig. . this gateway was called a propylon, and it stood alone before the main entrance like a silent sentinel. the example shown in fig. is from the temple of rameses iii, at karnak, and from this a fair idea of the magnitude of these great archi- tectural details may be obtained. the faces of the propylon were always decorated with elaborate hieroglyphic devices as shown, and over the top was carved the winged glow, of which we shall have occasion to speak hereafter. beyond the propylon stand the two great pylons that form the outer front wall of the building, and the entrance between these two masses is similar in detail to the gateway advanced in front. a better idea of this arrangement can be obtained from fig. , which shows a portion of the avenue, the entrance, and pylons of the temple of edfou, in upper egypt. in fig. . this case, the propylon is omitted, and at the end of the long avenue of sphinxes stand two great obelisks—one on each side of the entrance. the walls of the pylons them- selves are decorated in hieroglyphs, the design at the bottom § historic ornament. representing a group of prisoners, taken from palestine, about to be executed by the king. . interior of the temple.—on the inside of the temple, these pylons are sculptured in much the same man- ner, though the lower part of them is largely covered by the roofed passageway around the edges of the court. fig. is a reproduction of a photograph taken in the inner court of a temple on the island of philae, and shows the appearance of these pylons on the inside, and a portion of the columns supporting the roof on the right side of the court. the pylons were massive structures, and contained, in their in- terior, a number of secret rooms accessible only to the priest and members of the royal family. an entrance to the interior of one of the pylons is seen on the left of fig. , and it will be observed that the general treatment around the door and over it is precisely the same, but on a smaller scale, as the main entrance to the temple historic ornament. a and the general character of the propylon illustrated in fig. . a better idea of the massiveness of these pylons may be obtained from fig. , a photograph of the temple of edfou, showing the taper of the walls from the ground upwards, a characteristic of all egyptian architecture. this illustra- tion is taken from above the side walls of the temple, so fig. . that the entrance columns of the hypostyle hall at the rear of the court may be seen, and by comparing fig. with fig. , both being illustrations of the same tem- ple, a fair idea of the state of preservation of this great edifice may be obtained, fig. representing it in its original form and fig. being a photograph of it at the present day. ' at the top, the walls of the pylons flared out, forming a simple concave cornice, above which gleaming cressets at night and fiaunting banners by day were carried on long iron stocks or staffs, which, combined with the highly colored decorations on the walls, gave the building an effect § historic ornament. of mysterious grandeur, perfectly consistent with the com- plex system of the ancient egyptian belief. the iron stocks carrying the banners, etc. were inserted in the recesses shown on each side of the entrance. flo. b. . obelisks.—the obelisks in front of the temple are in themselves characteristic of egyptian art. each of these consisted of a tall stone shaft, quarried in a single piece, historic ornament. § and sculptured on four sides with elaborate hieroglyphic ornament. a photographic reproduction of one of these interesting details is shown in fig. . this was one of a pair of obelisks known as “cleopatra's needles," and is shown as it stood in the city of alexandria, egypt, for nearly , years. it is feet in height, and feet inches square at the base. it originally stood with its companion before the entrance of the temple at heliopolis in lower egypt, but was removed to the city of alexandria after the defeat of anthony and cleopatra by the roman emperor augustus, just before the beginning of the chris- tian era. in the year it was removed from alexandria and transported to new york city, where it now stands on a mound on the east side of central park. . the temples differ widely in size and elaboration of plan, but the general scheme of arrangement is the same in all cases, whether the example is taken from northern egypt or southern nubia. between the years and b. c., the greatest temples were built. the pharaohs fig. . wanted eternal dwelling places for their deities, and built their temples entirely of stone, laid up in blocks ' massive and so well fitted that they have withstood the ravages of time down to the present day. in fig. is shown the plan of the ramesseum, a temple built by, and named after, rameses, one of the kings of egypt, who reigned about b. c. here the sanctuary § historic ornament. is shown at a, surrounded by a number of smaller apart- ments a, which were used by the priests and members of the royal family, both as places for their mysterious devo» tions and as royal residences; the king and his immedi- ate relatives being considered earthly representatives of the gods. the sanctuary contained the shrine, and was entered through either of two portals, one from the hypo- style hall b and the other communicating with one of the sacred apartments ’. at b is shown the hypostyle hall, the roof of which was supported by two sets of columns, the central ones being . l ? “ . ‘ l in“: ' ll ~ - i" flo. . longer than those on each side, in order to provide a clear- story for the admission of light and air. this is more clearly shown in fig. , which is an illus- tration photographed from a restored model of the great hypostyle hall in the temple at karnak. at a is seen the double row of long columns, which are connected longitu- dinally by the stone lintels b, in order to receive the edges of historic ornament. § the stone slabs c, which form the roof over the nave, or cen- tral portion of the temple. on each side of these are the shorter columns !, which are connected transversely by the lintels c, and the inside row longitudinally by the lintel f, to support the roof slabs g in the same manner as over the nave. an open space i: is thus left to admit light to the interior of the hall, and form a clearstory similar to the same detail in our more modern cathedrals, of which we shall learn later on. the spacing of the supports being governed entirely by the length of lintel the builders were able to quarry, the columns are exceedingly close together. for this reason, large apartments were never entirely roofed over in the egyptian temples, but were open to the sky, either wholly or in part, as shown in fig. at c, which is the inner court of the temple, from which the hypostyle hall must be entered. on each side of this inner court is adouble row of columns supporting a roof extending from the side walls, while at the back is a single row of columns , and a row of square piers d, which carry a portion of the roof that extends over from the hypostyle hall. another row of square piers e car- ries the roof over the front end of this inner court, which, with the other partial coverings, surrounds the court with a narrow projecting roof on all four sides. . the effect of this treatment must have been very imposing in itself, but, to add to the imp'ression, colossal statues were carved on the inside faces of the square piers, and flights of stone steps led up to a gallery at the level of the hypostyle hall, the floor of which was considerably above the level of the inner court. the outer, or entrance, court d was a comparatively plain enclosure, with columns on each side and a single flight of steps up to the floor of the inner court above. it was entered through a narrow portal f, flanked on each side by the massive pylons e, and served merely as an entrance court- preparatory to the grandeur and solemnity of the more sacred apartments beyond. § historic ornament. ’ . the earl}r egyptian statues were usually colossal in size, and there was no attempt at economy or saving of time in any structure that was erected for the purpose of religious ceremony or the burial of their dead. the pyramids (see figs. and ) were erected as tombs for the kings, and give a very fair idea of the patience and persistence of this ancient people, that would work , men for years on a tomb for the body of their king, at a cost of over $ , ,- . it is a mystery to this day how the stones were quar- ried and transported with the primitive tools and machinery in use , years before the christian era, for this great pyramid of cheops, feet square at the base, and feet in height, is the largest structure in the world today. . the great sphinx.—next to the pyramids in massive grandeur comes the great sphinx at gizeh. this is a statue of the egyptian god harmachis, carved out of solid rock, making a figure feet long, feet high, and feet across the shoulders. the body, which has the form of a crouching lion, is now entirely buried in drifted sand, but the human head, measuring feet from chin to top, and the broad, massive shoulders, are still visible above the ‘ historic ornament. § sand drifts, as shown in fig. . between the forefeet of the body is excavated a temple where the god was wor- shiped, and, if built at the same time as the sphinx, this temple is the oldest architectural monument on record, as it antedates the pyramids over , years. . types of people—there were two types of people among the egyptians, varying decidedly in physique and intellectual appearance. one type of aristocratic origin possessed a refined face, with a moderately high forehead, aquiline. nose, rather full lips, and rounded chin; the other type was from plebeian stock, with low forehead, short nose, heavy jaws, and very thick lips.. the former was serious and thoughtful, grave, dignified, and religious; the latter gay, pleasure loving, light hearted, and good natured. these two types are represented in many of their hieroglyphs and wall paintings, and are often used as symbols of the very attributes we ascribe to them. the lower type have been used to express some degraded or inferior people, and the more refined type have been used to represent royal person- ages and the gods. the kings and royal families in egypt being considered earthly representatives of the gods, had privileges in the complicated system of egyptian religious rites that the priests themselves did not enjoy. an offering to a king was equivalent, under certain circumstances, to an offering to one of the gods. the egyptians worshiped many gods, but the chief ones were osiris, isis, horus, and thoth. they also paid religious regards to animals. cats, dogs, cows, hawks, beetles, and monkeys were sacred throughout all egypt, as will be seen hereafter. . the lotus and papyrus—the most conspicuous type in egyptian art is the lotus (fig. ), a plant growing on the banks of the nile, somewhat resembling our pond lily, but differing from it in coloring. the lotus leaves float on the surface of the water at the end of a long stem, in the same manner as do the pond-lily leaves, but the blossom § historic ornament. stands on a stiff stalk high out of the water, and is of a bril- liant purple color on the border petals, with a heart of deep orange. the lotus was a sacred flower, and as an offering to the gods was conspicuous in the highest forms of worship. it is easy to understand the importance of the lotus in egyptian religious theories. the deified lotus stands repre- sentative of the homage rendered to the beneficent action of water and sun on the sleeping earth. it is the symbol of the annual evolution of the seasons, causing generation to sue- ceed generation, and the return of life, where everything had seemed barren in the immobility of death. the papyrus plant was also used largely in egyptian art and associated with the nile on whose banks it grew, but not to such an extent as the lotus. from the papyrus plant a fig. . kind of paper was manufactured on which the egyptians wrote many of their sacred legends, and it is from the name of this plant that the modern word “paper” is derived. . the winged disk—the sun itself was also the object of direct worship, the ceremony of which was varied by the priests in order to make it penetrate more deeply among the masses. the disk, as representative of the sun, is used in many egyptian hieroglyphs, and received acertuin historic ornament. § share of homage owing to its relation to agricultural devel- opment after the nile had completed its inundation. a combination of the disk and feathered forms produced an ornament generally known as the winged disk, or the winged globe (fig. ). this consists of the solar disk, supported on each side by an asp (the royal symbol of upper and lower egypt), and the wide outstretching wings symbolize the untiring activity of the sun in its beneficence; hence, adivine protecting power. it is emblematic as a whole of the tri- umph of right over wrong, and an inscription at edfou says that thoth, the god of speech and wisdom, ordered that this emblem should be carved over every door in egypt. it is everywhere apparent in egyptian sacred painting, but varies slightly in detail according to the place where it is used. wherever it appeared carved over the doorway of a temple, painted on the walls of a tomb, or woven into a fabric of the vestments of a priest or king, this emblem was a monument i of the egyptian’s religious sincerity and appreciation of benefits derived from his god. . the seambteus.—the scara- baeus, or beetle, fig. , was identified with the rising sun, and typified creation and resurrection, or new birth. its exact significance is somewhat com- plicated, as are in fact all egyptian emblems; but, owing to the habits of the beetle, slowly developing from a grub through various stages to a full- grown insect, it is emblematic of progress and evolution. in the tombs and ruins of the egyptian temples are found fig. . § historic ornament. thousands of models of these beetles that seem to have been worn as amulets. . consistency of egyptian rnament.——another type of egyptian ornament is the palm, from which canopies were made, and also the fans and shades that were held over the heads of royal personages during ceremonies, to protect them from the sun. these few types form the foundation of an immense variety of ornament with which the egyptian decorated the temple of his gods, the palace of his kings, the covering of his person, and his articles of luxury, as well as those articles of more modest daily use, from the wooden spoon that fed him in infancy to the mournful boat that carried his embalmed body across the nile to its final resting place in the valley of the dead. following these types in a manner so nearly allied to the natural form, they observed the same laws that the works of nature'ever displayed, and, no matter how conventionalized their ornament ever became, it was always true. the egyptian artist never violated a natural principle, and, on the other hand, he never destroyed the consistency of his conventional representation by too close an imitation of the type. a lotus flower carved in stone, or forming the graceful termination of a column, or painted flat on the walls as an offering to the gods, was never a lotus portrait, and never impressed the beholder as one that might be plucked, but was always the architectural rep- resentation of it suited to the material in which it was cut, or the colors in which it was rendered. . conventionalism.—a good idea of the simple eon- ventionality of their forms can be obtained from fig. , where at (a) is shown the conventional representation of the lotus blossom, the outside leaves of which, in colored work, were usually painted a deep green. the first row of petals was also green, but of a lighter shade, while the innermost petals were red. the space between the petals was painted a deep yellow. at a distance from the eye, the red and yellow seemed to blend together and form a deep orange historic ornament. § hue with a suggestion of surrounding green, characteristic - of the general appearance 'of the lotus fiower. the transition from (a) in fig. to the form shown at ( ) is by no means a difiicult matter, the omission of the innermost row of petals being the only radical change. from (d) to (c) is a simple development wherein the calyx (b) ( ) (d) flu. . of the conventionalized flower has become larger in propor- tion to the petals, and from (r) to (d) is but a step in orna- mentation, showing the gradual growth of design from the conventionalized rendering of the blossom itself to a device that is purely ornamental and derived from, though in no way representative of, the egyptian lotus. the further development of this form in assyrian and greek art will show the importance of this line of study. . classes of egyptian ornament.—egyptian orna- ment may be divided into three classes: that which is - sfrm'tir'r, or forms a part of the monument itself; that which is n‘prrserztafir/c, but is at the same time conventionally rendered; and that which is simply driroratz'z'e. in each class, the ornament is always symbolic, and the few types mentioned, upon which it is founded, we find are but slightly changed during the entire period of egyptian civilization. . the student of historic ornament should familiarize himself with the difference between the terms style, rlass, and type. the term style is used to indicate the period or nationality of the ornament, as the early egyptian style; the term class is applied when we wish to indicate a subdivision of some style, as the constructive class of the egyptian § historic ornament. style. the term type is used to refer to the natural form from which the ornament is derived, as the lotus type of egyptian ornament. . constructive ornament.—— of the constructive ornament are the columns and their terminations, and the crowning members of the walls. the column base was fre- , '. l v ;" v y- . {/ tum/ , ,, ' viii” q. ‘\ ',_' \ {\y ’/‘// " ' i" ' ‘ ‘ y vh /, vi'l/fi,’ , \_.,'/_ni 'g ‘ ‘ , “i‘m .\ i. fig. . quently molded to represent the root, and the shaft was rceded in representation of the stalk, while the capital was carved similar to the form of a bud or full-blown lotus flower, as shown in fig. , where at (a) is seen the bud historic ornament. § capital, and at (b) the capital derived from the full-blown flower. all this was symbolic, as the lotus meant much to the egyptian. in fig. are shown two square columns standing in the ruins of the temple of karnak, the one to the left being dec- orated with a lotus flower carved in high relief, while the one to the right 'is similarly decorated with the papyrus .,t ,, t'. ;. * ? plant. the plain, severe treatment, so characteristic of egyptian art, is forcibly illustrated here. another form of column flares out at the top, and has for its original type the papyrus or palm tree, as shown in fig. . this style was usually placed in the center of the halls of assembly, with the lotus-bud columns on each side, as shown in fig. . all columns were richly colored and sometimes decorated with hieroglyphs. § historic ornament. feathers were held by the egyptians as emblematic of sovereignty, and the cornices of their temples were usually decorated with ornaments derived from a combination of feathered forms. . representative ornament. ‘ ‘ the second class of egyptian ornament results from the conventional repre- sentation of commonplace things upon the walls of their temples and tombs. in this kind of ornament each repre- sentation is not only a detail of the wall decoration but is a hieroglyphic record of a fact. sometimes it was carved in the surface of the walls, and sometimes merely painted; and occa- sionally, it was both carved and painted. it was always most conventional, and certain details, such as the lotus and papyrus, were represented in the strictest geometrical arrangement, usually show- . ‘\‘&‘,,i$w )wwe ingthebud,blossom, and fruit in regular \ .' order, typifying the c development of the " entire plant. in fig. observe the straight, stifi stem and trumpet-shaped blossom, the sharp-pointed petals of the calyx, and the geometrical arrangement of the entire plant, with all its distinguishing characteristics emphasized to produce i conventionalism. egyptian carved ornament of this character is nearly always in low relief, and is sometimes merely incised or outlined in the sur- face of the wall, as shown in fig. . on work executed in a later period, the background is sometimes cut away, fig. . flo. . historic ornament. § leaving the carved ornament and figures in full relief, as in fig. . this figure represents a statue of the queen, cleopatra, upon whose head is supported, bctween the two horns of the sacred cow, the disk, emblematic of the sun. the head-dress consists of a representation of the blizzard, a sacred bird, whose head protrudes from the fore part of the head-dress, and whose wings reach down on each side, as though pro- flg. . tecting the wearer. the panel or cartouch in the upper left-hand corner contains the hieroglyphic characters spelling the name cleopatra. from this figure, a characteristic example of egyptian ornament of this period, we can obtain a good idea of the contemporary head-dress, of the habit and method of wearing beads and necklaces, and, to a general extent, the cast of features and countenance of this race of people. it must be remembered, however, that these carv- ings are not always portraits, but symbolisms drawn to represent the characteristics of the person portrayed. § historic ornament. . decorative ornament.—the third kind of egyp- tian ornament, that which is purely decorative, is found mostly in paintings on the walls of tombs, on mummy cases and sarcophagi, on dresses and utensils. . the egyptians believed in the immortality of the soul, and also that the soul would return after death and reoccupy the body; hence, they took every means to preserve the body in order that it should be in a fit condition for the reception of the soul at the time of its resurrection. death was not regarded by the egyptian as a great calamity, as he looked on his earthly life as a mere temporary existence during which he made elaborate preparations for the preservation of his body after death. this accounts for the massiveness and per- manency of the tombs, some of which were the life work of those that expected to occupy them. the body was embalmed with great care; a scarabaeus was fastened to the breast, and the mummy wrapped in cloths or bandages bearing hieroglyphic inscrip- tions. in some cases, particularly with the wealthier classes, the mummy thus wrapped was placed in a wooden box, carved inside to fit the form, and generally shaped to conform to the lines of the body on the outside, as shown in fig. . the box was then carefully sealed and the outside painted, or often gilded, and covered with elaborate and complicated hieroglyphs describing the life and deeds of importance connected with the earthly existence of the body within. the mummy case was then deposited in the tomb, frequently in a standing posture, and the walls and columns, and other architectural details of the particular chamber historic ornament. § where the mummy was placed, were painted with rich ornament and inscriptions. the sarcophagus, or stone box, in which the mummy was sometimes placed, was richly orna- mented both with painting and carving of the same general character as on the walls, and it is from examples of this kind that the following illustrations are taken. in fig. is a painted wall ornament from the temple of seti i, and it represents the sacral bar/c, the ceremonies connected with which were an exceedingly complicated but important branch of the religious devotions of the priests. this device frequently appears in the sculpture and paintings of the tombs, and usually represents the funeral of one of the gods. everything is arranged in a most orderly man- ner, as will be observed, and every detail is placed to convey a certain significance. it would be impossible here to go into all the explanations connected with egyptian hiero~ glyphic ornament, and the illustration in fig. is given to show how completely the walls were covered with an illus- trated idea. § historic ornament. . the ffet.—-fig. is a fret design, sometimes called a labyrinth, and is stated by some to have been sug- gested‘by the plan of a building known as the labyrinth that was erected in ancient egypt about b. c. this was '% ., ab supposed to have been a very complicated structure of many hundred rooms, out of which it was practically impossible for one to find his way without the assistance of a guide. the rosette alternating with the labyrinth pattern was prob- ably derived from the full-blown lotus flower. this orna- ment is found on many mummy cases, and is even used for surface decoration, for it can be repeated in any direction simply by continu- ing the lines, as shown at a, to form a new pattern above l“) m and below similar to this one. . it may be said here that the rosette form shown in fig. is but one of many c) q observed in egyptian orna- q ment. in fig. (a) is i shown a simple circle with a q an inner circle, and the space (a) between them is divided ( ! by straight lines into eight equal parts. the transition from this form to the form shown at (b) consists merely of a notehing of the edge of the fig. . historic ornament. § outer circle where the lines intersect the circumference; (c) is the same as (b), except that the dividing lines are made in pairs, thus making each segment independent and by itself. from (c) to (d) the segments are made narrower, until they are very nearly the size of the spaces between them, and at (r) we reach the extreme limit where what might be considered the petals of the floral device are sepa- rated from the center and from one another entirely, and become independent elements of the design. observe that the central circle has been becoming smaller in the evolu- tion of the device from (a) to (e), and the design has worked itself from a purely geometrical form at (a) to a purely floral form at (c) and back again to a purely geometrical form at (r), entirely different from (a). this principle should be borne in mind, as it is of much importance in the tracing of the egyptian style in european art. . in fig. is shown a border wherein the scroll is made use of simply as an ornament, in distinction from its character, as emblematic of the waves of me nz'le. the lotus also appears at the springing of each scroll line, but, in this case, purely in a decorative sense, and in no way fig. . suggestive of a hieroglyphic record. below is a stiff conven- tional row of lotus buds and blossoms, so arranged as to form a conventional border and a part of the design above, purely for decorative purposes! in the hieroglyphs, the symbol for the word water consisted of a simple jagged line § historic ornament. suggestive of waves, as shown in fig. (a). this symbol, when used under certain conditions, was w indicative of the nile also, and in some (a) fig. . of the hieroglyphic ornament it is elaborated into what is called the wave border as shown at (b). . in fig. are shown two borders where the lotus is eonventionalized, very much on the lines of fig. . it is “iii—j in,“ _||,|wiihiiiiiii. (a) : pro. . used here purely for decorative purposes, and in fig. (a), where the side leaves of the flower intersect, a bud is historic ornament. § drawn in order to fill up the intervening space, while at (b) the flower is placed in a horizontal position and shows another application of the lotus to a border that requires little or no explanation, simply being the conventional rendering of the lotus blossom applied in repetition on the border of a wall surface, and completing the simple geo- metrical forms above and below. . fig. shows an application of the scroll without the lotus, while below is a simple serrated band, the type of l i. d“ ' which is suggestive of the hieroglyphic representation of the nile, though its derivation from this origin is by no means certain. these few borders show the immense variety of detail that the inventive egyp- . ml . ' , tian secured from a few simple r‘ “t ' ' types. when he carried his m“ "“ i“ “‘ design further, to make - - plete surface decorations, he did not complicate his designs by adding to them any new forms. . fig. shows a wall decoration from a tomb at thebes. here the scroll, simi- lar to that used in figs. and , is applied as a repeat- ing ornament in four directions, and, in the space enclosed between the lines of the scroll, conventional representations of the lotus petal are drawn, thereby simply suggesting the § historic ornament. _ existence of an idea of lotus origin. it is not a representa- tion of the flower, nor is it intended to be; it is simply a wall decoration, the lines of which, though abstract, owe their origin to the egyptian ever-present association of the nile and the lotus with every- day details of importance. . in fig. we have a border, also taken from a tomb at thebes, wherein the lotus is used in a most conventional manner, but, at the same time, not greatly removed from its original type. the border above and below is a simple rendering of bands varied sufficiently from one another to destroy the appearance of stripes in either direction, and at the same time so arranged as to blend with the whole general effect and not attract the eye to any cer- tain point. . the scroll.-—the use of the scroll as a wall deco' ration, repeating only in two directions, is shown in fig. . compare this figure with fig. and observe that the materials used to create the patterns are identical in both designs. we have the scroll and the lotus, and the lines ’ of the scroll run from one end of the pattern to the other, and between the lines the space is filled with a design from the lotus. not- withstanding this fact, could any two designs be more unlike? the fact that the historic ornament. § scroll lines in fig. extend and repeat only upwards and downwards, would tend to give the pattern the appearance of running in stripes vertically; this is, to a certain extent, offset by reversing the directions of the scrolls, giving each a letter s pattern, thereby preventing any vertical lines from appearing one over the other. as an additional element to destroy this feeling of stripe, the coloring of the lotus flower has been so arranged that the darkest portions will all blend and give the appearance of stripes in a horizontal direction, although really no stripes exist there. observe that in each reversed lotus flower, the horizontal line that cuts it olf at the bottom of the petals is about on a level with the lines of intersection between the individual petals of the next flower, and this, continued, gives a dark stripe alternating with a lighter stripe, running in a horizontal direction throughout the pattern. this in effect destroys the vertical element. the same result is obtained in fig. by the changing of the direction of the figures. each individual element of the design is placed at right angles to the one above and below, or to the one to the left and right of it; a feel- ing of continuity is thereby ".i i i shown in fig. , wherein the . wall surface is divided by a , ’ number of circles, from the i a} . center of each of which spring /' , ft four ornamental forms whose ' outline is based on the three ,, outer leaves of the lotus. ' another pattern based on a fm'w combination of the circle and the square is shown in fig. . the wall surface is cov- ered with tangent circles, exactly as in the previous case, but from the centers of these circles spring four leaves in ~' , e i avoided. ‘ /" ~ e _ i \ ' . . another combination of lines based on the lotus is ._ , _ . §s ' historic ornament. vertical and horizontal directions, thereby suggesting rectan- gular forms connecting the centers of the circles. other foliated forms, in the quadrants of the circles embraced by each pair of these leaves, outline the three petals of a lotus ii “a vwu", i ., i . ‘u i hi u" n" " if] t fig. . as before, in each quarter of the circle, while the spaces out- side of the circumference of the circles are ornamented with a figure smaller than, but almost identical with, the one springing from the centers. a careful analysis of figs. and will again show that the elements, types, materials, and forms of both figures are as near identical as it is possible for any two patterns to be, and yet no two designs could i be more unlike in appearance. ‘ . referring now to fig. , we have a wall deco- ‘ , ration composed of the wave lines associated with the nile, running in different direc- ' tions. trace any one of these lines out and you will see that it simply runs across the pattern‘in a diagonal direction from top to bottom, or from bottom to top. the line that intersects with it runs practically at right angles . historic ornament. § to it and intersects at every wave. the small irregular figures thus enclosed in the wave line are colored distinctly in alternate stripes, and a contrasting figure identical with the figure drawn outside the circumferences in fig. is then stamped in them. . fig. might be at first considered a double render“ ing of fig. , but, strictly speaking, such is not the case. the heavy black lines of fig. in general direction run vertically and horizontally, and the spaces enclosed by each pair of verticals are painted alternate colors, the effect of which is not to give that of q o . o o o stripes, but of a general blend- . ' ‘ " ing of wall surface. observe , c" .; "g . that the colored or shaded v ‘ ‘ i " i i . ' y portions of the pattern are broad, alternating with a con- . o / .c-‘p ', ° necting link of narrow color, i " ' ; ,< while opposite this connecting link, on each side, are the broad portions of the contrasting color. a study of fig. in comparison with fig. will show that the effort to prevent continuity or the effect of a stripe is the same in each case, and the principle by which this appearance is prevented is identical in each case, though the patterns themselves are utterly unlike in principle, type, and manner of execution. fig. . . in fig. , taken from a tomb at thebes, we have a combination of the scroll and the lotus as the running ele- ments of the design, and the scarabaeus and lotus rosette as surface elements or inlays. in this design, five sets of scroll lines spring from each center, the two upper ones branching out to form the top of an enclosing panel and to form the continuity from one scroll to another, while of the three lower ones, one connects in a horizontal direction the th lower scrolls, and the other two serve to form a bottom of a panel and preserve the line of continuity to the scroll below. § ' historic ornament. simple as this arrangement is, it illustrates the ingenuity of the designer. from every springing point, the three characteristic petals of the lotus flower are exhibited, while from the bottom of each pair of scrolls the spreading petals of the full-blown blossom are used to fill the space. in each alternate panel, both vertically and horizontally, the scara- baaus appears in its character- istic hieroglyphic form, and in each alternate panel between is a rosette based on the lotus blossom. . ' it will be unnecessary to describe all the character- istics of the design in fig. ; the student will simply observe that the scroll here consists of but four springing lines, and these are apparently made to serve the same purpose as five in the previous case. the panels enclosed between the lines of the scroll are of a different character, and, though filled with devices similar to the ones in fig. , the general appearance of the design is totally different. we have one element in this design, however, that differs from any of the previous ones dis- cussed, and makes a portion of it belong to the second class of egyptian ornament. heretofore deseribed; that is, the hieroglyphic represen- tation of a fact, the little devices in alternate spaces being hieroglyphic writings descriptive of some of the acts and doings connected with the life of the person to whom the i xii. q historic ornament. § tomb was erected. all this ornament was richly colored, and the effect of it on the walls was due as much to-its system of coloring as to the design itself. . it is impossible here to express in each case, without means of color, the characteristic appearance of each design, but the main point is to exhibit the ingenuity and invention of the egyptian artist in his portrayal of a multitude of different designs, all based on exactly the same idea, and using less than half a dozen different forms. in spite of their simplicity, a careful study of each one of the designs here illustrated will always bring forth a new point so subtle that, though when once discovered it appears most promi- nent, it has for a long time previous remained undiscovered. . egyptian coloring.-in general effect, egyptian ornament was brilliant and many-colored. the reason for this must be borne in mind: the interiors of the egyptian's temples and tombs were pervaded by a deep sepulchral gloom fittingly symbolizing the mysterious character of his religious belief, and, in order that the decorations on the walls should stand out amidst this gloom, it was necessary that the brightest of colors should be used, or the decoration would fade into insignificance. while the egyptian ornament may be said to be thoroughly polychromatic, there are many cases where it depended as much for its expression on carving as on painting. how- ever, egyptian ornament may be considered, in a multitude of cases, as being painted ornament. in their rendering, the egyptians used no shades or shadows, and laid their colors in flat tints only; yet they found no difficulty in conveying to the mind the identity of each object they desired to repre- sent, without a suggestion of shade or shadow. . the palette of the egyptian artist contained seven depressions for seven colors, arranged in the following order: white, yellow, green, blue, red, dark brown, and black. there were two kinds of yellow—a bright yellow and yellow ocher. there were three kinds of blue—an azure blue, a § historic ornament. greenish blue, and a dark blue. the reds were made of burnt ocher, and the general tone of egyptian ornament seems to have inclined more to yellow than to any other color. green was used less than red, yellow, and blue. the egyptian oriental blues are more greenish in hue than a strictly normal blue, and their reds partook of an orange tinge. they appreciated the fact that colors were affected much in their appearance when in juxtaposition to one another, and they made use of this detail to emphasize r detract from the strength of some particular hue. ‘ assyrian ornament.’ . development.—although the early architecture of western asia is_ of little importance so far as its direct influence on the styles of later periods is concerned, it must be given a certain amount of consideration in order that the development and growth of certain subsequent forms may be properly understood under the different conditions. . the ornament of assyria was probably borrowed from egypt, as there are many points of resemblance in the two styles. the sculpture of the assyrians seems to have been a development of that of the egyptians, but descended from it rather than advanced in scale of perfection. egyp- tian sculpture degenerated toward the end of the fourth century b. c., as it expressed an unnatural swelling of the limbs that was at first but lightly indicated and gradually became almost exaggerated—the conventional having been abandoned for an imperfect attempt at the natural. in. assyrian sculpture, the attempt was carried still further, and, while the general arrangement of a subject and the pose of a single figure was still conventional, an attempt was made to express the muscles of the limbs and the rotundity of the flesh to an extent that destroyed all conventionalism. in all art, this is a symptom of decline. nature should be idealized, not copied. historic ornament. § i . assyrian ornament is not based altogether on the same types as the egyptian, but is represented in the same way. in both styles, the ornaments appear in relief, as well as painted, in the nature of hieroglyphic diagrams. with the exception of the pineapple, and the adaptation of the egyptian lotus, assyrian ornament does not seem to be based on any natural type, and the natural laws of radiation and tangential curvature that we find in egyptian ornament are, in the assyrian, observed more as a traditional or borrowed idea rather than an instinct of the people themselves. fig. shows an example of assyrian sculpture supposed to illustrate a scene where the king on horseback is hunting, attended by his servants and arrow bearer. the pose of the figure and the character of the work is strongly suggestive of egyptian origin, but the attempt to express in stone the muscular roundness of the limbs and other parts is indicative of a decline in art. . the assyrian religion differed widely from that of the egyptians, and, though their combinations of forms § historic ornament. resembled, somewhat, certain of the egyptian deities, the style in which they sculptured them was below the standard of art and practice in egypt. fig. is an example of this work representing the winged deity asshur, in which may be seen the excessive effort to represent the rotundity of muscular developments. the attempt to represent the muscular characteristics of this figure is exceedingly inartistic, and, though the attempt to present an appearance of power and strength is well carried out, it is done with much less delicacy and refinement than we would expect if the work were an example of egyptian art. asshur was the supreme deity in the assyrian group of gods, and in the conception of his form there is much that is suggestive of egyptian origin. the hawk head and wings historic ornament. § are surely borrowed from egypt, and the pose of the body and limbs is strongly suggestive of egyptian ideas. the position of the hands seems to be repeated in nearly every example of assyrian ornament where the figure representsa deity, and is similar to certain egyptian productions of the kind, except that the limbs are clumsy and the molding possesses much less refinement. . in fig. is shown the assyrian rendering of the egyptian lotus, and, in fact, this border, which comes from persepolis in assyria, might easily be considered an attempt to copy the example of egyptian ornament shown in fig. (a). fig. shows another example of lotus ornament from the same city in assyria, wherein the detail is almost identi- cal with fig. , but the lotus bud between the two blos- soms is replaced by a device repre» senting the pineapple—a fruit that was sacred in assyrian art. the close resemblance of these forms-to those seen in egypt is almost indlsputable evidence that they were derived from the latter country, and the rosette form shown in fig. , while it appears fre— quently in borders of assyrian orna- ment, must undoubtedly have been developed or adapted from the egyptian device shown in fig. (d). a still fig. . § historic ornament. cruder adaptation of the egyptian lotus to carved ornament in assyrian work is seen in fig. , wherein the surface of the petals is simply indented in a harsh, crude manner, and the outline is carved into seven pointed terminations of the leaves. the use of this ornament in borders, in combination with another crude ornament, is shown in fig. , wherein‘ the outline of the lotus-derived figure shows a little more refinement, as its lines are more grace- fully curved, but wherethe connecting lines between it o‘ o fig. . and the interposed device are arcs of a circle, making the entire composition crude and ina'rtistie. the circu- lar forms with the three-leaved blossom on top_ may be representative of pomegranates, the designs of which were used largely in assyrian decoration. ‘ however, it is of little importance in itself what types were used in this art. the lotus and rosette were undoubtedly borrowed from egypt; the latter, both as shown in fig. and modified in fig. , are easily traceable to designs seen on the banks of the nile. . these few ornaments will sufl‘iee to trace the art of egypt into asia minor' and show in subsequent styles how their altered introduction into european coun- tries was able to harmonize with the style already existing. u. f ill ub. historic ornament. § classic ornaivient. greek ornament. . greece and egypt compared.—before entering on the study of the characteristics of greek ornament, let us for a moment compare the conditions and surroundings of greece with those of egypt. although modern egypt covers a considerable extent of country, ancient egypt included only the section that bordered on the nile. in fact, as we have already suggested, it may be considered simply as the country that was watered by the annual inundations of the nile. the climate here was mild, there being but two seasons—spring and summer—and there was very little variety in the daily life of the inhabitants, except what may have been experienced in the celebration of some national or religious festival. . greece, on the contrary, presents entirely different conditions. it is on the sea, and throughout its long broken shores, the tide ebhs and flows and penetrates far inland through the long clefts in its coast. greece has many moun- tains, too, and this affected her climate inasmuch as they served as watersheds, carrying the rains down and fertilizing the valleys. 'the country, however, is far enough south to receive a tropical sun, and, although its climate ranges from severe cold in winter toa fierce heat in summer, the majority of the time its temperature is warm and comfortable. . character of the greeks.—the people of greece were brave, active, and athletic; their olympian games were world renowned. their bodily culture was extremely fine, but did not compare with their intellect, which was more developed than that of any other nation. the greek lan- guage is rare and complete in structure, and greek literature is unsurpassed. the greek religion was polytheistic, but the greeks did not devote as much attention to the worship § historic ornament. of their gods as did the egyptians. true, they erected vast temples and costly monuments to athena, apollo, zeus, erectheus, and other deities, and these temples, exquisite in form, proportion, simplicity, and perfect harmony, are examples of the finest architecture that the world has ever seen. notwithstanding this mark of reverence to- their gods, the greeks did not embody into every branch of their art some detail or reminder of their religious duties and inclina- tions as did the artists of egypt. the form of the greek’s worship was, in some respects, almost as complicated as that of the egyptian, but his intellect seemed to be more advanced and he was bound less by a superstitious interest in the future condition of his soul, and his fancies naturally sought ideas that in themselves were beautiful to think of and to look at, rather than suggestive of gloom and forebo- dings concerning an uncertain future existence. the development of greek art then takes place along an entirely different line from that of egypt, and though it goes as directly and intelligently to a point of climax, the result- ing forms are' totally different in their character, meaning, and influence on subsequent styles. . we have seen, how the egyptian artists derived their ideas for ornamental design directly from nature, that their types were few, and that they remained unchanged throughout the entire course of egyptian civilization, except in the degree of perfection of execution; and, in this detail, the greatest perfection existed in the most antique examples. we have studied that the assyrian was a borrowed style and possessed no characteristics of an inspired art, but appeared to have been suggested by the art of egypt, and that the suggestions borrowed from the egyptian style were during its decline, and the assyrian artist, instead of advan- cing on the style, carried that decline still further. with greek art, however, we find a vast difference. it was undoubtedly borrowed from both egypt and assyria, but was developed in an entirely new direction, and, unre- stricted by any complicated religious laws, as both egyptian historic ornament. and assyrian art seem to have been, the greek adoption rose rapidly to a high degree of perfection. though the influence of egyptian and assyrian art can be traced in many details of greek designs, those influences are entirely subordinated to the greek feeling applied in their introduc- tion. neither the art of egypt or assyria can be considered to play an important part in the styles of subsequent gener- ations, but the art of greece pervades all subsequent history. . it must be considered, in the study of the greek styles, that the remarkable development was due to their introduction into greece at a critical period of the art devel- opment of that country. greek art carried the perfection of pure form to a point that has never since been reached, and the abundant remains of greek ornament compel us to believe that refined taste was universal, and that the country was overflowing with skilled hands and minds so trained as to enable them to execute these beautiful ornaments with uncrring precision and truth. the beauty of greek ornament, however, lies almost exclusively in its symmetry and form. it is lacking in one of the greatest charms that should always accompany orna~ ment, viz., synzbolzkm; and, despite the pleasure we experi- ence in its beautiful gradations of form and color, greek ornament is meaningless, purely decorative, never repre- sentative, and in few cases it is, in the stricter sense, hardly even constructive. . architecture.—in the architecture, the various members of a greek monument presented exquisitely designed surfaces to receive ornament, which at first was simply painted and in later times carved and painted, but the ornament formed no such essential part of the construc- tion as did that of the egyptians. it could often be removed and the structure remain unchanged. on the corinthian capital (fig. ), the ornament is applied to the surface and is hardly constructed as a part of the capital itself. remove the scrolls and foliated .iw,. fig. . historic ornament. § ornament and there still remains sufi‘icient substance and material for the pier to carry out its purpose. on the egyp- tian capital, however, fig. , the whole capital is an orna- men t, and to remove any portion 'of it would be to destroy both the ornament and structural purpose of the column itself. . . sculpture.—in addition to the skill of the greek artist as a designer, his unerring truth in the use of his chisel renders the work of the earlier periods remarkably interesting to us, but the monumental sculpture of the greeks frequently went beyond the bounds of ornament. for instance, in the frieze of the parthenon, fig. , though comp sed of a series of groups of draped figures, the orna- ment was so far above the eye that it became a mere diagram —an ornamental band around the top of the building, the beauties of which are simply astonishing when observed more closely. every detail of each of the panels was as minutely wrought as though it were to receive the closest inspection. the folds of the garments and the molding of the limbs, even on the side away from the eye, that could never be seen unless the panel was removed from the menu- ment itself, are as carefully modeled as those most prom- inently in sight. - conscientious as this treatment may appear to be, sys tematie and honest as is the execution of a design that was dedicated to one of their gods, we are bound to consider this an abuse of means as a work of art design, and that the greeks were, in this respect, inferior to the egyptians, whose system of broad conventionalized ornament for mom- umental sculpture served its purpose to better effect. . representative types. the examples of greek representative ornament are f cw. in the earlier wall paint. ing, there is a wavy ornament—a fret, somewhat similar to the egyptian, used to distinguish water from land and a few conventional renderings of trees, but nothing of impor- tance was done in this line in the later history of greek art. in the decorative ornament of the greek vases, however, _ there is abundant material to assure us that we have examples § historic ornament. of every type of greek ornament in all its phases. the types are few, but, in their conventional rendering, are so far removed that it is difl‘ieult to recognize any attempt at imitation. an examination of the wall paintings and vases leads to the belief that the forms of the leaves of the greek flowers are due more to the limitations of brush work than to any direct imita— tion of the natural flower. the six forms shown in fig. pm , constitute about all the leaf strokes that are found throughout greek ornament, but these six forms were applied to a variety of purposes, the extent of which is almost past belief. ' . the three great laws of naturaéthat the greek artists carefully observed the principle on which cer- tain plants grew, and carried that principle out conscien- tiously in the execution of their designs, cannot be doubted. they were close observers of nature, and although they did not copy or attempt to imitate or make true portraits of any natural forms, they never violated a natural principle. the three great laws of nature—radialion from the parent slam, the proportionate distribution of arms, and {/ tangent/in! curwalure of the lines—are always obeyed; and it is the unerring perfection with which they are carried out in the most humble works, as well as those of the greatest impor- tance, that fills us with astonishment at the conscientious scruples of ,the greek artist. before we analyze examples of greek ornament, we must first consider the architecture. the greek, like the egyp- tian, spanned his architectural opening with a lintel, and though the width of the opening was, like that of the egyp- tian, governed by the length of the lintel that could be con- veniently quarried, the greek’s knowledge of statics and his highly intellectual mind rendered him more inclined to develop artistic proportions, between the support and the material supported, than is found in any egyptian work. iiiivershy n ‘jndis un in mun-came“ § historic ornament. . orders of design.—-as before stated, the capitals of the egyptian columns were of but three styles—the lotus bud, the lotus blossom, and the palm. these were varied more or less in different locali- flg. . of a pair of scrolls, or volutes, supported upon a thumb mold- ing similar to a (limin- ished form of the doric, as shown in fig. . ; and the corinthian order, fig. , whose capital has been before referred to. in the last named, the top of the column is swelled out into a bell shape, not unlike the palm column of egypt, but is decorated with leaves and vines and scrolls, and other forms based . on from the types ties, but all being the devel- opment of a single principle, can hardly be called different orders of design from one another. in the greek, how- ever, we have three distinct orders, or systems, of design, the distinguishing character- istic of each being the capital of the column; these orders are the dorie, whose column is topped with a capital con- sisting of a simple slab over a thumb-shaped molding, as shown in figs. and ; the ionic, whose capital consists ! l \ . “i‘m ( fig. . vegetable world. the volute, or scroll, of the ionic capital some authorities endeavor to trace back to the lotus blossom; § historic ornament. other authorities claim that its origin'is in assyria or persia, certain forms of column there being treated with the scroll. however, it matters little whence came the idea, inasmuch fig. . as it is so elaborated as to bear scarcely any resemblance to its original type. the bottom, or foot, of each of these columns differs somewhat from the egyptian type also. . bases—it will be remembered that the egyptian column was usually rounded olf so that it was smaller at the bottom, and painted or carved, representative of the root of a growing plant. the doric column sits flat on the ground historic ornament. § or plinth without any molded base whatsoever, and its sides are cut in channels, or grooves, each pair of which meet in an edge, or arris, that extends all the way to the capital. these may have been derived from the reedings of the egyptian columns, imitative of the reeds of the growing plant. in fact, it has been practically conceded by nearly all authoritiesthat the doric column is a development of a certain form of egyptian column; but, as said before, though the greeks borrowed ideas from the egyptians, they carried them to a higher state of perfection, and in nothing is this more evident than in the columnar elements of their architecture. the bases of the ionic and corinthian columns are regu- larly molded, and though it is difficult to trace any direct origin to the system of moldings that appear so uniformly on these bases, it is simply necessary to bear in mind the fact that, in the three orders of greece, two of the columns possess bases, and one of them—the doric—is without that detail. the mathematical proportions of these orders we will consider later, when we can compare them with their roman modifications. . classic moldings.—in greek architecture all of the moldings are profiled on the curve of some conic section. before analyzing the outlines of these greek moldings and the methods of contouring them, let us first give our atten- tion to the conic sections from which they seem to have been derived. i . in fig. are shown two similar cones a be and ade, which are in contact with each other at their vertexes a, and whose bases ( c and de are circular and at right angles to the axes a f and a f’. if either of the cones be intersected or cut by a plane, which is parallel to one of its elements or sides, as be, the line of intersection will be a parabola, as at g]: i; but, if, instead of being parallel to the side be, the cutting plane makes an angle with it, the curve formed by the intersection will be either an ellipse or a hyperbola, § historic ornament. according to the angle. it will be an ellipse when the cut- ting plane is more nearly parallel with the base of the cone than it was in the case of the parabola, and passes through both sides as at jk; and the line of intersection will be a hyperbola when the cutting plane is more nearly perpen- dicular to the base than it was in the case of the parabola, as shown at [m n and p g. . in the case of the hyperbola, the plane will always cut both cones, thereby giving two branches to the curve_ and these branches will be farther apart as the cutting plane recedes from the axes of the cones. the nearer the plane approaches the axes of the cones, the straighter will become the sides of the inter- secting curve, and as the plane recedes from the axes, the rounder and nearer circular will be the intersection, though no matter how closely the curve of intersection may approach the arc of a circle, it can never become absolutely circular in form. the hyperbola becomes two intersecting straight lines when the plane passes through the vertex; these two lines are most divergent when the plane is parallel with the axes of the cones, and gradually become closer together as the plane approaches a position parallel with the side of the cone, where the hyperbola reaches its limit in a straight line. this straight line is the common limit of both hyperbola and parabola, as any deviation from it will produce one or the other of these curves, according to the direction of that deviation. . as the plane of the ellipse becomes more nearly parallel to the base of the cone, the ellipse approaches the historic ornament. § form of a circle, which it finally becomes, when the axis of the cone and the cutting plane are perpendicular to each other, as at r: t, and as the plane of the ellipse approaches the vertex of the cone the ellipse diminishes in size until it reaches its limit in a point. from a point to a circle, then, is the limit of curvature of the ellipse. . in geometrical drawing, methods are given in examples and for drawing an ellipse and a parabola of any desired proportions, and it is only necessary to add here the method of contouring the hyperbola. to draw a hyperbola of a given width and height, the axis ab, fig. , is laid down perpendicular to the width cd, in the same manner as for the parabola, and the rectangle c d f e is constructed with ' equal to the base of the hyperbola, and the height equal to the axis ( ). divide one half the base and also each side into any number _of equal parts, and con- nect the points of division on the sides with the vertex a by means of the lines a , a , a , etc. the points of division on the base are connected by lines to some point x on the line of the axis a [ extended; the points of intersection of these two series of lines will determine points on the hyperbolic curve, taking the lines in the order as they recede from point e; x can be at any distance above a, and the curved lines ac and ad will _ approach more nearly the curves of the parabola as the point becomes more remote. on the other hand, the nearer the point .r is to the vertex a, the more ac and ad will approximate to a straight line, and when points x and a coincide, the line ac will be a straight line. § historic ornament. . . to draw a tangent to any point of the hyperbola, first draw a line from the desired point g perpendicular to the axis a b, and on the extended axis a ', describe the semi- circle akx, with a radius la equal to .} ax; then, with a radius equal to g i ll, describe the semicircle lk/z intersecting aim: at k; draw kz' per- pendicular to a x, and connect ig; then ig m will be the tangent required. a a: . there are, gener- ally speaking, eight mold- ings used to separate different members and surfacesfrom one another, and these eight are shown in fig. . the fillet a is simply a square-edged band used to separate individual members of a group of moldings. the (yum room b is more commonly known as a crown molding, as it is ' used in the uppermost portions of a composition; at c is the gum reru'rsa, the contour of which is the direct opposite of l)’; at d is the media, or hol- low molding ;‘ at e is the a/zz'nus, or egg-shaped molding, at f is the bead, a small molding similar in use to the fillet, but with a round, instead of rectangular, section. at g is the scolia, the contour of which is practically the reverse of the echinus; ~and at h= is the torus molding, used almost exclusively around the bases of the columns, as shown in figs. and , g, aghast new fig. . historic ornament. § wherein the bases of the ionic and corinthian columns each consist of two torus moldings, separated by a sauna and fil/els. in fig. , the principal molding at the top of the doric column, it will be observed, is the echinus. the application of the other moldings will be discussed as exam- ples of them occur. . doric rder.—as seen in the illustration of the parthenon, fig. , there is little carved ornament in the doric order, except such as appears in the sculpture of figures and animals, and, though in the ionic order there are a few examples of relief ornament, it is in the corinthian order we find the greatest relief and broadest demonstration of surface work. . ionic order.—in fig. is shown a frieze from the principal ionic temple in athens, the erechtheum, the style of which is typ- ical of this class of relief ornament throughout greek design. it is plainly a development; ‘ in relief, of the brush forms shown in fig. ; and the addition of scrolls at the bottom, and leaves, from which the forms appear to spring, is due to a conventionalization of the acanthus leaf, which first makes its appearance in art through its introduc- tion into greek architecture. . corinthian order.—in fig. , however, is shown a section of ornament from the choragic monument of lysic- rates at athens. this is the principal. structure of greek origin designed in the corinthian order. fig. is an orna- ment from the top of the above monument, and shows not only the elaboration of ornament characteristic of this order, but also a principle of ornamental design that is of the § historic ornament. utmost importance in its relation to the lack of invention of new forms and the restraining influences of certain art periods. it will be observed here that the various parts of fig. . the acanthus scroll grow out of one another in a continuous line. this is a principle of design that originated with the greeks, and was continued by the romans, after which, as we shall see, it was abandoned, and the abandonment of this simple principle was sufficient to gen- erate an entirely new order of forms and ideas. in fig. is shown a form of the acanthus leaf taken from the tower of the winds at athens. it is purely conventional in form, pos- sessinga broad, bold treatment, nec- essary for its execution in stone, and following closely the principles of the growing -plant, as do all other developments in greek ornament. fig. . historic ornament. § these few examples of greek constructive ornament are most important just now, as they contain the principles from which certain later forms were developed, though they are of no great importance in subsequent history, except so far as they were developed and extended by the more voluptuous though degraded art of rome. . surface ornmnent.—of the surface ornament, purely decorative in character, we have a great variety in greece, though all of it is based on a few simple types, and restricted almost entirely to variations of the brush forms shown in fig. . the first exceptions to this, however, are the fret forms used extensively both in the architecture and — (a) (b) ' ‘ fig. . ceramics, of which fig. (a) and (b) are typical examples. the meandering line of fig. (a) is continuous and forms the entire pattern, while in (b) the pattern is composed of two lines that are carried through the fret parallel, to its center, where they cross each other and retrace their steps out of the labyrinth. . in fig. is a portion of a repeating border consist- ing of a number of brush strokes in the form of a palmcflz' or § historic ornament. ant/zemz'on, and then enclosed in a single stroke, by which it is joined to a repetition of the same form. this is typical in certain classes of greek pottery, and is usually executed in a reddish color on a black ground. . anthemion.—the anthemion is one of the most characteristic of greek forms. it exemplifies most perfectly the beauty of radiation, of tangential union, and of the proportionate distribution of areas. in fig. is shown at (a) an ornamental form occasionally met with in the earliest examples of greek work, whose identity can be readily traced back to the lotus by comparison with fig. the greek development of this form into fig. (b) is not hard to comprehend. the radiating leaves are made larger and fewer. the calyx, from which they spring, is diminished to a couple of conventional scrolls, and a sweeping out- line encloses the whole device. the figure is sufficiently like that in the design shown in fig. to establish the origin of the latter; and, in fact, numerous cases of the appli- (b) cation of the anthemion or palmette ornament, both in sculptured and painted work, will be met throughout the study of greek art. fig. . fig. . . . greek lily.—in fig. is shown another pattern ‘ where the palmette is formed of brush strokes in black upon a reddish ground, with a form somewhat resembling the greek lily between each pair. the palmette form in this figure is rather more densely drawn than the anthemion in historic ornament. § fig. , and is representative of the class of ornament usually termed the greek lwnrysucklc. the conventional form between these anthemions just referred to—the greek nq/a’ne/ane/a i fig. . lily—is traceable back to the old egyptian lotus form, as are many other greek details. fig. shows at (a) an outline form of the lotus seen in many of the hieroglyphs. variations of the form shown at (b) are seen in both egyptian and greek work, while at (c) (a) (b) ( ) fig. . is the brush-stroke device, usually distinguished under the name of the greek lz'ly. the foliated form between the palmettes in fig. is undoubtedly an adaptation of the lily to fit around the brush strokes of the intermediate figures, and the reaching of the outward leaves back toward each other is suggestive of the treatment of the lotus flower, both as used in assyria, fig. , and in egypt, fig. (a). § historic ornament. . in fig. we have a rosette pattern, repeated at intervals in reddish color on a black ground, that is almost undoubtedly of egyptian origin, as shown in fig. , although its developmeflt on a similar line of thought may fig. . have been reached in greek art. it is painted around the necks and bases of many vases, however, and is used so much in greek ceramics that we associate it very largely with that style of art. . fig. , another pattern undoubtedly of egyptian origin, brings us to the consideration of the scroll in the surface decoration of greek work. this pattern must cer- tainly have been borrowed from the symbol of the nile seen fig. w. in the egyptian hieroglyphs, and though there has been little change in the idea, we find a refinement of its propor- tion and lines, and an improvement in its details from an art standpoint, even though it has lost all its symbolic character. . fig. is another adaptation of an egyptian idea, as may be seen by referring to fig. , wherein the scroll is historic ornament. § repeated as growing out from a device of the same kind, and a foliated form, slightly suggestive of the lotus, fills the space between each pair. the rosette, similar to that shown in fig. , is also used as a termination of this scroll, and flo. . this combination of the scroll growing out of the scroll and terminating in a rosette or flower, is of vast importance in roman art, although on this simple vase border is the first place we find it among the greeks. . gullloche.—in fig. is shown an interlaced ornament used almost entirely in carved work on the torus run/dings at the base of a column. it represents, supposedly, the woven bands around the bottom of a shaft composed of fig. . a bunch of reeds, and serves to bind them together. the name of the ornament is a gullloche, and different forms of it, varying in complexity, are found throughout greek art. . fig. shows examples of raised or relieved orna- ment, as seen in the details of the temple of athena polias, § historic ornament. ‘ -.l mw} mm“ mi ruin fig. . all»...a'it'hmi'lii!iii!lh'ii ' in the erechtheum at athens. the enrichment on the cyma recta j is thelotus-flowerornament, and is carved in very low relief; that is, cut so as to be raised slightly above the surface of the mold- ing, and not sunk into it, as was customary with the egyptians (see fig. ). as we examine later monuments of greek architecture, we find the relief of the carvings increasing, until, when we reach the greco-roman period, the stems and stalks are in many instances so under-cut as to be almost clear of the molding. the waterleaf carving on the cyma 'reversa occurs three times in this entablature, and is of varied form, according to its location. up under the corona at a, where the shadow is deep and dark, the waterleaf is cut broad and bold, but imme- diately below the cyma at b, and above the upper facia at r, the lines of the leaf are drawn longer and narrower, so that the .moldings appear in more historic ornament. § delicacy of outline, where the full strength of the light strikes it. the same thing may be said of the bead mold- ings under the corona at d and under each of the two lower cymae reversa: at e and f. the one in the shadow of the corona, as at d, is cut into long beads, while the one above the corona, as at e', is divided into much more minute divisions; and the one on the top of the upper facia, as atf, being in the strongest light of all, is turned into forms where the bead is simply a tiny sphere between two pairs of disks of the same diameter. the egg-and- dart ornament of the ovolo occurs here above the corona of the entablature at g and under the guilloche and volutes of the capital, the only difference in these two examples being that the one above the corona is carved upon a straight ovolo extending along the top of the corona, while the other is carved in the circular echinus surrounding the top of the column. the honeysuckle ornament cut on the neck of the column is in low relief, the same as that upon the crown moldingj. the guilloche immediately under the lines of the volute is carved as a thin strap, loosely braided, around the top of the column, and the same ornament is cut on the upper torus of the base. . 'poiychromy is the term applied to the ornamenta— tion of sculptured and architectural works by means of colors. in ancient buildings these colors were made to cover both flat surfaces and architectural details, while in statues or individ- ual portions of the human figure and drapery, and in other products of plastic art, separate features of a sculptured ornament were colored in a manner characteristic of the subject. egyptian polychromy, on columns, bases, capitals, entab- latures, wall spaces, and, in fact, almost everything of an architectural character, expressed itself in a series of highly ‘ colored designs in low relief, consisting mostly of figures and hieroglyphs, and often of purely decorative ornament. in greek architecture a complete system of color had been developed at an early period, particularly as applied to doric § historic ornament. temples, upon numerous remains of which traces of this colorin'g are distinguishable. the principal use of color in architecture is to bring out decoration. surfaces may be relieved bya rich play of color without actual relief, and ideas may with facility be expressed by colors, when the object they embellish calls for the widest possible range of imagination and fancy. still, color has its own province, and to a certain extent its own series of forms, and must therefore be treated in its own manner. a harmonious inter- play of colors, with correct propor- tion in the distribution of each, is characteristic of a fine work of art. in truly artistic periods, color has never been made use of to produce artificial shadows or to bring out artificial depths and reliefs; nor has it in any way been employed as a makeshift for them. . figs. and showa num- ber of examples of greek painted ornament in which the fret and the lotus and honeysuckle ornament are i ' ' ’ both prominent. red, yellow, blue, ' and green were the principal colors usedby the greeks in these decora- tions, but they were so toned down and softened that the glare and harshness of such brilliant colors were blended into one delightful monotint as one viewed their struc- tures from a distance. fig. is a portion of the capital. fig. . historic ornament. § entablature, and pediment of the greek doric order, vwith the characteristic polychromatic ornamentation. the fret- work on the abacus at a was usually executed in a dark red or black, while the groundwork was pale yellow or orange. the egg-and-dart ornament on the echinus of the capital was generally printed in red on a dark-blue ground. the triglyphs c were nearly always blue, and any ornament e on them was executed in red. the metopes f were generally red, and the sculptured figures with which the metopes were ornamented were painted in tints that represented the color and texture of their garments. the fret drawn on the twnia, or fillet, gand those on the corona and epitithidas, as at /l and a’, were usually executed in gold, though occasionally in red. the regula: j were blue with red drops, or guttae k, as were also the mutules l, .. v - but the soflit of the corona m, shown in fig.‘ , was red. the small moldings forming the finish to the corona were generally painted in light colors, such as red and blue, with spaces of white alternating between. the honeysuckle or lotus ornament, usually found on the cyma recta or ovolo , shown in fig. , when either was the top molding of the pediment, was carefully outlined in gold, and was always drawn very lightly and delicately when used to embellish this top member of the entablature. fig. . . in fig. we arrive at a more complicated pattern of the honeysuckle ornament, taken from the temple of theseus at athens. in this example, the palmette forms, composed of nine brush strokes, were executed in green, and the scrolls and connecting fine lines between members of the pattern were worked in gold. the intermediate blossom between the palmettes, or conventionalized floral form, was in red, and the whole executed on a creamy § historic ornament. ground. the effect was naturally very brilliant, the red and green colors standing out very sharply on the creamy ground, and contrasting beautifully with each other. wig diwojddoidpidididiojdi l'i' i m" i " in their colored ornament, the greeks appreciated the strengthening effect of placing one color beside another, and in much of their work made use of this combination of red and green on account of its superiority of effect. in figs. . and are two panels taken from the ceiling of the parthenon. \vhile these at first seem somewhat sim- //l /////fi'/i ////é / //wim '- /, . . \ “sm-sfifi.“ >‘~t$\i\\\‘t>s\\\\ fig. . fig. . ilar in appearance, and though both are plainly executed with purely brush forms, a second examination will show i historic ornament. § that they are entirely different as a whole, and unlike in their detail, except the form of their individual strokes. the lines of the pattern itself were executed in gold, that of fig. being on a red ground with a blue border around it, while the pattern in fig. was on a blue ground with a red border. this difference of coloring emphasized not only the difference in pattern of the two panels, but, at the same time, clearly marked the dividing line between them. . in fig. is shown a frieze ornament wherein the entire design is executed in the contrasting colors of red and green on a ground of cream. the central stroke of the honeysuckle ornament and of the figures on each side are green, and each alternate brush stroke from them is green also, with intermediate strokes of red. the genera- ting line, which encloses the honeysuckle ornament and curves into the base of the intermediate figure, is green, but the triangular stroke at the base of the honeysuckle is red. this design, like the two previous ones discussed, is depend- ent entirely on the limitaflons of brush work for the char- acter of its form, while the contrast of color in the different strokes of its composition gives to the design the brilliancy of effect in no way obtainable in a pattern executed in a monotint. - fig. . . antcflxm.—rcferring back to fig. , it will be observed that all along the edge of the roof are a number of small vertical ornaments. these are antefixre, and are so placed to close the end of each row of tiles with which the roof was covered. though they were carved in marble, and designed to fit the end of the tile, they were modeled after the palmette, whose characteristics were governed, as is so much other greek ornament, by the capabilities of the brush stroke. a § historic ornament. in fig. is shown one of these antefixae, the scrolls and vertical strokes of which were green, and the space between the two scrolls and each alternate stroke above them were painted red. . endless examples could be recalled exhibiting one or more of the numerous characteristics of greek orna- ment, but, like the egyptians, their. types were few, and it is the repetition of a single idea, or its combination with not more than one other idea, that lends what variety there is to greek ornament. there are one or two forms used in later art that undoubt- edly had their origin on greek soil, but they were developed to so much greater extent in a later period that their details will be considered in the later style. fig. . etruscan o rnam ent. . the etruscans were a people inhabiting the middle part of italy from a period of most remote antiquity. it is probable that they came originally from the same asiatic race as did the greeks, and their occupation of italy seems to date from about the same period as the settlement of greece. their language has never been translated, how- ever, and we therefore have no written history to verify this belief. . in the settlement of rome, the etruscans played an important part. they were a highly artistic people, while the early roman was a warrior and had no art taste what- ever. the etruscans introduced the arch into the construc- tions of public utility, and in that way it found a place in the architecture of rome. besides their skill as builders, the etruscans were particularly deft in ceramics and goldsmith- cry, and, though the character of their designs bears a strong historic ornament. § resemblance to those of egypt and greece, their style was unique, and was developed on independent lines. in designs and workings for jewelry, they were original and skilled, and etruscan jewelry was much sought even in artistic greece. under their skilful hands, every conceivable object was worked into the design. flowers, fruits, figures, vases, cornucopia, rose work, crescents, ellipsoidal balls, and chains of all sorts and sizes found a place in their jewelry designs. they used the emerald a great deal more than any other of the precious stones, on account of a superstition that it possessed medical qualities, but pearls, glass paste, cameos, and intaglios were used also, and the variety and taste in this line of ornament exceeded that of any other nation. . 'there are many objects of etruscan design that are still considered masterpieces of art; and diadems, crowns, necklaces, ear drops, bracelets, hairpins, and rings are still designed on the lines originated by the etruscan goldsmiths. scarabaei are very frequently introduced in these designs, and are sometimes used as a link to unite two parts. in fact, this device appears so frequently in their jewels, uten- sils, sword hilts, etc. that it would appear probable that the etruscans worshiped this insect, or associated it with some superstitious idea. the scarabaaus of the etruscans differed materially from that of the egyptians, inasmuch as it was usually carved of precious stone, or metal, whereas the egyp- tian device was most frequently painted, though many of them were worked in metal and worn as rings and jewelry. § historic ornament. . in fig. is shown a necklace, the centerpiece of which consists of an elaborate piece of goldsmith's work, set with precious stones, the central stone being a large emerald carved in the form of a face. the connecting links of the chain are designed in gold with intermittent precious stones. this is characteristic of all etruscan ornament, and only one illustration is introduced here, as it is simply necessary to consider etruscan art briefly, in order to preserve the thread of history, that we may better understand the influence of these people on the art of rome. gregg-roman ornament. . historical relations.—-in the year b. c., greece was conquered by rome, and the progress of pure greek art suddenly ceased. the invasion of greece and her _ colonies, by roman workmen, caused the art,after this period, to become more and more tainted with the unrefined taste of the conquering nation. on the other hand, greek artists executed vast works on roman soil, and the subjected nation became the leaders of fashion in matters of art. the subtle refinement of the greek, however, became lost in the extravagant demands of roman taste, and the result- ing roman art possessed none of the finer characteristics of the greek style. greek art was delicate, refined, and poetic ——rornan art was voluptuous, vulgar, and extravagant. greek art was an expression of pure beauty—roman art was an ostentatious display. ' . during the period of transition when greek forms were undergoing degradation at home, and conquering roman art abroad, the style assumed a peculiar form that was neither greek nor roman. this style we will now con- sider under the name of greco-roman, though in modern times it is more often termed pom/man from the fact that we derive the bulk of our information concerning it from the recently excavated city of pompeii, which was destroyed through an eruption of mt. vesuvius in the year a. d. historic ornament. § . after greece came under roman dominion, the (ever increasing introduction of greek art into the roman school caused the productions from etruria to assume pecul- iar characteristics, as the local works of art yielded entirely to the influence of the conquered country. the ancient romans possessed nothing of their own worthy of the name of art. in their earliest period, they borrowed ideas from the etruscan builders, and it is from them that the use of the vault and arch are introduced for the first time in archi- tecture. this introduction of a new architectural principle naturally wrought a change in the character of the ornament, and the workmen from etruria, under the influence of, and association with, the workmen from the greek colonies, naturally combined the art of greece with the structural and engineering devices of their native country. when the gen- erals of the roman army returned from conquered greece and brought back as plunder the objects of art that decorated greece and her temples, they converted rome into a museum of greek antiquities, the presence of which changed and directed the roman taste. . mural painting—in decorative painting, par- ticularly that applied to the walls of dwelling houses, the romans borrowed everything they could from greece, and greek art became the ruling fashion of rome. we know little of the plan of the greek residences, and nothing of their decoration, but it is safe to assume that the decorations of the houses of pompeii and herculaneum were patterned after the decorations of the greek dwellings seen by the - roman generals in their campaign in that country. these two cities were suburbs of rome, and possessed much the same character as a modern summer resort. the decora- tions of the walls, ceilings, and pavements are totally differ- ent from anything we find in rome, and, at the same time, show elements that must undoubtedly have originated in greece. these wall paintings are not all of the same value, and a number of them seem to have been executed by inferior § historic ornament. artists, but the beauty of others has led to the belief that they were copies and repetitions of greek work of great celebrity. . besides decorative painting at pompeii, we find a more or less imperfect polychromatic coloring in mosaic. this branch of roman art, therefore, became subjected to serious modifications, the romans already possessed a rudi- mentary knowledge of mosaic work and they now received examples of it from the hands of the greeks, in a more advanced state; but the inherent love of luxury in wealthy rome, and the general contempt for matters of expense, caused the taste for mosaic work to increase and acquire real progress. the romans, however, were not long perverting the nature of the art that the greeks had transmitted to them. the exquisite taste possessed by the greeks, and displayed in their distribution of ornament, together with their advanced imitative science, would have enabled them to have realized charming conceptions in mosaic, and the greeks would never have attempted to place mosaic in competition with the high- est prerogatives of painting. . the greeks are supposed to have designed the compartment of their own paved floors to represent such ornaments as branches, scrolls, festoons, and interlacings, and possibly passed onwards from these capricious forms— somewhat of the nature of arabesques—to more significant symbols and attributes, such as griffins, chimeras, tragic and comic masks, signs of the zodiac, birds, fruits, etc. it may even be inferred that the idea must have occurred to them to inlay a scene in the center panel of some of their richer pavements. at any rate, whatever the greeks saw fit to work in their mosaic, must certainly have been designed in temperance, good taste, and with the highest artistic feeling. . it was characteristic of the romans to carry every- thing to excess; and, as the romans admired mosaics, they wished to have them everywhere ' historic ornament. § they were no longer satisfied to floor their courts and lower rooms with them, but inserted them in the sides of their walls, in the soffits of their arches, and in their ceil- ings. in fact, it is probable that they made more use of them in the latter positions than in the floors, as they soon became to be deemed of too great beauty and value to be trampled under foot. now, with the introduction of mosaic pictures in the side walls, ordinary pebbles, stones, natural or colored marbles, paste, and terra cotta were unable to contend with the bril- liancy of paintings, especially as the taste of painters seemed to be impelled by a mad love of gaudy color and richness, so they introduced red, purple, and azure pigments, and metallic gold and silver to produce a deceptive glitter and striking contrast. mosaic consequently demanded fresh resources, and various precious stones, such as agate, jasper, carnelian, sardonyx, emerald, turquoise, and lapis lazuli, were pressed into service, in order to produce the required effects. thus, roman mosaic work became an ornamental untruth. its productions claimed to be portraits of various objects, executed solely to please the eye, and of materials best suited to the purpose; while, as a matter of fact, they were incapable of portraying natural forms, and the materials were more suitable for pavements than for side walls. the idea was false, and even if the mosaic worker had had more shades at his command, and the painter had had fewer colors, the strife would certainly have been much in favor of the latter. mosaic could never rationally supersede painting. . pompeian ornament—the system of pompeian ornament was carried to the very limit of caprice, and almost any theory of coloring and decoration could be supported by authority from pompeii. the general arrangement of the decoration of the walls in the interior of a pompeian house consisted of a dado about one-sixth the height of the room, on which stood broad pilasters half the width of the dado, thus dividing the walls into three or more large panels. the pilasters were united by a frieze at the top, varying in width, § historic ornament. but usually about one-fourth the height of the wall. the space above the frieze was frequently left white, and always subjected to most delicate treatment, representative of clear sky or open air; and on the background were painted fan- tastic architectural buildings that form a component part of the character of the style. in the best examples there was a gradation of color from the ceiling downwards, ending usually with black in the dado; but this is far from being a fixed law. . the colors used were mostly yellow, green, red, and black, and these were used almost indiscriminately for the various parts. black or blue was occasionally used for the panels, but, as a rule, these colors were confined to the dado. pilasters of yellow or green seemed to be the more popular tints, and red, green, and blue, with an occasional example of black, predominated in the panels. the most effective arrangement seems to have been a black dado with red pilasters and frieze, and with yellow, blue, or white panels, the upper part above the frieze being white with colored decorations on it. the best arrangement of color for ornament on the ground appears to have been masses of green and blue, with sparing use of red and yellow on the 'black grounds; white in thin lines and yellow in masses on the blue grounds; and white and blue in thin lines on the red grounds, with a limited use of yellow, as this color is not very effective on red. the pompeian yellow approaches orange in hue, and the red is strongly tinged with blue. the neutral character of the colors thus enabled them to be used violently without discord. ' i . the whole style of this system of decoration is so ' capricious that it is beyond the range of true art, and strict criticism cannot be applied to it. it generally pleased the eye by its novelty, but, though it was not‘ absolutely vulgar, it oftentimes approached vulgarity, and owed its greatest charm to the light, sketchy, freehand manner of its execu- tion, which is quite impossible to render in any modern drawing. historic ornament. (part .) classic ornament. rolian ornament. . comparison of roman and greek art.~-the real greatness of the romans seems to be expressed more in their theaters, public baths, aqueducts, and other works of a public character, rather than in the decoration of their tem- ples. the latter were but the outward expression of a religion they had acquired largely from the greeks, and in which they had little faith, and therefore showed a corre- sponding want of earnestness in the art worship. in the greek temple, it is more than apparent that the great struggle was to attain a perfection worthy of the gods. in the roman temple, the aim was self-glorification. from the base of the column to the apex of the pediment, every part of the structure was overloaded with ornament, tending more to dazzle the eye by the quantity than to excite admiration by the quality of the work. true, the greek temples when painted were as elaborately ornamented as those of the romans, but with a, different effect. the ornament was arranged so that it threw a colored bloom over the § for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. historic ornament. * § whole structure, and in no way disturbed the exquisitely designed surfaces that received it. the romans ceased to value general proportions and con- tours, and destroyed them by elaborate surface modeling, and extensive'molded ornament. the chief fault of this system of decoration lies in the fact that it does not seem to grow naturally from the structure, but is applied directly to the surface in the same way that was suggested in connec- tion with the foliage on the greek-corinthian capital, only in the present case it is exaggerated to a greater extent. the five orders of architecture. the greek orders- . classic architecture.—the orders heretofore re- ferred to furnish us with a standard of proportion with which we can measure all the classic monuments, and by which the work of the renaissance was, and much of the modern archi- tecture is still, proportioned. as we have already seen, the structures of the classic ages were nearly all columnar—either with lintels connecting the tops of the columns, as the greeks built, or with arches, according to the roman custom. now, the architects of the classic ages had reduced to an exact system the proportions of lengths to thickness in columnar work, and down to the present day we have been unable to improve on their pro- portions. this system is universally known as the “ five orders of architecture," and it embraces every combination of lines and masses seen in the classic monuments. in it we find the fundamental principles of proportion, and only by the most careful study of these principles can we appreciate the importance of architecture as a fine art. . archltectural meaning of rder.-—in its archi- tectural meaning, the term order refers to the system of § historic ornament. columniation practiced by the greeks and romans, and is used to denote the column and entablature together—that is to say, the upright supporting piers, and the horizontal roof beams or trabcatz'an supported by them. these two divisions constitute an order, and so far all orders are alike; but the form and proportions of the subdivisions of both the col- umn and the entablature make it necessary to divide the original greek orders into three classes, and when these three were adopted by the romans, they again divided two of them, making five in all. hence, it has become customary, in referring to the five orders of architecture, to mean the roman forms. the three original orders of the greeks are the doric, ionic, and corinthian, as explained before. each order is an assemblage of parts subject to uniform, estab- lished proportions, and is regulated by the office each part has to perform. this so called “assemblage of parts” refers to the base, shaft, capital, architrave, frieze, etc., while the “ uniform, established proportions" are the comparative sizes of these parts to one another in the same order. “the office each part has to perform " governs its size, shape, and position, and thus completes the expression of character in the order. . greek-dorlc ‘.—th general character of the greek-doric order is expressive of grandeur, dignity, and simplicity. hence, we find it used almost exclusively in temples dedicated to the most revered of the greek deities, such as the parthenon, at athens. this is the most ancient of all the classic orders, and the proportions of its parts vary considerably in the different periods of its history. however, it reached the zenith of its perfection in the parthenon, as shown in fig. of historic ornament, § , and it is from the portico of that temple we take the example illustrated in fig. . it has already been observed that the greek-doric column consisted only of the shaft b filling the space between the stylobate a and the capital c. the latter is composed merely of an ec/zinus molding under an abacus, which is the plain square slab upon which the architrave d rests. the historic ornament. § greek-doric order never possessed a base, but stood upon a stylobate a, which is the substructure or foundation usually disposed in three steps or divisions that extend entirely around the building, and by spreading the ground line of the structure, >- m; flo. . give a proper feeling of solidity and support. in the outline of the column, we first observe contraction and then expan- sion; the former where the echinus converges to the neck of the column, and the latter where the column swells out to form a firm and substantial support at the bottom, which is § historic ornament. larger than the top. with few exceptions, the column of the greek-dorie order is fluted; that is, its surface is grooved perpendicularly by a series of concave channels that touch each other and form a series of ridges, or arrz'srs, upon its surface—a mode of decoration that is the direct opposite of that practiced by the egyptians, some of whose columns exhibit, not channels, but a series of convex ridges, like a bunch of reeds or stems bound together. in the doric order, the number of channels is either sixteen or twenty, though in the other orders there are usually twenty-four. the number varies, but it is invariably divisible by . doric flutings are much broader and shallower than those of the ionic or corinthian orders—broader for two reasons, first, because they are fewer in number, and therefore divide the circumference into larger parts; and, second, because there are no separating fillets between them. the shallowness of the doric flutes is due to the fact that the arrises, or edges where the flutes come together, would be thin and liable to breakage if the flutes were deeply cut. this manner of fluting doric columns, leaving arrises between the grooves instead of fillets, has been retained in modern practice as one of the characteristics of the order. in the greek-doric, every detail is marked by its breadth or flatness, or by its sharpness. there are no curved moldings or surfaces except the epitz't/n'das (a term given to the upper- most member of the corona) and the echinus, the latter being almost flat on its under side and finished with a sharp turn‘against the abacus. the breadth and shallowness of the channels, and the flat curves in which they are formed, are therefore in perfect keeping with the style, as are also the sharp arrises between the flutings, which are expres- sive of a severe simplicity. the horizontal rings, or annu- ll'ts—mere grooves cut around the neck of the column to form lines of separation between the capital and the shaft—are again expressive of the most extreme simplicity, and are in direct contrast to the projecting astragal, or convex molding, of the doric capital as modified by'the romans. historic ornament. § the echinus is a simple convex molding, and, from its shape, is often called a thumb melding. its form is sug- gestive of strength, as it expands to connect the dimin- ished upper end of the column with the overhanging abacus. . doric entabluture.—the entablature of the doric order is, like the column, the embodiment of'dignitfy and simplicity. its lowest division, the arc/zitrave' d, is a plain beam, whose height, including the taania, or fillet, is a trifle less than the upper diameter of the column. the middle division, or frz'e’sz’ e, constitutes a very characteristic feature of the doric order, being invariably ornamented with its trlglyphs and metopes. the former of these consists of upright blocks about one-half the width of the mean diam- eter of the column, having their faces grooved with two v-shaped channels, and their edges chamfered off with two half channels, thus making three channels altogether, from which the ornament derives its name of triglyph, or three-channeled. a portion of the triglyph, called the filly], extends below the taenia f the architrave, and depending from it are six drops, or guttae, which repre- sent the heads of treenails or pins used in the early'wood construction. in regard to the arrangement of the triglyphs, one was placed over every column, and one or more over the space between each pair of columns, but always so spaced that the metopes, or spaces between the triglyphs, should be exactly square; in other words, the height of the triglyph was always equal to the distance between them. in the best greek work, there was only one triglyph between each pair of columns, and this arrangement is usually called monotrz'- glyp/n'c, or single-triglyphed intercolumniation. a peculi- arity of the greek-doric frieze was that the end triglyphs, instead of being, like the others, in the same axis, or cen- tral line, as the columns beneath, were placed quite up to the edge or outer angle of the frieze. this is accom- plished by making the extreme intercolumniation less by § historic ornament. one-half a triglyph than the intermediate ones, thereby imparting an expression of strength to the angles of the building. the triglyphs are thus seen to govern the spacing of the columns, and as the -- spacing or intercol- umniation governs the diameter, and the diameter gov- erns the height, etc., we see that nearly =— ~w~wl fl . a all the proportions of a doric temple , - ‘ "“: can be traced from the size of its tri- glyph. there is one exception to this, however, and that is the little choragic monument of thra- syllus, on the south slope of the acrop- olis, at athens. this monument has no i triglyphs, but a series of wreaths ornament the frieze in their stead. the guttaa are never- theless retained, but, instead of being grouped at intervals, they are continued across the lower side of the taenia unin- terruptedly, as shown in fig. . fig. . . the cornice.—the third and last division of the doric entablature, the cornice f, though extremely simple, is strongly characteristic and boldly marked. it is in height about two-thirds the height of the frieze, and it is divided into three principal parts, the wrona, with the mum/rs beneath it, and the alarms above it. the mutules are thin plates or tablets worked on the soflit, or under side, of the historic ornament. § corona, directly over each triglyph and each metope. with the former, they correspond in width, and their soflits, or under surfaces, are set with a rake, or slant, which makes them parallel with the_ line of the pediment. they repre- sent the under side of the wood roof beams that extended over the eaves in the earlier construction. three rows of guttz, or drops, somewhat conical in shape, ornament the soffits of the mutules, each row corresponding in number of drops with the guttae on the triglyphs beneath. the corona. is merely a boldly projecting fiat member, not much deeper than the abacus of the capital, and examples exist where it is even less. the uppermost member of the entablature, the epz'tz'z‘lz- idas, was sometimes a cymalz'um, or rum/y molding, con- vex below and concave above, or it was—as in this exam- ple—an echinus similar in profile to the echinus of the capital. the cornice is to the entablature what the capital is to the column, the crowning member of the composition, completing and ending it in a very artistic and pleasing manner. . the proportions of these architectural orders are measured in terms of the diameter of the column. thus, the diameter of the column in its thickest part is divided into two portions, called modules, and the proportions of the order are then measured as being so many modules high or wide. a module is then divided into subdivisions, called parts, for the convenience of smaller measurements. these terms are usually abbreviated to m for modules and p for parts, and are so designated on the drawing. for instance, in fig. , the height of the column from the stylo- bate t the architrave is shown to be modules (that is, } diameters) and the top step of the stylobate is shown to be % parts in height, while in the cornice f is shown parts; that is, % of one-half the diameter of the column. . the ionic order.—the ionic order is lighter and more delicate than the doric, being expressive of grace and § historic ornament. refinement rather than of grandeur and dignity. it was used by the greeks in temples dedicated to deities repre- senting the more worldly settlements, such as the temple fig. . of victory and the porch of the temple of athena polias, shown in fig. . ' although the capital is the distinguishing characteristic, every detail of the order differs entirely from the doric. besides having the addition of a base, the shaft is taller and of more slender proportions, and much less tapering. the example of the ionic order shown in fig. is taken from the porch of the temple of athena polias, and shows the order in the zenith of its perfection. the capital d is not only historic ornament. § i more complex, but also more irregular than the doric capital, . p— t— b__ r__._ __ m >—dji-—t_. _ ._____.r_ __/,,, >-.u fp— ‘ m # ," _ _ .. ww, . v \‘ou‘mu xii/‘ x'l-u'c’ /-; v a fig. . as it has two faces, or fronts, parallel to the architrave above it, one of which is shown at d, and two narrower bolster § historic ornament. ] sides beneath the architrave, of which one is shown in fig. . this irregularity is considered by many a defect, which can be obviated only by turning the volutes diago- nally, as in some roman and modern examples, or by curving concavely the faces of the capital, instead of making them planes, thereby obtain- ing four equal faces. ionic capital, as used in the erech- theum and in the temple of nike however, the fig. . apteros, or \vingless victory, on the acropolis at athens, suits its position as well, and is as perfect an architectural feature as is the doric order in the parthenon. the only objection to the ionic capital is that in the end columns of a portico it exhibits an offensive irregularity, fig. . because, on the return side of the building, the bolster or side of the capital shows itself beneath the face of the architrave; yet even this is of no great consequence, unless the colonnade is continued down the sides of the building, and the capitals at the extremities present their bolster sides to the observer, while the intermediate ones show the voluted face. the greeks, with their usual inventive ingenuity, gave the capital at the angle two adjoining 'voluted faces, so that it should agree with the other columns both on the front and on the flank of the building. this was accomplished by placing the volute at the angle diagonally, so as to obtain there two voluted surfaces placed immediately back to back, as shown in fig. , which is an angle capital from an ionic temple historic ornament. § on the ilissus river, near athens. at a in the elevation (a) is the angle where the volutes are turned back to back, shown at b in the plan (b), and in fig. is shown a view of these two volutes as they would appear looking directly at the corner. we therefore have two volutes and two bolsters, as in any ionic capital; but the volutes are on two adjacent sides c, d, fig. ( ), while the bolsters are on the two opposite adjacent sides , a voluted face was thus kept to the outside on both sides of a corner, and the columns could be continued entirely around the cella. the ionic order possesses a base that differs in outline and moldings according to the locality where the example is found. the best examples existed in attica—the state of which athens was the capital—and the most artistic base, and the one best adapted to the order is found here, and is known as the a the [ , shown at b in fig. . it consists of two heavy torus moldings, separated by a scotia molding and resting on a square plinth, or stylobate. the upper torus is sometimes carved with a guilloche ornament, as shown, or is left perfectly plain. . the shaft c of the column is grooved by tiurrztyfour flutes, each pair of flutes being separated by a fillet. these flutes extend from the apophyge, or swelling of the column shown at a on the base of the shaft, to the astragal, or fillet, around the neck. the neck is enriched with a carved honey_ suckle ornament, which is carried entirely around the column. above the neck is a fillet and bead, and above this is a small echinus, which is carved with an egg-and-dart ornament. resting upon this echinus is a small torus that separates the echinus from the cushion-like capital, the ends of which are terminated by the valulz’s. a number of bands are run across the face of the cushion and rolled up on each side. § historic ornament. the abacus is a flat slab whose molded edge is carved with an egg-and-dart ornament. the ionic entablature, as expressed in modules, is greater than that of the doric order; but in proportion to the length of the column, the ionic entablature is less than the doric. for example, the entablature of the parthenon is about % modules high, while the ionic entablature is about % modules high; but % modules of a column mod- ules high equal one-quarter the height of the column, while ;- modules of a column only modules high equal about one-third the height of the column, thereby making the ionic order lighter and more delicate than its dignified brother, the doric. - . the ionic architrave.—the ionic architrave does not differ materially from that of the doric. its average height is equal to the upper diameter of the column, and it is usually divided into three surfaces, or courses, called facz'as, which very slightly project one over the other. there are a few examples where the architrave is left plain, as in the doric order, and, in such cases, the moldings are not so heavy as in this example from the erechtheum. the ionic frieze, being devoid of triglyphs, and having no other char- acteristic member substituted for them, becomes a mere plain surface, interposed between the architrave and the cornice. this plainness may be relieved by carving thereon figures in bas-relief; but as sculpture of that kind does not belong to'the character of the entablature, it is never taken into account in describing the details of the order. the ' ionic cornice is a simple affair, especially in the athenian examples, being merely a corona, with a cyma rccta above it and some narrow bed moldings beneath it. the soffit of the corona is hollowed out as shown by the dot- ted ine, and the bed moldings above referred to are left when this soffit is so cut, and are here shown dotted under the corona. between the corona and the cyma are two small enriched moldings, a bead, and another echinus. - ' ' historic' ornament. § fig. . . the greek- corlnthian order.— the corinthian order is the lightest and most delicate of the three, but it is almost impos- sible to determine for what class of builders the greeks considered it best adapted, as there is but one perfect example left for us to judge at the present day, and that is the choragic monument of lysicrates, at athens, shown in fig, . like the ionic, the prin- cipal characteristic of the corinthian order is its capital—tall, bell- shaped, and richly foli- ated, as shown at c, fig. . as was said with regard to the entablature of the ionic order, the capital of the corinthian column is higher in proportion to ' the diameter of the column than is either the ionic or the doric; but, as the shaft is longer and more slen- der than either of the others, it is able to carry a higher capital. § historic ornament. . the corinthian capital has two rows of leaves, eight in the upper row, and sixteen in the lower row, so dis- e , . )”. m fig. . posed that, of the taller ones, composing the upper row, one comes in the center, beneath each face of the abacus, and the lower leaves alternate with the upper ones, coming both historic ornament. § between and under the stems of the latter, so that in the first, or lower, tier of leaves there is, in the middle of each face, a leaf between each two leaves of the upper row, and also aleaf under the stem of the central leaf above them. above these two rows is a third series of eight leaves, turned so as to support the small volutes, which in turn support the angles of the abacus. besides these outer volutes, which are invariably turned diagonally, as in the four-faced ionic capital, there are on each face of the capital two other smaller ones, termed caulz'rulz', which meet each other beneath a flower on the face of the abacus. the abacus itself is different in shape from that of either of the other two orders. in the doric, it is, as we have seen, merely a thick slab resting on the echinus beneath it, and left absolutely plain; in the ionic, also, it is square, but the sides are molded and sometimes carved, while the corinthian abacus is, strictly speaking, not even square, except in general form. true, it has four equal sides, but instead of being straight, they are deeply concave in plan, and the acute point that would be formed by the meeting of these concave sides is usually cut off straight, thus making the abacus an eight-sided figure, four of whose sides are short and straight, while the other four are long and curved. . the base a of the greek-corinthian column is of the attic type, almost the same as that of the ionic order; and the shaft b, like the ionic also, has twenty-four flutes separated by fillets, but these flutes and fillets terminate at the top very differently from the way they do in the ionic. here we have a row of leaf-like ends curling out from the column, with the fillets forming their central ribs. the edges of these leaves intersect in an angle, and this angle gradually flattens out until it disappears entirely in the surface of the flute. above these leaf-like ends, and below the lower row of leaves in the capital, is a groove, cut entirely around the column, to emphasize the starting point of the capital, and which is said to have originally served as a receptacle for a braided band of bronze laurel § ’ ’ historic ornament. \ leaves, contrasting beautifully with the white marble of the monument. ' the entablature is very similar to that of the ionic order, with the exception of the cornice, which is larger and some- what richer than the uppermost member of the order from the erechtheum. the architrave is divided into three facias, as in the previous order, but their surfaces are not perpen- dicular. on the contrary, the faces are battered back so that the three arrises, or edges, are perpendicular over one another, and the offsets are formed by the batter. the molding at the top of the architrave is a simple cyma reversa, rhsting on a bead and surmounted by a rather heavy fillet. the frieze is shown here with the carved figures in relief, as it appears in the original monument, although, as said before, this carving does not form a component part of the order itself. above this frieze is a small torus and an ovolo supporting the dentil course. these den-tils are small rectangular blocks, spaced about two-thirds their width apart, and, in all proba- bility, are the stone representations of projecting ceiling joists, which existed in an early system of wooden construction. above this dentil course is a cyma recta, supporting a cyma-reversa bed molding under the corona. the corona projects more in the corinthian than it does in the ionic order; and the crowning member, instead of being a cyma, as in the previous order, consists of a series of antty‘inz sup- ported upon a serrated band, which is separated from the corona by a small echinus. - this completes the general description of the greek orders, a description that has been here given somewhat in detail, in order that the student may fully comprehend the liberties that were taken with these orders when the romans converted them to their own uses. th'e roman ommns. . the five orders of architecture, according to the italian architect and writer, vignola, will now be analyzed and described, and the attention of the student is called historic ornament. §~l § historic ornament. particularly to the unrefining influence of the romans expressed in their interpretation of the greek art forms. the romans were not an imaginative race, and had few original ideas in architecture. their early works were copied from the etruscans, and their later efforts were bor- rowed from the greeks. in nothing is this fact more evident than in the first of the five roman orders, namely, the t us- can, fig. . ~ . the tuscan order is but a modified form of the greek-doric, or, perhaps, more strictly speaking, it is an undeveloped form of the roman-doric. it takes its name from the etruscan people, who are supposed to be its orig- inators, though it is not improbable that the etruscans received their ideas from the same source as did the greek- dorians, both nations having emigrated from asia about the same time. one thing is certainly true, the tuscan column and entablature bear a closer resemblance to the proportions of the greek-doric than they do to the roman-dorie, which was admitted to be more or less copied from it; and the roman-doric resembles more the tuscan column and entab- lature than it does the greek order, whose name it bears. hence, we see that the tuscan is a sort of connecting link between the greek and the roman orders. it contains many greek details that the roman-doric does not, while, on the other hand, the roman-doric possesses many tuscan fea- tures unheard of in the greek. the characteristics of the order are its crqdcness and p/az'mzcsr, combined withits heavy moldings and lack of refinement in outline. it has, like all other roman orders, a regularly proportioned and molded pcdcstal b, which, though not a specific part of the order i itself, is generally drawn with it when the order is shown alone. . the pedestal is simply a square block b, with an apophyge, or escape to the fillet, resting on the plinth a at the bottom, and with a cyma reversa and a fillet at the top. upon this stands the base of the column i), which consists of o historic ornament. § a torus and a fillet resting upon a square plinth. the capi- tal f is in some respects similar to the doric, but lacks both the refinement of the greek-doric and the delicacy of the roman. it consists of an abacus, ovolo, and necking. the abacus is square in plan similar to the greek-doric, and is composed of a fillet resting upon a plain facia that has an apophyge, or curved escape to the fillet. the ovolo is a plain molding, often referred to as a quarter round, as its section is exactly a quarter of a" circle. ' the entablature is subdivided into an architrave g, a frieze h, and a cornice i, in proportions nearer to the greek-doric than is the roman order of that name. but the triglyphs and mutules so characteristic of the doric order are omitted entirely, while the moldings are large and heavy and out of proportion to the surfaces they are intended to ornament. the shaft of the tuscan column is never flutcd, and no carri- ing or enrichment of its moldings or surfaces is er'e'rpracticcd. . comparison of greek and roman orders.— before making a comparison of the greek and roman orders, let us first consider some of the conditions that made alter- ation necessary, before the art creations of the greeks could be adopted by the roman builders. the distinguishing characteristic of all roman architecture is the persistent use of the arch. the greeks spanned their openings with lintels—simple stone beams laid across from one column to another—and the width of the openings they could thus span was limited by the length of the stones they could conveniently quarry. but, by means of the arch, the romans could span 'any width desirable; but the pressure of 'the arch at the abutments was in the character of a hori- zontal thrust, which would overthrow any ordinary column, and especially such columns as were used by the greeks, laid up in several courses and devoid of mortar or cement. heavy masonry piers laid up in strong mortar with securely bonded courses, became necessary, therefore, to withstand this thrust, and the romans, having no structural use for the greek orders, applied them as ornament to their masonry § historic ornament. ' abutments. t ': is a wry impartant point and should [) remembered. the orders, thus backed up by heavy piers, did not require that appearance of sturdy independence that the greeks instilled into their supports, and they were consequently drawn out longer and thinner, and embellished with much carving and enrichment, as though endeavoring to attract the attention to their false beauty, while the piers and arches did the real mechanical work of holding up the building. this will, perhaps, be more clearly understood by refer-- ring to fig. , which is a portion of the facade of the thea- ter marcellus, at rome. the arches resting on the piers support all the mason work above them, while the col- . umns and the entablatures are applied to the structure sim- ply as ornament. strip these columns oif, and the building will stand as well as with them, but in appearance it will be simply a structural edifice, entirely utilitarian, and in no way esthetic. greek designers made their architecture beautiful by orna- menting the construction itself —remove the column, or en- tablature, and you. remove the essentials of the structure— but the romans designed the structure entirely apart from the ornament, and the latter might easily be removed with- out injury to the strength of the fabric. fig. . . description of the roman-dorie olden—the doric column, as used by the greeks, was from five to seven diameters in length, and the bottom of the shaft, being of the greatest diameter, it required no base to stand on, and g historic ornam en t. w”. h l | l l l flt]. . § historic ornament. was beautiful in its simplicity. the doric of the romans, as shown in fig. , was, on the contrary, eight or more diameters in height, and the bottom of its shaft was so small in proportion, that a regular molded base became necessary to give it an appearance of stability. there are instances where the column was used without a base, and the first story of the theater marcellus, at rome, fig. , is a most excellent example of the struggle to apply the tuscan details to the greek form. the lower order of the theater marcellus'presents the tuscan entablature with triglyphs in the frieze and guttae under the teenia, while the mutules are omitted entirely, and a row of dentils and bed moldings is inserted under the soflit of the corona. it will also be observed that in this case the column is not fluted, and stands upon the stylobate or plinth with- out a base, while the capital is molded after the tuscan model. ' . in the typical roman-doric, fig. , the pedestal is higher in proportion to its width than the tuscan, and its base exhibits more moldings than does the latter. the addition of a subplinth serves to raise the die b above the ground line without producing too broad a band under the base. the cornice moldings of the pedestal are much like the members of the tuscan entablature, and show another point of resemblance between these two orders. the base of the column d is almost identical with that of the tuscan order, with the slight addition of a bead molding between the torus and the fillet. the column is fluted with shallow grooves that meet in an arris, as in the greek order, but, unlike the latter, they die out or terminate below the line ad, which marks the apophyge of the shaft at the base. the capital f of the column is decidedly more tuscan than greek. it is separated from the shaft by a projecting fillet and bead, which in this position is called an astragal. instead of the annulets beneath the echinus, as in the greek capital, we have simply three projecting fillets, and the echinus is rounded out until it becomes in section a mere historic ornament. § quarter circle. the abacus is square, but has a crowning _ _member, and it has panels sunk in the corners of its sofiit, as shown by the dotted lines. . doric entablature.—there are, in fact, two dis- tinct systems of grouping the members of the roman-doric entablature: one, as in the greek, with mutules in the frieze, and the other—an entirely roman invention—with a course of dentils under the corona. the mutular doric is the order shown in the drawing plate; and, as will be at once observed, its entablature bears but a slight resemblance to the greek model. the archi- trave g is divided into two facias, the upper one projecting slightly over the lower one, somewhat in the manner of the greek-ionic. the triglyphs of the frieze h are always cen- tered over the axes of the columns, and, consequently, the metopes, which were always square in the greek order, are often oblong in the roman, with the longer axis set either vertically or horizontally. the mutules, which in the cornice of the parthenon were set over each triglyph and metope, existed over the tri- glyphs only in the roman-doric structures, and the soflit of 'the corona between them was paneled as shown by the dotted lines. the cornice i is lighter and more delicate than in the tuscan order, and its epitithidas is a cyma recta instead of an echinus. - . roman-ionic orders—the result of the roman- izing of the ionic order is shown in fig. , and is scarcely more successful than the doric. the romans never seemed to understand the possibilities of the order from the erech- theum, and, as a consequence, only three accredited exam- ples of the-roman-ionic column are known in rome today. these are the temple of 'fortuna virilis, the temple of con- cord, and the second story of the theater marcellus. the first of these is by far the best, its volutes retaining much of the greek character, while the last is the simplest and § historic ornament. _ plainest, and also the smallest in its ""l proportions; but the second is remark- able for its ugliness in general, and the inar- tistic arrangement of its volutes in partic- ular, which spring out diagonally so as to pre- sent four equal and sim- ilar faces. the example shown in fig. is taken prin- pally from the first of those just mentioned, with only such altera- tions as are necessary to bring it down to a gener- al type. in it we find the pedestal slightly longer in the die than was the doric, while the cor- nice cand base a of the _ pedestal are more richly b a molded than in either of the previous orders. the base d of the column, however, is of the famil- iar attic type that has already been described in connection with the greek-ionic order, and exhibits the first point of strong resemblance to the greek ancestor. the shaft of the column is nearly of the same historic ornament. § height as the greek; and, in many examples, is grooved by twenty-four flutes separated by fillets, though in this exam- ple there are but twenty. by a strange perversity, however, when we arrive at the capital, we meet a striking difference from the athenian order. in the columns of the portico of the erechtheum, we have a mrkmg, between the echinus of the capital and the astragal of the column; but in the roman-ionic, the flutes of the shaft extend almost to the eyes of the volutes. in their doric order the romans inserted a necking above, which did not exist in the greek order and must have been borrowed from the attic-ionic, or, possibly, from the tus- can; but when they adopted the ionic order, they seem to have taken especial pains to omit the detail that, according to previous appearances, they particularly admired. for some reason, they omitted this necking, and the roman- ionic capital has a flat, crushed appearance in consequence, as shown. the roman-ionic volute contains but one band, while that of the greeks possessed three, though there are instances where a single band was coiled in the i capital of the greek order, as in the temple on the ilissus river, fig. . but the ionic i order reached the ze- nith of its perfection {if— ?; in the erechtheum, and it is with the details of that building we must compare any subsequent ionic constructions. the architrave g and frieze h of the roman order are very similar to those of the greek, but between the frieze if and corona of i is inserted a row of dentils with upper and lower bcd moldings, which cast a serrated shadow and emphasize the projection of the corona. ' ' !!! ._ in ! u. iiiununil § historic ornament. . the ionic capital above referred to in the temple of concord is illustrated in fig. . it is shown here, not on account of its architectural beauty, for it has none, but because in certain classes of early .renaissance work, this style of cap was redesigned by palladio and used in com- binations where its defects were not so glaring. the prin- ciple on which this cap is designed is that the volutes a are growing out and curling over the edge of the contracted echinus , while the whole is covered with an eight-sided abacus , strongly resembling the corinthian. the space under the abacus and between the volutcs is filled with a carved rosette, or, in a few instances, with an animal's head. . roman-corinthian rder.—\ve now come to the corinthian, which we may consider a typical roman order. there, is but one example of richly foliated capitals in all greek art, and the modern corinthian order, though prob- ably taken from it, bears but a general resemblance to its prototype. we have gone into the details of the greek- corinthian capital, and the roman style will only be dwelt upon where it contrasts with the details of the greek. the roman-corinthian capital, shown at f, fig. , has two rows of leaves, eight in each row, so disposed that of the taller ones composing the upper row, one comes in the mid- dle, beneath each face of the abacus, and the lower leaves alternate with the upper ones, coming between the stems of the latter; so that, in the first, or lower tier of leaves, there is in the middle of each face, a space between two leaves occupied by the stem of the central leaf above them. . fig. is not taken from any particular edifice, but is compiled from a number of different structures, in order to get a general type of the order. the shaft here is fluted with twenty-four flutes, though in many of the best examples it is not fluted at all. the portico of the pantheon possesses one of the handsomest examples of the corinthian order in historic ornament. § rome, but the granite columns are left unfluted, and their surfaces are highly polished, to com- pensate for the omission. the base of the corinthian column varies somewhat in dif- ferent examples, but _is most frequently an en- riched variation of the greek-attic. it is scarce- ly necessary to comment on the pedestal of either the corinthian or com- posite orders, as there is no change from the ped- estal of the previously described orders, except an elongation of the die kg and an increase of the e number of the moldings \ that ornament its top c " c_ and base a. the same may be said of the base d e of the column, the only i change from the previous . orders being 'an increase l___ of the members between the two torus moldings. t the shaft e of the col- ~ _ umn is but slightly longer 'than in the ionic order, .t_ but the increase in the height of the capital makes the entire column ten diameters high. ,the entablature, however, is very different from any we have yet described. the architrave g is divided into three “iii fig. . § historic ornament. horizontal bands, or facias, as was the ionic, but instead of a plain projection of one facia beyond the other, they are separated by a number of different small mold- ings, which, in nearly every instance, were carved and enriched al- most to excess. the frieze h is here shown as plain, but the ma- jority of examples show it carved in high re- lief. the cornice i exhibits the greatest alteration from the pre- vious orders that we have yet seen. a row of dentils are support- ed by a cyma reversa immediately above the " " ' frieze, similar to the ionic arrangement; but - immediately above this we have a heavy ovolo supporting a row, of course, of modz'llz'ous. f m/ p ———f——"- elli/ p. e d y-jlj -io—- mjja—- -- -—q—/mijp.- c . a modilllon is the projecting bracket supporting the corona of the corinthian en- tablature. these brack- ets possess a volute somewhat similar to that of the ionic capi- tal, but curved in the opposite direction. a fm. . historic ornament. § . composite order.—between the corinthian and composite orders there is very little difference except in the size of the volutes, and, with the exception of the cap- ital of the column, there is scarcely any difference in the proportions of their parts. fig. shows the general form of this essentially roman composition, but omitting entirely the ornamentation of the frieze and moldings, which is as much a part of this order as the triglyphs are of the doric. ornamentation, as a rule, forms no part of the order that it enriches, and, consequently, should not be considered a part of the structure of the order, but the composite order was invented by the romans for no other purpose than to carry heavy ornamentation; in fact, it was the excessive and extravagant ornamentation of the corinthian order that caused the composite to spring into existence, and our example is, therefore, not com- plete until it receives such ornamentation as may be appropriate to its purpose. the general form is here given, and the application of ornament will be discussed later, in its proper place. the pedestal of the composite order is almost identical with that of the corinthian, there being but a few slight changes in the moldings of its base and its cap, while the die is a trifle longer. the base, shaft, and capital of the column are the same- height as the corinthian, and with the exception of the capital are almost the same in design. the architrave, frieze, and cornice have the same rela- tive proportions as in the previous order, but are treated somewhat more elaborately in the subdivisions of their parts. the composite capital is a combination of the cor- inthian and the ionic capital from the roman temple of concord, heretofore referred to. it is not an artistic combination, but its broad, strong volutes give an unus- ual surface on which to carve florid ornament, and, as such, it suited exactly the later-day admirers of every- thing strictly roman. it suits its place in modern art very well, when in proper handling, but the renaissance § historic ornament. architects were conspicuous in italy by the interior appli- cation of the composite order in every spot where it did not belong. . the 'roman acanthus.—the acanthus leaves under the roman modillions and those around the bells of the corinthian capitals are placed, one before the other, stifily and inartistically; they are not even bound together by the necking at the top of the shaft, but appear to have been cut off to rest directly upon it. it will be remembered that in the capital of the egyptian column, where the stems of the flowers are arranged around the bell, they appear to be continued through the necking of the column, and at the same time express a beauty and a truth. the great facility that the roman system of decoration affords for the application of this acanthus ornament to any form and in any direction, is the lamentable cause of the invasion of this ornament into most modern work. its design requires little thought and is so easily manufac- tured that it has encouraged designers in an indolent neg- lect of one of their especial provinces—that of invention. in the use of the acanthus leaf, the romans showed but little art. they received it from the greeks most beauti- fully conventionalized, and though they went nearer to the general outline of the leaf, they exaggerated the surface decoration. the greeks confined themselves to expressing the principles of the foliation of the leaf, and bestowed great care in the delicate undulations of its surface. . character of roman ornament.—as said here- tofore, roman ornament consists essentially of one scroll growing out of another and encircling a flower or a group of leaves, as shown in fig. . which is a characteristic piece of roman ornament. this is the principle of greek ornament, and though the romans borrowed the principle, they omitted the greek refinement. historic ornament. § the most characteristic method of using the acanthus leaf in roman art can be seen in the roman concep- tion of the corinthian capital, fig. . the amount of design that can be obtained by working on this prin- ciple of roman orna- ment—of leaf within leaf and leaf over leaf -—is very limited, and it was not until the principle of one leaf growing out of an- other in a continuous line was abandoned, for the adoption of a continuous stem throwing off ornaments on either side, that the pure conventional ornament received any development. . painted decorations—the painted decorations of roman art are comparatively few; the style was some- what similar to what we see at pompeii—an adoption from the greek, executed in the hands of the roman artists. the coloring is hardly worth great consideration, .as it possessed nothing of an original character; and the stu- dent should bear in mind that all art forms of rome are borrowed forms. her construction she inherited from etruria, and combined it with the art obtained in greece. in fact, it might be said that there is no true roman style, that is to say, executed by romans themselves, for the roman was essentially a warrior and a politician, and his art works were designed by the subjugated greek and his structural works put into effect by descendants from the etruscans. the transition of greek ornament into the styles of europe was simply delayed by the conquest of greece § historic ornament. by rome, and, during the delay so caused, the style was degraded, and spread throughout the country in that condition. - rolianesque ornament. . . development of the romanesque style—in considering the romanesque style, it must be borne in mind that the roman empire covered almost the entire continent of europe, and that roman art had penetrated as far west as spain and as far north as england and the baltic sea. after the downfall of the western roman empire, the conquering races from the north attempted to carry out the roman style of building as they found it in different parts of the country, and the endeavor to apply these art forms under a new system of religion, and influenced by different conditions of government and living, together with the necessity of practicing a rigid economy in material, caused an alteration of the original roman style and brought about the style that we now consider romanesque. . the fall of the western roman empire, in a. d.,- therefore marked the beginning of a new architec- tural era throughout all europe (except possibly in the east- ern empire, with its capital at byzantium), and the so called dark ages that followed this event may be considered as a formative period of western civilization during which the barbaric conquerors of rome became gradually christian- ized and were subjected to the authority and educational influences of the church. under these conditions a new architectural style was developed, founded on the traditions of the earlier chris- tian builders, but modified in dilferent regions by local influences. the prevailing characteristics of the style were at first essentially roman, for rome soon recovered her antique prestige as the leading city of europe, and the roman monuments covering the soil of southern historic ornament. § europe were a constant object lesson to the builders at that time. . influence of the church.-—romanesque archi- tecture was distinctly ecclesiastical. civilization and culture emanated directly from the church, .and the requirements and discipline of the religious orders gave form to the builders’ art. corinthian columns, marble incrustations, splendid mosa- ics, etc. were not to be obtained in the forest lands of france and germany, and the priests caused to be erected with unskilled labor churches of stone, and the struggle with this structural problem underlies the entire system of roman- esque design. \ . system of building under roman domination. the romans, when they wished to erect grand monuments of public utility, could send to the spot, no matter how remote, an army of soldiers, and, by their tyrannical system of government, compel the very inhabitants of the locality to desist from all their employments and work for the emperor of rome. they thus achieved by a multitude of hands those prodigious results that today stand monuments not only of their enterprise but also of their despotism. had the builders of the middle ages desired to pursue this course, where would they have found the army of work- men? in countries not only without stone but without money to buy it, without beasts of burden to transport material if they could buy it, without even roads over which to travel, how could these people make any attempt to follow the course of their roman predecessors? bearing these facts in mind as we study romanesque ornament, we will readily see in the earlier examples an attempt to copy roman art—an attempt that failed as a duplication of an antique style, but was eminently successful in the development of a new style that was much more rational than the one back to which the middle-age builder had been looking. § historic ornament. . in fig. is shown the capital of a column, the moldings of which and the crude formations of whose leaves are easily traceable to the roman-corinthian order; fig. a i fic. . and the capital shown in fig. , though entirely different from that shown in fig. , also illustrates the influence of classic art and the corinthian order in the formation of the style at this period. more clearly, perhaps, than either of these is the base shown f . ‘ . fig. . in fig. , which dates back to the eleventh century. here the moldings are almost identical with those seen on the classic columns. in fig. is shown a base of later date, which exhibits a radical departure from the classic lines. historic ornament. § . the frieze shown in fig. is taken from an exam- ple in southern germany, dating back to the twelfth century. \ .iiiiiiiiil}|};,,nllr;l; , fig. . the treatment of the leaf forms there clearly shows a classic origin, but the boldness of the treatment shows an inclination § . historic ornament. to become independent of the traditions of the classic style, and in fig. the ornament, taken from a french church of the twelfth century, shows a decided freedom from the governing rules of classic design, although the, character of the curves and proportions of the surface covered is strongly suggestive of the greek anthemion. in fig. is shown a most independent example, where we have the main running stem and the branches from alternating sides, while the small pyramid forms cut in the main stem appear here and are characteristic of the romanesque period. i'llll' militia»i...........imtumntllllll»,“ ...illllllllli i. :i mm fig. . in fig. is shown an example of german twelfth-century art that shows the possible influence of celtic work. observe that, complicated as this design at first appears, it is really very simple in construction and contains only one leaf form arranged in two positions. the entire free flowing lines are then woven around these forms to produce a most satisfactory effect. . in repeating ornament and diaper patterns, fig. shows a simple arrangement of circles from the church of st. denis, at paris, dating back to the twelfth century, while historic ornament. § fig. shows a diaper pattern from the lincoln cathedral, - in- england, of the same period, showing a radical difference in style on account of the remote- ness from rome. in figs. and are shown two patterns taken from stained- glass windows, the former of ger- man design and the latter french. the simplicity of the design in each case is its distinguishing characteristic, and, though in ap- pearance somewhat complicated, a little study eliminates all “‘ . § historic ornament. complications, and shows the geometrical principle on which it is constructed to be of utmost simplicity. . origin of gothic and byzantine ornament.— from these few examples, with which the artists of the romanesque period decorated their structural details, we see that the application of romanesque forms was simple— simple from a necessity of economy, and simple on account of a freedom of mind devoid of any art traditions. the builder and designer of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries had no memories of rome or greece to follow, and no historical forms that had been handed down from genera- tion to generation, to copy which was almost required by law, and to depart from which would have been a sacrilege in the eyes of his country. the medieval builder attacked his problem with no other tools than his eye and his brain, and gradually developed the form of art that we call romanesque, and that culminated in two entirely new styles, both in construction and ornamentation—the got/tic in the west and the byzantine in the east. byzantine ornadient. . oriental influence.—in the east, around the city of byzantium, romanesque ornament was influenced by the art of assyria and persia. in fact, its entire character became tinged with an oriental spirit, and, in the course of the next three or four centuries, it developed into a new and entirely different style of architecture and art, known as byzantine. the old roman forms became obsolete and gave place to new forms, original, beautiful, and artistic. it will readily be understood that there would be a period of transition between the slowly developing romanesque and the finished byzantine style, and it is with such exam- ples of ornament as date from this period of transition that uncertainty as to their proper classification arises. it is more diflicult to distinguish between these styles, whose g historic ornament. .oa .o-h q. (q a . ' ..) fr, -fifitr, , t. , a talent. historic ornament. § exhausted by the prodigious expense. but the church was built, and is certainly one of the grandest architectural monuments the world has ever seen. the plan and con- struction of this edifice is no more remarkable than the scale and treatment of its interior decoration (see fig. ), and it stands to byzantine architecture as the parthenon stood to the greek. unfortunately it is now converted into a moham- medan mosque, and the severity of the mohammedan religion required that its beautiful interior decorations should be covered from sight by repeated applications of whitewash. however, we have been able to secure reproductions of some of these great ornaments so characteristic of the byzantine style. . examples of byzantine style.-—at ravenna, which was the seat of government of the eastern empire under justinian, the church of san vitale is also a fine example of the byzantine style, and at ravenna, byzantine art reached its height in this edifice. venice also felt largely the byzantine influence, and the church of st. mark, built in the eleventh century, is a monu- ment patterned largely after the plan and decoration of hagia sophia; and, extending as far south as sicily, we have the cathedral of monreale, near palermo, showing strong byzan- tine influences, but at the same time possessing many details that are so strongly character- istic of the romanesque style that it is difficult in many cases to classify them. . the capital shown in fig. is from one ot the columns in the first tier of . arches in the church of hagia sophia, at constantinople- the scrolls in the upper part of this column undoubtedly have their origin in the ionic order, and, though the entire capital is fig. . § historic ornament. decorated with the conventionalized acanthus leaf, observe how widely different it is from any roman model. here the block of the capital is sound and heavy, and at its bot- ' tom is a foliated ring that seems to bind it together, while the carved leafwork grows out of the top of the column and enters materially into the construction of the capi- tal itself. another byzantine capi~ tal, shown in fig. , is taken from another church in constantinople, built about the same time as hagia sophia, but less original in detail. here the heavy scrolls project from the angles of the capital very much in the same man- ner as the volutes in the temple of concord at rome, and the place usually occupied by the abacus is filled by a heavy semipyramidal form on which the ornament seems to be applied as a surface decoration more than a component part of the construction. the effect of this illustrates, however, a radical departure from the traditions that limitated the architectural designs in roman art; and even when we arrive at byzan- tine capitals of the eleventh century,as seen in st. mai k's, at venice, fig. , we can still observe the influence of roman art, but thoroughly subservient to the byzantine school of design. . in fig. , the volutes at fig, m, i the top of the eolumn, the shape of the capital 'as it swells out to the abacus, and the general character of the historic ornament. ur entire detail are strongly suggestive of its roman-corinthian .origin; but the strictly conventional treatment of the leaves, the character of the scroll around the abacus, and the bind- ing together of the ornament in ,ii e. i i i i i i | the construction show plainly the . n " influence of the work in the east. > r l ‘ ‘ ~.\_ ,. '\ | / \ fig. is another example of byzantine capital, from italy, and is even more freed from roman influence than that of the previous example. the long elliptical curves formed by the leaves, the sharp-pointed lobes, and the deep v indentations are all suggestive of f " its byzantine origin, while the little row of dentils so useless]; arranged around the top show the difficulty of producing any work in italy without some taint of classic spirit. . the running ornament is illustrated in fig. , which example is taken from the same church as fig. , where the leaf form is thoroughly conventional, and, though fig. . tending slightly toward a scroll, is governed by a continuous wavy line, from opposite sides of which the leaf forms branch. fig. is an example of geometrically arranged running ornament from hagia sophia. the main geometrical forms, as will be observed, are circles, but these circles are not formed complete in themselves, but result from the crossing § historic ornament. and intersection of two wavy lines precisely the same in general character as the wavy line that forms the governing element of fig. . instead of branching foliage from oppo- fro. . site sides of the lines, in the latter case, however, geometrical figures are arranged within, and foliated forms that have the cross of st. george for their guiding element are used to form prominent details of the design. 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", ‘ *.ch "swims-. ?“- fig. . . going back again now to the church of st. mark, built in the eleventh century, we have a wall decoration historic ornament. § between two arches, shown in fig. . tracing out the outline of this running surface ornament, it will be observed that the same wavy line governs its principle and direction, as in the case of fig. ; but a close study will show that the branching of leaves from one side is accompanied by a branch from the opposite side, so near that the general feeling is of a scroll growing out of a scroll, somewhat after the order of classic art. above this ornament, however, the semi- circular ring is ornamented by geometrical devices within a governing outline, precisely similar to that seen at’hagia sophia, fig. . in all these examples, the student will observe that the character of the leaf is particularly uniform, that it is in the principle of the decoration that we find the greatest variation, and that the variation in this character only amounts to a greater or lesser display of oriental or classic influence. . examples of byzantine art found in greece are usually purer than any found in italy, as roman art and influence never secured a thoroughly characteristic foothold in the conquered country. byzantine art was built on greek § historic ornament, art in the first place, and examples of it on greek soil are usually of excellent character. besides this, greek examples have not been mutilated by mohammedan invasion to the extent that we find them in other eastern countries, and the color treatment and contrast can be best studied there. . ceiling decoration. fig. shows an example of ceiling decoration from the church of st. george at thessa- lonica. the circular ornament within the border was exe- cuted in red on a blue ground, though the hollow-sided square in the center of it was gold, as were also the triangles at the four corners. the peculiar outline of the device adja- _ cent to the four sides of the interior rectangle is suggestive of arabian origin, and is exceedinglyingeniousinits method of preserving symmetry and preventing awkward repetition. the border around this was executed entirely in gold on a blue ground, with the exception of the extreme outside line, which was red. . wall decomtlon.—fig. is an example of wall fig. . decoration from the same edifice, the rectangles and circles containing the leaves and crosses, all being worked with a historic ornament. plain gold round, while the figures and half of the smaller crosses were green and the outlines of the larger crosses and the remaining smaller crosses were red. the effect is very rich, and the arrangement of the rectangles and smaller circles shows a knowledge of surface division that is well carried into effect. the student's attention is particularly called to the fact that the shape of the groundwork between the rectangles is also crucial, and that every effort is made to bring that symbolic detail into prominent display. . in giving examples of byzantine ornament, nothing could be more characteristic than the stone panels herewith illustrated. the style of the ornament itself, the character of the carving, and the development of the geometrical pat- tern are all details that. are shown here in a most character- istic byzantine form. ’ ' >\‘ ‘_ . e; ~~ \m ‘ m ‘ r ,. ' _. 'g‘g‘,‘;l'§ <>g!ft ., , . g._ ')sz ‘ j p j _ ‘ " { ' l? p'za'epalffi) ‘ " i ! ?. . v. ' ' .. ~ l . ,‘\ _l.:‘ i w, l)! *‘\_‘¢l .‘,( ,} _. ‘ lit! ‘ i _ v.'. ‘ i}, . _ , § ‘ ' — ,nw ‘ ‘; ‘.‘;e ’x. . ,f‘! 'i q . _. i g } at?! j “fl ‘ \ ')? ’ “. " ,", i " “ugymil‘ggfi; ‘ v ‘ w- r; ' a '. _-l'\" - k , {in} " ",! _, . {iii/q .“ a. ra-' fig. . . the pierced screen shown in fig. is from ravenna, and illustrates the geometrical pattern based on an arrangement of circles (somewhat after the style of the celtic ornament), in which is carved the typical byzantine § historic ornament. leaf. the cross outlined in the center was emphasized in the original by a plating of gold, and the spaces around the foliage were filled with birds whose peculiar modeling and conventional outline is characteristic of the byzantine style. another characteristic of the style, shown clearly in this illustration, is the sharp angular cutting of the leaves, the deep circular and elliptical openings between the lobes of two adjacent leaves, and the tendency of the whole panel to appear in high relief on a dark ground rather than to be pierced through entirely. in fig. is shown another screen of the same character, where the interlaced bands that form the geometrical outline p of the foliated ornament were originally gilded, and the leaf forms carved between them are similar to those in fig. . . fig. , however, shows a trend in a different direc- tion. here the openings in the screen are larger, the exterior portion of it being outlined with a design undoubtedly derived from the grecian fret, while in the center a large latin cross divides the panel into four smaller rectangles, historic ornament. § each filled with a particular device symbolic of christianity and characteristic of the byzantine style. observe also the running foliage around this panel, and its branching leaves and fruit, alternately from opposite sides, and note the differ- fig. ence between this style of treating foliage and that of the roman and greek artists, where continuous foliage was accomplished by growing one spray or stem out of a calyx or cup from which a scroll emanated. . the capital of the column shown in fig. is also from ravenna, and the peculiar looking birds on the upper part, as well as the sharply indented foliage, are character- istic of this style. here, also, is seen that same geometrical pattern as the governing outline to which we called atten- tion in fig. , and also the wandering-vine border line, § historic ornament. throwing off its leaves on alternate sides in a similar manner to the outline in fig. . that the capital of the column is cut in full relief is clearly shown by the fact that the light shines through the screen work on to the stone interior, as may be seen. this style of capital will be found throughout northern italy where any example of byzantine style exists. the dark portions _ of it were originally gilded, and inust certainly have pre- sented a most remarkable effect. . turning to st. mark's, at venice, fig. , we find a frieze such as shown in fig. , the lines of which are based on identically the same motives as the screens we historic ornament. g “ . i. w v n a r”. ll § historic ornament. have already studied; but the carving, though in high relief, does not pierce the screen, and the border of the panel, as well as the treatment of the foliage within the panel, shows a highly developed byzantine feeling. observe, however, . - v w).“wafwswmwé. . \ifil‘fn’l‘df'fl‘fhyy'ingqworkfiwa ‘ ‘-.j ~\il..l|\gl-iili|l-i i. .n-lnlu-n “ ' .,'f ‘ \£‘\lf’l , ~ i w ‘. ': \ i ' } a _ , r . a ~";r[r"yvy\;;" / ) ' ' r '“ /-'/.' /j n; " "qr-“i )-,-\.-l,_._' ,a_,,\_, ,. ‘mmaa*ma¢w .v—i. ).: - ‘/.~'.\'/.~.\"anal/ngagus. an.svs.. .~.\ m.\'t.t..\‘ ‘ l (..., . ir“ ~\‘- .\ \‘\_q~_\- \ .~_.uu~.~.. _ ' a' \§ \,_\;-_\'-_g~_\-;\~‘_\,._\ t ( " a“. ‘ i . . : { / al =vf' i a“) 'v, ‘ ‘i iia li- / \zq‘ygg . $ ' ; /(?/\/// /(i ?//@fl ' w “éi; : “*""f"j ‘ _ fig. . the influence of its proximity to rome on the treatment of the scroll forms. in the central part of the panel we do_ not have the running vine, with its leaves branching from each side, but a partly controlled tendency to grow one § historic ornament. strong byzantine effect that the classic taint is fairly obliterated. . iiigenuity of byzantine ornament—the geo- metrical arrangements in byzantine ornament are exceed- ingly ingenious, and especially remarkable in mosaic work, flo. . the monotony of which they destroy by well planned and complicated constructions based usually upon a variation of the straight line and the right angle. in fig. is shown one of the doorways in the cathedral of monreale, near palermo, around which mosaic patterns are inlaid in the jambs and also in the flanking walls. the pattern of this mosaic is typical of examples of that art in the byzantine style, as the byzantine mosaics can nearly always be distinguished from the roman mosaics by the historic ornament. § fact that the geometrical construction forms an integral part of the design. there is one style of this mosaic ornament that is also typical of the romanesque period, particularly fig. . this consists of a geometrical arrangement of shaped pieces of glass in a complicated series of diagonal lines, the directions of which are defined and terminated by means of pieces in different colors. in italy. lozenge § historic ornament. the examples of this work in central italy are much simpler than those of the southern provinces of sicily, where the influences of saracenic art are very much felt; and this mosaic work, as observed in the southern provinces, is very difficult to classify positively, either in the romanesque or the byzantine style. historic ornament. § . in fig. are shown some clustered columns from the cathedral of monreale. one group of four columns is richly carved with the interlaced ornament so familiar in the examples of byzantine art, while the adjacent columns, inlaid with zigzag lines of mosaic, are more suggestive of roman- esque art, and the capitals and bases of both sets of columns are more in accordance with the romanesque idea than with the byzantine. this, however, may be largely accounted for when we consider that both styles were merged together in sicily at about the close of the twelfth century, and the examples in figs. and are here given in order that the similarity of styles may be carefully studied. . sculpture in byzantine art.—pure byzantine ornament is distinguished by broad-toothed and acute- pointed leaves, which in sculpture are beveled at the edge and are deeply chiseled throughout and drilled with deep holes at the springings of the teeth. the running foliage is generally thin and continuous. the ground, whether in mosaic or painted work, is almost universally gold. thin interlaced patterns are usually preferred to geometrical designs, and the introduction of animal or other figures is very limited, especially in sculpture, and in painted work is confined principally to holy subjects in a stiff conventional style, exhibiting little variety of feeling. in fact, in byzan- tine art, sculpture is a very secondary importance. . sculpture in romanesque art.—romanesque ornament, on the other hand, depended mostly on sculpture for its effect. it is rich in light and shade, deep cuttings and massive projections, and a great intermixture of figure subjects of every kind with foliage and conventional orna- ment. the place filled by mosaic work in the byzantine art, in the romanesque is supplied generally by paint. in colored ornament, animals are as freely introduced as in sculpture, and the ground no longer confined to gold, but composed of blue, red, or green. in other respects, how- ever, the two styles are very much alike. § historic ornament. asiatic ornaa'ien t. . characteristics of the people.—before studying the style of the ornament of this section of the eastern hemisphere, let us consider how different are the character- istics of this people from the european nations whose ornament we have so far analyzed. oriental people are traditionally immobile in character and unprogressive in their methods of business and manufacture. the processes of weaving, carving, and other practices of art design are trans- mitted carefully and faithfully in the oriental nations from generation to generation, and it is therefore practically impossible to assign a precise date to any one production, so similar are the designs. the study of oriental art is there- fore freed from any minute chronological examination, and the student is able to consider the subject in a broad sense, _ considering only primary and original styles that predomi- nate over lesser divisions and personal modifications. these styles can be divided into three general groups: ( ) c/n'nese and japanrsc, indian, and arabian. chinese and japanese ornalient, . the chinese are a nation of great antiquity, and we can discover no detail of art training that they have ever given to or received from any other civilization. this nation has been ever satisfied with itself, and this lack of progression and consequent isolation have given it an originality of character devoid of any detail that we find of the art works of other nations, unless we except those general geometrical formations that instinct seems to have implanted uniformly in the minds of every known race. . primitiveness of chinese rnament.—chinese ornament does not seem to have gone beyond the very earliest stages of design that we find among the most prim- itive people. they are even behind the new zealander in historic ornament. their theory of applied art, and are plodding along in the creation of fresh designs at a fixed point that is neither pro- gression nor retrogression. like all oriental nations, they possess a wonderful faculty of color harmony, but they have never expressed an appreciation of pure form—a condition that must necessarily be arrived at by a subtle process and result from highly endowed natural instincts, or from the development of primitive ideas through successive gen- erations of artists, each improving on the work of its predecessor. in their decorative and woven patterns, the chinese pos- sess only just such talent as might be expected of a most primitive people. their most successful efforts are those in which a geometrical pattern forms the basis of a design, and even in these they depart from patterns formed by the inter- section of equal lines, and seem to have a very imperfect idea of the distribution of space. ' their taste for color, which amounts almost to an instinct, enables them in some measure to balance form, but in designs deprived of color they seem to be almost helples's. the chinese are certainly colorists, and are able to balance with equal success both the fullest tones of color and the most delicate shades. they are not only successful in the use of _ the primary colors, but also in the secondaries and tertiaries, and they are particularly deft in their management of the lighter shades of pure color, such as pink, light blue, pale green, etc. . lack of idealism in chinese ornament.-in their printed paper hangings, the treatment of both figures and landscape and of ornament is so conventional that, no matter how inartistic we may consider it, we feel that it is within the bounds of decoration. in all cases, their instinct thus rcstrains them within the true limit, and although the arrangement is generally unnatural and inartistic, they never by shades or shadows violate consistency, as is repeatedly done in work at the present day. in their floral patterns, they always observed natural laws § historic ornament. of radiation from the parent stem, and tangential curvature. it could not very well be otherwise with a people like the chinese, whose strongest peculiarity is their fidelity in copy- ing, and hence we must infer that they are close observers of nature. it is the taste to idealize on this close observa- tion that is wanting. on the whole, chinese ornament is a very faithful expression of the nature of this peculiar people. its characteristic feature is oddness. we cannot call it capricious, for caprice is a playful wandering of a lively imagination; but the chinese imagination is disorderly, and all their works are wanting in the highest grace of art, namely, idealism. . dearth of chinese architecture.—-the extreme fancifulness of chinese ornamental compositions, and the lack of order or method in them, is not surprising when we take into consideration the fact that the chinese have never developed anything worthy of the name of architecture in the true sense of the word. they have no original form of construction that would be likely to give rise to a system of ornament in which even the most insignificant designs have been known to assume character and even grandeur, as is so well exemplified in egyptian style. . the absence of a national architecture renders the character and genius of the chinese easily understood. to this peopie, that seems to occupy itself with naught but details in everything, the conception of a monumental building is entirely beyond comprehension. certainly, this circumstance is largely responsible for the condition of the chinese today and the rudimentary character of their designs. the first element of beauty in the chinese school of art is variety, and in their foliated designs we find leaves following one after another bearing not the slightest resemblance to one another. one panel of a screen painted with aland- scape will be set beside another ornamented with metallic arabesques. the use of straight lines and right angles is historic ornament. § either studiously avoided or so disguised that they will be vague or misunderstood. . chinese colorlng.—that the chinese imagination is of adisorderly character is shown in some of their curiously shaped forms; these are so entirely different from those with which we are more familiar, and so completely destitute of the elements that cause an impression of grandeur, that the interest in their designs is with difficulty maintained. the chinese are apparently ignorant of the simplest laws of perspective, and seem in no way to comprehend the effect of light and shade. notwithstanding this inferiority, however, the coloring of their ornament is so rich, and their imagina- tion is so wild and irregular, that they make a varied and charming use of their ornament in particular applications, such as ceramics, incrustations, and woven fabrics. . their productions are models of color harmony, and are in some respects superior to the works of other nations. the very defects in their designs form sources of some of the good qualities that accompany them, and the capricious activity of their minds inclines them to make an ornament of every- thing, whether it be a cloud, wave, shell, rock, or form from the animal world. the bright-colored butterfly flitting among flowers and the flaming thunderbolt bursting from the heavens are of equal importance to the chinese artist when applied to a surface as ornament. to these rich and varied resources may be added a limited number of time-honored figures that, to a certain extent, have symbolical significance. lve are all familiar with the chinese dragons—those monsters with frightful heads, formidable looking teeth, and fearful claws—certain funny looking dogs with claws, sharp teeth, and curling mains somewhat resembling the lion, grotesque birds, and the mandarin duck, all of which are conspicuous in chinese decoration. . adherence to standard forms.—a peculiarchar- acteristic of this art is that, though it appears in itself so § historic ornament. capricious, its execution expresses such faithfulness of trans- mission in the representation of things from generation to generation that the lapse of hundreds of years has not caused the slightest modification of one of these standard ornaments. this may be due to the effect of the imitative instinct of this isolated nation that, so advanced in some points and so primitive in others, is always consistent in itself. it is possible, however, that this fidelity in the observance of the form and coloring of some preceding work is due to some mysterious rules—some sort of ritual perpetuated through various ages. ancient laws and customs established certain rules governing the color of the robes and vestments of the imperial court, according to different dynasties; once it was white, afterwards green, and the tai tasig dynasty, now reigning in china, dresses in yellow. chinese art is a mixture of ideal and imitative elements, the latter being used in the mest conventional manner, the coloring of which is also conventional and not in the least subject to any imitation of nature. - . japanese art, though borrowed from the chi- nese, possesses much greater individuality and is better preserved to the present day. the japanese have devel- oped the study of nature, especially in birds, with more truthfulness and power of observation than did their ances- tors or rivals, and their imitative style is therefore less conventional. however, even though their delicate pro- ductions have added fresh charms to the old chinese cer- amics, they are not equal to the figures of the work of the finest periods. one of the principal causes of the general progress of japanese art may he found in the fact that a great profusion of examples of design of all sorts, conceived by good artists and carved in wood, are so distributed as to be constantly before the general public. therein lies an element of prog- ress, as it cultivates a taste for objects of art among the common people and creates a demand. when all objects and utensils of service and utility are richly carved and historic ornament. § decorated with ornamental designs, the eye is bound to become educated and the general taste of the people more refined. this is strongly exemplified in the egyptian civilization. indian ornament. . unprogressiveness of indian a ~t.—although less isolated than china, and in more frequent communication with the rest of the world, indian civilization has not experienced such changes as mark the history of many other nations. the social and religious organizations, the priests, and castes of people, the sacred books and poetry, and the manners, customs, and superstitions remain today much as they were among the hindus hundreds of years ago. art naturally has shared in this standstill, and the sub- stance of indian decoration is still limited to a few general features that for many centuries have undergone no funda- mental alteration. the most striking of these characteristics are the continuity and abundance of decoration. the sur- face decoration is usually filled up entirely with a profusion of ornamental forms that, if not exactly alike, are very similar. the ground color is always warm and harmonious—occa- sionally light, though more frequently dark—which serves to unite the designs and add greatly to the general effect. . the method of distribution and the admirable feel- ing for color procures in indian decoration a richness and calm that gives it an undefinable sense of repose. the tendency of the style toward monotony is overcome by this powerful unity that leaves no room for desire or need of greater variety. the designs are usually based on some floral type and are treated in a most conventional manner, and though the imitation bears a closer resemblance to nature than in most of the styles we have studied, it is by no means servile. the type from which an ornament is derived can usually be recognized without trouble, and, although floral ornament is occasionally seen under the pure art form historic ornament. § . when gold ornaments are used on a colored ground, or where gold is used in large masses, there the ground is darkest. where gold is used more thinly, the ground is lighter and more delicate. . when gold ornament is used alone on a colored ground, the color of the ground is carried into it by ornaments or hatchings worked on the ground colors in the gold itself. . when ornaments in one color are on a ground of con- trasting color, the ornament is separated from the ground by an edging of a lighter color to prevent all harshness of contrast. . when, on the contrary, ornaments in a color are on a gold ground, the ornaments are separated from the gold ground by an edging of darker color to prevent the gold from overpowering the ornament. . in other cases where varieties of color are used on a colored ground, a general outline of gold, of silver, or of white or yellow silk separates the ornament from the ground, giving a general tone throughout. : . ,in fig. is shown a diaper pattern taken from an indian textile, and exhibits the regularity of repeated form v \ y a \ a) a a a )k "i it i? w -? in t? “ $ . fig. . ‘ ,) a}. £ } ’ a a * \ ) it; \ > . that thoroughly fills up the surface, as heretofore described. there is a slight tendency toward a geometrical formation § , historic ornament. observable in this pattern, where the wavy line becomes tangent to its neighbor. this geometrical pattern is not as rigidly carried out, however, as in fig. , where the construction lines governing the main details consist merely of semi- circles connected by short straight lines, thereby forming knees, as indicated at a. the style of ornament enclosed in the geometrical figures thus formed is typical of indian design, and shows a number of forms tangent to a general stem, all of which may have had their origin in brush strokes of painted work, or possibly in the shape of the palm leaf, which they slightly resemble. fm, f—wva. p / va i| ll. , h", : ., : . ,” vj _ u ,. . in fig. is shown a typical example of indian ornament taken from a woolen fabric, many of the details of ( r ' \p \i s _ a‘f'zq”$' vfl)wye »na~ i, “q i '- § q“ ‘t . a, r';\ z," x j ' ‘.) ‘it is: aa: . , :e'v ‘iv f‘ o “ 'in’ ‘ wu - ‘ a" v .- > \‘;‘,\él l\‘: $k l\\ g, &‘ \\‘; ; \‘\ ‘.'\_\_ ¢\: fig. ‘ . which will be found similar to the strokes referred to in historic ornament. § fig. . these forms, though more or less foliated, do not bear a very strong resemblance to the natural type, but in fig. we have an example of silverware where the chased design is a conventionalized form of flower, but in more direct imitation of nature than exhibited in the other examples. . these few examples illustrate by comparison the different handling of ornament by the indian designers to suit it to various purposes. the patterns shown in figs. and are seen more usually in light fabrics, while that in fig. is woven in heavier woolen goods, and that in fig. is executed in metal. in objects of low-tone combinations of color, a black gen- eral outline is used to separate the ornament from the ground. the object always appears to be, in the woven fabric, that each ornament should be softly and not harshly defined, that colored objects viewed at a distance should present a neu- tralized bloom, that nearer approach should exhibit the beautiful details, and that a close inspection should divulge the means whereby these effects are produced. in this, the indian carries out the same principle of surface decoration that we find in the architecture of the arabs and moors. the ornament in the spandrel of a moorish arch and in an indian shawl are constructed on precisely the same principles. § _ historic ornament. . indian decoration, like the chinese, is unprogressive and introduces no new forms in its designs, but repeats traditionally generation after generation the same forms for the same purposes. i arabian ornament. . important as was the influence of byzantine art in europe from the sixth to the eleventh century, there was no people that it affected more than the great and spreading arab race that propagated the creed of mohammed, and, after conquering the finest countries in asia and africa, finally obtained a footing even in europe. in the earlier buildings executed by them in egypt, palestine, and spain, the influ- ence of the byzantine style is very strongly marked, and the tradition of the byzantine school affected all the adjacent countries to a greater or less degree. although the arabs must have possessed an original art, only a few traces of it remain, and these are in legends wherein grand buildings are spoken of that date back to remote antiquity. it is known that the wandering and stationary tribes dis- tinguished each other by the name of “felt people " and “clay people," and this would lead one to the impression that the latter title implied a knowledge of ceramics; but the character of the decoration of the pottery of these early tribes is. at present unknown, as is also that of their arms, fabrics, and fixed dwellings. . development of arabian ornament.—on their contact with the greeks, east indians, and persians, the arabian people produced a style of ornament that formed an important part in the compromise now called by the name byzantine. subsequently, when byzantine art had reached its zenith, arabian art, under the influence of islam, took the form under which we now know it, and may have shown in some applications a certain byzantine influence exercised on the arab practice. it is unreasonable, however. to consider o historic ornament. § byzantine art, as is sometimes done, as being originally a formation of the arab style, as the latter has too much char- acter and unity not to be in itself an original conception. there appears to have been a mutual influence exercised between the byzantine and arabian during the earliest peri- ods, as inevitably happens in a contest for supremacy between two neighboring styles; but if the arab received anything from the perfected byzantine, it may be said that they were only partly taking buck their own from an art that had drawn so largely from oriental sources, not only during its forma- tion but also up to the period of its greatest development. . influence of mohammedanism.——\vhen the mohammedan religion spread with such astounding rapidity over the east, the increasing demands of civilization natu- rally led to the creation of a new style of art, and while it is certain that the early mohammedan structures were either an adaptation of old roman or byzantine buildings, or else buildings constructed from the ruins and materials of the ancient monuments, it is equally certain that the new ideas and expression of feelings must at a very early period have given rise to a characteristic form of art. in buildings con- structed largely of old materials, they endeavored to imitate the details borrowed from old buildings, and the same result followed that had already taken place in the transition of the roman style to the byzantine. the imitations were crude and imperfect, but this imperfection created a new order of ideas; and instead of returning to the original model, they gradually threwoff the restrictions, and earlyin their history formed and perfected a style of art peculiarly their own. . with the study of arabian ornament, we meet the first restrictions in the application of certain forms in deco- ration. the mohammedan religion forbids the use of any animal or vegetable forms as an element of design. the koran, which occupies the same position in the moham- medan belief that the bible does in the christian, distinctly states that the follower of mohammed “shall make no § historic ornament. images." we therefore find in the arabian style, as a substi- tute for the foliated design we are now so familiar with, a sys- tem of constructive ornament, the complicated framing of which was fascinating to the geometrical mind of the arab. . this is shown clearly in fig. , which is the out- side of a staircase in egypt, the panels of which are enriched by very beautiful gcmnetrical devices—complicatcd in their construction but really simple in their formation when their historic ornament. § governing lines are traced out. take, for instance, the large triangular panel, and it will be found that all the figures therein are formed by the intersection and crossing of a number of zigzag lines, several of which are exactly the same in pattern but arranged at different angles. this is characteristic of all arabian and moorish designs, as we shall see hereafter. the continuity of the ornament entirely covers the surface in arabian as in indian art, and nothing can be removed from the design without occasioning a feeling of loss. the means employed, however, are different, and, while the mere repetition of objects frequently suflices in indian decoration, the arabian ornament, on the contrary, is built up and bound together in all its parts. everything is con- nected, and, from the circumference to the center of the interlacings in a piece of rose work, there is a continuous line that cannot be broken without destroying the design. this imaginative construction is sometimes double, that is, foi'iticdl by two complete systems that follow each other to an end without confusion, but meet and overlap to produce incidental figures, intersections, and alterations. . arabian decoration. -— notwithstanding this learned complication, arabian decoration is clear and dis- tinct, thanks to the general purity and fineness of the lines and the exclusion of all superfluity. this is also due to the principle observed in the construction of the “roses,” wherein the wider spans are reserved for the extremities of the circumference, leaving to the radiating center, from which they diverge, the fine work that throws out boldly, thus fix- ing the eye on the key of the whole composition as the central point of a circle. . in fig. is shown another example of this style of ornament, taken from a mosaic § historic ornament. pavement in a mosque at cairo, in egypt. here the geo- metrical simplicity of the pattern can be easily traced, as the design consists simply of two horizontally arranged zigzag lines, crossed at regular intervals by sets of diago- nally arranged zigzag lines, the patterns of which are all identical. . in fig. we have an ornament generated on a dif- ferent system but on a similar geometrical idea. this orna- ment, too, is suggestive of the fret pattern, though entirely different from any frets we have hitherto observed. how- ever, the shape of the enclosed figure abca'cj, it will be fig. . observed, is identically the same as the figure g : z'jkl, and the repetition and alternate arrangement of these two pecu- liar outlincs give us the key to the whole system of orna- ment shown in the figure. this result is obtained by an arrangement of the simplest forms imaginable, but the geometrical and intellectual study required to perfect these forms to bring about the result is something tremendous, and the student will readily see that it really requires more brain work to produce a simple look- ing design like fig. , than the complicated arrangement of straight lines shown in fig. . ". another pattern is shown in fig. , and consists of a number of scrolls of a more or less geometrical character. historic ornament. § and, though simple in itself, it is fascinatinegcomplicated in its conception. the design is executed in two colors, and a little study will show that the outlines of the two colors are identical. the light portions of the design in the upper half of the figure are a duplication of the dark portions of the design in the lower half of the figure, and vice versa, every detail on one half being exactly reproducible in the opposite color on the other half, and, if the figure were sawed out on the line dividing the two colors, it would produce two outlines exactly the same in every respect. we called attention to this fact in connection with the greek frets, but no greek ornament ever carried this wonderful mathematical detail to such a nicety. . arabian coloring.—in fig. we have a ceiling taken from a mosque at cairo the repetition of similar forms is clearly marked here, though the geometrical ele- ment is largely lost owing to the surface covered by the flat decoration. the colors here used were a light blue for the groundwork, over which was laid the general design in bright gold, and that overlaid with a pale yel- low, almost approaching a cream tint. light blue and pale yellow are very prominent tints in arabian ornament; red is used but sparingly, and then of a most intense shade; while green is introduced in small arabesque figures, scat- tered through with others of gold and occasionally of blue. the ground colors in nearly all instances are blue, creamy yellow, and occasionally red. - § historic ornament. . fig. is from an illuminated copy of the koran, and illustrates the influence of byzantine art on that of arabia. the general construction lines of the ornarnentare . byzantine in character, while the filling in is typically ara- bian. the small irregular spaces in the border of the desigr a " a ‘ w. ‘ m _ -"..- ~\ . mummmmmmnumnmnnmmnmifhw. iuumullmillmllmnmmlmm immmmmmmumummwwm . . 'uirm:m:unmalwn .m:_ at a are green, the square enclosed spaces at b are a brilliant red, and the groundwork that shows through at c is a deli- cate shade of blue. the ornaments worked on these grounds and in these spaces are either a bright gold or white, and the filling in of the general outline is a creamy shade of yellow. . in the primitive arabian style, unmixed with the persian, the flower, properly so called, is never to be found, but in its place appear other forms resembling it and are apparently inspired directly by nature. this sort of sub- ject, half way between imaginary conception and the repre- sentation of natural flowers, does not appear simply as a termination of scrolls, as among the greeks, but forms an integral part of the decoration and does not break the lineal network. historic ornament. § ;. turkish ornament. . characteristics of turkish ornament.—the architecture of the turks, as seen at constantinople, is patterned after the early byzantine style, though their sys- tem of ornamentation is a. modification of the arabian style. in fact, it may be considered as an application of arabian ornament, without any understanding of the meaning, deri- vation, or type of that ornament. when the art of one people is borrowed by another of the same religion but of different character, temperament, and customs, the resulting designs are certain to show the defi- ciency of intellect or refinement that the borrowing people possessed in contrast to the others; and this is the case with the turks when compared with the arabs. there is the same difference in the refinement, elegance, and judgment of the turkish ornament and arabian ornament as there is between these two peoples. the turks themselves can hardly be considered an artistic nation. they have built buildings and executed designs in their cities, but have employed foreign artists to do the work. all their public buildings, therefore, present a mixed style. it is not at all unusual to find in a turkish building floral ornaments of arabian and persian origin side by side with details from rome, the turks having exhibited a tendency to abandon the traditional style of their forefathers. the turks are the first of the mohammedan nations to adopt european fashions in architecture, and their modern buildings and palaces are the work of european architects and artists, and are designed in the most approved european style. . the turkish embroideries give about the only style of ornament that we can consider strictly national, as work ‘of this character must necessarily exhibit the characteristics of the race, and, judging from this, it will be readily seen that their art instinct is far inferior to that of india. indian embroidery is perfect in the distribution of its forms and all § historic ornament. its principles of ornamentation. with turkish ornamenta- tion, the only examples we have that approach any degree of perfection are in the carpets, but these are executed mostly in asia minor, and are probably not designed by turks. the designs of most of them appear more arabian, and differ from the persian carpets in being more conven- tional in their foliage treatment. . the general principles of the distribution of form are the same in turkish and arabian ornament, but there is a difference in the treatment. in both the arabianiand moresque styles, the surface of an ornament is only slightly rounded and the enrichment is secured by sinking in the lines, or, where the surface was left smooth, additional pat- tern upon pattern was obtained by painting. turkish orna- ment, on the contrary, presents a curved surface, and the effect is not as broad as that produced by the sunken-feather treatment of the arabian and moresque. another peculiar- ity that readily distinguishes turkish ornament from ara- bian is its abuse of the reentering curve, thus causing all its detail to have a feeling of instability and unrest. this is also, to a certain extent, characteristic of the persian style. in the moorish style, however, it appears only exceptionally. . it is a very difficult matter, in fact, almost impos sible, to clearly explain the differencesin styles of ornament that have so strong a family resemblance as the persian, arabian, and turkish, but, after practice, the eye detects them as readily as it does the difference between roman and greek. the general principles remaining the same, there will be found a peculiarity in the proportions of the masses—more or less grace in the flowing of the curves, a fondness for particular directions in the leading lines, and a peculiar interweaving of forms, the general form of the conventional foliage usually remaining the same. the rela- tive degree of fancy, delicacy, or coarseness with which these are drawn will at once distinguish them as works of the historic ornament. § refined and spirited persian, the not alone refined, but reflective, arabian, or the unimaginative turk. . the most prominent colors in turkish ornament are green and black; in fact, these form a feature of the orna- ment. in modern turkish ornament, green is much more prominent than in ancient examples, where blue was the important color. persian ornament. :. characteristics of persian ornament.—the time at which we are most familiar with persian art is at the period of its greatest splendor. the outlines of the orna- ment are generally taken from the conceptions of arabian architecture, but modified by indian tradition and the peculiar genius of the persian race. the style of persian ornament is less compressed and austere than the ara- bian, and possesses more freedom and elegance, while its sources of double derivation give it a greater element of variety. the floral motive is employed in both its aspects. in some examples it is scattered through the decoration with apparent freedom, and, in others, inserted in the linked net- work and usually placed at the intersection of lines; but even in the latter case, it is treated in a manner that is medium between the arab conventionality and the indian naturalism. a consideration of the. characteristics of the persians will help us to understand this more fully. . persian compared with arabian art—the arabs belonged to the mohammedan sect of omar, while the persians had split from this faith, and belonged to the sect of ali, and were great drinkers of wine. they therefore attributed to flowers a symbolical language, and did not exclude the representation of flowers in their decoration, which is also animated by real and fantastic animals, and sometimes, though rarely, with the human figure. the § historic ornament. resources resulting from this mixed style are enhanced by the manual skill and remarkable fertility possessed by the persians. bookbinders, potters,e nbroiderers, and minia~ ture painters emulate one another in taste and skill. per- sian carpets are still considered the finest in the world, and the dishes, vases, and enamel bricks from that country are models of taste, and european art seeks them out and manufacturers endeavor to equal them by imitation. . persian compared with indian art.-the indian and persian styles resemble each other in their polychro- matic decoration. the rule is usually a silhouette, with geometrical outlines relieved by conventional coloring on a dominating generating ground. . the mohammedan architecture of persia never seems to have attained the perfection of the arabian build- ings in cairo. although presenting considerable grandeur in the main features, the general outlines are less pure, and there is awant of elegance in all their structural details compared with the edifices of cairo. it is not strange, therefore, that we find their system of construction much inferior to that of the arabians and moors. the per- sians, unlike the arabs and moors, were free to intro- duce animal life, and thus mixing up subjects drawn from real life with the inanimate forms of decoration, they were led away from the tendency to a pure style of ornament. . the great attention given to the illumination of manuscripts in persia, which were widely spread through all mohammedan countries, would naturally tend to spread the influence of this mixed style, and the decorations of houses at cairo and damascus, and the mosques and foun- tains of even constantinople, are tainted with it to a greater or less extent. groups of natural flowers are constantly found growing from vases and enclosed in panels of com ventional arabian ornament. historic ornament. § moorisii ornalient. . derivation of moorish art.—-the moorish style, with but a few distinguishing characteristics, is the direct offspring of the arabian. the methods of construction, the < .'~@ ' . e». _ .. $ ; = ..k \qi i v forms of ornament, and the frequent use of inscriptions are common to both styles. however, in moorish decoration, a characteristic feature is the use of a third color, or ground § historic ornament. surface, worked over or between two others that serve as a framework. this may be seen in fig. , which is a detail from the alcazar, at seville. here the geometrical con- struction of the arabian style is everywhere evident, while in the soffit of the arch at a is seen the typical relief moorish ornament painted in three colors, as hereafter explained. . the alhambra.—in discussing the ornament of the moors, we will confine our illustrations largely to details taken from the alhambra, in spain, because this is one of their chief works of art, and the one in which their system of decoration reached its culminating point. in fact, the alhambra occupies the same position in moorish art as does the parthenon in the greek, or hagia sophia in the byzantine style. every principle of art that we find in the ornament of any other people, we find obeyed by the moors in this erection of the alhambra. here are the eloquence of egyp- tian art, the grace and refinement of the greek, and the geometrical complexity and variety of the byzantines and arabs. . characteristlcs of moorish ornament—the ornament lacked the charm of symbolism, however, that is so characteristic of egyptian ornament, for this was forbid- den by the religion of the moors; but its place is more than supplied by the arabic inscriptions, which address them- selves directly to the eye by their personal beauty, and not only excite the intellect by the difliculties of deciphering their complex and curious involutions, but also delight the imagination when read by the beauty of the sentiments they express and the music of their composition. long fantastic letters, interwoven with graceful but intricate geometrical patterns, as shown at a in fig. , lead the eye to decipher the words, and we find, as a part of the construction of their very buildings, sentiments that are ever present and asso- ciated with all their daily doings, and ever simple but truthful phrases elaborately twisted or intricately woven, such as, “ there is no conqueror but god. ” historic ornament. § . the builders of this wonderful structure were fully aware of the greatness of their work. it was inserted in the inscriptions on the walls that this building surpassed fig. . all other buildings. they also state in the glittering eccen- tricities of the design that, “he who stops to study with attention will reap the benefit of a commentary on decoration. " § historic ornament. . . decorated construction and constructed decoratiom—lct us now follow the injunction of this inscription and learn some of the general principles that ll'. , . < “. ‘ '“. \ l i i ,. is i é. -~ ‘ r ‘ : we: ' ' q; " > "if t ilqeq' fig. . appear to have guided the moors in their decoration. in the first place, they always regarded the first principle of architecture—t decorate construction and never to construct decoration. historic ornament. § in moorish art, the decoration arises most naturally from the construction, and the constructive idea is carried out in every detail of the ornamentation of the surface, as shown in fig. , which is a window opening, around which, it will be observed, the ornament is arranged to set forth and empha- size the opening as a structural detail. we have already said that true beauty results from a repose of mind, felt when the eye, the intellect, and the affections are satisfied and free from all sense of want. when a building is con- structed falsely, and appears to derive or give support with- out doing either one or the other, it fails to afford this repose, and therefore can never pretend to true beauty, however harmonious it may be in itself. the moors and the mohammedan races generally have ever regarded this rule, and we never find a useless or superfluous ornament, or one that does not arise quietly and naturally from the decorated surface. the lines grow out of each other in gradual undulations; there are no excres- cences; nothing could be removed and leave the design as good, or make it any better. . the surface in fig. is entirely filled with orna_ mentation, but no detail of it can in any way be altered and so improve the design. in a general sense, if its construc: tion is properly attended to, there can be no excrescences. the general forms were first cared for; these were subdi- vided by general lines, the interstices of which were then filled with ornament that was again subdivided and enriched for closer inspection. (this will also be observed by careful study of fig. .) they carried out this principle with the greatest refinement, and the harmony and beauty of all their ornamentation derived their chief success from this observ- ance; their main divisions contrasted and balanced perfectly, the detail never interferes with the general form, and, when seen at a distance, the main lines strike the eye and the fine detail disappears; nearer approached, more detail comes into the composition, and, on close inspection, all detail of the surface appears as a grand powdering of ornament. the g historlc ornament. effect of this treatment is well illustrated in fig. , where the general arched construction is the main consideration. the subdivision of the surface into general panels by means of ornamental bands is of next importance, and the surface ' _> .h_ ‘ i ."w as . d -?i f. fr if/ g; ii - a: w l i ‘r-¢t_>>c=):<-.‘-‘yela' v, ' i. in" i-li'ié é a "— fig. . decoration of these panels then receives the final considera- tion. however, though these may be left to the last, they receive the closest attention and a care in their treatment not even second to that in the construction of the arch itself. . the primary elements.—i-iurm ny of form appears to exist in the proper balancing and contrast of the historic ornament. § straight, inclined, and curved elements; as in color there can be no perfect composition in which either of the three primary colors is wanting, so in form, whether structural or decorative, there can be no perfect composition in which either of the three primary elements is wanting, and the variety of harmony in a design depends on the predominance or subordination of these three forms. . in surface decoration, an arrangement consisting of straight lines crossed by other straight lines, as in fig. , , , historic ornament. is monotonous and affords no feeling of satisfaction. thisis because only one of the primary elements is present—the straight line; but, if we introduce lines that tend to carry the eye toward the angles, as in fig. , the pleasure is increased and the figure has more repose. this is due to the presence flo. . fig. ?. fig. . flo. . of another primary element—the inclined line. now, add the third element—the curved line—as shown in fig. , and the figure expresses complete harmony. in this case, the straight line or square is the leading form and the others are subordinate, but the same result can be obtained by making the inclined line the leading form, as shown in fig. . . it is the neglect of this simple rule that causes so many failures in paper hangings and carpets, and more espe- cially in articles of dress. the lines of papers generally appear to run up through the ceiling most disagreeably in one direction only, carrying the eye right through the walls of the apartment. the study of any design or pattern that has been regarded with any degree of satisfaction in ancient times, will show, as component parts of its structure, the straight line, the curved line, and the inclined line characteristic of the surface decoration of the moors. ' . consistency of moorish ornament. in the decorative art of the moors, all lines flow out from a parent historic ornament. § stem. every ornament, no matter how remote, can be traced to its branch and root. an ornament is so adapted to the surface decorated that it often appears to suggest the general form rather than to have been suggested by it. in all cases where foliage flows out naturally from a parent stem, the eye is never offended as is done by modern practice in the random introduction of ornament without reason for its existence. however irregular the space they have to fill, the moors commence by dividing it into equal areas, and around these they fill in their detail, but invariably return to their parent stem. they appear in this to work by a process analogous to that of nature. . take, for instance, the leaf of avine, the object here being to distribute the sap from the parent stem to the extremities; it is evident that the main stem should divide the leaf as nearly as possible into equal areas. so again with the minor divisions, each area is then again subdivided by intermediate lines that all follow the same law of equal distribution, even to the most minute filling in of the stem feeders. . the moors follow another principle—that of radi- ation from 'the parent stem—as may be seen in a chestnut leaf, wherein the leaflets all radiate from the parent stem, each leaflet diminishes in size toward the extremities, and each area is proportionate to the leaf. the orientals carried out this principle with marvelous perfection, as did the greeks in their honeysuckle ornament. a greatdiflerence between the greek ornament and that of the arabian and moresque, however, is that the former grows its ornament scroll out of scroll as before explained, and the latter grow their ornaments off from each side of a continuous stem. with the moors, all junctions of curved lines with curved lines, or curved with straight, are tangen- tial to one another. . conventionalism in moorish ornament.—a charm found in the works of the arabs and moors lies in § historic ornament. their conventional treatment of ornament. their creed for- bade them to represent living forms, and, therefore, they could not let their art decline to realism even though they so desired. they worked on the same lines that nature worked, but always avoided a direct transcript; they took her prin- ciples but they did not copy her works. . coloring in moorish rnan_ ent.—the coloring of the moorish ornaments was treated as skilfully as was the form. they followed certain fixed principles founded on i observations of natural laws. the colors employed on their stucco work were in all cases a combination of the three pri- maries—blue, red, and yellow, the last being represented by gold—and the secondary colors—purple, green, and orange— occurred only in the mosaic dados. these, being nearer the eye, formed a point of repose from the more brilliant color- ing above. . it may be remarked here that among the egyp- tians, greeks, arabs, and moors, the primary colors were used exclusively in the earliest period of the arts, and, during the decadence, the secondary colors were used. thus, in egypt, the temples of the pharaonic period were painted entirely in primary colors, while those in the ptolemaic period used the secondaries. the early greek temples were deco- rated in the primary colors, while at pompeii every variety of shade possible appears. in modern cairo, and in the east generally, we have green appearing frequently side by side with red, where blue would have been used in the earlier times. this is equally true of the works of the middle ages. in the early manuscripts and in stained glass, the primary colors were chiefly used, although other colors were not entirely excluded, while, in later times, every variety of shade and tint is used indiscriminately, with preference for none. . in moorish art, the primary colors were used in the upper portions of the design, and the secondary and tertiary colors on the lower portions. this is entirely in accordance with natural law. we have the primary blue in the sky, the o historic ornament. § secondary green in the trees and fields, and the tertiaries in the earth itself. it is also observable in flowers, where the primary colors are the buds and flowers, and the secondaries are the leaves and stalks. . the ancients always observed this rule in the best periods of art; though in egypt we do occasionally see a secondary green used in the upper portions of a temple, but this arises from the fact that all ornament in egypt was symbolic, and if a lotus leaf were used in the upper part of a building, it would necessarily be colored green. the law is true in general, and the aspect of an egyptian temple of the pharaonic period usually gives the primaries above the secondaries, while, in the ptolemaic period, the order was inverted. in pompeii, we occasionally find in the interior of the houses a. gradual coloring, from the roof down, of a light to a darker color, ending with black, but this was by no means universal. ' . system of moorish coloring.—the system of moorish coloring might be considered absolutely perfect. all the surfaces were modeled and proportioned according to the color they were to receive, and, in using the colors blue, red, and gold, they took care to place them in such positions that they should be best seen themselves and add most to the general effect. on molded surfaces they placed red (the strongest color of the three) in the depths, where it might be softened by shadow, and never a raised surface; blue was placed in the shade, but not deep shade; and gold on all the surfaces exposed to strong light, for it was evi- dent that by this arrangement alone could their truc value be obtained. the several colors are either separated by white bands or by the shadow caused by the relief of the ornament itself, and this seems to be an absolute principle required in coloring—colors should never be allowed to impinge on one another. . in fig. , the background a, on which the orna- ment is placed, was of a deep-red color, while the leaf forms § historic ornament. were colored with the primary blue. all the rest of the surface, including the necks of the columns, was gold, and a grand harmonious bloom was spread over the whole design. . blending of colors—in coloring the grounds of the various diapers, the blue always occupies the largest area, and this is in accordance with the theory in optics and the experiments that have been made with the prismatic spectrum. rays of light are said to neutralize one another in the proportion of yellow, red, and blue. thus, it will be seen that a quantity of blue equal to the sum total of the required quantity of red and yellow will produce an effect of harmony and prevent the predominance of any one color historic ornament. § over the others. in the alhambra, yellow was replaced by gold, which tended toward a reddish yellow, and the blue on this account was further increased in proportion, to counteract the tend- ency of the red to over- power the other colors. . moorish orna- ment is governed by cer- tain geometrical patterns in its formation, although the number of these patterns is small. in fig. is shown an in- terlaced pattern consist- f g. . ing, firsl, of vertical and horizontal lines arranged in pairs, the distance between each pair being twice the dis tance between the lines composing each pair; srcona’, of diag- onal lines drawn through the pattern at an angle of °, and spaced a distance apart equal to the verti- cal and horizontal pairs. the diagonal lines are arranged so that the set of squares formed by their intersection will contain in their centers the inter- section of the vertical and horizontal pairs. . in fig. is shown a slight variation fm. . of this same interlaced pattern, wherein the vertical and horizontal lines are drawn singly and the diagonal lines are drawn in pairs, but of § historic ornament. slightly different proportion from fig. . the amount of moorish ornament that can be developed from these two figures is unlimited, and the moors themselves extended even this limit by the variety of coloring in the different parts. figs. and are based on the system shown in fig. , and figs. and are developed from the system shown . was ' i" ill ! m "ill ‘; why ‘ k“ ,, i milli?— "'"in‘i ' _ (\mmikw/wuhr . i *" -i i immmml i k q i tllllllllliilllllllliniiliiiil\illllillllllllllillllllllilllllllfllllllllillllll“hillllillhfillllllllilllllillill"illlillllmlllllllllllllllllllllllllllmllllli fig. ' . , , |l|nnmqu "illmlmml | , r “a i‘ < i in fig. . a slight variation of the systems themselves will produce most remarkable results in the figures. fig. . . however much disguised, the whole ornamen- tation of the moors is constructed geometrically. their historic ornament. § fondness for geometrical forms is evinced by the great use of mosaics, in which their imagination had full play. p . . however complicated may be their patterns, they are all extremely simple when the principle of setting them is ‘l. fir/s )(_/ . v v_/ r . / ? gop§ ( )”qu v, - easiest? \ _ < §q <%%@ a“ as ass was as; ' )‘€ w (\‘j ' % \§ ' @a- once understood. they all arise from the intersection of equally distant lines around fixed centers. § historic ornament. western art. celtic ornaiment. . origin and character.——in studying the orna- ment of western europe, we follow a chronological order instead of an ethnological one, as we have been doing here- tofore, the history of ornament in this section being pro- gressive and free from outside influences except to a very limited extent. when byzantine art spread over western europe, as it did about the twelfth century, it must have found among the nations of celtic origin an indigenous art, arising from the peculiar aptitudes of that race. the celts undoubtedly had a spontaneous national art, though its birthplace, whether in scandinavia or ireland, has never been satisfac- torily decided. . interlacing forms almost the only element of the celtic designs of the earlier period, and this establishes its antiquity, for the intertwining ornament is essentially a primitive style. its distinctive mark is the division of the surface, decorated by such a combination of lines that the development is usually happy, possible, and logical, and there is no doubt that the origin of these designs was pro- cured originally from interlaced cords. the pliability of this original type would account for the curved instead of acute angles, this being a characteristic difference between the celtic and arabian geometrical designs. . the variety of productions obtainable from such simple elements is remarkable. in many of them the com- plications prove, by their skilful divisions, and the ingenuity of the windings, a practical comprehension of ornamental construction. there is lacking, however, in this style, a vital element—the element of more extensive representation —and its resources were threatened with exhaustion from historic ornament. § having used every possible combination of the intertwinings of a cord. . introduction of animal forms.—in combi- nation with byzantine art, celtic ornament advanced in style. a portion of the original interlacings was still retained, and for the discarded part was substituted the stem from which sprang the leafwork and terminated in floral spans. having thus attained some decorative richness, the celtic style rose to the level of art; at the same time, the differ- ence already mentioned between it and purely geometric conceptions, such as are usually found in arabian decora- tions, became more striking, from the frequent introduction of the heads of quadrupeds and birds, serving as terminals to some of the principal lines that were made to represent bodies elongated out of all just proportion or probability, and from which emerge feet and claws corresponding with the head. such as they are, these fantastic and grotesque images constitute a separate art that the interlacings alone could never have reached. . distinguishing characteristics.— the chief characteristics of the early celtic style consist : first, of the entire absence of foliage or other vegetable ornament; ‘:- and, the extreme intricacy and excessive minuteness and elaboration of the various patterns, most of which are geo- metrical, consisting of interlaced ribbon work, diagonal or spiral lines—each of which invariably wove itself alternately above and below each successive transverse strand—strange, monstrous animals, and birds with long topknots and tongues and tails intertwining in almost endless knots. some of the manuscripts have entire pages covered with elaborate pat- terns in compartments, the whole forming a beautiful cruci- form design, and one of these facing a commencement of each of the four gospels. the labor employed in such a mass of work must have been immense. the care most infinite. as a critical vd historic ornament. examination with a magnifying, glass does not detect an error in the truth of the lines or the regularity of the interlacings; yet with all this minuteness, the most harmonious elfect of coloring has been produced. . intrleacy of deslgn.—of the curious intricacy of some of these designs an idea may be ob- tained by following a ribbon in one' of these patterns, as, for instance, in the upper compartment of fig. . the method adopted to .secure this intricate interlacing, so that each strap shall alternately cross above and below each following one, can be better understood iii-ll!!! www ~ ' nw? ! (d) by reference to fig. , where the preliminary arrange- ment of a woven pattern is laid out at (a) and the turning and joining of its exterior ends are shown at (/ ), while historic ornament. § at (r) is seen the completed interlacement and complication of interior curves and returnings. a r\'\"\'\—\ "\'\"\-\"\ /.\/<\/~z w zl \ “ & w // / / / r‘ awmnmam / \/ fig. . \ sometimes two ribbons run parallel to each other, but are interlaced alternately, as in fig. . when allowable, the fig. . ribbon is dilated and angulated to fill up particular places in the design, as in fig. . the simplest modification of this pattern, of course, is the double oval seen in the angles of fig. . this occurs in greek and syr- ian manuscript, in roman __ tessellated pavements, but rarely in celtic mann- il script. . syn bolism.— no symbolic meaning seems to have been at- tached to the celtic orna- ments, except perhaps in the designs so frequently found without beginning or end. in which appears what might be a symbol of eternity. § historic ornament. the union of the celtic and byzantine styles did not entirely give way to the gothic style with which it long existed. it furnished types for the finest ornamentation of glass and manuscripts, that in this period, from the eleventh to the fourteenth century, resembles stained glass on a reduced scale. gothic ornadient. . evolution.—gothlc art grew out of and suc- ceeded the romanesque in western europe in the same manner that the byzantine did in the east. each was the result of an attempt to adapt a modified roman style to the new conditions caused by political, religious, and geograph- ical changes. in western europe, however, the roman- esque style failed to develop into a new architectural system until about the middle of the tenth century, while the byzantine became a perfect style of art before the close of the sixth century. . influence of rellglon.——gothic art in every par- ticular was directly opposed to classic art, not only because it was developed by the nations that had conquered rome, but because it was a christian art, in opposition to a pagan art, and its architecture was based on an economical system of construction, while that of classic rome was an extrava- gant construction. its greatest monuments were built to the glorification of the supreme being, while those of roman art were for the glorification of the empire. it is not surprising, therefore, to find the best and purest exam- ples of gothic art in localities most distant from rome, and, as we gradually approach the south of europe, we find gothic ornament tainted more and more with classic influ- ence until, in italy, the examples are so different in feeling and expression from those we find in england that they constitute almost an entirely different style. in france, the style is not as pure as in england, but it contains none of the extreme variations seen in italy, and being patterned historic ornament. § more or less after the english examples, derives what good it has from that country. . german and english gothic. in germany, gothic art was copied from j the french, and carried the imperfec- ' ‘ tions of the french style to a still lower degree, and its entrance into italy from germany renders its condition in the seat of the old roman empire so debased that it possesses none of the underlying prin- ciples of the pure gothic style. english-gothic ornament may be di- vided into three general periods, each associated approximately with the cen- tury of its greatest development. these periods are called the early english, or thirteenth century, the lh'mmlm’, or fourteenth century, and the pvrpma’z'cular, or fifteenth century. fig. . generally speaking, the early english period is char- acterized architecturally by long, narrow, lancet-shaped § historic ornament. windows arranged in groups of two or three, as shown in fig. , the space between the openings usually containing a third perforation in the form of a trefoil or quaterfoil included under the same dripstone as the window opening. the mullions, or bars, separating the window openings were, toward the latter part of this period, split to form a network in the upper part of the window, called tracery, as shown in fig. . this tracery was greatly elaborated as the style advanced, and filled the upper portion of the window with a complicated series of geometrical forms that were frequently richly elaborated with a. ball-flow” orna- mmt, as shown in fig. . . the ball-flower ornament.—the ball-flower ornament is characteristic of the decorated period, and - = (litnnilinniiimiii fig. . 'i will llllllllllll consists of conventionalized floral forms nearly spherical in shape, a detail of which is shown in fig. . they were not always used to such an excess as is shown in fig. , and were inserted un- ‘ der the dripstone at regular inter- vals, as shown in fig. , which is a sedile, or scat, sometimes built in the interior walls of a church. the dripstones of this period usually terminated at each end in the carved head of some person of prominence, such as the king or bishop, as shown in fig. . as we approach the perpendicular period, the lines of historic ornament. § tracery are still more complicated but arranged more in perpendicular pan- els, the horizontal elements being sup- pressed as much as possible. . designs for \vindowv heads—all these designs for window heads were worked out on simple geo- metrical combina- tions, as shown in fig. , which is a window with six days, or openings, divided in two groups of three each by means of pointed § historic ornament. arches shown at baa and cde, over which a circle is struck, with its center at , whose diameter is equal to half the width of the window, and its circumference is divided into twelve parts, as shown at , , , , etc. within each of these parts, small circles, tangent to one another and to the circumference of the great circle, are described, and form the generating elements of the interior design. fig. . this example is given with its construction lines simply to show how these details are geometrically worked out. all the elements of the design can be located and executed by means of a pair of compasses and a straightedge, without any other device to lay off measurements. the lower part of these windows on the exterior, during the perpendicular period, as said before, were divided into historic ornament. g a: .qh . i . ‘ ...‘ ; . a h. . . . . , ? iv} ._ . ? ate. ..¢ ,zf s. .~ ~..¢ it s“?! . may...” . has"? ‘ ‘ . {rdvlvin . . . \ c s n . ' . ' .f- '. ‘ "* rear-i § historic ornament. long panels, the total window opening usually being of immense area, as shown in fig. , which is, the west front of st. george’s chapel, at windsor. this also shows the general exterior appearance of the gothic architecture of great britain, and, with the west front of westminster abbey, shown in fig. , will be interesting to compare “i; ' ’j'vyéz lrll'lillllij with the gothic art of other countries, which we will con- sider hereafter. . french \‘vlndow 'l‘raeery.—in france, the progress of window tracery was similar to that of eng- land, but on less systematic lines, and the doors and win- dows tend more to rich elaboration on the exterior, usu- ally being carved with full-length human figures, as shown in fig. , which is one of the entrance doors to the church of notre dame, paris, the full front elevation of which is shown in fig. . a comparison of fig. historic ornament. c with the two examples of english gothic will be interest- ing, showing the tendency of the latter to vertical lines more characteristic of the gothic style, and of the french to horizontal lines influenced by its closer proximity to classic art. . gothic architecture in italy. in italy, gothic architecture is unique, and though the palazzo vecchio, 'vr !ywir ., , int-gm . ‘ i'iv "rnm “i‘li'i'ft f fig. . at florence, shown in fig. , possesses the crude, bold, unassuming construction of the early gothic castles, it scarcely represents the fundamental principle on which the italian design is developed. it is in venice that we find more elaborate examples, where window tracery is carried to a most fanciful extreme. the foseari palace, shown in fig. , shows the gradual § historic ornament. '? development of this window treatment, which seems to con- stitute the entire idea. of the italian-gothic style. in the / / / / a ' lower story we have the plain ogival arch, and in the central portions of the second and third stories, small colonnades, i historic ornament. § connected by pointed arches, and in the upper of the two with pointed arches, separated by plate tracery. in the top story, this tracery is carried to an elaborate extreme. this system of treatment, though based on entirely diflerent structural ideas from the gothic of the north, brought about many happy results, however, and the palace of con- tarini fasan, also known as the house of desdemona, shown in fig. , exhibits how adaptable the style of this vene- tian work is to modern requirements by the careful pro- portioning and grouping of its parts and treatment of its details. _ it is not in the exterior of these buildings that we find the most of value to us in ornamental design, except possibly in venetian work; therefore, the treatment of the interior details we will now consider in regular order, having under- stood the transition in style that took place from the british isles to the italian peninsula. . evolution of gothic ornament—the transi- tion of the round arch, characteristic of the romanesque style, to the pointed arch, characteristic of the gothic style, is easily traced in buildings where the two styles are inter- mingled, many of these being extant about the beginning of the thirteenth century, as shown in fig. , which is taken from an arcade of canterbury cathedral, in england. but the passage from romanesque ornament to that of the gothic period is by no means so easily traced. all traces of the acanthus leaf have by this time disap- peared, and we find a purely conventional style of ornament prevalent in all buildings of the time. the nearest approach to the acanthus formation we find in the illuminated manu_ scripts of the twelfth century, where ornamental forms, such as shown in fig. , are used, and appear to have been derived from some old greek manuscripts, as gothic orna- ments are formed by a continuous stem throwing off leaves on the outer side and terminating in a flower. early english ornament is the most perfect, both in prim- ciple and in execution, of all the gothic period. there is as § historic ornament. much elegance in distinct modulations of form as there is in the ornament of the greeks. it is always in harmony with the structural features of the building, and always grows naturally from them. it fulfils every one of the conditions that we desire to find in a perfect style of art, but it remained perfect only so long as the style remained conventional. as the style became less idealized and more direct in imitation, it ceased to be an ornament of structural features, but became ornament applied. . characteristics.— in the capitals of the columns of early english architecture, the ornament rises directly from the shaft, above the neck- ing of which the column splits historic ornament. § into a series of stems, each stem terminating in a flower, as shown in fig. . this is analogous to the mode of deco- rating the egyptian capital. in the decorated style, on the contrary, where a much nearer approach to nature was attempted, it was no longer possible to treat a natural leaf as part of the shaft, and therefore the shaft is terminated by a bell shape, around which the leaves are twined, and the more natural these were made, the less artistic became the arrangement, as shown in fig. . this method of applying orn'ament reminds us of the roman-corinthian capital. in the perpendicular period, the capitals of the columns were usually plain, and the shaft consisted of a cluster of § historic ornament. small columns. in some large buildings, however, the capi- tals were carved with shallow foliage of a pronounced geometrical shape, as shown in fig. . in foliage and running ornaments on hands and moldings, the early english period shows examples where the lines of the ornament follow the general directions of the lines of the mold- ing, and the foliated work is conventionally rendered, but, at the same time, is graceful and natural, as shown in fig. . in painted bands, the lines usu- ally are easy and flow- . ing, following the principle of carved work, as shown in fig. . during the decorated period, however, there is less effort made to continue the foliage in the direction of the molding, and the guiding stem fre- quently wanders directly across the molding, from one side to the other, pre- serving the governing principle of throwing leaves off alternately, but at the same time chopping the molding up into a number of sec- tions rather than giving it a feeling of continuity. in fig. is shown an example of molding from this period, where the guiding stem of the foliation crosses and recrosses the molding almost at right angles to the line of its direction, and though the leaves are arranged to cover up this guiding fig. . fig. . historic ornament. § stem to a certain extent, the fact still remains that its most prominent sections are seen across the molding, instead of. flowing with it. . in the perpendicular period, the system of decora- tion is still further removed from that of the early english, and the molding is fre- quently divided up into a number - of rectangular panels, each of which is decorated to represent some specific natural form, but so convention- alized as to be reduced to a pronounced geometrical outline. this is shown in fig. , where the leaves of the grape vine are reduced to fig. . perfect rectangles, spaced evenly along the molding, between which bunches of grapes are geometrically arranged. . spaudrels.»-in the spandl'els of the arches, so long as the conventionalism of the early english style was maintained, one main stem -. was distributed over the panel, from which sprang leaves and flowers, as shown in f i'g. ; but as the style advanced the stem ceased to be the guiding f", ;, g historic ornament. form of the ornament, and, in the endeavor to represent in stone the softness of nature, lost all its grace and decorative characteristics. finally, the stem as a leading feature dis- appears, and we find the spandrels filled with three immense leaves, springing from a twisted stem in the center, and bearing no structural relation to the panel on which they are planted, as shown in fig. . . diapers. —— in the painted wall decora- tions and diapers, the early english artists usually divided the surface into a number of geometrical forms within which a simple con- ventional ornament was introduced resembling tile work. the devices covering these ornaments were sometimes heraldic and other times based on forms borrowed from the vegetable world, as may be seen in fig. . during the decorated period, the wall divisions are less naturally divided, and circular disks, within which are' stenciled geo- metrical patterns, are spread over a wall sur- face, and between them _ are arrangcd shields with coats of arms and other devices, as shown in fig. . another system prevalent in the decorated period was to divide the wall into a number of bands, each of which historic ornament. § was decorated with a running ornament, as shown in fig. , where the character of this running ornament is not widely different from that seen in the early english period, as shown in fig. . how- 's. ~ aw ever, introduced with this foliation are forms from the animal world that seem to possess no relation to the design, or the ornament, or the posi- tion that they occupy. the diapers of the perpendicular period are attempts at realism, and in fig. is shown a painted wall in which the pointed arch of ogival form and the foliations and crockets characteristic of the carved work of this period are attempted in the repro- duction on the flat surface. this form of arch, with its compound curve — con- vex below and concave above—is a distinguishing characteristic of the per- pendicular period, as is also the subdivision of its under surface into the small arches or foliations, as shown. within each of these panels (which in all work were long and nar- row, giving the style its name of perpendicular), the wall was decorated in the conventional pattern as shown, and executed in two colors. similar patterns were also used for silks, tapes- tries, and other fabrics of this period. l a ' “f _ k i r .r a, ' fm. a § historic ornament. in fig. is shown another style of wall treatment of the perpendicular period, where the surface remains flat and no attempt is made to depict arches or moldings bor- rowed from carved ornament, but details from the vegetable world are drawn realis- tically against a back- ground interspersed with eonventionalized outlines of leaf forms. . zenith of architectural devel- opment.—in the thir- teenth century, beyond all others, architecture was at its zenith. the mosques of cairo, the alhambra in spain, westminster abbey, and the salisbury and lincoln cathedrals, in v england, all possess the same secret of producing the broadest general effect combined with the most elaborate decoration. in all these buildings there is a family like- ness; although the forms differ and the forces that have called them into existence are totally unlike, yet the prin- ciples that they embrace are the same. they all exhibit the same care for the leading masses of composition, the same appreciation of the undulations of form, the same correct observation of natural principles in the ornamentation, and the same elegance and refinement in all the decoration. the attempt to produce at the present day a building of the character of those in the thirteenth century would be vain indeed. whitewashed walls with stained glass and encaustic tiles cannot alone sustain the effect that was arrived at when every molding had its color best adapted to develop its form, when from the floor to the roof not an inch of space but that had its elaborate and appropriate ornament—an § historic ornament. . rayonnant period.—in the rayonnant period, the capitals of the columns, like those of the decorated period in england, are formed of bell shapes over which foliage is arranged; but, as shown in fig. , the french arrangement is far infe- rior to the english, inas- much as no attempt is here made to have the foliage a part of the sup- porting construction. it is evident that the bell shape does the support- fig. h . ing of the superimposed load, and the carved vine is simply an ornament laid on the surface to break up its monotony. . flamboyant pe- rlod. ‘— the flamboyant- style, shown in fig. , carries this fault to still greater extent, and the twisted foliation is plainly planted on the bell shape, growing from nothing, supporting nothing, and apparently ready to drop ofl, as there is no reason why it should be left f . . historic ornament. § there. in fig. the vine is of a clinging character and would naturally appear to attach itself to the capital, although it does not appear to grow naturally out of the shaft of the column in the manner characteristic of the foliage of the early english capitals. in fig. the folia- tion. is not only of no particular character, but it is simply ' “stuck on " with no origin and no struc- tural relation and con- veys no idea of fitness or propriety. in the running bands and moldings we find the same characteristics as those of england, but not so pure in form. in fig. the foli- ated forms, it will be observed, appear to be attached to and grow from the top and bot- tom members of the molding. the line of f‘g- * their growth is curved toward the center of the molding, but, at the same time, follows the line of the mold- ing itself and appears continuous with it; while in the rayonnant period, as shown in fig. , the molding is divided up in sec~ tions more like the perpendicular period of england, and the leaves, though growing apparently from the stonework beneath them, are nevertheless stiff and 'illill'lfl'l’w ' i, ‘ ‘ " g . ,.- . i'l‘ih . ' ' i r ’ .f ' v i i i" i' . v : . . ... '.‘ ,. hilv'li/i'ii.=@ fig. . § historic ornament. geometrical and do not appear to belong to the surface on which they are placed. a characteristic of the flamboyant style is seen in fig. , where the guiding stern of the ornament that is carved on the molding is in some places clear from the molding itself, and though it shows great skill in the carving, exhibits little art in the design. the leaves and floral forms are twisted so that their ends repre- sent forked fiames, from which the period gets its name, and there is no structural relation be- tween the foliation and its moldings. . early french diapers divide the wall surface into geometrical forms in a manner similar to that in england, and stenciled within these figures are characteristic devices typical of the nation and the style. in fig. we have a wall divided intolozenge shapes by diagonal lines, within some of which flr'urs-dc-lis are sten- ciled in gilt on a blue ground, while a simple foliated outline is sten- ciled within the others on a gold ground. in fig. is shown a more complicated de sign based on the inter- section of a number of circles whose centers historic ornament. § are found at the intersections of evenly spaced vertical and horizontal lines. in this case, the ground of the decoration is pink, and the outlines of the subdivision and the stenciled forms within them are in gold. . the character of surface treatment in the rayon- nant period is best shown in fig. , which is from an illuminated manuscript. the lines of the foliage and the fig. . geometrical rendering of the flowers are characteristic of this style of work, and the twisted forms are suggest- ive of the change that - is taking place toward the flamboyant period. in fig. is shown another example from illuminated manuscript, where the naturalistic treatment of the flower, with the foliage reduced to a flame-like outline, shows the systematic ren- dering of all work of this period. § historic ornament. ‘ . german-gothic details.—germa.n-gothic de- talls were influenced more largely by france, but, at the same time, borrowed ideas direct from england. fig. shows a wall diaper divided into circles somewhat after the manner of the english example shown in fig. , within which geometrical forms are stenciled in some cases, while in others the conventional brush form of the eagle, emblem- atic of germany, is rendered in light green on a darker ground of the same color. . mlsinterpretatlon of g thic.—as the term “gothic " as applied to architecture is, in the minds of most persons, associated almost entirely with ecclesiastical edifices, we are all likely to labor under the impression that the medieval cathedrals were the only structures built during these dark ages. as a matter of fact, however, every build- ing erected during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, throughout western europe, was built in what we now call the gothic style. in order that we may better understand this domestic architecture and its details, from which much of our ornament at the present day has descended, it will be necessary for us to look into the habits, customs, methods of living, and government of the people at this period. kings, princes, earls, and even the lesser nobility, all lived in castles during this period, and these structures form a most important part of the architecture, as they are undoubt- edly the prototype of the modern dwelling house from which have descended all those details of house plan that modern requirements have brought into service. . feudal systerfm—at this time all lands were held under what is known as the feudal system. when the tribes from the north had conquered rome and overrun the entire roman empire, the generals or chiefs of the different military organizations were given lands for themselves and their subjects over which they ruled as kings and princes. this system existed throughout all europe, but with slightly varying conditions in italy, france, germany, and england, - historic ornament. § according to the influences of each locality. the general principle was the same, however, and we will confine our dis- cussion simply to the effect of this system in france, inas- much as it reached a most thorough organization there, and had a more marked influence on the subsequent art of the period of the renaissance. the political organization of a country under the feudal system consisted in the bulk of the land being divided into states called fisz, which were held by their owners on the condition that they should, when called on, perform certain military duties to their superiors or pay them fees in grain, wines, cattle, etc., and in default of such service or payment, the land could be reclaimed. the superior lord might be the king of the realm, or some nobleman that held a feudal tenure from the king, and who in turn created fiefs by and under his own personal rule. an important detail of the old feudal law was the fact that - the king or superior lord, from whence comes the modern term landlord, was entitled to the fealty of his own tenants, but not to that of his subordinate tenants, every man looking for rule and discipline only to his own immediate lord and master. it therefore frequently happened that one of these noblemen would build up a community so powerful as to feel practically independent of his king, and therefore refuse to render to his superior such military service as was demanded. the result of this was inevitably the same—war between the king and his subject. on the other hand, if the subject remained loyal to his king, he was likely to depend on the royal influence and encroach somewhat upon the fief of some one of his feudal neighbors. this would bring about the same result—war between two feudal barons. and even if he remained within his own territory and was true to his sovereign, the prosperity of his fief or his influence with the royal court was sure to excite the jealousy of some one of the surrounding nobles and bring about war. it would thus appear that the feudal barons were at war with one another a large part of the time, and these frequent § historic ornament. wars required that the medieval castle should‘be a military post from necessity and a domestic household for convenience. during the war the castle was the stronghold of the lord and his retainers, and during peace it was a house of entertain- ment for his guests and vassals. . castle of’coucy.—in fig. is shown a plan of the castle of coucy, near laon, france, the irregular outline of which is due to the fact that military engineering required that these structures should conform as nearly as possible to the top of the hill, on ,: which they were usually ii built, thereby rendering a“ it impracticable to storm the fortress from more than one side—that on which the entrance was located, a large tower, or keep —in the french castles called the donjon — guarded this main en- trance and at the same time served as a strong- hold and point of last resort in case other por- tions of the castle should fall into the hands of invaders. the clonjon of coucy was feet in height and feet in diameter, and the walls were feet thick at the f'g' ‘ base. the uppermost of its three stories was the largest, as the walls were thinner at the top, and , men could be here assembled in a circular room and receive their instruc- tions for the military routine of the day. in the middle story was the family apartment for use during siege, and in . historic ornament. § the basement were storerooms for sufficient provisions to last , men over a year. the keep was surrounded on the outside by a moat, or water-filled ditch, shown at a, beyond which was a large enclosure shown at a, called the outer bailey. this was a large piece of cultivated land and contained the chapel r and the stables s. the interior courtyard a' was called the inner bailey and was the only outdoor area open to the garrison in time of siege. these points are of interest, as from them are developed many details that are characteristic of the modern house in plan, while other details 'of more decorative value had their origin in devices originally invented for purely military purposes. . in fig. is shown a bird’s-eye view of the castle of coucy and the surrounding country. around the top of each of its five towers will be observed small projections that carry an enclosed gallery. the spaces between these pro- jections, or corbels, as they were called, were open through the floor of this overhanging gallery, and, in time of siege, when the walls of the castle were surrounded by sappers and miners endeavoring to disintegrate the stonework and gain access to the interior, deadly missiles were shot straight down from the floor of the gallery, or quantities of boiling oil or molten lead were used to make the base of the walls as unapproachable as possible. the windows in the castle all opened on the inner bailey, no openings being permitted toward the outside except small loopholes of‘ suflicient size only to shoot an arrow through. the tops of the individual walls enclosing the inner bailey were notched, and the rectangular sections of wall between the notches—called battlements—each con- tained a large loophole, as may be seen in the perspective view at j. behind these battlements was a platform on which archers could stand and shoot at an invading force, while a similar treatment of the top of the walis around the outer bailey enabled the besieged to defend the outer bailey § historic ornament. against the besiegers before finally retiring within the castle walls for safety. all these details were altered from time to time, as civil- ization advanced, and when the invention of gunpowder w. . n l '.!' 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"-‘ ' gk - \ ~ . . w.’ zqurrvrfi‘.l.'_.r ffi~_ . \:.\<\'. :.'~ e - s“ t " &“$~ \ ‘ < \ ' ‘> - \ \ ‘ ' _. _ if!“ \ \i. . iii: l; . ‘ \"' .. ‘ - - ~~._/‘-_ . . . ,ra-l‘n - 'gmf'm: ~ .a‘§'°‘~“ "j*“*~$;'\k*.-._ “’k \ rl - . _/". .- ' ' e-r' '-j.r~\' v _ v. l v! ’~v" j ’ —v ' i ‘ . _~fi'_ historic ornament. § . mode of living in ancient castles—regard- ing domestic life within these castle walls, it is well to remember that, previous to the fourteenth century, there was not much subdivision in the household apartments even of royalty, the king and queen and the servants and retainers all usually occupying one room, known as the great hall. this great hall is shown in the plan at , and was to the domestic part of the household what the donjon was to the military— the main apartment wherein all household duties were per- formed. here the lord sat at his meals with his family, his guests, and his retainers; here he' transacted all business of the day, both financial and domestic; and here in the earliest times he slept at night on a rough couch at one end. by degrees, society began to improve and become more refined, and the constant daily association with servants and soldiers becoming undesirable, the great hall was divided into two apartments, one of which was known as the will“ drawing roovi, where the lord and his family could retire after meals, but the hall was still retained for business and dining purposes. however, a further subdivision provided another room for the transaction of business, which was still called the lmll, but in distinction the remaining portion was called the dining lzall. these three rooms—the hall, the dining hall, and the withdrawing room—were the principal apartments in the house or castle, and, consequently, the sep- arate sleeping apartments, which advanced ideas demanded, were crowded into any out-of-the-way corner that circum- stances afforded. for this reason, these sleeping rooms were often dark, cheerless apartments, and were designated by the term chamber—a word derived from the latin, mean- ing a dark vault—and finally, when the bedstead was intro¢ duced as an article of household furniture, the sleeping rooms were called bad chambers, to designate them from other rooms in the castle of similar character but not for sleeping purposes. . heating of ancient castles—in the earliest days, the castle was heated by an immense fire-grate located § historic ornament. in the center of the room, the smoke from which passed through openings in the roof called louvars. subsequently, this grate was removed from the center to the side wall, and the louver was replaced by a chimney stack. this neces- sitated a separate chimney for each room, and is responsible for the fact that nearly every french chateau built in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries bristles with beautifully designed chimney stacks above the roof, and nearly every room in the french chateau of the renaissance period pos- sesses a fireplace and a distinctively designed mantel. . iieraldry.—another point of this feudal system is the subject of heraldry, which is of vast importance in its relation to historic ornament, inasmuch as it is based entirely on that important characteristic of all ornament, namely, symbolism. it is doubtless true that armorial bear- ings were not in much general use until the twelfth century, when they were brought into prominence by the crusades—a term given to those wars waged by the christians of western europe against the mohammedans around jerusalem for the purpose of rescuing the holy sepulcher from the hands of infidels. ' the purpose of heraldic devices was to designate one per- son from another, as surnames did not exist in those days; and though the painted device by which the savage sets forth his personality may be considered as heraldic as the device borne on the shield of a soldier, it is with the latter class that we have to do in ornamental design. we have seen in egyptian art evidences of heraldry, inasmuch as the two serpents flanking the sun disk of the winged globe are symbols of upper and lower egypt, and, therefore, heraldic. but with the twelfth century, we arrive at a system of heraldry whereby the heraldic device was passed down from generation to generation, in the same manner that the family name is transmitted at the present day. a heraldic device would be transmitted from father to son, on the death of the former, with few alterations, so that in our study of the history of subsequent styles, we can historic ornament. § locate and date many details by our familiarity with the insignia associated with certain royal families. . the fleur-de-lls.—the fleur-de-lz': has ever been emblematic of france, because hugh capet, the first french king, carried it on his shield as the insignia of his family, and subsequent rulers used this same emblem as an indica- tion of royalty, while they coupled with it some other device to more clearly establish their own personality. in subse- quent periods, as we shall see, the initial letter was fre- quently used by royalty on works of art erected by them during the period of their reign; but this is not of so much importance to us as the helaldic devices, as several sover- eigns of the same name ruled many years apart. the importance of these heraldic devices cannot be overestimated, as will be pointed out when we study the ornament of the subsequent periods in the renaissance. historic ornament. (part .) renaissance art. introduction. . orlgln.-—alth ugh the medieval style of art and architecture prevailed throughout all europe for at least six centuries, it is still a,difficult matter to draw a line at certain dates when the influence of the ancient classic art utterly ceased and the .revival of that classic art after the medieval period took place. in fact, if the two subjects were studied separately and independently, it is not unlikely that traces of revival of classic art could be discovered even before the classic style itself had become extinct. it must be borne in mind that italy, in the extreme southern part of europe, was the seat of the original roman government, and the country wherein the classic style devel- oped to its greatest voluptuousness. the roman people spread all over civilized europe and established their monu- ments everywhere, but no place so profusely as in italy itself. after the conquest of rome by the barbarous hordes from the north, the latin-speaking people were largely confined to the italian peninsula, and though a new style of architec- ture was developed by the conquering race—a style since derisively termed gothic by the artists of the renaissance § for notice of the copyright. see page immediately following the title page. historic ornament. § period—the original romans at home still endeavored to adhere to their ancient traditions and styles of art. if this point is thoroughly understood, there will be no difficulty in tracing the progress of renaissance art from italy through- out europe. we have seen that the farther north we go from the site of the roman empire, the purer was the style of the gothic art that prevailed, inasmuch as it was less hampered by the tradition of classic art. . revlval of classic style. now, when it comes to a revival of the classic style, it is not strange that that revi- val should take place first in italy, where the gothic style never secured a prominent foothold, that the revival should spread from italy to france—a people made up largely of latin extraction—and that, lastly, it should extend from france to england, but in a very imperfect form, as the english people were not latins and had no sympathy with, nor tie to, the original latin style. bear in mind also that the celtic ornament, of which we have studied, originated among the earlier inhabitants of the british isles and natu- rally influenced any importation from a strictly foreign coun- try, as was italy. . seope of renaissance perlod.—in describing renaissance art, we will commence at the period of its infancy and continue under this heading down to the present day, inasmuch as there has been no new style evolved and no revival of any other style that need break this term of continuity. moreover, it will not be inadvisable for us to set a period or character of the renaissance style that theo- retically may be considered the best, and, in doing this, we must consider all the influences that are brought to bear. . intention of renalmnce artists.—the efiort of the renaissance artists was not to invent a new style. nor to bring about through a transition a development based on classic lines, but to deliberately copy the monuments of pagan rome and greece and use these heathen forms, no matter how inappropriate or illy suited for the purpose of § historic ornament. modern christian art. they were different from anything they had ever seen or conceived; they were the products of an age cf wonderful art and literary advancement, and, in the eyes of the renaissance artists, were accepted as supe- rior to anything they could themselves devise. . renaissance art in italy—the style of renais- sance we find in italy, where gothic art had its slightest influence, naturally adheres as closely as possible to the old roman forms, for there they had the old roman buildings, many of them still intact, that could be copied line for line. the invasion of italy by charles viii of france, toward the close of the fifteenth century, brought into the latter country examples of this revived italian art that were much admired by the french public, and the revival of classic art was immediately felt throughout france. devoid of actual buildings from which they could study their designs, the french artists were compelled to go to italy and study, and french kings imported italian artists to do work in and around paris. either experiment was bound to produce an altered style. . introductlon into france.-—the french artist had been working in the gothic style, and he studied the italian monuments with an idea of medieval construction in his mind. the italian artist came to france possibly with a clearer idea of classic art, but was hampered in his execution by the necessity of employing workmen that had cut stone in no other style than that which had prevailed during the six centuries of the middle ages. an even compromise can therefore be considered to have taken place between the perfect construction of the gothic style and the perfect pro- portion of the classic art. . introduction into england.—the introduction of renaissance into england, however, was far different. true, her artists studied the styles under great italian masters at rome, but they, too, had to compete with designers in the local school, where gothic art had secured its strongest historic ornament. § foothold. germany and holland before this had adopted the renaissance style from france, and the systematic patience of the germans and the phlegmatic immobility of the h - lander are well woven into the style of classic art they reproduced. when these perverted ideas were transmitted to england, it is easily understood that they contained few details that could be considered purely classic. by a suc- cessive alteration through several countries, they could be with difficulty identified with their original type. . purity. of french style—we may therefore con- sider that in france we find the best examples of a practical adaptation of the ancient classic ornament to modern condi- tions and purposes, while in italy we find a renaissance of classic art that adheres more closely to the classic style, but can hardly be considered even a new departure. in eng- land, however, the style that was developed in the renais- sance period is not classic at all, except in its derivation, and there, after repeated endeavors to apply the inappropriate forrhs to the modern purposes, the style was abandoned and an endeavor made to revive that of the medieval period. italian renaissance. . rlgin.—fragments of exquisite beauty in stone, bronze, and marble were hardly covered over by the top of the soil in the ruins of the ancient buildings of rome, and these buildings therefore became quarries from which stone was easily obtained and recut to be used for tombs and other buildings wherein the style of art for which they were origi- nally used played no part. this accounts largely for the fact that gothic art secured so little foothold in italy and remained for so short a time. the pointed arch was introduced in the northern part of italy early in the thirteenth century, and this might be considered the planting of the seed of gothic art in this territory; but almost at the same time there was a protest historic ornament. § . publication of vitruvius.—through these illus- trations, which display a study on the part of the artist of ancient art, types of ornament geometrically opposed to those of the middle ages were disseminated over the continent of europe; and, in , the publication of the architecture of vitruvius at venice, with illustrations of the classic orders of architecture, set a final seal upon the fate of matters in art and afforded the means of spreading throughout other countries those details of ancient design that had so engaged the art public of italy. . italian aversion to gothic forms—however, before those laborers that were endeavoring to bring classic art and literature to the front had succeeded in getting the least sign of encouragement, it was apparent that the italians did not take kindly to gothic forms. the acanthus leaf was typical of italian art, and the foliated capitals of the gothic school had to accept this form of vegetation. in its earliest stage, renaissance art in italy was really a revival of classic principles, and it was not until the middle of the fifteenth century that it could be considered an actual revival of style. . roman influences—at rome the great wealth of the italian princes and the great ecclesiastical works under- taken by' successive pontiffs of the church attracted to that city the highest procurable ability in the art world, and it is for that reason that we can still find in rome, in the various palaces and churches, the most exquisite fragments of deco- rative sculpture in detail. . donatello.—one of the most interesting qualities of this style of ornament is the skill with which those by whom it has been wrought have availed themselves of a variation of light and shade by the treatment of the surfaces on which the ornament is raised. the refined appreciation of the delicate shades of relief in sculptured ornament was carried out with the greatest perfection by donatello, an artist whose authority on matters of art was held in the § historic ornament. highest esteem by the people of florence, and whose example was followed by all classes of artists. he was the first to practice the true basso rilicr/o, by which the effect of projection and of rounded molding is obtained within what would appear to be impracti- cable limits of relief; that is to say, in modeling his orna- ment on surface, it was raised but slightly above the surface but was treated in its carving so as to appear in high relief. donatello then combined this style of work with mrsso rilie'z/o and alto rilievo, the former being a half relief, and the latter being a sunken ornament below the surface on which it was executed. this combination maintained a division of the subject of his design into several planes. donatello enriched many of his .ornaments with elements derived from the art of painting. . plane system. at the zenith of its perfection, this system of regular arrangement of ornament in planes was so ingeniously managed in position of light and shade that, when viewed from a distance, the relief presented only cer- tain points symmetrically disposed with some dominating geometrical figure. an approach of a few yards served to bring to the eye lines and details connecting the points of greatest importance, and a still nearer approach revealed the leafage of the delicate tendrils that were required to convey a tangible idea of the type of nature selected for the conven- tionalized design. and beyond this, no inspection could be too close a test of the artist’s perfect appreciation of the refinements of surface texture. . characteristics—in the hands of less profoundly impressed artists than donatello—those possessing an inferior sensevof the proper limit of convention in sculpture—the introduction of pictorial elements in the has relief design soon degenerated into realism and confuston. great as was the skill of ghiberti, the effect of many of his most graceful compositions was marred by the introduction of perspective historic ornament. § effect and accessories too servilely copied from nature. in many of the ornaments of sculpture, this fault is exagger- ated until the dignity of the design is lost in the frivolity of the detail. these monuments, decked with huge garlands of flowers, hung with heavy cartouches and tablets, and fan- cifully overgrown with foliage, appeared more as examples of the artisan's skill than works of art commemorative of the date or dedicated to sacred purposes. this is somewhat illustrated in fig. l, which is a part of a cornice taken from the palazzo vecchio, or town hall, of florence, italy. this also illustrates the minutia of detail ;; fl : ~~ "psi- , % “ i . *../_:<v'. . . ‘ _ . ;;me 'dwfilimzlam with which this style of ornament abounded. along the frieze are heavy garlands of flowers, the design of which includes also fruit and grain, while at the points between which they are stretched are hung shield-shaped eartouches bearing devices of a more symbolic character. the fieur- de-lis, emblematic of certain royal families, and the crossed keys of st. peter are here seen, and it would appear that one of them must be strangely out of place in the frieze of a town hall. the other ornaments on the moldings, though § historic ornament. elaborately carved, are less out of place and are characteristic of the style and period. . frivollty and incongrulty of designs.—the panels in the elaborately carved seat in fig. show to what extreme and frivolity ornament of this character can be ear- ‘. , .- ‘l-éo'tr'llrz/jgmei-rzr/tr/r/rygp/ . -. . pm” »,-»,~,/m .-.- ,_-.~,"iv/" ,» ~ “saw fig . ried. here, as the settee in st. peter’s church, perugia, we have a design not only proportioned according to the pagan rules and ideas, but elaborately interspersed with grotesque historic ornament. § figures, comic masks, griffins, bucrania, flowers, and fruit, not one of which would appear to be particularly identified with any detail of the christian faith. many of the designs of this period are strangely incongru- ous with the purpose for which they are called into existence. tragic and comic masks, musical instruments, antique altars, _ tripods, hybrid marine monsters, and chimeras do not har- monize well with monuments reared in consecrated edifices or dedicated to religious rites. however, this fault of the confusion of details cannot be laid entirely upon the shoul- ders of the artists of the renaissance period, as their works may be considered simply as a reflection of the taste and dom- inant spirit of the age; and this revival of mythological symbolism was a protest against the hampering trammels of esthetic tradition erected into dogmatism by the rulers of the east, and endorsed by the church during those centuries when its ascendency over an ignorant and turbulent popula- tion was at its greatest height. the minds of even the most religious men were thoroughly imbued with such inappro- priate and incongruous associations in the fourteenth century , value to the designer.—to the designer, the study of this period in ornament is of the greatest value, as in no style has ornament ever been better spaced or arranged to contrast more agreeably with the direction of the adjacent architectural lines by which it was bound and always kept in subordination. rarely do we find an ornament placed in a horizontal position that is more suitable to a vertical one, or vice versa; and rarely are the proportions of the ornaments and moldings, or the stiles and rails by which regularity and symmetry are given to the whole, at variance with one another. . propriety of subject—in fig. is shown a column from the inner court of the palazzo vecchio, with its stucco decorations in the style of the renaissance of this period. observe that the arabesques fit perfectly the rect- angular panels on the sides of the octagon column, and § historic ornament. that the ornament is well spaced, appearing not crowded or excessive, but flowing naturally and preserving a proper relation between the plain surfaces and the richly orna- mented ones. none of this ornament could be said to have been better suited to a horizontal position, nor can it be stated that the relative proportions of the details of the ornament are such as to make one portion of it any more prominent or excessive than another. in fig. is shown an'other column from the same build- ing, ornamented on an entirely different system, although included in the group with the one of the previous example. here the flowing grape vine winds spirally around the col- umn, and the leaves and fruit are so disposed as to set elf clearly the details and at the same time preserve that space relation that is always characteristic of good ornament. historic ornament. § the capitals of these columns, it will be observed, are almost identical in design, although one of them crowns an i octagonal column and the other a round shaft. . in fig. is shown one end of a sarcophagus in the tomb of marsuppini, at flor- ence, designed by a pupil and follower of donatello. this is considered one of the finest examples of italian-renaissance sculpture. the treatment of the leaves and foliage, and the proportioning of the ornament to the surface, with the digni- fied simplicity of the inscription and frame, make it deserving of close attention and considera- tion of the method by which its decoration is handled. the relation here of plain surface and running ornament is very happily proportioned, avoiding so successfully the appearance of excess, so characteristic of most renaissance design and at the same time satisfying the mind as to its sufiiciency. fig. . . sqrollwork.—in fig. is shown the capital of a pilaster from the church of san spirito, in florence. the treatment of the acanthus leaf here, it will be observed, is very similar to its treatment on the‘ roman-corinthian cap- ital, very few alterations having been made in the type. the introduction of the oak leaf in an acanthusized form shows a step in progression, as does the introduction of the acorn accompanying the leaf. the peculiar form of s scroll in the center of the capital, each side and below the acorns, is characteristic of the renaissance, and has its origin g historic ornament. gs‘-.n-"\-|g‘;. ‘ ' * ~_’- i q :~ ' ‘ “. ‘ . “ * ~-_¢- ' -.- _. v ‘fy g . , . ‘ j l>y\'l\l'\ t‘ ( " l'..jl" ' '.' . - .._ ,, . g, “. - "‘j“ ' ‘ " —\~~u~\.\.sa‘u~ us ,. . ..‘a. , - f. 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"a; '. - _ ._ ~ '- \‘nv' u . , l ' "j. ‘ . i s - historic ornament. § undoubtedly in that irrepressible tendency of roman orna- ment to end its scrolls each time in a flower. the propor- tioning of the ornament to the surface in this case, however, is much more moderate and refined than in the roman- corinthian capital, and though copied after the classic model, this is certainly an improvement on it. . follated terminations.-—-in fig. is shown a portion of a cornice suppprted on pilasters around the door- way in the same church. the treatment of the frieze shows its origin in roman ornament, but the introduction of the fig. . human figure and birds with foliated terminations reminds us again of the innovations made by the renaissance artists. observe that all surface is here ornamented, that every molding is cut to break up an appearance of continuous line and cast‘an irregular shadow, and that the surfaces, such as the top of the pilaster and its capital and the panels in the frieze just referred to, all have their decorations properly proportioned and in keeping with the position they occupy, § historic ornament. in fig. is shown another cornice from the same church, the design of which follows more closely the ancient classic model. the ornament on the frieze is carved in high relief and does not possess that easy flowing feeling that is seen in the previous example. the same may be said of the . f e ' p..." email-mm i!» mi- i, moldings on the pilaster that supports the cornice, and of the capital of this pilaster. the ornament is too thick and there is not sufficient blank surface to rest the eye from this abundance of detail, thereby giving the whole design a feel- ing of unrest that was more characteristic of the extravagant historic ornament. § corinthian order of the romans than the more refined hand“ lings of italian art. ' in fig. is shown a bracket that forms a detail of the pulpit in the church of st. croce, in florence, the treatment of the decoration of which is well worthy of study. the ornament is not excessive and well fills the surface where it is "inf-£ l~ ‘j--::' y _.a".' ' fig. . placed, and the leafwork is carved in low relief and does not possess that excessive surface molding that so materially detracts from some of the work of the later renaissance. . examples of venetian renaissance—in fig. is a bracket from the ducal palace at venice, and is charac- teristic of the style of the venetian renaissance. the scrollwork and treatment of the foliage in this bracket is particularly happy, and illustrates, more clearly than any example we have had, the obedience to those laws of nature that must be observed in all good ornament: radiation from the parent stem, tangential curvature of lines, and distribu- tion of areas. the latter rule is particularly well shown in § historic ornament. this by the gradual diminution in surface occupied by the running ornament as it extends into the extremities of the triangular panel. the scrollwork under the bracket is not so artistically formed or well proportioned, but errors here _ are amply balanced by the good points of the scroll. in fig. is shown a panel from a large candelabrum that gives a very clear idea of the treatment of venetian arabesques. the panel is symmetrical on each side of a center line, carved in high relief in stone, and is treated in vv ‘ ' ‘ w~ -v ‘ ‘vv \ moa\_ ~..~ .uv war fig. . a manner that makes the ornament somewhat monotonous in itself but well proportioned to the surface it is intended to cover, with enough blank space to prevent tiresomeness in its study. i . ingenuity of renaissance designer. fig. is a panel under the balustrade of the stairs in the cathedral at sienna. this illustrates to a remarkable degree the inge- nuity and fertility of mind possessed by the early renais- sance designer and sculptor. here we have, forming the historic ornament. § running border around a trapezoidal panel, the guilloche ornament so characteristic of classic art, and the running arabesque identified with the classic-revival period; within this a modified form of the old greek fret and then an irreg- ular panel, the surface of which is carved in low relief with a foliated scroll and arabesque that close study discovers is terminated at one end in a grotesque animal and at the other in a bunch of fruit. . renaissance ironwork.—n t only was art at this period exemplified in details carved in stone and marble, modeled in stucco and painted on canvas, but the iron worker executed many details that brought his trade almost to a fine art. fig. shows a bracket from the florence museum, rep- resentative of a cornucopia filled with grapes and leaves. § historic ornament. the treatment of the scrollwork and the elaboration of all the detail of this device is peculiarly well adapted to the fro. . ..__ -. ‘. ' " . ‘.“-:fl - p _. "i"; v ’ n . \-, ._. ._ purpose, and altogether this exhibits a remarkable design for a piece of work of this kind. in fig. is shown a portion of an iron grille from the cathedral at prato, one portion of which, based on the com- binations of the circle, shows a slight leaning toward gothic ideals, while the panel to the right is strictly renaissance in the treatment of its leafwork and small figures; but the historic ornament. § general direction of its outline, with its alternate branches to the left and right, undoubtedly have their origin in the gothic school of foliation. it must be borne in mind that at this period there was no fig. . separation in the branches of the art world. a man was architect, painter, and sculptor at once, and often combined these with the trade of goldsmith. the great artist raflael designed ornaments for carvers in stone and metal, and exhibited in them the purest taste and most exquisite fancy. § historic ornament. . michael angelo, sculptor and artist—michael angelo was born in and was a pupil of domenico ghirlandajo. having shown at an early age a strong talent for sculpture, he was given an opportunity to study in a school for the culture of sculpture founded by lorenzo de medici. the medici family was banished from florence when angelo was years of age, and the young sculptor ‘ ..~ >-~ a .n i" ' , z" ,. was forced to retire to bologna, where he worked for a while on the tomb of st. domini. he returned to florence, how- ever, and about the time of his twenty-third birthday finished his celebrated statue of cupid, and also his bacchus, which were the cause of his being invited to rome. at rome, among many other works by him, is the pieta now standing in st. peter's church. his gigantic statue of historic ornament. § david, at florence, was his next great achievement, and before he was years of age he was summoned to rome by pope julius ii for the purpose of designing his mauso- leum, for which building the famous statues of “moses” and “the slaves ” were originally designed. thus far the work of michael angelo has apparently been that of a sculptor, with possibly the exception of the design of the mausoleum. his next great work, howcver, was the painting of the sistine chapel—one of the greatest of his achievements, whether we regard it purely as a work of intrinsic art or as a monument that exercised a powerful influence both on the art of a contemporary character as well as that of later times. for pope paul iii, in , he completed his vast fresco “the last judgment " in the same chapel, and the remainder of his long life was chiefly devoted to the con- struction of st. peter's church, on which he was employed at the time of his death, in , and for which he refused any remuneration. during the long life of michael angelo, everything he executed expressed a desire for novelty, and this is the only detraction he ever seemed to have from the study of pure excellence. his daring innovations in ornament are most striking. his large broken pediments and moldings, his sweeping consoles and scrolls, his direct imitation of nature in some of his enrichments, and the amount of absolutely plain surface that he uniformly preserved in all his archi~ tectural compositions, seem to bring new elements into the field of design that were greedily snapped up by men of lesser genius than he himself possessed. thus the style of the roman school became materially altered through the work of michael angelo. subsequent artists, down even to vignola himself, so far as ornament was concerned, adopted all his beauties, and defects of design, the greatest of which were an exaggeration of manner. . giacopo tatti sansovlno.—venice seems to be the only city of italy that did not follow the style that was § historic ornament. set by michael angelo, and this was probably due to the fact that she had a hero of her own in giacopo tatti sansovino. this artist was born at florence in the year . having, at an early age, displayed a remarkable talent for art, he was properly educated and distinguished himself by his build- ings at florence. he was then taken to rome by san gallo, architect of pope julius ii, where he attracted the notice of bramante, and made, under bramante’s direction, a large wax model of the laocoon, in competition with other artists. sansovino‘s was judged to be the best, and a bronze cast was taken of it that finally came into the possession of cardinal lorraine and by him was taken to france in the year . sansovino was obliged to leave rome on account of his health, and was placed by bramante with the artist peru- gino, who was then painting the ceiling in the toore borgia. perugino was so pleased with sansovino's ability that he caused him to prepare many models for his own use. in the year , most elaborate preparations were being made at florence for the entry of pope leo x, and sanso- vino was employed in the preparation for designs of many triumphal arches and statues. the works were so success- ful that he was given the commission by the pope to make a design for the facade of san lorenzo, in florence. after this he continued in rome and was employed both in sculp- ture and architecture, and was the successful competitor for the church of st. john, of the florentines, against raffael and antonio san gallo. from this on he was engaged on work of importance in rome until the year , when rome was taken by the french, and sansovino sought refuge in venice, intending from there to visit france, where the king had offered him employment. the duke andrea gritti, however, persuaded him to remain and undertake the restoration of the cupolas of st. mark's church—a work that he performed so successfully that he was appointed to a public office, given a house, and provided with a stipend. it was to this appointment that venice owes so many architectural monuments that are among the finest examples of italian art. historic ornament. § french renaissance. . rapidlty of transltlon.—the transition from the style of the middle ages to the style of the renaissance, that. took place so gradually in italy, was in france sudden and complete. the campaigns of charles viii, louis xii, and francis i in italy brought them in contact with the wonder- ful art productions of that country, and filled them on their return to france with an ambition to rival the splendid palaces and gardens of italy, for which purpose they took with them italian artists to act as instructors to the french. however, although these imported italians introduced many classic elements and details into french art, they failed to dominate the natural spirit of the french master masons and architects in matters of general composition. there- fore, the early french renaissance is wholly unlike that of italy, from which it derived only a few minor details and the impetus that carried it forwards. on account of its possession of greater originality than the italian style, and its freedom from the baser incongruities that prevailed in the renaissance in germany and england, we can take the french' style as a good standard, and study it as a revival of classic art modified almost perfectly to fit more modern ideas. it is important in studying the french renaissance to bear in mind the periods into which it is divided and sub- divided, and also to bear in mind the dates of these periods. in modern practice, when any designs are executed in any particular style, the french styles more than any others are rated according to their period rather than nationality. . periods of french renalssance.—french renais- sance may be divided into three general periods: ( ) valois period, or renaissance proper; ( ) bourbon, or classic, period; and ( ) rococo period. . valois period—the valois period extends from (about the time of the invasion of charles viii into italy) to (about the end of the reign of henry iii). this may be subdivided into: (a) the transition period, comprising le-p historic ornament. the reigns of charles viii and louis xii and the early years of francis i, extending from to . this period is characterized by a picturesque mixture of classic details and gothic ideas. ( ) the style of francis i, or early renaissance, extending from about to . the ornament of this period is distinguished by its great variety and grace of composition and the exquisite beauty of detail. (c) the advanced renaissance, combining the reigns of henry ii, francis ii, charles ix, and henry iii, extend- ing from to , and distinguished by the general adoption of the classic proportions in the orders and a decline in the delicacy and originality in the treatment of the orna- ment. in other words, this period represents, as did the later renaissance of italy, an attempt to actually reproduce all classic forms. . bourbon period. —this period of the renaissance extends from to , covering the reign of henry iv and of louis xiv. this may be subdivided into the style of henry iv, covering entirely his reign and part of the reign of louis xiii, extending altogether from to . the distinguishing characteristic of this period is the excessive use of the classic orders and other forms with a heavy, bold, florid ornament. the style of louis xiv begins during the reign of his predecessor and extends to the time of his death—from to . this is the great age of classic architecture in france, wherein the luxury and wealth of the nation and its desire for splendor exceeded its taste in art and represented in its architecture an attempt at the grandeur of rome. . rococo period—this period may be considered the decline, and is distinguished by the marked extravagance of detail derived from the leaf and other ornamental forms of previous periods, combined with rock and shell forms, so capricious as to be absolutely meaningless. this period of french renaissance terminates in what is known as the empire style. this consisted of a strong pro- test against the frivolity of the ornament of the rococo, and a returnvto the actual detail of more classic forms. as it historic ornament. § progressed into the nineteenth century, it expressed itself under the reign of napoleon, as emperor, and attempted to produce the grandeur of imperial rome. france had conquered the greater part of europe, and believed that she was to set up a universal empire covering the entire country, as rome had done, and with this idea in mind, built triumphal arches, columns of victory, gorgeous palaces, and country chateaux, and in every way lavished money on public and private monuments, in an endeavor to visibly express her imperialism. . castles and chateaux—the transition from the gothic to the renaissance is more clearly expressed in the chateaux, or country residences, of the nobles than in almost any other class of buildings,and for that reason we will confine our discussion largely to a few of these interesting edifices. we have seen how the castle of the middle ages was built mainly for defense, its ornamental features being merely an embellishment of the necessities that were prominent in its construction. such was exhibited in the general appear- ance of the castle of coucy, fig. , historic ornamml, § . § historic ornament. the remodeling of these gothic castles to suit the taste of the renaissance brought in many incongruous but very picturesque ideas. in fig. , a view of the castle of amy- le-rideau, it will be observed how the towers and turrets characteristic of the old style are retained, how the upper portions are still carried out on bold corbels, and their tops w out/ma plan of cha teau de l / v fig. . roofed over in a cone; but the drawbridgc, the meat, and the portcullis have disappeared. broad airy windows dimin- ish the extent of blank wall surface characteristic of feudal times, and pilasters each side of the windows, topped with classic capitals and carved in rich arabesque, show the adop- tion of italian art. the plan, composition, and grouping of the parts are still french and more or less feudal, and the italian art has only affected the detail. historic ornament. § . chateau de blois.—the largest, and, in many respects, the most important, of these country residences of royalty is the chateau de blois, and this we will consider in detail, as within it may be traced the gradual transition of each phase of the french renaissance, from the time of louis xii to the time of henry iv, thereby including the entire valois and a part of the bourbon period of this style. in fig. is shown a plan of this structure, the irregularity of which gives evidence of its medieval origin. about the year louis xii remodeled the east wing, which bears his name, a front view of which is shown in fig. . in this may be seen the elliptical arch, the clustered column, the § historic ornament. high-pointed gable, and the slender pinnacles whose origin can be traced to medieval days, but the introduction of flank- ing pilasters and arabesque ornament, though here but spar- ingly seen, is suggestive of the change to come. on the outside of this wing, the archway that leads through to the “court of honor," shown in fig. , is flanked on each ' " side by heavy piers, over which is a conventional gothic niche wherein, against an elaborate background of fleur-de-lis, rides king louis xii on his charger. to the right of this is a little doorway that gives the pedestrian access to the passage, and over this entrance, in has-relief, is carved a porcupine, the emblem of 'louis xii, and a knotted cord for anne of brittany, his queen. of these‘emblems pm , we will have more to say later. we will now turn to the wing of francis . on the north- west side of the court. this was erected but fifty years after the one we have just considered, but the difference in style is manifest even to the most casual observer, as shown in fig. . . french conception of roman ideas—the artists of the sixteenth century, hurried along by the swift current of fifty years of wonderful intellectual regeneration, seemed to arrive at a comprehension of the use that the romans had made of the greek orders. they seemed to understand that ' the orders were not used in rome as elements of construc- tion, as they had been in- greece, but as decorative details having no essential relation to the construction itself. they seemed to comprehend by instinct that there was no reason why they should not take those same roman orders and details and use them in any way they chose—structural or historic ornament. § non-structural—so long as their use suited the purpose to which they were applied. fig. . thus a study of this period of french architecture shows that the french builders accepted not the conventional § ' historic ornament. restrictions of the classic formulas, but the spirit of -these formulas, as an organized system of ornamentation. a study of the court facade of this chateau de blois shows that the lessons in classic styles given by the imported italian mas- ters were accepted by the french architects with respect and intelligence, but not learned by rote. the italian rules had an influence, but were not accepted as a law. . octagonal stalrcnse.—the greatest artistic effort of this period was probably the octagonal staircase that - appears in this facade. it is considered one of the master- pieces of the sixteenth century, though itis at the same time an example illustrative of the audacious independence of the french architect. it has no architectural relation to the wall surface from which it'protrudes, except that its four great free-standing buttresses support a cornice and balus- tradc that are a continuation of those on the wall. these buttresses are niched and contain exquisitely carved figures, while between them extends the balustrade of the stairs, historic ornament. § divided into panels carved with the crowned salamander emblematic of francis i, and in other places with the mono- gram f and c under a crown, standing for francis, and claude, his queen. in fig. is shown a large detail of this salamander device, and the form of its crown, decorated with fleur-de-lis. this fig. . is the key of the period and style, as was the crowned porcu- pine aikey to the style of louis xii. the fleur-de-lis will be found on nearly every detail connected with french royalty, as it was adopted originally by hugh capet, the first king of france. § historic ornament. if we now go into this castle and wander through its rooms, we will find many details typical of the spirit of the french people and suggestive of their love of display and art. we will be able to judge largely the period of each particular room by the emblems characteristic of the reign. fm. ' . . development of the fireplace.—it was about the beginning of the renaissance period that the chimney as a means of carrying % the smoke was introduced into france, and in the chateau de blois we see the full develop- ment of the fireplace. therefore it will be well to make a historic ornament. § study of these details by themselves, inasmuch as the student can then make a better comparison. . in fig. is shown an old mantel that stood at the end of the great hall of the states general. its design is gothic in feeling, as is plainly shown by the crockets around its cornice. the columns either side of the opening are carved with gothic capitals, and the ornament extending across the top of the opening is gothic in its detail, though indicative of the influence of the renaissance arabesque. in fig. is shown a mantel of the hall of the guards, the details each side of the opening of which, as well as the panel across the top of the opening and the frame panel over the mantel, are certainly gothic in feeling. the pilasters at each side of the mantel, however, and the capitals-at their tops, are certainly of italian origin and design. these two examples, particularly fig. , give a good idea of the earliest ornamental mantel used in french art, and are typical of the designs in use at the close of the fifteenth century. . heraldry.—in fig. is shown the mantel known as the mantle of crowns, on which in high relief we find the crowned porcupine emblematic of louis xii, together with the crowned initials l and a, standing for louis and anne of brittany, his queen. around the frieze is a knotted cord that also is emblematic of anne of brittany, and in later years was used by some queens as a sign of widowhood. the dolphin forming the background of this mantel, and bearing the crown of france, appears as a detail in many french designs emblematic of heirship to the throne, the nearest heir to the throne in france being called the dauphin—a word derived from the dolphin, that fish being the emblem. another interesting detail in this design is found above and below the knotted cord, around the frieze; above is the conventional fleur-de-lis emblematic of the kings of france, and below it is the conventional form of ermine emblematic of the queen, anne of brittany. § historic ornament. in fig. is shown another mantel from the chateau de blois, of the period of louis xii, in which the crowned por- cupine and the crowned ermine are each displayed in sepa- rate panels, the ermine in this case being shown as a complete animal instead of the conventional form representingits fur, fla. !. as displayed in the previous figure. the moldings of this mantel and its general outline and proportions are strongly suggestive of the gothic style, but the treatment of the arabesque at each side of the panels, the carving of the three-quarter columns that mark the separate panels, and the frieze over the fireplace, show conclusively their italian historic ()rnament. § origin. it will be observed that the initials l and a are. repeated across the top of the chimney, and the background of the panels containing the reliefs of the porcupine and n x a a a) ‘ ‘._. y'_ dais .. * ; ermine are each diapered with the fieur-de‘lis and conven- tional form of ermine fur. . in fig. we have another mantel of this same period, where the frieze over the top of the fireplace opening is evenly divided between the crowned initials of the king and queen, on a fleur-de-lis and ermine background, typical of their houses or families. the crowned porcupine between § historic ornament. the two—the symbol 'of louis xii—appears in nearly all designs executed during the reign of that king. above the fireplace are the figures of two angels, supporting the crown of france, and the shield bearing the escutcheons fig. . of both the king and queen. a little observation of the detail at the top, and the moldings of the columns, will show that the gothic influence still pervaded the art of the period. in fig. is a chimney with the emblems of anne of brittany. the elaborate a and knotted cords against a s historic ornament. § background of ermine, together with the entire treatment of the design, is suggestive only of the house of the queen, undivided with that of king louis. fig. shows a mantel wherein no initials occur to indi- cate to whom or what period it belonged; but we can easily fig. . judge from the presence of the knotted cord in each of the side panels, and the existence of this device as a border to the center panel, and its stenciled background of ermine and fleur-de-lis, over which the. shield surrounded with shells has been placed. ‘ § historic ornament. . in fig. is shown a mantel of the later period— that of francis i—a fact that is clearly declared by the pres- ence of the salamander in its design, a word concerning which might be necessary. the salamander is a mythical fig. . animal supposedly so cold blooded that it will actually quench fire when placed ~within it, and the design here shown expresses this idea of the salamander, standing on a bed of coals and surrounded by flame that he is supposed to quench by the coldness of his breath. historic ornament. § the details of this mantel are very classic. the capitals of the columns are derived undoubtedly from the italian renaissance. the acanthus leaf forming the bracket at the fig. . corners of the mantel, and the bracket over the crown, as a sort of clumsy keystone in the center, are decidedly italian in their molding. the mantel is chiefly interesting by its strong personality and association with the reign, period, and person of francis i. . in fig. is shown what is called the chimney of the fleur-de-lis, the upper background of which is stenciled § historic ornament. exclusively with fleur-de-lis, and bears in its center the crowned shield surrounded by shells. we now arrive at fig. , a mantel in a room known as the cabinet of the queen, and here we get the severe clas- sicism characteristic of the period of henry ii. the pilas- ters each side of the mantel, and the panels of the wall, all richly carved in arabesque, and the frieze over the top of the mantel, with similar ornament, show the predominating influence of italian art. the background of the upper portion of the mantel, with its stenciled h and fleur~de-lis, historic ornament. § and the oval cartouch or modillion in the center, with its crowned h surrounded by laurel leaves, stamp this design characteristically with the period of henry ii, while a small cartouch in the center of the mantel over the fireplace open- ing bears the initials h and c, standing for henry, and catherine de medici, his queen. the study of these designs and escutch- eons is of particular interest to the student, as nearly all detail of the french renaissance period can be classified easily by hearing in mind the heraldic sym- bols characteristic of each reign and period. . ' wall and cell- lng decoration—n less interesting than the mantels of this cele- brated chateau are the decorations of the walls and ceilings with the characteristic surface . ornament of the period. the same monograms and initials are here found in embossed leather, surrounded by richly foliated ornamentation in strong colors and gold. _ in fig. is shown a room known as the king’s chamber, the walls of which are decorated with a repeating pattern at regular intervals, within which we find the initials h and c, for henry and catherine, the king and queen. an enlarged detail of this wall decoration is shown in fig. , and is fig. . u historic ornament. valuable as a characteristic wall treatment of the period of this french renaissance. in fig. , the decorations of queen catherine’s chamber may be seen, and it is interesting to note that in each of . flo. historic ornament. § these rooms there is an abrupt termination between the wall decorations of the main room and the dado or wainscot of the niche or alcove, no attempt being made to blend the two fig. . patterns so that they die or fit into each other. the inde- pendence expressed is in perfect accordance with that already spoken of in the arrangement of the buttresses of the great staircase. ' § historic ornament. beyond this room, through the open doorway seen in fig. , is another apartment, the walls of which are treated fig. . with a surface decoration shown in fig. . the single letter h under the conventional crown indicates this apartment to historic ornameni‘. have been decorated in the period and style of henry ii, and a little study of the design in comparison with fig. will show the simplicity and neatness of the earlier style as fig. . compared with the later one. fig. shows a third example of the wall decorations of this chateau. these wall decorations are very valuable to the interior decorator of today, inasmuch as they furnish him with a § historic ornament. clear suggestion of the style of interior work during the renaissance period, of which so few examples are in exist- ence at the present time. fig. . . fontaineblean and versailles—during the decline of the renaissance to the period of the empire, the seat of government and the royal family were centered in paris, and the palaces of fontainebleau and versailles are the historic ornament. most important, with the exception of the louvre, of the many palaces of france. they are both built up of sections that vary in style and age from the fourteenth century to the present day, but in each 'of these parts the greatest architectural interest centers in the details of the period of francis i and his immediate successors. the details of this style of architecture, as seen in fon- tainebleau and versailles, are more urban than those from the chateaux we have just been considering, and, though all these buildings in their proper sense were palaces, yet the two structures in present consideration were always spoken of as such, inasmuch as they were the city residences of the king in distinction from his country seat. . variation of styles—in the rooms of these palaces can be seen the furniture and decorations whose style is typical of french art during each period of the renaissance and at the height of its glory. here, during the reigns of louis xv and louis xvi, we have the style of furniture characteristic of and known by the names of these monarchs, as well as that dainty specific style of design called jvlarie antoinrllo. after the year , french furniture can be roughly divided into four styles, corresponding to the four monarchs under whose influences its manufacture was car- ried on. these are: louis xiv, louis xv, louis xvi, and napoleon, usually called empire. as in all cases of subdivision into periods, there is a tran- sition from one period to another that makes the styles over- lap one another, and the distinctive characteristics of each cannot be applied with certainty. the dividing lines in the case of french furniture, however, are more clearly drawn than in other art details, inasmuch as each style seems to have been the result of a court fashion that depended largely on the taste of the reigning monarch. . louis xiv loved pomp and grandeur, and the forms of louis xiv furniture are bold and severe in line and pro- portion—a fact that kept them from appearing gaudy in § historic ornament. their excessive gilding. a great desire in furniture at this period was magnificence, and native woods were 'set aside in preference for foreign woods from india and america. rarity of material was of more importance than any other detail, and artistic composition was now relegated to an inferior place. the effect of this was to make the details small, as the use of costly materials required that they should be treated with care and that even the smallest fragments should be used. . introduction of costly materials—a great differ- ence was thus established between the old-fashioned joiner, faithful to the carving of native woods, and the eabinetmaker to the king, whose care was to produce objects of magnifi- cence. in other words, vulgarity was introduced into the scheme of ornament, and brilliant and costly materials were used solely ,for their expression of brilliancy and costliness; and it is from this standpoint that french furniture of this period must be regarded. the skill lavished upon it and the fancy and variety that characterizes its design and the minuteness of its workmanship in inlaid surfaces, graven and chiseled brasses, and the ingenuity of its construction and expense, can then be appreciated. . diseoumgement of symmetry.—during the period of louis xv, furniture loses the dignity of outline and proportion that characterized that of the previous style, although it possesses all the brilliancy and gaudiness of the former. another detail of importance between these two styles is that in the louis xiv work symmetry was not dis- tinctly observed, as the great effect of varied light and shade was enhanced by the abruptness of unsymmetrical parts. in the period of louis xv, this eccentricity became a law, and symmetry became not onlya detail of no consequence, but a thing not to be encouraged. this caused the design to reach the height of irregularity, and the style took the name of rococo—a term in the french language meaning frivolous. in this eccentric ornamentation other details figured, and historic ornament. § roses, cornucopia, vases, scrolls, etc. are interwoven with a great predominance of shell-like forms. there is nothing in the entire range of art acting as an example or prototype of this rococo idea. every shape and line throughout it is twisted and turned until it is almost a deformity; the ordinary acanthus scroll was carried into an endless reedy foliation. nature appeared to be looked upon as a rude and barbarous affair that needed some dressing of french taste, and yet some specimens of louis xv furniture impress us both with the actual skill of the man that did the work, whether in metal or wood, and that the pieces of furniture are themselves marvels of decoration. these twists and turns, though absolutely meaningless, seem to have an object. they reflect the light from gilded metal in a thousand different ways, and from a thousand different points, while the high relief affords an abundant play of light and shade amidst this brightness. toward the end of the reign of louis xv, a reaction set in against these absurdities, sim- .ply because the exaggerated style was being carried beyond reasonable limits. . under the'reign of louis xvi, the furniture is similar to that of his predecessor, inasmuch as the festoons, garlands, gildings, and shell decorations still exist, but the shape of the chair, and the care and study expended on it, is very different. refinement is evident in every one of its lines and proportions. the earlier chair, with sprawling legs—called the rancan—was not to be accepted during the reign of louis xvi, but to be departed from as widely as circumstances would permit. during this period, we find none of the bandy-legged forms of the chair and table characteristic of the previous style, but straight-turned and sometimes fluted shafts imitative of attenuated vases or cups, or suggestive of little columns or colonnettes. the gilding was used, not entirely over the surface, to increase the gaudy appearance, but in lines, to accentuate the fluting of the column-like legs more than to emphasize the curves of the moldings that were turned according to greek ideas. § historic ornament. . the entire interior decoration of this period par- took of a similar reformation. the panels of the rooms were divided into straight lines, and omitted all details of the rococo flourishes. these panels were painted white, and the pilasters between them were carved in rich and delicately executed arabesque. the whole scheme of decoration of this period was equally elaborate and rich with that of its predecessors, and various articles of furniture were made of tulip wood, laburnum, or of rosewood, and on other occasions they would be executed in lighter wood, colored in various gold and brown shades by means of a hot iron. the chief orna- ment was marquetry of elaborate pattern, usually in floral garlands with borders of fine diaper work. the chairs, beds, and couches were usually upholstered in fine gobelin tapestry or costly french and italian silks, all of which were further enriched by beautiful metal mounts, while inlaid bits of sevres porcelain added a delicacy to the whole. german and english renaissance. . influence of italian art.—renaissance ornament penetrated into germany at an early period, but was not particularly popular at first, and took no hold on the hearts of the people until the spread of books and engravings pre- pared the way to the adaptation. from an early period there had been a steady current of artists leaving germany to study art in italy, and the return of these affected many of their countrymen. . albert durer, a german artist and illustrator, in many of his engravings, showed a perfect understanding of the,conditions of italian design, leaning occasionally to the gothic style of his early master and on other occa- sions to the italian style of his more recent studies. the spread of these engravings undoubtedly influenced the german taste, but, even at its best, the renaissance of germany was impure. the inclination of her people for historic ornament. § difficulties that could be solved by the hand rather than by the head soon led her into strapwork, jeweled forms, and monstrous devices more animated than graceful, but exhibiting fully the delight of the clever mechanic to execute details that were difficult to handle but easy to conceive. . introduction into england.—the introduction of renaissance art into england dates from about the year , when henry viii employed an italian architect to design a monument in memory of henry vii, which still exists in westminster abbey and is almost a pure example of the italian style of that period. the same architect designed a monument of the countess of richmond at westminster, and shortly afterwards left england for spain, leaving behind, however, a number of italians attached to the service of henry viii, by whom a taste for the italian style was thoroughly inoculated into the country. among these was the architect john of padua, who appears to have done more work than any of the others, among the most important of which is the old sommerset house, built in . at the time these italian artists were spreading a taste for italian architecture and sculpture throughout the length and breadth of england, another influence was at work to temper this style and prevent its being accepted in its purest form. . iiolbeln.—in , the celebrated german artist holbein came to england from holland, and to him and john of padua is due mainly the resulting style of archi_ tecture that appeared in england during the reign of elizabeth. holbein was a man of great individual genius as a painter, and naturally inclined to establish the taste of the german school in england, and, though he died in —thirty years after entering the country—his influence on john of padua is plainly seen in the results of that archi- tect during the subsequent years. § historic ornament. . dutch influence. ——at the time of elizabeth, a number of artists came over from holland, built several buildings, and painted many portraits, and, though these artists and architects were thoroughly imbued with a taste for italian art, that taste was certainly affected by their dutch surroundings and education. theodore havens, of cleves, was architect of four gates of caius college, in england, built toward the close of the sixteenth century, and at this time it appears that most of the italian architects had left the country. there were many english goldsmiths and jewelers, as well as a number of artists and architects, whose names appear prominently at this time, and all this jointly had the effect of conglom- crating the dutch, italian, and english-gothic style of art. . political ties of england and holland.—during the reign of elizabeth we meet a great preponderance of dutch names, considering that it was an english country, which is accounted for by the fact that england was bound by political and religious ties with holland; and although the greater number of these names are applied to artists and painters, it must be borne in mind that all the arts were connected closely in those days, and artists and sculptors were frequently employed to design models for ornament and even for architecture, and, in the accessories of their own pictures, found frequent opportunity for the exhibition of ornamental design. michael angelo was an artist and painted the ceiling and side walls of the sistine chapel, at rome; michael angelo was a sculptor and carved much of the statuary that now stands in the corridors of some of the most ‘prominent museums of europe; michael angelo was an architect and completed the building of st. peter's church, in rome, the most stupendous undertaking of the age and the largest structure now in existence. . influences on english art. during the early part of queen elizabeth's reign, we are then justified in historic ornament. ' ' concluding that a most important influence must have been exercised on english art, through the medium of the prot- estant states and low countries and also of germany. heidelberg castle, in germany, was completed about this time, and it is not unlikely that this, too, had an effect on english art, especially when we consider that princess eliza- beth, daughter of james i of england, was queen of bohemia, and held court at heidelberg about the beginning of the seventeenth century. records show that toward the close of elizabeth's reign, and about the beginning of that of james i, english artists seem to have predominated, and it would appear that at this time would be found the most - likely development of a strictly native style. it is to be deplored, however, that this period of english art, known as jacobean, is undoubtedly the most inartistic, inappropriate, and ill-composed in all history. . elizabethan ornament.—thus we may expect to meet with the purest italian ornament during the reign of henry viii. during the reign of elizabeth, his daughter, we perceive but a slight imitation of the italian models and an almost complete adoption of the style of ornament practiced by the decorative artists of germany and the netherlands. in the reign of james i, elizabeth’s suc- cessor, we find this same style continued, or attempted to be continued, by the english artists, but in a large and gross manner. . characteristics.—there is little, then, that can be justly termed original in elizabethan ornament. it consists more of an adaptation of foreign elements—an adaptation of elements with which the adapters had no intimacy, and about which they had little understanding. the characteristics of elizabethan ornament may be described as consisting chiefly of a grotesque and complicated variety of pierced scrollwork with curled edges, as though a number of short straps were interwoven and their ends allowed to curl up; of interlaced bands, sometimes on a geometrical pattern, but more often § historic ornament. flowing irregularly and capriciously; bands composed of strap and nail-head ornaments; festoons of fruit and drapery inter- spersed with roughly executed figures of human beings; grotesque monsters and animals, with here and there large and flowing designs of natural branch and leaf ornament. high-paneled apartments often filled with designs of foliage, shields, and coats of arms, grotesque keystones in arches, and immense flowing brackets, are freely used; and the carving, whether in wood or stone, is always very roughly and crudely executed, and the design coarse and ill-adapted to the material in which it is executed. unlike the adoption of the classic style in italy and france, these ornaments are not applied to a gothic system of construction, but the entire building is masked under a coat of plaster or other material, and the groundwork of classic simplicity is first laid, to receive the meaningless ornament that stamps the period. . revival of antique art.—-about the beginning of the sixteenth century, the revival of the antique art, which we have already discussed, in italy became invigorated and reduced to a system, as we have said before, through its popular introduction afforded by the means of printing and engraving. translations of the work of vitruvius, copiously illustrated and ably commented upon, were printed and spread so as to become the foundation of work for every designer of eminence throughout the country, and at the same time offered a suggestion on which at least half a dozen other writers prepared treatises on architecture, among them palladio and vignola, whose works have been preserved and form the standard down to the present day. . . architecture and ornament during the period of the english renaissance may be considered as failures from an artistic standpoint. the purest ornament developed during this great historical period we find in france, where it was uninfiuenced by any foreign elements of importance except those received from italy with the style itself. historic ornament. § conclusion. . object ’ complete reviewal of historic orna- ment.~—thus we have considered the entire range of historic ornament, from the earliest days of egypt to the beginning of the nineteenth century. the object of this study has not been to acquire a number of forms that were characteristic of each period, that the student might copy or imitate out- lines and designs of the past, in order to execute ideas characteristic of a certain historic period. the purpose has ,been to train the mind in order that the natural develop- ments arising from conditions in the past can be applied to the probable conditions that would arise under similar cir- cumstances of the present day and the future. . influences affecting styles of art.—it has been pointed out that religion, politics, and geography have affected the character of ornament in different countries, as well as historic influences, and at the present day we find that the majority of the ornament is affected by the inven- tions and advancement in science and art characteristic of the nineteenth century, as was the renaissance period char- acterized by the advancement of learning in its period. in fact, the latter half of the nineteenth century has been characterized by some writers as a new renaissance, if such a term can be reasonably used. it certainly bears a similar relation, to the three hundred years that preceded it, that the beginning of the renaissance period bore to the centuries before its dawn. . effect of environments on art and architec- ture.—in the fifteenth century, we have the introduction of books to the masses of people, through the invention of the printing press and printing. a spread of desire for art and learning followed as soon as the antiquities of rome and greece were learned, and with this development of the human mind, a rapid advancement of civilization took place that characterizes the period as one of the most brilliant in history. § historic ornament. in the same manner, we have a number of inventions characteristic of the latter half of the nineteenth century that have so changed the conditions of man that his entire habits and character are different from those of his ancestors in the renaissance period. steam and electricity have been controlled so as to convert night into day, and make it no_ longer necessary to discontinue any line of work or manu- facture at sunset. these same agents have rendered the. distances between business centers—even on two continents —matters of only a few hours’ or days' travel. conversa- tion between individuals a thousand miles apart is so easily maintained that it may be considered that space, from a business standpoint, 'is practically annihilated, and, with a hundred other inventions, we are confronted with a propo- sition in design today that makes the _traditions and devices of past ages simply symbols of antiquity. the modern mind is so imbued with mechanics and inven- tions that the present age can give little time to the study and development of a national or characteristic art. designs of the past have been copied, and we are satisfied to imitate what has been done in this line, instead of trying to do some- thing for ourselves. the human mind has not attempted to invent practical art forms, and years hence the study of the art of this period will be considered in much the same terms that we now consider the art of the jacobean period in england. . adherence to old designs—a simple illustra- tion of this may perhaps be seen in the ordinary chandelier, or hanging light. in the days when candles furnished all the light for rich and poor that was obtainable, it was cus- tomary that a rod or bar should hang from some portion of the room and support on its end one or more candles. the introduction of lamps to general use made it necessary that there should be a bulb or metal globe somewhere near the bottom of this red, to be filled with oil to supply the lamp that still was suspended from the ceiling by a rod, or, occasion- ally, a chain. with the introduction of gas as illuminating historic ornament. § power, the rod was replaced by a pipe, still in imitation of the old rod, but serving the double purpose of support- ing the chandelier and conveying the gas to the burner. the horizontal bars that formerly carried lamps now carry lava tips from which the gas burns, and the large round i balls or globes that originally contained the oil to supply the lamp are now false, hollow devices, used to cover the joints where the vertical and horizontal bars are united. in addition to this, elaborate designs for gas fixtures often introduced long chains from various portions of their cross- bars to staples in the ceiling, suggesting that these fixtures were hung from the ceiling by chains, as the lamps of old— a clumsy deceit, inasmuch as the chains nearly always bun g loose and the fixture was plainly supported by its central pipe. from a point of design, nothing could be more incon- sistent than to borrow the chain that hung the lamp of our ancestors and use it as a decorative element where it was allowed to hang in a limp curve, on account of this outline being more pleasing ~to the eye. the reason for this is to be found in the fact that the designer did not invent new conditions to suit the new material. had he never known of chandeliers for candles and lamps and been called upon to design a device for gas, there is no doubt he would have done much better. .his knowledge of historic ornament in lamp fixtures, therefore, did not benefit him, but injured his ability to design something original for gas, and now, with the introduction of electricity, many are continuing in the same-error today. . all that is required for an electric-light illumination is a pair of small wires to convey the current, and a bulb in which the incandescent fiber is enclosed. the designer is free to use these two agents in any form he pleases, to elabo- rate them in any way he chooses, and to produce an equal illumination of a room in the simplest and most artistic way that circumstances can possibly admit. yet, the majority of our electrolier designs are based on developments of the historic ornament. § carpets on floors were practically unknown at this period, and some of the richest palaces had floor coverings of no better material than straw; but in the nineteenth century we require carpet, and our gothic interior need not be made as crude as a barn in order to be correct; we can use hard- wood floors and rugs, or if carpet is more desirable, we must avoid colors and designs that are inconsistent with the spirit of our purpose. . \vindow and wall ornamentation.—we must remember that glass was scarce and expensive at this time, and that in most cases the windows were large and filled with small panes—first, for the admission of sunshine and air, and, second, for economy. but glass is cheap now, and it is not necessary that we should divide our windows up into a multitude of trivial openings, in order that our panes may be small, because they were in the gothic period. leaded glass and stained glass existed in those days and can be used now to obtain any effect we desire that is con- sistent with our purpose. walls were hung with tapestries at that time, whereas to-day the paper manufacturer has, for economical reasons, crowded the tapestry industry into a comparatively second place, except for the very wealthy. however, we can cover our walls with paper if we choose, but its design should not be suggestive of any period but the one we have in mind. and so throughout, all our efforts may be carried out with the material we have in hand or available at the present time, if we but stop to consider the reason for certain things in the past and a reason why they should or should not be reproduced in the present. . this same suggestion applies to the designer of fabrics of all kinds as well as to the decorator, and, whethe - executing a design for a carpet, wall paper, dress fabric, or linen damask, it is a simpler matter, if its practice is once started, to imitate the spirit of any age or style than it is to attempt to copy the elements of existing designs. § historic ornament. historic letterdyg. . lettering does not in reality form a part of historic ornament as the various other ornamental details do, but it is here introduced with the explanation of the characteristics of each style, in order that it may be associated with the ornamental style of each characteristic period. we all know that there was no such style of alphabet as we term antique egyptian extant in ancient egypt, but we do find letters of this character in certain roman works executed at a late period on egyptian soil, and it is from these that it derives its name. the styles of letter here given must all be accepted with a certain amount of liberality, as each, though in har- mony with the period it represents, has certain modern char- acteristics introduced for purely commercial advantages. . the practical designer is frequently called upon to execute ornamental lettering appropriate to some historic style and in harmony with some practical purpose. for this reason the student is herewith given a number of useful alphabets, with a brief description of each, that will enable him to execute the outlines of each letter properly and pro- portion them according to rules. the titles given to these alphabets are names by which they are known in modern use and explain themselves. there is no rule by which one can determine what style of letter is best suited to each particular purpose, but it is well to bear in mind that legibility is always the first con- sideration, and where the lettering of a design is intended to convey direct information, as in a sign or piece of adver- tising matter, the lettering should be simple and clear in order that the purpose of the design may not fail. on the other hand, where the lettering is for a certificate, diploma, memorial, or other piece of matter that is more ornamental than instructive, the lettering may be elaborated to any degree within reasonable limits. the relative amount of space covered by letters and background is a matter of design that is considered in the same manner as spotting, du .oË —— —- _.__ ._ ._.._j._ ——j_ b—o—d— “icc —o— ci: s...— f: be? i i . , ‘» ËËËe ÆËaqËzŒ § historic ornament. and the proportions of letters to each other must also be considered in the composition of the design, as matters of the principal and subordinate parts of the same design, all of which will be more fully explained hereafter. elaboration of letters or the use of elaborate letters does not enhance either the beauty or the value of the design unless these letters are used intelligently, and a plain letter correctly and intelligently proportioned will produce a much more pleasing effect than the most elaborate style badly and ignorantly arranged. antique egyptian alphabet. . this letter, fig. , is almost identical with the plain egyptian, the distinction being in the addition of the spur at the angles of the letters, but no variation occurs in the propor- tion of the letter or its stroke. the stroke of a letter is the proportional width of its heavy lines in comparison with its height. in this letter the stroke is one-fifth the height. as shown by the small squares in which the letter surface is 'divided. some designers make the spur much more exag- gerated than is shown on this plate, while others make it scarcely perceptible. the examples given herewith, how- ever, may be taken as an average, wherein the spur projects about one-third the width of the stroke. all letters having a horizontal stroke, as the e, l, etc., have these strokes fin- ished with a beveled end, on which the spur is added at the same _angle. the ends of the strokes of the c and the upper stroke of the g and s, and figures , , , , and are beveled at an angle opposite to that of the other letters referred to above. this bevel, shown on the upper terminal of c, is made by drawing a line from a point one-fourth the width of the stroke to the right of a to a point one-third the width of the stroke to the left of c. the points a and refer to the intersection of the fifth vertical line from the left side of the letter, with the third horizontal line marked . the middle bar of the a is the width of the stroke below historic ornament. § the center; the middle bar of the h is one-half the width of the stroke above the center; while the middle bars of the e and f are exactly in the center. the f is finished with a spur at e, as well as just above e. the points that deter- mine the inclination of the strokes of the k are from a to two-thirds the width of the stroke below d, and from f to the intersection of the upper slanting stroke with line one- third the width of the stroke above a'. the two slanting strokes of the ill meet in the center of the letter at a point on line f, and no spurs exist on the insides of the slanting strokes at the top. the tail of the q is cut on an angle of ~ degrees, the shorter side being the width of the stroke in length and the longer side being equal to the distance from to f. the tail of the r is a slanting stroke; the points of contact are d to f. the strokes of the w come to a point on line a to correspond with the ill. the corner of the z is beveled off at about the same angle as the interior of the and the top of the character &. the long slanting stroke of the character & is drawn from a point one-half the width of the stroke to the left and below a to a point one- half the width of the stroke to the right of f. the corre- sponding, or upper, slanting stroke, from its top to the beginning of the curve, is made from a point one-half the width of the stroke to the right and below a to a point d. the other slanting stroke intersects the long stroke the width of the stroke below this point and is parallel with the' upper stroke, finishing on line c. the curve by which these strokes are united is three-fourths the width of the stroke to the left of line at e. the middle bar of the numeral is beveled at a slight angle, as shown. the character of the numeral is changed at the point where the vertical stroke joins the curved bottom portion of the numeral . the point added below the line a' is necessary to fill out the space to the line of the curve. the numerals , , and are about one-third the width of the stroke wider than the other char- aracters, but are similar in other respects to the same numerals in the plain egyptian alphabet. the lower-case letters are, in many respects, the same as § historic ornament. those in the plain egyptian alphabet, although many excep- tions occur. all strokes extending above the line a are cut at an angle of degrees, to which the spur is added at the same angle. this characteristic is also observable on letters of shorter height, such as the z', j, m, n, etc., but the ends of the strokes of all letters extending below the line are finished without this detail. light antique egyptian alphabet. . the difference between the alphabet shown in fig. and that shown in fig. is almost entirely in the weight of the stroke. the capital letters and figures of this alpha- bet are one-fourth higher than wide, with the exception of the letters a, .‘w, o, q, s, v, etc., which are wider than the others, and the letters , l, and n, which are narrower. on the top line we have, in a, a letter whose width is equal to its height, and in [a letter whose width is but three thirty-seconds its height. the cross-bar of the a is two and two-thirds strokes above the bottom line, and the curved line at the top and to the left of a is a short pen or brush stroke termed the cyma, on account of its resemblance to the curve of the greek moldings of that name. the purpose of the cyma in lettering is to fill the space between the slanting parts of the letters, or extremities of letters where wide openings are likely to appear where the letters are placed together. it is also used as an integral part of some letters, as in the q and lower part of the z. in other styles of lettering the cyma is frequently used as a structural part of many letters, particularly in the old english alphabet. on the letter a the cyma is eight strokes in length and is located one stroke to the left of the upper point of the a. the letter b is fashioned so that its lower portion to the middle of bar is eight strokes above the bottom line, and projects one stroke to the right of the upper portion. as far as it goes, the letter c is a perfect are of a circle, and the spur on the inside is about two strokes from the top line. the nazsnsevwi eases @ nae nee even >>>neomonozn nxnzoeneens @ st negazfl § historic ornament. lower extremity of the letter projects a stroke beyond the top and finishes at a point about three strokes above the lower line. the right side of the letter d is semicircular and becomes tangent at the top and bottom three strokes to the right of the vertical. e, f, g, and h each possess a . middle bar that is located four strokes below the top of the letter, and in the letters if and f this middle bar extends to within three strokes of the right extremity of the letter. in k the slanting stroke begins three strokes above the lower line and extends to the top line where the end is beveled at an angle of about sixty degrees. the letter l is about one stroke narrower than the other letters, and the cyma is placed over it so that its lower extremity is even with the right-hand portion of the letter. ' is two strokes wider than the other letters, and in some cases is made precisely like an inverted w, except at the union of the two slanting strokes where the letter is finished flat with a spur instead of being pointed as in the iv. here the middle strokes of the ! are brought to a point one-half the width of the letter below the top line. the slanting stroke of the ncommences on the vertical stroke one~fourth the width of the letter below the bottom line. the loops of the pand r are very different in style, the middle bar of the p being four and two-thirds strokes from the bottom line, while the middle stroke of the r is six and two-thirds strokes above the bottom line. the tail of the r intersects the middle bar at a point where the curve becomes tangent. the letter curves in each direction from a point in the center of the letter on a line with the middle bar of the r, and this letter is narrower at the top than at the bottom and can be enclosed in an isosceles triangle whose height is about three times the height of the letter. the w is precisely the same as two v’s joined at a point two and two-thirds strokes below the top line. the vertical stroke of the y extends six and two- thirds strokes above the bottom line, the letter being twelve strokes wide on the top. the x is nine strokes wide on top and thirteen strokes wide on the bottom. the letter z is the same width as the average letters on top, but it may m qhwm‘vnfl - _ .w high“ ida- ! eglhqom< ciizfigwfl hdgfz< § historic ornament. be finished either with the cyma as shown here, or with a bot- tom corresponding in detail to the top, as the fancy dictates. the figures are of the average width of the letters, the being similar to the s, and the z to the . the lower-case letters are easily constructed, as shown. heavy antique egyptian alphabet. . the style of letter shown in fig. is the heavy extreme of the antique egyptian style, in the same manner that fig. was the light extreme of this style. between these two extremes the style may be varied to almost any extent, slight variations in the form of letter being necessary to suit the different conditions. the heavy antique egyp- tian, however, is rarely used as a solid black letter as shown in this figure, and is only so printed here in order to preserve uniformity in the alphabets. in much design work this letter is found in simple outline, and though extremely bulky on account of the weight of its stroke, it may be gracefully handled and elaborately orna- mented to produce a most pleasing efiect. the stroke in the antique egyptian alphabet should not exceed one-third the full width of the average letter, which is the extreme illustrated in this case, and it will be observed that with this heavy stroke it is necessary that certain letters, such as the k, s, v, iv, etc., be carried beyond the limiting top and bottom lines, in order that the full outline of the letter may be shown without confusion of parts. in some places, too, it will be found necessary to diminish the width of the stroke in order to leave necessary space between strokes, and other variations may be indulged to suit specific circumstances. medieval roman alphabet. . this style of letter, by many authorities, is termed the antique roman, but it belongs to the historic period indicated by its name. the medieval roman alphabet as ogre m we q chegsm mdmozeds ewammuma. ~ “ / rh § ' historic ornament. shown in fig. possesses three distinct and characteristic features. first, there is a small spur that projects above and below the lettering lines, and there is another projection of the inside line of the stroke beyond the fine line fora distance of about one-third the stroke, as in the top of the letter a and the bottom of the letter n; and besides these, every angle between a stroke and a fine line is rounded. the width of the stroke here is from one-fourth to one-fifth the height of the letter, and the spur is one stroke long and is joined to the letter one stroke above the bottom, or below the top line, thus making the curve on the inside an exact quarter circle. all letters average five strokes in width, with the excep- tion of such letters as have heretofore been described as varying from the regular limits. in the lettera the fine line intersects the stroke at the point of the letter, and though on its inside the stroke is carried past the fine line, the intersection takes place precisely as though this peculi- arity did not exist. the horizontal fine line of the a is one and one-fourth strokes above the bottom of the letter. light and iieav y french roman alphabet. . in modern usage the roman alphabet is varied somewhat to suit certain purposes. one of these variations, called the “new york roman,” adheres in outline very closely to the original medieval form with the exception of the projecting spur of the stroke beyond the fine line. another variation, known as the “french roman," dilfers from its prototype by increasing the weight of the fine line in order that it may be better expressed in carved stone- work, etc. the variations of these three styles, from an extremely light letter to an extremely heavy letter, is prac- ticed by all designers, but the similarity is such that we only give the normal conditions of the medieval roman and extreme conditions of the french. in fig. is shown the light french roman alphabet, q®fqdtmun_ .w n>x€>dfw mqloz ese? ~i®lmd®e ~ hugger zen/era h § historic ornament. was“ remix“ q. jklmnopq rsiu abodefgh z vlll ]x x xx'l'c-d'm' abodefghijklmno new“ “mums: illllllllllvvvivii qust z meow-n m. roma“ fig. . and this fills the same position in the variation of the alphabet as the light antique egyptian. in giv- ing the letter weight, as shown in fig. , certain liberties are taken with the fine lines, as shown in the lower strokes of the e, l, and z. in using these roman alphabets, care must be taken to have the lower- case letters well proportioned in the weights of their strokes with the capitals that are used. in fig. are shown the lower-case letters of the french roman and the medieval roman alphabets, the former, it will be observed, possess ing a much heav- ier stroke. these lower-case letters. in fig. are pro- portioned for the normal condition § historic ornament. of alphabet, and where used with the heavy or light alphabet, they must be increased or diminished in stroke accordingly. the use of the roman numerals with these alphabets is by no means essential, but the numerals are given here in order that the proportionate stroke may be observed. there are many cases where the use of the medieval roman alphabet is appropriate beyond all other alphabets, and it is usual that in such cases the roman numerals be used. gothic alphabet. ' . the style of letter we term “gothic ” was designed during the latter part of the medieval period and is asso- ciated both historically and architecturally with the style of gothic architecture that existed during the flamboyant period in france and the perpendicular period in england. in modern use this letter is largely applied to church deco- ration for the purpose of making religious quotations, and is also used in printing for certain kinds of literature on account of its origin in ancient monasteries. it is similar but much more easily read than what we term “church text," and is, therefore, given here to the exclusion of the latter, as it is much more serviceable. in fig. the capital and lower-case letters, as well as the figures, are shown, and the distinguishing characteristics of this style lie in the peculiar formation of the letters a, c, e, f, il], and u. the letters a, .m', n, etc. do not possess any slanting strokes as they do in the roman alphabets, but are formed with a vertical stroke as one of their sides and curved strokes for the rest of the outline. the letters c and e are closed on their right sides by a vertical line ending in small dots or volutes, the line on e being longer than that on the c. the fis similar in gen- eral outline to the capital f of the roman styles, but carries its spur on the upper fine line below the bottom of the letter itself. the capital h is but slightly varied from the lower-case it, and the j is peculiar in its general details to faazémaw memwmmwmflsmeme oewsenwnna swmmgke mehqmhq imam ewemwmvmm a sees. a. _ nylvm??? fmmtoahoz iévwfiwfi . ,wpqequqq nnhxuqv? fifmeflvqqz zfixwvw l imavvm @q u was“. $ duvet/£ .. fig wyn § historic ornament. this style of alphabet. other details of peculiarity exhibit themselves to the student as he studies this style. this letter is frequently elaborated in certificate and engrossing work, by means of shading and elaborate backgrounds, and 'some proportions of the letters may be slightly changed in order to suit them to particular circumstances. a later development of this alphabet is shown in fig. , where the letters a, m, ]v, etc. partake of the same char- acteristics as the roman letter, while the peculiar ogival form of outline characteristic of the gothic style is main- tained in all of the curves in the stroke. a strong character- istic difference, however, between the alphabet in fig. and that in fig. is that in the former all the fine lines are straight and in the latter all of the fine lines are curved, except in the a, k, ]; etc. this style of letter, usually termed “ th century,” is suitable where more elaboration is required than the gothic style permits, and is seldom used for church work as it is associated with that period of archi- tecture when the building of churches was in its decline. another style of letter that had its origin, also, in the gothic is illustrated in fig. and is termed “ henry vii " inasmuch as the only existing example of this work is to be seen in the henry vii chapel at westminster abbey. as a matter of fact, this is technically a renaissance style, although like all early renaissance art it developed from the gothic. the tendency to elaboration and the intro- duction of meaningless curves and forms is characteristic of this period, but the style of alphabet when properly treated afi'ords a very valuable means of enriching a design that is composed almost entirely of lettering work. old english alphabet. . a standard alphabet that has ever been popular and is ever serviceable under certain conditions is the old english, shown in fig. . there can be little doubt that this bears a close relation to the gothic alphabet, and, mmamma: ‘ savages? has.“ e seems ereemgeeezé evangees‘se saw @éwfiwee § historic ornament. indeed, its lower-case letters are very similar to the gothic; and, though it is much used in church work and in the designing of certificates and other engrossed documents, it is not as legible as the gothic alphabet and is more suitable for conditions where ornamentation is required rather than cleaninformation. it will be observed in this alphabet that the cyma forms a marked characteristic in each of the letters. for instance, in the letter e nearly all the strokes are composed of at least a portion of the cyma. certain letters are very hard to distinguish from one another in this alphabet, and care should be taken to remember the distinguishing character- istics of each in order that they may be rendered without referring constantly to the copy. in some forms of alphabet, the c and the e are almost identical, the exception between the two letters being that the e contains a solid stroke where the two horizontal fine lines exist in the c. we think it preferable, however, to use the form of e shown in fig. , although this is somewhat confusing when compared with the f. it will be observed that the vertical stroke of the f is a straight stroke and not a cyma as in the e, and that a fine line connecting the upper spur of the f with the main stroke is straight instead of a curved continuation of a cyma as in the letter e. t and u are also difficult to distinguish in some styles of alphabet, and study should be given to the formation of the i and f in order that they may not become confusing. a little consideration of these letters will show the student that there are only three or four different styles of stroke and that many different letters are formed simply by the addition of some detail of other letters. for instance, the letter e differs but slightly from the letter l, except in the addition of its center spur, and the left-hand portion of the letter m is almost identical with the letter . similar resemblances will be found in many other letters, such as the q, r, etc., and the z, though shown on this plate with a compound final stroke, is often drawn with a top and bot- tom of the same character. historic ornament. § the lower-case letters are similar to the lower-case letters of the gothic alphabet, except that they are somewhat heavier in their stroke, but for all practical purposes the two styles are so near alike in their lower case that one is fre- quently used with the other without invoking any severe criticism. . in making use of these alphabets in design, it has been customary to , associate all the roman styles with classic and renaissance art and to use the gothic and “ th century" with medieval art; while the henry vii and old english are used both in medieval and renaissance art. there are cases where one style of letter may be used per- fectly proper in another style of art, but care must be given to this consideration when the mixture of styles is attempted, as it will readily be seen that there is nothing particularly incongruous about using the roman 'letter in renaissance art, or even in gothic art, but a gothic letter would be highly out of place in classic art no matter what were the circum- stances. the reason for this should be clear, as the gothic architect might have inherited some knowledge of the roman letter and used it in his designs, but it would be utterly impossible for the roman designer to borrow a letter of the gothic style inasmuch as that letter had not been invented during the period of the roman architectural styles. . the initial letters that are woven in many of the designs of french renaissance art usually tend toward the character of the french roman, and the interwoven initials of h and c in the wall decoration shown in fig. are borrowed from the style we have herein described as french roman, and comparison of other initials that will be found carved in the stonework of the mantels illustrated in the foregoing pages will indicate that they have all been adapted to their modern purpose from the more ancient style of classic letter. elements of ornament. o composition. unity in design.—compositlon in art deals almost . entirely with the grouping of the elements of a design to bring them together and appear as a unity. no matter of how many parts a design may be composed, if these parts are properly treated, it will present to the eye an appear- ance of unity and individu- ality, and only in such periods of art history,as the designs have presented this unity do we find a progress in a thoroughly artistic sense. to illustrate this some- fig. . (a) (b) fig. what, we have, in fig. , a group of six lines, all of one length, but irregularly arranged. there is no expression gs for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. elements of ornament. _ § of unity in this, nor is there anything about it suggestive of an attempt at any kind of an arrangement, but in fig. these same six lines are so placed as to convey an idea beyond the lines themselves, and the individual lines are lost in the expression of unity. another method of pro- ducing this impression is to surround the irregularly drawn \ ——/_\/ f“___”_l /\ i . ///\//\ | - \//\/\ l _____.| fig. . fig. . lines with some detail of more importance, as shown in fig. , where a number of irregular lines are included within a rectangle and the force of the outline is sufficient to com- bine all the lines in one idea. again, the smaller lines may be grouped to form a series of geometrical figures within a similar geometrical figure, and produce this same feeling, as shown in fig. . . limit of ntllne.—in order to express this feeling of unity, there must be a limit in the outline governing the arrangement of the lines; for instance, in fig. we have a aaaa_ fro. . series of equal lines arranged in groups that repeat indefi- nitely; but there is nothing to stop them and there is afeeling of continuity as though it might be extended forever in the same arrangement without materially changing the form. this feeling is not unity, but continuity, of which we shall § elements of ornament. have occasion to speak later. in fig. , the arrangement of the six lines, in one case, conveys an impression of extension, as though it could be extended in any direction and in all directions without impairing the original form—this is con- tinuity in all directions. the other geometrical form in fig. conveys the idea of unity and contraction without any impression of a desire to spread out. . assemblage of details to secure unity—in assembling the subordinate details of a design in order to secure a unity in the whole, there are three general arrangements or groupings that completely satisfy the mind to a sense of unity: one single object always looks well alone, unless improperly subdivided or surrounded by a lot of trivial and discordant details. an arrangement con- sisting of a group of two things can be made to look well, unless there is too great a difference in their form or size, or unless they are badly united. any group of three things looks well, unless they are of uniform size or consist of too prominent a character to be expressed in any quantity at all. surface decoration. , subdivlslon of space. surface decoration con- sists in the subdivision of a given space so that its parts shall bear a relation to one another that varies in form and shade. this subdivision may be accomplished by the judi- cious spacing of a number of straight lines so that the sepa- rated members bear a definite relation to one another. take, for instance, the square; its pro- portions cannot in any way be varied, as all its sides are equal; but its surface may be divided into a number of smaller i squares, as shown in fig. , f . o. elements of ornament. ( ciij simply by the placing of equally spaced vertical and hori- zontal lines. this, however, does not accord with our idea of unity, because, if it expressed unity, we should feel that nothing could be taken away from the square without destroying its value, and, in fig. , should we take away eleven of the smaller squares across the top and one side, we would still have a square very little different from the first one. . arrangement of l nes.—suppose we divide the surface of the square somewhat as shown in fig. ' , spacing the dividing lines more irregularly and grouping the lines themselves in pairs and singly. this relieves the surface of its monotony, and the various parts bear definite relations % fig. . fig. . to one another, so that the surface appears as a unit, the subtraction of any member of which would materially change its appearance. in fig. we have another sub- division of the surface of the square where the lines are not symmetrical on all four sides, and yet this is relieved of that feeling of monotony so dominant in fig. . an immense variation of surface can thus be accomplished simply by ~the placing of lines, and the more irregular the intervals between the lines, the greater scope is there for invention and design, as there is no limit to the number of different arrangements that can be arrived at in the division of a space in this manner. the symmetrical arrangement in §g elements of ornament. fig. is the character of subdivision we must adhere to in the design of ceilings, paneled wainscots, and the like, while the unsymmetrical design shown in fig. is char- acteristic of woven fabrics such as plaids and other dress goods. . in order to fully comprehend the importance of this simple suggestion, the student should make a freehand drawing of a simple square measuring about inches on each side, and divide it by vertical and horizontal lines into various relative shapes. a piece of tracing paper laid over the square, so as to retrace its outline, may be used to advantage, and a traced square made in this way may be divided into a number of pleasing forms that may afterwards fig. . be compared to determine which of the arrangements are more satisfactory to the eye than others. when this has been determined, endeavor to ascertain what arrangement of lines satisfies the eye most, and what arrangement satisfies it least. some arrangements will always be more interesting than others, and a little study will show that the most sat- isfactory groupings are dependent entirely on the variation in the proportions and relations of their parts. take, for instance, fig. , wherein we have six different arrangements on precisely the same grouping of lines, the relative parts of this being produced by shade and not by line grouping, § elements of ornament. in the venetian style or the most brilliant coloring in moorish art. . relation of colors.—in the coloring of parts we do not really consider the actual spectrum shades that exist on adjacent members of a design, but rather the tints or shades as they appear to the eye. a design may be expressed in two tints or it may be expressed in more, and the depths of these tints should bear a definite relation to one another in proportion to the surface that is covered. \ve know that the three primary colors—yellow, red, and blue—exist in their pure form in perfect harmony in the proportion of , , and , and the same maybe said of black- and-white compositions. a certain depth of one shade must be in exact proportion to a lighter or darker shade, in order that a feeling of harmony may exist in the composition. in all examples of ancient art we find that attention has been given not only to the exact subdivision of a surface in order that the space relations may be pleasing, but that the most careful consideration has been given to the coloring of each of these divisions and its appearance and relation beside the coloring of its neighbors. this color relation can exist in line composition where the lines used are of different breadths, or weights, thereby bringing somewhat the effect of a surface element in their appearance. . light and shade. we find in certain oriental designs for rugs a thorough understanding of this relation of light and shade, and to it we are indebted largely to the influence of mohammedan religion on oriental art. as the creed of mohammed forbade the representation of any natural form, it became necessary for his followers to secure pleasing effects in their designs by color relation or light and shade, and thus freed from the struggle to imitate nature, their whole attention could be concentrated on this other element. . reversion of colors.—in fig. is shown a design for a rug, based on the simplest geometrical lines, while in fig. the same identical pattern is produced, but § elements of ornament. reversed so far as its color relations are concerned. it is at once evident that any design consisting of but two tones is fig. . put the border of fig. on susceptible to this reversing of its treatment in color relations, and parts of it also can in some cases be reversed, while others remain the same. for instance, in. fig. we have a rug with a dark center on which the geometrical ornament is traced in light lines, while the border is of a light shade and the geometrical orna- ment is traced in dark lines. in fig. we have exactly the reversal of this—a light center and a dark border. fig. and we have a dark rug throughout, the geometrical ornament of which is executed in light lines; reverse this new pattern,and we have what would be the equivalent of fig. with the border of fig. . in this way a num- ber of different arrangements in light-and—shade effects can be made with the same geo- metrical design as its founda- tion. in fact, many grades of rugs and carpets are woven so that one side presents one effect and the other exactly its reverse in light and shade. . reverslon of trent- ment.—in fig. are shown four styles of ornamentation, each of which is expressive of unity and balance in its § elements of ornament. design, but each at the same time being perfectly capable of a reversal in treatment in three or more ways. for instance, fig. . in any example the border can consist of black figures on a white ground and the center of white figures on a black ground, or the border and center can both consist of white iii-r- . lug-iii- i .e "a. mm m“. % .h". i i i i i i. i-i i... i“: 'i. i'- fig. . § elements of ornament. figures on a black ground, or a third arrangement will per- mit of a reversal of the first; certain figures can be changed and others remain the same, thus giving a great variety. the proper understanding and comprehension of this color relation in surface decoration enables the student to produce an almost unlimited variety of effects, as is shown in fig. . here we have eight examples of variation in light and shade, all based on precisely the same geometrical arrangement, the entire variation being produced simply by a variation in the relation and proportion of the effects of light and shade. the frequent practice of rendering in this manner is of immense value to the designer. let him divide a surface up into a number of small rectangles and then work over them with a brush charged with heavy color, and group these rectangles so as to produce different symmetrical designs, in order that he may familiarize himself with the capability of these forms for extension and compre- hend the value of a thorough understanding of this principle. . variety of designs from same elements. referring to fig. , the eight examples there shown are executed in but two colors—black and white—and all based on a uniform arrangement of lines that divide the surface originally into a number of small»squares. turn this prin- ciple over to immediate practical work, and we find that, in laying a tile or mosaic floor, any one of these designs could be produced with a series of tiles or mosaics cut to uniform squares representing each of the squares divided in our sur- face design, and colored in proportion to the light and shade of our example. ‘ in wood mosaic or parquetry work, a number of simple squares or a combination of squares and rectangles of uni- form sizes in light and dark woods would produce any of these eight patterns and many more. the arrangement of the geometrical constructive principle of diagonally inter- secting lines so as to produce the triangle, the lozenge shape, or the hexagon, brings us again in contact with other sys- tems of construction in which the variety is also unlimited. elements of ornament. § conventionalism. . necessity of conventionalism. —conventlon- allsm of design is usually very much misunderstood by students in art, and the majority are inclined to believe that it is simply a term that means stiffness and rigid for- mality in a design. this is entirely wrong. a conventional treatment may be easy and flowing as well as severe, both qualities being necessary and valuable in their proper places, but by no means is either one of them absolutely necessary at all times. as an illustration, take a piece of pottery or a china plate, and the design executed on it represents a spray of flowers. while it is proper that the designer should go to nature and draw his instructions from natural forms in order to create decorative design, there is a limit to which he can carry this imitation justifiably, and it is in this spray of flowers where that limit shall be expressed. . shall the imitation be a portrait of the flower spray, showing the light and shade, and the shine of the leaves, and all the details connected with the appearance of that spray under particular conditions of surrounding and lighting? or, shall it represent the spray regardless of light and shade, so that, no matter under what conditions the plate or pottery appears, its decoration will always seem to be in place ? a plate is a movable object, and its decoration is seldom seen in the same position twice in succession. therefore, a painted spray on this plate, that demanded a certain condition of light in order that it should appear to its best advantage, would be entirely out of place, while one with the light and shade ignored, all the refinements of form still retained, and all the delicate details of nature emphasized, would certainly be most suitable. in the naturalistic treatment, the beautiful and delicate details of nature are lost in the attempt to make the spray seem natural, and, in making it natural—contrary as it may seem—we make it false. § elements of ornament. . invention and imitation.—decorative art origi- nates in two distinct faculties of the mind—the invent-ive, or constructive, and the imitative. inventive ornament consists of an arbitrary and abstract arrangement of lines calculated to produce a pleasing effect. this is character- istic of the savage tribes, though traces of it pervaded all the great styles, the frets and interlacings of the classic, medieval, and arabian styles being of this character. invent- ive ornament of this class affords the best practice to the student in the study of decorative design, and, at the same time, offers the best and simplest means of demonstrating some of the greatest principles of ornament. . the oval in nature—there is an abstract form that seems to pervade many beautiful forms in nature; this form we call the oval, and on it are based many outlines seen in the vegetable world. it is an elementary outline of many leaves, and also enters into the composition of the human head and hand. in studying the oval we find that its two sides are alike, that is, it is repeated on each side of a center line. it is not only repeated, but, being reversed, one side is contrasted to another, and still, again, throughout the entire curve—unlike the curve of a circle—there is a constant change of form and direction; therefore, we have a variety. hence, three important principles of design—rrpvfz'lzbn, contrast, and varirly—are expressed in the simple form of this oval. ' . repetition, contrast, and variety—now let us take up these three principles in a point of design. the simplest arrangement of lines in order to secure repetition is somewhat shown at (a) in fig. , but here there is no variety; while at (b) we secure variety with the same arrangement for repetition by making the lines of varying lengths, but there is no contrast. let us again change them and put them as we have them at (c), which gives us con- trast, but destroys our variety. however, by adopting the elements of ornament. § three methods in (a), ( )), and (c), we have in (d), repetition, variety, and contrast—the three elements that we seek. abandoning lines, let us return to some natural form. in l l l i |||||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l (~\/\/\/ flo. . a) (b) fig. , at (a), we have repetition, at (b), we have variety, and at (c), by combining (a) and (b), introducing the third element as in the previous case, we have repetition, variety, and contrast in leaf forms as desired. .‘ symmetry and radiation—in addition to these principles, we have evolved two more, so far unspoken of, as shown at (b) and (d) in fig. . these principles are, \i/ // fig. ?. symmetry and radiation. symmetry has many forms of expression, but usually may be considered to mean lz'kesz'a'e‘d- mars, no matter what the form of the object may be. at (a), § elements of ornament. fig. , is shown a form of symmetry that consists simply of the arrangement and repetition of a given form each side of a center line; this is known as bz'symmrtry. at (b) is a similar arrange- ment where the forms on the sides are the same in detail as the form that separates them; this is known as tri- .rymmz'lry. at' (a), where there are a number of forms each side of a similar form in the center, we have what is known as multzkymmefry. by bringing the forms shown at ( ), fig. , together to form a unity, we have an example of radiation from a point, as shown at (d), while the dis- tribution of the forms along a center line, as shown in fig. , gives an example of radiation from a center line. fig. . ornament. linear ornament. . ancient pottery decoration. from a considera- tion of the earliest forms of historic art, it will be found that, after the most suitable form of utensil for the purpose required had been arrived at, the easiest and readiest means were employed to execute the decoration of its surface. the elements of the pattern were of the simplest character— composed of straight lines—and a pointed stick was gener- ally used to execute the ornament in the soft clay of their pottery. fig. shows a vase where the straight lines variously arranged in patterns are disposed in bands, and the patterns are a result of simple arrangement in accordance with some fundamental principle handed down from generation to generation. pottery is selected for the demonstration of elements of ornament. ur this point; inasmuch as it is of a more durable character, we have more examples of the early period, and it there- fore furnishes a more reliable series of art development. it has often been demonstrated that the patterns evolved by weaving are identi- cal with, and often suggested by, the patterns found on pottery. it is only incidental to point out' in this figure that' there appears to be an unconscious obedience to the laws of fitness in the application of these straight-line pat- terns. they are not applied in an arbitrary way, but in harmony with the structure they adorn. . fitness of ornament—as a usual thing, the rim comes in for deco- ration in order to give the part most likely to fracture an appearance of strength, while any change in the contour of the form is usually emphasized by additional ornamentation. the reason for this may be found in the fact that the application of ornament gives an impression of strength, and, when a vase or jug in its plastic condition is difficult to maintain in shape, the idea naturally sug- gests itself to the potter to decorate that part that exhib- its the weakness of the form. this determines largely the location of the bands around the curves. we will find also a precedent for this in the vegetable world, as changes in the directions of stems are generally accented in some way or other by the thickening or broadening of the point of union for the two elements. the stem of a leaf is usually almost as large or thick as the branch itself at that point. fig. . . as we progress in the study of prehistoric decora- tion, the later examples possess the curved line, and the zigzag—so common in early work—becomes softened and gradually develops itself into a wavy scroll, as shown at § elements of ornament. (a), (b), and (c) in fig. . the changes arise from the fact that the angles are first rounded off, and the other portions of the line between the curves are softened and graduated until the zigzag loses its identity entirely in the wavy line at (c). . constructive (a) origin of decoratlve w art.-—from these illus- (b) trations it will be readily understood that decora- tive art had a construc- (c) tive .origin. primitive man, finding it necessary to provide coverings for his body, learned that the weaving of certain strands produced certain patterns, such as the zig- zag, lozenge, etc., and in later periods, when he had learned the use of metals, he applied the forms thus associated in his mind. these forms were again adopted in decorating other materials, and hence formed a starting point for decoration. fig. . . evolution of deslgn.—if the student will now follow out graphically the progress of design from the work of the savage to that of civilized man, he will comprehend a number of details that he otherwise could not learn. on a sheet of paper, rule off a number of equally spaced vertical and horizontal lines, as shown in fig. . then emphasize certain lines of the square meshes, but varying the emphasis by shade work or spotting to produce different patterns all based on- the same geometrical principle as shown at (a), (b), (c), and (d). (a) is the simplest form, and consists of repeated crosses alternating with squares, while (b) is evolved on the same principle, but by uniting the inter- mediate squares with the crosses; (c) is another pattern resulting from the inclusion of a greater number of founda- tion squares, and (d) shows how an interlaced design may be produced. the geometrical figures at (r) contain fig. . (b) (d) (e) ( ) fig. . . all/ p. u elements of ornament. elements of more progressive design, and resemble the pat- terns usually evolved by the savage race. in fig. is shown a different series of patterns evolved by working on the diagonals of the squares and then by the introduction of semicircles struck from the angles or inter- sections of the diagonals. . limitless variety of patterns.—the product of various patterns on this plan is almost unlimited, a few of which are shown in fig. in order that the student may better understand the extent to which this can be carried. at (a), fig. , quarter circles are struck from the center of each figure, thereby forming a series of wavy lines that determine the shape of the pattern. at ( ), how- ever, a series of semicircles is emphasized so as to gen- erate a trefoil pattern, while (a) and (d) are produced by means of a number of tangent circular arcs, and is developed upon lines crossing one another diagonally so as to. leave lozenge shaped spaces instead of squares or parallelograms. ' in the latter case we have a series of figures produced somewhat as shown in fig. , each of which can be used as <> ( ) (w ( ) (d) fig. . the element for the construction of a new pattern, as shown in fig. . if, now, we reduce the forms shown in fig. to their own individual elements, we get a series of forms similar to fig. , and, applying these as elements of design, produce results similar to fig. , where at (a) we have an orderly arrangement of the obtuse angle shown at (a) in fig. , at ( )) a combination of the quadrants shown at (b) fig. . § elements of ornament. in fig. , and at (c) a similar combination of the ogee curves, shown at (c) in fig. . , straight lines alone may be r combined almost (‘ m) without limit, as shown in fig. ; and a combination of curves and straight lines, or curves, straight lines, and spirals, gives a great ( ) flo. fit. 'fig. . variety of forms, which can be introduced and combined to form an unlimited series of patterns. ' \vv/ ' > s\ (b) o fig. . . brush decoration of pottery.—we have been considering so far only linear patterns as were found in pre~ historic pottery when pottery was ornamented chiefly by incising the soft clay with a hard point. in later periods, however, pottery was decorated by means of the brush, and, elements of ornament. § as has already been pointed out, the use of this employment led to much excellence in ornamental art. it will now be readily understood how the combination of a few brush marks produced such important historic forms as the greekpalmette and honeysuckle ornament, and the fleur-de-lis and other devices common in medieval heraldry. in the first instance we considered the development of linear design in pottery decoration; then the application of pottery design to surface decoration and an analysis of forms that these arts produced; and, finally, a production of new forms from the elements of the original ones. if we now follow out the same idea and reproduce these forms with the variety that can be given them through brush decoration, we introduce an entirely new lot of expressions that linear decoration is incapable of carrying forth. natural ornament. . union with geometrical rnament.—-history shows that, as civilization advanced, greater ability for the expression of ornamental design was developed, and that mere geometrical design was found insufficient. natural forms were therefore resorted to in order to add new fea- tures to the preexisting forms, and this was done in such a way that the new elements should harmonize with the old. the natural representations, though imitations of nature, were not pictorial copies, but modifications to suit their pur- pose, or, as we now consider it, conventional renderings; and it is the union of these two principles—the imitative and the inventive—that has given rise to the most impor- tant styles of ornamental art. therefore, in applying natural forms to decoration, the student must always guard against the tendency to run into a pictorial representa- tion, as pictorial forms do not harmonize with the older geometrical lines that may be called on to serve with them. forms adopted from nature must be adapted by a judicious conventionalism. u]- c? elements of ornament. conventionalism in ancient art. . kinds of conventionalism.——in historic ornament we find two kinds of conventionalism: first, the eonven- tionalism of principles or ideas, and second, the conven- tionalism of facts. the first deals only with the principles or ideas of growth common to a number of classes of plants or objects, and not representative of any specific form. the second deals with the individualizing of particular plants or objects, giving a more or less geometrical rendering of them. . egyptian conventionalism.—for instance, the art of the egyptians, being purely symbolic, bound them to the conventionalism of facts, and in using their favorite flowers—the lotus' and papyrus—in decorative art, they did not copy them pictorially, but con- ventionalized them in such a manner that they readily conveyed the idea of the type and at the _ same time obeyed the rules of their geometrical foundation. in fig. the papyrus is shown at (a) and the lotus at (b), in their natural forms. in fig. is shown a border based on the primi- m tive zigzag of prehistoric ornament, and decorated at (a) with a conventional (“ "’ (°) rendering of the lotus fm' ' and at (b) with a conven- tional rendering of the papyrus, while at (c) is shown the lotus flower with its curved outline as we see it in later egyptian art after the curve of the zigzag had been evened up, as heretofore shown in fig. . fig. d. . greek conventionalism. the art system of the greeks, however, was of the other kind of conventionalism— elements of ornament. § that of principles or ideas. greek art not being symbolic, there was no necessity to represent particular plants (though at times they did so), and usually in their ornament we find principles expressed without indicating any particular natural type. - . in fig. is shown an ornament found as a border on many vases. its structural line is undoubtedly a develop- ment of the zigzag, while the leaf forms owe their origin to the limitations of brush work, and the general character of the orna- ment is indicative of a. class of running plants, but expressive of no par- ticular plant. another point observable in greek art is the way in which the scrolls are decorated, which, though based on a principle of vegetation, do not imitate any particular type. in fig. is shown an example of greek foliated orna- ment; it will be noticed that the principles there expressed are based on certain ideas derived from the vegetable world. in fig. is shown a branch of a shrub from nature, and it fig. . fig. . fig. . will be observed that the part of the shrub above the branches is smaller than the part of the shrub below the branches, and that there is a considerable thickening of the (‘ -) elements of ornament. part where the main stem and the branching stem unite. the greek ornament in fig. is simply a development of this principle, and does not imitate the plant at all, but ornaments the idea. ' . development of leaves.—following the general growth and development of plants comes the consideration of their leaves; these should be studied systematically, accord- ing to their develop- ment. such study will show that in spite of the apparent irregu- larity of leaf form there is a regular order in their outlines. it has already been shown that leaves develop according to some geo- metrical principle, and it will be found that the majority of leaves or leaf clusters may be enclosed within a circle or an fig. . ellipse, as shown in fig. ; and a continuance of this prin- ciple to the study of flowers will show that the top views of many flowers are governed by the same geometrical figure, as shown at (a), fig. , where the buttercup, daisy, and elements of ornament. § phlox are shown, while at (b) the side views of these flowers are enclosed within a triangle. . geometrical forms in nature—the study of nature will show that this principle can be carried out exten- sively, even to the fruit or seeds of the various plants; and a careful study of individual forms and their details will enlighten the student to many ideas that can be reduced to 'a geometrical principle and thereby become conventional- izcd, while other facts observable in nature can also be con- ventionalized to give a closer representation of the form. conventional ornament. . natural forms in deslgn.—\ve will now try to show how the study of nature can be applied in ornamental design. suppose we return to fig. and take the design worked out at (a) and decorate it with forms from nature. seat“ h% r; rd i& w real , fig. . % % % lve will surround the extremities of the radiating lines with figures derived from the study of nature, such as the edges of some flowers, and produce a design somewhat as shown in fig. . a similar treatment of (c), fig. , will cir elements of ornament. produce a design somewhat as shown in fig. . fig. is based on the development of (a), fig. , and fig. is a development of (d), fig. . . now, instead of dividing our sur- face up into rectan- gles, as we did in figs. , , etc., we will let the out- line of some natural form govern the subdivision; and in fig. we have a pattern where the contour of a five- lobed leaf is used as the governing principle of the outline, within which other floral forms are used to form a surface decoration. this, it will immediately be observed, is the method of using natural forms practiced by oriental artists, and the pattern shown in fig. is strongly sug- gestive of arabian art. for instance, at (a), fig. , is shown a spray of leaves from nature, while at (b) is an arabian design based on the out- w w line of this spray of leaves. fig. . . arrangement of ornament in indian art.—in indian art a favorite way of spacing out the orna- ment was after the manner shown in fig. , where the leai form is evidently of the lotus type. diapers in indian art are often designed as shown in fig. , where there is no attempt made to represent any particular plant, but simply gs elements of ornament. an application of principle s. thus, we see that the conven- tionalism of principles is almost unlimited in its extent, and qc e , e . fig. . stews > @ t < t t a q we will now consider the con ventionalism of facts. ; convention- alizlng : plant forn .—take, for in- stance, any plant suit- able for the purpose, and adapt it to orna- ment. we are not going to make a pic- ture of it, but study its characteristics, par- ticularly those that distinguish it from other plants, and idealize the original. it will be necessary to examine more than one specimen of the selected plant, because a peculiarity or accidental mark in one individual may not be found in another, and what we then require is a knowl- edge of the details and characteristics common to the entire family or kind to which the chosen speci- men belongs. this knowl- edge can be acquired only by long and continued , study of plant analysis, as a limited study is likely to render an untrue repre- sentation. . realism and conventionalism.-—to copy nature as she is presented to us, with all the accidents and defects, would be to render her realistically. to correct nature by knowledge derived from the study of all her works in each § elements of ornament. class, would be to treat her naturally. to reduce the result of these studies to a principle that expresses a simple fact with the fewest possible lines, as was done by fig. . the egyptians with their lotus blossom, is to treat nature conventionally. for instance, at (a), fig. , is shown an ivy leaf sketched from nature. it cannot be considered as ideal or natural, because its shape is not even the average shape of a number fig. . of leaves; therefore, (a) is a realistic drawing. at ( )), how- ever, is shown what might be considered a composite picture of a number of leaves possessing all the corrections of irreg- ularities found in the entire class. this is a naturalistic ren- dering of the ivy leaf, and the reduction of this leaf to a elements of ornament. § pentagonal form, shown in fig. , reduces it to the simple expression of an idea, and presents the ivy leaf in a most conventional form. . consideration of purpose. the extent,however, to which the modification of the details must be carried in order to apply a plant form in design must be determined by the purpose of its applica- tion, whether the design is to be free or severe. if the design is to be severe, the geometrical rendering shown in fig. will be most serviceable, but, if the design is to be free, the naturalistic form shown at ( ), fig. , may be used. the form shown at (a) with all its shadings and gradations, so strongly characteristic of the growing plant under certain conditions of lighting, is never suitable to ornament. fig. . . taste in conventionalism.-—now let us consider this application in fig. . at (a) is shown the application of the flower to the primi- tive design illustrated at (e) in fig. . the flattened curves of the flowers and leaves in the natural repre- sentation as shown in fig. are arranged at (a), fig. , stiffly, in order to harmonize with the severe character of the design. but the char- acter of the plant is maintained, because its main features (a) fig. . § elements of ornament. have not only been adhered to, but have been empha- sized. observe the indented ends of the petals, the serrated edges of the calyx, and the acutely lobed characteristic of fig. . the leaves. at ( ), fig. , however, the lines forming the basis of the pattern are composed of curves and do not demand so severe a treatment of the ornamenting plant, and the flower is rendered in a freer and more naturalistic manner than was possible in the previous case. . thus, it will be seen that the conventionalized rendering of a natural object requires careful consideration as to the extent to which the geometrical rendering shall have influence, and the idea that conventional rendering is sim- ply a geometrical rendering, without consideration of the properties and application, is entirely wrong. fig. . elements of ornament. § elements of ornament. classification of elements. . although good ornament is possible with the sim- plest forms and materials, it is undoubtedly true that the higher the form of decorative art, the nobler must be the elements of which it is composed. the elements of orna- ment are therefore drawn from a great many different sources, but may be classified in a general way under two distinct heads—the artificial and the natural. these may again be subdivided, for the sake of convenience, into six subordinate classes—gmmetrz'ml, arr/zz'tectural, industrial, wage/able, animal, and the human figure. . under the subject of geometrical ornament, we include frets, traceries, diapers, interlacings, etc., together with those forms that are so simply developed in the orna- ment of the savage races. in architectural ornament, we include columns, entablatures, pediments, cartouches, etc. industrial ornament may be considered to include all musical instruments, vases, spears, and other arms, as well as laces, ribbons, etc. vegetable ornament embraces designs from plant life—leaves, flowers, fruits, festoons, various rosettes, etc. —while under the animal classification we have quadrupeds, fishes, birds, insects, and reptiles, as well as such imaginary figures as griffins, dragons, etc. the human figure used in design includes both natural and mythological representations, the terminals of foliage designs used in the renaissance periods, the caryatids used in classic art, as well as certain creations in the mind of man, such as sphinxes, atlantes, mermaids, etc. geometrical eleiments. . frets.—the simplest form of geometrical elements we find in the frets, which throughout all ages and with all peoples seem to have been a favorite method of ornamenting § elements of ornament. flat surfaces. they are used largely for borders, for which they are eminently fitted, but diapers are also formed of them in japanese and egyptian art. in fretwork, the pattern and the ground are usually equally spaced, but this need not always be the case, as a strong effect is sometimes obtained by making a variation in this respect, as shown at (a), fig. . another variation that may be attained in frets is accomplished by changing ~ the formation of the figure that forms their governing outline. it is not necessary that this figure should be square or even rectangular, as is clearly illustrated at (b) and (c), the former being a parallelogram in the form of each section of its pattern, and the latter developed on the intersection of a series of diagonal lines, this being more characteristic of ornamental work, and suitable for flat or inclined surfaces. the introduction of curved lines in this class of work, either in conjunction with straight lines or entirely by themselves, leads us to various interlaced pat- terns, including the guilloche and basketwork. . the study of geometrical ornament is of particular value on account of the elements that lie at the base of the elaborate and intricate patterns that oriental artists and the middle-age mosaic workers so freely indulged in. \vith a thorough understanding of geometrical ornament and the possibilities of geometrical arrangement, the designing of complex and intricate patterns becomes a comparatively simple task. architectural elements. i . construction allied with beauty—next in the order of our subdivision we take up architectural ele- ments, and we must consider that architecture properly elements of ornament. § comprehended is the art of construction allied with beauty --not construction made beautiful by superadded decora- tion, but construction with beauty incorporated with it. in all the best periods of ornamental art, it has been architec- ture that has afforded the greatest field for its development; and in pottery, stained and painted glass, ironwork, jewelry, and the decoration of pilasters, shafts, etc., architectural construction has had a most marked influence. in decorated designs, certain architectural forms have been used in their pure and simple form, but most fre- quently they have been modified by imagination so as to bring them in harmony with other details with which they are associated. hence, in some forms of ornament, we find but a suggestion of architecture, while, in others, a distinctive characteristic. . adaptation of architectural forms.—in adapt- ing architectural forms to a surface design, it is entirely unnecessary that the stiffness and structural rigidity that is demanded in architectural practice should be maintained in the surface pattern, because the same structural conditions do not exist. there is no physical weight to be provided for, and, in the decoration, the introduction of the appear- ance of weight is all that is necessary so long as the eye is satisfied. the representation of a frieze may be taken from a carved pro- totype, but the details of the relief expressed in the original carving need form no part of the textile or other surface design, the element of beauty lying in the direction and proportioning of the lines only; the frieze may there- fore be reduced to a simple sur_ face treatment. the same may be said in the design of an iron grille c (a) fig. . § elements of ornament. either for a railing or for a gate. the design should be influenced if not governed by some characteristic of a simi- ilar detail in its original material. for instance, the design of the fence panel shown at (a), fig. , is clearly copied in its general outline from the stone baluster of the classic balustrade shown at ( ). the treatment of the head-piece over the gateway shown at (a), fig. , is clearly developed fig. . from the broken pediment characteristic of certain renais- sance work shown at ( ). these details as reproduced in iron are not copies of the original, but simply ornamental forms founded on a principle of earlier construction. in the same manner a well-designed iron railing is influenced in its proportions and composition by the architectural orders and classic proportions for balustrades. . the volute scroll.—some of the ornamental details derived in architecture and applied in decorative art will now be considered as to their origin and proper treat- ment. there is, for instance, the little volute scroll so characteristic of the corinthian column as it curls out under the corner of the abacus. the gracefulness of this feature and its apparentvstrength render it particularly adaptable in setting out friezes and other purely ornamental arrange- ' ments where the qualities of grace and strength are to be elements of ornament. § combined, as shown in fig. , where afrieze is designed fig. . using one of the forms of scroll shown in fig. , all of ffff fig. . which have been taken from the capitals of the various modifications of the corinthian. s (fl) (b) fig. . § elements of ornament. v . the ca.rtoueh.—the cartouch is another archi- tectural detail that enters largely into decorative design; it owes its origin to the ancient use of paper or parchment labels for inscriptions and badges. the margins of these labels were usually cut in some ornamental shape and afterwards curled into scroll forms of an ornamental char- acter. this led to a systematic develop- ment, and, subsequent- ly, in conjunction with interlaced ornament, produced a new kind of decorative work that we usually term cart-ouch work. this element is invaluable to the designer, both in its capacity as a filling-in treatment for an uninteresting piece of background, and as a strengthening element to the general composition. at (a), fig. , is shown one of the earliest and simplest forms of this cartouch work, while at (b) is shown the paper from which it is cut. in figs. and are shown examples of advanced and more complicated cartouches, developed from the same general principle. it is easy to understand the develop- ment of the cartouch form into the carved work shown in fig. , where a shield-shaped cartouch, with its curled and ornamental edges, is carved in relief with the human figure. in fig. is shown a further elements of ornament. § development of the ornament, in order to convert it into a frame, as was done during the period of the italian renaissance. the general form varied, but became more elaborate in design as the renaissance spread into france and germany. industrial elements. . association with architectural elements.—the industrial elements of design are not widely separated from the architectural class, and are considered here under a different heading simply as a matter of convenience. indus- trial objects, such as tools, armor, musical instruments, etc., are used in various ways in decoration, usually for purely symbolic purposes. these articles are usually introduced purely from an esthetic sense, with no other purpose than to please the sense of vision, and are therefore arranged to present to the best advantage the beauty of their forms. . symbolism.—in the symbolic use of these details, it should always be remembered that there are two ideas associated with nearly all symbols—one, the idea of recall- ing something to the memory; the other, the expression of an entirely new idea, or the illustration of one. thus, the latin cross may stand as an expression or as a symbol of the christian faith, or it may act as a reminder of the crucifixion of christ. another case is where the musical instrument, the lyre, so frequently used to express the idea of music, may with equal propriety set forth a reminder of the ancient use of that instrument in the classic musical entertainments. . prehistoric emblems—at (a), fig. , is shown a prehistoric emblem of god. it had its origin almost undoubtedly in early sun worship, which fact is attested by the circle, and the survival of this form is seen in the halo, or nimbus, painted over the heads of the saints during the middle ages. at ( ) we have the egyptian symbol of divinity, but of a more complex character. the circle is § elements of ornament. still retained but is supported by outstretched wings, indica- tive of sovereignty and ubiquity of the deity. the scara- baaus of the egyptians, shown at (c), was a detail that appeared frequently in their designs. at (d) we have the nimbus, or halo, characteristic of the christian symbol of glory, and at (r), (f), (g), and ( :) we have four forms of (e) ( ) fig. b. crosses known under the names of the latin cross at (e), the greek cross at (f), the cross of st. andrew at (g), and the maltese cross at (/ ). at ( ) is shown the old symbolic monogram of christ, composed of the two greek letters of his name x (c ) and p ( ), with a (alpha) and q (omega), the first and last letters of the greek alphabet, added to indicate his eternal character. . these few forms will serve to illustrate the extent to which symbolism enters into modern ornamental design, and alittle study and thought will bring to the student‘s mind and attention numerous other examples of the same kind. natural elements. . vegetable forms—of the elements of design that are taken directly from nature, our first consideration will naturally be the vegetable forms. here the material presented to the designer is not only unlimited in style, but is easy of adaptation to all his requirements. elements of ornament. § in using plant forms for design, there is material for the designer in every part of the growth—the roots, stalk, leaves, flowers, and seed all contain details that may sug- gest ideas to the designer. while there may be nothing of great beauty in the root of a flower itself, yet there is always sufficient detail of importance there, and, if properly studied, can give rise to beautiful ideas. . thickening of stem at points of departure. in all good ornament of a flowing character, no matter how conventionally it may be arranged, it has always been the practice that there should be a thickening of the stem at the point of departure of the two reversed growths, as shown at (a), fig. ; or, if more than one starting point is used, a stop is usually intro- duced between the two sections of design that are run- ning together, as at (b). . botanical principles in design. now let us see how the application of some of these principles of growth can be proper- ly considered in orna- mental design. let us study the botanical aspect for a moment. we have in botany § elements of ornament. a term called inflorescence, which is the arrangement or growth of flowers on the stem, the simplest form of which is shown at (a), fig. . taking its principle of growth and not copying in any way the specimens, we can introduce it in the design shown at (c), where it formsa per- fectly proper termination with the scroll, with which it har- monizes, as well as with the longitudinal character of the border pattern. at ( ) is shown another form of inflores- cence, and at (d) is shown its application to a scroll orna- ment as before. . there are many different characteristics of botanical growth, each of which is capable of furnishing an idea that can be carried out as simply as the above, and always to good advantage, in the product of satisfactory designs. animal elements. . frequent use in design.—animal elements have always been used in ornamental art in a more or less naturalistic manner, and, though these forms are more diffi- cult to treat ornamentally than are inanimate forms, the ancient artist used them frequently, as animal forms will increase the interest in any composition. in celtic orna- ment, for instance, elements from the animal world are introduced even with the purest geometrical designs, and we find down to the present day that conventionalized rep- resentations from the animal world are most conspicuous details of heraldry. in certain periods of art, animal forms were preferred even to the vegetable forms, as man in his early condition had a closer interest in certain classes of beasts that aided him in his struggle for existence, such as the horse, rein- deer, dog, etc. his admiration for them lay more in his comprehension of their usefulness than in his admiration of their form, as his chief business in life at that time was the provision for his natural wants and his own protection. elements of ornament. § . imaginary beast-s.——in later periods, when man arrived at an easier state of living, he became more sensi- tive to the beauty of the world, and it is then that we have the naturalistic rendering of animal form giving way to more conventional representations, such as are found in the imaginary beasts, like griffins, dragons, and chimeras. throughout the history of art, the formation of any style of ornament depends largely on some preceding style, and the earliest form of development that we have must necessarily have arisen from the geometric, or a combination of some later form with an earlier geometric form. this combination of form naturally leads to a combination of conventional ideas, and we have the union of the attributes of one animal with those of another. we have already considered the two kinds of conventionalism that can exist—one, the conventionalism of facts, and the other, the conventionalism of ideas. . conventionalizing animal forms.—in the con- ventionalizing of animal forms, it is usual to express the fm. ‘ . idea by means of a symbolic representation and the fact by a conventional rendering of the animal. to make this more clear, we will take, for instance, the griffin, shown in fig. , which is composed of the body of the lion and the head and wings of a bird, and is usually symbolic of § elements of ornament. watchfulness, strength, alertness, and swiftness. vt’e find this figure on the piers of gateways, and it was often used by the greeks to adorn certain portions of their temples. in this representation, we conventionalize the idea by representing it symbolically, the eagle’s head and wings and the expression of the added ears being symbolic of watch- fulness, alertness, and swiftness, whereas the lion’s body is symbolic of strength. the conventionalized facts we find in the reduction of these emblems to a form by which they can be combined in one figure. . sphinx, wivern, ete.-other figures of this char- acter are the sphinx, shown in fig. !), which combines the human head with the body of the lion—symbolic of intelli- gence and strength; the wlvern, shown in fig. , which con- sists of a sort of winged serpent with a bird’s head and legs, and carries the same idea as the griffin, with the addition of wis- dom indicated by the ser- pent's body, and alertness during the nocturnal hours from the batslike form of its wings. another figure of this character, which is of greek elements of ornament. § origin, is the chimera, shown in fig. . this figure is supposed to typify a volcanic mountain in greece, which, according to various legends, was infested with lions at the top, and around the middle with goats, while the foot of the mountain abounded in venomous snakes. the chimera therefore combining the forms of the lion, goat, and ser- pent, from whose mouths issued flames and deadly gases, became the symbol of terror and devastation. the dragon shown in fig. has ever been an emblem of the evil forces of the natural and moral world. it com- fig. . bines in its characteristics the litheness and repulsiveness of the lizard and serpent, the swiftness of action charac- teristic of various winged creatures, and the fierceness and § elements of ornament. belligerency of the carnivorous animals from the form of its teeth and claws. to intensify its evil appearance, it is fre- quently represented as belching flames. there are numerous other animals of a mythical char- acter that have their origin purely in the conventionalism of some idea, and the reduction of numerous animal forms to the conventional rendering is almost unlimited in its application. . difficulty of adapting animal forms. in the case of animal forms, it is not so easy to adapt them to the requirements of ornamental design as it is the free and varied growth of plants. the latter have a multitudinous repetition of parts that enables the designer to adapt them without violence to nature, while animal forms have a proscribed and limited number of parts that narrows the limit of their employment and presents difficulties in the way of their successful adaptation. it is therefore necessary that ani- mal forms should be analyzed in the same manner that plant forms have been analyzed in this course of study, in order to learn the characteristic lines of their compo- sition and reduce them to a form capable of conventional rendering. . it is comparatively easy to draw accurately any animal form, and yet such a form is likely to be utterly unfit for decorative purposes, while a less accurate repre- sentation may be highly suited to decorative work; and we will find that the animal forms usually seen in the designs of the more barbaric nations are better suited to ornamental art than the realistic renderings of the later periods. . birds and running ornaments—birds also may be combined successfully with running ornament, as they are not only graceful in themselves, but are pleasantly associated with all plant growth, and they can be arranged so that their lines flow with the lines of the ornament and harmonize with it perfectly. certain quadrupeds can thus be treated also, but not always so readily. elements of ornament. § at (a), fig. , is shown a border ornament consisting of a foliated design, through which a dog is seen running after a bird, while at (b) is a rough outline of this same design fig. . showing how the curves of the dog’s body are in harmony with those of the ornament, and how the introduction of this detail is so suitable in the combination shown. again, at (a), fig. , is shown a design where the bird alone is introduced, while at (b) the outline drawing of it shows the arrangement of the foliated design and its rela- (b) fig. . tion to the bird form, together with the line of curvature that makes the two details harmonize, the latter being shown in dots. fig. is taken from a stone carving of the sixteenth century. § elements of ornament. ‘ . wings in ()rnament.—while we are considering the introduction of bird forms it will be wise for us to con- sider the subject of wings and the introduction of wings in ornament. there are few details of animal form that have been so extensively introduced in various convention— alized forms. to represent both ideas and facts, as the wings ‘ of birds and bats. though the bird’s wing is composed of flesh and feathers, and the bat’s wing is made up of a skele- ton framework between the parts of which a thin skin is stretched, the principle governing the outline of each is practically the same, and, in addition to this, it might be noted that the structure of wings and that of the human arm is very closely allied. at (a), fig. , is shown the outline of a bird’s wing, while at (b) is shown the outline of a bat's wing, and at (c), an outline of the bone construction of the human arm. the relative arrangement of these details will show their relation in structure, while fig. shows three forms of elements of ornament. § bird's wing, differing materially in outline, owing to the arrangement of the feathers, but based on precisely the same skclcton construction as is shown at (a), fig. . . proportions f wings—at (a), fig. , the wing represented is that of a common sparrow, while (b) shows the pigeon's wing, and (c), that of the sea swallow. it will be observed that in the order they are named these wings are fig. . from birds each of whose flight is more prolonged than the former—the sparrow, flying but short distances; the pigeon, usually capable of traveling a mile or more on the wing; while the sea swallow is flying a majority of the time. the relative extent of the outward extremity of the wing, it § elements of ornament. will be observed, increases with the flying qualities of the bird. in apply- ' -' ~ )- ' ing these wing forms to design, it is fre- quently necessary to take these details into consideration. . application of wings. —we have already considered the application of the wing in the design of the winged globe shown at ( ;), fig. , but its , , : l . , _, application to other " x " ‘ forms we will consider . ; .- \ .,.~ , ,fi _. here. in fig. is shown the character- ' ‘ ' " istic egyptian hiero- ._ i . glyph of the goddess fig- . neith, who carries in each hand a symbol, and whose out- ’ , stretched wings typify her world-wide sovereignty. in more modern applica- tion, we find the use of wings in the greek sphinx, shown in fig. , where the treat- ment is less conventional than in the egyptian style, and the possession of the wings distinguishes this sphinx from the one of egyptian design. fig. shows a still more modern application, where, in a female figure, the wings replace the arms and are outstretched in the \ ‘ § elements of ornament. illustrated in the forms of the pheasant's feather shown at (b), fig. . fig. . . insects in design.—the use of insects in decora- tive design is not as extensive as of birds, though the mark- ings of the wings of some of them, particularly the butterfly, are easily applicable in some characters of design, as shown at (a), fig. ‘ , where a border is designed on principles taken from the butterfly's wing illustrated at (b), and the simple mosquito, illustrated in a conventional rendering at elements of ornament. § (a), fig. , is easily applicable to a diaper ornament, as shown at (b). there is no limit to the extent to which these m m,“ hist sea fig. . forms may be varied, or combined with plant forms, to pro- duce any given variety of ornament. . fishes in ornament.—the use of fishes in orna- mental art is somewhat limited. with the exception of the dolphin, we have very few historic representations of this class of animal; but, in order that there may be a thorough understanding of the details that must be considered in the designing of any fish-like form, there is illustrated in fig. \¥_\ a typical fish, with the .~"\k\l\_hl(a) five principal fins that x y m) i \ exist in nearly every example, though they a 'i i v i may be varied in form. at (a) is the dorsal fin; at (b), the neutral “ ' ' fin ; and at (c), the per- ml fin. the tail is technically known as the caudal fin, and the fin between the ventral and the tail is termed the anal fin. each of these fins is developed to a greater or less degree in different fishes, in some of which it is divided so as to pre- sent two fins. for instance, it is not unusual to find two or more dorsal or two or more ventral or anal fins on one fish, and in rendering them for conventional treatment, it would be well to bear in mind a certain type of fish from which to study, and to preserve the characteristics of this fish in the rendering. § elements of ornament. v square a b c d, and the horizontal and vertical lines dividing this square into sixteen smaller squares determine the posi- tion of important parts of the body. thus, the distance b e is one-fourth the height of the body, and the line passes through the middle of the chest; the dis- tance f is one-eighth the height of the body, and the line \-/ \( fig. ?. passes under the chin; the distance f g is one-tenth the height of the body, and the line passes tangent to the chin and through the roots of the hair; f /z is one-sixteenth the height of the body, and marks the distance of the eyes above the chin; while fz' is one thirty-second the height of the body, and marks the distance of the bottom of the nose above the chin. it will be here observed that the arms extended horizontally measure the same distance across, elements of ornament. § side view of the leg is composed of a series of convex lines, these should not be given too much prominence over the general proportion of the whole limb, as such a rendering would give a result somewhat as shown atl(a), fig. ; while a closer observation of this whole member would lead to the discovery that, notwithstanding the existence of convex curves in the shin, the line in the front of the leg is con- cave, as shown at (b), while that of the back is convex. (a) (d) ( } the same may be said of the forearm, which is frequently drawn as shown at (c), fig. ' , with the inside of the fore- arm convex, in order to show the softness of the curves at that point; but, as a matter of fact, if its general contour were taken into account, it would be found to be concave, as shown at (d), and a proper rendering of it would be more as shown at (c). the student should carefully analyze these details in studying the human figure, not only as a guide to its truth- ful representation, but also in order to study the details of its conventionalism to arrive at a proper principle for its general design—a principle that can be enlarged upon after the main outlines have been established. ' . difficulty of free rendering.—in considering the application of the human figure to decorative purposes, the same rules hold good as for decoration with foliage, but its rendering is, of course, more difficult, as we cannot handle it as freely as we do the plants. the human figure has to be taken in its entirety, without exaggerating its § elements of ornament. structure in any way (except for the purpose of caricature, which does not enter into this course of study), and its elementary lines must be thoroughly comprehended by the student. details of the human figure have been combined with animals, as has here- illiiiifiiif]’l,'ihill|llllilmliillwm]wi" tofore been shown iiil ‘ _ lilli,“ i/ q ". ‘ . 'i iq and illustrated, as in the sphinx, etc., and we will presently have occasion to give ! other examples. the combination of the human figure with foliage is character- istic of many designs of the renaissance period, where the lower portions of the body were permitted to terminate in leaf-like forms and enter into the foliated ornament of an arabesque or panel, as shown in fig. . . this style of treatment probably grew out of a development shown in fig. , where at (a) is shown a half figure that might appear more suitable to the filling of a fig. bl. certain space than the full-length figure. the lower part of the figure is covered by drapery, the elaboration of the folds elements of ornament. § of which brings it to the form of a design shown at (b), which further elaboration brings to a foliated form as at (c), and subsequent renderings form a part of the figure as illus- trated at (( ). attention is simply called to this here to illus- trate a possible progress and growth and to show the ration- alism of foliated terminations under certain circumstances. . human figures as supports.—the use of the human figure as a support in the place of a column, or occa- ;'_;||i§iiie fig urn-yr rm . c sionally, with artificial terminations, under brackets, is shown in fig. , which is taken from one of the cai'yatids § elements of ornament. used in the north porch of the erechtheum at athens, while in fig. is shown a front and side view of the egyptian method of carving human figures as supports, though, in the latter case, it will be observed that the figure does not actually support any of the superimposed load, but simply rests against a pier. the greek artists, apparently appreciating the inappropriateness of the human figure to act as a column and permanently support something super- imposed, increased the proportions and gave them a strong architectonic feeling. . during the renaissance period, the use of figures as supporting mem- bers was very much misunderstood, and the combination of these elements with the attempt at grace- fulness of line led to such misconcep- tions as shown in fig. , where the curved dotted line shows the real line of support through the figures, and, at the same time, gives an expression of weakness to the detail as an archi- tectural member. a comparison of this with the greek figure shown in fig. will readily illustrate the error made by the more modern designers. fig. . fig. . elements of ornament. § the use of half figures, called termini, is characteristic of the renaissance period, an example of which is shown in and, although the latter method is fig. . n great load should be superim- posed upon them, in order that their appli- cation may be harmo- nious. . application of “hugs—in the application of wings and feathers to the human figure, egyp- tian art usually at- tached the wings below the arms, as shown in fig. , while the assyrians usually attached them behind the shoulders, as shown in fig. , the less rational one from an anatomical structure, it is the one that survives at § elements of ornament. the present day, and is usually used in modern work. fig. is taken from greek vase paintings, and shows the greeks' idea of wing treatment; while the renaissance example shown in fig. possesses an exaggerated outline, the curves of which in no way appear to agree with the hidden structure, though the development of the wings in the place of arms is much more rational than the form shown in fig. . . fabulous creatures. -— many fabulous crea- tures—partly human and partly animal—have been created during the periods of grotesque art, and to greek art we are indebted for most of these mythical creatures, as their cen- tral idea was the glorification of the human form. greek mythology had so many deities representative of different characteristics and ideas that separate gods and goddesses, illus- trative of separate con- ceptions, were indispensa- ble; and not only were lit- erature, arts, and sciences typified by a form of i ' a human being, but the ‘\ \ seas, the rivers, the moun- ' tains, the woods, the trees, \ , . and the rocks were all i - - we m \ representatively depleted v .- “mw §§ in some ideal form, and ‘ ,i\'\ even the natural devices ._ ' \k‘ and calamities of man- ‘ i ii " ‘ kind had some symbol in human guise. when these, however, were insufficient to properly express their ideas, the human form was combined with that of abird' or animal, or some reptile, in order to complete the symbol- ism as far as possible. therefore, in their personification pro. . elements of ornament. § of the free untrammeled woodland life, they gave to the figure of a man the legs and horns of a goat, to intensify the idea of wild freedom, and as a result we have the mytholog- ical forms of the satyr and pan illustrated in fig. . . greek sphinx.—’i‘he egyptian sphinx, being sym- bolic of the combination of intellect, wisdom, and power, is represented with the human head and the lion's body, as shown in fig. ; while the greek sphinx differs in form from that of the egyptian, as it is usually represented as being of the female sex and possessing wings. this sphinx by the greeks appears to have been adopted as the personi- fication of malignity combined with mystery, and to her is accredited the practice of propounding riddles to those that visited her and tearing to pieces all that failed to solve them. the gracefulness of the creature's form, however, caused it to become a favorite as an ornamental element, and it is used frequently in mural decoration and for the adornment of bronze tripods and other devices purely of an orna- mental character. . centaur. the combination of man and horse, called the cen- taur, was repre- sentative of a race of warriors cele- brated in greek mythology for their horseman- ship. their skill was so great that the rider and horse appeared as one; hence, the development of the idea shown in fig. . a similar device was the combined form of a fig. . § elements of ornament. woman and a horse, or, more frequently, of a woman and a deer, typifying the huntress, or a denizen of the forest. . medusa.—the head of medusa, shown in fig. , is emblematic and typical of the sensations of extreme fear and terror. according to greek mythology, medusa was the most celebrated of the gorgon sisters, who were origi- nally priestesses f athe- na, but having broken her vows of celibacy and ultimately marrying po- seidon, she was punished by the goddess athena, by having each of her beautiful wavy locks transformed into a ven— omous serpent, and her head thus assumed the horrible aspect depicted in the illus- tration. fig. . . license in designing the human figure. thus, the human figure is seen to have pervaded certain classes of ornamental design throughout all ages, but has been altered or modified in order to suit it to characteristic purposes and places, or its details better arranged to har- monize with other elements of ornament. the restrictions that influence and largely govern the use of certain ornamental forms in conventionalized design must all be considered 'of equal importance in the applica- tion of the human figure, and a truthful portrayal or realistic rendering is permissible only under the rarest circumstances of absolutely monumental work. practical design. principles involved in practical design. . the principles that are involved in the production of good repeating patterns are rtfz'lz'lz'on, rolllrasl, and t'arz'rly; balance, synmchry, and unity; inugi'ntz'aljzmclz'mz,- radiation and proportion; and growl/ , sfaliz'li/y, nylon; and films. . repetition. repetition in many respects is the most important principle in textile design, as an all-over repeat- ing pattern implies in itself the idea of repetition, and whereas there are many all-over designs that do not repeat, they are confined to hand work, such as rugs, embroidcrics, and other products beyond the scope of the designer for the loom or the press. ' . alternation.—in connection with repetition we have alternation, wherein the repetition consists of a form that duplicates itself alternately with another form, as shown in fig. . alternation is very useful in some cases when it is § for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. practical design. § used to vary repetition and avoid monotony. it produces a slight feeling of contrast combined with a feeling of con- tinuous variation, but it must not be confounded with the principles of contrast and variety, which are separate and distinct. . contrast. and var!ety.—-the feeling of contrast is best expressed in a design wherein the linear elements meet or cross each other nearly at right angles, as shown in fig. , and contrast is best effected by an arrange- ment of lines that brings about this con- dition, as shown in fig. , which is an ancient greek pattern wherein this prin- ciple dominates the entire design, all the lines being arranged to join each other nearly at right angles. the feeling of contrast is not confined entirely to designs fig. . ..i,;_j.?_; of a rigid character, and fig. illustrates an example wherein this principle is carefully handled in a design of a soft and flowing character. at a will be observed the main flowing fig. . § practical design. line broken by the scroll that crosses it at right angles, and, therefore, stands not only in contrast with it but also assists in giving a feeling of variety. variety is the very essence of a design and the principle that gives it brightness and prevents its monotony, and though the variety of design must not be so extensive as to rob it of its feeling of repose, there must be sufficient change to rest the eye from the observation of any par- ticular form. . symmetry and balance—symmetry and balance are principles that exist when the arrangement of ornament is such that the details on both sides of a line or point are fig. ‘l exactly repeated or duplicated, as in fig. , or are of equal value, as in fig. , the former being a symmetrical element, the latter a balanced element. . tangential junction.-—-tangential junction of lines, as we already know, is a detail depending on the close observation of nature, and is illustrated in several forms in fig. . radiation is also a principle that we have g; practical design. ‘ § already considered, and whether that radiation takes place from a point or a line is a matter to be decided according to the character of the ornament. growth is another principle derived - ' from observation of plant qt“ ----- ---" form, and the curves exist- ing in long slender leaves, “‘ ' ' such as that of the cattail and flag, or even blades of grass, are expressive of this principle. it , subordination is a principle that must be introduced into certain parts of a design in order to prevent monotony; there must be principal features and subordinate features, and if every detail is brought into equal prominence there will be neither contrast nor variety. in every good design there should always be a principal feature, such as a bright flower or group of flowers or of leaves, or of some other striking object, and the rest of the design should sink into the background and take a secondary place. . fitness—the question of fitness is simply the appli- cation of a certain class of design to certain materials. of course, it is evident that the style of design that would be suitable for a carpet would be utterly unsuitable for a printed cotton goods or a velvet, and would be out of place for printing on a fine silk. then, there is always the considera- tion of fashion—a subject that every designer is bound to be familiar with and governed by, although his good sense may at times be opposed to it; but designs are made for commercial purposes and the designer must bow to the' prevailing fashions even though his artistic nature rebel. therefore, a design should always be thought out or men- tally planned at first, and its style, scale, and character suited and fitted to the material and purpose in which it is to be carried out and for which it is to serve. § practical design. . proportion.——in connection with fitness we come to the principle of proportion, which is most difficult to decide upon, as, under it, the designer must make up his mind as to the relation between the lengths and breadths of the repeats, the scale of the pattern, etc. . unity.-—the last principle to be considered, per- haps, is unity, and in this we must sum up all the previous ones. however well the plan may be balanced and however well the natural formations and growths may be observed and adhered to, and thoroughly adapted though the design may be in scale and proportion to the material in which it is executed, it is of little value unless all these principles unite in a characteristic whole that prevents any one of them becoming unduly prominent or makes it appear that they are not bound together inseparably. planning the design. . characterlstlc of a design.~—it is always well to have a clear idea of what the main characteristics of a design are to be before the actual work of arrangement is begun. these characteristics will be influenced largelyby the mate- rial purpose of the finished fabric as well as the trend of the prevailing fashions. if, for instance, the design is to be woven in tapestry or other hanging, then it may be bold and rich, emphasized by the arrangement of strong and contrast- ing colors. but, on the other hand, if the design is for a dress fabric, it must be made to a much smaller scale and the colors be much more subdued. in the case of a dress fabric, it should always be borne in mind that the scale must be kept down, as some one is going to wear it; and, there being a comparative uniformity in the sizes of various people, we have a definite scale to work to. it has been shown that the most convenient size for a repeat in dress patterns is about % inches, as the folds of the dress and the numerous seams would destroy the effect of the repeat if it were made much larger. practical design. § . geometrical basis—it must always be borne in mind that it is absolutely necessary that the plan of any design that is to be reproduced by mechanical means, such as a printing block, must always have a geometrical basis, and the repeat must be governed by a regular geometrical figure. this figure is called the unil, and it is the govern- ing shape of the unit of the pattern; it must always be enclosed in itself, or in a multiple of itself, in a square or oblong whose dimensions correspond with the dimensions of the printing block from which the design is to be reproduced. ' this may be more clearly understood by reference to fig. (a), where the unit of the design and the size of ’ '\ , a“, k . _, (c) ( ) fig. . the repeat are identical, the small dark square indicating the unit after which the cards would have to be cut in weaving, and the dotted exterior square showing the size of the block from which the pattern would be produced in printing. at ( ’), however, the lozenge shape contains the unit of the design, and the complete repeat is composed of one whole diamond and four quarters, which together, as shown at abca', are contained in an oblong, this oblong being the repeat for which the cards would be cut in weaving. at ( ) is shown the manner in which this oblong would be treated § practical design. in a square if it were intended to reproduce the design by printing, the square there representing the printing block; while at (c), (e), and (f) are shown the methods of treating such forms as the triangle, hexagon, and ogee shape, which are considered in the same manner as was the lozenge. . unit and repeat—it is important that the student should always keep clearly in his mind the difference between the unit of a design and the repeat, and not confound one with the other. a comparison of all the details of fig. will show that the units are always made up of regular geometrical figures that fit together, leaving no interstices between them. this, of course, is a necessary characteristic that the unit must possess. the diamond, the square, and the oblong are the most useful shapes; but on general prin- ciples the lozenge or diamond is the best of all. . defective design.—as said before, it is necessary that a clear and definite idea should be possessed when a design is started, on which the subsequent building up can depend. in fig. are shown two renderings of the same style of ornament intended for the same purpose, though the one at (b) in no way fulfils the conditions. it is assumed that this is a design for a stripe in some piece of goods, and an irregular wavy line is drawn, from which spring a number of leaves and flowers, regardless of any preconceived order, except that the design must repeat beyond the lines ab and ed. the line, the leaves, and the flowers have no apparent relation to one another, nor to the border of the panel itself, and the three flowers at a acci- dentally fall together and form a straight line across the stripe, making a very awkward accentuation at the end of each repeat—a characteristic of repeating designs that the designer usually tries to conceal. . remedy for defects.—at (a), however, the same elements are used and show that, by a little consideration. § practical design. the design and adds to the impression that the floral orna- ment could not readily be removed without impairing its appearance. . the parent stem.—in fig. is shown a surface, or all-over, pattern somewhat of the same character as fig. , the limitations of which are precisely the same as those of the border. the principal line, or the main stem, is drawn first, and once located, the designer must determine whether this line is to form an essential detail of his design or simply to be a starting element. in many cases, the parent stem is inserted into a design solely to give some logical growth and provide some element that the flowers and leaves can spring from, but in no way forms an important part of the design itself, and might be removed without impairing the design ' the least. in this case, however, the parent stem is one of the most important factors and must be put in with care and thought. . principal feature. in all designs, or at least in nearly all, there should be some feature that by its promi- nent color, shape, or size is more prominent than the others, and it should be so placed that it will immediately attract the eye. such being the case, it is necessary that the means by which this attraction to the eye is attained must be con- sidered before the design is started. a design without a leading feature is uninteresting and tiresome, and it natu- rally follows that if this leading feature is so important, it is necessary that it should be the most beautiful and the most interesting part of the design. in the present case, the repeat is first decided on and the wave line is carefully studied with the idea that it is to be a prominent detail in the finished design. its curve must be graceful, of good proportions, and so arranged that it will not interfere inharmoniously with its adjacent curves in the other repeats. the four large leaves in the corner of each repeat being intended for prominent features, should also be carefully drawn and placed in position. in general practical design. q'iij practice it would be found advisable to sketch the design in outline at first, as shown in fig. at (( ), because it is likely to be modified after the design is worked out and it would be a waste of time to try and work out the finished details at once. the next detail in the preparation of the design is the conventional flower in the center of the repeat; this should go in next, and it would seem advisable to place the flower at some point central between the four large leaves. the necessity of placing this flower in a central position can be readily seen by referring to fig. , where the design is the same as that shown in fig. , except that the flower is not fig. . in the center but thrown to one side, over one set of the leaves. the effect of this can be readily seen, that inas- much as the flower is removed from the center, the character of the pattern ceases to be of the all-over type, and resolves itself into a series of stripes. this does not absolutely spoil the design, as it would be considered all right if a striped pattern were wanted; but when an all-over pattern is wanted, this treatment is certainly all wrong. after the flower is § practical design. ] drawn in outline, the rest of the figure is blocked in as shown in fig. . effect of the repeat.—in all cases in laying out adesign, it is advisable to draw more than one repeat, as the student can then judge somewhat better the appear- fig. . ance of it when multiplied in the loom or the press. few but the most experienced designers can judge the prob- able efiect and know how to avoid faults that are likely to appear, unless several repeats are laid out in each direction. practical design. § having considered the preliminary arrangement of the plan for the repeat itself, we will now take up the different methods of securing this repeat, and consider the advantages of each case. drop pattern. . unit of the pattern.-~the drop pattern takes its name from a characteristic that requires the unit to be dropped one-half its length in order that adjacent members s s may properly match, and it has been suggested that the lozenge shape is best adapted as the figure constituting the unit of any pattern. in fact, though this shape is used as § practical design. the basis for nearly all repeating diaper patterns, it is almost indispensable in the construction of the drop pat- tern. every practical drop pattern, if properly analyzed, will be found with the lozenge as its fundamental form, though, as a rule, this shape is concealed in the superfluity of ornament. in fig. the lozenge shape does not appear at all, although it can be easily shown that. it is the govern- [a q ‘ y ‘ ,‘aae : i \m fig. . ing principle of this design. if we join the four central points of the four large five-lobed leaves, the resulting figure is lozenge-shaped, and a similar figure would be pro- duced by joining any four repeating points in the design,v as shown in fig. . practical design. § . the enclosing rectang e.—notwithstanding the fact that this lozenge shape is the governing principle of so many designs, it must not be forgotten that the practical working out of the pattern in the loom, or the printing of the pattern in the press, requires that the design s/zal/ be (vic/ d wit/tin a rrrlnlrgle, and the amount that has to appear in the design will be one complete lozenge and four quarter-lozenges in order to make up the rectangle. an exception to this rule, however, will be found in center ties and roll carpets, which will be considered later on. . symmetrical deslgns.—where a design is sym- metrical on both sides of a given center line, as shown in practical design. § dropped at e f g / , this rectangle representing another width of 'carpet roll that fits the first so as to make a perfectly connected design. thus it will be seen that the same points do not repeat in this design in less than twice the width of one roll, as may be seen at a’ and k, where '\"" "."."iri'm‘ {i‘ll 'iil‘iifi'l-i“ ,, |i||l\h| l, l , ;\|| h- ‘i helms“ iii ‘ lviilly‘l'illiteii-i, i ' " ' | ", h , il'l "“ ‘“ x||||t i, . p». m, - n n'i'il. % ,' ' .'.:i£ii,i, ,!" hi- ' . ‘l'\‘ .; “l '? “fill , .; fl;- ' ii .. k mp } ‘u ‘ ' ' " “ % satellite.atrium}: iiiljwimliw fig. . the flower at d is completed in the section at k inches away from it. if the plan were adopted for a side-to~side repeat, these forms would repeat every inches horizon- tally; but by means of the drop pattern we can, without additional labor or expense, produce a carpet design of apparently twice this width, and this same idea can be carried out in wall paper. § practical design. . waste in cutting. another advantage in the use of the drop pattern for carpets is that the chance of waste is considerably reduced during the process of cutting and fitting the widths together to suit the size of a room. this can better be understood by referring to fig. , where at (a) the drop pattern is shown as its repeats would recur in a (a) fig. . room; and at (b) the side-to-side repeating pattern appears as laid out upon the same room. this room is assumed to be ft. in. x ft., the narrower dimension requiring just six widths of -inch carpet to cover it. it will be seen at (a), that, beginning at the upper left-hand' corner and cutting off from the roll what is required for the length of the room, we will have four complete repeats and a little over, and in replacing this width to the right of this and laying off what is required for the second length of the room, there will be a little waste at each end, as shown at b and c. in the same manner, the same amount of waste occurs at dr and half as much at f g, while the breadths between, at i: and i, are cut to exactly cover the room in the same manner as the first one. looking now at the other arrangement at (b), we have the practical design. § same space carpeted with a pattern that does not drop, but matches from side to side, and it will be readily seen that the waste, as indicated at bade and f, is considerably more than the previous case, amounting to very nearly yards. of course, the proportions of this room are such as to make this rather an extreme case; but the fact remains that there is less waste with the drop pattern, because the repeats fit at half the height, and the greatest possible waste in any one room length of roll will be half the length of a repeat, while with a side-to-side repeating pattern nearly a whole repeat of waste is possible. on this account it is advantageous to keep the length of the repeat short whether the design drops or not, for with a long repeat there is much more waste in cutting than where the repeat is moderate. in fig. the repeat is entirely too long for economy, and had the lozenge form been turned to a horizontal position it would have been much more advantageous, inasmuch as the effort has been in the first place to make the repeat extend over two widths of carpet, and there is no good reason why the repetition in a vertical direction should be of any greater extent. . planning and drawing the design—it is always best to construct the lozenge shape so that its vertical and horizontal dimensions are equal to the vcrtical and hori- zontal dimensions of a full repeat, and then to sketch in the principal details and general lines. the leaf forms can then be filled in so that the upper right line of the lozenge will out these details in exactly the same form and position as the lower left-hand line, and the same may be said of the upper left-hand line and the lower right-hand line. in gen- eral practice, the best way of doing this is to sketch the form roughly on transparent paper or tracing cloth, with a soft pencil. these forms may then be gone over with a harder pencil on the reverse side and the pencil markings trans- ferred almost exactly uniform to any part. in the frequent references that we will make to tracing paper hereafter, we § practical design. will in all cases mean simply the drawing or tracing of a design on transparent paper and the transferring of the design by means of that tracing to other parts of the draw- ing. in this way the details of the general sketch may be multiplied and extended freely in every direction. when so multiplied and the forms appear to be well arranged and distributed, an exact drawing can be made by means of tracing paper and everything carefully drawn in its proper place. . striped effect in drop patterns—in the true drop pattern, the drop is always considered as half the height of the repeat; but it is not unusual to have a drop pattern of less than this, as, for instance, one-third the height of the repeat. this is shown in fig. at (a), while at (b) the if i - drop is only one-quarter of the height; but the result is never as satisfactory, as an even distribution is not so readily acquired and the comparative width of the repeat is greater. the bringing of the principal elements so much closer together is also likely to produce a striped effect as shown at practical design. § a b in fig. (a) and at ed in fig. ( ); whereas in (c), where the drop is half the height of the repeat, there is little or no tendency to get a striped effect, as the principal elements of the design are evenly distributed. the shorter the drop the stronger is the tendency to produce a pronounced stripe and increase the width of the repeat, and, therefore, the more expensive to work out without any compensating advantages regarded of value as ornament. for this reason it should be borne in mind that drop patterns of less than half the repeat are to be avoided if an even distribution of ornament is desired, and the tendency of any part of the ornament to run in stripes is to be obviated. turn-over h ethod. . advantage of the turn ()ver.—another method of planning a design is called the turn-over method, and for many reasons is very desirable. with this method of planning, faults can be avoided with greater certainty and the design is given an appearance of greater complexity, as the repeats alternating to the right and left are less evident to the eye than when running in but one direction. this is a most useful system of planning, and, when properly stud- ied, a design can be executed in which faults are least likely to occur; but the method is a most difficult one for the stu- dent to master, because when the unit of one repeat is reversed or turned over, the two units are likely to overlap in some of their details. . planning the turn ver.—in fig. is shown a turn-over design, with the geometrical constructions and the main lines on which the whole is based. the first consideration is the proportions of the repeat, shown at abcd, containing but unit and quarter-units surround- ing it. this constitutes the geometrical construction of our design. the next consideration is the character of the design itself, and if we'assume the ogee outline as shown in this case, we § practical design. must divide the top corner of the repeat into four equal parts, at f, g, , and draw in the ogee line f/z, in order to get any degree of accuracy. in fact, all that is required of this line is the portion from f to i, the other half being traced from it, the two parts being exactly the same. the other four portions may be traced in a similar manner. fig. . next, the large flower in the center of each repeat should be placed in position, and care must be taken that each alternate horizontal series of repeats is turned in a different direction—one whole series toward the right, and another whole series toward the left as shown—as no other arrange- ment will produce the effect. _ practical design. § in the first blocking out of the design, much time will be saved if the main features are sketched with a single line as shown in fig. , where the oval shape stands for the flower in the center of the unit. when these oval shapes have been repeated a sufficient number of times, the lines of the ogee at i? should be broken away from their regular direction, and the small flowers in each unit drawn upon these branchings. . elimination of faults.—~by this time the design has been advanced sufficiently to enable the designer to look over it carefully and see that none of its details is likely to overlap or go wrong in any way. it is, however, almost certain that some detail will overlap another when the orna- ment is first drawn and turned over on the adjacent dia- mond, and if such overlapping occurs, of course the design must be altered. if, however, the design develops satis- factorily, the detail of the principal element in the center may be repeated in the four corners, at a, , c, and d, and then the flowers distributed along the line kk may be sketched in place. even now though the design is finished in the last detail, it is wise to look over it thoroughly, as it is almost sure to require some alterations, lest when turned over one portion will come into conflict with another; and the line where the first lozenge joins the four adjacent ones may be so thickly ornamented as to appear heavy, or it may be so sparse that it requires filling. it is always at the points where these units join that the most skill is required in the arrangement. . turn-over-and-drop patterns—in some of its details the turn-over pattern is not unlike the drop; it requires unit and quarter-units to make up the whole repeat, and the unit contained in the whole lozenge is both turned over and dropped, so that in making the design it is necessary to trace off the first lozenge, reverse the tracing paper, and drop it to the adjacent lower one. in fact, were it not for a. § practical design. needless lengthening of the name, this style of design could better be termed the turn-over-and-drop pattern. . avoidance of faults—turnover designs are liable to the same fa’ults as are designs that go only in one direction, but not to such a marked degree. this partial avoidance of faulty lining is one of the advantages, as the turning over of the unit causes a zigzag effect rather than a line effect. an illustration of this effect is given in fig. , where at (a) a turn-over pattern is shown based on the wave line, and its unit is indicated by the lozenge shape fig. . in the center. looking at this rectangular repeat, it would be difiicult for even an expert designer to predict that the whole design, when printed and many times repeated, would appear faulty; but this faultiness becomes very evident when the design is executed and a large surface spread out before the eye as shown at ( )). if the design shown at (b) be held at arm's length and the eyes half closed. a white zigzag line will be perceived running systematically through the design from top to bottom, as marked at a a a, etc. § practical design. . selection of system of design.~tlle selection of the system of construction should not be made arbitrarily, but should always be decided after mature thought as to which would bring about the best result. the square pro- duces a repeat in the same distance both vertically and hori- zontally, and the rectangle gives us a repeat greater in one direction than the other, according to which way it is turned; the lozenge can be made to produce repeats in the same proportion as the square or rectangle, but produces an entirely different effect, as shown in fig. , where the same design is worked out on the system of the square as is worked out on the system of the lozenge in fig. . the former is much more severe than the latter, and the limits of the repeat are much more definitely marked. there is a tendency, too, toward the expression of a horizontal and practical design. § vertical system of lining in fig. that is not so apparent in fig. . it is therefore seen that for some conditions the fig. . square might be preferred to the diamond shape, while for other conditions the latter is preferable. . variety possible.-—on these geometrical bases an unlimited variety of designs may be developed from a simple sprig or spray to most elaborate combinations of interlaced wave lines and ogee forms. these may be roughly divided into spots, powderings, connected forms, or stripes, in which the repeats are made continuous by structural lines though the pattern may be made up entirely of geometrical forms. . simple spot designs.—in fig. is shown a, spot design, the plan of which is based on the diamond, as is very evident, and shows how valuable an arrangement the § practical design. diamond form is to us when much ornament is not a neces- sity. it should always be borne in mind that ornament is intended to beautify a material, and if the material will look better with very little ornament upon it and plenty of ground or bare space, the designer must confine himself to just so much ornament as the fabric appears to demand. ma fig. . then, for some purposes, an elaborate design is unsuitable, so that too much ornament will vulgarize and spoil a fabric rather than enhance its beauty. it is in such cases that the spot character of design, as shown in fig. , is most useful, especially when the ground of the material requires only sufficient ornament to break its monotony, or where the material is to be used in small quantities. . influence of fashions—the prevailing fashions influence this condition of design to a great extent, especially in regard to wearing apparel. sometimes the demand is for practical design. fig. . fig. § practical design. spots, sometimes for elaborately figured goods, and some- times there is an occasion for a medium between the two, as shown in fig. , which is a design based on an elaboration of the spot, but giving a spot and powdered effect. fig. shows a style of design that is used very largely in dress fabrics; its simple treatment renders it very suitable and to a large extent obviates the danger of faulty lining, and the design is very effective and easy to construct. it is arranged upon the diamond plan, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. , the largest spray being drawn first in any of the unit forms, and then turned over and dropped as before explained. it may, under some conditions, be suffi- cient to trace simply the four corners of the repeat and then trace in the principal sprig to fill the center of the lozenge shape and occupy any bare space that may appear. under these circumstances, it is wise to turn the tracing paper back and add the sprig to the larger one and then insert the small sprig in other repeats just as the large sprig was put in at the four corners. where it is desirous that there should be but little of the ground broken with ornament, a little running vine may be used as the basis of the design, arranged in sprays somewhat as shown in fig. . the construction here is very simple, and though the sprigs run in a lozenge shape, the pattern is constructed upon the system of the square, as shown in fig. . ' . irregular unlts.—a design in which the forms are connected is of much more importance to the designer than a simple sprig pattern such as shown in figs. and . practical design. § and is naturally much more intricate to execute. the struc- tural basis of the design shown in fig. is an irregular lozenge shape different from anything we have heretofore considered, as shown in fig. . the simplest way of constructing this design is by means of vertical and horizontal lines, the latter drawn at equal fig. . distances, as at a , fig. , and the vertical ones alternating with a large and small space as at dc, e f, etc. the two large flowers may then be placed in the upper corner of a rectangle of the repeat as at a and the other large flower at the intersection of the vertical and horizontal line, below this rectangle, as at . the connecting lines and secondary features may then be sketched in and drawn as shown. this § _ practical design. five clover leaves, and the main feature of the design consists of the arrangement of these flowers and leaves in order to give the impression of simplicity and at the same time pro- duce an all-over effect, without expressing in a pronounced degree the system of its arrangement. . in fig. we have a turn-over pattern on the (lia- mond basis and it conceals the simplicity of its development through the possession of three equally prominent features. the circular flowers, for instance, are arranged on the dia- mond plan, and the other two features are intersected in a regular order, while the stem oscillates from side to side, sending off alternately to the right and left a scroll with a bud or a blossom. the effect of this treatment, simple though it is, is exceedingly pleasing and expresses the variety that can be attained by the simple geometrical arrangements that underlie it. simplicity in the arrangement of a design should always be the aim of the designer, as a pleasing effect practical design. gr fig. . fig. . § practical design. ‘ ,-’.< \ ‘ . /.' eea$* - - vu- i f . \ [a , mi» . ,. # i‘ ‘(iililll o ‘~. l'§';~~ij' ) / $§$ v a = \ ii a . m l i: :- . ml ii- fig. . practical design. § the design on each side of a given center line, only one-half of the pattern need be executed for weaving purposes, as it can be adapted to a center tie. this example is particularly interesting in showing the contrast of line, and it will be observed by studying the elements of fig. , which is a skeleton outline of fig. , that when one line crosses another, in nearly every instance it crosses it at a right angle and thereby gives to the design a sharpness and crispness that characterizes it. . in fig. is shown a design based on the dia- mond and arranged as a center tie. its principal con- struction lines are a pair of ogee curves that cross each other, one of which follows the stem of the running vine, and the other forms the governing direction of an orna- mental ribbon work that underlies the main decoration. this introduces also a contrast between the ribbon and the design itself that causes the latter to stand up promi- nently and prevents the whole composition from appearing monotonous. practical design. § . size of the repeat in dnmasks.—first, we must consider the size of the article, and in most instances a size that is an even multiple of a quarter of a yard is found to be convenient. fabrics such as table covers and table linen, or carpets, will always be found to be multiples of a quarter- yard in both length and breadth. for instance, quarter- yards by quarter-yards gives us feet inches by feet fig. . inches; and take a table cover of these dimensions as shown in fig. and we have the setting out arrangement of the repeats in which a very highly ornate treatment is given. in this case, the size of the repeat is one-quarter of a yard in each direction. this has the advantage of making the design capable of fitting any size table cover, either in length or breadth, that is desired, simply by increasing the number of repeats. § practical design. the border around this, it will be observed, is the same in design and dimension of its repeats both at the sides and at the ends, and it may be readily observed that the secondary repeats of the filling fall directly in line with the repeats of the border not only on the sides and ends but also in the corner. this -inch square repeat is the simplest and least /. fig. . expensive way of dealing with a fabric such as a table cloth, and is suitable for some particular designs, but the designer is in no way limited to this shape. . unequal repeats.——in fig. is shown another design of identical dimensions with fig. , in which the filling repeat is oblong and the proportion of the oblong is such as to make it similar to the entire oblong surface of the § practical design. a troublesome one unless the design is similar to that shown in fig. , as it is a simple matter to design a corner to fit a system of repeat that is uniform in the two directions. but in running borders such as shown in figs. and , the ornament must have a distinct development in one direction and grow from itself continuously. in some forms of art this is not difficult at all, but in a woven fabric it must be borne in mind that the two side borders must be equal, the top and bottom borders must be equal, and the corners each the same. . in fig. we have a design of a border that is made to connect around the corners without any break, while in fig. we have at b c a design for a border that runs from the center of the width around the corner to the center of the length, where it is stopped by a rosette or other inde- \ r \ ’ g \ i i \ i \ z’f \ i \ \ \ \ \ \ \ | \ \ \ \ \ \ \ , \ _- \ ’ \ i / \ \ , \l fig. . pendent device. this system of treatment, however, requires that the repeat of the border and its adjacent filling shall amount to one-quarter of the whole fabric, as shown at ; c d .r, and that whatever comes in this quarter must reverse and repeat above and on the other side; this system also practical design. § permits us to treat the angles of the filling with separate ornament, as shown at (a) in fig. . when a fabric is square it is sometimes convenient to duplicate the design on each side of the diagonal line, as shown in fig. , where the square is divided into eight equal triangular pieces as shown at fg/z, each of which is symmetrical but reversed from its ' neighbor. . lace-curtain design. — where cur‘ tains are woven in one piece, one of the most popular schemes of de- sign is to have a dado treatment at the bottom“ and a border on each of the sides. this bor- der can be of the same width on each side or of varying widths, accord- in g to the circumstances, 'or the design may be q such that the two bor- ders and the dado con_ sist of one scheme of ornament varying in width to express the proportion of each. much economy can be effected, however, in the designing of curtains by having the whole length worked out upon a symmetrical arrange- ment so that the two halves each side of the center line will be identical. this may be somewhat severe in style, but is capable of producing the happiest of results. in fig. is shown a symmetrical arrangement of design § practical design. duplicating on the center line y/l. only one-half of this design would need to be prepared on design paper, g/z/el is?) m k:- i . "j \ . i\ \ ' : ' “ fig. . being the amount required for the dado, and klmn, the repeat for the border and filling of the body of the cur- tain; whereas in fig. . just twice this quantity of design g practical design. § would have to be executed, as the pattern extends the full width of the curtain. the severity of style which this plan is likely to produce may be somewhat obviated by the use of a free center, shown in fig. , where the design on each side of a given center line is exactly balanced and reproduced. the amount of design worked out on paper in this case is shown at a [it‘d in the dado, and cdt'f in the upper portion of the curtain, and when this is woven, the opposite side is separated from it a distance equal to g. and the free center - bg/zc in the dado, and £ ! kf for the repeat in ~ g the upper part of the cur- _ tain would require to be drawn out separately on design paper. . classification of borders. —we have so far devoted all our attention to the application of border designs to such textile .r fabrics as they are most i generally used, but we will now consider some of the more typical details upon which repeating borders may be constructed. for the purposes of classification, ordinary repeating borders are termed [in]: or vertebrate, according to the method by which the repeats are joined, the former being linked together by some conventional form that tends to give the appearance of combining the units, and the latter being built about a straight line that acts as a sort of backbone through the whole design. in fig. are shown several borders built up of historic ornament and illustrating the principles of this classification. ' b i! fig. . § practical design. it will be noticed that in nearly all of them there is a decided tendency to vertical and horizontal arrangement, that the ornament grows, or appears to grow, at right angles to one of the edges or from both of them. for instance, the greek border at (a) appears to be perpendicular to the inner edge, glwi‘g " f /'\_/ ll"ll§‘,llll"' "it _. fig. . while that at (b) is perpendicular to the outer edge, and at (c) is alternately perpendicular to the two edges, each separate element being connected by an s-shaped link. these designs are all greek in origin and express the handling of border elements typical of the greek style. . borders for hangings and table covers.—it should always be borne in mind that the position of the practical design. § goods or material on which the border is designed must always be considered before the characteristics of the border are decided upon. table covers and scarfs are usually seen in such a position that the border assumes a perpendicular position in relation to the outer edge, and for such a purpose the design shown at ( ) would be perfectly suitable. on por- tiers and other hangings, the lower border is perpendicular to the bottom line, while the side borders could be either perpendicular to the outer or the inner line, and a combina- tion of effect is obtained by using the pattern shown at (r), where the border runs all the way around, or the one shown at (d), where the border runs up and down the sides and a straight dado is designed across the bottom. . borders for rugs and floor coverings—rugs and carpet squares are usually observed from the center of the room, and a border design is most satisfactory when it is perpendicular to the inner edge of the border line, as shown at (a) and (e), the latter being a design based on arabian lines. at (a) the link is parallel with the direction of the border and turns up at each end to join the ornamental figures that constitute the principal elements of the design. at (a) the link consists of a number of semicircles, the ends of which unite every other ornamental detail. at (f) it assumes an s shape and lies in a horizontal position, while at (d) the link travels from one side of the border to the other, as it does - also at ( ), though in the former case each s runs in the same direction as its neighbor, and in the latter case they are made to reverse alternately. . vertebrate borders.—all of the above are link borders, while those shown in fig. are vertebrate borders. the chief characteristics that we observe in comparing these two figures is that the link border seems more associated with classic art, while the character of the vertebrate border tends more toward the middle ages and renaissance design. at (a) is shown the simplest pattern consisting of a straight line or backbone, with a series of leaves growing § practical design. § practical design. ' hanging, the corner is usually lost by the folding of the cloth. it should be borne in mind that the purpose of any angle &. l i \j {_—}}t]—" " ql : l“ ! fig. . ornament is to break the crudcness of a sharp corner, but its form and contour must be consistent so that it leaves a pleasing effect. in the filling at (a) in fig. is shown the practical design. § outline of a rug in which the border and corner design shown at (b) is used, and it will be readily seen that the style of corner ornament shown at (b) is suitable only to a rug of oblong shape, while the oriental design shown at (c) is better adapted to a rug with a square shape, though of course it could be used in an oblong without any sense of incongruity, whereas the form shown at ( ) could not be used in a square rug. at (: ) is shown a corner design that breaks into the bor- der and causes it to stop abruptly at each side. this design is symmetrical upon the miter line as shown in fig. and is capable of reproduction on four sides of a square as described in connection with that figure. one other style of corner design is shown at (r) where the border runs around the corner, and repeats itself utterly independent of the corner ornament, and the corner orna- ment is woven or printed within the border line entirely independent of the border itself. this corner ornament is not enclosed in any definite outline as were ( ) and (c), nor is it symmetrical on the center line as are (c) and (d). it therefore requires separate consideration in design and requires no calculations for repeat in unison with a repeat of the border. . stripes.—the use of stripes in woven goods, of course, applies almost entirely to the field where a border is considered, or to the goods themselves exclusive of any con- sideration of corner or border ornament, but the purpose for which the goods are to be used will govern the size, strength, and direction of the stripe entirely. stripes running verti- cally tend to increase the appearance of height, while stripes running horizontally tend to decrease the impression of height. it is for this reason that short persons are advised to wear dress goods with stripes running vertically, and in the decoration of rooms with very high ceilings, numerous hori- zontal lines are introduced to decrease the effect of height. in fig. at (a) is shown a combination of a stripe and powdered effect consisting of narrow straight stripes from fig. . practical design. § which conventionalized flowers branch at an angle of °, changing their direction at each alternate stripe. at (b) the stripe consists of alternate wave lines with conventional flowers growing in the broader spaces on and between them. at ( ) parallel wave lines are broken by systematic and con- ventional ornament that grows from its sides alternately in the same manner as described in the vertebrate border, fig. (: ). at ( ') the stripe crosses the ornament in a diagonal direc- tion at an angle of °, and consideration will remind the student that the direction of this stripe is governed by the diagonal of the rectangle representing the repeat. if the repeat were within an oblong, the angle of the stripe could be made greater or less than °, according to the propor- tions of the rectangle. at is shown a more complicated treatment of a striped design wherein three distinct styles of contrasting stripe are used—a conventionalized floral form alternating with a conventionalized geometrical form from which it is separated by a heavy wave-line stripe. . style in historic stripes.—in fig. we have. three examples-of stripe ornament showing the characteris- tics of historic styles. at (a) the straight stripe is relieved of its monotony by an all-over pattern of sprigs, four of the sprigs representing the four corners of a rectangular repeat with the fifth sprig in the center. this might be considered a combination of a stripe-and-spot pattern, the style of which is characteristic of the old italian brocades, this example having been taken from a piece of italian velvet. the treatment given at (b) is entirely different from this —a severely conventional design—being alternated with a somewhat naturalistic rendering, thereby giving the effect of a light stripe alternating with a dark one, a style of design characteristic of the early gothic period. the pattern shown at (c) is from an old spanish fabric showing alternate light and dark stripes, each of which heightens the interest of the other and both of which are more or less elaborated with conventional floral designs. $ practical design. fig. , applied design. (part .) geometrical considerations. . fitness—in applying any form of nature to a surface in order to produce a decoration, it must unquestionably possess a quality known as fitness for that purpose for which it is required. it is just as important that the decora- tion should exactly fit the utensil as that the utensil should exactly fit the purpose for which it is made. mere applica- tion of ornament to a space is not decoration, nor is it applied design. it must be adapted to that space as per- fectly as possible, and in any respect that it falls short of this perfect adaption, just in that respect does it fall short of being a proper decoration. .‘ influence of shape.—-in fig. are shown four shapes or forms, and it will require very little study to determine that no two of them could be rationally treated from a decorative standpoint in exactly the same way, and in decorating them the first question that arises is, in what direction should the lines run on the surface that is to be occupied by them. here let it be known that the lines forming the boundaries of the figure should influence the direction of the lines laying out the pattern. the leading lines should emphasize the lines of the boundaries, unless for some reason this cannot be done, when the minor lines should be made to do so. § for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. applied design. § this must all be done with perfect harmony and due care to prevent monotony. both of these principles can be observed by paying particular attention to the effects of contrast and variety. . influence of conven- ,_ tionallsm.—in determining the , ) directions that are to be taken by the leading lines of our design, it is of the greatest importance that the character the design is to assume should be considered, whether it is to be a purely con- ventional composition to be based on conventionalism of general ideas, or on the realization of some particular plant. in the first case, we may assume any ornamental lines we choose, so long as they are suitable to their surroundings; but if the design is to realize some particular plant form, the lines must be such that they depict the growth of the plant and at the same time are suitable to the space they occupy. this limits our field of selection in the latter case, and we must select our natural types with care, in order that both of its conditions—adaptability of lines and adherence to plant growth——will be carried out. we must not let stiff growing plants be designed in easy flowing lines, nor must we allow the soft trailing aspect of running vines to be stiffened into an unnatural appearance, for such would not be convention- alism, but quite the contrary. (ll) . emphasis of structural lines.—in fig. we have the decoration of a surface similar to that shown at (a) of fig. , the first lines put in place here are the vertical ones repeating and emphasizing the effect of the sides of the applied design. § in fig. we have a decoration of a spandrel between two arches, based on the outline form shown in fig. at (c); the arches between which this spandrel is introduced being important features of this construction, the curved lines fig. . forming its boundaries are given more emphasis, while the vertical line separating them is introduced to present contrast. then, again, in fig. , which is based on (d) of fig. , the spiral forms and semicircle within the top emphasize the outline of the figure, while both con- trast and variety are produced by the flowing lines from the center to the sides. . harmony of secondary , lines—it must be observed, too, that while some of the lines used in laying out the ornament are in accord with the boundary of the surface, the secondary lines must also be influenced in their direction by the main lines, as shown in fig. , where the small branching lines from the ver- ticals are influenced by the curves in the verticals them- selves. ’ fig. . applied design. § such that the masses between them will bear a pleasing rela- tion to one another. this can also be studied from natural leaf forms. take, for instance, the ivy leaf shown in fig. , and observe how even is the distribution of the space—that although the veins do not equally divide the surface, they separate it into varying quantities so nicely graduated and balanced that there is an evenness and uniformity of arrangement. this distribution of masses is materially affected when our design is finished up and we convert the lines of our original decoration into flowing leaf forms and general details, propor- tioning the surfaces to the surface on which they are applied. fig. . . the general outline form shown in fig. suggests the distribution of lines that we desire for the decoration of fig. . this oblong surface, and the propriety and character of this distribution is expressed much more clearly when our design § applied design. is finished upon these lines, as it is in fig. (: ). here we have endeavored to preserve an even and restful balance between the background and the surface figure, securing a distribution of masses that would be materially influenced by any change in the direction of the originally sketched lines in fig. our sketch in fig. , showing another principle in effect- ing the contrast of lines in order to secure a characteristic decoration in a rectangular panel, when elaborated to the completed form in fig. (b), illustrates clearly the value of properly conceiving this distribution oflguide lines in order that the finished design may be carried out without material alteration of the original idea. ‘ . the value of practice in this direction cannot be too highly estimated, as it is of particular importance in. connec- tion with surface designs, whether that surface be a wall, or a floor, or the side of a building, or'a portion of the details of some interior decoration, and in fig. is shown the spandrel fig. . of the arch, the outlines of which were sketched in fig. . in working up patterns for an all-over design, it is necessary that the unit of the repeat should be based on the same system of treatment as we have considered in these single forms; other- wise, we will not obtain the satisfactory results that we look for in paper hangings, carpets, dress fabrics, etc. applied design. § . geometrical basis of surface decorations.— wall-paper patterns are laid out on a geometrical basis, and the adoption of different geometrical forms will lead to a great variety of designs in the filling in. in fig. at (a) is a pattern suited for wall decoration or textile design, where the leading lines are vertical and horizontal, and the repeated iii a {q , : f. s l -, k / ; ' : ‘ _ * ? ‘ re ., ornament consists in the joining of a number of decorated rectangles. at ( ) is shown a surface decoration where the foundations of the geometrical construction are tangent cir_ cles, yet the pattern is so handled that the lines governing its foundation principle are lost in the appearance of the entire design, and a study of the circular design itself would § applied design. show that the leading construction lines were set out in pre- cisely the same manner as in figs. to . at (c) the basis for construction of ornament is the lozenge shape, and this introduces oblique lines giving the pattern an entirely different character from the previous one, while at (d) the structural lines of the pattern being of a wavy or ogival character, give rise to the production of still another variety of surface ornament. in all of these designs the principal lines are in harmony with the form of the principal figure, and the filling in of the' figure is of a secondary consideration, although, of course, it lies with the designer to limit the character of his decoration simply to one figure or to run it into several figures, making the design simple or complex as he desires. l . retaining and abolishing fundamental geo- metric constructions.—then, again, the designer may retain the original form on which the design is based and emphasize it, or arrange that it will be abolished altogether when the pattern is completed, adopting his course according to the purpose to which the design is to be applied. as a suggestion, it may be said that if the design is for a wall paper to be used on a dado, the constructive geometrical forms are better retained, as they impart to the design a stiffness and strong look that make it suitable for the pur- pose; but if the paper is designed to be .hung between the dado and the frieze, the structural forms may be judiciously dispensed with and the flowing, easy pattern of the ornament left open that it may be more in harmony with the position it is to occupy. arrangement of details. . a method of evolving patterns upon the basis of intersecting lines has already been shown; the ornament formed on this principle has been analyzed as the basis for new ornament. starting from here, we will consider the method of treating a surface according to the composition and location of the ornament. ». st \- . .. . . . .t. . . .\.. .k . . ... .n . . r .. s. . .  .. i n s. , a...” é . i]. h. v. . .u. i. i . : . z. §s 'applied design." g -' . general arrangements of ornament in surface work—there are five general arrangements of ornament in surface work—dz'nprring, c/u'ckcring, striping and ban/ling, paneling, and spotfz'ng and patt'drrz'rzg. assuming that we have simply a number of. square meshes laid'out as was our foundation plan in fig. of elemmts of ornament, we can, by simply filling in each square with'some form of ornament and repeating the arrangement regularly, obtain the style of treatment, known as diapering, shown in fig. , where at (a) and (b) the square forms are in a horizontal position, and at (c), (d), and (/ ), they are at an angle, or in other words, a lozenge shape. at ( ') and are shown the same design as is used at (a) and (( ), only the method of laying out the design is to have the ornament occupy only every other square, thereby producing the treatment known as checker- ing. at (g) we have a combination of these two forms, called cheekering and diapering, wherein the design is made lighter on every alternate square, thus giving a checker effect, while each square is filled with ornament as in the diaper effect. . in arranging our ornament in annexed squares, either vertical or horizontal, and leaving spaces of‘one or more rows of squares between, we get the efiect known as striping and banding, as shown at (z'), (j), and (k); or by combi- ning striping and banding in such a manner that the stripes and bands enclose a certain amount of space, we get the treatment called paneling, shown at (i), (m), and (n). an extreme treatment of this gives us the effect shown at ( ), sometimes called lining, where the space is divided by lines of different weights converting the surface into a number of small panels like a plaid. by extending the space between the ornaments to a greater or lesser extent, we obtain the effect known as spotting and powdering, as shown at (/ ), (q). and (r). ' r - ' . the difference between spotting and powdering simply consists in the relative area occupied by the different pieces of ornament. where the ornamentation and the background § applied design. are about of one area, or apparently so, the design is said to be powdered, but where the ornament exists in small masses with considerable space between, the effect is said to be spotted. . d aper.—we will now consider by itself each of these systems of arrangement: first comes the diaper—this consists of a pattern that regularly repeats itself so as to com- pletely cover a surface without interval, or in such a way that any interval that exists will form a part of the pattern. it is what is usually termed an all-over pattern—an arrange- ment of a most systematic character wherein each detail of the pattern is confined to an allotted space and does not overrun its boundaries. the forms on which the diaper is based may be of any shape, and frequently different forms may be used in the same diaper design alternating with each other both ver- tically and horizontally. this is shown in fig. where, at (a) and (h), the geometrical forms governing the diaper are squares and lozenge shapes, and at (t), tan- gent circles. . as the diaper developed historically, the pattern in each geometrical section was permitted to extend over and run into the succeeding section, thereby tending in a slight degree to obliterate the apparent geometric formation as shown at (d) and (e); and, finally, as it developed still more, the boundaries became ornamented as well as the spaces enclosed by them, and the diaper took a form shown at (f). it was then but a short step to the time when the formal all-over pattern developed itself, and arrived at what we consider the ordinary diaper pattern of the present day, which consists of a surface decoration that rarely shows its geometrical construction no matter how regular that con- struction may be. in fig. are shown four designs, at (a), (b), (c), and (( ’), wherein, after the geometrical guide lines have been removed, it is a difficult matter to trace the character of l - applied design. § the ornament each geometrical form shown dotted in these designs contains the complete details of all the orna- l if ‘ . o i , h;ng at“? @s > . / (d) §x\ fig. . ment of the entire surface and they repeat in each direction unlimitedly. - . fig. shows additional patterns taken from pieces of tapestry of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, whercon the geometrical expression of the design has been empha- _ sized for the purpose of illustration. at (a) the square is the basis on which the design is constructed and contains every detail of the entire pattern, but in two forms, one of @flhvflk .wafiwfiqu .stirfiswfl .vflv .wfi$ .\ < . d {h an. a. .e ans. /. j i w new . / . “v. (f) . flo. . ) ii" i \ \wi lar assays ' ., s .\“\ a”? truly.» | \jnljfi' ni %.. a: %: g w?! \ a a?! ( e . thanks... wavy/(“ate pm. vi av \ o f (a) ') § applied design. which is the reverse of the other, forming what might be considered a right-and-left pattern, so to speak. at ( ), however, the rectangle containing all the details of the design is repeated without reverse both above and below and on each side of itself. at (a), where the design is based on the lozenge shape, the pattern consists of a simple repe- tition of the lozenge form in diagonal directions on each of the four sides of its origin, while at (d) the general design is based on the circle, and the parts filled in, as well as the parts between the circles, are emphasized in the design and almost obliterate the geometrical basis of the construction. from this it can be seen that the extent to which a system of diapering can be varied is unlimited, and checkering is so similar to it that we can readily see it also has no limitation. . checkering.—in fig. , at (a) and (b), are shown two systems of surface decoration by means of checker work; at (a) the individual lines separating the checkers are omitted from the design and the checker filling alone is used, but at (b) the vertical lines of at least a part of the checker work are maintained in the design, and the fillings branch from either side of them in conventionalized floral forms. ' . striping, paneling, banding, spotting and powdering.—the effect obtained by striping is shown in fig. at (c), where the broad stripe down the center of the panel is blended into the border to improve the effect, while the space each side is broken by a single spot. at (d) the stripes run diagonally across the panel and divide its surface up into a number of bands. at (a) is shown the appearance of a panel decorated by spotting alone. here a large cen- tral spot forms a main feature and two smaller spots are placed above and below, the whole being balanced by means of vertical and horizontal lines. at (f) is shown the effect in panel work of spotting and powdering, the whole being arranged on a lozenge system of checker work, but destroyed from a checker work effect by the powdered background. applied design. § application of ()rnmient. n ang ] ng fabrics. . propriety of design.—in applying ornament to any surface the greatest consideration must be given to the question of purpose. the style and method of deco- rating a textile fabric may be very appropriate for itself and altogether inappropriate when applied to a wall sur- fig. . face. for instance, even in the same class of goods, a woven fabric that is to be used on a wall surface must necessarily present a different problem in design from one that is to form a hanging over a doorway—one is § applied design. stiff, flat, and hard, from the surface it is called upon to cover; the other is soft, movable, and flexible, and uneven in surface when in use; and a design that is suit- able for the one would surely be greatly out of place for the other. . here it must again be suggested that the method in the style of design that will best accent the qualities desired in each material will be the method most suitable in con- structing the design. the wall must appear flat, and for that reason a design that will not show any particular direc- tion will be more suitable. vertical and horizontal stripes must not form any part in the decoration, and a scheme based on diapering or pow- dering, or an all-over system of paneling, will be allow- able. . on the other hand, a curtain that is hung from a pole is suitable to striping, and horizontal or oblique stripes work in very naturally for such a purpose, as shown in fig. , as through the folds the stripes are broken "n, \, ,/ ‘ l‘ and the strongest effect of i i ._~, , » the movability and softness w of the goods is brought out. vertically striped patterns are to be avoided as hangings, as their design tends to confusion, emphasizing the folds of the goods instead of harmonizing them, as shown in fig. . another point that should be considered in designing hangings is the size of the pattern compared with the weight and quality of the goods—a heavy material that will lie in fig. . applied design. § bold round folds can support a pattern of large details and vigorous design, but light goods that hang in delicate undu- lations require a delicate handling in order that the pattern may not appear incongruous or heavy for the goods. wall decoration. . methods of treatment.—in the wall decoration of large and important rooms, the figures forming the detail of the decoration may be bold and heavy, but in small rooms of less importance in character the figures of the decoration should be sufficiently reduced not to attract the eye from the other harmonies of the room. aside from the scale of the detail of the pattern, there should be considered the order of its distribution, for when we begin to divide a surface into its different sections we must consider the value of each section and the relative importance each is to occupy in the design. for instance, should we divide our wall into dado, wall surface, and frieze, and possibly subdivide these members by moldings and borders, we are emphasizing an idea derived from a struc- tural value——the pedestal, column, and entablature of an architectural order—and the parts having the greatest struc- tural value should, therefore, receive the most severe treat- ment, while those of less importance may have a delicate and more picturesque treatment. the dado, being the support of the wall surface, must therefore receive the plainest and most dignified decoration, while the wall sur- face itself may be freely treated with a diaper or spotted decoration, and the frieze, with an elaborate though delicate treatment. . pilnster forms of treatment.—s metimes the wall may be divided by means of pilasters so that it consists of a number of panels; then it loses its character as an entire wall surface, and the panels should be decorated individu~ ally, while the pilasters as structural members should receive proper treatment of importance and dignity. applied design. § avoidance of too small a scale, as can be seen in fig. . the largest possible scale that can be worked on this prin- ciple, next to the full size shown at (a), is shown at (b), and the arrangement shown at (d), though satisfactory for a repetition horizontally by /a\ / dropping the pattern one- / third of a block, will not repeat vertically and so am- \ / \ \ /<\ not be prz'n/rd. (a) . proportion of the unlt.-—-here is the first , \ / problem that confronts us in i \ making a repeat pattern. k [ “ , "\ we have in fig. six \ ,i' \ ,i' \ schemes of arrangement by x which to adapt the form \ \ shown at (a) to a different \ i \ scale of pattern, each of which is likely to present ( ) ‘ certain unsurmountable dis- advantages. the scheme at (b) may be too narrow for the height according to the work of the design; ( ) is still more so; ( /) presents us with a smaller pattern than (a) in the same proportion, but one that cannot be printed owing to its lack of vertical repeat; ( ) being but half the size of (a) may be too small; and (f), though suitable in every respect for a drop pattern, demands that the proportions of the printing block be changed, which is not a convenient thing to do. we therefore must resort to the printing of our pattern in large scales as at (a), or reduce its proportions to the forms shown at (b) and (c). fig. . . bringing this down to a practical basis, we have in fig. at (a) the diagram of a wall-paper pattern on a basis of geomertrical figures and at (b) the method of dropping it in order to secure the satisfactory repeats. this, however, ppppppppppp n. é garages (at set a fig. . § applied design. the fourth method, shown at (d), is by the introduction of a number of panels, but this is only applicable where a severe form of treatment is desired. the system of filling a frieze with a few vertical ornaments is entirely in accord with the structural conditions and recalls the vertical mem- bers in the triglyphs of the doric order, and the dentals in the ionic and corinthian. it makes no difference whether we lay out our frieze by an arrangement of panels or by simple vertical elements, we must bear in mind that it is always wise to accentuate the structural lines, but the extent to which this is permissible depends on the general scheme adopted. if the scheme of design is severe and dignified, structural accentuation may be carried out to a greater degree than if the treatment be light and fanciful. . borders—borders are used sometimes in wall deco- ration to separate the frieze and the dado from the filling or wall space, or are sometimes used as the boundaries of panels. their primary office in design is usually to prevent the decoration of one surface from lapping over and imping- ing on that of another; therefore, an elaborate border of complicated design requires a separating element of a plainer character in order to keep its design from mixing with the design of the filling and thereby forming a part of the patterns it is intended to separate. this is sometimes accomplished by making a distinct contrast between the character of the pattern of the border and that of the filling. this may be done in matter of color, or in the arrangement of lines, allowing vertical lines to predomi- nate one, and horizontal lines to form the characteristics of the other. . another use to which the border is put is that of the enclosing of an ornament in order to confine it and give it an expression of unity as illustrated in fig. of filaments of ornamrnt. in the case of pictures, the application of a border in the form of a frame -is to separate it from the more applied design. § conventional rendering of the wall surface on which it hangs and confine the attention to that which is enclosed. . the treatment of the border depends entirely on the space around it, and the character of the design must be carefully studied in order that the border may not be of more interest than the picture. occasionally, when the subject does not allow the enclosure a proper border, a simple line around the edge to confine it to its apparently allotted space is sometimes sufficient to satisfy the eye, but this method should be but sparingly used and only when some good reason warrants its adoption. the character of the border, as said before, must be studied relatively to the design surrounded; for instance, in fig. is shown a panel of conventional design where at (a) (a) fig. . the simple line border is readily seen to be insufficient, while at (b) a heavier border is introduced and suits its pur- pose better. there is no rule that requires the design of a applied design. § border to be simply a band around its subject demanding parallel lines, and in fig. is shown a design where the inside of the border is not parallel with the outside, but con- sists of a surrounding member of special design to suit its particular purpose. in fig. we have at (a) a panel of foliated ornament surrounded by a border composed of details, the interest of which is too great and consequently conflicts with the inter- est in the panel itself; but at (b) the same foliated ornament is reduced in the border to a conventional rendering, thereby suiting its purpose exactly and enhancing the value of the design instead of detracting from it.‘ . corners—besides the consideration of borders, attention should be given to the consideration of corners where borders turn around a frame or wall surface, and it should always be remembered that a frame is structurally formed in one of several ways, the three most prominent of which are shown in fig. , where at (a) we have the (a) (b) ( ) fig. . miter joint, at (( ) a square joint, and at (r) the joggled or halved joint. the joint is always apparently the weakest part of a’structure, therefore the ornament should be added in such a way as to apparently strengthen this part of it, and in laying out a design it is advisable to start at the corner and apply the ornament in such a manner that it will appear to hold the corner in position and extend itself over the vertical and horizontal pieces. . pilasters—besides horizontal borders, there are vertical elements that fulfil the same functions, and under applied design. § cord or ribbon as shown at (b), and this treatment should be used only when the pilaster itself is of vigorous design and requires no element to apparently strengthen its ability to support. a third method is arranged upon a succession of spirals growing apparently in vine form from the bottom of the pilaster or panel and neither adding to nor detracting from its value as a structural member, as shown at (c). the fourth method, shown at (d), is similar in effect to the first, and is based on a series of wave lines crossing and recrossing a central stem without in any way adding to its apparent support. . in the treatment of these, designs (a) and ( ), being additions to the development of structural feeling, will require a conventional rendering of their details. the cen- tral axis must be strong, and architectural elements can be used in the subdivisions. ,on the other hand, the light delicate treatment of (ii) and (c) will permit of a naturalistic rendering, and grape-vine, ivy, or morning-glory patterns, never suit- able to the other surroundings, may form the type on which the design is based. ceiling decoration. . in every room there are two surfaces that require consideration in connection with the architecture and deco- rative treatment; these are the ceiling and the floor. the first of these is usually the least decorated part of any apartment, though in many historic buildings the conditions are quite the reverse. . in decorating the ceiling it should always be remem- bered that this detail of a room acts as a reflector of light and should therefore be treated in such a manner that its ornamentation will not render the apartment gloomy, and particularly if the ceiling is low. it should certainly be in harmony, both in design and color, with other details of the room and particularly with the frieze or cornice with which it is surrounded. its design may consist of the most simple treatment, limited to a border, with ornaments at the § applied design. corners to strengthen them; or it may consist of a number of structural lines covering the whole surface, particularly if a structural treatment is given the frieze. this may be understood somewhat by referring to fig. , which shows a ffjafjfq© is: . ‘ r “: : '\ fix/l}, . : " structural arrangement of a ceiling resulting in panels of irregular sizes and shapes, each of which forms a subject for individual decoration according to its value in relation to the others. this was the usual treatment accorded the french buildings in the beginning of the nineteenth century. as applied design. s in fig. is shown a corner of a ceiling in the style that prevailed largely during the elizabethan period —a development of the elaborate tracery of gothic days, relieved with spotted ornaments; while fig. shows a design for all-over treatment suitable for a wall-paper pattern that can be mounted on the ceiling as other patterns are on the side walls. applied design. § . adaptability of deeoration.--care must be taken to suit the general decoration t the purposes of the room and the character of its surroundings in each case, and where a room is small and the intention is to have it cosy and comfortable, a mild, delicate treatment of ceiling will be found the most satisfactory; but, in large halls and assembly rooms, a ceiling can be elaborated with more interesting subjects, as there will be a number of points from'which it can be studied. this was the method of treating the pompeian ceilings, as shown in fig. . . it should also be mentioned that all ceilings are not flat—some are arched, some are domed, and some have pre- served the natural conditions by the insertion of paneling between the beams. the decorative treatment of each of these must be considered according to its case. flat ornament must not be applied to curved surfaces, as it is likely to appear distorted, and the decorative details that are suited for long narrow panels, in the depths of vwhich illumination will be poor, are certainly not suited to broad, open wall space. with domed and arched ceilings, the character of the ornament should tend to vertical ele- ments where the ceiling joins the side walls, and gradually shape itself to horizontal elements as it rounds overhead, each of these blending into the other to preserve unity in the design. floor decoration. . necessity of flatnes<.—in covering the floors of an apartment, no matter what the material is to be, it should always be borne in mind that the prime element to be con- sidered is that of the flatness of surface. it is proper that a ceiling should be paneled, domed, or vaulted; that a side wall should consist of pilasters and framed pictures, of pro- jecting and overhanging entablatures, or be supported upon a continuous dado; but under all conditions the floor is flat and any decoration that tends to interfere with this flatness is out of place, and wrong. § applied design. given to the flexibility of its character. carpet usually pos- sesses a soft and somewhat yielding surface and it is there- fore proper that patterns woven in it should be made up largely of curved lines that are more expressive of softness and flexibility than are straight lines—symbolic of firmness and strength. great contrast in a carpet design is undesirable, because it is expressive of hardness and firmness, at variance with the character of the material. for instance, in fig. at (a) the appearance of the design is uneven and there is too great a contrast between the tones of color used. the treatment at (b) is better and gives a flatter appearance, but the outlining of the pattern has increased the contrast of the general ground. at ( ), however, the tones are brought nearer together and the entire appearance is flat and soft, so that the pattern and the ground melt and blend into each other . in a harmonious manner entirely suitable to the material and its purpose. utensils and vases. . rigin.—all objects that are products of industrial art have evolved by successive developments from some simple form that was originally constructed to serve a utili- tarian purpose only. the most elaborate forms of cups, vases, furniture, jewelry, etc. each have a most elementary origin, and various alterations, for reasons of convenience, have been forced upon them, in accordance with the con- stantly altering conditions of society. take, for instance, a cup; this vessel has its origin in the desire of prehistoric man to provide himself with some vessel of capacity in which to collect water to drink and for other purposes. the earliest cups and bowls were doubtless natural ones, consisting probably of gourds, shells, horns of animals, etc., and these crude implements satisfied man's requirements until a more cultivated period of society was attained, and we find man manufacturing utensils of clay. nothing was more natural than that he should imitate in clay the same forms and shapes to which he had been applied design. § body, the portion between the body and the stem was called the calyx, and then came the stem and the foot. the next development was on the principle of extension of individual parts: first, the development of the calyx, so that it was emphasized beyond the body of the cup, as shown at (f) and (g); then the decoration of the frieze below the lip became a feature, and, subsequently, for the purpose of keeping out dust, etc., a cover'was added, as shown at (/ ). . the term hanap is usually applied to those vessels with covers to distinguish them from the open ones, and when such vessels were made of large size—so large, in fact, that they could not be handled without great incon- venience—it became necessary to elongate the stem in order that it might be grasped entirely around by the hand, or else to add on one or two sides of the cup a handle. to distinguish these two, it was necessary to call the large glass with a stem a lama/ , while the one that was lifted by means of a side handle was termed a laukard. i the introduction of the long stem brought as a necessity of construction another detail, the knoll), which is a ball or protuberance in the middle of the stem to keep it from slip- ping through the hand, as shown at (j) of fig. , and the stem was extended so that it was necessary to add a finial or knob on the center of the cover, in order to preserve the line of balance and apparent stability of a cup. . as luxury became more general, drinking vessels became elaborately ornate and engraved and were regarded more as articles indicative of wealth than for actual use. the enrichment of the surface of the hanaps was usually produced by three general methods, all of which are depend- ent, for their effect, on the contour they bring about. the first method is to add variety to the outline, the second method to develop individual parts, and the third method to subdivide the surface. - the alteration in outline arose largely through the influ- ence of the nature of the material used and the method of applied design. § that of other drinking cups in order to minimize the danger of upsetting. the base was afterwards made irregular in shape, so that when the chalice was laid on the side to drain, as it frequently was, it would not tend to roll in one direction or the other, and incidental with these changes, the profile of the cup became somewhat altered, until it assumed generally the form shown in fig. . . the jug and vaer.— the jug and ewer seem to have been evolved by an entirely dif- ferent process from that which called into existence the vessels we have already considered, as these vessels have a long side handle for lifting them, instead of a stem. ewers were prob- ably dcrived from vases and beakers, by repressing the stem on one side and cutting the lip obliquely downwards so as to make it more serviceable, at the opposite side. . i-iandles.—in designing vessels with handles it is important to give proper consideration for the position of the handle with relation to the lips and spouts of the vessel, in order that its contents may not act against the pouring action. the point whereat a vessel can best be grasped and turned to pour out its contents will be a little above the center of gravity of the whole mass, and it is of the highest importance to determine the point of the center of gravity in order that the handle will be properly placed upon a pitcher. this may be very easily done, graphically, by cut- ting out, in cardboard, the form of a vertical section through the center of the proposed vessel and drawing on this § applied design. though floating on the waves of the sea give an irregular outline to the top. the propriety of this distribution of hair is evident from two points; first, it produces the hori- zontal lines necessary to emphasize and apparently strengthen the weakest part of the vessel, and, second, applies a type of decoration consistent with the profile on which the out- line is formed. the handles consist of dolphins reduced to conventionalized forms according to the principles suggested in the discussion of the animal elements of design in ela- ments of ornament. it is not necessary in a design of this character that the entire profile should be used, or that it should be maintained in this position or particular angle. it maybe varied to suit any conditions according to the artist’s fancy, and is used here only to illustrate that an interesting outline may be applied to various widely differing objects, always caus- ing a pleasing effect inasmuch as it is the proportions and variations of the curves of these outlines that satisfy the artistic eye. when such an outline is adopted, whether it is the profile of the human face, the curve of the neck, shoulder, or any other portion of the body, or an established outline of any other natural form, care should always be exercised that the surface decoration accompanying it is in harmony with the disposition of its various parts, and that members requir- ing a treatment in horizontal lines are not handled in accord- ance with the system of decoration that creates a wrong impression. each thing should be suited to its place; no element should be applied unless it appears to be required, and no ornament should be placed so that it will destroy the effect of what is essentially an interesting outline or a well proportioned surface. ' applied design. (part .) textile fabrics. general considerations. . appropriateness of design. in making a design for any class of textile fabric, the first object to be con- sidered is, the use to which this fabric is to be applied. this having been determined, the ornament of the fabric can be considered either as part of the structure woven into the fabric itself, or stamped on its surface, as in cotton goods or in some silks. it thus appears that in the design of textile fabrics we do not necessarily work entirely on principles of art; but designate to the weaver, by means of drawings, details that are to confine him to a certain structure of goods. . purposes of fabrics—the use to which a fabric is to be put very materially determines its structure, and we may divide these uses, purely from a utilitarian standpoint, into two classes—coverings for the body to keep it warm, and coverings for our walls and furniture, primarily, perhaps, as a decoration, but, in reality, also to provide warmth. in both cases, the goods will be called upon to fulfil one condi- tion; that is, wear, and in this subject of wear we are con- cerned entirely with the structure of the goods, its ornament § for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. applied design. § affecting the wear only inasmuch as that ornament affects the structure. some goods must bear strain in one direction to fulfil this condition of wear, others must be able to stand friction and general handling without apparent damage, and others are likely to be called upon for both these qualities. . textile fabrics may be generally described as a com- bination of interwoven or interlaced threads, and the struc- ture of that fabric consists of the method of interlacing these threads in order that the fabric may serve all the require- ments of its purpose. now, the threads that go to make up any woven fabric are divided into two sets—the warp l/zrmds that run lengthwise of the goods on the loom and are practically continuous throughout the entire piece, and the weft l/zrmds that run crosswise of the goods and inter- weave with the warp. “ . \veavlng.—-this interweaving is effected in the loom by lifting a certain number of warp threads and passing the weft thread under them, after which another set of warp threads is lifted and another line of weft thread is passed ~ under. if, in this system of weaving, " we lift every other warp thread and pass the weft through, and then lift every alternate warp thread between and pass the weft thread back, we will - produce a weave of plain goods, such as is shown in the diagram, fig. , where the warp threads with the odd numbers , , , etc. are lifted and the weft thread is passed through from a to i). then the even numbered warp threads , ,, , etc. are lifted and the weft thread is returned from b to c, and so on, alternately, weaving a piece of plain cloth the width of which remains constantly equal to a b, but the length can be unlimited and is determined entirely by the length of the warp threads that are wound on a cylinder in the loom, called the beam. a: v : }. ' 'h fig. . § applied design. the structural design of any woven fabric depends entirely on the arrangement of these warp and weft threads, while its wearing qualities and utility may be dependent on the character of the threads themselves, both as to the material of which they are made and the mannerin which they are spun. . effect of twist in veaving.—it will be seen from fig. that the twist of the thread, or yarn, in the warp threads is at right angles to the twist of the threads in the weft and that it will be necessary, therefore, that these threads should bend around one another and, thereby, leave small open spaces, instead of lying quite tight and close together. the thicker the threads of which the fabric is made, the larger will be these open spaces; and the thinner the thread, the smaller and closer will be the weave. other conditions of the yarn will affect these perforations also, as a thread that is soft and fuzzy will pack in rather closely and will practically fill up the open spaces by the projecting filaments of fuzz and make a piece of solid goods,_so that in the mechanical process of weaving we can press the goods closely together and as the yarn springs out it will fill up these small openings and produce a solid piece of goods. on the other hand, if the yarn is twisted hard, so as to make a firm, solid thread, it cannot be compressed as can the softer yarn, and it will, therefore, be worked less closely together, producing an open fabric, but, owing to the hard- ness of the thread, a fabric that will bear more wear from friction than the previous one. . now, in fig. we have an illustration of a fabric precisely the same as that in fig. , except that the weft thread is twisted in its manufacture in the opposite direc- tion to that of the thread used in the warp, and it will be observed that the lines of this twist are parallel in weft and warp and that when the threads are woven together the fit}. . § applied design. be drawn through the fingers from its root to its end, it will slip quite smoothly, but if drawn in the contrary direction, it will feel rough and present considerable resistance. it is the scales on its surface and the crinkliness in its length that gives to wool fiber its particular value, and when this fiber is spun into thread it is arranged so that these scales on its surface are opposed to one another as much as possible and thereby interlock and hold fast to one another, and the more the thread is spun the closer do they engage one another and the stronger does the filament become. . felting.—-it is not only in the spinning that these scales are of value, but after the goods are woven they can be put through a process called felting, in which the fibers are pounded together and the scales made to interlock so firmly that the fabric becomes perfectly compact and homo- geneous so that it is with the greatest difliculty that the individual warp and weft threads may be discerned and unraveled. the waves, or crimps, in the fiber are "of value in this operation, as well as the scales. the felting is effected by wetting the cloth with soapy water and apply- ing pressure. the result of this process is, that these fibers are straightened out and the scales of the opposing fibers engage, or lock in, with them, and when the pres- sure is removed the natural spring or crinkliness of the fiber causes it to return as nearly as possible to its origi- nal position and draws all of the other fibers with it, caus- ing compactness in the goods. this operation is repeated several times so that the threads lose their individuality and the cloth becomes a solid compact mass. where felt- ing is carried out to its greatest extent, the threads must be especially prepared; and any pattern that is intended to appear in the weaving, through this process is seri- ously impaired or may be entirely lost. different classes of wools vary materially in this quality of waviness, and, therefore, some are better suited than others to this class of work. applied design. § . cotton fibers—under the microscope, a wad of cotton appears materially different from a lock of wool. cotton is a vegetable fiber and, when magnified, appears as a thin flat tube or ribbon considerably twisted, and these twists in the fiber are what give the strength to the cotton thread by interlocking with one another somewhat after the manner of the scales on the woolen thread. the cotton fiber, however, is soft and pliable and does not possess that natural crinkly spring that we find in the wool; hence, threads that we are able to spin from it are weak and do not possess the ability to be felted as do the woolen threads. . silk f bers.-—silk is obtained from unwinding the filament from the cocoon of the silk worm and in reality is not materially different from ordinary spider's web. under the microscope, it appears as a very straight, smooth, and highly polished fiber, somewhat like a glass rod. it is soft, exceedingly pliable, and lends itself readily to the forma- tion of a thread, but it cannot be spun like wool and cotton, as it has no peculiarities of surface that correspond to the scales of the former or the twists in the latter, and silk filaments can be made into thread only by twisting, a num- ber of filaments being twisted together into fine threads and then a number of these fine threads again twisted until a final thread of proper weight is obtained. . flax fibers—flax is a vegetable fiber appearing like long blades of grass. it is cylindrical in form, and has knots at regular intervals throughout its length. these knots act, mechanically, in the spinning of the thread in a similar manner to the scales in the wool and the twists in the cotton fiber. . of each of these four classes of fibers we can make two entirely different kinds of thread, and it is in the manu- facture of this thread that we materially affect the orna- mentation and sometimes the structural formation of the fabric. applied design. § it is passed through two or three of these carding machines in order to reduce it to a finer quality. . woolen yarn.—the essential distinction between woolen and worsted yarns consists of a difference in the quality of the wool and of a difference in the methods of spinning into thread. generally, it may be said that woolen yarns are made from shorter fibers than worsted yarns and of fibers that possess the highest felting qualities, or in other words. that are most sharply crinkled, and that the yarns are prepared from the carded fibers more or less crossed and interlocked with one another with no attempt at parallelism. though these may be spun hard upon the mule frame, they form a light fluffy yarn that is suitable, when woven into cloth, to produce a partially felted goods, which, in reality, is the distinguishing characteristic between woolen and worsted goods. . worsted yarn.—\vorsted yarns are generally made of the long silky varieties of wool, and the fibers are combed as well as carded, in order to bring them as nearly parallel to one another as possible. the spinning of worsted yarn is accomplished on a throstlc frame and the thread is smooth and compact and does not partake of the character of felting in any part of its weaving. in all varieties of worsted and woolen yarns there is a tendency for each to partake largely of the characteristics of the other, some oolens being made from longer wool than are some worsteds, and worsteds being made from short staple wool, so that the actual length of the fiber has nothing to do with the classification, but its felting quality and method of conversion into thread forms the distinction. . preparing “fool for splnning.-—vvhen the carded wool has passed through the third carding machine, it is in the form of a continuous evenly distributed mat around the last cylinder. to prepare it for spinning, it must be divided into a series of equal strips or ribbons, and these condensed into a round sliver sufficiently compact to stand winding on § applied design. a bobbin. the condenser for doing this is attached to the carding machine, and as the strips pass off the drum they are acted on bya pair of rubbers that simply pinch the sliver down to a smaller size by compacting the fibers with- out twisting them. from this they pass to the spinning mule and are drawn down to fine threads. . the mule—the mule frame on which this spinning is effected acts in_ a similar manner, but on a larger scale, to the old-fashioned spinning wheel. large bobbins or spools of the wool sliver are placed on the frame and their ends drawn and attached to vertical spindles that revolve and give a twist to the yarn as it draws it. the frame contain- ing the spindles advances to the sliver spools and then backs away from them, as the sliver is gradually fed out as the spools revolve. the entire distance moved by the frame is or feet, during two-thirds of which the sliver is fed out as the frame recedes, but during the rest of the distance the spools remain stationary and the sliver is drawn or stretched, thereby becoming thinner, and at the same time it is rapidly twisted by the revolving spindles into an even compact thread. when this twist is completed, the mule frame advances toward the sliver spools again, and the spun threads just completed are wound upon the spindles as the mule frame advances. . the effect of this drawing and twisting at one time is one of the characteristics of woolen thread. it is evident that, in drawing, the stretch will not take place evenly and that some portions of the yarn will be thinner than the others; but it is also evident that these thinner portions will be the ones that will be first affected by the twisting, or spin- ning, of the bobbins and when once twisted become hard and less subject to drawing, thereby causing the thicker por- tions between them to be drawn out more. \vhile the tend- ency of this work is to equalize the thread, somewhat, it is not sufficient to compensate entirely, and, therefore, woolen thread is unequal and irregular in its thickness. § applied design. according to the quality and uniformity that is demanded in the goods. . throstle spinning.—after the yarn is drawn and redrawn, the bobbins containing it are placed on a throstle frame for spinning. in this process, the drawing is effected in exactly the same manner as in the woolen yarn on the spinning mule. the rovings, as the drawn yarns are called, pass between pairs of rollers in which they are drawn out by the difference of speed of rotation between the front pair and the back pair, and as the cylinder cord is delivered from the front pair of rollers, a spindle that is revolving rapidly gives it the required twist. these yarns or threads are known as singles. for some uses they are twisted into two-ply or three-ply yarns on a twisting frame where each single is drawn from a bobbin and twisted with others into a two-ply or three-ply yarn, as the case may be. . characteristics of worsted thread.—in worsted thread we have a yarn of great uniformity and evenness of diameter, all the fibers being parallel and as nearly as pos- sible of the same length. it therefore possesses the advan- tage of uniformity in strength and is especially suited to the weaving of fabrics where a pattern is to show in the finished product as a result of the system of weaving. it will not be suitable for milling or felting, because the fibers, being parallel, will not lose their individuality. it will not resist wear from friction to the same degree that woolen will, because the threads will retain their individuality and not become felted into the general mass; and thus the fabric not being so compact as woolen, it will not possess, to the same degree, the quality of retaining warmth. on the other hand, the subsequent processes through which the cloth may pass to finish it will in no way impair the pattern, and a worsted fabric is always recognized by the clearness of its pattern and the sharpness and smooth- ness of its finish, both wool and worsted being possessed of individual properties and advantages. § applied design. does not possess the freedom from fuzzy surface that raw silk does, yet many of the combed fibers are of considerable length and this makes a very strong thread well suited for the weaving of ornamental patterns. . the object of this short discussion, the manufac- ture of threads, is to enable the student to be familiar with the materials that are to be woven into a fabric, the design of which he is to execute. in the descriptions that follow of the weave of certain classes of cloths, the student can readily see wherein a knowledge of yarn or thread will be of great value in the preparation of his design. warp and weft. . plain fabrics—in the fabrics shown in fig. we have what is called a plain fabric, that is, one in which the warp and weft threads are equal in quantity and diameter, but we may alter this relation of warp and weft and by so doing obtain an increase in weight of the goods; thereby making a warmer cloth, if for wearing material, or an increase of strength, where that is a requisite quality, or, in other cases, an increase in ornamental value, if it is desired to increase the effect of ornamentation by the weave. . where the warp threads are heavier than the weft threads, the weft will naturally bend around them and cause ribs to appear lengthwise of the fabric; but where the weft threads are the heavier, the warp will bend around them and cause ribs to appear running across the fabric. the best quality of fabrics, however, are those in which the warp threads are the thinner and are arranged with a greater number to the inch than the weft threads. the weaving of these classes of goods is precisely the same as the weaving of plain cloths, but the variations of the relative quantities or thicknesses of warp or weft completely changes the character of the fabric. in goods where the weft threads are thicker than the warp threads and the warp § applied design. threads and and over the warp threads and , and so on, and that the weft thread passes over the warp thread , under the warp threads and , and over the warp threads and . this produces an ? effect that, in some goods other than “‘- i" " cloth, is called a basket weaw, but, as c ' a matter of fact, it is a simple twill upon the variation of which much designing in dress goods is accom- plished. each warp thread passes alternately over and under two weft threads, or picks, and similarly each weft thread alternately passes under and over two warp threads, but each end does not pass over the same threads as its predecessor. /j . ' llguflp/ik fig. . . this not only produces a pleasing pattern on the surface, but it enables us to introduce more material into the goods we are weaving, and, therefore, to produce a more bulky fabric that is closer in its structure. the reason of this is, that the warp and weft interweaving at greater intervals permit the skipped threads to lie closer together without any intervening transverse threads, thereby making a closer and warmer fabric. in the plain cloth, we have shown that we are able to make goods wherein the warp threads lie very closely together and, also, goods wherein the weft threads lie very closely together. in each case, the threads of the opposite system are quite a distance apart, but in the twill we are enabled to weave cloth wherein the warp and weft both lie very closely together and give an even texture in both direc- tions and, consequently, a corresponding increase in the bulk of the fabric. . the twill may be altered in detail so as to increase the bulk of the goods, simply by increasing the interval at which two sets of threads interweave. for instance, the warp thread may pass over several weft threads before it applied ,design. § interweaves again and in this way bind this number together in close contact and crowd them into a much smaller space than they would have occupied had they been interwoven alternately. but as this increase in weight is produced by the skipping of a greater number of threads, the fabric loses strength, inasmuch as it may not be properly interwoven, and a considerable amount of friction of its surface will allow these long overshot threads to become broken and to weaken the fabric by fraying. . the yarn of which the goods is woven is composed of single fibers, and when overshot for considerable distance these fibers are presented to a greater length than they may possibly be able to bear, causing a weak but warm fabric. the looseness of the fabric will also reduce its power to bear strain, and although a loosely woven cloth may be propor- tioned to its interweaving so that it will be stronger under tension than one more closely woven, yet it will never be so strong in proportion to the relative kind of material of which it is composed. . it is possible to make another order or arrange- ment in twills, wherein we abandon the idea of increasing bulk or warmth and endeavor to weave in order to acquire the greatest strength; when it is desired that the pattern shall be ornamental as well as be strong or warm, it must always be borne in mind that the character of the weave affects all three conditions—strength, warmth. and orna- mentation. the class of goods known as satin: are twills woven on a regular systematic basis; that is, the order of interweaving two sets of threads does not follow consecu- tively but at intervals. in fig. is shown the system on which a satin is woven. it will here be observed that the threads interweave at every fifth end or pick and that the two succeeding picks do not interweave with adjoining ends but at intervals of two; that is, if weft a passes over no. warp, weft b will pass over no. warp, and so on. now, if it is desired to § applied design. the fabric itself and partially of other material introduced purely for ornamentation. . in fig. we have an example of a pattern for a perfectly plain cloth on which a lozenge-shaped spot is woven, and in fig. we have a section through that cloth where, at a, the ends of the warp threads are shown and, at b, the weft thread, interweaving regularly except where it passes over the five warp threads to form the pattern in the center of the lozenge-shaped spot, as at c d. the gen- eral body of the cloth remains perfectly plain, and the pattern is formed simply by the skipping of a few threads. of course, this affects the quality of the goods somewhat and it is not so closely woven, but this b c d i?@@@@@@@@%%@@@ fig. . defect will vary according to the size and number of figures that are introduced. . in fig. we have an example of a piece of goods woven on the principle shown in fig. , and the number of spots is distributed evenly over the entire piece. each spot must be examined in its relation to each pick and warp end, in order to comprehend the pattern. the spots a each commence on the same pick, and so do the spots , , etc., and, further, we can see that a and r are also woven on the same warp ends, as are also and d, so that in reality a is a repetition of c in the direction of the warp, and z) is a repetition of d in the direction of the weft. consequently, we can see that a and b are the only two spots in the pattern, the others be- § applied design. i . .ooiooiooooo a : ...‘....... fig. . same distance apart, and the order of interweaving each respective pick and end is equal. the appearance of the finished cloth will be the same as that of fig. , but it will be more perfectly constructed and certainly more plcasin g to the eye. this system of weaving is very simple and is based on what is called an eight-end satin. in laying it out, we must calculate the area of the figure to determine the number of the ends and picks that will be re- quired to produce it, and if this num- ber does not conveniently fit in with the number of hooks contained on our farquard mar/zine,thcn we must altcr it to suit as the case may require. . the jacquard machine consists of an apparatus that is sup- ported above the loom, and by means of a number of wire hooks extend- ing to each thread of the warp in the loom, it raises certain desired warp threads and permits the shuttle with the weft ound on it to pass under the raised threads and over those that lie below. in weaving any kind of goods each throw of the shuttle is preceded by a raising of certain warp threads under which it is desired that the weft shall pass. these raised threads are usually called the “ shct ." . the design is punched on cards similar to fig. , where each hole represents one of the squares of § :) applied design. linen yarn, while the pile is of wool. the methods of spin- ning the yarns for this fabric, or any other class of goods, is precisely the same as has been described. the wool that forms the surface of the carpet is carded and spun in pre- cisely the same manner as the wool that goes intoa dress fabric. it is dyed to the color desired to be reproduced and fig. . applied design. g wound on spools ready to go into the frame behind the loom. . there have been many suggestions for economy in the manufacture of carpets, and there are many carpets manufactured that present the same general appearance as brussels but do not possess its great weight, owing to the lack of goods in the body. one form of these carpets is what is known as tapestry brussels, wherein the threads are not left idly inside the fabric, and exist only where the pile is formed. in tapestry brussels there is but one set of threads of pile warp and that is printed so as to form the pattern. the printing of the pile thread is effected by measuring out the length of a certain color required in a certain place to form the figure and that length of the thread is colored accordingly. it is then woven into the cloth as in ordinary velvet, and its pile brought to the sur- face. following it on the same thread is another color required to form the ground on another portion of the fig- ure. one printed thread thus serves for a number of col- ored ones, and it certainly is a very economical way of produ- cing'a colored carpet, but it is in no way so serviceable as the body brussels that it is attempting to imitate. . wilton carpet is the same as brussels carpet, except that the pile is cut, and another formation of velvet carpets is effected by setting the pile surface into the carpet in sec- tions just as it is required. rugs are also formed in this way. the pile threads are neither warp nor weft, but are simply tufts set in where the figure is required. the colored threads are wound on long thin cylinders or rollers, possess- ing all the colors that are necessary to form one pick across the goods. a short length of these threads is then cut off and falls in place parallel with the warp in the loom, while the weft thread passes over them and binds them into the body of the carpet. they are then cut off and the roll passes on its way and makes room for another roll to bring the next set of threads. this makes a very bulky loom, as § applied design. there must be a separate roll for each pick across the loom for every repeat. in fact, there must be one roll for every jacquard and in weaving long rugs it is not unusual to have three or four hundred of these rolls, each one of whichi used but once, to form the pattern. ' . the designing of all these goods remains the same, however, the only difference being in the design papers themselves, which must be obtained for the particular pur- pose they are required. ingrain carpet cannot be designed on brussels paper, because it does not run the same number of threads to the inch, and when designs are laid out on paper care must be given that the proper subdivisions of the paper have been obtained. x index sn cornice corona. . . cotton fibers . . “ yarn . . creatures, fabulous cross, (lreek “ latin . maltese . . . . . . saint andrew's . . . . . curtain design, lace curved lines, emphasis of. cutting,r carpets, \vastc in . cyma recta “ reversa cymatium . .l l) comparison of indian and per- sian art “ “ persian and ara- bian art composite order composition. . . . . . conditions influencing ture . conic sections. . . . . . . . consideration of purpose in design consistency in design. . . . “ of egyptian ornament “ moorish ornament construction allied with beauty . “ and decoration in moorish art . of design, selection of system of . moorish geomet- rical ornament systems of constructive origin of decorative art. . . ornament continuity of lines . . . contrast and variety . . . . . " variety, and rcpctitio conventional ornament . . . " treatment of nature conventionalism . . . . “ and realism . egyptian explanation of (ircck in ancient art " moorish orna- ment . . . . influence of . kinds of . . necessity of of egyptian orna- ment " facts " principles ideas taste in. . . conventionalizini,r a plant form . ‘° animal forms corinthian base . . " capital . . order ll architec- ' roman corner ornament (‘orncrs borders, and stripes \ nacq ‘. page ‘ me an (i ll") l).- h) : 'l i; “ !; ivv ' q t t |_:. ' lv ‘ ‘ damasks, size of repeat in . de'l‘hou. decorated capitals. characteris- tics of. . . “ period......... decorating, effects of vertical and horizontal . . . . . . . decoration, adaptability of. . . . “ ancient pottery and construction in moorish art " arabian “ ceiling “ elements of ‘ floor . . general rules of sur- face in . . “ meaning of . . . . . . “ principles of . . . . “ surface........ " “ geometrical basis of . decorations, painted roman . . decorative art. . . . . . . . " " constructive origin of ornament . theory exhibited by the savage defective design . defects, remedy for definition of bisymmctry . . " " inflorescence . . inventive ornament . multisymmetry . trisymmetry . . . . unit . . h sec. page i s ‘ l ‘ index growth . . . . . . . . . guilloche . . . . . . . . . gutta: - o g u i - u u u i v o hackling. . hagia sophia hall, hypostylc . . . . . “ “ at karnak of assembly . . . . . . . . . hanap . . handles. consideration of. in de- signing vases and cups hanging fabrics. . hangings and table covers. bor- ders for harmachis . . . . . . . . . harmony in adaptation of human figure to design secondary lines head of medusa . . . . . . . . . . heating of ancient castles . . . . heavy antique egyptian alphabet heraldry. . . . . . . . . . " in french art historic lettering ll cl i a u o - - ~ . ¢ i - - | . - o ¢ n a i o a u - e n c modern use of. object of study- ing . . . . . . value of study ' of . . . . . . . oi oi holbein holland and england, political ties of horn. . . . . how to bisect a given angle " “ study ornament . . . . . . humanfigure... “ figure, application of wings to . . . . . figure. details of, com- bined with animal and floral forms. . . . . . figure. difficulty of tree rendering of . figure. harmony in adap- tation of. to design . . figure, proportions of figure used in design . . . figures as supports. . . . hyperbola . . " methodofdrawing. . . method of drawing tan- gent to hypostyle hall . “ " at karnak. . . . . - q - u v ' n n . . - - i o - - ~ - a o - - q’il-‘n l'i :fl ;! ti srr. i new h - ' ti i t; h () ‘ ‘ . g u n u u a - l l n o a i . i i idealism and chinese ornament. imaginary beasts . . . . . . . . . imitation and invention. . . . . indian and persian art compared art . . . . . . . . . . . . . " arrangement of orna- ment in . . . . . “ “ lack of progressive— nessin........ " fabrics. rules of coloring . ornament . . . . . .. .. characteristics of industrial elements; association of, with architectural elements in design ornament . . . . . . . infloresence, definition of. . . . . influence of architecture a u i ~ ' conventionalism . " italian art in german renaissance " mohammedanism " " nature . . . . . . . religion . . " " " in egyptian ornament in gothic art 'the church . . . " “ " nile on egyptian ornament. . . influences affecting different styles ofart. . . . . . . . . . . . ingenuity of byzantine ornament insects in design . . . . . . . . . intention of renaissance artists . interior of egyptian temple. . . . intricacy of celtic ornament introduction of renaissance art into england . renaissance art into england . renaissance art into france. . invention and imitation . . . . of printing. i‘lfi’ect of . . inventive ornament. definition of ionic architrave . . " order . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll roman . . . . . . . . . ironwork, renaissance . . italian art and literature " " roman influence on . . aversion to gothic form . . design of the eighteenth century srr. page ti o i l ti i (h ‘ index ornament. geom etrical . . l. . uotllic.. “ evolution of . . grecwroman . . greek . . . . . . " representative types of historic. modern use of “ o b j e c t of studying value of study of. . history of . how to study indian characteristics of industrial . . ingenuity of byzantine japanese linear . meaning of moorish . . . . " blending ofcol- ors in characteristics of . . . . . . coloring in consistency of convention- alism in . . . geometrical. co nstruction of natural . . . . . origin of gothic and byzanfine persian pompeian primitive . . . . primitiveness of chi- nese renaissance . representative roman . . romanesque style in surface threads turkish type of vegetable \vestern a o u ¢ . i derivation of .- iq“ lb“ . amuawuua-aawv se‘l'. i’ill'i‘ h '.) in . i h( l s" ‘ ‘» ()rnament. wings in . . . . . . ornamentath in checker pattern for fabric . of fabrics . . “ " " layingr out . ' pile fabrics reversion of treat- ment in . ()siris . . . . . . . outline, limit of. . . . . . . . . oval in nature. . . . . . . . . " repetition. contrast, and va- riety expressed in the . . l) painted roman decorations . . paneling . papyrus parabola. . . . . . . . . . . parallclogram, design based on the . . . . . parent stem . . parthenon . . pattern, ball . . . . . . . . “ l)rop........ ’i‘urn~oyer-and-drop " unit of . . . . patterns, limitless variety of . . pedestal, roman doric . . . . . . tuscan people. types of n g u u . periods of french renaissance . . perpendicular characters . . " period . persian and arabian art com- pared . . . . . . ornament. tics of . . . . . . pilastcr forms of treatment . pilasters . pile fabrics " “ ()rnamentation of . . plain fabrics. . . . . . . . . planning and drawing the design . " design . . . . . . . turn-over method in design . . . . . . . plan of egyptian temple l’lant form, conventionalizing a political tics of england and h - land . . . . . polychromy pompeian art in \iq'jqqoidwib q mu ;! l l ‘ ' ]!) ' |) ‘ s ls w) ~ - index xxi wall surface. naturalistic treat- ment of ' warp and weft in different colors, effect of pile fabrics threads \vaste in cutting carpets . . t. . . weave, basket . . . . . . . . . . weaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ effect of twist weft pile in fabrics “ threads \vestcrn art . . . . . . . . . . ornament . . . . . . . . wilton carpets . . . . . . . . . . . window tracery, french winged disk . . . " globe . . . . . . . . . . . wings. application of . . . “ \ " "to human figure assyrian method of attach- ing. to human figure i - s n a - o n n y q . . l n i u . n i . s s | n n a - . a i - o i g o c spf. p r has- wiqu‘\iio e w in“ ' k ' a \i o)- ..l ')— -i fi-l - \vings, egyptian method of at- taching, to human figure in ornament . . . . . . . . proportions of . . . . . . . wivern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wool fibers . . . . . . . . . . . for spinning. preparing- . . \voolen yarn . . . . . . . . . . . . \vorsted thread. characteristics of " yarn i n e u n n a i a n " silk . . . . . . . . . . . . . s u n e n n - n e a n q u a - knitting and carpet z zenith of architectural develop- ment sec. page library of the university of californire library of the university of california - library of the university of calipur . library of the university of california library of the watersity of galleorm - thtversity of calie cary of the universi (berli sity of california library of the university of california library of the univers vw itvu aisano of the university of california library of the university of calie burele by:d berkeler ਸਰਗਰ relay berbece sound library of the university of california library of the university of calieorna library of the us berkele ਸਰਗਰ ਦੀ brary of the university of california - library of the university of californua library of the university of california yths berreece berkele daud ਸਿਰਧੜ ਦੀ tester bertele lifornia y of california library of the ਸਰਧਾਰ berkele berkies ibrary of the university of california beckley berkeley fornia library qf californik library of the university of california - library of the university of california - library of the un library of the university of california library of the university of california e library of the unyersity of california library ॥ ॥ ਸਰਗਰ library of the university of california library of the university of california library of the university of california bechele ਗੋਬਰ lifornia ॥ berkele ਰਹਰਦੀ lib ॥ ਸਿਨਕਰ ਹੀ berkeley caraby california ਦੇ ae ਬਆਦ ਖike as੪੩aimn ੪੪ ੪॥ - uveasiti :) (versit rsity of california - library of the university of califorurary of the uniyersity of california ar tre: choragic monument of lysikrates. lon historic ornament treatise on decorative art and architectural ornament treats of prehistoric art'; ancient art and archi- tecture; eastern, early christian, byzantine, saracenic, romanesque, gothic, and renaissance architecture and ornament. by james ward author of the principles of ornament.” with four hundred and thirty-six illustrations london: chapman and hall, limited i london: printed by william clowes and sons, limited, duke street, stamford street, s.e., and great windmill street, w. preface. the comprehensive nature of the subject of this work renders it impossible to deal with its various divisions and sub-divisions, except in a very condensed manner, within the limits of a handbook for students. i have endeavoured to present to the reader, and to the student of ornamental and decorative art, some of the salient features which characterize the historic styles of ornament, and those that seem to me to show themselves as landmarks in the wide domain of historic ornament. realistic decoration was the earliest form of all art, as we find it in the etchings on the bones drawn by the pre- historic cave-dwellers; but ornamental design or pattern drawing is a kind of invention which implies the orderiy decoration of architectural forms and other objects, and is generally applied to such objects with the view of adding some enrichment that shall make them more pleasing to the sight. the former belongs more to pictorial art, while the latter is purely decorative. as the construction of ornament, in a great measure, ought to be based on the laws that govern the design of good architecture--this we gather from the design of the best ornament of the historic styles-it has been thought necessary to give a slight sketch of each of the principal vi preface. orders and styles of architecture, placing them, as far as possible, in a chronological sequence in regard to the periods of their existence, and countries in which they flourished. in some cases i have also thought it desirable to give a brief account of the religion of those nations that have created distinct styles of architecture and ornament; for in many cases, such as in the art of the ancient world and of the middle ages, we find that the art of a country was so bound up with the religion of its people, that to understand the former it is indispensable to have some knowledge of their religious ceremonies and beliefs. i have here to express my indebtedness to various writers on ornamental art whom i have named in the pages of these volumes for some useful points of informa- tion, and to them and the publishers of this work for the use of the greater portion of the blocks of illustrations. i have also to thank mr. t. m. lindsay for the use of his drawing of the monument of lysikrates, and the science and art department for permission to use many of the illustrations of their excellent handbooks on deco- rative art. in a succeeding volume to this work, the various divisions of the industrial arts and crafts will be treated in their historical developments of decoration and work- manship. in conclusion, i trust that the contents of these pages will be helpful to students in art schools, and to others who may desire to have an introduction to the fascinating study of historic ornament. j. ward. contents. pagr introductory chapter i chapter ii. prehistoric ornament-palÆolithic period or early stone age-river drift and cave-men chapter iii. neolithic stone period . chapter iv. the bronze age. chapter v. the iron age chapter vi. the lake dwellings of switzerland and other parts of europe viii contents chapter vii. page history architecture - industrial egyptian art arts chapter viii. chaldean and assyrian art-history-architecture- industrial art ii . chapter ix. phenician art – history trading – architecture industrial art-art in cyprus chapter x. art in ancient persia history architecture decoration chapter xi. grecian art-people-mythology chapter xii. tiryns art in primitive greece mycenÆ - troy architecture-industrial art chapter xiii. greek and roman orders of architecture — lycian tombs - greek orders – etruscan architecture- roman orders contents. ix chapter xiv. pagr greek and roman architectural ornament– pompeian architecture chapter xv. indian art and architecture chapter xvi. chinese and japanese architecture . chapter xvii. early christian architecture - byzantine architec- ture chapter xviii. saracenic architecture and ornament chapter xix. romanesque architecture and ornament chapter xx. gothic architecture and ornament chapter xxi. renaissance architecture and ornament list of illustrations. fig. . . . . . monument of lysikrates . alabaster frieze . alabaster frieze plan . alhambra diaper, superposed ornament . . ambo or pulpit from st. george's at salonica . . amen or ammon . amenophis iii. presenting an offering to amen . ancient panel, florence . . andro-sphinx, robe of assurbanipal . anou, or dagon, nimroud . anthemion, carved . animal ornamented patterns, corrupted figures of lions . . antelope and papyrus . apollo belvedere . arabesque ornament from the wekāla of kait bey . . arcades in the mosque of ibn-tülün . arches : a, ogee; b, horseshoe; c, pointed . architrave and frieze, mycenian palace . assyrian standard . assyrian base in limestone . assurbanipal attacked by lions . assyrian capital . assurbanipal and his queen after his victory over teuman . assyrian stool . astarte, terra-cotta . athene polias (villa albani) . babylonian brick . barbarian copy of a roman medallion . base of pillar at susa . base and capital from persepolis, propylæa . base and capital, from hypostyle hall of xerxes, persepolis . bas-relief on the arch of titus page frontispiece i . • . xii list of illi'strations. fig. page . berkeley castle, gloucestershire a. bishopstone church, wilts, priests' entrance . bottle with incised ornament, from cesnola . bottle with geometric decoration . bowl in the piot collection . bouquet of flowers and buds . border from thebes . breast-plate, with spiral ornaments . . bronze axes, paalstabs, and moulds . . . ) . . . . bronze swords and spear-head . . . . . bronze button for sword belt . . bronze bowl found in sweden . bronze hatchet found in sweden . bronze horn . . bronze and gold buttons . . . . it . . bracteate, golden . . bronze foot of a piece of furniture . . bronze platter . bronze cups . bronze cup, border of . bronze bucket . brahminical rock temple at ellora . brick from erech . byzantine capital from santa sophia . cameo of athenion . . capital of temple, assyrian . . capital, cypriot . . . capital at djezza, limestone . capital from kition . capital from golgos . capital of the lysikrates monument list of illustrations. xiii fig. page · iqi. . capital from santa sophia . capital from st. demetrius at salonica capital from st. demetrius . capital from wartburg . capital from palace of barbarossa . capital from st. cross, winchester . carpenters vaking chairs . carthaginian coin, silver . . carthaginian coin, electrum . cathedral of notre dame, paris . ceiling decoration at thebes . ceiling by serlio . ceiling by sansovino . certosa of pavia, portion of . chair, egyptian chariot horses . cinquecento ornament . . . . coin of byblos, enlarged, with sacred cone . coins of elis, with the phidian zeus . . coffer in wood . collar of bronze . cologne cathedral, window gable . column of thothmes iii., from the ambulatory of thothmes column from hypostyle hall of the ramesseum . column from bas-relief . . column with volute capital, persepolis . combat between a lion and a unicorn ;. cornice from santa sophia . corrupted figures of lions . . crockets, lincoln . crowing wall of the staircase, palace of xerxes, at persepolis . . cusped inter-arching, mosque of cordova . cursive writing from the alhambra . cylinder from soldi . cylinder, assyrian. worship of sacred tree . danish bronze knives . decorated mouldings from temple of minerva, polias . demons, from the palace of assurbanipal . detail from the enamelled archivolt, khorsabad . detail of the decoration of a cup . diana of versailles i o. xiv list of illustrations. fig. page • . dietterlin's architecture . dionysus and the lion . dolmen at hesbon. . doorway of a private house . door of st. gabriel's, south of france . dog used for lion hunting . dog's tooth ornament, stone church, kent ja. drawing of human and animal forms by bushmen . b. drawing of animals by bushmen . eagle headed divinity from nimrod, with sacred tree . earring, gold, from cesnola earthenware of the new stone age i . . iio . . . . . . east colonnade of the mosque of 'amr . egyptian ship . elevations and sections of doorways and windows of a palace at persepolis a. embroidery from a royal mantle, assyrian a. embroidery on the upper part of a king's mantle . embroidery detail of upper part of king's mantle . . . enamelled ornament on bricks from susa . enamelled earthenware dish . enamelled earthenware bowl entablature from a temple at byblos . entablature restored, mycenian palace . entablature of c. selinous’ temple . . entablature, capital, and base of greek ionic temple . entablature of jupiter tonans . entrance to hypostyle, hall of temple amen . esquimaux carving . etching of reindeer on bone . etching of reindeer on slate . etching of mammoth on a piece of mammoth ivory . etruscan door . façade of the great rock-cut temple, ipsamboul . fantastic animal . farnese palace, upper story of . feast of assurbanipal, enlarged detail . fibula in gilt bronze . figure of a goddess in act of adoration . fire altars at naksh-i-rustem . . flattened form of lotus-leaf ornament ii ii list of illustrations. xv fig. page . . flamboyant panel . flamboyant panelling . flint implements of the neolithic period . . ii. . . . . . . . . floral ornament, italian . florence cathedral, window gable . fragment of an ivory castanet . fragment of border of fig. ; from a threshold of khorsabad . fragment of an assyrian building, from a bas-relief . fragment of door frame, from hypostyle hall, susa . fragment of frieze, mycenæ . frets, greek . fret, greek, carved . funeral tower at naksh-i-rustem . gates of the harum at dur sargini . gateway of temple of confucius . giant's tomb, sardinia . goddess bast or pasht . gold bowl . gold-plated ornament . golden hawk, egyptian . gold bracelet, from tharros . gold pendant, from troy. . gold ornaments, from troy . gold plate, from troy . gold disc, from troy . . gold cup, from troy . gold ewer, from troy . “gorge,” egyptian . gothic arches . . gothic tracery . . gothic mouldings . general appearance of an egyptian temple . great pyramid of kheops . great sphinx . greek border with fret bands . greek ivy meander border . griffin in egyptian style . . . . . . . . . xvi list of illustrations. fig. page ; . . . guilloche ornament on enamelled brick . . guilloche, treble ornament . guilloche, ornament, double . half capital, mars ultor . . harness in gilt bronze, fibula decorations . hathoric pier. . hathor-headed campaniform capital, temple of nectanebo, at philæ . head of one of the lions from frieze at susa . head of hera . hermes, statue of . holland house, ancient parlour of . horse, upper cave earth, robin hood cave . hunting in a marsh, from a bas-relief in the tomb of ti . hunting in the desert . ibex carved on an antler . ideal lake settlement . illuminated korān of the sultan sha' ban . intaglio on chalcedony . italian panel . interior of a temple aſter layard's restoration . interior of the palace at delhi . . intersecting blind arcade isis nursing her son horus . ivory plaque . ivory plaque found at nimroud . ivory fragment in british museum . ivory plaque from mycenze . jewish candlestick from arch of titus . khita, rout of the . . kufic writing, from the alhambra . lacustrine habitation in lake mohrya, central africa . lake dwellings, sections and plans . . landgrave's room at wartburg . lake dwellings, objects fro . lattice-work, saracenic . . . . . ioi . lion from a theban bas-relief . lion coming out of his cage . lion and lioness in a park . lion from the lion frieze in enamelled bricks at susa . lion's gate, mycena . lotus, drawing from the tomb of ptah-hotep . lotus and water-leaf ornament . luxor, plan of temple list of illustrations. xvii fig. page . i . . . . luxor, as restored, bird's-eye view . lycian rock-built tomb . . . marienberg town hall . marseilles ewer . mausoleum at cairo . medallion from a cup from griffi . melpomene, vatican . menhirs, sardinia . memnon at thebes, statues of, colossi of amenophis iii. . minaret of the mosque at kaloum, cairo . . model of an egyptian house . mountings, metal . . model of a small temple in terra cotta . . moorish capital . mosque of kaīt bey, cairo . mummy-case, painting on . mural painting, pompeii . . mural painting, from pompeii . naksh-i-rustem, general view of the rock-cut tombs . nest of scroll, roman . netting birds, from a tomb . norman doorway, semperingham church, lincolnshire . nymphæa nelumbo . . oblong building, egyptian . (enochæ, new york museum . . ogee decorated-astragal, jupitor stator . ornament from asoka's pillar. . ornament from the portal of sultan hasan . ornament, ghiberti gates . ornament on an arch of the wekāla kait bey . ornament from doorway, crewe hall . ogee and fluted cavetto moulding; jupiter tonans . osiris . ovolo with egg and tongue, from the erectheum . ovolo and astragal mouldings, roman . opus alexandrinum pavement . painted ornament on plaster . painting from the catacombs of st. agnese . pallus athene, naples . palm capital from sesebi . parthenon; greek doric . . panel from the maristan of kalaun . xviii list of illi'strations. fig. page . . + . . . . panel, carved, henri ii. style . . french, sixteenth century . from louvre . elizabethan . panelling, elizabethan . patera from curium . . pectoral; egyptian . pedestal, henry vii.'s chapel . . pendant, wild goat ; gold . perfume spoons . . persepolis; tomb on the north-east . persepolis; staircase of the palace of darius . persepolis; doorway to royal tomb . pier with capital . pilasters, louis xii. . pilaster by donatello . pilgrim bottle . . pillar, octagonal, beni-hassan . . pillar, sixteen-sided, fluted . pillar osiride, from medinet-abou . pillar and bracket, doorway of a pagoda . . phoenician merchant galley . phænician war galley . phænician silver platter . pinak or plate, from rhodes . pitcher of red earth . place house, cornwall . plan and elevation of a part of a façade at worka . plan of the mosque of 'amr . pointed arcading from the cathedral of palermo . polished stone hammer and celts, neolithic period . . . . . pompeian objects . porch of the heilsbronn monastery . porch of st. zeno at verona . pottery of the iron age . prehistoric carving . . principal hall in the great temple . . principal façade of the temple of luxor . ptah . pulpit of the sultan kait bey . pulpit in the mosque of barkuk ; stone . list of illustrations. xix fig. page ioo . iio . ii. quadrangular pier . quadrangular pier, tapering . quadruped with head of a bird . ram or krisosphinx rameses ii., louvre, portrait of . rim of fig. , part of . river transport of a mummy . roman corinthian, pantheon . romanesque shaft and base . romanesque ornament, late . romanesque moulding ornaments . romanesque ornament from hinge from “ notre dame” . romanesque panel from a church at bonn . roof cornice of church at alstadt . rose window . rosette in mosque of suyurghatmish . rosette of lotus flowers and buds . . rosette from trajan's scroll . round-arch frieze. . roman composite order; arch of titus . sacred emblems from carthaginian votive stele . san marco library . sanchi tope; bhopal, central india . sargon's palace . sargon's palace, a bedroom in the harem . sarvistan, palace of, principal façade . section through the great pyramid of kheops . . seti with attributes of osiris between amen and chnoum . sill of a door from khorsabad. . silver pin; cesnola . . silver brooch . silver goblet, with gold-plated decorations . southern pyramid of dashour . . solar-disk, adoration of, by amenophis iv. . square building ; egyptian . staircase wall of the palace of xerxes at persepolis . stalactite vaulting . stepped pyramid . st. paul and st. louis façade . st. nicholas at moscow . strozzi palace, portion of . street in cairo . sun signs . sun snakes . spandrel, stone church, kent . . sphinx, or man-headed lion; from tanis . xx list of illustration's. fig. page . sphinx with human hands . st. lawrence, porch of . st. lawrence, interior of . . st. sebaldus, shrine of . st. sebaldus, bride's door of . tabernacle from the balâwât gates . tabernacle, fifteenth century . . temple on the bank of a river, khorsabad . temple in a royal park. . temple of biskurma at ellora . temple church, from the . tomb at amrit, restored . . towers and round-arch frieze, abbey of komberg . tree of liſe, upper portion of . triumphal gate at entrance of the palace . three-handled amphora . . under side of a fibula . urns of the bronze age ii stud of th . cipa h for h were devel key to oman . . urn of the stone age, found in swedish dolmen . upper part of parapet wall of staircase, susa . upright of royal throne, naksh-i-rustem . vase in woman's form . . vase with geometric decoration . venus of milo . . venetian panel . vessels figured in tomb of rekhmara . vessel in shape of a goat . victory, figure of . view of a group of domed buildings, from an assyrian bas-relief . votive stele from carthage, with sacred emblems . vultures on a ceiling . wall painting, from catacombs of s. calixtus . . wall painting, pompeii . wall painting, herculaneum . westminster abbey . . winged globe with uræus . winged bull, assyria . winged globe, with the figure of a god . . winged globe . winged sphinx carrying base of capital . wollaton house . woollen cloth with gold and silver threads, piece of . zeus of otricoli some waves that it the decora droust conver . tết thì wally vol historic ornament. introductory chapter. it can hardly be doubted that, for the education of the student in ornamental design, or in architecture, a study of the history of ornament and a knowledge of the prin- cipal historic styles of architecture is indispensable. historic styles of ornament remain for us, vast accu- mulations of tried experiments, for the most part in the character of conventional renderings of natural forms; for however remote from nature some of these may be, they can, as a general rule, be traced back without much difficulty to their natural origin, where in most cases they were used symbolically. even the most arbitrary forms- for instance, those found in saracenic ornament-were only developments from natural forms, and the innocent greek key pattern, that has earned the reputation of being the ornament most unlike anything in nature, is supposed by some to be but a rectilineal development of the rippling waves; and, on the other hand, there is the hypothesis that it is developed from the fylfot, a sacred sign that is supposed to symbolize the rotary motion of the planets. there is no ornament more common or so universal in prehistoric, savage, egyptian, assyrian and mediæval decoration than the ubiquitous zigzag, or chevron, and though extremely simple in itself, at least two-thirds of all conventional ornament is based or constructed on its lines : yet this simple ornament has been used as a symbol of totally opposite and different things, by nearly all the vol. i. b historic ornament. various tribes and nations that have used it in decoration. with the egyptians and assyrians it has been a symbol of water, with some savage tribes it denotes lightning, with others it does duty for a serpent, with some others it represents a series of bats, birds, and butterflies; as with the original tribes of brazil, with the magic-loving semang tribes of east malacca, it means a frog, and in some in- stances the branches of trees; and lastly, with the natives of the hervey islands, it symbolizes the human figure when placed in duplicate parallel rows. (for a fuller description, and illustrations of this and cog- nate savage ornament, the reader is referred to haddon's “evolution in art,” .) we can hardly think of an ornament more simple or more common than the zigzag, and yet how varied in different countries are the sources from which it springs. this may be taken as a warning that it is not safe to accept the same forms as always having the same origin, when we find them in the art of different countries. apart from the symbolic origin of ornamental forms, students of to-day may learn, from examples of the past, how far they can go, in the converting of natural forms to conventional ornament, without absolutely adapting such examples to their present needs. the past styles in orna- ment have, in one sense, died out with the nations that created them, and can never be satisfactorily revived, although, as we have often seen, a new style may be built on their foundations. the tendency of to-day is to under- value the teachings of historic art, and, as a result, we see much work in which both fitness and beauty are con- spicuous by their absence. in any notice of the historical development of orna- mental art, the concurrent styles of architecture should, in their general features at least, be illustrated, for it is not always possible to divorce ornament from architecture, and it is hardly possible to design or construct good orna- ment otherwise than according to the laws that govern introductory chapter. more good architecture. of course, we must admit that some very beautiful ornament, or rather decoration, has been designed otherwise than on architectural lines, but this kind of decoration has its beauty of technique and execu- tion to recommend it, rather than its constructive qualities. chinese and japanese ornament will occur to the reader as examples of this kind of work, but the best ornament the world has ever seen has been constructed and is based on the laws that govern good architecture. some of these laws, such as stability, repose, variety, and proportion, are derived from nature. as all architec- tural styles, however, possess them or less in common, we must look elsewhere for the sources from which the peculiar characteristics that distinguish the styles are developed and derived. the causes and forces are so subtle and the developments so gradual, that it is almost impossible to arrive at a satisfactory explanation, as religions, inventive faculty, and symbolism play an important role in style development. it is rather to the inventive faculties of man, than to hints supplied by nature, that we must look for the origin and development of what is called style in architecture or ornament. in every case this is arrived at by a slow process, and by the extensive and persistent use of distinguishing features selected according to the needs and requirements of the time, to satisfy the prevailing tastes. “style" is then the something that man has invented or created; it may be called the soul of architecture, without which, a building, however pretentious, ceases to exist as an artistic conception. apart from the greatest or more striking features in the various divisions of historic architecture, such as the horizontal beam in greek, the round arch in roman and romanesque, the pointed arch in gothic and moham- madan buildings, there are the mouldings that are so important in determining the period- they alone of them- selves will often determine the style or date of a building historic ornament. -and these features, above all others, are the least derived from nature. on the other hand, the decoration of mould- ings, though suggested by their contours, is generally derived from natural forms. the “best period ” in the life of historic styles and its duration corresponds with that of the highest culture and religious thought of the people, at their settled and most flourishing epochs. when a change or revolution in the order of things sets in, we find generally the style of architecture changing also to adapt itself to the new laws and new thought. this illustrates, to a certain degree, the reason why the so-called victorian gothic has not developed to any great extent in england, although some of our best architects sought to revive the earlier gothic some years ago. the medieval mysticism, love for symbolism, and reve- rence are wanting in the mass of the people of this century, which characterized the people of europe in the palmy days of gothic architecture. it has always been found that whatever the people ask for the artist is generally able to give, although he may not be always willing; but he must satisfy the popular demand if he is to live by his work, otherwise he must make way for others who are willing to produce work that will reflect the taste of the period. we are handicapped in the development of anything new in the way of an architectural style by traditions of the past. our knowledge of what has been done in the past, paradoxical as it may appear, has proved itself a great stumbling-block to the progress of new ideas. this partly accounts for the slowness of style-development in the present century. if fashion does not step in and dis- turb the march of events in the immediate future, we may hope for something distinct, if not exactly new, as an architectural style, in which a mixture of gothic and renaissance forms will be seen, the latter perhaps pre- dominating. it may happen that later generations will introductory chapter look back and be able to discern something distinct in the way of style in buildings erected in the last quarter of this century, in the midst of much that is somewhat chaotic and confused. in a book like this, which is intended chiefly as an introduction to the study of historic ornament, one cannot pretend to criticise the various styles of ornament, either from an artistic or scientific standpoint. it will be enough to attempt to point out the principal beauties or charac- teristics, to trace the history and overlapping of one style with another, and to trace, where possible, some units of ornamental forms to their symbolic ancestry. it is absurd to criticise the ornament of any period or country dog- matically, for we must remember, that although certain forms of art may not conform to the critics' idiosyncrasy, they may be quite orthodox and good art when judged by the artistic laws of their own country. the difference in race, religion, manners, and customs, must always be taken into account, before we begin to criticise the art of a nation to which we do not belong. as already remarked, we are hanipered by tradition in our attempts to produce originality in ornament, but there is very little tradition for the absolute copying of a par- ticular style, except from nations who have had no decided art of their own. as far as we know of the history and practice in the whole field of ornamental design, from its remote beginnings it has been mostly all along a series of systems of developments, sometimes for good and some- times for the opposite, but rarely, if ever, a system of copying. some notable exceptions to this may be noticed, as when, for the expediencies known as “tricks of the trade,” the phænicians made ivory carvings in exact imitation of egyptian designs, and sold them to the assyrians; and likewise bronze bowls and platters in both assyrian and egyptian imitations, and traded with them throughout the Ægean and mediterranean, or when the siculo-arabian silks were made at palermo in imitation historic ornament. of saracen designs, with mock-saracenic inscriptions, and sold for the real articles. other instances might be cited, but these were among the most successful. as regards the purity of styles it may be safely said, that, with rare exceptions, it is well-nigh impossible to find a well-designed and complete scheme of decoration, or a building that will stand the test of having perfect unity in style; in fact, it may be more artistic on account of its incompleteness in this respect, for any work of art that is designed by receipt, like the egyptian temples or mohammadan ornament, is rather wearisome. it is plea- sant to see at times a little bit showing here and there of the designer's individuality. when the monotonous repe- tition of the laws peculiar to any arbitrary style are broken by a wilful and, perhaps, sinful artist, we often get a refreshing and original rendering that is not by any means displeasing. in transitional design from one style to another, much beautiful work may be seen. in connection with this the byzantine style may be mentioned, with its classic and oriental forms, elizabethan, jacobean, lombard gothic, and the french styles of henri deux and françois jer, in most of which gothic and renaissance forms are happily blended; and in the beautiful siculo-arabian textiles, where italian and saracenic forms make an interesting union. we learn from these examples that the successful designer of ornament should have a thorough knowledge of the historic styles, not for the purpose of reproducing their forms, but in order to discover for himself the methods by which the old artists arrived at the successful treatment of nature and of former styles, so that by the application of his knowledge, derived from the study of nature and the works of former artists, he may be enabled to give to the world some original and interesting work. chapter ii. prehistoric ornament palÆolithic period or early stone age-river drift and cave-men. the first indications of the presence of man in britain was brought to light in the shape of a flint flake found by the rev. o. fisher, in the presence of professor w. boyd dawkins, in the lower brick earth of the stoneham pit at crayford, in kent, in the year . in the year a second flake was found in a similar situation at erith, in kent, considerably worn by use. this form of implement was used in the late pleistocene age, and also in the neolithic (newer stone age) and bronze ages. it was employed in the historic ages by the egyptians, and by the romanized britons of sussex, in whose tombs it has been found. this implement is the latest survival of the palæolithic age. geologists have proved that ireland, england and europe were united in the palæolithic age, and this ac- counts for the similarity of stone implements and other remains found in the river-drift deposits, in caves, and other situations in the river valley over this vast area. the roughly chipped flint implements are termed palæo- lithic, or of the old stone age, in contradistinction to the smoother, finer chipped, or polished implements of the neolithic or newer stone age. it seems highly probable that the asiatic palæolithic man first swarmed off the great plateau of central asia, which in later times was the home of all those tribes that invaded europe, india, and china, and certainly were of a race that is now as extinct as the prehistoric mammoth historic ornament. itself. the relation between the river-driſt men of asia and europe is doubtful. we may not be able to refer the palæolithic cave-men to any present branch of the human race, but as regards their artistic abilities, the only savage people that bear any analogy to them in the present day fig. .--horse, upper cave earth, robin hood cave. . is the south african tribe of bushmen. these people, however, are much inferior as artists to the early cave- men, which may be seen by comparing the work of both (figs. a and b). from the drawings of animals which have been found fig .- ibex carved on antler. etched and carved on bone, horn, and stones, we can judge. of the high qualifications of the cave-men as artists. their work in animal drawing ranks higher than that of any historic savage race, and as artists they were infinitely of prehistoric ornament. a higher order than their more scientific successors, the neolithic men, or the men of the bronze age. it was owing to the discovery of these bone and ivory etchings that geologists were able to definitely connect the cave-men of the thames valley with those of france, belgium, and switzerland. at cresswell crags, in derby- fig. .-prehistoric carving. shire, in the caves, caverns, and fissures known as the pin hole, robin hood's cave, mother grundy's parlour, a great quantity of bones have been found, some of which were broken by the hand of man, and amongst these some flint implements in the lower cave earth. above this in the stalagmatic breccia more bones were found and imple- fig. .- esquimaux carving. ments made of quartzite and flint, together with fragments of charcoal. lance heads, flint borers, a bone awl, and a fragment of bone ornamented with a zigzag or chevron pattern-probably the oldest bit of ornament known-were found together with the most important find of all, namely, a piece of rib bone with an etching of a horse's head and neck with a hogged mane (fig. ), the first instance of an prehistoric o.rnament. ii and the cave-men lived in caverns in this country and in france, as some savages do now. implements of the fig. .--etching of reindeer on slate. palæolithic age have been found in europe, north africa, asia minor and india. the earlier river-drift man was a fig. .-etching of mammoth on a piece of mammoth ivory. savage and lived by hunting, as no evidence of culture has been found that can be ascribed to him. after unknown ages perhaps had elapsed the cave-men appear with more historic ornament. perfect instruments, and at least cultured in the knowledge of drawing and carving, which they did, as can be judged by the illustration given, with astonishing ability. the accurate forms of animals, as horses, mammoths, bears, aurochs, elks, reindeers, fish, seals, &c., and even attempts at the human figure, are evidences of this. some authors see a certain analogy between the cave- men and the esquimaux of the present day. in artistic culture, however, the cave-men are immeasurably supe- fig. a: – human and animal form, drawn by bushmen of south africa. rior to the latter, as may be seen by comparing their respective efforts (figs. , , , ). the cave-men disappeared from britain after it became an island. similar discoveries of implements and other remains in europe and britain prove that the cave-men of both countries were in the same stage of culture. pottery has never been found in connection with the remains of these people. in france many important finds have been brought to light illustrating the art work of the european cave-men. in the caves at perigord, at bruniquel on the aveyron, at prehistoric ornament. le moustier, at la madelaine in the dordogne, and in the duruthy cave at laugerie basse, in the western pyrenees, have been found many engravings of animals, and carv- ings on bone, smooth teeth, and antlers, also on sandstone, slate, and schist. evidences of the cave-men using skins for clothing is inferred from the engraving of skin-gloves and other things found incised on the teeth of the great cave-bear in the duruthy caves. hunting scenes were fig. b.—animal forms, drawn by bushmen. often engraved with great fidelity, and carved dagger- handles made from the antlers of deer, with the animal itself sometimes carved on them. one of the highest art examples yet found is that of a reindeer grazing, and is the only object on which an attempt is made to represent herbage, and perhaps water (fig. ). this interesting relic was found in the kesslerloch cavern. chapter iÏi. neolithic stone period. this period is divided from the palæolithic stone age by a great unknown gap. it is sometimes called the later or newer stone age. in this period the flint implements were better shaped, many of them were ground and polished (figs. , ). some of the flint and other stone implements were very like in form to those of the bronze period, and as these implements were made, and continued to be used, in northern europe after the bronze periods of the east had developed, it is quite possible that they were copied from the bronze objects (figs. , , , ). a remarkable sickle or knife fourteen inches long is seen at fig. il; a flint saw (fig. ), semicircular knives or saws at figs. , , and a bone and flint harpoon at fig. . some of the stone hammers or axes are of great beauty in shape and in workmanship (figs. , ); also pottery slightly burnt, but well decorated by incised straight lines and zigzags (figs. to ). the cultivation of land, the breeding and rearing of domestic animals, plaiting, and weaving was known and practised by these people. amber, bone beads, and shells were used as personal adornments. their burials were with or without cremation. the burial-places of these people are found all over the world, in europe, japan, india, and other parts of asia, and in north america. they are named “cromlechs" (stone circles), “dolmen" (stone tables) (fig. ), “menhir" (long stone). the burial-place, called a “tumulus," is a great mound of neolithic stone period. fig. . fig. o. fig. . fig. . figs. to .-flint implements of the neolithic period (from danish arts.) historic ornament. fig. . fig. . fig. . figs. , , .-flint implements of the neolithic period. (from danish arts.) neolithic stone period. fig. . fig. . figs. , .–flint implements of the neolithic period. (from danish arts.) fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . figs. to .- polished stone hammers and celts, neolithic period. (from danish arts.) vol. i. с fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . figs. to .--pottery of the neolithic age. (from danish arts.) historic ornament. which they turned to good account by devoting some of it to their artistic culture; while the neolithic men were more fig. .—dolmen at hesbon (p. & c.). of a race of mechanics and farmers, who had neither time nor inclination for the cultivation of art, but were alto- be w!!!! the unite menu 他​用 ​www fig. . - giants’ tomb, sardinia (p. & c.). gether more scientific and mechanical than the men of the palæolithic period. chapter iv. the bronze age. the people of the bronze age introduced a higher civilisa- tion into the world than their predecessors of the stone ages. there appears to be a great overlap between the neolithic, bronze, and iron ages of central and northern europe, and the historic periods of the eastern countries bordering on the mediterranean. we have evidence that great periods of time must have marked the epochs of the prehistoric ages, and that the bronze age, like the stone and iron ages, began at different times in different coun- tries. the tribes who brought with them the age of bronze into europe composed the celtic van of the aryan race. the earliest productions of this period were the simple wedges resembling flat stone axes, the sides of which are slightly thickened to form ridges or flanges; the centres are also raised, which produces a ridge to prevent the head from going in too far in the handle; in some the flanges are much developed, and have also a loop cast on the side for the purpose of tying it on to the haft. some are made with a socket and loop; these have been called “paalstabs," and have a flat chisel-like shape (figs. , ). these earlier implements are often made of pure copper. bronze is a mixture of copper and tin, generally from two to four per cent. of tin, and is consequently harder than copper. knives, hammers, gouges, sickles, daggers, spears, swords, shields, many kinds of vessels, and articles of personal adornment made in bronze, belong to the earlier time of the bronze period, and similar articles were made fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . figs. to .—bronze and paalstabs. (from danish arts.) figs. to .—bronze axes, paalstabs, and moulds. (from danish arts.) the bronze age. quill be to இப்பயாமாமா duruese fig. vuvi fig. . fig. . fig. . figs. to .-bronze swords and spear-head. (from danish arts.) + historic ornament. in this material in the prehistoric bronze ages all over the known world (figs. to ). an interesting object is a breast- plate, belonging to this early bronze period; it is decorated with zigzags in bands, and a well-ar- ranged scheme of spiralornamenta- tion (fig. ). urns of earthenware, sometimes decorated with zigzags and sacred signs, have been found in graves. these urns contained ashes of the dead (figs. , ). many of the bronze implements and other articles have been found in tombs, in caves in great quantities, both finished and un- figs. and . - bronze finished, in “kitchen middens," button for sword belt. or refuse heaps, in river-beds, and (from danish arts.) in bogs. some of the objects found in north germany, and par- i cor fig. .-breast-plate, with spiral ornaments. (from danish arts.) the bronze age. ticularly in denmark, sweden, and norway, are exceedingly beautiful in their shape and decoration. from nowhere else in the world come so many objects, and so much that is characteristic of the prehistoric bronze age. this period has been ably treated, and at great length, by mr. j. us vh fig. . fig. . fig. . figs. , , and .—urns of the bronze age (from danish arts.) j. a. worsaae, in his “danish arts,” and by mr. hans hildebrand, in his “arts of scandinavia," to which books we are indebted for the accompanying illustrations. historic ornament. it may be noticed that much of the decoration on these objects consists of a few simple elements with much geo- metric repetition. the varied forms are chiefly spirals interlocking at regulated distances, concentric rings, tri- fig. – bronze bowl found in sweden. (scand. arts.) angles, zigzag lines, and bands formed of lines which are reminiscences of the earlier withy lashings, with which the stone celts were fastened to their hafts. the raised, as well as the flat twisted - like bands, are derivatives from the twisted strings that would naturally be tied around como design mount the pottery of an early date to carry it by (fig. ). the spirals, zigzags, ring-crosses, wheels, tri- skeles, reciprocal mean- ders, semicircles, &c., are fig. .-urn of the stone age found in swedish dolmen. (scand. arts.) geometrical develop- ments of sun-snake, light- ning, the sun itself, cloud-forms, moon-forms, star-forms, and the sacred fylfot or swastika, all of which had their the bronze age. origin in egypt, india, central asia, or greece. at first they were used as isolated signs, or pictographs, to fig. .–bronze hatchet found in sweden. (scand. arts.) represent physical phenomena, that were objects of o + y ② * 아 ​us y a b С d e fig. .–sun signs. a, wheel cross or wheel; b, sun god signs; c, fylfot, or swastika; d, triskele; e, stars or sun signs. nature-worship with almost all the nations of the world s s s § s ss f g h i fig. .–sun signs. (from danish arts.) f, sun-snakes ; g, swastika; h, triskele; i, star or sun. n.b.—the swastika here is evidently a double sun-snake. after the dawn of civilisation, and when these signs migrated into the art of other nations or later peoples, historic ornament. “many or who were either ignorant of their meaning or understood them in an imperfect way, they ceased to be employed as isolated signs of the various divinities they originally represented, and were copied, and repeated, as required, to fill in a geometrical way the space at hand to be orna- mented. a beautiful piece of workmanship is the bronze horn (fig. ). worsaae thinks that this horn was used in the worship of the gods in the early bronze age, owing to the great number of sacred signs engraved on it. sun-wheels, sun-snakes, and sun-boats, developed into spiral orna- ment, may be seen on it. there is one ornament that plays an important part in the bronze and iron periods, of which much has been written, the “ fylfot” or “swastika.” it has been found in nearly every quarter of the ancient world, except egypt and assyria, both in savage ornament and in the art of cultured races. the “fylfot” or « full- footed” cross in anglo-saxon, it is also known by the names of "gammadion," “croix gammée," “croix cram- ponée," “ tetraskele," &c. the indian name for it is the “swastika” or “svastika,” which means “good luck," or “it is well.” the fylfot, according to the opinion of many archæologists, was originally the sign of the sun, and used as a sacred symbol in the worship of the sun ; others think it was a sign used to symbolize the rotatory motion of the planets; it is quite likely it has been used by different early peoples for both. it has been associated with other sun signs, as the circle, concentric circles, with the s-shaped sun-snakes, as on the prehistoric whorls from hissarlik, and very frequently with the solar divinities, as the horse, boar, ram, lion, ibex, and goose, &c. it is found on cyprian and rhodian pottery and on the "geometric pottery of greece. its appearance on many objects of early christian art can be accounted for. in these cases the christian missionaries permitted the continued use of it to their pagan converts, but they themselves attached a the bronze age. / anazim vma mm u alaaadadisa يې ۷۷۷۷۷۷۰/ in u ca). dance watate . * fig. .-bronze horn or trumpet, found at wismar, in mecklenburg. (from danish arts.) historic ornament. new meaning to it, regarding it as merely a substitute for the symbol of the cross. some writers have argued, with a good deal of plausi- bility, that the greek fret pattern, chinese and japanese frets, were only developments from the fylfot. this is purely conjectural, for as regards the greek fret, it is more likely that it had an egyptian source, as so many of onlalam dicate 鼎 ​cuin fig. .--pinak or plate, archaic period, from camiros, rhodes, showing fylfot, and sun signs, and sacred boar. (british museum.) the greek ornaments are but developments of egyptian and assyrian forms. the fret used by the greeks has been found in egypt in the ceiling ornament of tombs more than a thousand years before it appeared in greece. the chinese frets may have in some instances a fylfot origin, but at present this is doubtful, as it has not yet been proved. the drawing of the archaic greek plate (pinak), in the british museum, given at fig. , from the greek colony of rhodes, is very interesting, as it shows a well- the bronze age. developed fylfot between the legs of the boar, and an early greek fret band; the fret here may only be a water-sign, or a river-edge representation. the spaces around the boar (animal sacred to the sun) are filled up with sun-signs and star-signs; even the large segment of radiating lines, and the form over the animal's back may typify the sun. the whole decoration has a high religious meaning in fig. .- silver brooch, plated with gold, in the form of a double sun-sriake or swastika ; found in iceland. (danish arts.) reference to sun-worship, and is evidently a copy by a greek artist of an oriental embroidery motive. the fylfot has been found stamped on the pottery of the lake dwellings of the zuni, yucatan, and other american pottery, and on objects from iceland, ireland, and scandi- navia. a circular form of it is seen on the gold scandi- navian ornament (fig. ). whether it originally was a pure sun-sign, or whether it signified the axial rotation of the earth round the north historic ornament. pole, it is full of remarkable interest, and enters more than any other symbolic sign into historic ornament generally. in india, china, and japan, it has been much fig. .-gold bowl, with bronze handle and sacred horse's head. (danish arts.) fig. .--bronze horn found in denmark. (danish arts.) used; this was owing to the spread of the buddhist religion in these countries. it is found on the toes of the “foot- print” of buddha, at the amaravati tope, india; and owing to its great religious significance in china, japan, the bronze age. . hoid fig. .—danish bronze knives, decorated with sun-ships and other sacred figures. (danish arts.) i fig. . fig. . fig. .-collar of bronze found in sweden. (scand. arts.) figs. and .-bronze and gold buttons found in women's graves, with the triskele, moon-signs, and sun snakes. (danish arts.) vol. i. d historic ornament. and ceylon, we find it stamped on the account books, coins and dresses of both the living and the dead, as a universal sign of good luck. the swastika, both straight and curved-armed variety, was used indiscriminately in the decoration of objects of the iron age, whether in bronze, iron, gold, silver, wood, or stone. it was the sign among the romans of jupiter tonans, who wielded the thunder and lightning ; was the sign used for thor, the god of thunder and lightning, with the early german peoples, and the curved variety of it was used as a symbol of their highest divinity by the northern nations of scandinavia. from this widespread use of the swastika it is conjectured that it is an aryan symbol, brought by the people of the bronze age from their primi- tive home in the plateau of central asia. chapter v. the iron age. the age of iron, like the bronze ages, varies very much in point of time in europe as compared with asia, and also there is a great overlapping between the times of the iron age in the northern, middle, and southern parts of europe. it is safe to say that the early part of this age belongs to prehistoric times as far as central and northern europe is concerned, and although the grecian archi- pelago and western asia were in a high state of civilised culture five or six centuries before the christian era, and were acquainted with the use of iron, it is clear that the extensive employment and decoration of iron implements and arms were chiefly in switzerland, northern italy, and in the valley of the danube. this iron culture soon spread over to gaul and spain, and to the british islands in the west, and scandinavia in the north. the romans, under their first emperors, imported their swords and other arms from spain and the west on account of their good workmanship. from the many “finds” that have been brought to light in the above countries it is evident that, for five or six centuries before the commencement of the christian era, there was a great activity going on in the manufacture of iron objects in these countries, principally swords and other warlike arms. the two most important “finds" are the “halstaat” in austria, and the la têne "finds” near marin, lake neuchâtel. the halstaat find was composed of many gold and bronze articles, pottery, and a few iron weapons. the place where these things historic ornament. were found was a celtic tomb, and the iron articles found in it are among the earliest known in europe, which proves them to have been made at the transition period from the bronze to the iron ages. besides the purely geometric work the decoration on these articles consists of sun and moon signs, wheel crosses, half moons, the sacred ship, the swastika, triskele, &c.; crude representations of men and animals, as horses, oxen, stags, he-goats, and geese, all of which have a religious and symbolic meaning. all these forms were used in the bronze and iron ages alike. the find at la têne, near marin, lake neuchâtel, belongs to a later period and is more important from an art point of view, for besides the usual sacred decorations engraved on the objects, some of the sword handles and sheaths are beautifully sculptured or chiselled in iron, with well- designed ornament and animal forms. (see fig. , d, of gaulish or late celtic workmanship.) the shapes and materials of the weapons found at la têne, or of what is called the “la têne period,” do not bear much resemblance to the weapons of the bronze age, and the sheaths of the swords and daggers are sometimes bronze and sometimes iron, but the blades are of iron. communication with the etruscans and the greeks by the people of central europe is proved by the coins, vases, and objects of personal ornament, and by the imitations of greek and macedonian coins found in great quantities in middle and western europe and in britain, that belong to this late celtic period. this accounts for the more "advanced” nature of the decoration on the marin swords and daggers of the “ la têne period,” and this particular culture-wave brought with it the beginnings of that orna- ment which, in later centuries, developed into the peculiar celtic and runic twistings and interlacings that are so common to danish, norwegian, swedish, anglo-saxon and irish phases of decorative art, that was practised so largely from the first to the twelfth centuries of our era. this celtic interlacing, though often more distressing than the iron age. a chinese puzzle, and in some instances barbarous in the extreme, yet is often very interesting and beautiful in exe- cution. most of it can be traced to its origin in sacred signs and animal forms in classical ornament. it will be interesting to trace briefly some of these deve- lopments of the northern runic and celtic art of the iron age. in the development of nearly all historic art, we find that the religious aspirations of man were the chief factors. in egypt, asia, europe, or america, wherever art had an individuality, the greatest monuments were erected, and the finest works of art were created for the honour of the nation's gods. we have seen how the forms of ornament were generally derived from the figurative signs of sacred animals, plants, and other mystic symbols of a religious meaning, and were in the end converted in meaningless but æsthetic ornament. this is the history of nine-tenths of historic ornament that has survived the decay of nations. the ancient religion and beliefs of the pre-christian peoples were those which they had brought with them when they first migrated from their asiatic home, namely, the worship of the sun, moon, and lightning. cæsar mentions in his “de bello gallico," vi., , that the “ germani people worshipped the visible helping gods, the sun, moon, and fire, and knew nothing whatever of other divinities.” the symbolic signs and animal forms sacred to these phenomena, already mentioned, are found more or less on the utensils and weapons of the gallic- german peoples of the iron age, and in addition to these we see the representation of the northern gods, the trinity of the north, thor, odin and frey, with and without the sacred animals peculiar to each. in the earlier times close intercourse with the romans brought about a high degree of culture to the barbarian people of the rhine valley and more northern places; many statuettes of bronze inlaid with gold and silver, representing roman gods, have been dug up in denmark and other places in the north. these statuettes were transformations of the roman and the iron age. riveted on the ornament or brooch itself, remind us of the sun-god frey." the figs. and ı are metal mountings decorated with the triskele formed of sun-snakes, the swastika with straight arms, and the compound variety of the fylfot on the larger mounting. these illustrate a tran- sition of the sacred sun form to more purely ornamental designs. the imitation of roman coins and medallions of the time of constantine to ornaments that have been called “ bracteates was extensively carried on by the germanic people. these bracteates have the design on one side only, with a loop or ring at the top to suspend them 正 ​ . fig. . fig. . figs. and .-metal mountings from thorsberg. (danish arts.) around the neck as an amulet. these golden bracteates have been found in great numbers in scandinavia and denmark, and scarcely anywhere else, which proves they were indigenous to these countries. it is interesting to notice how they have been trans- formed from their roman and byzantine originals to purely sacred celtic amulets of a new national type of orna- ment. fig. , from hildebrand's “scandinavian arts," is a barbaric copy of a roman medallion. it is a poor attempt to copy the imperial head, and the inscription is badly and meaninglessly copied. on the reverse is a figure of victory, with signs of the cross, surrounded by a wreath and legend. historic ornament. boczci drosted . it appears that after the age of the constantines, the intercourse of the germanic people with the romans was Ιζζ ΣΟ ggio cocht a ДПІ wullin ar fig. .-barbarian copy of a roman medallion fo ind in sweden. (scand. arts.) broken, owing to the invasion of the huns, and for a long time afterwards they were left to themselves without es qliqli fig. .—golden bracteate from scandinavia. (danish arts.) foreign influence, and were enabled to develop their national art on the foundation of roman culture, at the same time substituting their own emblems of their national the iron age. gods in place of the classic ones in their decorative work. we can safely gather from this that the hunnic invasion of the roman empire was the indirect means of giving to northern europe a distinct national style of art. the illustrations of the golden bracteates here given (figs. , ) partly show how this development began. on fig. is thor's head with his tiara or helmet, the he- ousse ood gerala fig. .—golden bracteate from scandinavia. (danish arts.) goat sacred to thor, the triad three dots, and the swastika. on the border is the triskele (odin's sign), frey's cross, and the zigzag or lightning. the larger bracteate (fig. ) has thor with the he- goat surrounded by the swastika, triskele, and the cross (four suns forming the cross), the signs for thor, odin, and frey. the inner border has the three dots, or triad; next border, thor's head; and the outer border is composed of historic orn'ament. , estir not : fig. .—parts of harness in gilt bronze, gotland. (scand. arts.) he-goats. on the loop are signs of the sun and moon, and under it sun-snakes (developed into spirals). the above the iron age. descriptions of the bracteates are chiefly taken from the “ danish arts." characteristic ornament of this period is shown at fig. , which are parts of a harness in gilt bronze from a tomb in a fig. .–fibula in gilt bronze, gotland. (scand. arts.) fig. .-fibula in gilt bronze, gotland. (scand. arts.) ) o gotland; the patterns are composed of corrupted animal and bird forms. figs. to are fibula decorations of the interlacing animal forms, which are characteristic of the more attenu- ated and later development of scandinavian art. the series of designs, figs. to , are of great interest in showing the de- velopment of patterns from fig. .–part of rim of fig. . lion forms to the twisted snake ornament. the figures are taken from hilde- brand's “scandinavian arts." according to that author, fig. is a scandinavian copy or adaptation of a roman design, which consists of two lions couchant. the other patterns (figs. to ) are further developments of corrupted lion forms. it is quite possible that the peculiar historic ornament. interlacings of scandinavian ornament may have been the result of imperfect copying of lion and bird forms. they fig. . fig . figs. and .-- corrupted figures of lions. (scand. arts.) fig. . fig . fig. . figs. , , .—animal ornamental patterns, corrupted figures of lions. (scand. arts.) were never intended for snake forms, as many of these have legs and feet, and serpents and snakes were unknown in the north. many stranger derivatives of ornament have the iron age. coo fig. .- silver goblet, with gold-plated decoration, found in zeeland. (danish arts.) fig. .- under side of a fibula. (scand. arts.) historic ornament. existed in the ornament of savage tribes.* when the gotlandic artist had reduced his lion forms to snakes he fig. .–pottery of the iron age. (danish arts.) kur mi alu fig. .-piece of woollen cloth with gold and silver threads, viking period. (danish arts.) carried his work to the verge of monotony with inter- minable interlacings. the decoration on the goblet (fig. ) is the sun god see haddon's “evolution of ornamental art," . the iron age. frey, with his horse and geese; the masks are intended for those of thor; his he-goat and sun signs are also seen. this goblet was evidently used in the sun-worship festivals. a restrained and agreeable design is seen on the under side of a fibula (fig. ); a well-shaped earthen pot is decorated with zigzag work, and has the symbolical triad mark impressed on it (fig. ); and a remnant of woollen cloth, woven with silver and gold threads, has the swastika and the hammer of thor as decoration. this was found in a grave at randers of the tenth century. it belongs to the viking period of the iron age (fig. ). chapter vi. the lake dwellings of switzerland and other parts of europe. in switzerland and in upper italy evidences have been found of numerous lake dwellings, and in ireland and scotland analogous dwellings on islands in lakes and morasses have been found, to which the name of cran- noges” (“wooden islands ") has been given. the exact age of these dwellings has not been accurately defined, but an approximate date has been assigned to them. from the nature, kind, and decoration of the numerous articles that have been dug up from the foundation relic beds in the lakes of switzerland, it appears that the duration of the “lake dwellings” period was from about the time of the later stone age to the early iron age; it therefore em- braces portions of the stone age, the bronze age, and early iron ages of europe. the lake dwellings were erected by certain tribes of the early inhabitants of europe, for the better security of themselves and their property from the savage animals of the mainland, and from their enemies, the still more savage fellow-men. as far as can be made out from the remains found in the lakes, the lake dwellers were more civilised and less warlike than their neighbours that lived on land. the lake dwellings are the most ancient evi- dences of man's first constructive capabilities in the art of building. herodotus tells us of a settlement on lake prasias (tachyus), in rumelia, where “men live on plat- forms supported by tall, piles.” some tribes of the lake dwellings. papuans of new guinea still live on pile dwellings. the lacustrine habitation (fig. ), from “les races sau- vages,” by m. bertillon, is a representation of a pile dwelling on the i.ake mohrya, in central africa, of the present day. the substructures, fig. , a, b, and c, taken from atbadia dietriche .- lacustrine habitation in lake mohrya, central africa. (from les races sauvages, by m. bertillon.) keller's “lake dwellings," will give general ideas of the foundations of the dwellings in switzerland and upper italy. at a is seen the earliest type, which reveals the section of the piles, upper flooring, water-line, and sloping bank of the lake. the piles were sometimes composed of split trees or stems, but more often of stems with the bark on, and were of various kinds of wood ; they were vol. i. e jo historic ornament. sharpened at the end by stone hatchets, and in later times by bronze or iron axes, and were driven into the sand or mud at a short distance from the shore. the heads of the b С e monfoot peat feet nento nes floolit allshlles g f hree blea alshe's lake tsainak fig. .–section and plans, lake dwelling substructures from keller. a, general idea of arrangement of piles; b, shows the piles driven into the mud, with stones thrown between them; c, section of fascine dwelling; d, diagram of floor fascine construction from niederwyl; e, section of irish crannoge in ardakiilin lough; f, con- struction of wooden form (niederwyl); g, section of lake dwelling beds at roben- hausen. piles were brought to a level, and planks or whole trees were fastened on them as beams; sometimes they were fastened on by wooden pins, and sometimes were “notched" into the heads of the piles. cross-beams lake dwellings. were often forced in between the uprights under the plat- form to steady the structure, and outside there was often fastened a clothing of wattle-work to act as a fender from various accidents. if it were found difficult to drive the piles into the bed of the lake to any great depth, artificial raising of the bottom was resorted to, by bringing cargoes of stones in boats and dropping them between the piles, thereby securing a perfectly secure substructure (fig. , b). these artificial risings are called "stein-bergs.” another and later variety of substructure is known as “fascine-work” (fig. , c). probably this fascine con- struction was the safest when the water of the lake rose in height. it consisted of layers of small trees or stems laid lengthwise, built from the bottom of the lake; these sticks or trees were interwoven, and at intervals upright piles were driven in to keep them in position, and on the top of this structure, above high-water mark, the flooring platform was laid. the “crannoges or “wooden islands," of ireland and scotland, resemble very much the swiss fascine dwellings. the irish “crannoges were often placed on natural islands, or on shallows or loughs, but sometimes were built up, like those in switzerland, from the bottom of the lake. these “crannoges” were used as chieftains' fast- nesses or places of retreat. they were built chiefly in the stone age, and were used long after the age of iron. at fig. , e, may be seen a section of an irish "crannoge” in ardakillin lough. at fig. , f and d, are shown diagrams of platform and floor construction respectively of a lake dwelling at niederwyl, switzerland. on the top of this floor a plaster made of mud, loam, and gravel, was laid and beaten firmly down. as far as can be ascertained from the remains of upright corner posts that have been found in position, the houses were rectangular, though some may have been round like the huts of the contem- porary people on the mainland. the walls of the houses are supposed to have been built of wattle-work plastered historic ornament. over with mud and thatched, as evidences of this are seen in the large pieces of burnt clay with wattle impression on it that have been found ; this also points out the fact of the houses or settlements being burnt down. in some cases the walls were of fascine construction. every hut was pro- vided with its hearth, which consisted of three or four large flat stones. clay weights used for the loom have been mw e und titt mont w*... fig. .-an ideal lake settlement or town. (from keller's lake dwellings.) found in great quantities, which proves, together with many fragments of flax cloth and woven “ bast” which have come to light, that weaving was known and practised by the lake dwellers (fig. , k). pottery has been found in the relic beds, but is usually of a very coarse descrip- tion. many broken bits of pottery have been found orna- . mented with lines, chevrons, or zigzags, and often with the “rope" ornament, raised or impressed by a twisted string or rope; this kind of decoration is evidently sug- lake dwellings. gested by the band of string tied around the primitive vessels of clay to keep them together, or for carrying pur- poses. see fig. , b, f, g, h, i, and j. b А с d $ e cocco iiii f fig. .-objects from the lake dwellings (from keller). a, bronze knife (lake of bienne); b, ornamented pottery; c, moon image of earthenware; d, part of an iron sword (gaulisb work); e, moon image of bronze; f, g, h, i, j, earthenware vessels; k, embroidered cloth. the builders of the lake dwellings are supposed to have been a branch of the celtic population of switzerland, belonging to prehistoric times, and was in its last stage of decadence before the celts took their place in the history historic ornament. of europe. although many remains of bronze and iron implements have been brought to light from the relic beds of the lake dwellings, this does not prove that the inhabitants were acquainted with their manufacture, for most of the articles were probably obtained by barter from the people of the mainland. a beautiful bronze knife is seen at fig. , a, found in the lake of bienne, and part of a sword in iron, of gaulish, or “late celtic” workmanship, from marin, lake neu- châtel (fig. , d). highly interesting are the “moon-stones” and “moon- images” of this period, made in stone, earthenware, and bronze. these crescent moon-images have a religious sig- nificance, and have doubtless been used to decorate the tops of their entrance doors (keller) or other conspicuous places in their dwellings, as emblematic images of their worship of the moon. the figure at c represents an earthenware moon-image with a flat base for standing purposes. the decoration on this is peculiarly interesting, as showing one of the earliest fascine patterns, doubtless derived from the floor construc- tion of the dwellings, or from the lashings of withy bands used to fasten the stone axes and celts to their hafts. this kind of ornament has been used very much in the bronze age weapons, implements, and other objects. the moon- image at e is made of bronze, with a handle and a ring to hang it by. it was probably worn as an amulet or decora- tion suspended from the neck of a celtic priest. remains of many kinds of plants, seeds, corn, and fruit have been found, usually in coarse earthen pots; also cakes and loaves of bread, and mill-stone "crushers” for grinding corn. domestic animals, such as cows, goats, and dogs, were kept by the lake dwellers. fishing and fish-curing, as may be easily inferred, was an important industry with these interesting people. chapter vii. egyptian art. according to their most ancient traditions, the egyptian race descended from a point high up on the nile, or the land of ethiopia, but modern science proves them to belong to a caucasian race, and not of the negro type. the name egypt has been derived from “het-ka-ptah,” one of the titles of the city of memphis, which means “the temple of the genius of ptah,” and has been interpreted by the greeks as “aiguptos,” the latter being the old name for the nile. on the south of egypt dwelt the nubians or ethiopians ; on the west the libyans, a fair-skinned race, who, being a warlike people, were employed by the egyptians as mer- cenary troops; and on the north-east the nomadic semitic tribes of edom and southern syria. the latter people often wandered west to feed their flocks in the delta of lower egypt, and in course of time formed, with the phænician traders, a large proportion of the population of the lower kingdom of egypt. it was on the north-east frontier, on the isthmus of suez, that egypt had most to fear from her foreign enemies. nearly all the art of the various peoples and nations of the world was developed in relation to their religion, and most of it-as elsewhere stated-originated in symbolic signs that represented, under various forms, human or otherwise, the original objects or phenomena which they worshipped. this was the case especially so in egypt; , an rompt fig. .-isis nursing her son, horus. (p. & c.) height, ins. egyptian art. and this must be our plea to describe here briefly the principal outlines of the egyptian religion. the religion of the egyptians had two developments, one tending towards monotheism, and the other to poly- theism. they believed in one god, who was the king of all gods; and, on the other hand, they had their mythical gods, who personified whatever was permanent in natural phenomena, such as the sun, moon, sky, stars, earth, light, darkness, floods, the seasons, the year, and the hours. the goddess nut represented the sky, and was known also under the names of neith, isis, hathor, sekhet, &c., which were the names of the sky at sunrise or sunset (fig. ). the sun had names without number, as rā, horus, ptah, tmu, setek, amen, &c. (figs. , ). osiris and sekru are names of the sun after he has set, or is “dead and buried” (fig. ). osiris is king of the dead, and, in mythological language, he is slain by his brother set, who personified night, who in his turn is slain by horus (fig. ), who is the heir of osiris. horus signifies the “one above," and amen-rā, the great king of all the gods, signifies “the one who hides himself.” the great amen-rā was the mightiest god in all the egyptian pantheon. he was the great god of thebes. the gods were represented in human shape, and also in animal form. the animals, or animal combinations, were simply symbolical of the gods on account of certain attributes common to each, or in some cases because they bore the same name. the egyptians were intense believers in a future state, hence the great care bestowed on their dead, for they believed that the body should be preserved in order to insure a state of bliss for the soul in the future world. every human being had its "double," or ghost “ka," as well as its ghost “ba," which we often find represented under the form of a human being with a hawk's head. sometimes the image of a man was buried with him. this was to represent his “double," and is, therefore, called a adyan onin sel fig. .--amen, or ammon, bronze. (p. & c.) fig. .-ptah, from a bronze actual size. (p. & c.) egyptian art. “ka” statue, or image. the “ba,” or soul, was sup- posed to be “luminous." it is supposed that many of the animals and animal forms buried with and painted on the coffins of the egyptian dead were, in remote times, the sacred animals or “totems” belonging to the dead man's family. “ totem worship" may have been the most ancient form of the egyptian religion. the temple of bubastis (in the delta) was sacred to the goddess bast, or pasht, the cat-headed goddess (fig. ). the cat was, therefore, a sacred animal or a “totem,” in ancient egypt, like the ibis, hawk, asp, beetle, &c., totems; and so in the district or town of bubastis the cat clan, or worshippers of the cat-headed goddess pasht, built the rock-cut temple called speos artemidos, near beni-hasan, and dedicated it to her worship. the writing of the egyptians is classified under three heads : the “ hieroglyphic," or the form in which it appears on the monuments; the “hieratic,” or priestly writing, as used on the papyrus documents; and the “demotic,” a cursive or running kind of writing similar to the hieratic, and a later development of it. in the year the famous “rosetta stone," now in the british museum, was found near the rosetta mouth of the nile by a french officer. it passed into the hands of the british in . on this stone is inscribed a decree of the priests of memphis con- ferring divine honours on ptolemy v., king of egypt, b.c. the inscription is in three forms, the hiero- glyphic, the demotic, and in greek characters. from this inscription was first obtained the key to the decipherment of the hieroglyphics, and interpretation of the ancient lan- guage of egypt, and the names of the kings which in the hieroglyphics are enclosed in cartouches or oblong rings. thus the clue was obtained to the identification of the letters of the egyptian alphabet, which had hitherto baffled all the attempts of egyptologists to find out. the credit of the identification is chiefly due to the french bo historic ornament. jest be bao ft homes fig. .— the goddess bast, or pasht. actual size. (p. & c.) fig. .-osiris. (p. & c.) egyptian art. savant, champollion, but a considerable share of the honour must be given to thomas young, who was the first to find out the correct value of many of the phonetic signs. the egyptians, from the earliest period known, were acquainted with and skilled in medicine, in astronomy, in mathematics, philosophy, poetry, and fiction. the oldest literary papyrus at present known dates from the third to the fifth dynasties ( to b.c.). egyptian art was at its best in the earliest dynasties. the fourth dynasty was the great pyramid-building period, and the statues of this great epoch were more natural and artistic, and altogether were less conventional than those of later times. it is notable that in the eighteenth and twenty-sixth dynasties, after a long period of art depression, the artists went back for inspiration and better models to the work of the men of the fourth and twelfth dynasties. the history of egypt can be traced back from , years before the christian era, and is divided into thirty dynasties, whose succession was the result of failure in any of the original lines of marriage, or marriage with a female of lower rank, or of a revolution. the thirty dynasties are divided into three groups dynasties .-xi. (b.c. — ) xi.-xix. (b.c. -- ) xx.-xxx. (b.c. – ) the ancient empire. the middle empire. the new empire. these dates and arrangements are formulated chiefly on the basis of a work written in greek, and compiled by manetho, an egyptian priest who lived in the third century b.c. the kings of egypt have been named pharaohs from the title “ peraa' great house.” the seat or centre of the government shifted its position according to dynastic reasons, or from policy. during the ancient empire it was first at memphis, and then moved to abydos and other places in the south as the empire extended. when historic ornament. egypt was in the height of its glory the centre of govern- ment was chiefly at thebes, but moving often according to revolution or foreign oppression. rameses and his near successors held their court at the northern city of san, or tanis. the time of the new empire was chiefly a period of foreign rule and slow decadence, the seat of the aధం పరమపదపదవడ it conue fig. .-the great pyramid of kheops, and small pyramids; from perring. (p. & c.) empire shifted to nearly all the former places or capitals and to bubastis or sais with each political change. menes was the first historical king of egypt, and was supposed to have founded memphis, where the worship of the god ptah, “creator of gods and men,” was first instituted, as well as that of apis or hapi, the sacred bull—the serapis of the greeks. for the next six hun- dred years we know scarcely anything of egyptian history except the names of the kings, until we come to the great period of the fourth dynasty (b.c. - ), egyptian art. seneferu was the founder of this dynasty. he conquered the peninsula of sinai, and worked the valuable mines of copper and turquoise found in that country. his son and successor, khufu, better known as kheops (b.c. - ), was the builder of the great pyramid at gizeh (fig. ), which he erected for his tomb. the king kha-f-rā (kephren) (b.c. - ), built the second pyramid, and his son, men-kau-rā (mykerinos) was the builder of the third pyramid. men-kau-rā was huuhniitäkin podood cc toom lo sto fig. .--section through the great pyramid of kheops. (p. & c.) a wise and humane sovereign, and it is recorded to his honour, as an exceptional qualification, that “he did not oppress his people." in this he was different to most of the pharaohs. his mummified remains are now in the british museum. the sphinx, or man-headed lion, carved out of the solid rock, is near the great pyramid, and is supposed to be the work of a much earlier period (fig. ). the fifth dynasty (b.c. - ) is not an important one as far as art is concerned. the sixth (b.c. - ) was noted for the erection of historic ornament. its pyramid tombs and for the religious texts that were inscribed on their interior walls. le ri: .---the stepped pyramid. (p. & c.) supposed to be the most ancient building in egypt. i'rom the seventh to the eleventh dynasty (b.c. - ) is a period whose history is almost lost. it meant fig. .—the southern pyramid of dashcur. (p. & c., to the egyptians a period of more than six hundred years of tribal jealousies and fighting, at the end of which egypt . egyptian art. was consolidated from north to south, and a powerful dynasty succeeded these internal struggles. the twelſth dynasty was a brilliant one for the arts, and for great works of engineering skill. the names of the pharaohs of this dynasty, amenemhāt and usertsen, are among the most renowned in egyptian history. great temples were restored or newly built at thebes, heliopolis, tanis, and fig. .–the great sphinx. (p. & c.) abydos. the great artificial lake, mauur (moeris of the greeks), or “great water," was constructed to receive the surplus waters of the nile, and to control its floods. the arabs call this lake “el-fayyum,” from another of its egyptian names “phiom,” the sea. it was completed in the reign of amenemhāt iii. (b.c. - ). the same king built the celebrated labyrinth, the “erpa-re-hent," or “temple at the entrance of the lake,” in which the king himself was interred. his successor was the last king of the twelfth dynasty. the thirteenth and four- vol. i. f historic ornament. eshoes fig. .-colossi of amenophis iii. statues of memnon at thebes. (p. & c.) egyptian art. ! : teenth dynasties are dark periods in which the invasion of the elamites and the nomad tribes from syria and western oll asia took place. the fifteenth and six- teenth dynasties are the “hyksos” dynas- ties. the hyksos, or shepherd kings, were la the chief of the above nomad asiatic tribes, and consequently uni usurpers of the native rule. a revolt took place in the reign of one of these kings of the seventeenth dy- nasty, and under amāsis i., the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, the shepherd kings were finally driven out of egypt. about the end of the. hyksos rule the patriarch joseph was sold into egypt. king nubti (b.c. ) is supposed to have been the pharaoh of that time, and the hyksos king, apepa ii., is supposed to have been fig. :----amenophis iii. presenting an offering to amen. (p. & c.) the king that raised joseph to power. the explorer, m. jacques de mor- gan, expresses the opinion that the shepherd kings = {}}} historic ornament. were the tomb-robbers, who, either from cupidity, or a wish to annihilate the last traces of a conquered race, pillaged every pyramid of its dead, and the treasures there concealed, for not a single pyramid has been found unviolated that was built before the hyksos dynasty. thothmes iii. (b.c. ) was a powerful and warlike king who compelled assyria to pay him tribute. in the eight- eenth dynasty, egypt was more powerful than at any other period of her history. the great temples of thebes, karnak, and luxor were built during this dynasty. a later monarch of this dynasty, amenophis iii., erected on the west of the nile at thebes two colossal statues of himself, that the greeks haye named the statues of memnon, the fabled king of egypt that was supposed to have been slain in the trojan wars (fig. ). another king of this dynasty, amenophis iv., made himself exceedingly notorious by trying to introduce a new religion, and for this he had his memory execrated, and was deeply cursed as a heretic by priests and people of the succeeding generations. it appears he had imbibed from his mother, ti, who was an assyrian princess, certain religious opinions which he determined to force on his own people. in order to do this he removed his capital from thebes, where the national worship of the great god amen was celebrated, to khu-en-aten, the modern tell-el- amarna, which name he took for himself, and which means the “ splendour of the sun-disk"; there he set up the sun- disk god, aten (the radiant sun). the new religion, how- ever, was obnoxious to the conservative egyptians, and soon died out (fig. ). the nineteenth dynasty (b.c. - ) was founded by rameses i. he was a successful king, but his son seti (fig. ) was a greater one, and had the reputation of being a great builder. it was he who built the great “hall of columns," at karnak, which joins the pylon of amen- ophis iii. (fig. ). he also built the temple at kůrnah, and remains of his egyptian art. work is seen at abydos, memphis, and heliopolis. he was succeeded by his famous son rameses ii., the sesostris of the greeks, the supposed oppressor of the israelites. he was a very powerful monarch, and, from all accounts, . • : dec tin cial? diid coleiro go tod d d.co ! im acolo fig. .—the adoration of the solar-disk by amenophis iv. (p.) didieu a apen داد ایا:۱۰۱/۰ solo in order to glorify himself in the eyes of posterity, did not scruple to erase the names of former kings from off their cartouches on their monuments and inscribe his own in their place. that he has accomplished the end he had in historic ornament. view by so doing there is not the slightest doubt, for no monarch of egypt is better known than he. but apart ամայելակյլից: ուալ fig. ;. - seti with attributes of osiris between amen and chuoum. (p. & c.) from this he was certainly a mighty chieftain, who “en- riched the land with memorials of his name.” the greatest of his many battles (he was always fight- ing) was fought with the khita (hittites), under the walls egyptian art. of kadesh, in the valley of the orontes. his forces were auchergwain fig. .-entrance to the hypostyle hall of the temple of amen at karnak. (m.) almost defeated when by his personal valour he turned the tide of the battle and entirely routed the khita (fig. ). the most famous building of his time is the rock-hewn historic ornament. temple, the “great temple,” that he built and dedicated to amen, ptah, and harmachis, which faces the nile at ipsamboul, in nubia. on the façade of this temple are sculptured in situ four seated colossal figures of rameses, two on each side of the doorway. from the soles of the feet to the top of fig. .-- the rout of the khita ; egyptians to the left, the khita to the right. (m.) the pschent on the head measures sixty-five feet; they are the largest statues in egypt, and the workmanship is careful in finish. over the entrance is carved in relief on the rock a colossal figure of the god rā, and on either side of it are single figures in low-relief of rameses in the act of adoration (fig. ). egyptian art. menephthah (b.c. — ) was the successor of rameses ii. and his successor was seti ii. the latter fig. .–façade of the great rock-cut temple at ipsamboul. was the last king of the middle empire. with the com- mencement of the twentieth dynasty the new empire egyptian art. of the delta, afterwards capturing memphis and thebes, which he pillaged. the assyrian king died suddenly, and taharka, a native usurper, succeeded in driving out the assyrians, but soon after egypt was again conquered by relme cajter ruh fel sce fig. .-- portrait of rameses ii. (louvre; p. & c.) ashurbanipal, a powerful assyrian king (b.c. ). the assyrians, however, after a short time of occupation with- drew from egypt, owing to their troubles at home with the medes, who were laying siege to nineveh, and egypt historic ornament. again revived. under amāsis the country enjoyed peace for about forty years (b.c. — ). the egyptians pos- sessed a fleet at this time with which they advanced to the phoenician coast and took the city of sidon, and also annexed the island of cyprus to egyptian rule. egypt submitted to the persian army under cambyses in b.c. , and was for more than one hundred years aſter- wards a mere vassal of persia. the twenty-seventh dynasty (b.c. — ) was composed solely of persian kings. a successful revolt broke out in the last persian king's reign, darius ii., when egypt was free once more. fig. .—the egyptian “ gorge." amenrut was the only king of the twenty-eighth dynasty, and after the twenty-ninth and thirtieth dynasties were ended, the latter, by the conquest of egypt once more by the persians under artaxerxes iii. (b.c. ), we find the country under persian rule for the space of eight years. about this time the persian monarch was defeated by alexander the great, which brought egypt under the greek rule. at the death of alexander egypt was governed by the macedonian kings, the ptolemies, from to b.c. after the roman wars and the death of cleopatra, egypt found itself a roman province. in a.d. the arabs under omar conquered the country, egyptian art. and it was ruled by them till , when it passed into the hands of the turks. the pyramids of egypt have doubtless derived their sunggu takda rear ruube mustava bestfa | toto பாபா ch . etijnt fichovirala nr. vitrin! blo!!!!kleinas jt fins i teresults mo ndatetoont poco fig. .--general appearance of an egyptian temple. opa edasie amuel etorrikalandu pendiendo dan cuetes that itt shape from the prehistoric grave mounds. although elabo- rately and ingeniously contrived for the concealment of the remains of the kings, and are stupendous monuments of building skill, they are not examples of architecture in the true sense of the word. perhaps the earliest examples historic ornament. of egyptian architecture, properly speaking, are seen in the ancient shrines, with sloping walls and flat roof, and hav- ing the peculiar cavetto cornice moulding called the tula hour bimharibas san ini fig. .-square building egyptian “gorge” (figs. and ). horizontality is the great feature of egyptian architecture, which is typi- cally expressed by the illustration fig. , an ideal generalisation of an egyptian temple. as hardly any, or no, rain falls in most parts of egypt, gb here tu croid pte lt holihitil) i. * fut tutti jitutiltintilor tenido titom i duo : وام .ހޮޅު=.ދ. = fig. .--oblong building. a sloping roof was not a necessity. the external walls in the case of a square building are in the form of a trape- zium, making the whole edifice of the shape of a truncated pyramid, and pyramid-like in either the square or rectan- gular-planned buildings (figs. and ), except when egyptian art. the end walls are vertical (fig. ), then it tends toward the ridge-form. in regard to the scarcity of voids and narrow slop- ing doorways, the similarity in egyptian buildings of every kind is very striking (fig. ). this absence of voids gives a dark and gloomy character to the buildings, when compared with the architecture of other countries. the horizontal element and solidity of construction impart a look of powerful strength and of deep repose to the egyp- tian temple. even the tall and slender obelisks placed in front of the mighty pylons have little, if any, effect in le fig. .-model of an egyptian house. (p. & c.) removing the horizontal appearance of the whole building we give the ground plan, perspective view, and front elevation of the great temple of luxor, as a typical illus- tration of an egyptian temple from restorations by chipiez (figs. , , and ). its construction is described by champollion as the “ architecture of giants." this double-temple was the work of two kings. from the second pylon to the further end of the temple is the portion built first, by the king amenophis iii. the other portion, from first to the second pylon, is the part built by ha:::| historic ornament. : ] rameses ii. the sanctuary is placed in the centre of a hall, surrounded by small chambers. it has two doors, one at either end, and on the axis of the building it has a vestibule in front and a hall beyond, supported by twelve columns. another hall in front of the naos (or interior apartment) is sup- ported by thirty-two lofty columns. in front of this again is a large square open court. this court is con- nected to the larger front peristylar court by a grand and lofty gallery, similar to a hypostyle hall. it is ft. long, enclosed and covered, and richly deco- rated like the hypostyle hall at karuak (fig. ). four colossal seated statues are in front of the first pylon, and two obelisks, one on each side of the door-way. four large flagstaffs and a double row of sphinxes in front of the temple complete the accessories to this great edifice. the whole building and obelisks were covered over with bas-reliefs and inscriptions. the typical egyptian columns or supports are of jo toll fig. .—plan of the temple of luxor. (p. & c.) voi.. i. g et du di asmitters . trinn lutura hiniha tails داود fig. .— bird's-eye view of luxor, as restored hy chipiez. (p. & c.) me ill cc fig. . - principal façade of the temple of luxor, restored by chipiez. (p. & c.) ccc fig. .—column of thothmes iii. ; from the ambulatory of thothmes at karnak. (p. & c.) historic ornament. two distinct and well-marked kinds, the lotus-headed and the campaniform or bell-shaped. the former is so called from its resemblance to a closed lotus-bud (fig. ), and the latter from its re- semblance to a bell with the mouth uppermost (fig. ). an earlier and simpler form of column or support is the quadrangular pier (fig. ), and the next development is the tapering quadrangular pier (fig. ), both undeco- rated. next we have the pier with a capital which, in profile, is a simple cavetto gorge," and square abacus (fig. ). between the abacus and the entablature or beam is . or “ aa fig. .- column of the hypostyle hall of the ramesseum ; from horeau. (p. & c.) fig. .-quadrangular pier (p. & c.) a square thickness of stone; this is the great defect in the egyptian orders, and distinguishes the latter from the egyptian art. com greek orders. this space between the abacus and the architrave is bad, both from a scientific and artistic point of view. it robs the capital of its legitimate appearance as a sup- porting member. this pier, with capital and the hathoric pier (fig. ), with the head of the goddess hathor, are both deco- rated. we next come to the octagonal (fig. ), and the sixteen-sided pillars (fig. ), which are almost greek in their classic simplicity; the latter is fluted. all forms of egyptian columns have either square slabs or cir- fig. .— tapering quad- rangular pier. (p. & c.) cular discs as bases, on which the column rests. the two latter mentioned pillars are fig. .—pier with capital. (p. & c.) fig. .-hathoric pier, (p. & c.) exceptional, and therefore not typical egyptian, in having the abacus directly under the architrave; the sixteen-sided historic orvajent. pillar is especially doric-like in this respect, and also in its fluted shaft (fig. ). the supports known as “osiride” pillars are chiefly of the date of the nineteenth dynasty. they have a kind of analogy to the caryatid grecian pillars, but are unlike them in respect that they do not support the entablature, பட்ட x fig. .-octagonal pillar, beni- hassan. (p. & c.) fig. .-sixteen-sided pillar ; fluted. (p. & c.) as they are only placed in front of the quadrangular sup- porting pier for purposes of decoration, and are usually meant as representations of the kings who erected the temples they decorate, with a head-dress ornament con- sisting of the attributes of osiris (fig. ). another variety of column has a fanciful combination of floral forms for its capital (fig. ). this and others of egyptian art. fanciful design are from the bas-reliefs and wall-paintings, and remind us of similar creations of the artist's pencil, as. seen in the pompeian wall decorations. the upp er parts of the capital are developments from www lidia 눌 ​!, fig. .-osiride pillar from medinet-abou. (p. & c.) the calyx of the lotus, with the sepals curled outwards, and look very much like the first notions of the greek ionic capital, as indeed we shall find the ionic volute to be a development of the lotus calyx more than anything else. an example of the faggot-shaped column, with its base, lotus-capital, and entablature, is given at fig. . historic ornament. the ornamental parts of this column were painted in bright yellow and blue, and, as a rule, the sculptured ornament of the egyptian columns, architrave, and cornices were relieved by the painter in bright colours. the illustration at fig. is that of the palm-shaped capital from sesebi. this type of capital is a frank imitation of a bunch of palm-leaves tied by the circular bands around the top of a column. a later development of the palm capital shows the bell shape with a more complicated decoration, fig. .-column from bas fig. .—palm-capital from sesebi. relief. (p. & c.) (p. & c.) and has the hathor-headed abacus, surmounted by a naos (fig. ) egyptian art. selman matt egyptian ornament and industrial art. a great part of egyptian ornament and decoration is composed of symbolic forms, the remainder is made up of geometrical ornament, such as checkers, meanders, frets, rosettes, diapers of lotus and other forms. natural forms of flowers and foliage were not copied direct, but only used in shape of geometric abstractions, and their arrangement as diapers in surface decoration was de- rived, in the first instance, from the older arts of weav- ing and matting. the old egyptians were skilled in weaving both plain and figured fabrics, chiefly from flax and hemp fibre. the lotus form was pre-emi- nently the leading motive in egyptian floral ornament. the papyrus (from which our word paper is derived) and the palm are next in importance as motives from which egyptian ornament is derived. the lotus-plant (nymphæa nelumbo), the variety in fig. .– hathor-headed campani- which the leaves grow up philæ. (p. & c.) form capitals, temple of neetanebo, at out of the water and do not lie on its surface, is shown at fig. , and drawings, evidently from nature, at fig. , from the tomb of ptah- hotep. the lotus flower in ornament may be seen in the ceiling i icc historic ornament. decorations from tombs at fig. , nos. and ; at figs. , ; and in the painted frieze from thebes (fig. ), where the similarity between this and the assyrian lotus, fir-cone and daisy may be noticed (see fig. ). fig. .—the nymphea nelumbo; flower, leaf, and fruit. (p. & c.) . com the bi-lateral rendering of the lotus plant is not com- mon in egyptian ornament, though it is the oldest form of the lotus known, as it occurs on the prehistoric pottery of koptos, and on tombs of the fourth dynasty (fig. ), egyptian art. and earlier. two lotus flowers are here seen tied together; the general outline of the flower is only rendered which would enclose the sepals and petals when seen in a side view. the lotus flower and bud alternating in a border orna- ment may be regarded as the prototype of the greek palmate borders. we are inclined to believe in professor goodyear's theory, that the egg and tongue decoration on the greek ovolo moulding is nothing more than a disrupted lotus and bud ornament developed in transition through wa ia fig. .- drawings of the lotus from the tomb of ptah-hotep. (p. & c.) the rhodian pottery decoration. the shells and the tongue were originally the lotus calyx, and the egg or pebble the lotus bud. other plants, as the thistle, convolvulus, daisy, vines, and grapes, &c., were used very much in decoration, especially during the akhenaten period (eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties), when the decoration was of a florid kind. the papyrus is seen in the ceiling ornament fig. , no , at fig. , and on the perfume spoon of carved wood (fig. ). the ceiling decorations (fig. ), from the theban tombs, show the fine sense and feeling the egyptians had for the appropriate decoration of flat 민 ​ monu vie svpe anie avve amvp) come fig. .-specimens of ceiling decoration at thebes; from prisse. (p. & c.) egyptian art. surfaces, and the judicious balance maintained in the contrasting units of the ornament. fig. .–lotus and water orna- ment. fig. .---painted border ; from thebes, after prisse. (p. & c.) in animal forms found in egyptian decoration there are a few distinct and typical varieties, that have been used fig. .-flattened form of lotus-leaf ornament; front view and section . (p. & c.) times without number, both in painting and in carving in the round; and in the bas-reliefs of stone, wood, and in historic ornament. gold, silver, ivory, and bronze. among the most frequent is the vulture, with outstretched wings, having sacred symbols in his claws. it has been used appropriately in wha >>>>>>> fig. .- hunting in a marsh ; from a bas-relief in the tomb of ti. (p. & c.) this form as ceiling decoration in the great temples at thebes, on a blue ground diapered with golden stars; the ceilings thus are symbolic representations of the heavens at night (fig. ). egyptian art. similar outstretched wings have been added to the scarabs or sacred beetles. these winged scarabs, together with similar winged-globe and uræus creations, have been mxxxxxxxxx tl fig. .–vultures on a ceiling. (p. & c.) used as ceiling decorations in tombs and on mummy- cases, and sometimes the goddess isis, or nepththys, was furnished with these wings as guardian of the tomb (figs. and ). mumum til x Х downlului zinavinvinnu fig. .– winged-globe with uræus. (p. & c.) the uræus and winged-globe was a favourite decoration for cornices and for heads of doorways (fig. ). the colouring of the winged-globe decoration was generally, in the case of the globe, a red colour, as the emblem of the sun; the wings green, and the striped ground behind the historic ornament. figure was painted in alternating stripes of red, blue, and white, which produced an effective arrangement of colour. 上市​ ean . use comer fig. zu.- painting on mummy-case. (p. & c.) . . . tauchersona fig. .—hunting in the desert. (m.) the egyptians excelled in the drawing of animals and birds in outline, and in bas-relief carvings of them, some examples of which are given at figs. , , - egyptian art. many chimerical animals or monsters were used in egyptian decoration, as sphinxes, or imaginary animals of the desert, which were really fanciful creations of the artist's pencil (figs. , , , ). their representations of iions always have an expression of dignity, though more mild in aspect than the assyrian lion in art (fig. ). pottery, glass, and earthenware were manufactured in egypt from the earliest times. the country was well supplied with good potter's clay; bricks were made and dried in the sun, not burned, and were used very much in e.w. fig. .-antelope and papyrus. (p. & c.) building. the common pottery was unglazed, and their decorated pottery was in glazed earthenware, but not so highly decorated as many other objects of industrial art. fig. is a common pitcher of fairly good form, in red earth. the decoration on the enamelled earthenware dish (fig. ) is composed of bouquets of lotus flowers; and that on the larger basin or bowl is a design of lotus and mystic signs (fig. ). the three objects are in the british museum. rosettes and plaques have been found enamelled in colours, and probably used for floor or wall tiles. the doorway to the stepped pyramid at sakkarah is decorated with rows of convex-shaped rectangular plaques of vol. i. h historic ornament. enamelled earthenware of a greenish-blue glaze. some are black in colour. the egyptians were particularly skilful in glass making, á المو) tron fig. .-netting birds ; from a tomb. (p. & c.) fig. .- quadruped with head of a bird. (p. & c.) but they never produced quite a clear glass; it was always slightly opaque, but generally bright and rich in colour. vases, cups, pateræ, statuettes, necklaces, goblets, brace- lets, and, above all, enormous quantities of beads, which od gbenedite fig. .-sphinx or man-headed lion, in black granite, from tanis. (p. & c.) historic ornament. they used to make a network of to cover their dead. great quantities of glass objects were exported in trade with the phoenicians. the venetians during the middle ages imported soda kriosphinx, from karnak. (p. & c.) fig. .-ram, or in large quantities from alexandria, for purposes of glass making, the soda of egypt being famed for this purpose, as it was prepared from the many marsh-loving plants that grew luxuriantly in the delta. fig. .– enamelled earthenware dish, british museum. (p. & c.) fig. .—pitcher of red earth, british museum. (p. & c.) fig. .-enamelled earthenware bowl, british museum. (p. & c.) egyptian art. of kha-em-uas, son of rameses ii. (fig. ), and the golden hawk (fig. ). the former is a splendid and unique specimen of a w iwas yu tillin stele.g. pimte fig. .--pectoral; actual size. (p. & c.) pectoral, or breast ornament for the dead. these pectorals have been found in great numbers, made of wood, metal, and earthenware. the general shape is that of a naos, or historic ornament. little temple. the kha-em-uas pectoral is made of gold inlaid with lapis lazuli, and is thus described by m. pierret : juuuuuu luonnor untut do now fig. .—golden hawk; actual size. (p. & c.) ut luuuuuula steige " jewel in the form of a naos, in which a vulture and an uræus are placed side by side ; above them floats a hawk n fig. .- fragment of an ivory castanet, louvre. historic ornament. with extended wings, in his claws are seals, emblems of eternity. under the frieze of the naos an oval, with the prenomen of rameses ii., is introduced. two tet (or dad, symbol of stability) are placed in the lower angles of the frame.” the golden hawk is a similar kind of ornament, with crescent wings and seals in its claws, emblems of fig. .—ivory plaque ; late work. (p. & c.) reproduction and eternity. the workmanship in these articles looks like that of cloisonné enamels, but they are not enamels. the thin ribs of gold that surround the lapis lazuli stones in the pectoral and hawk are cloisons, but the stones are cut to fit into the spaces accurately, and are therefore inlaid, while in the true enamels the enamel egyptian art. is put in the cells and fused to the metal by fire afterwards. enamelling as known to the chinese was not practised in egypt. as ivory could be obtained from ethiopia in great quan- tities, it was natural that the egyptians would make good use of it. it was a favourite material with the sculptors, v fig. .- egyptian chair. (i'. & c.) fig. .—chair or throne. (p. & c.) and many fine examples of ivory carvings and incised work have been found in the tombs. the incised outlines on the ivory were usually filled in with black (figs. and ). gold, silver, ivory, and ebony were worked in usually by the same egyptian artist, as we learn from an inscription on a stele of iritesen, an egyptian sculptor, thus translated ma பொம் stelmeg. sielme.c figs. - .–perfume spoons, louvre. (p. & c.) ito historic ornament. the wall paintings and bas-reliefs that give representations of tables, chairs, and couches. some of the chairs or thrones are of special beauty (figs. and ). a oo fig. .--an egyptian ship, sailing and rowing. (m.) carpenter's shop showing the workmen making chairs is seen at fig. , and a coffer (fig. ). the feet of chairs and thrones were usually imitated from those of animals. fig. .—the river transport of a mummy from maspero. in wood-carving nothing could be daintier than the perfume spoons with figures and water plants decoratively treated (figs. , ). egyptian art. i the egyptian ships were singularly beautiful in their outlines, with their prows and sterns ending usually in a metal stalk and carved lotus flower or ram's head (figs. , ). the “bari,” or sacred boat which transported the dead, decorated at each end with the carved metal lotus, and pavilion or chapel in the centre, with its freight of the mummy and the mourners (fig. ), is represented as it sails off towards abydos, the city of the dead, to the west of thebes, and the crowds of friends on the banks of the river will salute the dead, saying: “in peace, in peace towards abydos ! descend in peace towards abydos, towards the western sea!” chapter viii. chaldean and assyrian art. the chaldeans or babylonians and the assyrians came from one great stock, the assyrians being mostly colonists from babylonia. the original inhabitants of chaldea spoke a semitic dialect. at an early date eastern chaldea was invaded by the sumerians or accadians, a turanian race which is supposed to have come from the plateau of central asia. the two languages were used side by side, the semitic as the common tongue, and the accadian as a literary language. the earliest known king of chaldea was named eannadu (b.c. ). the chaldeans advanced slowly along the tigris and pushed their kingdom towards assyria in the north, where they built the cities of ashur (kal’at sherkât), calah (nim- roud), and ninua (nineveh). the northern portion of the chaldeo-assyrian empire asserted its independence about b.c., and assyria became a separate kingdom. from b.c. , when tukulti-adar i., the assyrian king, conquered babylonia, down to the destruction of nineveh, b.c. , the chaldean kingdom took a place of secondary importance, while assyria became the greatest power of western asia. tiglath-pileser i. (b.c. ), and ashur-nasir-pal (b.c. ), were amongst the greatest kings of assyria. the latter was a great builder. he built the great palace at calah (nimroud), the place to which he removed his seat of government from ashur. assyrian art reached a high state of development in his reign. his son and chaldean and assyrian art. one successor, shalmaneser ii. (b.c. - ) was no less powerful; he extended his kingdom by wars from the persian gulf to the armenian mountains, and from media to the mediterranean. jehu, king of israel, sent him tribute. after his death assyria declined and shrank within its borders, but under tiglath-pileser iii. regained its lost ground again (b.c. ). sargon, the “son of no (b.c. - ), usurps the throne, makes great wars, is the first king of assyria that comes in contact with the egyptians. he built the great palace at khorsabad, which in late years has been excavated. sennacherib, his son, succeeded him, whose wars with hezekiah, king of judah, are recorded in the bible in the book of kings. he built a great palace at nineveh, many of the wall slabs of which are now in the british museum. the death of the succeeding monarch, esarhaddon, took place before he had completed his great palace at calah (nimroud). another palace supposed to be his has lately been excavated at nineveh. it lies buried under the mound of nebi yunus. the assyrian kings were great builders of palaces. each one, it appears, thought it his duty either to add a large portion to a palace of his predecessor, or to build a new one for himself. ashur-bani-pal, who reigned for forty-two years (b.c. - ), was one of the most powerful and most cruel of all the assyrian monarchs. his victory over the elamites is depicted on the sculptured slabs that enrich the ninevite gallery of the british museum. at his death the assyrian power was broken up, partly by the scythian hordes that swept over that part of asia, and partly by the medes. nineveh was besieged by cyaxares of media, and by nabopolassar, an assyrian general who held command in babylonia. it was at length captured and destroyed (b.c. ). the whole empire was then divided between the medes and the babylonians. the new babylonian empire lasted seventy years, and in the reign of its last king, nabonidus, when under the command of belshazzar, his son, babylon was vol. i. i histcric ornament. captured by cyrus of persia (b.c. ). from this time until its subjugation by alexander the great babylon was under the persians. the religion of the chaldeo-assyrian nation was the worship of the sun, moon, stars, and the various powers of nature. their chief gods were shamash, the sun ; sin, the moon ; marduk, a sun-god, the carrier of prayers from earth to heaven; anum, the sky god; bel, the god of the taucber gud fig. .-a winged bull, assyria. (m) earth ; and ea, the god of great knowledge: the last three were the trinity. other gods were dagon, the fish-god; ishtar, their venus; nabu, their mercury and scribe of the gods; rammánu, the god of wind and thunder; and negral, the god of war and hunting. the assyrian and babylonian people have a proverbial name for being a warlike and cruel race, in opposition to their contemporaries, the more peaceful and gentle egyp- chaldean and assyrian art. tians. at the same time they have the reputation of being highly skilled in arts and sciences. g cliy female sielne gautier fig. .- demons, from the palace of assurbanipal, british museum. (p. & c.) coate sc the greatness of the chaldeans in astronomy, in astrology, and as wise men generally, is too well known to be repeated. their skill in the arts of building, sculpture, historic ornament. in the use of metals, in pottery, tiles, gem cutting, painting, embroidery and weaving, excites our wonder and admiration. the art of the assyrians is intensely earnest and full of realism, vigorous in the highest degree, and true art of its kind. it is the art of a people who were brave and powerful, and of princes that were despotic and stern. the keynote of their art was force, whether displayed in its physical and realistic aspects, in the sculptural repre- sentations of ferocious animals, as their lions and dogs, or embodied in their mysterious and wonderful creations of human - headed bulls, and other monsters and demons (figs. , ), or in the haughty self-consciousness of strength and power, with which their sculptors scught to invest the representations of the monarchs going forth fig. .- a griffon in the egyptian style. (m.) to battle or to the lion hunt (fig. ); everywhere, in the higher aspects of assyrian art, physical force, or personal force of will, is the culminating point of expression aimed at in all their efforts. the sculptured lion of the egyptians is couchant, half slumbering; the assyrian lion is rampant and roaring for his prey. the simile may be used to illustrate the cha- racteristic difference of the art of both countries the assyrian made his art minister to his worldly uses and delights, the egyptian lavished his on the tomb and for the hereafter. the assyrian religion and the chaldean magicians' and astrologers' exposition of its mysteries, doubtless gave the subject-matter for the creation of those strange combina- tions of chimeras, monsters, and bi-form deities that are so common in assyrian art. the griffons and other curious hybrid creatures of the chaldean and assyrian art. middle ages, and those that adorn the gothic buildings of q ) time vit ano """""ill selmes fig. .—eagle-headed divinity from nimioud, with the sacred tree. (p. & c.) our own days, can be traced to their birthplace in assyrian art. the great god of the assyrians was named assur, the historic ornament. all-powerful god of battles. in his name all kinds of cruelty and torture were practised on heretics and apostates, and in his name, and to extend his kingdom of assyria, wallet delo fig. . -figure of a goddess in act of adoration, british museum. (p. & c.) the ninevite kings found their excuses to make war with nations far and near. he seems to have been a later creation of the assyrian gods, but became supreme as chaldean and assyrian art. nineveh rose in power. he was supposed to have de- scended from sin, the moon-god. the winged-globe, رزر: zero juillll fig. .-- the winged globe with the figure of a god. (p. & c.) with the god in the centre holding the bow and arrow, or thunder-bolt (fig. ), is by some thought to be a representation of assur. a similar figure is seen at the .:):)) ra ches ? :// fig. .– the winged globe ; from layard. (p. & c.) top of the assyrian standard, as the “director of armies” (fig. ). this figure in the centre of the ring or solar disk, who is evidently divine, by reason of his feathered i historic ornament. lower garment, and his wings that raise him in mid-air, above all humanity, is quite likely to be the original type of the later persian supreme god, athura-mazda (see fig. ), and the emblematic symbol of his divinity is quite likely to have been designed and adapted from the winged disk or “globe" of the egyptians. ce ikli fig. .--the assyrian standard. (p. & c.) fig. .- dagon, the fish-god. (p. & c.) the winged globe (fig. ) of the assyrians is an imi- tation of that of egypt; this emblem having found its way into assyria on many carvings in ivory and on articles in bronze, carried hither by the trading phoenicians from egypt, and the emblem in question was, according to perrot, appropriated by the assyrians. chaldean and assyrian art. ) மாயாவையார் alerinyanvai tada roky ( gantar comte fig. .- assurbanipal attacked by lions, british museum. (p. & c.) i historic ornament. in their ornament and decoration they were more free and natural than the egyptians, and the execution was careful and refined, as witnessed by their bronze bowls, gem-engraving, and the patterns on the enamelled bricks. the bronze gates from balâwât in the british museum are examples of highly skilful repoussé work. their palaces must have presented a gorgeous and glittering appearance in their rich colouring and enamelled brilliancy. although not a single specimen of assyrian weaving has been discovered, we have abundant and sufficient evidence from the sculptured patterns of textiles and embroideries the kings' robes and wall decorations that both weaving and embroidery must have been one of their most glorious arts. the asiatic love of colour would lead us to suppose that these embroideries were excessively rich in colour (figs. a, a, , ) as they were in design. the details of this embroidery design (fig. a) are well drawn, and the design is full of rich variety without heaviness or too much crowding. the king is seen twice represented in the circle doing homage to the sacred tree and to the winged disk; and in other places he is between two genii or deities; combats of lions and bulls, palmate borders, fir-cones, and spirals, with bands that divide the work in varied spaces, complete these rich designs in embroidery, which are among the very finest efforts of assyrian decorative art. details of embroidery patterns are shown at figs. , . the sills or thresholds of the doors of the palaces were sometimes sculptured in low relief on large slabs of alabaster stone. the design is evidently copied from an embroidered carpet; perhaps the central part of the one given (fig. ) is a copy from a fabric woven in the loom, and the border, enlarged at fig. , would have its original in embroidery. the figure of the plan and elevation of part of a chal- chaldean and assyrian art. نيا /: ( ۱ . دار و سرکاری نظره ii .../ ..... * ccccccccer اررر از eeeeee فر ر ::مر / k ((۱۰ .) د ۱ #a/ : fig. a.—embroidery upon a royal mantle; from layard. (p. & c.) + historic ornament. ) well kk te in wote mden.cz fig. a.-embroidery on the upper part of a royal mantle; from layard. (p. & c.) chaldean and assyrian art. dean façade in enamelled bricks, from warka, is decorated with patterns that, no doubt, had their origin in weaving and matting (fig. ). the surface of this façade is fig. .–detail of embroidery; from layard. (p. & c.) composed of terra-cotta cones, with their bases turned out- wards. these bases were previously dipped in enamelled (۴۰ fig. .—detail of embroidery; from layard. (p. & c.) colours before they were inserted into the clay cement; so they form a kind of terra-cotta mosaic work (loftus). the land of chaldea was devoid of stone for building historic ornament. purposes, but extremely rich in immense banks of clay, which was used for brick making from the carliest times in chaldea. the chaldean brick is rather more than one fig. .--sill of a door from khorsabad ; length, ins. (p. & c.) a do jau english foot square, and about four inches in thickness; of a dark red colour to light yellow. nearly all of them have an inscription with the name of the king, &c. (fig. ). chaldean and assyrian art. the brick from erech, or ancient warka, gives a good idea of one of the oldest forms of chaldean writing known (fig. ). it consists of an abridgment of the repre- sentation of natural objects, as all alphabets in their criginal state were merely pictures or pictographs. this inscription shows the stage of conventional signs or solut miera in fig. .-- fragment of border of fig. ; from a threshold of khorsabad. (p. & c.) ideographic writing before it underwent the change into the cuneiform, or wedge-shaped writing of the assyrians. some of the bricks were made wedge-shaped, for use in the building of arches and vaults. the common bricks were sometimes used in the crude state, or unburnt, and burnt. enamelled bricks were greatly used in chaldea, historic ornament. but the clay of which they were made was softer and more friable. this was used purposely, so that the enamel would sink deeper into the soft material, and thereby make a more lasting surface protection. o do w o fig. .—plan and elevation of part of a façade at warka; from loftus. (p. & c.) osio assyria copied most of her art and sciences from her older sister in civilisation, and had the advantage over chaldea in a good supply of building stone, that formed the substructural bed for the clay deposits. this was a chaldean and assyrian art. sulphate of chalk known as alabaster, grey in colour, and easy to work. the great wall slabs used for the bas- "il hita fig. .—babylonian brick, ins. square, ins. thick. (p. & c.) reliefs and the winged bulls and other statuary, were carved out of this material; but the assyrians used bricks for the det la welt. peed fig. .-brick from erech. (p. & c.) main structure of their buildings, like the chaldeans. timber was scarce in assyria, but was used very much vol. i. k historic ornament. in the palaces. it was brought from the mountains of upper mesopotamia, on the left bank of the tigris, and, later, cedar and other woods were transported from the forests of lebanon for the beams of the palaces and temples. all kinds of metals, burnished and unburnished, were used as decorative accessories, especially by the chaldeans. the historians' descriptions, the foundations that have been excavated, and the sculptured buildings on the bas- reliefs, are the materials, together with well-preserved wysbergen fig. .–one of the gates of the harumat, dur-sarginu. (m.) fragments of architecture, which archæologists and archi- tects have used to enable them to restore some of the wonderful temples and palaces of ancient assyria (fig. ). the bird's-eye view of the palace of dur-sarginu will give a good idea of the typical assyrian palaces (fig. ), and the triumphal gate with its man-headed winged bulls at the base and sides (fig. ), and also the other gate at fig. , both with their crenallated battlements, serve to show the imposing character of these edifices. it will be noticed from the bird's-eye view and the gateways that the general character of assyrian architecture was rectan- chaldean and assyrian art. gular in the highest degree. the arch and vaulted struc- tures were known to the assyrians, who used them to great fig. .-interior of a temple, after layard's restoration. oooooooo advantage (figs. and ), and much more so than the egyptians, although the latter people occasionally employed them. historic ornament. the chaldeans, as would naturally be expected, used the arch construction very much in their brick buildings, as it would be the only means of carrying roofs and upper floors, where stone and timber could not easily be obtained (fig. ). the use of the column in chaldea is proved by the bas- reliefs before it developed itself in assyria ; but in either country it was not an important feature in the architec- ture, being mostly used for awnings supporting light tents பெபபெடெடெடெயி fig. .—triumphal gate at the entrance of the palace. (m.) or tabernacles; sometimes, indeed, used in a disengaged way, as proved by the views of small temples on the bas- reliefs (figs. , , ). the use of the column was not in accord with the principles of their architecture, and was only to be found in small porches, or in an engaged way against outer walls and piers (fig. ). the only capital found in a fragment, and restored by place, is shown at fig. , and two bases (figs. and ). from these remains it is assumed that the shaft was smooth and cylindrical. an incipient form of the ionic volute is seen at fig. chaldean and assyrian art. } in the capital of the small columns to the little temple (fig. ). wa fig. .—the royal palace of dur-sarginu (sargon's palace); restored by chipiez. (m.) the kings of assyria had in their palaces a great deal of luxurious furniture. the couches, chairs, and tables historic ornament. were made of wood, with bronze fittings, and decorated with ivory, gold, and lapis lazuli. the bas-relief in the british museum representing assurbanipal and his queen at a banquet (figs. and ) will give a good idea of mgogo, fig. .—a bedroom in the harem at dur-sarginu (sargon's palace). (m.) the extreme richness in design and decoration of these sumptuous articles of furniture (fig. ). bronze sockets (fig. ) and all kinds of fragments in metal and ivory fittings, and decorations correspond- ing to the designs on the bas-reliefs, all indicate that the anathemas of the prophet nahum (nahum ii. ) gave chaldean and assyrian art. a good picture of nineveh's richness in the sumptuary arts. “take ye the spoil of silver," he exclaims, “take the // fig. .- capital of temple at fig. . (p. & c.) fig. .-capital. (p. & c.) chi fig. .--temple on the bank of a river, khorsabad, from batta. (p. & c spoil of gold; for there is none end of the store and glory out of all the pleasant furniture.” historic ornament. animals have been represented with such faithfulness, especially in their most vigorous and ferocious aspects, by the sculptors of assyria, that in any notice of assyrian art fig. .–fragment of an assyrian building from a bas-relief, b.m. (p. & c.) fig. .-ornamented base of limestone. (p. & c.) wa they must have a place. lions especially were rendered in all their ferociousness, and were the favourite game for kingly sport (figs. , , ). lions were kept in cages, wii pumpign puri fig. .-winged sphinx carrying base of capital. layard. (p. & c.) fig. .- assyrian capital compiled from place. (p. & c.) fig. .-assurbanipal and his queen feasting in the gardens of the harem after the battle. the head of teuman, the elamite king, hangs on the left on the sacred tree. (m.) maula fh armu niz iiiiii. title buddr mum tilaukut to go st elmeg av tier jumte.it fig. .—the feast of assurbanipal. (b.m.) (p. & c.) enlarged detail of fig. , showing the assyrian furniture. drawn by gautier- chaldean and assyrian art. and let out when the monarch decided to have a day's hunting (fig. ). dogs were specially trained for lion- hunting (fig. ). we add two illustrations of the sphinx variety of fan- tastic animals; one is the most remarkable creation of all the fantastic animals of assyria (fig. ). it has the horns of a ram, a bull's head, a bird's beak; body, tail, and ll!!! .!! de elo مریم m's ? fig. .-assyrian stool; from layard. (p. & c.) fore-legs of a lion; and the hind-legs and wings of the eagle. the andro-sphinx (fig. ) from the robe of assurbanipal foreshadows the fabulous centaurs of grecian art. other bi-form creations have been found in assyrian art bearing a close resemblance to the greek centaur. the purely ornamental forms from the vegetable world that have been used in assyrian and chaldean art are limited in number. the daisy or rosette is the commonest historic ornament. wav dun mont ) ilu: fig. .—bronze foot of a piece of furniture. s.cme cartier fig. .–lion coming out of his cage. (b.m.) (p. & c.) chaldean and assyrian art. (figs. and ). in the illustration of the “lion and lioness in a park” (fig. ) the daisy is beautifully though conventionally rendered; the large leaves at the comteg , fig. .-lion and lioness in a park. (b.m.) (p. & c.) bottom are typically the common daisy leaves; the vine is no less well executed, and the lioness on the same bas- relief is treated with consummate skill. the vine is also - what l/if ৫. fig. .—combat between a lion and a unicorn; from layard. (p. & c.) i/?.. . *ং, ! hit @jন্যান্ট " fig. . - dog used for lion hunting. (m.) ")))). fig. . -- chariot horses; from layard. (p. & c.) chaldean and assyrian art. seen to great advantage in its conventional treatment at figs. and . there is an assyrian ornament called the “knop and fig. .- fantastic animal, drawn by gäüiier. (p. & c.) ww shelme. flower” ornament, which occurs in various forms and in endless profusion in egyptian, assyrian, persian, and greek, and even is copied down to indian and roman historic ornament. ornament. it may be native, or some forms of it at least, to assyrian ornament, but is undoubtedly egyptian in its earliest source; we have spoken of it before in our notice of egyptian ornament as being derived from the lotus (page ). it appears on the rich border of the carved threshold (fig. ); the flower there is undoubtedly a lotus, and the bud or "knop" may be a representation of a “fir-cone,” or may be meant for the closed lotus-bud. another form of the same elements occurs at fig. , in a beautiful design enclosed in a square, forming one of the central patterns of a similar sill or threshold, and this form fig. .-andrɔ-sphinx, robe of assurbanipal; from layard. (p. & c.) of it would doubtless also be used for a ceiling decoration of the palaces. a bouquet of similar flowers is seen at fig. of the date of assurbanipal ( - b.c.). it is very difficult to say whether this bouquet represents the lotus or not, as, according to the testimony of layard, the lotus flower is only to be found on the most recent of assyrian monuments dating from the eighth and seventh centuries b.c., at the time when assyria had invaded and occupied the delta of egypt. if not the lotus flower, some- thing very like has been found on monuments in assyria much older than these dates. as the result of some recent scientific examinations into the origin of pattern, some investigators have decided that chaldean and assyrian art. the “knop and flower” patterns of assyrian ornament (figs. , , and ) are but evolutions of tassels, and knotted fringes of matting and embroideries, just because zwas , fig. .-detail from the enamelled archivolt, khorsabad ; from place. (p. & c.) pen they bear a not very clear resemblance to such trimmings as we see on the tabernacle on the balâwât gates (fig. ), &c. we admit that there is a fancied resemblance in- l vol. i. friwwers ... ;-)!!! fig. .-- rosette of lotus flowers and buds. (p. & c.) fig. .-bouquet of flowers and buds; from layard. (p. & c.) chaldean and assyrian art. many ornamental forms to patterns that have been evolved from constructed articles, especially from woven and matted examples, but it is an insult to the intelligence of an artist to ask him to believe that the beautiful and clearly dis- tinctive floral, bud and palmate borders in egyptian, .. ;": lin - ko untire uw பராமாப்பயறு 'tilýsin pulit fig. .—tabernacle from the balâwât gates. (b.m.) (p. & c.) date, b.c. to . assyrian, and greek art have resulted from tyings and knottings of the fringed ends of mats, when one can clearly see the daisy-in some cases turned to a disk—the palm, and, above all, the lotus, almost naturally drawn and modelled; even the connecting lines of flower and buds, where scientific connection with the fringed-end idea seems the strongest in the eyes of the evolutionist, will be found on examination to be always used in the exact reverse way historic ornament. os kkkkkkkk as <<<<<<< o to that which is formed by the constructive joinings of the knotted fringe. (see figs. and .) it will require an amazing quantity of scientific proof to get rid of the lotus in egyp- tian ornament, and much also to turn it and the daisy into tassel knots in assyrian ornament, when we have overwhelming evidence as to the natural representa- tions of such floral forms, as well the conventional designs derived from them, on the very oldest monu- ments in both countries. the “sacred tree," or “tree of life," is often represented in assyrian art, and under different forms, but generally with a king or some divinity on either side of it, paying homage (figs. , a, ). an enlarged portion of it is seen at fig. . the exact meaning of the “ sacred tree ” has not yet been satisfactorily explained, but, at any rate, it seems likely enough that it repre- sents a palm-tree, shown by the palmate head and by the conventional markings on the trunk, no doubt meant for the bark roughening lines. the surrounding palmates may be meant to represent a leafy enclosure for the sacred tree in the centre, or the whole thing may be a conventional picture of a sacred grove. <<kkkkkkkkkk kkk kk <<<<<<<<<<<<k fig. .-painted ornament on piaster ; from layard. (p. & c.) chaldean and assyrian art. owing to the comparative lateness of the universal use of the lotus in assyrian art, we can well imagine that this الدور از ," med all اور / ligne fig. .-upper portion of a tree of life; from layard. (p. & c.) flower form was introduced into assyria by the articles in bronze, ivory, and other material by the phænician traders, la fig. . --guilloche ornament on enamelled brick. (b.m.) (p. & c.) that were both of egyptian and phoenician design, as there was scarcely an article of commerce on which the historic ornament. lotus was not represented in those early days of phænician trade to b.c. * נינינו idee stelm. fig. .-ivory plaque; actual size. drawn by gautier. (p. & c.) another very characteristic ornament of the assyrian decorations is the double-interlacing meander, or guilloche chaldean and assyrian art. pid (figs. and ). it is generally found in combination with the other ornaments just spoken of, both on tiles and in ivory engraving. it is sometimes called “cable orna- ment” or “snare-work," from the appearance it has to a rope or cable twisted around the eyes of posts. it has been used very much by the greeks and romans. minen the art of ivory carv- ing and engraving was practised in assyria, judging from some plaques and carvings that have been found that are distinctly as- syrian in motive and design (fig. ), and from many elephants' tusks that have come to light from the ruins of the buried palaces; but it has been clearly estab- lished that the art was first introduced into assyria by the importa- tion of the egyptian plaques and other carv- lil (allật" ings, and also by the imitations of egyptian fig. .-ivory plaque found at nimroud. (b.m.) (p. & c.) articles made by phoe- nician artists, and probably sold to the assyrians as the product of egypt. fig. , a small plaque, is quite likely to be one of these imitations of egyptian design with the lotus-tree of life which rests on a support or top of a capital. this form of lotus capital is found everywhere in cyprus, and in all countries where phoenician trade extended. it is dis- tinctly egyptian in origin, and more than likely is the shelme tomte historic ornament. origin of the ionic volute capital of the greeks. the small and beautifully carved sphinx (fig. ) is one of the many egyptian ivories that had found its way to assyria, and is immeasurably superior in workmanship to any of the assyrian carvings. it may be remarked here that the assyrian artist ex- celled in the flat or engraved treatment of his designs in nearly every branch of art, but was inferior in workman- ship to the egyptian in carved work in the round; though fig. . - ivory fragment in british museum ; actual size. drawn by gautier. (p. & c.) in expressing intense life, virility, and movement, espe- cially in the representation of animals, he was superior to the egyptian artist. there is one important product of assyrian art that deserves notice—the exquisite bronze bowls, cups, and platters, made in repoussé and finished off with the engraver's burin (fig. , ). in these products we may recognise the renaissance of assyrian art, based on the art of the egyptians. that they must have had their origin in assyria no one can doubt, when we think that chaldean and assyrian art. the working in bronze was so well known in assyria and babylonia ; for example, we quote the magnificent balâwât plates, of repoussé bronze, of shalmaneser ii. pomtes !!! fig. .—bronze platter, ins. diameter. (b.m.) drawn by wallet. (p. & c.) ut- (b.c. — ) now in the british museum ; and although the designs on some of them are distinctly egyptian (fig. ), not one specimen of such bowls or platters has yet been found in the valley of the nile. historic ornament. d rin biggo e wallet ild: fig. .- bronze cup, diameter ins. ; from layard. it may be reasonably assumed that the egyptian motives were copied from ivories or painted vases brought to chaldean and assyrian art. - assyria by the phoenicians, and that those master workers in bronze, the assyrians, copied such designs on their platters and cups, and afterwards introduced their own distinctive designs, as may be seen in fig. , a design which is assyrian in every detail, with no egyptian trace. designs like the latter disprove the theory that these bronze bowls and dishes were altogether made in work- shops of tyre and byblos, but undoubtedly the phænician artists—who really invented nothing-may have in their turn copied these designs on their wares, when they found such handy and portable goods might be easily transported, fig. .--border of a bronze cup ; from layard. (p. & c.) and would be sure to find a ready market in other countries bordering on the mediterranean, as we shall see when treating of phoenician art. the importance of the design on such handy and indestructible articles on the art of the greeks, cypriots, and etruscans, not only from the work- manship point of view, but from the themes portrayed on them suggesting ornament, and other subject matter, perhaps religious motives as well, to the rising civilisation of the countries named, can hardly be exaggerated. in painting on plaster (fig. ) or enamelling on tiles (figs. and ) and bricks, the babylonians and assyrians used very few colours, not more than five or six, but they used them with great advantage and decorative historic ornament. effect, and always in flat tints. their painted figures were, as a rule, not intended for any other meaning than their geometric ornament, and merely used as units in the ornamental scheme (fig. ). the colours were: blue from the lapis lazuli; yellow, an antimoniate of lead and a little tin; white, an oxide of tin ; black, an animal char- coal; red, an oxide of iron ; and another blue from the taf . fiat let themen c'. fig. . cylinder; from soldi. (p. & c.) fig. .-assyrian cylinder. worship of sacred tree. (b.m.) (p. & c.) oxide of copper completes, as near as possible, the range of their palette. the nearly universal colour of the groundwork was blue, a deep dark blue from the lapis lazuli. at khorsabad m. place found a mass of powdered blue, over two pounds in weight, that was found to be made from the lapis lazuli for the purpose of enamelling. the main portion of the decoration was yellow, but often white was used with black outlines, and red sparingly. a green tint was less common, but was supposed to be obtained from a mixture of the yellow and copper blue oxide. remains of pottery are not very plentiful, and the forms chaldean and assyrian art. have nothing distinctive that calls for special notice. the vessels, such as vases, cups, and buckets of bronze, are elegant in form and decoration (fig. ). jewellery and personal decoration have only been found in a limited quantity, and not of a very good quality in design or material: the bas-reliefs furnish our best infor- mation on what existed in these articles. gem cutting and cylinder engraving were arts very much practised in babylonia and assyria (fig. ). the 'ilir i killl! sila? . wosiamini fig. .-bronze bucket ; from layard. (p. & c.) cylinders usually were engraved with subjects of a re- ligious character. the illustration shows one of the best engraved assyrian cylinders that has yet been found. it represents the king and deities at the worship of the sacred tree, and the god assur. in the hands of the deities may be seen the bronze buckets shown at fig . this subject is supposed to be a copy from a bas-relief. the material of these cylinders was generally of serpen- tine, chalcedony, agate, black marble, jasper, &c., and they were used to impress clay documents with, in a similar way as in the use of ordinary seals (fig. ). chapter ix. phenician art. the origin of the phænician people remains in obscurity. according to herodotus, we learn that they came as an eastern branch of the canaanitish peoples, of which race the greeks were also a part, and who settled at the foot of lebanon, on the syrian sea-coast, between mounts carmel and casius. the phænician and hebrew languages resembled each other very closely, and from this it has been argued that the phænicians belonged to the semitic race of the hebrews. ancient phænicia was a narrow strip of land, miles long by only a few miles in width at its widest part. the three principal towns in ancient times were tyre, sidon, and joppa; three others of importance were arvad, gebal or byblos, and accho or acre. arvad in the north, was, like tyre in the south, built on a rock some little distance from the mainland. tyre was for a long time impregnable on its rocky seat, with a channel of about three-quarters of a mile dividing it from the coast of the mainland. · owing to its peculiar position, it could defy all unmaritime nations, and it was not until alexander the great built an isthmus connect- ing it with the phoenician coast that it fell. the inhabi- tants of gebal or byblos, were, according to rénan, more jewish-like than any other phænician people. sidon was the first town of phoenicia to rise to import- ance, and tyre afterwards, with greater vigour, rose to power and greatness; and both, from being originally phenician art . . colonies of poor fishermen, became the famous ports which sent forth ships to all points of the mediterranean, and even to the british isles, carrying all kinds of mer- chandise to barter for silver, gold, and tin, as well as for other raw materials from the barbarians beyond the seas, and carrying these raw materials back to supply the artists and artificers of the east. no two cities of the ancient world did so much for the spread and progress of human civilisation as the maritime cities of tyre and sidon. like the rest of phoenicia, sidon, the first in power, fig. .–phoenician merchant galley; from layard. (p. & c.) accepted without resistance the supremacy of egypt. this was indeed to her great advantage, for the ships of sidon could fly the egyptian flag in any part of the mediterranean or other seas, and so exist secure under the protection of the mighty monarchs of that great country. in return for this protection the phænicians carried on a successful trade with egyptian goods, thus benefiting themselves, and their masters to even a greater degree. the phoenician fleets were, in fact, at the entire dis- historic ornament. posal of the egyptians, who possessed, in the early days, no fleet of their own. sidon was sacked and taken by the philistines about b.c. or , and from that period tyre rose in supre- macy. the first tyrian king known by name was abi- baal, the contemporary of david; his son was hiram, the friend of solomon. afterwards tyre, with its close intercourse with egypt, established colonies on the delta of the nile, the most renowned of which was called the “new city,” kart- fig. .-phoenician war galley ; from layard. (p. & c.) hadast, called by the greeks carchedon, and by the romane carthage. this daughter of tyre rose to great prosperity, but never forgot her allegiance to the mother city. their combined fleets sailed to, and founded, colonies in sar- dinia, cyprus, the grecian archipelago, and to spain, doing enormous trade with both east and west. the phænician ships that are known to us from the relief representations are of two kinds, the round-prowed galleys, or cargo-carriers (fig. ), and the ram-stemmed vessels, or war galleys (fig. ). there is no record that phenician art. has been found of their larger sea-going “merchant- men” ships. the growing power of the greeks and etruscans, and their improvement in shipbuilding, was a new competition fig. .-carthaginian coin, silver. (p. & c.) with the ships of tyre in the east, and at length forced the tyrians to find new markets in the west. the staple trade of the tyrians had now become that of metals, the chief of which was tin, owing to the great fig. .-carthaginian coin, electrum. (p. & c.) demand for it in the manufacture of bronze in this period. their ships went as far as the scilly isles, to cornwall, and to ireland. diodorus mentions that the inhabitants of great britain were much softened in their manners by their intercourse with the “strangers ” who came to their vol. i. m historic ornament. shores for tin. it is supposed that the strangers alluded to were the phænician carthaginians. fig. .-votive stele, from carthage, with sacred emblems. (p. & c.) in the fourth century b.c. the carthaginians waged a war against the sicilian greeks, and carried off the statues of fig. .-sacred emblems, from a carthaginian votive stele. (p. & c.) gods from their temples, and went so far as to copy their money the early phænician coins being copies of greek phenician art. ones (figs. , ). the votive stele (fig. ), from carthage, shows the greek ionic-like columns, with the “blessing hand," and a collection of sacred phoenician emblems. greek architects were employed in carthage about this time. phænician architecture in every case consisted of borrowed forms from surrounding nations. the sacred emblems (fig. ) are supposed to repre- sent the cone-shaped stones, betyla, from bethel, the epac .. . byb aoy* fig. .-coin of byblos, with sacred cone, enlarged. (p. & c.) “house of god,” the great worship of the phænicians. the sign at the top is meant for a rude idea of the head and arms of a god (tanit, face of baal :). the figure on the right is the cone again, with the emblems of the goddess astarte (aphrodite), the lunar signs. the sacred cone is seen surrounded by the temple court on the coin of byblos (fig. ). the small statuettes of the phænician gods and god- desses (fig. ) were the originals from which the greeks developed their sculptured figures in the round among historic ornament. the gods of the phoenicians were : baal, the master, the bel of assyria, which seems to be a generic title for any chief divinity of a town or place, such as baal peor, baal- sidon, baal-tsour, or the baal of tyre; tanit, or the face of baal, worshipped at carthage; moloch, or melek. melkart- baal-tsour was the full name of the great god of tyre, which means “melkart, master of tyre.” baalat was the title for “mistress,” the goddess who shared the throne of baal. sidon-astoret was the baalat of sidon, the god- dess astarte, the istar of the assyrians, and the aphrodite or venus of the greeks and romans (fig. ). she was a favourite divinity with the phoenicians, and more personal than any of their other divini- ties. she was nature itself, the great goddess of life, pre- siding over creation and also destruction. this syro-phe- nician goddess of the si- donians was adopted by cyprus, cythera, paphos, and eryx, in sicily. she is also fig. .-astarte, terra-cotta, height ] ins. (p. & c.) supposed to be the moon-god- dess. the dove was sacred to her, and was offered to her in sacrifice; a phænician statuette (fig. ) represents her with a dove in her hand. the phænicians had many other minor gods. phenician art. a terra-cotta model of a small temple is peculiar in design (fig. ); it was found in cyprus, and may have been the model of the shrine sacred to astarte. as before mentioned, phænician architecture, from the few remains of it that have been found, consists of borrowed forms from other nations, and if any development even in the orna- mental forms is noticeable, it can generally be traced to the rising influence of the greeks, especially in cyprus and carthage. the tomb at amrit (fig. ) is, on the other ele selmes fig. .—model of a small temple, in terra-cotta, louvre. (p. & c) hand, decidedly assyrian in every detail, and is a happy example of architectural proportion. the fragment of an entablature from a temple at byblos (fig. ) is of a later date, and has for design and decoration of the moulding the strongly marked features of græco-roman work, with the addition of the egyptian winged globe and asps. cyprus was a phænician dependency; many vases, and a great multitude of other objects of art and treasures, have been brought to light from tombs and from the historic ornament. subterranean chambers of former temples, mainly through the instrumentality of general di cesnola. winnut fig. .–tomb of amrit, restored from renan. (p. & c.) the series of capitals (figs. to ) show strongly the principle of the ionic volutes. the first (fig. ) is . mat phenician art. fig. .-entablature, from a temple at byblos. drawn by wallet. (p. & c.) the simplest, the next (fig. ) has the tri- angular point between the lower volutes that we see in so many lotus forms in egyptian work (see fig. ), and ☺ has besides the curious double boat-shaped vo- lutes above, with other lotus-buds under the a bacus. another capital (fig. ) has all the elements of the erectheum ionic capital, but arranged in a totally different order, and is more by- zantine than anything else. the capital found at kition, in cyprus, is decidedly ionic greek, but in its earlier stage, just before the period of the fully developed ionic (fig. ). it can hardly be doubted that the first two of decidedly egyptian elements are derived from the lotus, and may certainly be taken as the forerunners of the pure ionic greek. the capital from kition be- longed to a temple of astarte, that once stood on the mound at kition. zant va varto historic ornament. the capital found at golgos (fig. ) is distinctly an early form of greek doric. if little remains of phoenician fig .-cypriot capital. (p. & c.) apenastik mush u pretoria etoilejlijedil fig. .-cypriot capital. (p. & c.) architecture have been found, on the other hand many objects of minor art have been brought to light, bearing on their face the unmistakable stamp of phoenician workman- ship. phenician art. some of the bronze bowls and platters, and cups of silver, and also carvings in ivory, although generally mavimumyvan fig. .–capital at djezza, limestone. drawn by saladin. height, ins. (p. & c.) vas تارکر fig. .- capital from kition, height ins. drawn by saladin. (p. & c.) composed of egyptian or assyrian design, were really the work of phoenician artificers. the latter were not slow in copying the motives of the above-named nations, but historic ornament. the workmanship, especially in bronze and silver, was their own. the phænicians were highly skilled in metal work, and we have proof that they were employed in the building and decorating of the temple at jerusalem. the bronze and silver bowls and platters were carried to all countries where the phænicians had trading transactions, and they have been found at mycenæ, etruria, cyprus, sardinia, &c. as stated before in our notice of these objects in assyrian art, the assyrians were the first to make these articles from copies of egyptian design, and then producing others with purely assyrian designs. eh. fig. .-capital from golgos (ceccaldi). (p. & c.) the phoenicians in their turn imitated both, and did a great trade with them. the silver platter (fig. ) was found, in , in the necropolis of ancient præneste, in latium, and in the same tomb was found a quantity of vases, diadems, and jewels, all of phænician workmanship. on this platter a clearly engraved inscription occurs in phænician characters, giving the name of the first owner, esmunjair-ben-asto. the phoenician inscriptions, and above all, the want of method or arrangement of themes or motives on the articles, stamp them to be of phænician origin. the silver platter has more meaning in the use of the egyptian motives than some others, but the hiero- lygphics are not to be relied on as correctly egyptian. phenician art. pitjieji sista . ) the silver-gilt cup or patera from curium (fig. ) is a fair illustration of this mixture of egyptian and assyrian ideas put together from a multitude of stock-in-trade pows : passo jeno あり ​tas mites yksins pomte e.wallet del fig. .-phoenician platter, silver, diameter ins. drawn by wallet. (p. & c.) subjects or patterns. the centre piece is assyrian, and also the cable ornament. the inner row of animals are assyrian in feeling, but an egyptian sphinx is introduced historic ornament. amongst them; but the outer border is the most curious of all, as it contains six or seven distinct egyptian scenes, each divided by the tree of life or palmates, taken at hap- img od teras do somte e.walles fig. .-patera from curium, diameter ins. (p. & c.) hazard from designs of bas-reliefs. the phænician gold- smith, evidently not understanding the story of these egyptian mysteries, used them merely as decorative units. phenician art. the workmanship is admirable; first the work is beaten up in repoussé and then chased afterwards, and may be described as a mixture of the two methods. a beautiful egyptian design of a cow and calf in a papyrus brake forms the centre medallion of a phænician cup found at caere (fig. ). the egyptian vessels figured in the tomb of rekhmara (fig. ) are mostly made in metal and are of phoenician wollet fig. .-centre medallion ; from a cup from griffi. (p. & c.) design. they would be sold to the egyptians, as the former supplied the latter in most articles of metal workmanship; many rims and handles of elaborate workmanship have been found, but scarcely any whole forms of these vases, though we have many of their forms preserved in greek and etruscan work. in articles of personal jewellery the phænicians were as skilful as the greeks and etruscans; it was only in the matter of higher motives in design that the greeks excelled historic ornament. the phænicians. we give one or two specimens of their jewellery at figs. to . i mu ΘΙΟΟΟΟΙΟ t winien usarl w. fig. .—vessels figured in the tomb of rekhmara ; from wilkman. cyprus was inhabited from the earliest time with a mixture of races in which the greek or hellenic element was represented, and though nominally a phoenician fig. .-gold bracelet; from tharros. (b.m.) (p. & c.) dependency, the greek superiority of artistic genius asserted itself at a very early date in the art of the country. some of the architectural features already noticed, notably phenician art. the ionic capitals, may be given as examples of this; and another very important branch, the minor art of pottery, may furnish further examples of the greek art tendency, though infused with a mixture of phænician influences. fig. . silver pin, cesnola. fig. earring, gold, from cesnola. fig. .–pendant, wild goat, gold. (b.m.) cyprus has always been particularly noted for its ceramic products. the island is rich in potter's clay of two kinds- a black earth, and a red kind. the oldest kind of cyprian historic ornament. known is of a good shape, and is generally furnished with handles according to the uses of the vase. the making and fitting on of handles is only achieved when the art of the potter has been well advanced. the two vases (figs. , ) are of the oldest dates, and are decorated purely in the oldest form of geometric orna- ment. the one with the handle is particularly good in form, and has the decoration incised like sgraffito work. fig. .–bottle with incised orna- ment, from cesnola. (p. & c.) fig. .- bottle with geometric decoration. (p. & c.) fantastic shapes of animals made as vases and drinking vessels were very common in cyprus. although not many of them can be called beautiful, still it required con- siderable skill and knowledge to model them (fig. ). the goat-shaped vessel is very lifelike. the bowl or crater (fig. ) has the lotus flower and geometric bands and divisions for its decoration ; it is painted with light brown and red on a cream-coloured ground. the decora- tion from a cup is more elaborate, it has a new element in the shape of some kind of water bird arranged assyrian- phenician art. like on each side of the sacred tree, and has a sun sign filling up a space close to one of the bird's legs (fig. ). another very interesting and beautiful vase is the enochoé (fig. ). another bird is painted on this, and at the same time the geometric checkers and lines still cling to it as part of the decoration. on this vase, also, may be seen two moon signs, and the sacred sun sign, the tomt fig. .---vessel in the shape of a goat. (p. & c.) fylfot, or swastika, repeated four times. these sacred signs are often found on cyprian pottery. the latter vase in shape and decoration is more greek in feeling than most cyprian vases. the larger enochoé (fig. ) has the human figure with some kind of water fowls; it has a sacred sign on its lips. though the subject recalls egypt, the design and execution might have been done by a vol. i. n historic ornament. clever greek artist. the style of execution and drawing on these vases may be a little archaic, but the design and bold manner of execution is eminently correct and could not be better for the decoration of pottery. the discovery of glass making has been attributed to the phænicians, but this is not correct; the egyptians made glass articles, and used glass in their vitreous enamelled tiles and bricks long before the phænicians had any connection with egypt. it was most likely because com sele fig. .—bowl in the piot collection, height ins. (p. & c.) the phænicians traded so much in glass, and for the reasons also that they had large glass manufactories at tyre and other places, that they have received the credit from early times of being the inventors of glass. the oldest dated glass bottle or vase in the world is one from egypt, and now in the british museum. it bears the name of thothmes iii. (b.c. ). the body is turquoise blue with yellow details of decoration and hieroglyphics; the handle is dark blue with yellow and white markings. phenician art. the phænicians at a later period were extensive makers of glass articles, and made glass of three kinds, the clear m fig. .-detail of the decoration of a cup. (p. & c.) / min ko'y rh and transparent, but always with a slight greenish hue, the coloured and transparent, and the opaque. a great quantity of glass bottles, statuettes, vases, historic ornament. x plaques, and beads have been found in cyprus. the bottles and vases that were prized most highly were decorated chiefly in alternating lines of bright colours, such as blues, greens, yellows, white, and purple. beads, cones, amulets, scarabs, heads of animals, and statuettes, as well as bottles and vases, were made both by phænician and egyptian workmen, some cast in moulds and some blown. there is a cup in the french national library called the cup of chosroes ii., made of glass, and decorated with artificial gems. the finest work of art in glass is the famous portland vase in the british museum. the decoration on this vase is in relief in cameo glass. the small cylindrical per- fume bottles in glass known as alabastrons are of the highest antiquity; they were usually placed in the hands of the dead. in the art of weaving and making textiles the phoe- w. nicians are not credited with making anything fig. .-enochoé, new york museum. (p. & c.) different from the orientals or egyptians, and perhaps supplied themselves with the egyptian muslins and linens, and had their rugs and carpets from the east, which were famed then as now for their soft nature and brightness of colouring. we have evidence from homer that the sidonian slaves were very skilful at embroidery. “with threads of gold, or with a colour contrasting with that of the ground, they drew fantastic beasts of every kind." these embroideries would likely have similar decoration to that which is found on the metal platters, and perhaps imitations of those decorations we see on the embroidered ४ y phenician art. robes of the assyrian kings' mantles (figs. a, a), and the scheme of decoration would likely be a division of the field into bands and circles, each filled with egyptian or assyrian motives. in cyprus, we can easily infer that the textiles would wollte rowyr fig. .- enochoé, new york museum. (p. & c.) be strongly influenced, as other manufactures were, by egyptian art. the phænicians were noted for their famous purple dye obtained from the murex and purpura families of shell-fish. this purple dye was of world-wide renown. its great advantage was that on its exposure to light and sunshine it became more fast and more intense in colour, which is contrary to most dyes. it was very historic ornament. costly by reason of the difficulty in extracting it from the fish, and of the enormous quantities required to produce even a small quantity of the dye. the city of tyre had extensive factories for the manufacture of the tyrian purple. it is not obtained now from the shell-fish, as, of course, many other ways and cheaper have been found to produce a similar colour. the phænicians were adepts fig. .-intaglio on chalce. at ivory-carving, shell-engrav- dony. (p. & c.) ing, and gem - cutting (fig. ), as many examples of these arts have been found, but we regret that the limitations of this volume prevent us from going into these subjects as fully as we might wish. chapter x. art in ancient persia. persia occupies what is known as the tableland of iran, and is a plateau bounded on the north by the elburz mountains, armenia, and afghanistan ; the bol-ur and hindu-kush in the east; the heights that are parallel to the indian ocean in the south; and the persian gulf, the chains of zagros, and ararat in the west. the zagros mountains separated persia on that portion of the iran plateau from assyria, which was known as part of media. the assyrians under tiglath-pileser scaled these mountains and conquered the medes. the medes have always been considered with the persians as forming part of one nation, being closely related to each other in language, religion, manners, and customs. the medes were the first to emerge from barbarism, owing to their nearness to the assyrians. after the con- quest of babylon (b.c. ) the medes and the persians descended from their mountains into the valley of the tigris, under cyrus, the first persian king of the achæ- menidæan dynasty. the name achæmenidæ was given by the greeks to the descendants of a native chief called akhamanish, and one of the oldest families of persia. cyrus marched through asia minor to asiatic greece, seized all the cities on his way, and made them pay tribute. under cambyses (b.c. ) the countries of syria, palestine, phoenicia, assyria, babylonia, and egypt- nearly all the old-world civilisation from the mediter- ווווווווווין fig. .-naksh- -rustem, general view of the rock-cut tombs. (f.c.) make sure om urugedades sonogrossomst juuluuuuuu .. ii. thue w ww lawi " selme fig. .-persepolis. tomb on the north-east. elevation. (f.c.) historic ornament. ranean to the indus—belonged to the persian empire. hostilities were kept up between the asiatics and hellenes for two hundred years, until alexander the great ended them at the battles of issus and arbela ( - b.c.). for nearly a century persia was under the vassalage of the greeks, but still kept her ancient customs and her ancient cult of fire-worship, the national religion, although this was in a great measure undermined and weakened by the teachings of the greek conquerors. the greeks were, in turn, overthrown by the parthians, a northern asiatic tribe who ruled in persia down to b.c. , when the native sassanidæ family of the south restored persia to her former freedom, and installed again the ancient worship of ahurâ-mazda, and also tried to restore the art of the first dynasty. the greek and roman influence was, however, too strong at this period to be entirely shaken off, in spite of the renewed display of patriotism. for instance, a great quantity of greek furniture, utensils, and figures of greek gods must have found their way into persia during the reign of the seleucidæ-the greek rulers--and must have influenced the native persian art; besides borrowed ideas from the art objects and other things that the persians at a former time pillaged from the greek temples and carried home with them. when the arabs finally overthrew the sassanid dynasty and conquered persia, the state reli- gion of fire-worship was proscribed, but the moslem religion never took the same hold in persia as it did in other countries, the persians adopting the secular form of it—the shiah-as opposed to the more devout form, the sunni. to this reason is assigned the independence of persia to the present day amongst the other moslem countries of the world. it was during the period of the first empire that the greatest works in architecture first appeared in persia. it is clear from the remains of this period that the national architecture of persia was composed of a mixture of om fig. .–funeral tower at naksh-i-rustem. (d.) (p. & c.) historic ornament. assyrian, egyptian, and greek elements, blended together in an original way. the artists and architects who pro- duced the national persian style were hardly native persians, as there was no previous style of any importance in persia on which such great works as the famous palaces could be founded or developed from. it is, therefore, quite likely that the artists and architects were of phoenician or greek nationality. indeed, records of greek names appear on the buildings as architects of some of the palaces of the best periods, and ancient history mentions the names of more than one greek sculptor that was brought to persia for this purpose by the victorious kings, and induced to work for them by being well treated and cared for. many of the greek artists were also political refugees who found employment and a hearty welcome in persia. it was when cyrus had become master of western asia that the persians began to think of building the famous palaces at persepolis, susa, and pasargadæ. most of these palaces and the tombs were built of a close- grained limestone that is found very plentiful in the mountainous country of persia. the royal tombs were, as a rule, cut out of the living limestone rock (fig. ). they are of the time of darius, and are all of one type that seems to have been invented by one mind, and, after the first was cut, speos-like, out of the native rock-pro- bably that of darius itself-the rest were copied faithfully from it. the great height from the ground of the tomb itself was arranged for safety from violation. the sculp- tured figure of the king is represented near the top, in the act of worshipping the sacred fire seen on the right; at the centre of the top of the field is seen the emblem of the god ahurâ-mazda and the sun disk (fig. ). an older form of tomb, the “built" tomb, is seen at the right of the rock-cut tombs, and a larger illustration of this rectangular cemetery is seen at fig. . the latter type of tomb belongs to the time of cyrus. we must not look for much in the way of religious art in ancient persia. architecture in ancient persia. where temples in other countries were required, fire-altars took their place in persia (fig. ). these altars, by reason of their uses, fig. .–fire altars, naksh-i-rustem. (f.c.) (p. & c.) were generally found in “high places," on summits of hills and on rocks. the fire-altars at naksh-i-rustem are really one with the rock on which they stand. remains of a fire-temple art in ancient persia. the buildings in persia of the achæmenidæ dynasty, both palaces and tombs, are of the pillar and beam, or the architrave system of construction. the horizontal duollow fig. .-fragment of a door-frame from a hypostyle hall, sausa. (d.) (p. & c.) tudiittimetime elu , gwiz::s ceilings were of wood, and were panelled very elabo- rately, and rested on stone supports. the doorways and windows are square-headed, upholding a lintel (fig. ). historic ornament. un quo tona jc , м face and profile of principal doorways. face and profile of lateral doorways. profile of window. face of cornice. profile of niche. fig. .-elevations and sections of doorways and windows of a palace at persepolis. (f.c.) (p. & c.) art in ancient persia. the doorway, at fig. , of a royal tomb, is a very rich specimen of a decorated persian doorway. the fig. . – persepolis, doorway to royal tomh. (d.) (p. & c.) egyptian “gorge” is seen in the cornice, but the persian treatment of this feature is shown in the channelled vol. i. o historic ornament. grooves, with imbricated markings between each channel. the rosettes, too numerous here to be in good taste, are jxul no or fig. .- view of a group of domed buildings, from an assyrian bas-relief. layard. (p. & c.) evidently borrowed from the assyrians. the door-frame, from susa (fig. ), restored by dieulafoy, is, on the art in ancient persia. contrary, a beautiful example of good proportion and restraint in decoration. it would pass for an example of greek work in its classic simplicity. the walls of the palaces were usually crenellated or embattled (figs. and ). the staircase walls and other parts of the buildings were often covered with tiles made of a white cement, and m tomasz &c tom fig. .–palace at sarvistan, principal façade. (f.c.) (p. & c.) example of domed and vaulted structure. enamelled in colour decoration. these have been found chiefly at susa. the principal parts or body of the build- ing were of stone or brick, and the upper parts were supposed to be of wood. this is correctly inferred by the stepped notches still to be seen in the antæ, or corner piers of stone, which must have been cut in this way to receive the ends of the ceiling beams (perrot & chipiez). wood was a scarce material in persia, and must have been brought from the elburz mountains at a great cost historic ornament. of time and labour ; but this would be nothing to a king like darius, whose revenue was reckoned at about £ , , of english money. e_ etiketti uud ܕ fig. .–base of pillar at susa. (d.) (p. & c.) fig. .- column with volute capital, persepolis. remains of persian buildings of another order, the vaulted structures (fig. ), have been found at sarvistan and ferūz-abad, in the province of fars (ancient persia), which some archæologists have ascribed to the time of the sassinid dynasty, the construction of which is supposed to . a danildal b В. tomasz. fig. .-base and capital from persepolis; propylæa. (f.c.) (p. & c.) நாராக hom so fig. .-capital and base from liypostyle hall of xerxes, persepolis (f.c.) (p. & c.) art in ancient persia. have been derived from their prototypes, the domed and vaulted buildings of assyria (see fig. ). wwporno sili fig. .- upright of royal throne, naksh-i-rustem. (f.c.) (p. & c.) the most distinctly persian feature in all the architec- ture of persia is undoubtedly the column with its double- bull-headed capital (fig. ). archæologists are divided historic ornament. in opinion as to whether it is derived from egyptian or from assyrian sources. if it is a borrowed idea, the .. . ot fig. .-staircase wall of the palace of xerxes at persepolis. (f.c.) (p. & c.) persians may certainly be credited with developing the supposed idea into something wonderfully unique and interesting as a capital. the name zoophoros (life-bearing) art in ancient persia. has been given to it. perrot and chipiez (from whom the illustrations are taken) say that the capital was in design an inspiration from the assyrian national standard (fig. ), while dieulafoy ascribes to it an egyptian origin. the former appear to have the best of the argu- fig. .–crowning wall of staircase, palace of xerxes, persepolis. ment, for there is nothing in egyptian ornament that comes so near it as the animals of the assyrian standard, as regards position, but the supposed resemblance of idea even is not very clear in this case. the base of the persian bull-headed columns is almost as unique in its way as the capital. it is of the shape historic ornament. known as campaniform, and consists of an inverted bell of beautiful contour, richly decorated with falling leaves, a torus moulding and fillet connecting it with the shaft (fig. ). another capital has, instead of the bull heads, a lion's head, with the horn of a unicorn. this capital is wanting in the volutes and lower capital. it is as poor, in this respect, as the voluted capital is doubly rich, and can ata m jilii fig. .—temple in a royal park. (b.m.) (p. & c.) hardly be called beautiful (fig. ). it belongs to the hypostyle hall of xerxes, at persepolis. the shaft of the persian column is channelled or fluted in nearly all cases, and the number of flutings is very great, being from thirty-two to fifty-two, while the egyptian column has never more than sixteen, and the greek from sixteen to twenty-four. the great charac- teristic of the persian column is its slender and airy appearance. at persepolis the total height is twelve art in ancient persia. diameters of its shaft. some are even more slender than this. the egyptian averages, in contrast, from five to six diameters, and the greek seven to nine. the persian column had its origin in timber supports. besides the unique capitals and bases in persian art stelme fig. .-enamelled ornament on bricks from susa. drawn by gautier. (p. & c.) there is not much of the ancient persian ornament and decoration that does not strongly partake of foreign influences. the upright support of the royal throne (fig. ) is distinctly assyrian in feeling, and the upper horizontal moulding is very like greek work. a moulding is seen on the upper rounded edges of the staircase (fig. ) and on the inner portion of the parapet wall (fig. ) art in ancient persia. double palmate or lotus form of flower, alternating and joined to concentric circles to form a band. below is an egyptian chevron rather out of proportion to the rest of the design. the whole thing has a decided egyptian look, and may be a copy of the enamelled ornament of that country. the persian palaces were richly decorated with fig. .- lion, from the lion frieze in enamelled bricks at susa. (p. & c.) enamelled bricks and tiles, in strong blue, orange, white, and brown colouring, as the archer's, and lion's friezes from susa (now in the louvre) testify. these two works are reproduced in colours in perrot and chipiez' “history of art in persia.” the upper part of the crenellated parapet wall of the staircase at susa gives an idea of the extreme historic ornament. richness of the decoration in glazed tiles with enamelled covering (fig. ). the persians learnt their art of hoying eisen vit fig. .—head of one of the lions from the frieze at susa. (p. & c.) enamelling tiles and bricks from the chaldeans, and they have never lost it. under the moslem rule in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the tiles and majolica that were made for the decoration of the mosques reached a high stage art in ancient persia. of perfection, especially in the colouring. this beauty is seen more particularly in the deep azure grounds, and in their treatment of conventional flower decoration that has never been surpassed in any country. this subject will be further treated in the future notice of modern persian ornament. in animal and figure design, the persians closely imitated the assyrians and chaldeans, but were not so successful in their general treatment of them. the lion was one of the most favourite animals in persian art. the lions in the “ lion frieze” at susa were represented with more than usual vigour and ability. this frieze remains the finest work of persian design that is yet known to us, and probably was the work of a chaldean artist employed by the great persian king, darius, to decorate his palace at susa. (see figs. , ). chapter xi. grecian people and. mythology. the early inhabitants of greece were the pelasgians, a people who had the reputation of being great builders. at athens, around the acropolis, and at other places, remains of huge walls, made of unsquared stones laid in mud, have been found; these are the remains of the pelas- gian walls. the oldest historians were not disposed to make any difference between the hellenes and the pelas- gians, but see in the former a continuation merely of the old pelasgi stock. the dorians came from the mountains of thessaly, and steadily gained an ascendancy over the other tribes of greece. the ionians in the east gave an oriental colouring to hellas, both in manners, customs, and in art. there were three dialects in the language of the greeks: the doric, broad and soft; the ionic, melodious and rich; and the Æolic, a mixture to which nothing of a special charac- ter is given, except that it is the nearest to the latin. the greeks were a light-hearted and joyous race: they worshipped their gods in everything they did-in running, wrestling and dancing, in building, carving, and painting, in writing and reciting of poetry; their whole life was one of intense artistic devotion, and all their works of art were so many prayers to their gods. whatever may have been the racial differences of the hellenic peoples, they united all their physical and intellectual efforts to perfect their civilisation. they emerged from archaic barbarism step grecian people and mythology. by step, to such a refinement of culture that has had no parallel in the history of nations. it would be impossible to give an outline of grecian or roman art without describing at least the outlines of their religious beliefs as shadowed forth in their myths and in their plastic representations of the same. it would be advisable, therefore, to sketch, in as brief a manner as possible, some of the superior deities and their attributes, in order to understand better the art that was the glory of greece and the grandeur of rome. the theogony, or myths that relate to the origin of the greek gods, includes that of the romans, since the latter did not trouble themselves with the inventing of any origins for their gods, but simply borrowed them, as they did all their art, direct from the greeks, merely substituting latin names for their borrowed deities, instead of the original greek ones. zeus (jupiter) was the supreme god of the greeks, chief of the olympian deities, the “sky father,” the ruler and controller of the universe, dispenser of the thunder and lightning, rain, hail, and fertilising dew. before the birth of zeus, the greek poets tell us that ge (the earth) first emerged from chaos, and separated itself immediately from tartarus (the abyss beneath), and that eros, or love, then first sprang into existence, ge (the earth) then begat uranus (the mountains and the heavens), and pontus (the sea). by the union of the earth and uranus, the twelve titans came into existence. they represented the elementary forces of nature; there were also from this union the three cyclops, thunder, lightning, and sheet-lightning, and the three centimanes (hundred-handed), which are supposed to represent the stormy winds, the stormy sea, and the earthquakes. by union with pontus, the earth became the mother of many fabulous sea-deities. other deities, offspring of the titans, are helios, the sun; selene, the moon ; eos, the vol. i. p historic ornament. dawn. from cous and phæbe, deities of the night, are leto (dark night) and asteria, (starry night). cronus and rhea, of the family of the titans, had six children, the youngest of whom was the great god zeus. he was res- cued from the fate of being swallowed by his father, as his five brothers and sisters had been, and was brought up secretly in a grotto, on mount dicte, in crete, was nursed by nymphs and the she-goat amalthea, whilst the bees brought him honey to eat. thus the youthful zeus grew up in secrecy until he became a mighty god. the first of his exploits was to attack his father, and compel him to restore to life again his five brothers and sisters. he then found it was necessary for his supremacy to fight the titans, who disputed his authority, which he did from his stand on mount olympus, in thessaly, while the titans fought from the opposite mount othrys. this fight lasted for ten years, and ended in the defeat of the titans. after this battle zeus shared the ruling of the world with his two brothers, poseidon (neptune) and hades (pluto); the former he set as ruler over the sea, and the latter as king of the infernal regions. about this time the earth had produced another enemy to vex the peace of zeus- typhæus, a monster with a hundred fire-breathing dragons' heads, which zeus was obliged to fight also. after a mighty battle the thunderbolts of zeus prevailed, and the monster was cast into tartarus, or as virgil and pindar have it, into mount Ætna, in sicily, where he still shows his anger at times, by breathing out fire and flames against the majesty of heaven. another battle still is recorded to the credit of zeus before he was able to enjoy his undisputed dominion over the world, that is the battle with the giants, when they attempted to scale the sacred olympus by "piling ossa on pelion.” zeus and his adherent gods were again victorious, and remained ever after the undisputed lords of olympus. the story of the battle with the giants, the giganto- machia, formed a favourite subject for illustration with the grecian people and mythology. greek sculptors. the cameo of athenion depicts zeus in his chariot, and the giants attacking, having snakes for their legs (fig. ). zeus was the national god of the greeks, and was first worshipped on high places and mountain tops long before any temples were raised to his honour. he was wor- shipped all over greece, and one of his earliest shrines was at dordona, in epirus. the greatest of all his shrines was at olympia, on the northern banks of the alpheus. it was here that the olympian games were celebrated. it was also here that the great statue of zeus was set adninn fig. .-cameo of athenion. up, which was the work of the renowned greek sculptor phidias (b.c. — ). this famous statue of the supreme god of the greeks was a seated figure on a lofty throne, and was more than feet high. it was made of, or probably covered over with, plates of ivory and gold (chrys- elephantine); the ivory plates covered the exposed parts of the flesh. in his right hand he held a figure of victory, also made of ivory and gold. the sculptor sought to give his statue a look of sublime majesty, as the ruler of gods and men, and, at the same time, a kindly expression of benevo- lence, as the gracious father and dispenser of good gifts to mankind. thousands are said to have come from great historic ornament. distances in order to gaze on this masterpiece of the greatest sculptor of greece. it remained in its place for more than eight hundred years, and was supposed to have been destroyed by fire in the time of theodosius iii. the coins of elis have a seated figure, and the head of zeus on them (fig. ). a supposed copy of the head of the god is in the vatican museum. it was found at otricoli in the last century (fig. ). the worship of jupiter was also universal in italy; peelde nm v/hi. un cosa fig. .—coins of elis with the phidian zeus (after overbeck). many temples have been erected to his honour. the most famous of these was the one erected by tarquin on the capitol at rome. it had a statue of jupiter, the work of the greek artist apollonius, made of ivory and gold, and said to be a copy of the phidian zeus. zeus is credited with a numerous family. he produced pallas athene from his own head; the birth of athene is supposed to have formed part of the subject of the sculptures on the pediment of the parthenon (temple of athene at athens) the remains of which are in the british museum, but unfortunately the central figures of the pediment are wanting which depicted the event. grecian people and mythology. one of his goddess-wives was themis, of the titan family, whose children are the fates. dione was his dodonian wife, by whom he had as daughter aphrodite (venus). the arcadian zeus had for his wife maia, who fig. .—zeus of otricoli, vatican museum. was the mother of hermes (mercury). by demeter (ceres) he had a daughter persephone (proserpina), the flower goddess. by eurynome, the graces, and by leto (latona) apollo and artemis (diana). later mythology recognises hera (juno), his sister, historic ornament. to be his only legitimate wife (fig. ), and by her he had his children ares (mars), hephæstus (vulcan), and hebe. his earthly mistresses were semele,daughter of cadmus, ! fig. .—head of hera, perhaps after polycletus. king of the greek thebes, and mother of dionysus (bacchus) and others; leda, danaë, alcmene, europa, and io. the roman jupiter had at first no family, nor wives, grecian people and mythology. but later, when the greek influences were more strongly developed in roman mythology, he was made to be the son of saturn, and had juno for his wife, and minerva (athene) for his daughter. hera (juno) is the feminine counterpart of zeus (jupiter). she represents air or atmosphere, is the queen of heaven, and is the guardian goddess of marriage ties with both greeks and romans. the peacock, goose, and the cuckoo as the herald of spring, are sacred to her. the beau- tiful head (fig. ) of hera is supposed to be the work of polycletus, a celebrated greek sculptor, pallas athene (minerva) is the great virgin goddess of wisdom, of the dawn, and of war. according to some greek accounts she sprang forth to life from her father's head (zeus) fully armed with helmet and spear, chanting a war song, at which event the whole earth and sea trembled with commotion. she is represented in sculp- ture as the war goddess, in flowing robes with helmet and spear, and wearing the dreadful ægis, the breastplate of mail, with the snakes and head of medusa, that “turned all men to stone who gazed on it" (fig. ). the serpent, the owl, and the cock are sacred to her. apollo was the favourite son of zeus, and was a great god with both greeks and romans. he is the god of light, of music, and of healing. he is sometimes the god of death, sending out his arrows of sunshine that often breeds pestilence, as well as giving health. his favourite instrument is the lyre, which he plays at the feasts of the gods. his sons were orpheus, the god of music, and asclepius (Æsculapius), god of healing. delphi was the chief seat of his worship, where a gorgeous temple was erected to him. there the priestess pythia uttered the oracles that were supposed to come to her ears alone, from out of a cleft in the rock under the sacred tripod, from which also issued gaseous vapours. these oracles were sacred words of advice or warning for those who came to consult them. historic ornament. other oracles of apollo were at didyma near miletus, at clarus, and at thebes. fig. .-athene polias (villa albani). the roman emperor augustus erected a great temple to apollo on the palatine hill, in which was placed the grecian people and mythology. celebrated statue of apollo citharædus (apollo with the lyre), a work by the famous greek sculptor scopas. the statues of apollo are of two kinds : one represents him as conquering deity, strong and handsome, of youthful beauty both in face and body (fig. ); the other is in the more benign character of the pythian lute player, with long flowing garments of a feminine nature, and with a fig. .–pallas athene, naples. pleasing expression. scopas and praxiteles made many statues of apollo; copies of some of these are still in existence. these sculptors flourished about b.c. . the celebrated statue of the youthful apollo known as the apollo sauroctonus (the lizard slayer) is a work of praxiteles. aphrodite (venus) was “born of the sea foam,” as some historic ornament. say near to the island of cyprus, where she was first supposed to touch the land; many temples were built to her worship in this island. she was the goddess of love fig. .-apollo belvedere, vatican. and beauty, and of the generative and creative forces in nature; the goddess of spring, and all kinds of fertility, both in celestial and terrestrial regions. she was the grecian people and mythology. favourite deity of the grecian mariners, and was wor- shipped in cyprus and the isles of greece more than any other divinity. iris in the tempest, in referring to venus, says- “i met her deity cutting the clouds towards paphos, and her son dove-drawn with her." ( the story of her love for adonis, and of his death and coming to life again, is but the decay of nature in autumn, and its resuscitation in the spring. the seasons and the graces are her attendants, who dress and adorn her. she is accompanied by eros and hymen, the gods of love and marriage. venus of the romans is the goddess of spring, and the month of april was held sacred to her by the early italians. she was also, with them, the goddess of love and marriage. the best artists of greece put forth all their powers in painting and sculpture in their representations of the sea- born aphrodite, and if we except zeus himself, there is no other divinity of the greek mythology that has served so much as a model for the loveliest creations of the plastic genius of the greeks. the grandest conception of the goddess as a work of art is the venus of milo, found in in the island of melos (milo) (fig. ), and now in the louvre. the grandeur and majesty of this famous piece of sculpture is beyond praise. it ought to be seen in the louvre, to be appreciated at its worth, as drawings and casts do not give an adequate idea of its beauty. the medicean venus is a work of the athenian artist cleo- menes, of the later attic school, in the second century b.c. a statue of venus anadyomene (rising from the sea), of “venus crouching in the bath" (vatican collection), and of “venus loosing her sandal,” are all of this later and declining period of greek sculpture, where the goddess is represented undraped and more realistic in conception. venus had many attributes. the dove, sparrow, and the dolphin, and in plants the myrtle, rose, apple, poppy, and > historic ornament, fig. .-venus of milo. fig. .-statue of hermes, capitol. lime-tree, were sacred to her, but varied according to the locality and times. grecian people and mythology. hermes (mercury) is the god of shepherds and of n filling fig. .—diana of versailles. pastures, and also of commerce and trade. when a child he invented the lyre from a tortoise-shell which he was grecian people and mythology, hadrian, now in the louvre, she is represented as the protectress of wild animals. mnemosyne (memory) is the mother of the muses. the nine muses are - clio (history), melpomene (tragedy) (fig. ), terpsichore (dancing), polyhymnia (religious service), thalia (comedy), urania (astronomy), euterpe (lyric poetry), erato (erotic poetry and geometry), and calliope (epic poetry and science generally). dionysus or bacchus is, with both greeks and romans, the god of wine, of vineyards, and of autumn blessings. naxos was the chief seat of his worship. it was on this fig. .-dionysus and the lion, from the monument of lysikrates. island that he met and married ariadne, the daughter of minos, king of crete, who had been deserted here by theseus, her former lover. the story of dionysus punishing the tyrrhenian pirates who took him prisoner, intending to sell him as a slave, and of his changing him- self to a lion and so terrifying the sailors, who jumped overboard and were changed into dolphins, is the subject of the fine relief on the frieze of the lysikrates monument (fig. and frontispiece). the lion, tiger, bull, and ram are his favourite animal attributes among plants, the vine, the ivy, and the laurel were sacred to him. historic ornament. bacchanalian subjects and festivals of dionysus occupy a large and important place in the art of greece, rome, and pompeii. nice, victoria, or victory is always represented with m fig. .–victory, munich collection. wings, a palm branch, and holding a laurel wreath, and, as would be expected, was more extensively venerated at rome than in greece. in the latter country her statues are generally of a small size, and she is an accompanying goddess to athene and zeus (fig. ). fig. .--perspective view of the lion's gate. (p. & c.) art in primitive greece. parod doiddodoodoo doo doo ń w , - lik, in the trojan plain, in the north-west corner of asia minor. the character of the stone, clay, wood, and lime og arool udodoc noha qu wolonte uutuudio muuuu עוונםםםם jer arheol dominohen doidde tit mum ano gada பப்பப்படoduni - fig. .- alabaster frieze, tiryns. (p. & c.) it -- , - - . --- , ----- *------ , fig. .—plan of fig. , alabaster frieze. (p. & c.) materials, and similarity of the construction, enable the archæologi-t to place the rernains found at these three places as belonging to the same epoch of time and style historic ornament. ! of art which has been called mycenian. the oldest monument of greek sculpture yet discovered is supposed fig. . - ivory plaque from mycenæ. (p. & c.) novo u mbi fig. .–fragment of frieze from mycenæ. (p. & c.) itdcini to be the lion's gate of the mycenian acropolis (fig. ). art in primitive greece. pausanias thus alludes to mycenæ and tiryns :-"a portion of the enclosure wall still remains, and the prin- cipal gate, with the lions over it. these (the walls) were fig. .- mycenian palace, second epoch. architrave and frieze. (p. & c.) co built by the cyclops who made the wall at tiryns for præteus. among the ruins at mycenæ is the fountain called perseia, and the subterraneous buildings of atreus and his children, in which their treasures were stored.” historic ornament. . the sculptured lions are still there, so is the spring perseia, and the wonderful treasure-house of atreus is still the best preserved of all the domed tomb buildings of mycenæ. ooo on м ap . her m f be g h С e a fig. .—mycenian palace, second epoch. restoration of entablature. (p. & c.) from the remains of mycenian architecture, messrs. perrot and chipiez have ingeniously restored some of the wooden construction of the palaces of that early period, and have assumed that, from these early wooden construc- historic ornament. here again the stone-cutter has borrowed from the car- penter. to go back for some of the supposed beginnings of the doric frieze, the alabaster frieze, shown in plan and elevation at figs. and , has been found in the ruins of a palace at tiryns. the pattern of this frieze is the same as that which has been frequently found on other fragments from mycenæ. cececcecoooccer me fig. .–vase of woman's form, troy. (p. & c.) it resembles the doric triglyphs and metopes in con- sisting of a double design ; two semicircles back to back, divided by a vertical rectangular band, which is sub- divided by a vertical central division, having rosettes arranged vertically on either side. two similar designs are seen on the ivory plaque (figs. and ) and frag- ment of frieze from mycenæ. the same design appears art in primitive greece. also on the red porphyry fragments of the façade decora- tion on the mycenian beehive tombs. an illustration from perrot and chipiez shows an assemblage of the component parts of this frieze pattern, with a portion of the architrave in wood (fig. ). fig. .– vase from troy. (p. & c.) we refer the reader for a fuller description of the tran- sition of the doric entablature from the mycenian wood construction to perrot and chipiez' “ art in primitive greece," vol. ii. we extract a portion in explanation of the illustrations (figs. and ), where the - historic ornament. analogy between the wooden construction of the former and the stone construction of the latter is clearly estab- lished. fig. .– three-handled amphora, ialysos. (p. & c. fig. .–pilgrim's bottle, ialysos. (p. & c.) in fig. we have the entablature of the c. temple of selinous (one of the oldest examples of doric architecture), art in primitive greece. rendered famous by the archaic sculptures embellishing its metopes. there is not one of all the members we have passed in review but which appears in it. thus, a pair of stone beams, corresponding with the like number of timbers in the mycenian wood frame, constitute the architrave; and under listel c surmounting it, peers, flush with the triglyphs, the small plank b. its lower section is adorned by the ornament known as guttæ, the origin and meaning of which had hitherto been unsatisfactorily explained. the guttæ are cylindrical in shape detached from the walls, and in every respect v fig. .--vase with geometric decoration. (p. & c.) identical with the wooden pegs which occur in this situa- tion below the timber entablature. these same pegs again appear above the frieze in the semblance of another ornamental form, the “mutules” which, until lately, had seemed every whit as strange and problematical as the guttæ. the stone table n, in the lower surface of which the guttæ are carved, is no other than our old wood-plate, which in the mycenian carpentry work exhibits these same saliences or pegs, and served to fix the lining of the joists below. if the selinous mutules are sloped, it is because they are associated with a ridged roof; but as a flat covering has been assumed for mycenæ, it involved- without prejudice to the system-a horizontal position for the mutules. as regards the frieze, both here and in historic ornament. every doric building, it invariably consists, like the alabaster frieze, of pillars d alternating with slabs e. the function of the pillars (triglyphs) is to maintain the slabs (metopes) in place. siemeg fig. .– the marseilles ewer. (p. & c.) comparison between these two figures will further show all the details, with slight modifications, to be practically similar. thus, the whole of the doric order, the basis of all greek architecture, including the column, longitudinal art' in primitive greece. . . fig. .-gold ornaments, from troy. (p. & c.) fig. .- gold pendant, from troy. (p. & c.) historic ornament. beams, and joists supporting the roof, as well as the secondary decorative construction, had its origin in wooden construction, and there is hardly any doubt but that the fig. .-gold plate ornament, from troy. mycenian palace was its prototype. the greeks of later days forgot the borrowing of the timber construction, and pem. fig. .-gold disc. (p. & c.) have given names to some parts, such as “guttæ" (drops), which ought to be more correctly pegs. great quantities of pottery and objects of industrial art in metal—more especially in gold—have been found in art in primitive greece. the excavations at mycenæ, tiryns, and troy. the earthenware pottery is generally decorated in colours of brown, red, and greyish white. the patterns are very simple, bands and squares arranged in rows, some animal forms, leaves with wavy stems, and spirals; some of the pottery is decorated with marine animals, such as the octopus, cuttle-fish, argonaut, and with seaweed. some curious shaped vases of woman forms (figs. , ) have been found by dr. schliemann. pe fig. .-gold disc. (p. & c.) a pilgrim's bottle from ialysos decorated with circular bands, and an amphora with three handles, from the same place, decorated with bands and lily forms with curled- back petals, are very beautiful, and a small vessel with geometric ornament are all of the same character (figs. , , and ). the most beautiful form of mycenian pottery is the marseilles vase or ewer, in the borély collec- tion (fig. ). the decoration is a brown-black on a light ground, and historic ornament. consists of the argonaut shellfish and seaweed. it is likely to have been a copy from a metal object owing to its shape, which is characteristic of metal. in metal-work generally, and in the inlaying of gold and electrum in a bronze ground, the mycenian artists have produced some splendid work. there are six chromo- pif pars caja fig. .—gold cup, troy. (p. & c.) lithographs in messrs. perrot and chipiez's “art in primitive greece" of bronze mycenian daggers inlaid with gold and electrum of various shades: one has the representation of panthers hunting birds on a river- bank—the river is stocked with fish ; another has a lion hunt by armed men; a third, lions hunting gazelles; a fourth has running lions; a fifth, spiral ornamentation ; and the sixth a free rendering of lilies both on handle and art in primitive greece. blade. the art and workmanship of them all are of a high order. some gold ornaments from troy (figs. and ) show their skill in hand-wrought jewellery. the golden butterfly (fig. ) and the two gold discs (figs. and ) are stamped on the metal, and were fig. .-gold ewer, troy. (p. & c.) used as dress decorations; they were found in great quantities in the tombs of the women at mycenæ. one is an octopus design, and the other a butterfly. the gold cup (fig. ) and ewer (fig. ), found at troy along with many others in silver, gold, and bronze, give a fair idea of the beauty of shape and design of such articles of this period. they show marks of injury by fire vol. i. r chapter xiii. the greek and roman orders of architecture. although egypt and assyria are justly credited with the creation of the models and the invention of the methods that subsequently aroused to life the artistic genius of the greeks, yet the fact remains that, from all the wealth of artistic forms bequeathed to succeeding ages by the nations of hoary antiquity, prior to the grecian period, nothing has survived except those forms which greece has selected from her predecessors, and after remodelling them by her own standards of beauty and fitness, has left them as imperishable models of art for all nations that follow her. all historic art and architecture, whether classic or what not, since the days of pericles, is based on greek art, notwithstanding the many modifications which we see in byzantine, saracenic, romanesque, and their offshoots. all of them owe their life and vitality to greek traditions and to greek principles. we have seen that in the earlier greek buildings, such as mycenian palaces, timber construction must have largely entered into the architecture of that period, and it is quite likely that timber was used for the greater part of the greek domestic dwellings, which may account for no remains of them having been found. the rock-cut tombs of lycia, in asia minor, atford to us a further proof of timber construction which may have been in use in the early greek period in europe, and these tombs of lycia tend to throw a side light on the probable forms of greek construction that existed between the date of the mycenian buildings and that of the oldest doric greek and roman architecture. remains that are at present known, for the lycians had free intercourse with the ionians and european greeks. the . fig. .-lycian rock-built tomb at pinara. (p. & c.) earlier lycian tombs are of a great antiquity, and the same form of tomb has been used in lycia down to periods when greece was far advanced in art (figs. and ). historic ornament. the lycians formed a connecting link with the anterior asiatics and the ionian greeks. their origin and their language were asiatic, but the greater part of their art was the product of hellenic artists from ionian greece, and, therefore, the lycians must have been intimately connected with the greeks, and must have played an important part in the development of hellenic culture. r. fig. .-lycian rock-built tomb at pınara. (p. & c.) the greek temples were in some respects related to the egyptian temple. the pillar and beam construction was copied from egypt, and also the rectangular plan. the great distinction between the two was that rows of columns were placed outside the temples of the greeks, which gave to them a light and airy appearance, while in contra- distinction the egyptians had their rows of columns inside greek and roman architecture. the great hypostyle halls and galleries of their temples which gave to them the effect of oppressive gloominess. broadly speaking, the greek temple was something of the model of an egyptian temple turned inside out. the interior of a greek temple was simply a rectangular cella or cell where the statue of the god or goddess was set up, and sometimes a smaller chamber behind called the treasury. the smaller temples consisted of the cella only. a row of lighter columns sometimes supported the roof of the cella, as in the case of the parthenon. it was only in the case of the larger temples that we find more than one cell, while the egyptian temple was often a maze of large and small chambers, the multitude adding to the mystery sought for in all egyptian architecture. the greek temples were usually placed on a basement of steps, , and built on elevated positions. the greeks sought all publicity in the honouring of their deities, and in pleasing the passer-by with the sight of their beautiful buildings, on which their best decoration was shown on the outside. greek architecture dates from the end of the archaic age down to the death of alexander the great, from about b.c. to b.c. . it is usually divided into three styles or, as they are called, “orders," namely, the doric, the ionic, and the corinthian. the doric represents the european phase of the greek style, the ionic and corinthian having more of the asiatic features. the three orders were in use in greece at the same time, that is to say, a more severe and correct phase of the doric—the older order-was used after buildings in the newer orders had appeared. thom- son, in his “ode to liberty," has alluded to the orders in the lines first, unadorn'd and nobly plain, the manly doric rose; the ionic then, with decent matron grace, her airy pillar heaved ; luxuriant last, the rich corinthian spread her wanton wealth.” historic ornament. the greeks made use of the vertical and horizontal line in their architecture; the curved line was not used, except, of course, in decoration. the half-diameter of the column was the module or unit by which the whole building was measured, and the column was limited in height according to the diameter of its base. this did not preclude freedom in design; on the contrary, freedom was allowed and practised to such an extent that hardly two grecian buildings of any one order were alike in proportion or design. even the mouldings were varied in curve and proportion; these members that were with the romans merely segments of circles, were in section with the greeks either parts of the curve of the ellipse or parabola, and in many cases were designed by freehand. some very subtle devices to overcome natural optical effects when viewing the buildings have been discovered by mr. pennethorne and mr. penrose, more especially in the parthenon. it is well known that the entasis, or slight swelling made in greek columns, which makes a convex line of their profiles, is done to prevent the column from looking hollowed in the centre, which it would do if it were perfectly straight; but in addition to this the architects above named have discovered in the parthenon a correc- tion in the vertical lines, to prevent the apparent tendency which all high vertical lines have to spread out at the top, in the making of the columns to incline slightly inwards; and the steps of the basement and horizontal lines of the architraves are found to be slightly curved upwards in the middle to prevent the tendency that all long horizontal lines have to droop in the middle. thus we learn how admirably painstaking, and how well the greeks applied their profound knowledge to their architecture, as they did in everything else. the joints of their marble masonry were as a rule so fine and accurate in the fitting together, that it has been said a razor edge could not be inserted between them. the greek doric order (fig. ) is without a base; the عا م کی ( mutace creer of top trabon è ce fellet qutlane on 'toops ala coad a echince a. fig. .—the parthenon. greek doric, enlarged section of annulets at a. historic ornament. shaft of the column has twenty flutings; sunk lines or rings encircle the shaft a little below the moulding of the capital. this moulding—the echinus—is of the best possible profile that a supporting member could have; it is divided from the shaft by three or five annulets. above the echinus rests the square tile-like cap—the abacus—which carries the architrave. the latter is a marble beam with square ends, and above the architrave is the frieze separated by a band (taenia). the frieze has triglyphs alternating with metopes. the former consists of channelled pier-like forms one over and one between each column, and the metopes are square panels between two triglyphs on which are usually found sculptured subjects. at the bottom of each triglyph, separated by a fillet, is a row of pegs, cylin- drical or conical in shape, called “guttæ” or drops. above the frieze the cornice projects, which in profile consists of a flat band-the corona--and the crowning member, an ovolo moulding. under the projecting eave of the cornice are slanting slabs of marble-parallel to the roof tiles--placed one over each triglyph, and one over each metope. these are called mutules, and they have rows of guttæ on their under surface. the crowning members of the cornice are carried around the sloping lines of the triangular pediments at each end of the building. on the pediments were sculptured the figure subjects that had usually some relation to the divinity to whom the temple was dedicated; as, for example, on the parthenon pediment the story of the birth of athene was the subject executed and designed by phidias, who also was the sculptor of the celebrated panathenic frieze that adorned the outer part of the cella of the parthenon. ictinus was the architect of the parthenon and also of the temples of apollo epicurius at bassæ and at phigallia, both in arcadia. the parthenon was finished about b.c. . the greek ionic order in its capital and ornaments is quite distinct from the doric, and has more mouldings. dar muutuu fig. .— temple on the ilissus; greek ionic. historic ornament. the general plan of the temple is the same as in the doric, but the proportions of the various parts are more slender. it has been generally thought that the ionic volute was a development of the volutes from the persian capital at persepolis, but it is more likely, as before stated on page ), that their prototype is found on capitals derived from the egyptian lotus. the architrave is sometimes plain and sometimes divided into three facias. the frieze was usually occupied with sculpture, and the base of the column was composed of a double torus, with a hollow between; the lower torus was plain, and the upper one fluted (fig. ). the temple of diana at ephesus, the erectheum, and the mausoleum of halicarnassus were among the finest examples of the ionic order. the corinthian order was more roman than greek, though of greek invention, and was a rich type of archi- tecture that suited the growing vanity for love of display with the romans, who eagerly appropriated it in the second century b.c., and erected many fine buildings in this order; but often enriching the mouldings and all plain spaces almost beyond recognition. the most perfect and truly beautiful example of the greek corinthian is the small choragic monument of lysikrates at athens (frontispiece). its praises and merits have been spoken and written of by almost every architect of eminence; it may be said of it and of the parthenon that for proportion, and for marvellous unity of parts, and also for the perfect marriage of sculpture with architecture, no buildings have ever been erected to equal them. the bell of the corinthian capital, as in the lysikrates monument, is surrounded at the base by a row of water- plant leaves; acanthus leaves spring from these, and out of the latter spring volutes (cauliculi), the larger ones of which meet at the upper corners; the four smaller ones meet in the middle, and from the junction of the upper greek and roman architecture. ! mumu fig. .- capital of the lysikrates monument; greek corinthian. middle ones an upright palmate appears; rosettes are placed between each of the eight acanthus leaves. the abacus is moulded and curved in plan. the capital, as a historic ornament. whole, is designed in a masterly way, so as to give the utmost variety and contrast of beautiful forms (fig. ). the frieze is sculptured with figures which illustrate the story of dionysus and the tyrrhenian pirates (frontis- piece). the etruscans were a race of people who settled in the west of italy, between the arno and the tiber, at a very early date. their origin is uncertain, but they are sup- posed to have come from asia minor. they were known as great builders, and were well skilled in all the arts. in their larger works of fortifications and great walls they used stones of an enormous size (cyclopean). many places in italy still attest to the presence of the etruscans by the remains of these cyclopean walls. they were considerably advanced in architecture and the minor arts at the time when rome was first beginning to show its signs of power, and were the architects and builders who executed all the works for the early romans. the etruscans used the arch very much in building, a totomotot feature that the greeks, although they were acquainted with its use, did not think it necessary in their trabeated system of building. it was, on the other hand, a very favourite feature with the etruscans, from whom the romans learnt the use of it. the tarquins were an etruscan family who were masters fig. .-etruscan door from perugia. of rome in the sixth century b.c., and it was under these emperors that the great sewer, known as the cloaca maxima, was built, part of which is still in existence. this work consists of an arched waterway built in three concentric rings of large wedge-shaped stones (voussoirs). the etruscans constructed temples, palaces, and dwelling- היה thuitult greek and roman architecture. houses, all of which have perished or have been destroyed, and only a few remains of their walled cities survive. the gate of perugia (fig. ) is the remains of a characteristic etruscan building. the arch is seen in perfect construc- tion, and the doric frieze; above is seen a little ionic column. etruscan architecture was mostly a kind of doric with a round shaft. according to vitruvius the etruscan temple consisted of three cells, with one or more rows of columns in front, the distance between the columns, or intercolumniation, being much greater than in greek temples. sometimes the temple consisted of a circular only and a porch, like the later development of this form in the roman temple at tivoli, and the mausoleum of hadrian. many etruscan tombs have been found, consist- ing of rock-built and detached structures. some of the rock-built tombs at castel d'asso have beams and rafters cut out of the rock in imitation of wooden construction, and also figures cut out in high relief all around the chambers. great quantities of vessels in pottery and metal-work objects, and also jewellery, have been found in recesses of the walls and roofs of these chambers. the temple of jupiter capitolinus at rome was an etruscan building. the etruscan religion was dark and full of superstition ; their gods were mostly deities of the thunder and lightning and subterranean spirits rather than divinities of comfort and mercy, and the romans adopted most of them in their mythology. the romans having mastered the principle of the arch, made very good use of it. the greater number of their principal buildings were erected in a mixture of the arch and trabeated system. the roman doric and ionic orders were ill-proportioned in their various members, bad in profiling, and also very heavy in appearance. the theatre of marcellus is an example of the former in its lower columns, and the temple of fortuna virilis an example of the latter. the tuscan order is noted for a more elegant develop- ment of the etruscan smooth column, and a great see com fig. .-roman corinthian, entablature, capital, and base of the pantheon. historic ornament. the corinthian order received better treatment at the hands of the romans; some of their buildings are fine examples of this order. some of the roman corinthian capitals are well designed, and have a very grand and imposing effect, as that of the mars ultor (fig. ) and the pantheon. the mars ultor capital is undoubtedly fine and rich in the extreme; that of the pantheon is more restrained ; and in both of them is used the olive-leaf variety of acanthus, each tine or leaflet of which is hollowed out; and thus the whole capital in a full light would have a sparkling effect of light and shade, so that even at a great height and distance from the eye none of the modelling would be lost to sight. the roman corinthian has more mouldings, and has modillions or brackets in the cornice instead of the usual greek dentils (fig. ). the entablature from the temple of jupiter tonans (fig. ) is an example of the inordinate love of over-richness and display that was so characteristic of the romans. the baths of caracalla and of diocletian are the only ones that have remained to us in any state of preservation, and show from the remains what splendid examples of public buildings they must have been. they were built of brick mostly, and lined with stucco on which frescoes were painted. the baths of caracalla, at the foot of the aventine hill, were erected a.d. . they covered a rectangular piece of ground about , feet each way, and were a great assemblage of bath-rooms, public and private, of cold, vapour, and hot baths; swimming and other kinds of bath, gymnasium hall, libraries, reading-rooms, assembly halls, &c., all comprised under the one roof, surrounding the open courtyard in which was the principal swimming bath, in a building ft. by ft. in dimension. in the centre and at the back of this group of buildings was a circular hall, with a domed roof, called the solar cell, the greek and roman architecture. walls of which were lined with brass. some of the finest of roman statuary adorned these halls. the principal hall of the baths of diocletian, erected at the beginning of the fourth century a.d is called the ephebeum, and is still ooo ok de vida ver fig. . --roman corinthian, entablature of jupiter tonans. used as the church of santa maria degli angeli. it is almost ft. long by go ft. wide, and was restored by michelangelo. its roof consists of three great cross vaults supported by eight granite columns, ft. in height. vol. i. s historic ornament. another class of buildings that the romans were fond of was the amphitheatres. remains of them have been found throughout the roman empire, the most stupen- dous of which was the coliseum or flavian amphitheatre. fig. .–bas-relief on the arch of titus. (p. & c.) it was begun by the emperor vespasian and finished by his son titus, and its ruins still attest to its greatness. it is elliptical in plan, is four stories in height; the three lowest are pierced with eighty openings, semi- greek and roman architecture. circular arched, with columns and piers between. the first story is doric, the second ionic, and the third corin- thian. each column and pier is raised on a stylobate, and the columns carry entablatures continuously around the building an almost solid wall is the feature of the fourth story, which has a series of corinthian pilasters, and projecting brackets for carrying the awning poles. the façade is fig. .-jewish candlestick, arch of titus. (p. & c.) built of stone quarried from the neighbouring hills, and the interior portions are built of brick. the dimensions are ft. in length, ft. wide, and ft. in height. double corridors run around the building on each floor, and it had seats for more than , spectators. chariot races, mimic sea-fights, when the arena would be flooded artificially with water, gladiatorial combats, and fights with wild animals and bulls, were among the amusements of the romans that were performed in the amphitheatres. other monuments, such as triumphal columns and toner c t on fig. .-roman composite order, from the arch of titus greek and roman architecture. arches, were erected by the emperors to commemorate their victories, and these were of the most elaborate and rich description. the column of marcus aurelius, known as the antonine column, and the column of trajan set up by that emperor in trajan's forum at romne in commemoration of his victory over the dacians, are the two best known of these commemorative monuments. the latter column has been reproduced, and a cast of it may be seen in the south kensington museum. the original is nearly ft. high, and is richly sculptured with bas-reliefs on marble slabs fastened together in a spiral form around the central structure. the order is doric, the shaft being set up on a large pedestal with very fine sculptures of figures, armour, and inscriptions. the triumphal arches are rectangular masses of masonry with arched openings, sometimes with one arch and some- times three, a large one and two smaller ones, as the arches of constantine and septimus severus ; and some- times smaller ones had piers and pilasters with a lintel entablature instead of an arch, as in the goldsmith's arch in rome. the arch of titus (erected to commemorate the taking of jerusalem a.d. ), which is one of the finest of these monuments, is interesting for two reasons: one is that it has reliefs on it recording the capture of jerusalem, with the representation of the seven-branched golden candlestick of the temple (figs. , ), and the other is that the arch itself is one of the finest examples of the architectural order that was created by the romans—the composite—(fig. ), which is a grafting of the ionic on the corinthian. the decoration of this order is extremely rich in character: the lower half of the capital has the corinthian leaves, while the upper half is almost the whole of the ionic voluted capital added; the cornice has both the ionic dentils and the corinthian modillions. the arch of septimus severus and the baths of diocletian are of the composite order. chapter xiv. greek and roman ornament. greek ornament-as found on the carved mouldings, friezes, acroteria, antifexes, and capitals, or, as in the painted variety, found on vases, plain mouldings, bands, plates, and other surface decorations, or incised on the bronze cista and mirrors—was of a severe and refined order, almost all of which had its birthplace in egyptian and assyrian forms, that in the first instances were used susug julij fig. .-greek frets. in a symbolic sense, but under the hands of greek artists had lost all their former meaning, and were developed and partly transformed into a wealth of purely æsthetic forms. the simplest forms were frets or the so-called key pattern (figs. , , and ). the word meander is sometimes applied to the greek greek and roman ornament. frets; this is not correct, as the word implies a curved line, not a rectangular one. the guilloche, snare-work, or cable ornament, is used fig. .-greek carved fret. on flat bands, and also as the decoration of torus mouldings (figs. and ). the greeks used the honeysuckle pattern in an endless variety of forms both in carving and in painting, examples of which are at figs. and . fig. .-treble guilloche ornament. the ivy was used very much in borders of their painted vases (fig. ). the ogee moulding was usually decorated with the water-leaf and tongue ornament, and the ovolo with the characteristic egg and tongue, and the round fillets with historic ornament. beads and reels. a fine example of this group of deco- rated mouldings comes from the temple of minerva polias at athens (fig ). fig. .—double guilloche. an elongated type of the egg and tongue comes from the erectheum (fig. ). the greeks seldom used large scrolls in ornament; an exception is the scroll ornament from the roof of the ge fig. .-anthemion (carved), from apollo epicurius. lysikrates monument, and in the corinthian cauliculi or volutes (see fig. ). the greek variety of acanthus foliage is seen in the capital from the same monument, greek and roman ornament nament. . roman architectural ornament was simply greek with a few variations, not always improvements. it was less refined, but in some cases, especially in the examples ol jollc fig. .-greek border with fret bands. of large acanthus scrolls on friezes, panels, and pilasters (fig. ), and in their large capitals, the ornament was designed with great skill and virility. they used the fig. .—greek ivy meander border. softer-leaved variety of acanthus—the mollis—while the greeks used the spinosus, or prickly-leaved variety. the decorations of the roman mouldings were less elegant than those of the greeks, owing to the contours being segments of circles where the greeks used forms historic ornament. like conic sections, and the execution was less artistic in the roman mouldings (figs. , , ). the domestic architecture of greece is guessed at by ws fig. .—decorated mouldings from the temple of minerva polias ; ogee ovolo, and beads. uuu walt llavu odlnwl fig. .–the ovolo, with egg and tongue, from the erectheum, the remains of pompeii and herculaneum, which, though roman provincial cities, were in style and decoration a fair reflection of greek art. the remains of the art found lednicu.da... fig. .–ancient roman panel, florence. historic ornament. in these cities have been styled greco-roman. the destruction of pompeii was in the year a.d. . the general arrangement of a roman house was rectangular in plan, with, and sometimes without, a ooon opinin j. . fig. .–ovolo and astragal mouldings; roman. vestibule in front. the front door opened on a passage called the prothyrum which led to the atrium, an open court partly roofed; the opening was in the centre, and was called the impluvium ; exactly under it in the floor was a a.finden. fig. .-ogee and fluted cavetto moulding; jupiter tonans. tank called the compluvium; this received the rain water. in large houses the atrium roof was supported by columns, then the atrium was sometimes called the cavædium, at the end of which opened out three rooms · greek and roman ornament. ! the larger and central one was called the tablinum, and the two side ones ale ; these were the rooms where the family records, documents, histories, deeds, &c., were kept. a passage led from the atrium to the principal private reception-room, called the peristylium, which had a roof partly open to the sky. this room was the finest in the house, and was richly decorated with rare marbles, bronzes, and fresco paintings where the owner was wealthy. round the perisiyle were arranged the smaller rooms, such as the parlours called exedra, the chapels lararia, and the picture galleries pinacothecæ. kitchens and other offices siltinimo wyn pr! fig. .-ogee decorated, and astragal; jupiter stator. were behind, as also were the various sleeping-rooms. some of the rooms were badly lighted, and had to depend for the light from the doors or artificial light, but in some cases windows, rather small in size, were placed high up in the walls. the walls of the pompeian houses were richly decorated in strong colouring, where vermilion, black, green, and orange predominated. the subjects were figure groups, animals, birds, and grotesques of all kinds, encased in fantastic architectural framings (fig. ). sometimes a dead wall of the yard would be painted elaborately to represent a garden. sculpture also decorated the apart- historic ornament. ments, the floors were in mosaic, and the ceiling richly panelled and decorated. roman, greek, and pompeian ka o it tot oooooo wngos ܠ ܘ ܢ fig. .-mural painting from pompeii. ornament will again be noticed in the second volume under the minor arts of these countries. chapter xv. indian art and architecture. an aryan race of people came into india about b.c. across the upper indus. they settled in the first instance in the punjab, in the watershed of the sutlej and the jumna, and finally in oude and the east. after one thou- sand years they lost their purity of race by mixing with the aboriginal natives. about this time the prophet sakya muni, or buddha, arose, and apparently succeeded in converting nearly the whole of northern india to buddhism. he died in b.c. , and three hundred years after his death, or about b.c. , king asoka proclaimed buddhism as the state religion, and for about one thousand years after it con- tinued as the state religion of india, although at the present day there are said to be no native buddhists in india. historic art in india began in asoka's reign. the earlier rock-tombs and other architecture of asoka's time are evidently stone copies of still earlier wooden construc- tions. monuments consisting of edict columns or lats, peculiar to this period, have been found in isolated positions erected to the honour of buddha in the neighbourhood of allahabad and delhi; they are above thirty-three feet in height, and have a curved, inverted, bell-shaped capital on which probably stood a wheel, the emblem, or a lion, the symbol, of buddha. this capital is similar in form to the indian art and architecture. priests, and are sometimes erected alone to the honour of buddha. one of the most important is the sanchi tope in bhopal, central india (fig. ). mr. ferguson, in his “study of indian architecture,” describes this remarkable monument as follows: “it was built probably (the tope) b.c. , the stone railing b.c. , and the gateways a.d. to . the principal part of the building consists of a dome feet in diameter and feet in height. the fence by which this tope is surrounded is extremely curious. it consists of stone posts feet inches in height, and a little more than feet apart, surmounted by a plain archi- trave, and between every two uprights three horizontal cross-pieces of stone are inserted. still more curious are the four stone torans or gateways, one of which—the eastern-is shown at fig. . it con- sists of two square pillars covered with sculptures, and with bold elephant capitals, rising to a height of feet inches. above these are four lintels slightly curved upwards in the centre, and ending in ionic scrolls; they are supported by continuations of the columns, and three uprights are inserted between the lintels. all this construction is covered over with elaborate sculpture, and surmounted by emblems. the total height is feet inches." sir g. birdwood says: “the symbols are the trisula, the wheel, and the lion, representing the buddhistic triad, buddha, the law, and the congregation. the ground plan of the stupas or topes, with the return railings and the projecting doorways or entrances, form a gigantic swastika (“aus- picious ’), the mystic cross (fylfot) of the buddhists." ferguson says the buddhist dagoba is a direct descendant of the sepulchral tumulus of the turanian races, like those found in etruria, lydia, and among the scyths of the northern steppes. it is plainly seen that the details of buddhistic ornament are derived from greek and assyrian sources mixed with buddhist emblems; a few native ideas may be seen in the construction, and in the substituting of the indian elephant vol. i. t historic ornament. on t urikio fi bile fig. .—the sanchi tope, bhopal, central india. for the assyrian or persian bull. a fine cast of the sanchi gateway may be seen in the south kensington museum, historic ornament. temples of the earliest type exhibit a marked imitation of timber construction in almost every detail (fig. ). brahminical architecture has three varieties – the dravidian, which is common to the dakhan, south of the kistna; the chalukyan, between the kistna and the mahanuddi; aad the indo-aryan, which prevails in mo think hn fig. . --temple of biskurma at ellora. hindustan. the dravidian temple is characterized by a horizontal system of storied towers, and has a grand and imposing look of solemnity. examples of dravidian architecture occur in the temples at seringham, tinnevelly, madura, perin, vellore, &c. the chalukyan is distinguished by its star-like plan and pyramidal tower. the great double temple of siva at indian art and architecture. present city of delhi, which city contains the finest examples of the mohammedan style in india. the dewanne khas, or principal hall of the palace of delhi (fig. ), is a very rich and ornate example of this style. it is vaulted like a gothic cathedral and is inlaid throughout with rich marbles and mosaic work. it has a niche inlaid date fig. .-interior of the palace at delhi; seventeenth century. with precious stones in which once stood the famous peacock throne of delhi. the throne was made in enamelled work, in the shape of a peacock with a spread- out tail, and was set with diamonds and precious stones to imitate the natural colours of the peacock. it was carried off by nadir shah at the sacking of delhi, a.d. . around the frieze of one of the halls of this palace runs chapter xvi. chinese and japanese architecture. the architecture of china does not possess what we might call a serious character. founded mainly on buddhistic elements, as far as the more important efforts of their temple architecture is concerned, the only original development that marks the chinese structural design is the pagoda tower—in itself really a buddhistic idea—but the chinese have the credit of carrying it further in their taas or pagodas by placing story upon story until some- times a great height was attained ; as, for example, in the great porcelain tower at nankin, which is feet in height, consists of nine stories, and is feet in diameter at the base. each story diminishes in size, and the concave roof of every lower story is in front of the receding one above. varnished pillars, resting on a deep stone base- ment, support the verandah-like roof of the lowest story, and a fence of gilded trellis-work surrounds the lower half of the pillars. the eaves of the roofs curl upwards and end in points from which bells are suspended. carved dragons peer out from under the rafters, and the whole building, inside and out, as well as the roof tiles, is faced with white porcelain slabs or tiles fastened to the inner brick struc- ture; some parts—the roofs especially-are painted in alternating bands of green, yellow, and red. the greater part of the chinese houses are wooden constructions, and have movable walls of various materials, which slide in framework. the walls do not support the historic ornament. roof, which is, as a rule, supported on posts, independent of them. in the gateways to the confucian temples some attempts at architectural construction are seen, where a column would have a proper capital and a base, and a lintel or arched opening would appear. these pae-lus or trium- phal gates have the usual fantastic curled roofs so peculiar to chinese architecture (fig. ). the genius of the chinese as great builders and engineers is expressed better in their works of public fig. .–gateway of the temple of confucius, shanghai. utility, as in their finely-constructed bridges, their canals, and more particularly in the great wall, built to protect their country from the incursions of the northern hordes, and which is a monument at the same time to their native love of exclusiveness from surrounding nations. the great wall was built about b.c. , is , miles long, to feet in height, feet thick at the base, and slopes upwards to feet in width at the top. it has bastions or towers of defence at intervals, which are feet square at the base, and the wall is carried over hills and chinese and japanese architecture. mountains regardless of all obstacles. their country is a network of canals, some of which are miles in length. notwithstanding all this, they are no further advanced in architecture than they were two thousand years ago, or, indeed, in hardly any of the arts. at the same time the chinese are remarkably skilled in porcelain manufacture, silk weaving, embroidery, colour printing, ivory and jade carving, enamelling, metal-working, casting, and decora- tive painting. their ornament is very conventional and rich in colouring, but their ornamental forms are limited, and their decoration so full of repetition that it becomes very monotonous when judged by a european standard. the architecture of japan differs very slightly from that of china, as it is either an offshoot from the older civilisa- tion of china, or has been derived from the same sources, through the buddhist religion. some changes have occurred in the architecture of japan in recent years owing to the more extended use of stone in their buildings, which has been brought about by their interchange of ideas with western nations. their buddhist temples are similar to the chinese, with their curious turned-up roofs, but the shinto temples are usually covered with roofs that have great projecting eaves, which do not turn up at the angles. the porches or gateways (torii) to the temples are built in stone, but in imitation of their earlier wooden construction; they are of the pillar-and-beam order, and recall somewhat the construction, on a smaller scale, of the “torans" or gate- ways of the sanchi tope in india (fig. ). the japanese carve their wooden rafters, beams, posts, lintels, and stringcourses very skilfully, with conventional ornament, dragons, and grotesque animals. the better class of japanese dwellings are usually of two stories; the lower story has a verandah, and the upper one is recessed back, and is smaller than the lower, which produces a pleasing effect. their walls are, like the chinese, more or less movable partitions. chapter xvii. early christian and byzantine architecture. for the first three centuries after the birth of christ the early christians suffered much persecution and martyr- dom. the new religion was ridiculed and despised, and the converts of the new faith were obliged to hold their meetings and to worship in secret, which they did in the narrow but extensive catacombs in which they secretly buried their dead. the catacombs are found chiefly in the neighbourhood of rome and naples, and are cut in the dark soft tufa stone, in the nature of long passages, wind- ing and doubling in their labyrinthine twistings. some of these passages are so narrow as to barely admit of one person to pass in height or width. in height or width. on either side of these narrow ways are cut out openings just large enough for the bodies of deceased persons to be deposited. the body of the deceased was thus thrust into the narrow tomb, and with it was buried a flask of sacred oil. the entrance was then closed with a stone, on which would be engraved the name or initials of the dead. some of the catacombs were hollowed out in places into lofty and capacious chainbers and niches. these were used as chapels for the early christian worship, the walls and ceilings of which were decorated with paintings of a very primitive character. the more important of these catacombs in which chapel- like rooms are found are those of s. calisto, s. sebastiano, s. lorenzo, and s. agnese, at rome; and at naples those of s. mario della sanita, s. gennara de poveri, and s. maria della vita. christian and byzantine architecture. story, in the walls of which were the windows that lighted the church. in the oldest type of the basilica there was no window in the apse, so this portion of the church was bathed in a mysterious twilight, adding a poetic charm to the gold mosaics with which the roof of the apse was decorated. sometimes windows were introduced into the low walls of the aisles; the aisles were covered with shed like wooden roofs, which were supported on trussed frame- work. sometimes the trusses were ceiled, and on the ceilings were painted scriptural subjects. the wall spaces of the second story in the nave were also occupied with painting's of sacred subjects. the floor of the apse was nd raised higher than that of the nave, and was ap- proached by steps; seats were placed around the wall of the apse for the priests, and in the centre was the elevated throne for the bishops. a portion of the nave space was sometimes appropriated for the choir, screened off by a marble structure, and at either end of the choir were placed the “ ambos” or pulpits (fig. fig. .-ambo or pulpit from st. george's at salonica. ). the altar was in the centre of the apse, generally over the tomb of a christian martyr, and underneath all, or sometimes a portion only of the church, was the crypt. the nave usually had three entrance doors, and the aisles one or more each. as the heathen religions, and consequently the ancient temples, fell into disuse, there historic ornament. was plenty of building materials ready formed and dressed, which the architects of the new buildings appropriated for their own purposes in the erection of the basilicas. this accounts for the great number of roman corinthian and ionic columns found in the buildings of the early christian architecture, and we often find that when an ancient column was too short, it was simply raised on a higher base, and if too long it was cut down to fit its new position. it was generally in the later basilicas that this occurred, as might be expected, for the earlier basilicas are richer and better decorated in their beautiful details, seeing that the early christian builders had the first choice of the rich orna- mental work of architectural sculpture that had belonged to the ancient roman temples. the church of s. apolli- nare in classe at ravenna may be cited as one of the most finished and most beautiful of the early basilicas, which was erected with much of this old material. although the christian architects and artists were slow in producing new forms of plastic art, as long as they could adapt the existing fragments of architectural sculpture to their uses; on the other hand, the art of painting and decorating by mosaic pictures on the great spaces of the walls and ceilings of the basilicas was developed to a high degree of monumental splendour, and brilliant effects were gained by the use of gold and bright colours. mosaics as wall decoration in the basilicas were sug- gested by the paintings in the catacombs. these primitive paintings were borrowed in their form and essence from ancient mythological works. at first, some of the earliest efforts at decoration in the catacombs consisted merely of monograms and symbols, such as the greek letters alpha and omega, and the initials or monogram of christ. the use of these doubtless arose from the desire to de- precate anything that savoured of the images of heathen- dom, but evidently the early christians soon arrived at the idea that painting might be admissible in a church where sculptured images could not be tolerated the latter re- historic ornament, jects, after the manner of the roman consular diptychs. these ivory carvings, that exhibit a true spirit of the antique in their design, are not to be confounded with the later byzantine diptychs that were executed in a more archaic style. during the fifth century, and even in the latter part of the fourth, we see the more cheerful spirit of the antique mov g odo fig. .—wall painting from the catacombs of s. calixtus. character dying out, and the art of the time exhibits a greater importance and attention which is given to large masses, while smaller or minor surfaces are left empty, and decorative detail suppressed. there is an apparent striving to render the figure of the redeemer—the chief personage -larger and more important in the scale of the decoration, and at the same time to give him more individuality. as the technical qualities of the christian art diminished, the christian and byzantine architecture. majesty and sublimity of the great teacher was expressed in a more spiritual conception of his divinity. several examples of decoration illustrating this phase of christian art occur in the wall paintings in the catacombs of s. ponziano at rome. the face of christ in these repre- sentations is full of earnest and mild serenity; the right hand is raised as if in blessing, and the left holds the book of life. in the fourth century, mosaic was used in the basilicas as a means of decorating the apse and walls, as the romans before had used it in their floors and dados. in the hands of the early and inexperienced artists, the character of the material in mosaic had a great deal to do, but not all, in the creating of the type of angular and rigid forms of the figures, which was transmitted to all subse- quent christian mosaics. at the same time there was the intense desire to make the figures of christ and of other sacred personages of a sorrowful and austere character. we can, however, trace in these figures the magisterial dignity that invests the sculptured figures of the emperors and senators of roman art. in italy, the christian mosaics assumed more and more v a decided breaking away from the traditions of the antique. large masses as single figures were symmetrically arranged, ornamental details were suppressed, and bands with inscriptions framed the large spaces of the walls and the apse. the figures were more isolated, attenuated, severe of expression, and leaving much to be desired in their anatomical construction or in the natural movement of the body; but all this tended to give them that ex- pression of devotional simplicity aimed for by those early mystics, who only looked on the world as a “vale of tears.” in the vaulted roof of the funeral chapel erected to the memory of the daughter of constantine at rome- sta. costanza-some of the earliest mosaic work is to be found, consisting of an antique treatment of the vine and tendrils used in a symbolic sense; and in another chapel, christian and byzantine architecture. form of early christian architecture was developed, called a “baptistery,” which generally took the form of a detached building, with a circular or polygonal plan. in some cases the baptistery adjoins the atrium of the basilica, but often is a detached building of considerable impor- tance. the structure is supposed to have been suggested by the circular portion of the roman haths, and consists fig. .—opus alexandrinum pavement, san marco, rome. of a circular row of columns supporting the upper struc- ture; the central portion is surrounded by a low cloister- like aisle, and the fountain is in the middle of the building. the circular building known as the church of santa costanza in rome—the funeral chapel before men- tioned--the octagonal baptistery of constantine, and the fine baptistery at ravenna, are examples of this kind of historic ornament. building. another beautiful example is the octagonal baptistery of the lateran, belonging to the fifth century; it has eight large antique columns, which support an archi- trave, upon which rest another series of eight smaller columns, carrying another architrave and the domed roof. the whole building has a pleasant and agreeable effect of extreme airiness. byzantine architecture. the ancient town of byzantium, the modern constanti- nople, was mostly in ruins when constantine the great selected it for the new capital of the roman empire. he rebuilt the old town and named it after himself, and in the year a.d. the inauguration of the new capital was cele- brated. later on, under theodosius, the roman empire was divided, and constantinople became the capital of the eastern portion. it was the great connecting-point between the countries. of the east and the west. the inhabitants of the new city being mostly greeks, the native artists and architects employed by constantine imparted a decided grecian character to the ornament and decoration, especially of the churches and other buildings that were erected by this emperor. the occasion of the new political change and the rapid spread of the christian religion served to give a great impetus to the building and lavish decoration of churches and public edifices. although the new architecture was founded on the roman originals, yet in the hands of the greeks both architecture and ornament assumed a new and original character. from the time of the founding of con- stantinople to the date of justinian's reign (a.d. - ), when the great church of santa sophia—holy wisdom- was built, on the ruins of an older church that was said to have been burnt down, we can guess that it must have been a time of experiments and developments from the christian and byzantine architecture. basilica type of building to the well-defined domed style of architecture known as the byzantine. the timber-roofed and vaulted style of structure now gave place to the dome, which resulted also in a change of the plan to the square form, instead of the rectangle. during the two hundred years previous to the building of santa sophia, the problem of dome construction, with others of a difficult nature in building, had been success- fully solved by the greek architects of the eastern empire. justinian employed the greeks, anthemius of thralles and isidorus of miletus, as the architects of santa sophia,y and they succeeded in erecting a marvellous structure fue that may justly be reckoned as one of the wonders of the world. four vast piers, arrangeá on a square plan, support four solid arches of masonry, semicircular in shape, and feet span each. the four triangular spaces at the corners and the spaces formed by the angles, the semicircular arches and portions of the ring of the dome, are filled with “pendentives,” which may be described as continuations of the dome. these pendentives partly support the dome, and the other points of support are on the backs of the great arches. the four pendentives meet in the circular ring from which the dome springs. the dome is feet) in height from the level of its base, and feet in dia- meter, and is rather fiattish in shape. on the side of the dome, east and west, are two half- domes, which crown apsidal walls. other small apses are domed over at lower levels, and vaulted aisles of two stories run round the higher portions of the building, the whole forming almost a cube-like shape. after constantinople was captured by the turks (a.d. ), santa sophia was converted into a mosque and four minarets, or moslem towers, were added to its outer angles. the interior of this church, besides the stupendous effect of its unrivalled architectural construction, has its added beauties and splendour in its inlaid marbles, its richly historic ornament. carved cornices and arcades (fig. ), and its vaults and domes glittering with gold mosaics of cherubim, and dignified though gaunt and archaic figures. in the capitals of the columns was used the sharply-edged and undercut acanthus foliage, more in accordance with the old greek type than the roman, but have a distinctly byzantine character of its own. sacred signs, emblems, and birds were often introduced into the capitals; the general shape of the latter was a cubical form, the four oo suun mummuu fig. .—corni from santa sophia. faces slanting inwards from above, this form giving a de- cided appearance of great supporting and sustaining power (figs. and ). sometimes they were bossed out, and often contained the elements of the ionic and corin- thian orders (figs. , , ). the wedge-shaped portion on the top of the capital is an ugly but distinctive feature of the byzantine style (fig. ). the splendour and magnificence of the decoration in byzantine churches is proverbial: the columns were often of christian and byzantine architecture. porphyry and serpentine marble, and the supports to the altar canopy (baldacchino), the screen (iconostasis) and the pulpit cd gitron fig. .–capital from santa sophia, showing the bossing-out of the ornament. be fig. .-- capital from st. demetrius at salonica. fig. .- capital from st. demetrius. (ambo) were often inlaid with gold, silver, and precious stones. the altar itself was a gorgeous piece of workmanship, christian and byzantine architecture. by the early christians, and so painting which led to the mosaic picture, which in its turn led to enamelling on metals, was favoured to a great extent by the byzantine artists. even flat bands with inscriptions and ornament were used instead of mouldings in relief. the city of ravenna being situated between constan- tinople and rome possessed some remarkable buildings, that do not belong exactly to the eastern or western type of architecture ; but on the other hand have strongly marked in- fluences of each. the most important is that of the church of st. vitale; it is octagonal in plan, and is like santa sophia in having a prin- cipal central dome, half-domes, and vaulted aisles. it is re- splendent in elaborate decora- tion and carvings. the cathe- dral of st. mark's at venice is so well known from illustrations and photographs that it re- quires very little description. it was built in the years a.d. — , and its plans are said to have been drawn by greek architects at constanti- fig. .-st. nicholas at moscow. nople. originally it possessed all the features of a genuine byzantine edifice, but has been altered externally, and in some places internally in both gothic and renaissance periods. the byzantine domes have had bulbous coverings placed over them in later times. st. mark's like santa sophia is square in plan, but has five principal domes, one in the centre, and one at each angle or end of the greek cross plan. the aisles, with their series of low-level dome roofs, make the whole historic ornament. building nearly square. the surrounding countries of bulgaria, servia, roumania, armenia, and russia, which embraced the christian religion of the greek church, pos- sess examples of byzantine architecture. the russian type in its later developments has distinctive character- istics of its own, particularly in the use and shape of the dome. russian churches consist usually of a storied tower on which is placed five sınall domes of a bulbous shape; these are built on the tops of elongated drums. the bulbous tops of the domes grow into points, on which are placed tall crosses. these and other fantastic ele- ments are derived from the timber edifices of persia and other asiatic countries (fig. ). chapter xviii. saracenic architecture and ornament. the architecture of the saracens in its most perfect examples has a thoroughly distinctive style of its own, and their ornament in its pure form is unlike the ornament of any style that has hitherto existed. the originality of the latter arose from the experiment- ing in ornamental patterns that should have no likeness to plants, animals, or other natural forms. this prohibition of the use of objects from nature in their ornament was one of the articles of the moslem religion; but to get any pleasing variety in ornament and leave out all natural reminiscences in the designs is out of human power, so consequently we have, even in saracenic ornament, natural forms put through a geometrical pro- cess of draughtsmanship. saracenic ornament in what is sometimes called arabian has leaf and bud-like forms interlaced with strap-work, which is often very beautiful and is known under the name of “arabesque" (figs. + , ). the saracens were originally composed of arab herds- men, nomadic wanderers of the desert, carriers or mer- chants, and dwellers in villages, who cultivated the land around them. the earliest building of any importance that can be called saracenic is the “ kaaba or moslem temple at mecca, which contained the sacred brownish- black stone placed by mahomet in the south-east angle of this square temple. this black stone is supposed to be a meteorolite, hemispherical in shape, and about by historic ornament. inches in the widest dimension. some hundreds of stone images or “gods” used to be worshipped at mecca by the mohammedans in their early days, or in what they call their « “ days of ignorance," but these were destroyed by the prophet's orders. mohammed himself was a fanatic that could neither read nor write; he made up the korân from many sources, such as the bible, the apocryphal dla fig. .-arabesque ornament from the wekāla of kāit bey. (l.-p.) gospels, the talmud, and possibly a good many original passages of his own, which he says he received from the mouth of the angel gabriel in visions. the mohammedan creed contains its essence in the words “ there is no god, but god, and mohammed is his prophet.” this text is found very frequently as a decorative legend on the walls of the mosques and on painted tiles. at first mohammed's new religion was not favourably received, historic ornament. when they became convinced that islâm was to conquer the whole world by the sword. his army, however, was nearly annihilated by the byzantine emperor, heraclius, in a battle at muta, but he recovered himself, and marched on to mecca, where he put to the sword all those that did not embrace his religion, and destroyed all the remaining idols in the city. he allowed his army all the plunder they could get, after he had a tithe to himself, but it is said that he led a very abstemious life, dressed poorly, and resided with his wives in the shabbiest type of dwellings. he died in a.d. , or ten years after the hegira, from which event is dated the mohammedan era. after his death many of the converts became backsliders, but his successor, abu-bekr, and more especially the renowned omar—the second caliph-brought the saracens to a great power. they were very warlike, and capable of enduring great hardships, and as they had everything to gain and nothing to lose, they made war their sole trade, and car- ried their successful arms to india, persia, mesopotamia, syria, palestine, and egypt. the islands of the mediterranean, the northern coast of africa, spain, and the south-east of france, were by them also invaded, ravaged, and partly conquered. in the youthful days of saracenic power, as early as the second caliphate, persia and asia minor had been plun- dered and pillaged of their costly and valuable objects in silver, gold, embroidered carpets, and silken goods. the wealth of the moslem conquerors was now considerable, and was accumulating fast; the sight of so much that was fine and striking in the arts and architecture of the coun- tries they had conquered, in the eyes of these people—who were no better than barbarians or banditti-began to have a more civilising effect on them. add to this the influence of the byzantine architecture, especially at constantinople, with the saracens, whose religion was in some respects not unlike the christian, especially as in both cases there was the stern prohibition of idols or graven images; and saracenic architecture and ornament. e ccccc awe all cecg fig. .--alhambra diaper, superposed ornament. so it was quite natural that the moslem mosque should be built and decorated on the main lines of the byzantine christian church. the dome and the niche (mehrab) came vol. i. Х historic ornament. as from the byzantine; the minarets—which are not strictly essential in moslem architecture-probably from the per- seopolitan columns. the moslem dome, however, may have had its origin in the domed palaces of persia, of the achæmedian dynasty. saracenic ornament is mostly, however, derived from the geo- metric byzantine with a strong dash of indian forms in its mix- ture. the super-posing in their ornament of different planes (fig. ), the class of ornament known “mnemonic" (figs, , ), fig. .–stalactite vaulting. and the stalactite decoration of vaults and domes (fig. )-all these three classes deserve the credit of being distinctly saracenic, although some say that the stalactite ornament was known in persia before the days of mahomet. among the earliest mosques we may mention that of omar at jerusalem, which was supposed to be a small wooden mosque, now destroyed. ferguson says it was the mosque of el aksah. the mosque of 'amr at old cairo was built a.d. by amru-ibn al-aās, the general and governor who con- quered egypt, a.h. (after the hegira). it has been frequently restored and enlarged. the columns which support the arcaded arches are classical in character, the arches are slightly horseshoe in the curve, and are tied together. the building is nearly square in plan (figs. , ). the mosque of ibn-tūlūn (son of tūlūn) in old cairo was built by ahmad ibn-tülin, founder of the house of the tūlūn governors of egypt, a.h. - . this mosque and that of 'amr are what are known as cloistered mosques. the plan of the latter (fig. ) gives a general idea of a cloistered mosque. the essential requirements of a mosque are very few and simple. mahomet's mosque at medina was a small square brick-built structure, with a saracenic architecture and ornament. r *** fig. .—east colonnade of the mosque of 'amr. (l.-p.) historic ornament. wooden roof plastered over: the chief thing required was retirement from the public for meditation and prayer. it was not essential that all the rectangular or square court that forms the mosque should be covered with a roof, provided there was sufficient shelter for the number of worshippers, which was generally small at a time, and if :: ::::: *......: which:mm::::: :::: ::: : open n . ::.......... w- f -e ...::.. i . ul.:::: kibleh . orthimi dikkeh mimbar the two test columus court. ..:.:: entrance . ... lil: y............................. t!!::::.........:: ::: ::: ... .... :::: ::::::::::::....:::::..::: .... : .:: ..:::: :::: :::.c.:: fig. .—plan of the mosque of ‘amr. (l.-p.) a larger space were required, a portion or all of the open court could be roofed in. what we would call the east end of a church corresponded to that part of a mosque where the kibla, or line of direction, would be indicated- towards mecca—there the mihrab or niche would be fixed. close to the mihrab is the mimbar, or pulpit, for the sermon, and in close vicinity the dikka or tribune, a raised saracenic architecture and ornamĖnt. nuo kikuu um platform, from which the imām intones the prayers and reads passages from the korān. the minaret is a later addition, but is seen on every mosque; it is used by the muezzin, who ascends to its galleries and calls 'the faithful to prayer five times a day (fig. ). a fountain is necessary for the lawful ablutions before prayer. the dome is not a necessary feature to a mosque; it only occurs over the tomb of some sultan or other digni- tary, and may be used as a chapel, but only when it covers a tomb. the majority of mosques, however, have a dome, either as a principal feature, or attached to some part of the build- ing. cairo is particularly rich in domed mausoleum structures (fig. ). the domes or cupolas in moslem fig. .–minaret of buildings generally swell up beyond the mosque of kaloum at cairo. the semicircle, and are raised con- siderably by having their lower parts straight-sided or cylindrical ; this part is sometimes pierced with a row of small windows, and is recessed back on a pyramid-like story, with a square or polygonal base, which in its turn rests on the top of a square embattled tower. the dome is usually built of brick, the courses projecting roughly one fig. .—mausoleum over the other, diminishing towards at cairo. the top, and thickly plastered over inside and out to get an even surface; sometimes the mortar is thicker than the bricks in saracen buildings. מפרח historic ornament fig. . – mosque of kāit bey, cairo. (l.-p.) wooden frames are often used in the construction of domes which support the plaster work. some domes are saracenic architecture and ornament. built with slabs of stones on which a geometric pattern is carved on the outside (figs. , ); these are generally of a late period, as the tomb mosque of kāit bey, built about a.d. (fig. ). the oldest mosque in cairo is that of ibn tūlūn (fig. ). it is a cloistered mosque, is built in a massive style, and has a high plain wall around it; it covers about four hundred square feet of ground. in the centre of the inner courtyard is a square stone building surmounted by a dome, one of the earliest carried on stalactites. this building is a century later than the cloisters, and is built over a well or fountain. the great court is surrounded by arcades of pointed arches, that have a slight tendency to turn inwards at the base, and are built as piers of plastered brick; it is said to be the first mosque built on piers, instead of the usual round columns. the saracens did not make columns themselves, but took them from the ruins of roman buildings, or even from existing christian churches, and as often as not used the capitals turned upside down as bases. the saracens have a form of capital of moorish design which harmonizes with their architecture; it has a slightly tapering, smooth, long neck, a heavy projecting head, and is well covered with characteristic foliated work (fig. ). in the mosque of ibn-tūlūn there are only two columns; these are placed at the niche or mihrab. three sides of this mosque have two rows of arches, and the fourth-the side towards mecca—which is the liwān or sanctuary, has five. the architect of this mosque was a coptic christian, who received £ , and a costly dress of honour as his fee. the total cost of the building was , , (lane- poole). around the arches and the windows, which were placed high up between the arches, are bands of palmated ornament. these borders, according to mr. stanley lane- poole, are the earliest examples of geometrical design and scroll-work that afterwards became so characteristic of saracenic ornament. historic ornament. they were made in plaster or stucco-work by hand, while the plaster was wet, and not cast in moulds, which was the case of later moorish plaster ornament. muutusmusic ooc pogba fig. .-- arcades in the mosque of ibn-tūlūn. (l.-p.) the arcades were roofed over with sycamore planks resting on heavy beams, and the whole structure was crowned with crenellations or embattlements. one of the saracenic architecture and ornament. al fig. .--pulpit of the sultan kāit bey: fifteenth century. (l.-p) historic ornament. plentiful—at least, of any examples of the best period of the saracen style. the main idea in the design of the awag fig. .-a street in cairo. (l.-p.) houses was to have them built so that people outside should see as little as possible of the inmates or inside, and that the women especially should see as little of street historic ornament. liarly arabian in design. it is composed of many pieces of turned and carved pieces that are ingeniously fitted into each other to form the pattern (figs. - - ). in the fig. .-lattice-work, s.k.m. (l.-p.) museum at kensington many examples of these lattice patterns may be seen, and also some of the meshrebiyas. in the illustration of a “street in cairo” (fig. ), two fig. .—lattice-work, s.k.m. (l.-p.) of these meshrebiyas project on brackets from a house front. a richer style of the lattice-work decoration was used saracenic architecture and ornament. in open panels and balustrades of the pulpits, where the triangles and hexagons that form part of the design are carved on the surface, and inlaid back and front with ivory or ebony. the houses in cairo of the purest saracen style have the best part of the carvings and decoration in the inside ; they are generally two or three stories in height, but were much higher in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. the lower parts are built of stone, and the upper stories of brick and wood, plastered white. the lower story has the stones coloured in alternate courses of red ochre and white limewash. the doorways are sometimes decorated by having peculiar voussoirs and interlaced ornament (fig. ). there is an illustration of a shop-front in m. bourgoin's “eléments de l'art arabe” which is an exquisite ex- ample of saracen work of good proportion and design in its doors and windows. saracenic ornament, as it appears in plaster, stone, wood, and mosaic decoration, of the mosques, pulpits, and wekālas or khans, deserves special notice on account of its extreme originality of design and treatment, inasmuch as, whatever may be its true origin, we must certainly admit that there is a marked difference between it and the ornament of any other historic style. the mosques built anterior to that of suyurghatmish (a.d. ) were decorated in plaster. the rosette (fig. ) shows a transitional piece of work of great beauty, that looks like a copy in stone of low-relief plaster-work, and has every sign of a byzantine-like origin, seen more especially in the leaf-like markings and general treatment of the six large central fowers; the interlacing and other details are also byzantine. it is quite likely that this example was designed by a christian coptic artist, as, indeed, nearly all the saracen art in egypt of this period was designed by coptic egyptians. compare with this the illuminated korān of the sultan sha' ban, of a year or two later (a.d. ). all the floral work in this is historic ornament. distinctly persian in character, without any reminiscence of byzantine, but shows rather a chinese or indian in- fluence (fig. ). it is probably copied from a persian embroidery. another example of saracenic ornament is the stone fig. .-doorway of a private house. (l.-p.) sculptured decoration from the portal of the mosque of sultan hasan, in cairo (a.d. ), (fig. ). from being carved in stone the ornament is much stiffer than the two previous examples, but it is more thoroughly sara- saracenic architecture and ornament. i cenic or arabian than either of them; the large flower- like forms in elevation are evidently developments of the odpole oooo qoderosos cortech fig. .—illuminated korān of the sultan sha' ban; fourteenth century. (l.-p.) assyrian form of the lotus, and have here almost the form of the fleur-de-lis. this type of design was successfully vol. i. y •ueses urins jo period əy wo.j juəweu – € ! ว่าหาทนา / al, : . .lollecti๕เห็น: ไม่ , :/ / | _ - r: : : : : : : : : lliะ ปีเป็น พ เd” huirin เทโibuilแพรนวทางเหt bs uramitrategiture saracenic architecture and ornament. developed in the moresque diapers of the alhambra, where the conventional leaves and flower forms were mixed with saracenic inscriptions, and were redeemed from their aridity by the almost sensuous character of the colouring, which has a combination of red, blue, white, and gold, and further by the superimposed planes of the ornamental fig. .- kufic writing, from the alhambra. composition (see fig. ). it may be noticed that some of the leaf-work in these diapers have a feather-like decoration, which gives richness and variety to the orna- ment: these markings are evidently derived from the parallel veining of byzantine acanthus leaf-work. the larger strap-work running through is interlaced in the form fig. .- arabian cursive writing, from the alhambra. of pointed and horseshoe arches, which makes the orna- ment in appropriate harmony with the moorish architec- ture, while the flat treatment of the whole is distinctively characteristic of all saracenic ornament. two examples of mnemonic ornament are given at figs. and . the former is a kufic inscription historic ornament. arranged so as to form a band ornament. this is in the angular and older form of writing. the latter is an example of the cursive arabian hand which was more generally adopted, and is termed the vaskhy : it is more round and flowing than the kufic. the typical feather ornament forms a background to most of these inscrip- tions. some of the finest specimens of purely saracenic orna- ment are found on the singularly ornate mimbars or pulpits (figs. and ). the simplicity of their straight-lined silhouettes is in restrained contrast to the extreme elaboration of their carved surfaces. the stone pulpit from the mosque of barkuk is early fifteenth cen- tury work. it is made of solid stone slabs, with doorway, staircase, and canopy raised on small pillars and sur- mounted by the usual pear-shaped cupola. the stone slabs are elaborately carved with geometrical patterns, arabesques, and inscriptions, and are said to be the finest examples of stone carving in cairo. another pulpit (fig. ) of the fifteenth century, made by order of the sultan kāit bey, is built in wood; it is now in the south ken- sington museum, and bears the name of this mamlūk sultan, who was the ruler of egypt at the end of that century. the folding doors and the niche of this pulpit are decorated with stalactite ornament; the cupola is copper; the carving is most elaborate, and is also inlaid with ebony and ivory. some of the carved panels from the building known as the wekāla or khan of kāit bey, show saracenic ornament in its purest form-both the geome- trical variety and arabesques. this sultan and his artists have shown the most refined taste of all the great saracen builders. the wekāla or khan is a rectangular building with an open court in the centre, and consists of numerous chambers that were occupied by merchants for a short season when they came to buy and sell in cairo, and was, in fact, a sort of eastern hotel. the stabling was placed behina on the ground floor, and saracenic architecture and ornament. fig. .--stone pulpit in mosque of barkuk; fifteenth century. historic ornament. go fig. .-ornament on an arch of the wekāla kāit bey. (l.-p.) the exterior consisted of a row of small shops. the wekāla of kāit bey had thirteen of these shops on one exterior, and between the seventh and eighth was placed a splendid arched gateway. it is a pointed arch of eight feet in width, the edge of which is decorated with three tiers of stalactites that are carved on the sides of the archway, and has a fine band of carved scroll - work running round the face of the archway and spandrels. one of the most beautiful examples of alter- nating interlacing and ara- besque ornament is that which forms an arch over a horizontal panel of carved ornament. this arch is shown at fig. . a fine characteristic piece of carved ornament from the same building is the subject of the illustration fig. . figure and animal repre. sentation, though prohibited by the moslem religion, was in many cases practised by the saracen sculptors; for instance, in the baptistery of st. louis is a large copper bowl inlaid with silver figures (mosil work made at mosil in the thirteenth century. saracenic architecture and ornament. these figure and animal designs are from mesopotamian sources, as may easily be seen in the examples given- from the maristan of kalaun (figs. and ), where on the last a centaur is shooting an arrow at a unicorn, balanced by a similar animal on the opposite side; and on the other example is a peacock in the centre, with figures of men on either side having drinking vessels and musical instruments, an evident representation of a concert and dances. the scroll borders around this panel, and the execution of the work, are in the saracenic manner, but the motives of the designs are persian. other similar carvings in which animals figure and birds are introduced are to be seen in the same building, and are of late thirteenth cen- tury work. these illustrations are taken from mr. stanley lane-poole's “ saracenic art in egypt,” after “prisse d'avennes," to which the student is referred for an exhaus- tive account of the saracen art in egypt. we extract the following summary of this art from the above author, who quotes from franz pasha, the architect to the govern- ment of the khedive. “ while bestowing their full meed of praise on the wonderfully rich ornamentation and other details of arabian architecture, one cannot help feeling that the style fails to give entire æsthetic satisfaction; want of symmetry of plan, poverty of articulation, insufficiency of plastic decoration, and an incongruous mingling of wood and stone are the imperfections which strike most northern critics. the architects, in fact, bestowed the whole of their attention on the decoration of surfaces; and down to the present day the arabian artists have always displayed far greater ability in designing the most complicated orna- ment and geometrical figures on plane surfaces than in the treatment and proportioning of masses. although we occasionally see difficulties of construction well overcome these instances seem rather to be successful experi- ments than the result of scientific workmanship. the real excellence of the arabian architects lay in their skill saracenic architecture and ornament. in masking abrupt angles by the use of stalactites, or brackets," &c. this architect is right, generally speaking, in his admir- able remarks, but we think, although it is admitted that saracenic architecture lacks the cohesion and unity of parts that is the chief beauty in greek and best examples of the gothic, that in some instances, in the mosques and more particularly in the wekālas and in domestic archi- tecture, the saracen architects have proved themselves masters in the creation of architectural works second to none in point of beauty, while in their architectural appli- cation of ornament to the decoration of the various sur- faces and other features of their buildings they are un- rivalled. they have not only invented a new style of ornament, but in their correct application of it they have scarcely ever been equalled. the decoration of surfaces, which is the chief glory of all saracenic art and architecture, was the first and last lesson they learnt from their persian masters in art, for persian art, like the manners and customs of the people, has all its beauty and politeness on the surface. chapter xix. romanesque architecture and ornament. romanesque is the name given to the architectural style developed by the western barbarians who overran the roman empire, after their partial civilisation, when they had learned the art of building. the style arose chiefly from the copying of roman buildings and their remains, with some added features of byzantine buildings. out of this romanesque, in its turn, there sprang another style which was founded on the romanesque and on the architecture of the saracens. towards the end of the eleventh century the new masters of the roman empire, in the course of their military expeditions to asia minor, syria, and palestine, were brought in contact with the saracens and their architecture, and in coming back to europe they brought with them new ideas of building, such as the pointed arch of the saracens, which feature together with new forms of ornament were added by them to the prevalent romanesque style, the mixture producing an entirely new style, which has been curiously named after the early northern barbarians—the gothic. the subsequent crusades against the mohammedans had the effect, among others, of extending the knowledge of mathematics and geometry among the crusaders, sciences in which the saracens excelled; and in coming home again to the west, they applied their geometrical knowledge to the development of gothic architecture to such an extent that, towards the end of the fourteenth century, this archi- tecture could show examples of the most lofty and daring romanesque architecture and ornament. constructions in stone that were marvels in the science of building. some gothic buildings present with their fretted pinnacles, spires, flying buttresses, intersecting and pierced work, in flamboyant tracery, daring vaulting, and inter- penetrating mouldings, a worked-out solution of some intricate mathematical problem. in its complicated phases gothic construction is more scientific than artistic, how- ever much one may admire the grouping or design of the gothic pile as a picturesque conception. returning to the romanesque style, we find that in the sixth century theodoric the ostrogoth had, in the erec- tions of churches, palaces, and of his tomb in ravenna- his capital-sown the first seeds of the future develop- ments of the german romanesque, and in some degree of the later german gothic style. in producing these works his ambition was to emulate the grandeur of imperial rome. the longobards, the successors of the ostro- goths, continued this building activity through the middle ages, and have left to us monuments their genius in the early and rude duomo vecchio of brescia, and amongst many others of their noblest works were sant' ambrogio at milan, and san zeno at verona. prior to the carlovingian era, the germanic people began to cultivate the fine arts in a tentative manner. this was brought about by the contact of german chiefs and warriors with italian pomp and splendour, which also bred in them a love for personal adornment, that strongly marked the nobles and warriors of this period. charlemagne was crowned emperor of germany at rome, on christmas day in the year a.d. . the dream and ambition of this great german prince was to establish a mighty christian empire in the west of europe that should rival pagan rome itself, not only in military power, but in a widespread culture of literature, science, and artistic excellence. these were the days of chivalry, of the crusaders; the days when men were rich in high and lofty ideals; when historic ornament. those knightly mystics, wolfram von eschenbach and vogelweide, sang of the parsival and the quest of the holy graal, of songs of love and chivalry, of deliverance from wrongs, and of many stirring and tuneful themes. though charlemagne never learned to read or write, he thoroughly appreciated the value of learning. he gathered together learned men, architects, and artists, and established a school of religious music. he built many churches, palaces, and bridges, and collected many statues from rome and elsewhere for the adornment of his great church at aix-la-chapelle; he organized and encouraged the professions and trades of his towns and cities. the great tomb-church at aix-la-chapelle-or aachen was built by charlemagne, and became the prototype of all subsequent churches erected in the romanesque style in germany. it was in the region bordering on the rhine that the great church building activity was developed in germany. the cities of the powerful bishoprics rivalled each other in pomp and splendour, as we see in such buildings as the doms of spiers, mayence, and cologne, and in the roman- esque churches of swabia, franconia, westphalia, and lower saxony. the romanesque style is also found in the churches or doms of bamberg, brunswick, and osna- bruck; the godehardi and michael's churches at hildes- heim, the carving in which excels that in the churches of the rhineland. the distinctive characteristics of the german roman- esque are the great octagonal dome-like towers that arise from the crossing of the nave and transept, and the flank- ing towers at each end that are sometimes united to the central tower by an outside western gallery or façade. a fine modern church, built in the romanesque style, is that of the cathedral of fourvière, on the hill overlooking the city of lyons in france. some german romanesque churches have a western as well as an eastern apse, and the church known as the romanesque architecture and ornament. apostelkirche in cologne has the transept, both of which features are disturbing elements in any church where the chief attention should be directed to the culminating point . fig. .-round arch frieze. fig. .-intersecting blind arcade where the choir, reredos, or altar are usually found in the apse or chancel, and at the eastern end only. the church architecture of the west—the romanesque aaaaa fig. .-rose window. followed closely the requirements of the western ritual, while the churches which observed the eastern ritual kept to the greek or byzantine models. romanesque churches of the tenth century are distin- + historic ornament. guished by the basilica plan, the apsidal east end, round- headed arches, and single or double-light windows. the walls have generally a decoration, consisting of a series of flat pilasters—reminiscences of classic architecture, and the roofs in many cases were vaulted. arcaded deco- ration, with or without small columnar supports (figs. and ) and rose windows (fig. ) are features of the con un lumi .cube fig. .-porch of the heilsbronn monastery, near nüremberg. romanesque. some of the round-headed doorways are especially rich in character, and have often five or six recessed columns (fig. ) that carry richly inoulded heads, and carved capitals of quaint animal and bird deco- ration (fig. ). the shafts of the columns are usually plain, though in some instances, for the sake of contrast, they are twisted romanesque architecture and ornament. or imbricated, and the bases are copies of the classic orders (fig. ). above the lintel and under the round arch mouldings is the lunette or tympanum; this space truir luces fig. .- romanesque shaft and base. fig. .-capital from wartburg. often has rich decoration of figures and ornament; some- times it is divided into two spaces, when the entrance doorway is divided by a central pillar. vo al fig. .-roof cornice of church at alstadt-rottweil. fig. .-later romanesque ornament. the details and motives of romanesque decoration are derived from classic ornament-mostly roman-and are, as a rule, debased forms of the latter. historic ornament. romanesque architecture, and especially its decorative ornamentation, was never quite free from byzantine or fig. .-capital from palace of barbarossa, gelnhausen. saracenic influences. it was of itself an incongruous mixture, out of which, when the pointed arch of the sara- cens was adopted, and the ornamental features modified to conform with it, the new ogival or gothic style arose. in every part of europe in which the romanesque took root, there may be noticed so many distinct varieties. the vuur style in rome and central italy naturally followed, as we have seen, the antique roman forms. in the cathe- dral of pisa the capitals are fig. .-capital from st. cross, winchester. corinthian, and there is a greater display here of mo- saics and coloured marbles, both on the exterior and in the interior, than in most romanesque buildings. romanesque architecture and ornament. the style in lombardy and upper italy is, on the other hand, different to that of central italy, as it there inherited the german traditions. the columns had in their capitals leafage of a different character to that of the classic orders, and had birds and animals carved amongst it, and the bases of the columns rested on animals. door- ways were square-headed, and had also a circular arch, over which was a pedimented canopy (fig. ). one of the finest examples of lombardic romanesque is the st. zeno church at verona, which has a doorway of this descrip- tion. the church of monreale in sicily (a.d. ), and the cathedral of palermo, exhibit a mixture in which byzantine and saracenic influences are well defined; this was owing to the successive powers that were at different periods masters of that country the normans at a later date made changes in the architec- ture of sicily, and norman archi- tecture was developed to a great extent in this place. it was in sicily that norman fig. .--porch of st. zeno at verona. architecture first developed the characteristic zigzag feature that is seen so much in the norman portals and window-heads in england (figs. and ). the pointed arch of the saracens was added to the norman romanesque in sicily. the cathedral of cefalu ( ), and the palace of la ziza at palermo, are examples. nowhere else was the romanesque of so mixed a character. the illustration from palermo (fig. ) clearly shows the pointed saracenic arch, used after the manner of the romanesque round arching, while some other portions of romanesque architecture and ornament. the details are distinctly byzantine. in the south of france romanesque architecture is far more ornate than that of the norman style in normandy, or other parts of the north; in fact, the latter style in france has its ornament confined to purely linear decoration ; but the churches that were built at the end of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth centuries, which represent norman architecture in fig. .-berkeley castle, gloucestershire. fig. .—pointed arcading from the cathedral of palermo. its purest phases, were noble edifices, plain and solidly built, of which the church of st. etienne is a good example. its arcades rest on piers, it has a vaulted nave and aisles, and has a fine transept. the gable of the nave is flanked by two western towers, the western front is built in three stories, and has two ranges of five-light windows. the cathedrals of bayeux and evreux may be mentioned as two other fine examples of norman architecture. romanesque architecture and ornament. vaulting still remain, but the rest of the original church has disappeared. on the continent and in england, just after the year , a great building period set in, as for many years prior to this date a corresponding period of an opposite kind, or a lethargy in the life of the christian peoples, and consequently an inactivity in all building operations, was manifested, owing to the prophecy that the end of the world would come in the year . when this was found to be a delusion, a building craze spread over europe, and the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries were the great building ages, when both christian and saracenic architecture advanced with leaps and hounds. the normans in england after the conquest, no doubt, hastened the advancement of architecture; for the rule seems to have been that wherever they found a small or old church of the anglo-saxon type or period, they invariably pulled it down, re-dressed the stones, and built a much larger and better church on the same site, using up the old material when available, besides building many churches on new sites. the normans were also much better builders than the saxons, and at this time great numbers of norman masons were brought over from france. the strongholds, or castles, with their massive keeps, were built at this period by the new norman barons, in order not only to have stately dwellings for themselves, but to protect their newly-acquired honours and posses- sions from their saxon foemen. remains of many of these strongholds, especially of the keeps, are still to be seen at hedingham castle at rochester; gundulph's tower—the oldest-at malling, kent; newcastle, guildford, colchester, richmond, and conisborough in yorkshire, &c. one of the earliest is the great white tower of london, in which is found the beautiful little norman chapel, one of the best and most perfect examples of norman architecture in england. the norran keeps, or towers, are uniform in historic ornament. design, having a square plan, with a square projecting turret at each angle, and a flat, thin buttress in the centre of the walls; windows were small, and were round or anal ch fig. .- the landgrave's room at the wartburg. square-headed. the doorways were round-headed, re- cessed, and were generally ornamented. portions of canterbury cathedral, as indeed, of almost all the principal english cathedrals, and many old churches, were built in the norman period, which shows how extensively church building must have been carried romanesque architecture and ornament. on from the conquest ( ) to the commencement of the reign of richard i. ( ). the norman and oldest parts fig. .-romanesque ornament, iron hinge from notre-dame, paris. of canterbury cathedral, built by archbishop lanfranc ( - ), are the towers forming the choir transepts. historic ornament. unfinished, but they had at one time wooden spires. chartres ( ), rheims ( ), and rouen ( ) are other typical examples of this period. the period of the early english style lasted from about a.d. to , embracing the reigns of richard i., john, and henry iii. this style is distinguished from the norman transitional by the light and lofty pillars used singly or in groups and clusters, lancet windows, pointed arches, and by the additional use made of buttresses and pinnacles. the slope or pitch of the roof is in harmony with the pointed arches and lancet windows, and also the pyra- midal towers or spires. the greatest possible difference is thus exhibited between the norman romanesque and the early english gothic. although the ground plan is hardly altered in the latter style, the general lightness and soaring vertical character of almost every detail, and the multiplication of buttresses and pinnacles, give to the gothic erections of this period a triumphal look of mastery over the material that in the science of building was hitherto unknown. the early pointed style in england is seen at its best in lincoln, york, and salisbury cathedrals and in west- minster abbey (fig. ), the cathedral of cologne founded by conrad von hochstaden -that wonderful and huge pile of gothic architecture—belongs partly to the thirteenth but more properly to the fourteenth century, having its foundations laid in and consecrated in . it has been added to considerably even until modern days. it presents a slightly wearisome repetition of parts, especially in the buttresses, pinnacles, and other vertical forms of the exterior, that in a measure robs it of some part of the grandeur and sublimity which we should naturally expect in an edifice of its size and proportions. it is based partly on the design of the great cathedral of amiens in france. the very rich canopies and windows of geometrical + historic ornament. another interesting church in nüremberg is that of st. sebaldus, more from its association with the name and works of adam kraft, who carved the figure work on the exterior, and peter vischer, whose celebrated work is the em aws fig. .-interior of st. lawrence, at nüremberg. chief glory of this church-the shrine of st. sebaldus (fig. ), one of the most important works of the fif- teenth century-than from its merits as an architectural work. the plan of this church is bad in having its nave and aisles of equal width, which is at utter variance with gothic architecture and ornament. all ideas of good proportion and of the gothic style. the shrine of st. sebaldus is modelled and cast in bronze; peter vischer and his five sons laboured on it for twelve years before it was completed. it is gothic entirely in pm jawatuhult g des fig. .—shrine of st. sebaldus, at nüremberg. construction, but most of the forms and details of the orna- ment and figure work are purely italian ; for at this time -the beginning of the sixteenth century-germanic artists were fascinated and strongly influenced by the art that gothic architecture and ornament. arcades under the first story, picturesques balconies, and corner turrets ending in corbels, which were often richly carved. the gothic style was introduced into italy in the twelfth eeee fig. .— town hall, marienberg. usd and thirteenth centuries, but it never took any great root in that country. in rome there are no gothic buildings of this period : there is one of the fifteenth century, the church of minerva, but is a bad example of the style. gothic architecture and ornament. the cathedral of milan is the finest example of a church in the gothic style in italy, though it is by no means pure fig. .- crockets, lincoln. jfsvvallaw. fig. .–from the temple church. gothic. it is built of white marble and has some remark- ably good stained-glass windows. the palazzo publico a b с h e к j fig. .- norman and gothic mouldings. a b c, norman; def, early english ; g h, decorated; i j k, perpendicular. lexx s a wheeler.del.sc fig. .-pedestal, henry vii.'s chapel, historic ornament. built with lozenge-shaped slabs of pink marble, and pierced with a row of large pointed windows, and has smaller circular openings above these. a richly designed battle- ment crowns the walls of the upper story. the caps of the columns are beautifully carved, and sculptured figure h fig. .- place house, cornwall. subjects decorate the corners of the building. this palace was a long time in building ; before it was completed the style had perceptibly changed, so in consequence the portico in some parts belongs to the fourteenth and some to the fifteenth century. gothic architecture and ornament. throughout venice the architecture with gothic pre- tensions is mixed very much with fifteenth and sixteenth venetian or renaissance forms. the ogee arch was used very much, and the decorated style of windows and door- ways, arcadings, and balconies with italian forms made a quaint mixture that gives a very pleasing appearance to some of the venetian palaces. gothic architecture in england has been divided into ton fig. .-flamboyant panel. french, fifteenth century. fig. .– flamboyant panelling. french. three styles ; the early english, which lasted from about a.d. - , in the reigns of richard i., john, and henry iii.; the decorated, a.d. - , in the reigns of edward i., ii., and iii. ; and the perpendicular style, a.d. - , from the time of richard ii. to henry viii. after this it became debased, and finally merged into the tudor or english renaissance, sometimes called the “ elizabethan." a still later mixture of english gothic with italian or flemish renaissance details was developed in the reign of james i., which has been called “ jaco- gothic architecture and ornament. the decorated style is a rich and more ornate phase of the preceding style, and is further marked by the exten- sive use of the ogee arch in doorways and windows (see fig. a), and by the greater profusion of sculptured foliage, flowers, and ornament in the decoration. the ball flower used in the hollow mouldings is characteristic of this style, as the tooth ornament is of the early english. the perpendicular style, as its name denotes, is charac- terized by its long and narrowly divided windows and similar panellings. instead of the flowing lines of tracery b f fig. .- forms of gothic tracery. a, 'trefoil; , quartrefoil; c, cinquefoil; d, Çusped quartrefoil; e, pointed and cusped; f, flamboyant. in the windows, the mullions are of a straight lined and vertical character, and are divided at intervals by tran- soms, or horizontal divisions. the pedestal (fig. ) from henry vii.'s chapel is of perpendicular panelling. the beautiful fan tracery seen in henry vii.'s chapel in westminster abbey and in gloucester cathedral is a variety of this panelling. the doorways in this style have pointed but depressed arches, and as a rule are enclosed with square-headed mouldings or labels. the spandrels formed by this arrangement are filled with tracery and shields. towers and cornices have battlements, &c. (fig. ). a general squareness is given to all the ornaments, historic ornament. and a more severe and dry character is the chief feature of the perpendicular decoration. the flamboyant gothic style of the continent is contem- poraneous with the english perpendicular. the panels at figs. and are very good examples of flam- boyant panel decoration. forms of gothic arches and tracery are given at figs. and . chapter xxi. renaissance architecture and ornament. many things tended to bring about the art of the renaissance. the great impulse given to learning by the study of the writings of the greek and roman poets, lawyers, and philosophers, and the keen study of the rich legacy of art and architecture left by greece and rome, may be reckoned among the chief causes which led to the development during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries of the re-birth or renaissance both of literature and art. dante, and his successors petrarch and boccaccio, were called “humanists," for the reason that they studied and advocated the knowledge that was needful to man in his progress and in relation to his life in this world, and did not confine themselves wholly to theology, which was the case with those who devoted themselves to learning in the middle ages. this led to a wider spread of knowledge among the people, which was greatly stimulated by the invention of printing. the rulers of the people also encouraged learning and promoted the arts to an extent unknown before. in florence, especially, under the powerful and beneficent rule of the medici family, art and literature received every attention, and made rapid progress in every department of cultured knowledge and skilful handicraft. great artists like niccola pisano, brunellesco, donatello, giotto, alberti, and others of the early period, whose individuality and great personality did more than any- vol. i. bb historic ornament. vasari—that in pisa there had been accumulated a great collection of antique sculpture—the spoils of war-and among them a sarcophagus, on which the “hunt of meleager and the calydonian boar” was wrought with great skill, which was placed for ornament on the façade of the cathedral: this and other antique remains in the city were studied to great advantage by niccola, to the great improvement of his style. one fine work of his, , executed in the spirit of the antique, was the pulpit for the church of san giovanni in pisa, on which are great numbers of figures, representing the universal judgment. for the cathedral of siena he also executed a similar work with subjects from various passages in the life of christ. on this pulpit he had the assistance of arnolfo and lapo, his pupils, and probably also that of his son giovanni. these works proved the great turning point in sculpture, from the archaic productions of the middle ages to an era of better things, although in execution they left much to be desired. giotto was not only the great painter who first invested his works with poetry, feeling, and expression, but was also a skilful architect, as his fine campanile, or bell-tower, in his native city of florence bears witness. dante and petrarch were his friends, the former especially so; the portrait of dante by giotto still exists in the chapel of the podesta at florence. brunellesco, as we learn from vasari, was one of the most interesting of men, and one of the most capable artists of his time, a man of acute genius and ready resource. in the early renaissance period architecture was studied by nearly all sculptors and painters, and many, as we have seen, were apprenticed in their youth as gold- smiths. brunellesco was no exception to this rule, for we find that he was a clever goldsmith and worker in niello. the greatest work of his life was the building of the cupola or dome of the cathedral of florence--he was the only architect of his day that was found able to do it. the cathedral was the work of the florentine architect, i historic ornament. ito'' pil at the "rusticated,” like so many of the italian palaces (fig. ). this is a roughened form of stonework, and was copied from roman buildings, which, together with the heavy cornices and symmetrical repetition of windows, gave these palaces a heavy and imposing look. another palace of the rucellai type is the cancelleria at rome, which was built by bramante ( - ), a native of castel-durante, in urbino, who also built st. peter's at rome, and who was the greatest architect of the renaissance, of whom michelangelo testified “that bramante was equal to any architect who has appeared from the time of the ancients to our own, can by no means be denied.” michelangelo himself was the archi- tect of the dome of st. peter's, and his sublime works in sculpture and fresco adorn the interior. the cancelleria palace is a master- piece of elegance and good propor- tion. it has two imposing doorways, and the plainness of its lower story contrasts agreeably with the upper two, which have rows of round- headed windows enclosed in flat or fig. .–portion of the strozzi palace. square-headed architraves, and are placed at agreeable distances above the entablatures of the lower stories. the two upper stories are divided alternately into wide and narrow divisions by pilasters, the windows being placed in the wide'divisions. this building is a marked improvement in point of beauty on the pitti and rucellai palaces. the farnese palace is another typical building of the renaissance. the design of it is attributed to antonio picconi, who took the surname of san gallo ( ?- ). it is built in three stories, without pilasters, with a widely projecting cornice, and has rather a monotonous look with renaissance architecture and orvament. its numerous windows of equal size. michelangelo is said to have designed some of the windows and the cornice (fig. ), though some say that the architect vignola was the designer of the cornice, the central doorway is "rusticated” and arched, and the angles of the building are of dressed stones. the celebrated building known as the certosa (charter- house) of pavia was begun by borgognone in the year , is an example of the most ornate phase of the renaissance, and offers a widely-marked contrast to the almost bald simplicity of the palace just described (fig. ). as a whole, the facade of this building cannot be called a model of good architectural composition, but it is easier to criticise its faults in this respect than to sug- gest improvements. it contains, how- ever, many striking elements of beauty, and is full of useful suggestions to the architect and decorative artist. the plan and shell of renaissance buildings were usually of the roman- esque or gothic types; the dome, columns, and ornament generally were fig. .-upper story all borrowed from the roman remains. of the farnese palace, rome. designed the column, round arch, and hori- partly by m. angelo. zontal lintel or architrave feature were extensively used in the palaces and other buildings of venice (fig. ), though the renaissance style had a difficult task to make headway in venice against the strong byzan- tine and gothic traditions that had hitherto prevailed. the general type of the venetian palaces is a solid panelled wall and pier arrangement or rusticated lower story, which supports a central loggia, or arcaded second story, that has circular-headed windows and heavy cornices and balconies. the whole façade is richly decorated with engaged columns and pilasters. historic ornament. kla v the cornaro, now the mocenigo palace, the grimani on the grand canal, now the post office, and the spinelli palace, are said to have originally been built from the designs of the great military architect, san michele, of verona ( - ), to whom the signori of venice owed so much as the designer of their forti- fications. jacopo sansovino, who built the library of san marco at venice (fig. ); palladio ( - ), the well-known writer on cojo architecture; scamozzi, and the lombardi family, may be mentioned as other celebrated architects and ornamentists, who executed many works in venice and in verona, florence, padua, vicenza, rome and milan, etc., during the sixteenth cen- tury. it was the tendency of the renaissance period to build palaces and castles, and in the later bioiqiqitedigo a tomaia times municipal and pri- vate dwellings, as learning fig. .–portion of the certosa of pavia. and the arts were getting into the hands of the lay- men, in contrast to the days of the middle ages, when the clergy and monks were the architects and master-builders: in those days hardly anything but churches had archi- tectural pretensions; but the case was different in the renaissance times, when the architects were not bound by renaissance architecture and ornament. name of “françois premier” (ier) has been given. this style was chiefly brought about by the employment of the italian sculptors and architects, serlio, vignola, prima- ticcio, il rosso, cellini, and others who had been invited by francis i. to build and decorate his châteaux and palaces. primaticcio was also entrusted with the task of collecting a series of antique casts and copies of antiques from rome for the gardens of the palace at fontainebleau. this, no doubt, had the effect of helping to form the taste for classic art among french artists. owing to all the above circumstances, french art began to show more of the influence of the italian style. the roman orders were henceforth invariably used, but still the new style was modified in a great measure to suit the french taste. what is known as the henri deux (henry ii.) style is another french development of the cinquecento, in which there is a preponderance of strap-work, with figures, masks, grotesques, cartouches of all kinds, and much of the con- ventional saracenic ornament. the monogram of henry ii. and the arms of catherine de' medici often appear in this ornament, as seen in the decorations of the château d'anet ( ) and on the oiron or henri deux pottery. pierre lescot ( - ) designed the western façade of the louvre, in paris, and jean buillant designed the oldest parts; these two architects and another, philibert delorme, brought the renaissance to such a head in france that it became immediately the national style. the great names in architectural sculpture of the early french renaissance were jean goujon and paul ponce, who carved the principal figures of the façades of the louvre. towards the early part of the seventeenth century the architecture began to assume a more florid character, under the hands of lepautre and du cerceau. it became richer, but less pure in style, an example of which is the apollo gallery of the louvre, designed by lepautre. by the time of the latter half of the seventeenth century the desire for show and the expression of magnificence, historic ornament. e especially brought about by the “grand monarque,” louis xiv., assisted by the efforts of his architects, mansard, perrault, lemercier, and blondel, who ministered to the whims of the powerful king, speedily laid the founda- tions for the loose and unrestrained baroque or rococo style which subsequently followed. the name of “ louis quatorze" has been given to the style developed in the reign of this king. “louis quinze” and “louis seize" are names of subsequent french styles, which will be considered under the head of renaissance ornament. the tame and spiritless palace of versailles was designed by françois mansard, who invented the mansard roofs which have been used together with this style for nearly all the palatial buildings of europe. the purity of the italian renaissance was forgotten or ignored by the nations of europe, and the stiff and pompous buildings of louis xiv. were accepted as the patterns that all civiliza- tion was eager to copy. even old churches and mediæval castles were transformed in some portions of their interiors into louis xiv. imitations. in windsor castle the great ballroom has been vilely treated with the meaningless incrustations of this period, by the way of decorations, endeavouring, however, to make amends for its tasteless poverty of invention by the arrogant display of its rich covering of gold leaf. in the late seventeenth and during the eighteenth centuries, the rococo or baroque phase of the re- naissance was in vogue in italy and france, and indeed everywhere in europe. the main characteristic of the baroque style is the undue prominence given to the ornament and decoration, which arose from a gradual forgetfulness of the roman and greek principles of con- struction, and a want of order in the arrangement of the principal forms in the architecture. by degrees these forms took a secondary position : columns supported nothing or only a few mouldings, cornices and pediments were broken, brackets and consoles were inverted, mould- . historic ornament. in spain the renaissance, mixed with some saracenic features, produced some very good work; the typical example of spanish renaissance is the escurial, the great palace of the spanish kings. in germany the italian renaissance made but a tardy advance, and was never thoroughly at home in that country. german renaissance is far less refined than that of other countries which were influenced by the italian style. it is chiefly in painting, furniture, book illustration, and in goldsmiths' work that it appears at its best, and not in architecture. this was owing to the art of germany being at that time in the hands of the burghers when the advent of the renaissance took place, and also that the mass of the people were more concerned in the study of ethics and philosophy than the arts. another reason may be added, that the nation was unsettled, and occupied with the great religious upheaval of the reformation. all these things proved to be sufficient to retard the advancement of the renaissance in germany for more than a hundred years. one of the best examples of the renaissance we can point to in germany is the castle of heidelberg, built by the elector otto heinrich ( - ). the two façades of this castle, which are now in ruins, have engaged columns and pilasters; the windows have rather heavy- headed features, and are richly carved; statues are placed in the niches between the windows. the portico of the town hall at cologne is another example, and the cloth hall at brunswick is a very interesting specimen of german renaissance. it is deficient in proportion, how- ever, by the extreme horizontality of its eight series of low stories in the principal façade, but is otherwise very picturesque. the german renaissance towards the later periods was characterised by its elaborate carving of ornament, figures, and animals in wood and stone; armorial bearings, escutcheons, shields, and cartouches or ornamental labels were very common in german work, and in most other historic ornament. piazza in covent garden, and crewe hall in cheshire were built from his designs. the cathedral of st. paul's is too well known to need description. it may be mentioned as the most important example of the late renaissance in england. thirty-five years in building ( - ), and although poliulia julhos wildlandiri wer fig. .-elizabethan, north entrance, wollaton house. some details and the ornament generally incline to the baroque, the building as a whole is one of the finest and most impressive works ever produced in any country. wren built a great many churches in london during the time that was occupied in the building of st. paul's, st. stephen's, walbrook, being one of his finest. chelsea hospital, the royal exchange, together with some city renaissance architecture and ornament. halls and twenty-five churches, were built from his designs or under his directions. the architecture of the present day in france leans mostly to renaissance traditions. in germany, greek and roman styles find favour, but menu fig. .-the ancient parlour, holland house. gothic and renaissance, and sometimes romanesque style of buildings are now erected. in england about one hundred years ago there was a greek revival, due in a great measure to the publication of stuart and revett's works in connection with their close vol. i. СС renaissance architecture and ornament. subjects that were painted on the walls, which were often divided into friezes, panels, and dados. these decorations w uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuunn wwwinni fig. .- objects of art handiwork, from pompeii. were executed in tempera colours of bright reds, greens, yellows, blues, and black. the antique grotesques, so historic ornament. examples of the style, as they appear in architectural decoration, for under the heads of the various historic o b d $ $ $ $ dopopoo dotari . fig. .-mural painting. pompeii. industrial arts many examples of renaissance ornament will come under our notice in a succeeding volume. an se fig. .- candelabra and vase panel. h. m. spari ing. del fig. .-- cinquecento; from the martinengo tomb, brescia, historic ornament. the crescent arms of diana of poitiers are seen very often on the shields. jean goujon and jean cousin were employed on the decoration of this castle. an extremely rich example of french carved wood is ercrucicu للللل reliquis victor rr fig. . – ceiling decoration, from san spirito, florence. by sansovino. the panel from the château gaillon, in normandy ( ) (fig. ). the above examples, and the chimney-piece panel by germain pilon ( ) (fig. ), another sculptor em- ployed by catherine de' medici, are a few of the best specimens of the cinquecento period in france. -- renaissance architecture and ornament. elizabethan ornament, or that of the renaissance in england, is characterized by a preponderance of strap- work, and has animals, masks, rosettes, half-lion or half- human terminals, debased class of mouldings, and very little foliage. the example given-the panelling from the old guard chamber, westminster ( ), exhibits a strong influence of saracenic tracery that was prevalent in much of the later furniture and textiles of the renais- sance (fig. ). shield-work was not so prominent in the pure elizabe- than as in the jacobean (james i.) style; the carved stone hoc fig. .–panel from chimneypiece; louvre. by germain pilon. escutcheon-like work from crewe hall, cheshire, attri- buted to inigo jones (fig. ), shows the beginning of the jacobean shield-work. this style is best seen in the carved-wood furniture of the period, and both it and the elizabethan are generally speaking offshoots of the flemish and german phases of the renaissance. eliza- bethan ornament is of great variety, the panelling and other arrangements are sometimes composed purely of strap-work of a rectangular flat perforated appearance, sometimes seen in the doorways and chimney fronts, as at hardwick hall, haddon hall, speke and crewe halls. another kind is of a more curved variety, with figures and historic ornament. pavala serres se. fig. .-example of dietterlin's architecture; german, sixteenth century. art publications- continued. statham-architecture for general readers. a short treatise on the principles and motives of architectural design. by h. h. statham. with illus- trations drawn by the author. third edition, revised. large crown vo. . taylor-elementary art teaching: an educational and technical guide for teachers and learners. by e. r. taylor. with over diagrams and illustrations. second edition. large crown vo. . tebbs—the new lace embroidery (punto tagliato). by louisa a. tebbs. with thirty-four illustrations. new edition. to. . net. tebbs—the art of bobbin lace. a practical text-book of workman- ship, illustrated with original designs in italian, point de flandre, bruges guipure, duchesse, honiton, “raised" honiton, appliqué, and bruxelles. also how to clean and repair valuable lace, etc. by louisa a. tebbs. to. . net. vinycomb-fictitious and symbolic creatures in art. with special references to their use in british heraldry. by john vinycomb. with numerous illustrations. demy vo. . d. net. ward and aitchison–the principles of ornament. by j. ward. ed. by george aitchison, a.r.a. fully illustrated. large crown vo. . d. ward-colour harmony and contrast. for the use of art students, designers, and decorators. by james ward. with sixteen coloured illustrations and several half-tone pictures. . d. net. ward-floral studies for decorative design. by james ward. in portfolio. . net. ward–progressive design for students. by james ward. with forty-two full page plates, comprising upwards of , drawings. vo. . net. ward-historic ornament. a treatise on decorative art and archi- tectural ornament. by james ward. volume i.-- prehistoric art; ancient art and architecture; eastern, early christian, byzantine, saracenic, romanesque, gothic, and renaissance architecture and ornament. with illustrations. second edition. demy vo. . d. volume ii.-pottery. enamels, ivories, metal work, furniture, textile fabrics, mosaics, glass, and book decoration. with illustrations. demy svo. . d. ward-fresco painting : its art and technique. with special refer- ence to the buono and spirit fresco methods. by james ward. with four plates in colour and thirty-one half-tone illustrations of italian and other fresco paintings. royal vo. . od. net. wornum—the analysis of ornament -the characteristics of styles. by r. n. wornum. new edition. fully illustrated. royal vo. . plants and animals as foundations for designs in form and colour. verneuil-the animal in decoration. by m. p. verneuil. intro- duction by eugene grasset. this magnificent work consists of ten parts, each containing six coloured plates, treating of the use of certain animal forms in decorative design. sixty plates. in ten parts, each containing six plates, . net per part. grasset-plants and their application to ornament. edited by eugene grasset. first series. this magnificent work contains seventy-two coloured plates. in twelve parts, . net per part. grasset-plants and their application to ornament. edited by eugene grasset. second series. this magnificent work contains seventy-two coloured plates. in twelve parts, . net per part. london: chapman & hall, ltd. library university of california riverside illustrations a r c h it e c t u r e o rn a m e n t. illustrations a r c h it e c t u r e orn a m ent a series of seventy plates drawn and etched on copper, from his own sketches in france, italy, spain, germany, holland, and belgium. n º by j. b. waring, f.r.i.b.a. | ti author of “the arts connected with architecture in central italy;” “architectural art in italy and spain” (with macquoid); “architectural studies at burgos and miraflores, spain;” “designs for civic architecture;” “masterpieces of industrial art;” “treasures of ornamental art, manchester, ;” &c. with descriptive notices by the artist. l o n do n : black ie & son, paternoster row: glasgow and edinburgh. . /// , / – ~ º º - - º º (sa , - * - “the great business of stupy is to for m a minu adaptel and adequate to all times and all occasions: to which all nature is then laid open, and which may be said to possess thf. key to her inexhaustible rich es.”—sir joshua reynolds, discourse xi. *- - - (; i, as(;ow : w. g. blackie and co., printers, vi li. a fireſ, p. * * * -- * : * , fº ---, -, . -ºs) of j. º.º. . . . . . . . . º p. r. e. f. a. c. e. §he intention of the present undertaking is to present a fresh and sug- §§ § # gestive series of examples in architectural and ornamental design, ſ ºrs which it is hoped will assist in new inventions and adaptations, and ºº:: * be of practical service to all who are engaged in the execution of orna- mental work. during several extensive tours in various parts of europe, the author accumulated a great mass of drawings and sketches, principally relating to architecture and the arts connected with it, from which the following selection is made. these are all taken directly from the objects represented, and very few of the examples chosen have been heretofore published in any form: the plates having, with few exceptions, been etched by the author from his own drawings, the mistakes which sometimes occur when sketches are translated by a second hand have thereby been avoided. the etchings are purposely done in a pictorial style, being intended to serve rather as motives for fresh designs than as models for exact reproduction. although the illustrations relate mostly to architecture, and are instructive to architects, they will be found interesting to the archaeolo- gist, and useful to ornamental designers and art workmen of all classes; and it is hoped that they will likewise prove attractive to the amateur as well as to the artist. the author is desirous of enlisting the sympathies of the public in the cause of art, being satisfied that the more extended and more appreciative our art-loving public becomes, the better will be the work of the artist who labours to produce works of beauty, and who, like all other artists—the poet, musician, painter, orator, and actor—depends greatly for the success of his efforts on the sympathy he meets with from those to whom he addresses himself. in forwarding this object the sketches now published will, it is hoped, exercise a beneficial effect. who that is gifted with an appreciation for art, but will admire the bold and powerful ornamental sculpture of the romanesque period; the quaint fancy and elegance of the dutch and north german was work, contents, and list of the ill u s t r ation s. pl, athºs. ii. iii. iv. vi. vii. . viii. ix. xii. . xiii. xiv, xv. , xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. . xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. • xxvi. xxvii xxviii. . xxix. xxx. xxxi. xxxii, xxxiii. . xxxiv. . xxxv. xxxvi. , xxxvii. romanesque decorative sculpture, from st. gilles (gard), romanesque sculptured ornament, museum, toulouse, romanesque capitals, museum, toulouse, - - - romanesque ornament, abbey of moissac (tarn et garonne), romanesque sculpture, portal of st. croix, bordeaux, romanesque stone carving, notre-dame, poitiers, . . - - - romanesque stone carving, notre-dame, poitiers, and st. gilles (gard), romanesque figure sculpture, from toulouse and arles, romanesque ornament and ancient lettering, from various sites, romanesque sculpture, from various sites, . transitional romanesque sculpture, spain, wood and stone carving, from burgos, spain, . romanesque and medleval germs, from various sites, romanesque ornament, from pisa and assisi, - romanesque sculpture, from lucca, pisa, and genoa, romanesque ornament, from ravello and venice, romanesque sculpture, from pisa and volterra, - - - romanesque and mediaeval stone corbels and capitals, medi.eval sculpture, from auxerre cathedral, mediaeval sculpture, from lyons and auxerre, . - - entrance tower to willeneuve-les-avignon, france, triple chimney-place in the salle-de-justice, poitiers, medleval stone carving, france and germany, mediaeval sculpture in alabaster; miraflores, spain, medleval sculpture in alabaster; miraflores, spain, , medi.eval sculpture, from burgos and miraflores, spain, . mediaeval sculpture, from san juan, toledo, spain, . mediaeval carving in wood, germany, - sculptured door and window. jambs, from italy, mediaeval carving in wood, italy and france, mediaeval carving in stone, toulouse and bordeaux, medleval stone-work, from various sites, moorish capitals, from the alhambra, granada, moorish ornament, from toledo and granada, moorish ornament, from granada and segovia, portion of great “corona,” hildesheim cathedral, . laten font in the bruderkirche, brunswick, - viii contemts. plates. xxxviii. xxxix. . xl. . xli. . xlii. xliii. xliv. xlv. xlvi. xlvii. bronze monument, magdeburg cathedral, , portion of great brass screen, haarlem cathedral, ornamental mediaeval ironwork, from various sites, ornamental iron work, from augsburg, munich, and ulm, ornamental ironwork, from augsburg and ulm, ornamental ironwork, from germany and holland, - - ornamental iron railings, fuggers chapel, st. ulrich, augsburg, ornamental ironwork, from buildings in augsburg, ornamental ironwork, from ulm and augsburg, ornamental metal-work, south of france, ornamental ironwork, from various sites, . ornamental metal-work, from various sites, marble and stone brackets, from florence and pisa, renaissance crestings, &c., in wood and stone, ornamental stonework, from palermo and bologna, ornamental stonework, from florence and siena, palace gateway and church-tower, walladolid, - picturesque compositions in architecture, from various sites, architectural compositions, from various sites, . . . . woodwork from half-timbered houses, north germany, monuments and monumental slabs, germany and holland, drinking horn and tenure horn, from amsterdam and toulouse, renaissance ornamental sculpture, italy and france, - - note on the artistic value of the preceding examples, . - - on the adaptation of plant forms to ornament, and on devices for the façades of buildings, . - - - - plants suitable for ornament: great thistle, plants suitable for ornament: acanthus and thistle, plants suitable for ornament: great thistle, &c., plants suitable for sculpture: artichoke, cactus, &c., plants suitable for sculpture: water melon, &c., - - - plants suitable for sculptured ornament: thorn apple, &c., . plants suitable for sculptured ornament: arum, canna, flowers suitable for ornament: lily and iris, . plants suitable for ornament: hellebore, &c., plants suitable for ornament: creepers, xlviii. . xlix. l. li. . lii. . liii. liv. lv. . lvi. . lvii. lviii. lix. lx. . i, xi. . lxii. i, xiii. lxiv. lxv. lxvi. lxvii. lxviii. . i, xix. lxx. index, in which the illustrations are arranged according to their localities, direction to the binder. *** place the plates in the order of their numbers immediately after the contents, and the descriptious at the end. (; º º sº *…*.*.iº. tilſilſ - - - sº sºsºsº º zºë-rº º, i. roman esque decorative sculpture. from facade of s: g|l es (gard). france t ro man es que or na ment museu m. to u l ou se. （） s no in o l w na sn w stv ] | dv o} () () s + n \ w o h |- — — - — — — —– – – – – – – ، ، ،|----- §<<<<<~： ----_-| º --- º º | nv - b s owssl w abg gw e, hi woh h （ine w wn e fi òse nywoh , ， ºg útº- ， •••± r 
. ， （xnv ho x | is tv lÀ ， h i w o h h h h ſildī£ s etiÒ se nw woh ¿ººº，） №*#|-\ ！，ſeº. ?? z º.º. ）** es） | /|- ------ – – - - - - - plaze & stone carv no not re dame, po|t| ers. stone cary | no not re dame. po|t| e r s (a) from st o || le s roman es que f | g u r e – sculpt u r e. ) from st s e r nin, toulo us e. ( ) m u s e u m toulo us e. the rest from sarco ph a g |, a r l e s m u s e u m. (i. "o c t o l 'n w n ſ nvs woh + (+) iso h d g h v hn ‘sv ſi h s vt ho s h h is i oto e hi woh-( - ) ° n i v d s * b h nld n n o s b n Ó s b n v w o h t v n o i s n w h i | wood and ston m onu m e n t s - las h u e l g a s. "“” – _-t e. c.a.r.v. n.g. burgos, spa' n. ！ | s | s s  'o n | - [] }} n \; s \,\} \ x + [] l n b w v n h o b n Ò s = n w w o b -***#！***************** ##### * ± √ v § │ ~ wo w () [] [] ſ či o () o h / n o h g - tl + n \; ， rowanesque and medeval stone cor bels. and capitals. . . from the cloisters of montmajour near arles. . strophime, arles. . s. sernin, toulouse. . . s. jean, poitiers . . beaucaire, tower chapel. |o || || . acen cathedral i mortuary chapel mont majour. * . . s. porchaire, potters. .le mans cathedral. , . moss ac abbey church, the rest from poitiers cathedral. plate/ mediaeval sculpture auxer re cath e d r al. (a) p sano, or vieto. a late c medieval sculptuſ e, france. from the faca d f : lºy ons cath edral (a) from a u x e r re cath e d r a l. º plate . w \!| | || - ！ | ----- ！ %%%%%ſaeŹŹ% ź Ź =·%！ Źź（~~~~ ſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſ-hae. ſı| zŤ . ！ · ø， º ae zſae！ entrance tower to v |lleneuve les avic non. ---- — — ~~~~ s h h | | | d º || s n ^ b g h ii y s! o b | d a b n w / h o →（）ſae „ſº · i º : : i n was sºon jº w s ln hºlſ. now tv/ t h | |no h h | n = \| v n h o h = svgwiw n | h ſhla tſh os tva c w tº - ~º-> ſ \ ; l s y; - s c u l ptu r e | n a laba ste r. port |ons of the royal monuments miraflores, castille plate . m e d | eva l sculptu r e. spa | n. l. . from burgos cathedral, the remainder from the royal monuments, miraflores. såſº |-, ，ſº = }|-·|- |-| • ºy ſłº. （tº） || | ſae … ：（ ¿iſº y ae” ， · ---|-¤ tº ſ----|- ·==|- ----ſaeſ?|-ſae, ſae|| |||||| |- - |-- --… - …--- - - -• • ... （ ~~ |- -- ：）…|------|---- m e d | eva l scu l ptu r e. spa in . from t h e clo |s| f rs of san juan to le do. ala#e . sz–№zº（） sculptu red d r and win dow j am b.s. (l) v en c e. ( ) great hos pital, m | lan (a ) duo mo, florence wood c a r v | n c . from the stalls, san zeno, verona. hotel cluny. par s. · xnvāqhog （ hoi'n is 'h}| ||n}} （zº e s [\ot []()| · n o l s n i n i /\ h \' o t \， a b | c. b. w }o^t av n i —------- · vo vnv)， o v h g wvhtv woh + h o ni v w b b b hl ） og etol ' von vt e vi （w ‘s woh + '| ' n e wwn hs | ± w tºº ºgłºſy- --- -- --- - - - - - -- - -- - - - - · \, |\oo e s ' №v zvotv ahl woh + t° ， vo vnv ho'wyſºg ww ht w Łhi woh + lnbwvn h o hs w （ ） z ! ºvº * º s * c < * * * ºf ſº ſº ºf & . < < * , * aº * - . | a t e n f o n t b r u nsw c k . tv （ u - h l w o oh [] & b c u v w 'h e ho si /\ /\{| ' | n → w [] n o w z noh e | ''） { * h №， №. - *~ ---- ſae， =&#### po rt | on of the gre at brass sc re en, haar l e m cath e d r a l - liliº º jº, . --- - | from the º ſº - £ e. | r o n w o r k maximi lan museum, aucsburo the national banarian museum, munich. the town hall, ulm. vico della casana antica, genoa. Țſ, ºro） tv bhlw o wnt ſi tº i hoi nqw 'lyſ v w qan ， ç | }} }] o m n o | –-） --~ ~= '：）-- _ · | oh ^ g soov ' w () e sqw | z | | plate | r o n w o r. k. a u c s b u r c . | socc in cer thor, . town hall . cath edral u l m . -. . . cath e d r a l. | r o n w o r k . | | r on corona, macde bu r o c r l l e stul rich, auc sbu r o . dom auc sbu rc h a a r l. f. m o u d f k e r k . a m s t e r d a m plate . | ron railing, fucc e r s chapel, stulrich auc sbu r g. plate | ron wo r k . | hinges ulm cathe dral stulrich augsburo aucsburg, dom kirche. - - - - plate . { // . & <l - gºs * h tº.t - t º w t- - - —ſ. pot a few == º -: *_i} - - 'lºw \ wº * o rn a m e [nt a l m et a l wo r k . | |ron candelabrum. s. trophime, arle.s. . bronze fountain, narbonne . s. sernin, toulouse. . at the in n moissac. - v § ） * o || || vſ s o- \ v o · ° c t o ne hot ± ' + vff | n \; s ! s ） » ov -- e b n o s c n v t g → w w --◄„- – – – – – o rn am e. nta l ston e work. | garden wall, palermo . rustication, bologna. - - - picturesque com positions in architecture. . moorish tower toledo . segovia . sa anna, augsburg st paul. lyons . angle window. messen. plate . arch | t e ctural composit n.s. | sentry box, antwerp . angle turret, les baux, france. . la fraternita arezzo arezzo ſº %n % éº n Žſº zºrºr-fºrº --- - % . -º-º-º-rrrrrrrrrrrrrr ºf ººlºº tºº - - * º º s - - tº r_fr. – ſ|| || º ºn nº ºx! * - nº / - -y wood work from house. s. ( ) b r u nsw c k ( ) h || d f s h e | m. · j s noin o l 'n jo h h h m n b l (z ) ( tt v h nawo ) ' wvq h h is w v 'n hoh onix n | hc h h ^t is( ) , - -> z•-i | =æ&s√≠√∞ ¿№ſº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-o---- ſ/- - - - - - -swae¿№ ）---- f~|#№|nu\ſ*$/））?'; ÈËžĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒ## |[ )（( | } \ ! ,§§!\, ſºff| ！！！！！！！！！--~~~~！ **：！ ſºſ:© ---- #№] （) ºffſ| ſae， |'， | rºw\ ，slſaeza jºſšķsvēſ & § |- ： （=s）№ £ĶĒ№ºš!!！ o r e n a is s a n c e o fr n am e n t a l s c u lpt u r e . ( ) bronze turncock, ( ) marble final ( ) wood colonnette hotel cluny ( ) bron z e lamp, dijon museum. par s. plate, . - \ \ \ | plant s suitable for or nament. i : ** plaze . sutable for sculptured ornament. plan t s - - ae * * * ** ill u s t r ations of architecture and ornament. description of the plates. =:----- decorative sculpture from the church of st. gilles (gard), france. p la " e /. by a very close adherence to gallo-roman models, combined with a strongly-marked adoption of byzantine mouldings and ornament. this is here shown in the mouldings of the fluted dado and the sculptured pedestal. the pedestal forms part of the principal entrance to the church, and the sculptures represent cain and abel offering their sacrifices to jehovah. the dresses of these figures are purely byzantine, and the manner in which their robes are hung on projecting knobs is not uncommon in byzantine and romanesque illuminations of the th and th centuries. the sculpture is in low-relief and very spirited—the grinning devil in the right-hand spandril being particularly noticeable. the oval subject represents the creator seated above the clouds and on the waters, holding the earth in his hand, with a flame and light point nimbus over his head. the capital, formed by eagles, is one of a row running along the entire façade of the church, which is richly carved throughout in the manner here indicated. this is one of the most graceful examples we have met with in french romanesque architecture. the present abbey church of st. gilles was dedicated by pope urban ii., a.d. , and these details are all from the principal front, with exception of the inlaid archivolt (a) and fluted dado (b), which are to be found among the remains of a still older church adjoining the present oile. a description of the plates. excellent result in breaking the line and catching light. the piece from st. gilles forms the companion dado of the façade to that of cain and abel, shown in plate i. the subject, an allegorical one, is of frequent occurrence in romanesque buildings, and may symbolize the devil in the form of a centaur seeking to slay the soul in the form of a hart. the strongly-marked graeco-assyrian character of the centaur in this piece is very interesting. romanesque figure-sculpture from toulouse and arles. plate viii. we may see in this group of subjects the characteristics of two distinct schools of sculpture, which were gradually developed in europe up to and after the th century. nos. and represent portions of marble slabs let into the wall at the back of the choir of st. saturnin or sernin, toulouse, which, if not actually of byzantine workmanship, are close copies of byzantine models. they exhibit perhaps the lowest state to which the art could fall, in the utter want of expression and design, poorness of execution, and plaited character of drapery, the nature of which may be seen on figure . m. didron ascribes these pieces of sculpture to the th century; remains of colour are still to be traced upon them. from this school sprung almost all the figure-sculpture of cisalpine europe up to the th century, that of later date being generally formed on roman models. in the south of france sculpture of this class was perhaps carried to greater perfec- tion than in any other part of europe. an example of this is given in no. , the statue of a saint, in the museum of toulouse, executed by gilibertus, probably of the th century, which, however stiff and inartistic, is still a fine work in point of execution, and not destitute of a certain quiet dignity of character. the sarcophagi from the arles museum are of much earlier date and of great interest; they range from the th to probably the th century. we have selected portions of the christian monuments only. the upper portion of a tomb contains the apostles in niches, with wreaths of victory and symbolic sculpture above. the female figure in the centre-piece represents mary, the mother of christ, with eagles holding wreaths. the head to the left is from the tomb of the labarum, - b description of the plates. might be repeated with advantage so as to form a double group. the brackets ( ) support the organ-loft of the conventual church of st. clara, burgos. they are of wood, and very effective in design. the stone sarcophagus supported by animals, emblematic, we think, of vigilance, courage, and fidelity, is a good example of transitional romanesque, probably of the latter part of the th century; and is preserved, with many others, in the entrance porch of the con- vent of las huelgas, near burgos. romanesque and mediaeval germs from various sites. p la " e a / ii. the upper portion of the plate exhibits rudimentary crockets and surface ornamentation. the fine leaf-ornament ( ), dying off into the soffit of the arch, from the portal of st. emilion (gironde), is remarkably good. the town of st. emilion itself, as a well-preserved relic of the middle ages, fully repays a visit by the architect. its rock-cut church is a work of unusual interest archaeologically. the capitals from le mans are of the highest interest as remains of early buildings, which we are inclined to assign to the th century, if not earlier. they are to be found in the churches of notre dame de la couture and notre dame du pré, where they form part of blank arcades continued round a portion of the walls on the ground level, and are evidently remains of earlier buildings. the very peculiar character of the bases, almost like inverted capitals, is fully shown in the examples we have selected. the portion of a channelled pier on the left side of the lower part of the plate is from the interior of valence cathedral, and is interesting as belonging probably to the carlovingian period. romanesque ornament, part of bronze door, pisa cathedral; and of principal entrance, san rufino, assisi. p la te ai v. the bronze door of the south transept in pisa cathedral is the only one remaining of three originally executed by bonanno of pisa, about the year . c , illustrations of architecture and ornament. unlike the earlier bronze doors of italy, especially those of the south, it shows little trace of byzantine influence, but rather a bold, heavy, and, it must be admitted, a somewhat inartistic development of romanesque art. the inscription in the panel we have selected, representing the annunciation, is “ave maria gratia plena.” the flowers are effective, and the junction of the roll-mouldings cleverly arranged. in kugler's kunstgeschichte will be found a list of many of the most important bronze doors of this period; and in the duc de luyne's and baltard's recherches sur les monuments des normands en sicile, many good illustrations of ancient bronze doors in south italy. the cathedral of assisi, dedicated to st. rufinus, was finished by giovanni da gubbio, a.d. , but was not consecrated before the year , by gregory ix. the rich central doorway, part of which is here delineated, is a striking work, and remarkable as showing similar symbolical sculpture on its columns to that at lucca (no. , plate xv), and a lion rending a pagan figure, as seen at st. gilles (gard), (plate x. no. ). romanesque sculpture from lucca, pisa, and genoa. pj, a te x v. the stone font for complete immersion, in the church of san frediano (frithian), at lucca, is ornamented with rough sculpture, a portion of which we have given (no. ), representing two figures on horseback, called traditionally knights templar, but which is most likely meant to be a portion of pharaoh's host in the red sea. robertus magister signs this work with his name, the date, according to kugler, being . the sculptured transom of san salvatore (no. ) is of much more careful execution, and of rather later date; it represents the baptism of a saint, and is inscribed with the name of st. nicholas, patron saint of baptism, as well as that of “biduino,” a sculptor who worked about the year . this is a good specimen of italian sculpture at the close of the th century, and enables us to measure the immense advance made in the early part of the th century by nicolo pisano, one of the greatest geniuses of any age. description of the plates. the column no. , from the arcade of the principal front of lucca cathedral, is sculptured with figures illustrative, we conceive, of the combats between the virtues and vices. it bears a very close analogy to the so-called mysterious column of freysing cathedral (bavaria), which m. martin, in a very elaborate and clever article, has endeavoured to connect with the adventures of the scandinavian mythical hero siegfried (see cahier and martin, mélanges d'archéologie). no. shows part of a carved column in low relief, from one of the principal entrances to the duomo, at lucca. notice here the figure of a huntsman blowing his horn, which is a counterpart of numerous horns, often called tenure-horns (see plate lix.), and sometimes believed to be drinking-horns; but this they were not, the drinking-horn being of quite a different form; they are called tenure-horns from the fact of their being deposited as tokens of fiefdom of forest land or hunting- ground. the serpent on a column (no. ) is from one of the upper arcades of the church of san paolo ripa d'arno, pisa. this column we believe to be unique; the device evidently relates to one of the oldest myths on record. no. shows part of an angle of the cathedral of genoa, and introduces a lioness supporting a pillar, a device of frequent occurrence in the lombardic churches of northern italy. the lion, in ancient church symbolism, bears many meanings; at st. gilles, france, and assisi, italy, we have him represented rending the enemies of christ; in the present instance we conceive to be represented a lioness (the church, the spouse of christ, who was descended from david, the lion of the tribe of judah) protecting one of her children, a lamb, and supporting other members of the church, smaller lions, who form one of its pillars, and drive out the evil one in the shape of a dragon (see also st. gilles, plate x. no. ). we may here remark, that the distinction between lions and lionesses should always be discriminated, as they doubtless, we think, severally symbolize christ and his church; the differences are marked, and strikingly shown in plate iv., containing the central pier of moissac abbey doorway. romanesque sculptured ornament and inlaid work from ravello and venice. pla " e. y. v.i. some of the most highly-finished sculpture in romanesque art is to be found on the pulpit of the church of ravello, near amalfi, southern italy. the description of the plates. the corbels in the cloisters which form the entrance to the church are very frequently similar to the examples ( – ) from the cloisters at arles, which are symbolical, we think, of the slaughter of the innocents; ( , ) the lion's head being equally typical of the civil power, or of the devil devouring children; ( ) herod's daughter dancing, the head inverted precisely as represented at a later period in a sculpture on the portal of rouen cathedral; and ( ) the legendary ass worshipping at the manger, as the old monkish distich had it, “cognovit bos et asinus te magnus mundi dominus.” from the exteriors of churches we have the following specimens: ( ), the bars of the manger and an animal's head, from the apse (external wall) of st. sernin, toulouse; ( , ), heads, again, of attendant animals, from the exterior of st. jean, poitiers; ( ), the rage of satan, and ( ) a copy of a roman bracket, from the exterior of the tower chapel at the castle of beaucaire, near nismes; ( , , ), probably the heads of the founders, from the external wall of the apse of the cathedral of agen (lot et garonne); ( ), simple ornament, from the exterior of the mortuary chapel of montmajour, near arles; ( , ), a founder and his shield of arms, and ( , , ), a scroll and animals, from the exterior of st. porchaire, poitiers; ( ), the bird of night and of wisdom, from the exterior of the cathedral at le mans. the external corbels are thus shown to have been of a very mixed character. internally, however, contrary to what might have been expected, they are still more so; and that style of architecture (gothic) which we so often hear pronounced to be the only fit style for christian buildings contains subjects, and that in the most sacred precincts, which are frequently of the most disgusting grossness or the broadest burlesque. in poitiers cathedral ( th century), for example, round the naves and transepts are about three hundred corbels, of wonderful variety of character and great power of execution; of these we give thirteen which speak for themselves, and pass over others which are unfit for reproduction. in st. fredigonde (poitiers) are also about two hundred corbels of the most wild and grotesque character; and in notre dame de la couture (cultura dei), mans, another remarkable series, in all of which we find, not christianity, but the burlesque literature and jokes of the day graphically perpetuated in stone within the very holy of holies of the church, in mockery both of priests and altar. the abbey church of moissac (tarne et garonne) contains some very fine capitals, many of which are symbolical, but belonging to a period when symbolism - d illustrations of architecture and ornament. was losing its hold on art. the two sketches and , however, appear to symbolize, in the case of the lion and lioness holding lambs in their mouths, jesus and the church holding up the christian, whilst the nondescript animals, one of which is a kind of griffin, grasping geese in their mouths, represent the silly heathen who are a prey to the devil. flames form the central abacus ornament of the last, and an altar that of the first. mediaewal sculpture, from auxerre cathedral, france. pla " e a ly. it is the fashion of the day to compare the sculpture of the early pointed period with the works of greece and rome; and there is so far reason in the comparison, that we may admit the sculpture of this period to have been founded on principles derived from the best ancient models then available. to nicolo pisano is generally ascribed the rise and development of sculpture founded on ancient models which took place throughout europe during the th century. england has some fine examples of this period, of which those in the choir of lincoln cathedral are perhaps the most perfect. france is rich in them, and particularly have we been struck with the superior character of the sculpture on the façade of auxerre cathedral, which is probably early th century work. the cathedral itself is a noble specimen of the best periods of the gothic style, commenced in , and finished probably before . the subjects we have selected from auxerre are—cain denying knowledge of his brother abel after the murder (height about ft. in.); the almighty creating the sun, moon, and stars (about ft. in. high); prudence or wisdom, with a serpent round her waist (about ft. in. high); religion (?) raising a winged soul (about ft. in. high); and samson killing the lion ( ft. in. high);-this last is, so far as we know, a unique example of anatomical knowledge in mediaeval sculpture. to show the close resemblance of style between italian and cisalpine works, we have given a figure of the virgin from orvieto cathedral ( – ), of the pisano school. it is taken from agincourt's history of art by its monuments. description of the plates. medleval sculpture, from the faqade of lyons cathedral and auxerre cathedral. plate y y. among the many panel-sculptured façades of the french churches, that of lyons is perhaps the most elaborate. it has two hundred principal panels, besides several smaller ones on the returns of the three portals. they are apparently early th century work, and their themes are very various—legends and grotesques, old and new testament history, astronomical and natural history subjects, scenes of every-day life and artistic fancy, appear by turns. we illustrate a few which appear to us the most characteristic of those that can be approached sufficiently near to be carefully examined; and although perhaps not equal to the panels of the north porch of rouen cathedral ( th century), they are yet characterized by great freedom and vigour of design, as well as carefulness of execution. beginning at the left hand, upper row, we have ( , ), the devil, mounted on a goat, attacking a christian; ( ), the punishment of a back-biter; ( ), an ancient philosopher with donkey's feet,_from his head springs a schoolman; ( , ), games of the people; ( ), merman, wife, and young one; ( ), the punishment of carnality (?); ( ), a myth; ( ), mad as hares in march; ( ), a monk (?), half animal, combatting the devil with a leg of mutton; ( ), a composition from nature. all these designs are executed in half-relief, and are remarkable for their spirited action, truth to nature, and clever adaptation to the spaces which they are required to fill. entrance tower to willeneuve-les avignon, france pi, a te xxi. villeneuve-les-avignon, situated about a mile from avignon, on the opposite bank of the river rhone, is a very complete and interesting example of an old fortified town in the th century, the walls of which are still in a good state of preservation, although the domestic buildings are completely destroyed. the entrance gateway here illustrated is in a very perfect state, and shows the guard-house on top, chimneys, sentry-boxes, and principal staircase. the pro- illustrations of architecture and ornament. jecting piece nearer, forming portion of the main wall, consists of a sentry-box with fireplace, chimney, and external drain. the end of this wall is discon- nected from the entrance towers themselves, apparently for the purpose of pre- venting surprise by the enemy. the reader should consult m. violet le duc's excellent treatises on military architecture in his dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture, for full descriptions of examples of mediaeval fortifications. this plate was etched by mr. a. goodier. triple chimney-place, in the salle-de-justice, poitiers. plate ya ii. the magnificent triple stone chimney-place of the salle-de-justice at poitiers is about thirty-six feet in length from pillar to pillar. it is a noble work of the th or early part of the th century, and is, we believe, a unique example of its class. it does not compete in elaborate ornament with the numerous and finely carved chimney-pieces of the th and th centuries, still preserved in france, and belgium especially; but then they only consist of one opening, whilst this possesses three fireplaces, which, when the great logs were all blazing at once, must have produced a grand effect; although even then they would barely suffice to warm the large hall in its entirety. placed as it is on a raised platform, it was intended probably mainly for the use of the chief officials and distinguished people; whilst the crowd in the hall rather saw the burning piles of wood on the capacious hearthstones, than felt the heat from them. for an account of the principal ancient french chimney-pieces, see le duc's dictionnaire, s. v. “cheminée.” mediaewal stone carwing, france and germany. pj, a te xxiii. the beautiful arrangements of natural foliage ( , , and ), from the wall of the choir of bordeaux cathedral, are probably of the th century. no. description of the plates. execution a rare combination of delicacy and force, of graceful design and power of light and shadow, obtained when required by means of deep or thorough undercutting, such as we have not seen equalled in any other works of the kind. honour to gil de siloe mediaeval sculpture, from san juan, toledo, spain. plate y_y vii, the cloisters of the church of san juan de los reyes, toledo, present a splendid series of figures and ornamental work, very finely carved in stone ( th century). the portion we have given is from the side of the church entrance, and represents a sainted martyr (as notified by the palm-branch), beneath an elaborate canopy. the statue is surrounded by that redundancy of foliated ornament, characteristic of the later period of the spanish gothic style, and which would offend good taste, were it not so admirably designed, and executed with such vigour and feeling for effect. in the cloisters of san juan de los reyes, between windows filled in with elaborate tracery, are ranged a series of statues with plinths and canopies, similar to the example given on this plate. the smaller pieces on the right represent a good arrangement of the pomegranate, and a very graceful stone finial belonging to one of the piers in another part of the cloisters. medleval carwing in wood, germany. pj, a te y x viii. the noble th century cathedral of magdeburg contains fine stalls of a later period, from one of which our illustration no. is taken. the panel sculptured in relief represents jesus brought before pilate, and by his side stands the executioner with his flat-ended sword. the carved cresting is a good example of that grotesque spirit which so frequently inspired the german gothic artist. ulm cathedral contributes (no. ) a finely-carved chest for priests' vest- ments. st. stephen's vienna, is peculiarly rich in beautifully carved work, both description of the plates. mediaewal carwing in wood, italy and france. plate x yx. the noble and interesting lombard romanesque church of san zeno, at verona, contains some stalls of the th century, carved and coloured, one of the divisions of which here given (no. ) is particularly bold and effective. its style indicates a german influence or origin, such as may be seen also on the richly carved stalls of the church of the frari at venice. the remaining subjects on this plate are good examples of late french gothic carving in wood, to be found on various pieces of furniture preserved in the museum of the hotel cluny at paris. the tracery of no. is open cut; and it is noticeable how boldly the sculptor has departed from the usual system of repetition of ornament above the arch-shaped opening, without losing a sym- metrical effect. - medleval carving in stone, toulouse and bordeaux. pi, a te xx xi. the portion of a stone doorway is from the lycée or government college of toulouse, a brick building, and formerly a religious house. it is a particularly good example of late gothic art, both as regards ornament and light and shade. the brickwork, as usual in the south of france, is excellent, the bricks being of close texture, large size, and a rich deep colour, alternating with well-marked thick beds of fine mortar. the stone benitier, or holy-water bason, is from a chapel in the church of st. michel, bordeaux, and its exuberant ornament is highly characteristic of the gothicized french renaissance practised in the early part of the th century. the top of the canopy, marked a, is shown by the side of the benitier. although the pelican feeding her young with her own blood, as seen in the corbel of the water-stoup, is an old christian symbol, the resusci- tation of heathen art is seen in the naked figure of fame blowing a trumpet, which surmounts it. illustrations of architecture and ornament. mediaewal stone-work, from warious sites. p la te a a y ii. we have already noticed various symbolic meanings of the lion in ancient sculpture. we here append two more examples of symbolism. no. , from the central pier of dijon cathedral portal, being clearly satan's head, nailed at the very entrance of the church, and made captive with an iron ring. in no. , from the façade of st. trophime, arles, a pillar of the church presses down the head of satan, who with his teeth gnaws in rage and despair at the holy scrip- tures, symbolized by the alternate torus and hollow mouldings. that these mouldings, when employed as a base to columns, are intended to represent the holy scriptures appears probable from their forming pedestals on which pillars rest, in several instances during the romanesque period, and notably in those of the cloisters of monreale cathedral, sicily. the capital formed by angels (no. ), also from the façade of st. trophime, arles, is a fitting apex to the pillar. the marble altar-table (no. ), from the south aisle of the cathedral, avignon, is interesting from its antiquity, being probably a work of the th century. it is hollowed out on the surface, like many others of the early romanesque period. an example almost identical with this is to be seen in the church of st. abbondio, como, ascribed to the th century, or even earlier. the stone-pillar lamp (no. ) is from the south portal of st. stephen's, vienna, and forms a graceful example of late german gothic art. no. is a specimen of wall-corbelling known in france as a “cul de lampe,” often very elaborate and effective, as at agen cathedral, the hotel jacques coeur, bourges, &c.; the present example is from the cathedral of carcassonne, and has been lately restored under m. violet le duc's direction. moorish capitals, from the alhambra, granada. pj, a te ata a / / /. this and the two plates immediately following present examples of the extreme delicacy and elegance of design characteristic of the hispano-arab works. these capitals and columns from the alhambra deserve especial notice description of the plates, for their well-considered beauty of proportion and design, and notably for the manner in which the small annular mouldings serve to harmonize the richness of the capitals with the shafts. when drawn by the author, these capitals were devoid of colour, and were dependent on their sculptured design for their effect, the colour of the marble having become by time of a beautiful warm mellow tint. we understand they have been lately restored; the colours, besides white and gold, being only blue and red—the usual scale of colour in moorish ornament. moorish ornament, from toledo and granada. p la te y y_y i v. this plate presents specimens of rich and graceful surface-decoration, prin- cipally from the alhambra. the ornament is in low-relief, executed in the finest cement, and depends greatly on colour for its effect, being picked out in gold on a blue or red ground. the example from the church of s. m. la blanca, toledo, occurs in the spandrils between the arches of the nave. it is bolder in effect than the others, and is equally graceful in point of design. this building was originally erected early in the th century as a jews' synagogue. moorish ornament, from granada and segovia. pi, a " e. ylyx v. in this plate nos. , , are from the alhambra, granada; the two lower subjects are in wood, that on the left is part of the frieze in the court of myrtles, that on the right is the soffit of a beam in the chapel, and both were originally rich with colour and gilding. the rosage is in cement from the lions' court, the half section a serves to show its relief. the portion of a ceiling ( ) from the alcazar, segovia, is of wood, coloured and gilt; style, late gotho-arabic of the th century; the form of the pendents and the amount of their projection from the ceiling will be more fully understood by the detail b. spain is rich illustrations of architecture and ornament. in similar ceilings, many of which would well repay illustration. at saragossa, guadalajara, toledo, and segovia are preserved some of the finest examples. this plate and the two preceding have been etched by mr. a. goodier. portion of the great “ corona” chandelier, hildesheim cathedral. pj, a te y a x vi. a distinguishing feature of the early romanesque churches was the “corona lucis,” or crown of light, notable examples of which are still preserved at aix-la- chapelle and at hildesheim. at hildesheim there are two, the largest of which, about feet in circumference, forms the subject of this illustration. it is stated to have been made and presented to the church by bishop hézilon in the th century. it is formed of copper, originally gilt, silvered, and perhaps coloured; the towers are open cut, and contained statuettes, the names of which alone remain; the upper parts of the towers probably served as lanterns. the name “saulus” on our plate should probably be “paulus,” as the names of apostles alternate with those of prophets from the old testament. the ornament between the inscriptions is open cut. figs. and show thorough-pierced ornament on the sides of the niches; fig. is a soffit of turret, open worked, the scroll-work gilt, with black central band; fig. is a leaf of this ornament somewhat enlarged; fig. , part of an arcade on left-hand lantern turret; fig. , a black inlay orna- ment on copper gilt, supporting the candlesticks; the figure at bottom shows a plan of the corona and its supporting chains. the pendent rods and bosses are plain laten or copper gilt. the upper inscription is too long for insertion here; its last lines are, “solis sol lucet in illa: mystica discernit, tenet, aspicit, omnia novit: et solium regni cordis locat in penetrali.” the lower inscription is the donor's offering prayer. neither kratz (der dom zu hildesheim) nor cahier, nor kugler, appear adequately to describe this noble specimen of romanesque art; a good description is still needed, and the writer regrets that he did not, at the time of making his drawing, take sufficient interest in early church art to induce him to make fuller notes regarding it. the student who desires farther information on the modes of lighting mediaeval buildings should consult m. cahier's learned and complete disserta- description of the plates. tion in the mélanges d’archéologie, by mm. cahier and martin; and le duc's dictionnaire du mobilier, s. v. “lampe.” the student of romanesque art should not fail to visit hildesheim, as he will find there treasures in bronze, stone, wood, textile art, goldsmiths' work, and illumination, in great quantity and of the highest interest, presented in old times to the cathedral by st. bernard, bishop hézilon, and other great abbots. laten font in the bruderkirche, brunswick. plate x yx vii. north germany is rich in artistic brass or laten work, of which this font in the bruderkirche, brunswick, is an excellent th century example. it is decorated with figures of the twelve apostles placed in richly sculptured niches. the figures are characterized by great truth to nature, variety of expression, and clever arrangement. the water-carriers beneath, though quaint, are very effective, and serve to give solidity to the rest of the design, while they lean against the font, rather than give it support. the effect of the font is greatly enhanced by the well-designed steps which lead up to it. it is with regret that we failed to discover the name of the artist. bronze monument of an archbishop, magdeburg cathedral. p la " e. v. a. y. viii. besides two remarkable and early gothic monumental slabs in bronze, somewhat like those at amiens, the fine cathedral of magdeburg possesses in the bronze monument of archbishop ernest von magdeburg, one of the most beautiful works extant of peter vischer. this monument, according to kugler, was completed a.d. . the date, however, on the monument itself fixes the death of the prelate in . among the numerous works of this great sculptor, who worked principally between the years and , this certainly takes a very high place, both as regards design and execution in metal work. the figure of the archbishop is finely rendered, his feet rest on a lion which supports g illustrations of architecture and ornament. the fine ornamental hinge (no. ), from a door in augsburg town-hall, is especially notable, both for its intrinsic merit and as being no doubt designed by elias holl himself, the palladio of augsburg, by whom the town-hall was built between the years – . no. shows a very graceful adaptation of the fleur-de-lis as a termination for an ornament in augsburg cathedral. no. , from an iron railing in ulm cathedral, illustrates the usual flower finial of the period ( th century); and no. , from one of the doors in same cathedral, is a good example of an iron handle probably executed early in the th century. this plate was etched by mr. a. goodier. ornamental iron work, from germany and holland. p la " e a l iii. fig. is a portion of a small open-worked circular chandelier in iron, of very graceful design, from magdeburg cathedral. fig. represents a portion of a chapel railing in the church of st. ulrich, augsburg, which is formed of thin flat strips of iron conjoined, and is exceedingly pleasing. the lion's head (fig. ), from a door in the choir of augsburg cathedral, is a fine and effective piece of ironwork, the ground of which appears originally to have been coloured. the dutch examples (figs. , ) show that quaintness of design which prevails in north german art. no. , from one of the side-chapels of the oudekerk, amsterdam, illustrates an adaptation of the sacred thorn to use as well as ornament; whilst the clever use of ordinary wattle-work in iron is observable in no. , which is a portion of a chapel grille in the church of st. bavon, haarlem. iron railing, fuggers chapel, st. ulrich, augsburg. pi, a te y l. i. v. the sepulchral chapels of the princely merchant family of fugger in the church of st. ulrich and st. afra at augsburg, are inclosed with ironwork of description of the plates. unfrequently admirable works of art. thus jachimo, describing cymbeline's chamber, says, “her andirons (i had forgot them) were two winking cupids of silver, each on one foot standing.” ornamental ironwork, from warious sites. plate y l. viii. the museum of toulouse is contained in a suppressed monastery, and in the middle of the cloister-green, placed over a well, is to be found the character- istic example of th century ironwork, heavy though elaborate, shown in no. . ironwork, of better design, for the same purpose, but of the th century, shown in no. , is from the entrance courtyard of the hotel cluny, paris. the mace-bearer, no. , from the town-hall, exeter, is intended to hold the large and smaller maces of the corporation. it is coloured red and green, and is parcel gilt. a plainer example of the same date ( th century) is to be seen in the cathedral there. the portions of railings, nos. and , from the cathedral of segovia, are th century work; and the finial (no. ), from the interior of the cathedral, toledo, is of the th century. the portion of a lamp-chain (no. ), is from st. francis, at assisi. the lamp- chains in italian churches are often of excellent design and effect; they consist generally of four angular pieces of projecting ornament springing from a central rod or chain, as seen in the specimen here illustrated. ornamental metal-work, from warious sites. plate xlix, the flower (front and side, no. and a), from the bronze doors of the cathedral of monreale, sicily, ( th century), is remarkably good, both in design and execution. the door-handle (no. ) and nail-head (no. ), from miraflores, near burgos, show the value of a suggestive model (the echinus or sea-urchin): they are of the latter part of the th century. the specimens illustrations of architecture and ornament. from north germany bear witness to the quaintness and originality of teutonic ornamental design. the two handles from hanover (nos. and ) are early th century work; that from wolfenbüttel (no. ), late th century. no. represents a small open-worked pendant lamp, probably of the th century, preserved in the national bavarian museum, munich. no. , an iron knocker (early th century), from a street in verona, a city containing many good examples of knockers and door-handles. in no. we have a good though small specimen of the torch-holders and rings common in central italy; it is from a palace near the podesta in arezzo, and also a work of the th century. no. is a bronze knocker of the th century, from the town- hall, lyons; and no. a door-handle of the same period, from a house at avignon. marble and stone brackets, from florence and pisa. pa, a " e. l. no. is from the noble marble pulpit of santa croce, florence, by benedetto da majano (a.d. – ). the sculptured portions of this bracket are beautiful, both in design and execution, but its general form contrasts unfavour- ably with no. , from a tomb in the cloisters of santa croce, dated a.d. . this, again, is inferior in form to no. , from the tomb of francesco ammanati, in the campo santo, pisa, dated a.d. ; and we consider all three are greatly inferior, in point of composition, to the marble bracket, no. , from the tomb of bonifazio della gherardesca, a.d. , in the same sacred cloister. all these are in white marble, with exception of no. , which is of stone. for other interesting monuments and sculpture in the campo santo, pisa, see raccolta di sarcofagi, d.c., by p. lasinio, florence. renaissance crestings, &c., in wood and stone. pj, a te li. the design of the finely carved stalls of san pietro, perugia, is ascribed to raffaelle. they are th century works of very high merit, and are illustrated, description of the plates. in outline, in the ornati della chiesa di s. pietro, perugia, typog puccinelli, rome, . this is, however, a very unsatisfactory work, as the fine play of light and shade characteristic of the sculpture is entirely wanting. no. is from the cresting of these stalls, and is of the highest merit both in design and execution. no. is an elbow-piece from one of the stalls. the cathedral and town-hall of perugia also possess fine examples of the same class of work, in walnut or other dark wood, richly carved, and relieved with gilding ( th and th century). specimens of these are given in nos. and . the part represented in no. is from a corner of the “banco dei magistrati,” a long and high chest behind which the authorities sat on a raised dais, the whole forming a large, elaborate, and finely carved piece of woodwork extending from the floor up to the ceiling. the intarsiatura of the town-hall is signed “marcus antonius mercatelli,” a cinque-cento artist from la marca. as good crestings in the early italian style are not common, we have ventured to give one, executed in stone (no. ), from the old louvre: the crescent and flame are the insignia of diana de poitiers, circa a.d. . we believe that this cresting no longer exists, but the original engraving of it may be seen in paris et ses monumens, by baltard; paris, – . ornamental stonework, from palermo and bologna. plate l ii. the garden-wall of a villa near palermo, on the road to monreale, appeared so well proportioned as to merit illustration: the lower portion of this wall forms a continuous stone bench the whole length of the garden, the ovals are perforated and should be perfectly symmetrical in outline, the failure of the etching, in this respect, mars their appearance. the ornamental rustication (no. ) is from the portico de' banchi, piazza san petronio at bologna, and has a very rich effect. it is to be found in the angle-piers of the portico, and is said to have been executed from a design by vignola. among the great variety of rusticated work, which was employed with such excellent effect by some of the best masters of the renaissance and italian schools, it is not often that ornamental designs of this description are to be found; nor, indeed, as a i illustrations of architecture and ornamient. rule, do we consider the practice desirable: though in the present instance the delicacy of workmanship lends a charm to the wall face which it would not other- wise possess. ornamental stonework, from florence and siena. p la ' e l iii. among the many beautiful fountains in the various royal florentine gardens, the little one in marble (no. ), from bellosguardo, is remarkable for the beauty of its sculpture. it is probably the joint work of tacca and giovanni di bologna. the stepped parapet (no. ), from the boboli gardens, is of the kind called “goulettes” by the french gardeners, as described by t. james in his theory and practice of gardening, london, . the utter decline of hydrotechny at the present day is greatly to be regretted, seeing that it is capable of the most beautiful and artistic effects in combination with architecture and sculpture. the column from siena (no. ), stands in front of the cathedral, and is a work of the early cinque-cento or late quattro-cento school. the wolf, with romulus and remus, forms the city ensign; the iron- work is for the support of a banner-staff. a palace gateway and a church-tower, walladolid, spain. plate l / v. the portals of the fabio nelli palace, valladolid, and of the house at segovia (no. , plate lv.), serve to illustrate the fine effect obtained by large voussoirs, which are so much employed in the north of spain. italian architec- ture, transplanted into spain, had engrafted on it the massive and yet florid character which distinguishes most of the buildings of that country. the palaces are often exceedingly rich and effective, arising in great measure from the boldness of the arched openings, and deeply cut carved ornaments, amongst which a large shield of armorial bearings placed at the angle of the wall, like those of florence, usually forms an important feature. the tower of the church s illustrations of architecture and ornament. religions of asia. notice in the one here figured the lions on each side of the sacred tree or “hom,” griffins and fire-altars, and subjects relating to the chase as practised rather in the east than in europe. much light is thrown on the use of these emblems of fire-worship in an excellent paper by m. lenormant, on the “anciennes Étoffes du mans et de chinon” in the learned work by mm. cahier and martin, mélanges d'archéologie. renaissance ornamental sculpture, italy and france. pa, a " e. l. a. the bronze tap (no. ), about , inches high, preserved in the museum of the hotel cluny, paris, and the pendant bronze lamp (no. ), from the museum at dijon, are both good specimens of italian work of the th century. the small alabaster figure of fame (no. ) and the wood colonnette (no. ), both from the hotel cluny, are respectively good examples of th and th century work. the former appears to be of the french school, and the latter is either french or flemish, it would be difficult to decide which: it forms one of the supports of a piece of furniture, and is very boldly carved in walnut-wood, with much through-cutting, giving excellent effects of light and shade. the artistic value of the preceding eramples. the principal points that constitute the artistic value of this series of examples of ornament, and render them attractive, are, first, a keen apprecia- tion of what is artistic in natural objects; second, the power of adapting them to the purpose in view by a greater or less amount of conventional or artificial treatment; third, vigour rather than delicacy of execution. except in delicate objects meant to be closely inspected, refinement of execution is destructive of effect, and worse than useless. in architectural ornament a telling effect is only to be obtained by bold and deep cuttings, that give expression to a well- drawn and well-marked character in the design. proportion and chiaro oscuro are the two most powerful constituents of all that is good in architecture, as in art generally. on the adaptation of plant-forms to ornament, and on devices for the faqades of buildings. the illustrations of plant-forms that follow have been selected from numerous studies of plants made by the author. the greater number have been chosen with a view to their adaptability to carved work, and suitableness for producing marked effects of light and shade. in laying them before his fellow-students, he would seek to impress upon them the importance of obtaining an acute sense of the peculiar beauties of outline and character observable in fruit, flowers, and leaves, fine examples of which, suitable for ornament, are to be seen in the pine- apple, passion-flower, sunflower, dahlia, sea-kale, savoy cabbage (leaves of the latter class frequently and effectively used in the late gothic architecture of north spain), sea-thistle, spinach, sycamore, maple, &c. the difference of expres- sion caused by the slightest variation of curve and proportion may readily be noticed in any collection of birds' eggs: hardly any two are perfectly alike, and though all are ovoid in form, there is really a distinct character in each—from the exquisite grace of the wood-pigeon's to the heavy beauty of the hawk's egg. this fact, and it is an undoubted one, should serve to impress on the mind of the architectural designer the great importance of care and study in the outlines of the most ordinary mouldings, as well as in their concomitant enrichment. in that development of architectural art to which we confidently look for- ward, and signs of which indeed are even now visible throughout europe, we desire to see the entire animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms explored for original and suitable motives for sculptured decoration, conventionally treated and adapted to the main characteristics of the style which they serve to adorn. nature has in part been heretofore so made use of in all the styles of the antique past, and to a greater extent perhaps in the picturesque development of architec- ture during the middle ages, than in any other. in symbolism the highest phi- description of the plates. plants suitable for sculpture. plate l x i v. nos. and a represent the common artichoke; the lower figure when young, the upper when nearer to maturity. these and the cactuses ( and a) on each side at top are, with slight adaptation, suited for finial knops for standards in wood, stone, or metal. one of these cactuses is drawn as seen from above. nos. and serve to illustrate the tomato or love-apple fruit and leaves, and the value given to an object by unequal divisions. no. is enlarged and conven- tionally arranged for the purpose of ornament, from the calyx and seed-vessel of a small plant the name of which i have not been able to ascertain. plants suitable for sculpture. pla. t e l x v. the figures a, b, d, and c, represent the buds, leaves, and fruit of the water- melon (cucurbitaceae), a plant peculiarly adapted for architectural ornament; both for form and light and shade it is excellent. the figures e and f represent a stem and leaves of the spurgewort (euphorbiaceae); the curved arrangement of the upper large leaves is very suggestive for the designer. plants suitable for sculptured ornament. p la ' e l x vi. no. –leaves, flower, and fruit of the stramonium or thorn-apple (datura stramonium), and a portion of the flower enlarged. no. –leaf and fruit of the castor-oil plant (ricinus communis). no. –leaf and fruit of the common caper-plant (capparis spinosa). no. –leaves and fruit of a species of kidney- bean (phaseolus). no. –leaves and flower of the bee-orchis. no. —leaves of wood-sorrel (oxalis acetosella). this plant, which is frequently three-leaved, is considered by writers on botany to be the shamrock of ireland, and .not the illustrations of architecture and ornament. clover, as usually supposed. all the examples here given are from the tor- rigiani and boboli gardens, florence. plants suitable for sculptured ornament. plate l a vii. nos. , , , and –leaves and fruit of the common arum or wake-robin (arum maculatum), by form and capacity for holding shadow, especially suited for architectural ornament. the centre leaf, drawn from a plant in the torrigiani gardens, is one of the cannas, a genus of plants which have of late years come much into favour for the adornment of gardens. remarkably fine examples of cannas may be seen in the sub-tropical garden in battersea park. flowers suitable for ornament. pa, a te a, a v///. no. —the “giglio,” florentine, or white lily. no. —the turk's-head lily. the exquisite curves of flowers of the lilium class are full of suggestion to the designer, and all of them deserve to be studied. no. –leaves, buds, and flowers of the iris germanica. the upper piece shows the arrangement of the flowers, as seen from above. the iris, and not the lily, is evidently the origin of the fleur-de-lis, if it is of floral origin at all. plants suitable for ornament, p/, a ' e l a vat. in the centre (no. ) is a fine specimen of the helleborus foetidus, drawn in spain. the arrangement of leaves at the base is suggestive for a pendent boss. e shows the peculiar shape of the leaves near the ground, and d the flower in bloom. the small piece (no. ) is also from spain, but i have been unable to ascertain the name of the plant. no. is a very graceful example of the wild chive (class allium), the flowers of which enlarged are shown at f as naturally description of the plates. arranged. a a show the leaf and the curvature of its section. no. is of the spurgewort class (euphorbiaceae). its flowers are shown at b and c, the latter as seen from above. both of these were drawn at nice. plants suitable for ornament. i? i, a t e l y.y. at the top, no. represents a bit of hedge-bedstraw (galium mollugo), a very graceful creeper, common in our hedges. in the centre (no. ) are stems and leaves of the common briar. the lowest piece (no. ) represents a stem, leaves, and immature fruit of the gooseberry. these last specimens afford clear proof that it is not necessary to seek far away for excellent subjects for artistic pleasure and practical use. the whole secret of beauty is found in the excellent story that most of us have read in our youth, called “eyes and no eyes:” there is no lack of material for the artist's use, if he will only learn to see it, and learn how to apply it. nature abounds and is overflowing with beauty, and not the commonest plant of our hedges, the most ordinary vegetable, the smallest feather of a bird, but is replete with a beauty of form and a perfection of structure which we may learn to appreciate, and must seek in our humble way to imitate and apply artistically, if we desire to produce what will be permanently pleasing, and to form a work of beauty not subject to the capricious fancies of mere fashion. m univers! i y ur illinois library at urbana-champaign notice: *, *, * v- anc" all library materials! the minimum fee for each lost boat , ~ . . the person charging this material is responsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the latest date stamped below. theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for discipli- nary action and may result in dismissal from the university. to renew call telephone center, - university of illinois library at urbana-champaign mar & j. : * * - - - * * * * | * crl | i.e.-- - - - - *-* --- £ j' - - - - - - - l –o- **** - *############: - ker ußrapy of architecturt. q () % c_\ u'sin of £ . £ . bit!»onaib lobell. | | | } £ . alt: donal hobeil. .cq . . s q.h. pol-l&y. f’u slash: côort. s.t. g * <> * . - . r & $ostor} . %. .# - . |- entered accor ding to act of congress in the year iss: by c. o. h. pe.… & co., in the office or the lib rian or congress at washington, d. c. : . £: ' ', s', '…. ... . . . . . . .". --> --> * ~ *--- introduction. × have given the following examples of indian architecture as nearly every traveller would see them, beginning with ahmedabad nearest to bombay, and ending with multan. as will be seen, this does not follow the chronological order, but rather the gradual change from the hindoo to the mohammedan style, as one goes north, and only includes the period from a. d. to the present time. in ahmedabad the mosques are built of yellow sandstone, and they are all purely jain in detail, often constructed entirely from older jain temples. this gives them a peculiar style of their own, and they form one of the most interesting groups in the whole of india. here, too, the stone tracery has been brought to its highest perfection. the old palace is a strange contrast, showing no trace of jain influence. the date of these buildings is to . i would call special attention to the construction of the houses; it is the best i have ever seen, being a heavy-timbered frame, with a second one inside, some three feet from the outside one, and the two bound together with beams which show both inside and out. the whole is filled in with stucco. teak, the wood used, is certainly the most durable in the world. the very elaborate carving of the fronts and court yards lasts for centuries. i have examples which have been exposed to the weather for over two hundred years, and they are as sound as the day they were put up. the climate is much more severe on wood than our own, which we think the worst to be found. the lasting qualities of teak are due to the wood being full of natural oil which never dries out, so that any filler, oil, varnish or paint is entirely unnecessary. shet huttusing temple, built some forty years ago, furgusson speaks of as the finest modern building and the clearest proof that native architecture is not dead. i am a little doubtful about the houses attributed to ajmir, as they may be at lahore or amritza. they show the curious mixture of the hindoo and mohammedan in the same work. the palace at amber, the old capital of jeypore, contains the finest examples of shish work in india. no one who has not seen this wonderful inlay of mirror pieces can form any conception of its beauty. they are cut from large glass globes, i i i + . which gives each piece a convex surface, entirely removing all idea of looking-glass. the effect is more that of rounded surfaces of polished steel. i would refer the reader to fur- gusson's indian architecture for descriptions of akbar's palace at futtchpur sikri, the palace at agra, and the tombs and palace at delhi. the examples of houses at amritza lahore and multan are as interesting in their style as those of ahmedabad, though inferior in their construction. the shisham and deodar are substituted for the teak, which does not grow much north of bombay. the very odd little bay windows are rather the feature of the lahore streets, while one is struck by the great beauty of the red sandstone door- ways in multan. in the study of architecture in the east the houses have been neglected, so we find few illustrations of them. i think they are really more instructive than many of the mosques and temples. no country affords a greater variety than india, where each city has its own peculiarities in detail and plan. i can only hope that i have been able to stimulate in some, at least, the desire to know more of this wonderful oriental art which is so rapidly disappearing. lockwood de forest. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. xxix. xxx. xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii. xxxviii. xxxix. xl. xli. xlii. xliii. xliv. xlv. xlvi. xlvii. xlviii. xlix. l. #, "...sonato youtu. contents. mosque at ahmedabad. moohafiz khan's mosque, aiimedabad. details rani sipre mosque, ahmedabad. niche * * * * * * * * circular bay window of a house. ahmedabad. bay window of a house. aiimedabad. house at ahimedabad. door of the old palace, (used as the jail,) aiimedabad. interior of thie old palace. ahmedabad. shet huttusing temple. aiimedabad. details of the front of a house. ajmir. bay window of a house. ajmir. - bay window of a house. ajmir. door of the palace at amber. ceiling, doorway of palace, amber. court of the palace, amber. the walls are covered with shish work. ceiling of shish work. amber. room in the palace, amber. walls and ceiling of shish work. old door in the palace. amber. old door in the palace. amber. the sultan's kiosk, akbar's palace, futtehpore, sikri. zenana in the palace at agra, shah jehan. white marble inlaid with precious stones. zenana pavilion, palace at agra. tomb of altumsh, old delhi. interior of the tomb of ala ud-din khilji. interior of a tomb, old delhi. ceiling of a tomb, old deliii. interior of a mosque, brick tile and mosaic work. interior of the same mosque. interior of the palace delhi. house in the bazar, amritza. window of a house, amritza. bay window at amritza. * window at amritza. inlaid marble sikh work, amritza. gilded copper doors, sikh work, amritza. dome of the great mosque, la hore. jehan gir. celling in the great mosque, lahore. street in the bazar, la hore. bay window, la hore. old bay window in the museum, la hore. house at la hore. interior of a house, probably multan. doorway, punjab. door of the great mosque, multan. tomb at multan. glazed tiles. details of tomb at multan. house at multan. doorway of a house at multan. doorway of a house at multan. _ ! g: ''e *werc.t., (, ill., . ii. | - geo. h. polle on. y & co., publishers, bosi moohafi. karn's mosque, ahmedabad *- • * at (, | * **t --- cl to | aft ... ." #. #| || - - | -- - #########|| - - geo. h. polley & co., publishers, boston. details ran. sipre mosque, ahmedabad. / g. a # * * c# : s ... / c. he un!"ef. t. cf ill'us wi. || - # - geo. h. polley & co., publishers, boston. bay window of a house ahmedabad l....…? cr ihe !". 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" - details of the front of a house, ajmir. geo. h. polley & co., publishers, boston. xii. --- - |- | - - s' z . , , y y y y y w. y w. w. y w y w y y y y v v w v w w y | y y | | w ajmir, bay window of a house, geo. h. polley & co., publishers, boston. s xv. geo. h. polley & co., publishers, boston. g, doorway of palace, amber, * | ceilin læ' c: i'e | " " "r" - " " : ". . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - c. *-**** ** # # - . . ...? c. :#e i: " : " (, l'u' : e:======= - ". . - … - - - - - - -- . | * - - - l -- xx. | :# | | geo. h. polley & co., publishers, boston. old door in the palace, amber, -o-, ...? £ e '''c' v. c.: * * * * * * --- is *** # #!'" # #. i - * - - | - - s| *#:||-. -|.- *s .| -- -#s.| || . . - $==- :# .-## - ~. #-> -: % - --- - | | - | …? c: i'e * * * **, * - u - us … :* | -- | —: xxvii, £ # - #. . . .''. - - s(a: e - --- - \ |-> - * :s * |- # #. *::\,. " - - * - | % % *% # -- # - £ - aapn … [. j. - £ £# - - - -- -- - - t - - ***** s&# - iz. £ t * - -: už % # £ - - '. £ . . £ * # - : - ". # # . # # | * - £ afty- % * * # | # |- - - | '% * £ Ż - |- - a . £ -- a. ) , # - £ | * £ /... - geo. h. polley & co., publishers, boston. ceiling of a tomb, old delhi, !. l., …? c #e "r * *** ------> * * c. * * * * * -***** q * l. . . y c: he * f : ['ols l.- …? (, he '''r.c. ( (. . ...u.s xxx, | | . |- are: interior of the palace delhi, #- Ž ** - *|| --- *~~~~~ # - | l #. - . - - # xxxiii. lišnish: - #. Čiž * #: #:*: # * - - - - - - - - |- - - - - - - - - - - - *-i- - # *-* - -: - - - --- -- == -- - - == - - . . --- - bay window. a.t amritza, ** c. : re ! {}v: , y cf ll'u:s #: --> £ - - - - - - - |- - | | - || || - | - | - |- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - | ehi-, - . - |- - - - - =- geo. h. polley & co., publishef's, boston. inlaid marble sikh work, amritza. xxxvii, q . | & . | geo. h. polley & co., publishers, boston. dome of the great mosque, la hore, jehan gir. . he f'''/epct (f ll'u' xxxix. geo. h. polley & co., publishers, bost.on. street in the bazar, lahore * ... ... ? g, the i'vepcty cf || l:us xl. - - - - - - - - - -- - - - *.*.*.*.*. - - - , publishers, boston. geo. h. polley & co. bay window, lahore, u- ? the it'vrney gf "l' | || |- --- - *-*--> ----- - - - - - - -- - --- --- * h :... ? c. he it "vfp'ty of || lmus xliv, *: fa % *"- * # % s, boston. geo. h. polley & co., publisher doorway, punjab, xlv. || -| - | - - . --- - - - --~ geo. h. polley & co., publishers, boston. door of the great mosque, multan, gift of michael reese ersitatis calif sigillvm ir ex libris || knight's gy pianina d ornaments reese library of designed for the use of architects. builders. silversmiths. chasers. modellers. jewellers. die sinkers. engravers. founders. carvers and all ornamental manufacturers. university california s iroton d f ezራቅ! sc of the of edinburgh. thomas c. jack, india buildings. ? ? reese library cale / of the it [ reese library unitsesity colie reese libsary university california of the pas de einght inlo is tit! li reese cfte university california reese i aray university califo of ti i pundit rilithwaite se •hy reest univi, ity cale andre g pay da e. topharm so. . reese uniti ty calhosa kel lig : univepsity, californ ! reege ( unite city cafoto rin unive ty caf ell, peese iuniersity california . jiran reese le ce the university calfopna golem emil rlegt isini cal soen. fmaht c. tm dr. knight so reese liar 'cete univisi כצייר, א' א fbright sc reegs unit calm berlin b.cfurni's de paterson sc. reesta (on ty univ; calif... or tutti t t'bury del kann si هد ر پر . ل ، رقم دی "f reese univ), С chun uma cf the reese library univit ; california .. cf the reese library univiesity cal ܂ ܕܐ reese library university of the . codec وان هو reese lidsary university calfornia of the . . irritor.drel, h ( " tart pix . ری الو . ر where" reese library university california of the of . n.gunune del reese library cft university califosina of . jamaz winprimee.in reese library of the universiti cales os . from lc pore. reese library universit calife of the sss hecy edot reese library university california cf the с a reese lieray Ο nite, hity c. . city . mariage pidur reese libras Сf tчe . re b. betts del , theda ane ber fdse libery university olaf nerse liblity c the ity reese library university of the of the rffse library university califor reese library university ce the 《 ) 에 ​ reese library university califogna of the ta . reese library university calena of the of the reese library university cf. californa 会​学 ​ reese library of the university california of (。 reese library (university california of the و (و۔ reese library university california of the اور ولا reese library university oona СЕ thЕ ب دے رو دان reese library university california of the ocd reese library university of the © se of the reese library university california of peese ita, ΟΝΙΣΕ Υ. caτ ។ 第一 ​ of the reese library university california ! reese library university california of the of the reese library university california reese library university california cf the of the reese library university califosna l of the reese library nivirsity calfen of reese lasare university of the کوک reese library univesity of the reese library (university of the ] a truht dil eh cabejo reese lira (i the unipiosity calea kan pap del r.hebblethwaite sr reese lerated tviversity of the jai jonim dr. reese libe of the university ور در بود ساب yr kr. . . ப எ g missn) jren da eduirt to ii/ دور دور ما الره i page del. reese library unitiesity recse library univefsity na 。 reese library university california of the مراحل (( wright del r hbbla matese reese library university cf the resse library university ca of the y l , fr library СЕ ТРЕ univefsity conta ij . sirten det reese iart unit Сf te sity cam mwh dil r. birkerja . tlright di r.hebblahmute sc. a loc.in bild w as 家 ​mc cort j. paur du. reese library unito,sity cf the emright sc g ما مه زار و و دارند වදන, c , bury del * #lu. :// .;- . mum dil reese library the se linery tty if reese library university slife of the . kights ornaments wilt di rb dherdia reese library university cf the go to . wright del tdicks em itine iiidiina . reese library university of the a wright flipham se of the reese library university california, ni r scill h sie bi pirnes dh r.bakerfi reese library university only of the bc puniis del i huitteviti reese library university of the fora . partizan Ꭼ j. page del a , a , btc uutuus artes scientia an library veritas of the yof michigan university of mi tuebor the m sucris peninsulam circumspice circu inihihir mitim widudluginimui) wilminniwini ammum manning nk d nk ,d lettering in ornament companion volume to this alphabets old and new with over complete alphabets, series of numerals, and many fac- similes of ancient dates. other works by the same author. some principles of every-day art. second edition the anatomy of pattern. fourth edition. the planning of ornament. third edition. nature in ornament. third edition. windows; a book about stained and painted glass. second edition. art in needlework; a book about embroidery. second edition. lettering ornament in : an enquiry into the decorative use of lettering, past, pre- sent, and possible by lewis f. day author of 'alphabets old and new,' 'art in needlework,' etc. with numerous illustrations, old and new london: b. t. batsford high holborn nk dag lettering in ornament companion volume to this alphabets old and new with over complete alphabets, series of numerals, and many fac- similes of ancient dates. other works by the same author. some principles of every-day art. second edition the anatomy of pattern. fourth edition. the planning of ornament. third edition. nature in ornament. third edition. windows; a book about stained and painted glass. second edition. art in needlework; a book about embroidery. second edition. lettering in ornament an enquiry into the decorative use of lettering, past, pre- sent, and possible by lewis f. day author of 'alphabets old and new,' 'art in needlework,' etc. with numerous illustrations, old and new london: b. t. batsford high holborn bradbury, agnew, & co. ld., printers, london and tonbridge. seed - - elh preface. this is not so much a sequel to “ alphabets old and new” as that is preliminary to this. the earlier volume dealt with the alphabet only, the forms of letters: the consideration is here their use in ornament, the way they have been and are to be employed in decoration. the illustrations (of which a descriptive list is given) are chosen strictly with a view to illustrate, which will account for the introduction of my own designs : it was not possible always to find the fitting instance, and an obvious way out of the dilemma was to make a drawing. incidentally, however, the examples of old work here brought together show how universal was the use of lettering in ornament, how varied, how ingenious, and at times how beautiful. haply they may serve as incentives to fresh invention; in any case they are valuable object- lessons in decorative treatment. my point of view, it is hardly necessary to say, is that of the workman-who, if he is a good workman, is something of an artist too; and note of acknowledgment. i am indebted in many quarters: to mr. r. anning bell, mr. walter crane, mr. raffles davidson, mr. harry soane and miss b. a. waldram, for the use of their designs or drawings; to herren gerlach and schenk, the imprimeries réunies, herr von larisch, mr. harry soane and messrs. h. virtue & co., ltd., for allowing reproductions from their publications ; to miss gimingham, for the loan of photographs; to the rector of stonyhurst college, for sanctioning the illustration of queen mary's prayer-book ; to the authorities of the british and victoria & albert museums, and especially to mr. a. b. skinner and mr. g. f. hill, for valuable assistance in the production of this book. , ) ۔ contents. chap. page . . . . . introductory . . the printed page . ii. the printed page . . . . . i iii. the written page. . monumental inscri ptions v. decorative lettering . . . . . vi. inscribed labels or scrolls . . .. vii. hidden meanings viii. conjoined letters . . . . . . monograms x. cyphers . . . . . xi. ornamental lettering . xii. initial letters . . . . . . xiii. ornamental initials xiv. pictorial initials . . xv. lettering and ornament . · . . · · descriptive list of illustrations. . frame of a purse or bag, with the lilies of france and inscription incised. found in england. th century. (b. m.) . russian ms. . pali buddhist ms. . icelandic inscription, carved in wood. . arabic inscription, from a stone slab in the mosque at cordova . leaf of a diptych, carved in ivory, with subjects relating to the nativity, etc. rhenish. th century. (b. m.) . carved drawer fronts, from a gothic cabinet. the letter a in the word fata deliberately bisected by the framing. french. (cluny museum.) . tracery window, from the refectory of the hospital of s. cross, with quarries bearing the motto of cardinal beaufort, whose arms occupy the centre of the light. english perpendicular gothic. about the middle of the th century. (winston.) . bronze medal of the italian renaissance. (v. & a. m.) . decorative panel—perseus and the graeæ-in gesso upon oak, the inscription in raised gilt letters-by sir e. burne- jones. ii. part of an embroidered stole. the inscription, worked into the gold background, so far lost in it as merely to break the basket-stitch diaper. roumanian, xii descriptive list of illustrations. . woodcut initials, from a book printed at bâle in the th century. . metal cover of a crystal cup, in the uffizi at florence, pierced and enamelled with the cypher of henri deux. french. th century. (h. havard's “ dictionnaire de l'ameublement.” quantin.) . glazed encaustic tile, with part of a latin inscription from the book of job, xix. . found in sussex. dated . (b. m.) . from a jewellery design, by h. holbein. (print-room, b. m.) . marks of the printers, jaques huguetan and mathew huz, lyons. , . . rough sketch for a newspaper heading. (l. f. d.) . poster, by r. anning bell.. . parchment grant to a hospital in burgos, by alfonso the wise, surrounded by inscription, signo del rey don alfonso, and confirmation of juan garcia, in concentric circles. spain, . (b. m.) . inscription by joseph plénick, of vienna.. (beispiele rünstlerischer schrift. herr von larisch.) . inscription by otto hupp, of munich. (beispiele rünst- lerischer schrift. herr von larisch.) . diagram, to show letter-spacing. . diagram, to show construction of roman letters. . title-page to w. eden nesfield's “specimens of mediæval architecture." . . bronze plate, from the grave of veit stoss, the sculptor. nuremberg. german, . (“die bronce- epitaphien der friedhöfe zu nürnberg." gerlach a schenk, vienna.) descriptive list of illustrations. xiii . back of a pinewood stall, from the church of s. valen- tine, kiedrich. carved by erhart falkener, of abensperk. flat lettering grounded out, the words separated by inter- mediate ornament. german, . (** monumental-schrif- ten vergangener jahrhunderte.” gerlach & schenk, vienna.) . inscribed panel under the pulpit in the cathedral at siena. marble, the letters in relief. italian. . . inscription panel, from the tomb of mary of burgundy, in the church of notre dame at bruges. -- . . inscription on the tomb of benozzo federighi, in the church of s. trinità, florence, by luca della robbia, the letters incised in marble. . . inscribed panel, from the shrine of s. simeon, at zara in dalmatia. silver, embossed and gilt. the work of francesco di antonio, of sesto. . . cast-iron grave slab, from the church of s. jacobi, lübeck. . (“monumental-schriften vergangener jahrhunderte.” gerlach & schenk, vienni.) . latin inscription, in ribbon-like gothic character, from a mural brass at s. peter's church, cologne. . (from a rubbing by w. h. james weale in the library at v. & a. m.) . diagram to show the fitting together of letters so as to avoid as much as possible open spaces of ground between. . slab outside the church of s. emmeran, regensburg, cut in sandstone. (“monumental-schriften vergangener jahr- hunderte.” gerlach & schenk, vienna.) . bronze grave plate. (“: die bronce-epitaphien der fried- höfe zu nürnberg." gerlach & schenk, vienna.) . carved pew-end. english. th century. from a sketch by raffles davison. . part of a belt–iron inlaid with silver. byzantine. (b. m.) xiv descriptive list of illustrations. . leaf of a diptych, carved in ivory. th century. (b. m.) . part of a wooden door at the cathedral of le puy. flat carving grounded out. inscribed on the upright post is the name of the artist. (compare with .) french. th century. . cover of the gospels, with slavonic inscriptions, repoussé, silver gilt. . . enlargement of an engraving on copper, by hans sebald beham. german. . (b. m.) . grave stone, with incised inscription, from the island of gotland. . . glazed earthenware loving cup, decorated in clay of different colours. staffordshire. th century. (b. m.) . part of a carved wooden door, with moresque ornament and inscription in gothic character by way of border. spanish. th century. (musée des arts décoratifs, paris.) . part of an iron door, diapered with the arms of leon and castille. inscription, by way of border, beaten up. in the cathedral at toledo. . silver tetradrachms. a. reverse, with crab and bow in case, and the inscrip- tion, kqion moexin. cos, island off asia minor. rd century b.c. b. obverse, with a bee (symbol of artemis) and the letters, e = ephesus. th century b.c. c. reverse, with vine and the inscription, eni mhtpo. aoto. maronea, a city of thrace. th century b.c. (all in the b. m.) . silver tetradrachms.' d. reverse, with the figure of zeus and the word ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ ; coin of the types of alexander the great, probably issued after his death. b.c. – . . descriptive list of illustrations. xv e. reverse, with figure of athene and inscription, bazi. aene antifonoy. antigonus, king of macedon. b.c. – . f. reverse, with figure of zeus, and the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΟΝΤΟΣ ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ, “in the reign of agathocles the just." bactria. nd century b.c. g. reverse, with figure of zeus, and the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥΣ ΕΥΕΡΓΕΤΟΥ aikaiot enimanoye miaeaahnoz. parthia. b.c. — . h. reverse, owl in a wreath of olive, with inscription npianzi. nyptiaŁ. ka. priansus, a city of crete. nd century b.c. .) .) bronze medals. italian. th century. . bronze medal, with two inscriptions, the one raised, the other sunk, italian. th century. . inscribed label, from a gothic stained-glass window. the letters picked, with a pointed stick, out of solid paint. english. th century. . panel, from the choir of albi cathedral. the name of the prophet (or as much of it as the artist thought necessary to identification) incised upon the background, the quota- tion on a label. . part of a reading desk, with the arms of france and savoy, letters l, and scrolls inscribed sperandum ac feren- dum; carved in ivory and painted. french. th century. (in the possession of mr. salting.) . gothic tapestry, with figures and inscribed scrolls. french. th century. (cluny museum.) . ) plaques of faÏence. inscribed labels used to occupy the .) background. gubbio. th century. . enlarged bookplate. inscription not following the con- volutions of the label. engraved on copper by hans sebald beham. german. . (b. m.) xvi descriptive list of illustrations. . engraving on copper. the alphabet inscribed on a scroll h. s. beham. (b. m.) . part of a square carpet. the ornament consists almost entirely of inscribed scrolls. german. (v. & a. m.) . cypher and inscribed labels, designed for the “ art journal illustrated catalogue of the exhibition of ," by w. harry rogers. (h. virtue & co.) . the words secundum lucam, from a manuscript of the gospels. german. th century. . two names, charles and maud, intermingled with symbolic and decorative intent. (l. f. d.) . gothic pew-end, with letter g used decoratively. from a church in somersetshire. th century. . iron bolt-plates in the form of a letter f. french. period of françois ier. . border of a page from “the book of wedding days." branches of the brier rose, appropriate to the month, spell june. designed by walter crane. . engraved panel, in which florid gothic foliage resolves itself, upon examination, into the at first unsuspected word israel, and (sideways) the letter m. subsidiary labels bear mottoes “ da gloriam deo," etc. from a print (in which, however, the design is reversed), engraved by israel van meckenen. german. th century. (b. m.) . the letters r.l.l.s.v, coloured, with so little regard to shape as further to disguise already florid forms. embroidered, border-wise, on linen. german gothic. (v. & a. m.) . golden votive crown, found near toledo. suspended from it in the form of a fringe are the letters reccessvinthus, in cloisonned mosaic of coloured stones. visigothic workmanship of the th century. (cluny museum.) . merchant's mark, in relief upon a bronze memorial tablet at nuremberg. . descriptive list of illustrations. xvii . merchant's mark, c.e.g., from a seal or stamp. (barclay's “monograms.") . mangling apparatus, with decorative inscriptions. carved in wood. icelandic. . ornamental lettering, painted on a picture frame by victor vasnetzoff. russian. (“the studio.") . slavonic inscription of the th century. . back of mirror frame, carved in low relief and enriched with gold and colour. inscription, o thou satisfier of wants, persian. th or th century. (india museum.) . the word allah, in letters designed to form an ornamental device. (l. f. d.) . the word prophet, in cursive ornamental letters. (l.f. d.) . the word allah, in fret-like letters, after the manner of a chinese seal. compare also with cufic'lettering. (l. f. d.) . the word prophet, in strap-like letters elaborately inter- laced. (l. f. d.) . stamp of domitian, with raised letters aomitianot. iron. byzantine. (b. m.) . bronze pendant, enamelled in black and white. spanish. th century. . details from the doors at le puy (comp. ), showing the point to which the conjoining of letters was carried in the th century. . part of an inscription, with conjoint gothic lettering, from a mural brass at termonde. flemish. . (from a rubbing by w. h. james weale, in the library at v. & a. m.) . conjoint letters of various periods. . diagram. l.o. xviii descriptive list of illustrations. . conjoint lettering, forming the central device, in gold with black (niello) outline, upon some silver dishes found at rome. th or th century of our era. (b. m.) . monogram, e, m.s., falling short of being a cypher only because of its continuous line (comp. , , , ). (barclay.) . sundry monograms--the component letters are written at the side of each. (l. f. d.) . solidus ( grain weight), with monogram inlaid in white metal (silver or lead). roman. (b. m.) . the alphabet in monograms of three letters. (l. f. d.) . continuous monogram, f.l. reversible, i.e., reads the same upside down (comp. , , ), by j. bonella. (barclay.) .) continuous monograms, s.p. l. and g.p.l. (comp. , , .) ), by w. h. rogers. (barclay.) . continuous monogram, r.e.d. (comp. , , , ). (l, f. d.) . monograms from jewellery designs by holbein. (print- .) room, b. m.) . diagram, indicating the variety of letter-shapes available for the monogrammist. . monograms and cypher—t. h. e. .) . / monograms—t. h. e. (l. f. d.) .) . stencilled monogram, with frame. (l. f. d.) . stencilled monogram, with symbolic background. (l. f. d.) . stencilled monogram, w.t. (l. f. d.) . monogram from a coin of queen elizabeth. descriptive list of illustrations. xix . reversed cypher panel of a carved walnut coffer. french. . (v. & a. m.) . monograms and cyphers, painted upon quarries of old glass. english. (v. & a. m.) .) iron key bows, with reversed cyphers. th or th .) century. (b. m.) . reversed cypher, from a wrought-iron fanlight. french. th century. . painted tiles, with reversed cypher, ci. french. period of henri deux. iii. bookbinding, tooled with the reversed cypher of julie d'angennes, duchesse de montausier. one of several of the same design by le gascon. french. . (“ les femmes bibliophiles.” quentin-beauchart.) . carved and fretted cyphers-l.e.w. .s—d. a. y. . t.g., . p. g., j by j. fowler. (barclay.) . g r s., by f. montague. (soane.) . b.e., by w. h. rogers. (barclay.) . w s., by f. montague. (soane.) . gothic cyphers, a.m., .h.s., (from old embroidery) a.n. (l. f. d.) . foliated cypher, . h.c. (adapted from h. rogers.) . cypher, a.m. cutwork. (l. f. d.) . cyphers, t. h. e. (l. f. d.) . cypher and masonic device. (harry soane.) . manuscript. italian. . . stamp for printing on linen.—metal tape driven into a block of deal, roughly sawn across the grain. xx descriptive list of illustrations. . initials. woodcut. german. . initial, engraved on copper. . portion of a mural brass at hal in belgium. from a rubbing by w. h. j. weale. (v. & a. m.) . portion of a flemish mural tablet in the church of s. james, tournay. . from a rubbing by w. h. j. weale. (v. & a. m.) . bronze memorial tablet. nuremberg. . (“ die bronce-epitaphien der friedhöfe zu nürnberg." gerlach & schenk.) . icelandic matchbox, carved in wood. . the words audeo, spero. plaques of fretted ivory, applied to a portuguese cabinet. (cluny museum.) . the name de-boen, chased in leather. from an italian comb case. th century. (v. & a. m.). . iron lock, with chiselled inscription, o. maria [f] los [virginum ave regina selorum . mater regina angelorum , ave maria gracia (plena, do]mi[n]us tecum bene(dicta]. french. th century. (v. & a. m.) . stencil plate. the extended limbs of the letters designed to strengthen it. (l. f. d.) . varieties of the letter a, from early printed books. . mary_the letters breaking out into scrollery, which forms a background to them, and holds the design together. . f, from a grotesque woodcut alphabet. . (in the library at the b. m.) . a. woodcarving. french. th century. (v. & a. m.) . prayer book of mary tudor, queen of england. crimson velvet, with silver gilt mounts spelling the word regina. th century. (preserved at stonyhurst college.) descriptive list of illustrations. xxi . frivolity in lettering. . woodcut initials florid gothic. by israel van meckenen. . . illuminated initial, from a choir book in the sala pico- lomini, adjoining the cathedral at siena. th century. . woodcut initials, by rob. stephanus. paris. . . |woodcut initials. french. .) . early woodcut initials. italian. . early woodcut initials. german. . early woodcut initials. french. . early woodcut initials, by g. tory. french. . .) early woodcut initials. italian, . . learly woodcut initials. french. .) . early woodcut initials. . early woodcut initials, by lucas cranach. bâle. . early woodcut initials. . early woodcut initials. german. . early woodcut initials. . woodcut initials, attributed to holbein. german. . . woodcut initials. holbein. .) . learly woodcut initials. german. . xxii descriptive list of illustrations. . early woodcut initials. . s., in glazed earthenware. designed by godfrey sykes. (v. & a. m.) . alphabet. designed by godfrey sykes. (v. & a. m.) . woodcut initials, by matthias gereon. . . early woodcut initial. (same series as .) bâle. . woodcarving, by françois siebecq, from the bedchamber of henri ii. in the louvre. . wooden ceiling in the salle de diane, château de fon- tainebleau. - . paving tiles, from harpesden church, oxon. early th century. (b. m.) " . gothic pew-ends, from a church in somersetshire. . s . earthenware dish, painted in blue and lustre on a white ground. spanish. th or th century. (v. & a. m.) . cloth, embroidered with the collar of the saint esprit, and devices from it. (cluny museum.) . glazed tile, from the ancient château de beauty. (havard's “ dictionnaire de l'ameublement.") (from stalls, carved in pinewood, in the church of s. . valentine, kiedrich. german. . (“monumental . | schriften." gerlach & schenk.) . monogrammic device, a n and cross, in couched gold thread, by beatrice waldram. . cypher decoration, painted in red and green on a whitish ground, from the roof of sall church, norfolk. . monogram, the background inlaid in flint upon a pier in wymondham church, norfolk. muistmaria ( ) silrlalo mommons will . iron purse mount. . introductory. . lettering has, over and above its practical use, and apart from any ornamental treatment of its forms, a decorative value of its own; and until recent times craftsmen of all kinds turned it habitually to account in their designs. more than that, lettering is (or was, so long as any care for it existed) in itself ornamental. a page consistently set up in good type-of one character throughout, after the manner of days when there was life in lettering, and not “displayed” after the distract- ing fashion of the modern printer—a merely well planned page is in its degree a thing of beauty. to that end, of course, the letters must be well shaped and well spaced; but, given the artist equal to the not very tremendous task of shaping them, or it may be of choosing them only and putting them together, mere type is in itself something upon which the eye can rest with l.o. КЪleb% ВКРЖКА . russian manuscript. satisfaction. to handle a printed book of the days when the printer cared for his art is a pleasure second only to that of turning over the pages of a fine manuscript. and this is no mere prejudice of the biblio- maniac, who, indeed, values books for reasons not intimately connected with the love of beauty. decorative artists have in all times felt the charm of lettering, and owned it in their work; they have gone even to the length of inventing mock writing, when they had nothing to say by it except how thoroughly they appreciated the use of any- thing like an inscription in design. artists as remote from decorative tendencies in their own work as the painter of “ the angelus ” have been deeply interested in letter- ing. it is told of j. f. millet * that as a boy he used to write verses of the bible on the wooden gates in the fields, choosing his text to fit the bars. each letter, he held, had an intrinsic decorative value of its own; and its form meant something to him. he would describe to his son, in teaching him, how the top of the big g stooped over as if to drink out of the little goblet below; and he had a liking for the combination of * h. naegely. “ j. f. millet and rustic art.” letters in certain words, even in foreign words which he did not understand. weymouth, for example, struck him as a fine combination of letters to express a poor thin-sounding word. another artist who would have repudiated any ၁၁၀၀၀၀ အိပပသ ၁၄ ယဒိသံသဏ္ဍက သသံအဆကတ္တီ၌ သဒ္ဓန္တ ပထ၀၁ထိသိ . pali buddhist manuscript. particular leaning towards the ornamental side of art, and who yet saw decorative value in lettering, was robert louis stevenson, who, a year before his death, was bent on decorating the ruddy wooden walls of his house at samoa with letter- ing. his idea was, to have made for him some r . icelandic inscription. hundreds of gilt letters on the model of “really exquisitely fine clear type from some roman monument” mounted on spikes like drawing-pins. “you see,” he wrote to mr. st. gaudens, “ suppose you entertain an honoured guest, when he goes he leaves his name in gilt letters on your walls; an infinity of fun and decoration can be got out of hospitable and festive mottoes; and the doors of every room can be beautified by the legend of their names. i really think there is something in the idea.” it was with reluctance he abandoned it. “i had a strong conviction," he wrote later, “ in that i was a great hand at writing inscriptions, and meant to exhibit and test my genius on the walls of my house; and now i see i can't. it is generally thus. the battle of the golden letters will never be delivered. on making preparation to open the campaign, the king found himself face to face with invincible difficulties, in which the rapacity of a mercenary soldiery and the complaints of an impoverished treasury played an equal part." it is no mere fancy, then, of the book-lover or of the decorator, that lettering is worthy of its place | ] lt جا کر اول | | | | | | !! اي، اكر ا ل ا و ا او کالالالم ... ك ل ام الله امام الم او د مالوم اور ان کی اور اهوا کا کام کا امک والی ریاست motsaila . arabic inscription. in ornament. lines of well formed lettering, whether on the page of a book or on the panel of a wall, break its surface pleasantly. it has only to be proportioned and set out with judgment to decorate the one or the other-modestly it is true, but the best of decoration is modest; and it is not the least of the ornamental qualities belonging to lettering that it does not clamour for attention, but will occupy a given space without asserting itself. it gives at first sight not much more than texture or variety of surface; yet, when you come to look closely at it, it tells you what could in no other way be so clearly conveyed. symbols may be misinterpreted, pictures may not convey all that is meant, the written or the graven word tells what they cannot : there is no mistaking it. at the same time, penned, painted, carved, or anywise adequately rendered, it is in itself decorative. this seems to apply to the script of no matter what race; egyptian hieroglyphic, assyrian cuneiform imprint, greek or roman chiselling, gothic penmanship, are all alike pleasant to see, quite apart from the meaning of the words, which may, as likely as not, be past our understand- ing. so too the writing of strange peoples every- where, the hebrew character, the slavonic ( ), the pali of the buddhists ( ), the runic of the icelanders ( ), the cufic and the neshki of the arabs ( ), and all manner of to us mystifying script, conveying to the unlearned absolutely rap using pastores is iniciovosisgan dy image . byzantine ivory carving. slovis. tasinant) . gothic furniture. nothing of the meaning of the words, tell us one and all of the decorative value of mere lettering. there is perhaps no more absolutely satisfactory simple way of breaking a surface than by means of well formed, well spaced lettering. in combination with ornament it has from the first been used by the decorator, and always with effect. on painted mummy cases from egypt, in carved reliefs from nineveh, and ivories from byzantium ( ), on coins from greece and syracuse, on persian tiles and lustred pottery, on gothic glass ( ) and tapestry, on church embroidery ( ) and furni- ture ( ), on leather bindings, in locksmith's and goldsmith's work ( and ) and all manner of craftsmanship, in the decoration of the manu- scripts and books of all times ( ), and on the seals and signet rings of all peoples, lettering in some form, often a very emphatic one, plays a decorative part. in modern days we seem to have lost sight of its artistic possibilities. only here and there an artist appears to perceive the opportunities it offers. william morris himself did not, except in his printed books, turn it to appreciable account ; though once at least sir e. burne-jones in his panel of perseus and the graeæ ( ) bound his gerechner un an ning we are binet ii sobre ol vuoso agnes về vai perseller i' l l s olltetelli | phim d coñoludra erece bono eu set stev a pelle . olinn eeseen vtt vedtub . stained glass tracery light. composition together by a broad overhanging belt of beautiful lettering across the vacant background io of the panel—very much as the medallist of the renaissance before him clouded as it were the sky of his medallion ( ) with inscription. the use, however, of lettering in ornament does fortitvdon est. michi in salvtea halus opvs pisani-picto . renaissance bronze medal. not depend upon its association with picture. it is itself the graphic art. it takes the place of picture, and conveys in the surest way what might possibly have been conveyed by carved groups or painted ii figure subjects, but not so precisely; and all this without calling attention to itself. there are abundant occasions when decoration ought not to attract too much notice, apart from those other eese to linine pint rando \!\ avanc htncanto se de camora - denon or paint.vn weft gennercint-vroentqve sororesi chxevsenalas caeso qve erepta dracone hadrovastoonesian sarea corpora painen f\ vrgo-orrendal inspec . vrata vedvsami . perseus and the graeÆ, by sir e. burne. jones. occasions when adequate figure design is out of the question. it must be remembered (though it may sometimes suit us to forget it) that the moderate degree of artistic accomplishment which contents us in old work will not do for us in the produc- tions of our own day. we have passed the period www ii. part of an embroidered stole. by it in their design, and perhaps led into a form of expression which conveys their meaning only to the smallest circle of admirers. the possi- bilities of symbolism stop suddenly short. the designer is faced by two alternatives. either the symbols at his service are familiar, so familiar as to be hackneyed and commonplace, or, if they are of his own imagining, the interpretation of them alexander.diogenes www winni uld aeschi . initials from early printed books. makes demands upon our sympathetic recognition to which only here and there an appreciative soul respcnds. it has continually been found necessary to explain the significance of symbols, and even to call in for that purpose the aid of lettering, which of itself would have sufficed without them. it is not as though symbols were of themselves invariably ornamental. the sign which best conveys the meaning of the artist may not, and in practice often does not, readily conform to the conditions of design, and its forcible introduction into the scheme of decoration has consequently always an air of intrusion. lettering, on the other hand, is by nature most iz bas wohet . champleve enamel. henri deux. amenable to treatment; there are so many varieties of lettering, so many ways of introducing it; and, given the artist accustomed to its manipulation, it can so readily be made to take its place in such a way as certainly not to mar the decorative effect, and most likely to enhance it. a picture itself, or a piece of sculpture, con- ceived in the spirit of decoration, may gain no less in decorative value than in significance by the introduction into it of lettering in one form or emres to xmm as omn:omnarma oliv die iakom altcui:udbantu . gothic encaustic tile. another. this lettering may fill, or just suffi- ciently occupy, a panel or a tablet; it may be introduced into the nimbus of a saint or on a label encompassing him ; it may be as it were embroidered on the hem of his garmentor written across the folds of it, as was done in mediæval times—whilst the assyrian of old boldly cut his cuneiform inscriptions right across his pic- tures in relief; it may be-diaper the ground ( ), or otherwise enter into its decoration ( ); the devices of the designer are more than it is here possible to number. in certain initials from early printed books ( ) lettering at once decorative and explanatory is introduced into the subsidiary decoration of the capital letters. ornament, apart from picture, may gain still more from lettering, which takes, in turn, the place of figured story. it may form itself the staple of all decorative device, as in many an instance here given ; it may be cunningly inter- woven with ornament ( ) ; it may be plentifully employed ( ) or sparingly ( ); it is equally ready to fill the most conspicuous place or to retire discreetly into obscurity; it is the most obedient servant of the ornamentist. . jewellery, by h. holbein. .. . ii. the printed page. the idea of lettering is so closely bound up with that of printed type that the book, from title page to printer's mark, naturally comes into consideration. due consideration of it from the printer's point of view would, however, lead us astray from the present purpose; it would demand quite a volume to itself. the very extent of the subject compels its compression within strict limits. it will be impossible here to do more than consider the page, printed or written, as a comparatively com- pact mass of lettering, the main business of which is to tell us something, but to tell it with decent regard for appearances : it would not otherwise come within our scope at all. the assumption that the appearance of the page is to be improved only at the cost of legibility, may have some grounds in the vagaries of artists wanting in respect for the art in which they dabble, but it is not founded upon any inherent incompatibility between what is beautiful and what can easily be read. lettering may very well answer both con- ditions, and should do so. is our newspaper type more legible than a fine roman inscription ? any advantage print may have lies entirely in the fact that the man in the street is more familiar with it. modern improvements (?) in type have unfortunately been in the one direction of plain printing, leaving aside the question of beauty, with the result that the immediate effect of any artistic improvement in letter-shapes must be a degree of strangeness which, however slight, will strike people as less readable—not that it is really so. only in so far is it true, that more beautiful lettering means lettering more difficult to read. many a beautiful script which asks of us rather more attention than modern type, would be at least as plain to us if it were our ordinary reading. there is not the slightest doubt that twentieth century type might well be made more beautiful than it is. the obstacles in the way of doing it are, not that such type would be less readable, but that “ practical” people have made up their minds that it would be, and vast commercial interests are engaged on the side of letting things be. the best we can hope for is gradual improvement, and that such slight changes as occur in the fashions of print may be for the better. it is well that artistic attention should be called to it, for some- thing of all artistic doing trickles through into trade. the effort of william morris has not been without effect. printers who would most emphati- cally deny that they are converted to his opinions have plainly been influenced by his work. c in the case of the written page, as of the graven slab, the painted tablet, and other hand lettering, (to all of which much that is here said equally applies) the artist is untrammelled except by public prejudice, which, if he deserves the name, he will to some extent ignore. it is the bounden duty of the caligrapher to obey the principle of beauty, to shape his letters as perfectly, and to space them as pleasantly, as conditions will allow. the conditions of execution with pen, brush, graver or other tool will affect in most cases the shape of the letters. with regard to their distri- bution and arrangement, the conditions apply equally to page, panel, tablet, or any solid block of writing such as the rectangular patch of com- pact inscription adopted by greek or roman carvers when they did not frame it in mouldings or design a tablet for its reception. let us take the printed page as typical of the area on which a patch of lettering is to be spread. experience proves that the eye is best satisfied by a tolerably uniform distribution of the letters, roman, gothic, or whatever their character, over it, so that they give at first sight the impression of a fairly even surface, distinguished from the surrounding surface (that is, the margin) more by a difference of tint than by any appreciable letter- forms within the mass. the tint of print is, however, only relatively even : words are of uneven length; and there may be other breaks in its continuity, occurring as the sense of the words determines, and just not as the compositor would have them. nevertheless he is bound to accept them, not merely to take them into account, but to make the best of them, un- happily as they may come for him. he cannot, without forfeiting all claim to artistic feeling, shirk the difficulty of so scheming his lines that they are of equal length, that the words are as little broken as possible and never awkwardly, and that the spaces between them do not run into little rivulets of white wandering irregularly down the page, to its extreme disfigurement. broad spaces of white between the lines of print inter- cept such ugly streams, at the same time that they make reading easier; but the comparatively even tint given by closely compact lines of type is more restful to the eye than distinctly marked bars of print. here is, for once, a point of divergence between the most useful and the most beautiful way of doing it. it applies, however, more to printed books than to carved, graven or written inscription. in books, where easy reading counts for much and symmetry for little, it would be absurd to sacrifice convenience to effect, and to abandon any division or distribution of the text upon the page enabling us to grasp the meaning readily. we want our reading made easy: and there is not the least doubt that breaks in the type which correspond to breaks in the sense do make it easier. the division of the text into words, sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, is a foregone conclusion, with which it is futile to quarrel. the remedy for the undue preponderance of white, where a paragraph breaks the uniformity of the printed page, is, not to do away with para- graphs, but to break up the page into a number of them. that also makes it livelier and easier to read; and if to some extent it takes away from the importance attaching to a less frequent pause, the balance of emphasis can be restored by a dis- tinctive form of letter at the beginning of the dominant paragraph, denoting a fresh start- which of itself may be made to add to the interest and beauty of the page. but the consideration of the initial letter belongs to another chapter. an alternative to leaving a blank space at the end of a sentence, is to mark the pause by a printed sign, much heavier than the type of course (or it would not equally arrest the attention) and there- fore no less objectionable than the plain paper : the recurrence of relatively solid black ornaments amidst the grey tint given by the type, is even more irritating than gaps of white in it. the sign, of something like equal weight with the text, by which the greek scribe, say of the eighth century, marks a pause in the sense, is proportionately happier in effect, but does not meet the modern need for a signal which there can be no mistaking even from a long way off. in fact, the demand for something more like “stops " is as old as the tenth century. the proportion of the patch of print to the page of the book, the amount, that is to say, of margin leſt round the text, and the position of the patch upon the page, have very much to do with its . printers' marks. appearance, and are very serious considerations with the artist. it has been attempted to define precisely how to place the print upon the page ; but it is one thing to say this or that system answers well, and another to insist that only upon one system are good results to be got. the pro- portion of print to plain paper is just one of those points upon which an artist follows his instinct, and is not to be bound by rule : he works out rules for himself. the double column owes its origin presumably to practical convenience. when the page was broad, and the type employed was not very large, the lines of print ran to such a length of words that it was not easy to carry back the eye and take up the next line with certainty. the obvious remedy for this was to have two shorter lines of print, with a sufficiently broad interval between them to divide the print into clearly marked columns. and the effect of this in early printed books was most satisfactory. in modern printing, where the space between the columns is reduced to a minimum (when will some really practical news- paper printer give us once more columns sufficiently wide apart ?), the effect is not merely unpleasing but perplexing, the eye being continually caught by something in the adjoining column and led astray. except, however, in very wide pages, excusable mainly on the grounds that they may be necessary to adequate illustration, the double column is no longer wanted, and is in fact so nearly obsolete that, where it survives, it has a distinctly old-fashioned look. itis, nevertheless, no less effective than it is logical, to consider the two pages of the open book as one area on which to plant, as it were, two columns of print. a very considerable reduction of the inner margins, as compared with the outer and the upper and lower, has this effect; and it is perhaps the most satisfactory way of composing the page an illustrated news paper and weekly review . rough sketch-design for newspaper heading. -if only the binder were to be depended upon. unless the folding of the sheets is perfect, the two patches of print do not range, and the closer they come together the more obtrusive is the fault : it is not so easily detected when there is a broad space of white between. the ornamentation of the page, beyond the mere setting out of type upon it, is a subject apart. the only opportunity of the compositor for anything like free and fanciful composition is in the title page, where, again, he does wisely in curbing his fancy. plain print in the body of the book seems to demand corresponding severity in the treatment of the title page, in any case the most difficult page in the book to set out. our type is a carrying on of the character which came originally from the use of the pen. it will always probably, perhaps it always should, bear traces of its origin : we do not want to wipe out the landmarks of its history. but there seems no reason why this carrying on should not be also a carrying further, and in the direction, not of writing, but of printing, and even of type-founding. why should not type bear on its face the evidence of that also ? as in the title page of a book, so in a newspaper heading ( ), or the cover of a magazine, there is possible scope for design, more especially as they are not ordinarily printed from type, but from a block. unfortunately, however, the publisher's idea of lettering is usually type, to which he would have the artist conform most strictly. the demand of trade is, further, for something which shall advertise itself on the railway bookstalls, which shall be unmistakably readable as the flurried passenger hurries past to catch his train, and at the same time fresh and unexpected. the dictates of art, on the other hand, suggest some- thing which shall not shout itself hoarse. it is difficult under such conditions to do more than design bold, þroad and effective lettering, and to go as far towards mitigating its obtrusive- ness as the publisher will permit; but one cannot help doubting whether the clever people whose business it is to gauge the public taste do not over-estimate its vulgarity. advertisement, into which lettering enters, and must always enter, largely, affords but little scope for art—it is a game of brag; but publishers and others who have an interest in announcing not merely what they have to sell, but the beauty and refinement of the things, might well trust some- thing to the efficacy of tasteful announcement. where, by chance, the responsibility for an ad- vertisement sheet is in the hands of people not so much concerned about trade as about art, and they entrust its design to a competent artist, as in the case of mr. anning bell's announcement of the liverpool school of art, the result, though by no means legible at a glance, is something which, by its very distinction from the common run of flaring posters, attracts attention and holds it. for the rest, the only chance of the decorative artist in the direction of advertisement rests with the poster-humorist, who has found his oppor- tunity, and makes good use of it—if not of lettering always. to return, however, to the wider subject of the printed page, all that is here claimed on behalf of art is, due regard to its appearance. in the printing of books the ruling consideration is not beauty, but the sense of the author's words. the only question open to serious dispute is, how best, to make that clear and easy reading, with least violence, if any, to the sense of proportion and beauty. w mindreres mexxxxxxxx . . ovorio : ssssssssss herren hd dischachete orld . alfonso the wise, his mark. a.d. . iii. the written page. the written page is naturally set out very much on the lines of print-itself, of course, originally modelled upon manuscript. in so far as type and manuscript seek the same end, they are subject to the same laws; but only to that extent; and the aim of the two is not identical. the scribe of old was not so bent upon rapid writing that he had no time to consider its form, nor so intent upon ready reading that he dared not make the slightest demand upon the attention of the reader. you may see that in don alfonso his mark ( ). and to-day also when a page is penned it is not with a view to conveying the author's mean- ing in the plainest and most unmistakable way. the craft of the scribe (as distinguished from the fluent correspondent) is not so utilitarian as that of the printer. the writer is free to indulge in luxuries of art which the printer cannot afford, at times even to sacrifice something of plain speech to what might be called rhetoric; he has, by right of his pen, a faculty of taking liberties with the set form and mechanical order of letters, which the man of print has not, a power which insensibility only would neglect to exercise. when, as in the present day, caligraphy is employed no longer in writing books upon parchment but in penning the text to accompany some form of illustration (eventually to be incor- porated in the printer's process-block), the free exercise of his power is the very occasion and excuse of the artist for venturing into penmanship. he is in a sort compelled to make the venture; for the decoration of the page implies the sympathetic rendering of accompanying text. the art of lettering is one which the decorative artist cannot afford to neglect; not necessarily ornamental script, but plain, simple lettering- something which, when he is decorating a book, he may use in his designs, or with his designs, in place of type. type is only too ready to his hand; but caritas gott gesang ivli . qvarz facvltÆt entvorf. palmette bvkovina dago bert fvx schrift psyche . inscription by joseph plecnik, vienna. when it comes to finding a fount which will go well with pen or brush drawing, the choice is well nigh hopeless. nothing seems to be quite right. if he wants something which shall not jar with his work, he must do it himself; and to do it satisfactorily he must be master of at least one form of lettering. it is true that many an artist who has felt the incongruity of type, and therefore penned his own page, hasonly escaped from one trouble into another. “i hope,” writes a distinguished author, apropos of the publication of his own poems, “it isn't necessary to put the verse into that rustic print- ing. i am philistine enough to prefer clean printer's type; indeed, i can form no idea of the verses thus transcribed by the incult and totter- ing hand of the draughtsman, nor gather any impression beyond one of weariness to the eyes.” who does not sympathise with this protest against the bad work of perhaps a good artist ? a man may be an excellent draughtsman, and yet in the direction of caligraphy no more expert than a child. but the choice is not between the bad writing of the artist and the hard and fast type of the founder--of which two evils type may be the lesser; there are at least two other alternatives— that the artist should learn to write, or that he should get a sympathetic scribe to write for him. caligraphy is a term we use in speaking of the ancient or mediæval scribe, because he it was who wrote beautifully. the scribe who cultivates the art of writing is to-day rare, but the species is happily not extinct; and there is, at all events in some quarters, a rather general desire to master script, consequent upon the realisation of its use in design. an artist may have no desire to deviate into ornament, and yet appreciate the advantages of penning his own lettering, or seeing it written under his own eye. it gives him, even if he accepts the alphabet as it is, in all its severe simplicity, the opportunity, not only of shaping it to suit himself, but of placing the letters where and as he likes; and, if he should want an even effect, of spacing them more perfectly than print allows. he can put letters just as close together or just as far apart as may seem fit to him, can spread, contract, persuade them even, by some slightest modification of the letter-shapes, to accommodate themselves one to another as ready-cast type can- not possibly do. he can give to capitals their relative importance, and emphasise his words in other ways than by the use of italics. in short, he can have his own way instead of going the way bayern:zaubertrank schutzeruppe:qvelle zeus:psychetauwerr wald:natade:rubens: paradis:xenophanes drudenfuss:qvark . inscription by otto hupp, munich. of the machine-only he must have command of his implement, pen or brush or whatever it be: his writing must be adequate. the writer does wrong to form himself, as he often does, upon printed type (his obvious model is manuscript, upon which that itself is formed), and especially wrong to emulate the regularity of print. he can get with the pen or brush qualities of more account than mechanical precision (in aiming at which he is at a disadvantage as compared with the machine), qualities beyond the scope of printing, and of a kind which differentiate his work from it. it may be as well to exemplify the sort of even- ness of distribution to be obtained in penmanship and not in printing. the writer has only to pro- long a stroke to occupy the gap of white which occurs between two such letters as rt, or ev. l. . or the gap may be avoided by the choice of a different type of letter; it will be seen (diagram ) how the choice of the straddling m fills up the space left at the foot of the letter f, and how it widens the breach after the letter a. writers of old never seem to have been bound hard and fast to one type of letter. even in the same phrase various forms of the same letter occur, as if it happened so, much to the enlivenment of the page. and such variation shows regard (con- scious or unconscious) to the way the various shapes compose. the playful variety of old lettering is one of the charms we find in it. how pleasant the surprise of the rectangular c occurring once only in the word ecce, as we find it on the doors at le puy (diagram ). one has less sympathy nowadays with the turning about of a letter to make it fit a space. that was all very well when writers were not particular as to whether the bar of the n slanted this way or that. we are no longer at liberty to make a p or s face back- wards; it is a device belonging to a stage of letter- ing more elementary than the one we have reached. the same objection does not apply to the liberty taken on occasion with the size of individual letters; but there should be occasion for it. it should be done with deliberate purpose—for the sake of compression, composition, emphasis, not out of mere wilfulness. it is reasonable enough to reduce the size of a letter in order to bring it into the desired compass, to make it, for example, occupy the blank space which always follows the letter l-observe the compactness of the letters lod and the want of it in loi (diagram )—but to reduce an unfor- tunate vowel always to proportions at which it looks more like a stop than a letter, does not seem to justify itself on any ground of taste or expe- fm fm dⓇ amam ecce lodloi mary . diagram. diency, except that it enables the writer to shirk the difficulty of penning a bold round –a paltry excuse for pretended artistry. one is apt to resent mere wilfulness on the part of the scribe—variations, that is to say, not suggested by conditions of the case. we accept them readily when there is reason for them, and all the more readily when the writer consistently carries through the idea of compression, or whatever his motive may be. old writers often saved space by enclosing one letter within another, as in the combinations di, on, vs (diagram ). d once in a while we are able to express by the proportions of a letter something not otherwise easily to be conveyed-as, for example, by reducing the size of a letter in the word mary to indicate a pet name in which the r is familiarly dropped. auseful rule of writing has been laid down by herr v. larisch, from whose “ beispiele künstlerischer schrift ” two very different instances are given ( and ), to the effect that the letters of a word should be so contrived that the ground-space between them is always equal (not the distance between their extremities); but that is possible only on condition of taking occasional liberties of the kind already mentioned. the viennese artist, it will be seen ( ), adopts the old german device of writing the double t in gott as one letter, and the bavarian ( ) dwarfs a z when his composition requires it. when it comes to the modification of the letter- shape, in what is ostensibly plain lettering, the penman is on rather dangerous ground; but he may safely lengthen the limbs of letters, or other- wise extend or compress them, so long as no im- pression is conveyed of torturing them, or of trifling with a script which has serious business to do. the impression of affectation is easily produced by undue liberties with the proportion of letters. the bar of the a or of the h is not once and for all fixed; it may be shifted a trifle higher or lower without hurt; but the fashion, not merely of high- waisted letters, but of waists gradually rising almost to their necks, becomes absurd. it is one thing to depart from orthodoxy, another to go beyond the bounds of all moderation. it is only in modera- tion that freedom of hand is here claimed, and only on this ground: that the proportion of the s d . diagram to show construction of letters. letter itself is of less moment than the aspect of the word, the line, the page, in favour of which the letteſ must be sacrificed. the variety which is the charm of handwork comes naturally to the writer who is ready with his pen or brush; and, if for its sake only, it is incumbent upon the decorator, and especially upon the ornamentist, to master the art of lettering. he need not be adept in lettering of all kinds, but at least he should take some one character, roman, gothic, or whatever may best suit his style of work (of course, a fine type of letter, not common newspaper print), and master that, make it his, get as expert in it as in writing a running hand. let him acquire, in short, a hand of his own; it need be no more like print than his epistolary hand is like a writing master's; it should be in every sense his own handwriting. elaborate diagrams ( ) have been devised to show the geometric plan on which letters are sup- posed to be built. these are of some use in helping to explain the exact proportion of their parts; but a draughtsman should be able to draw without all that amount of compass-work. the construction of the alphabet appears to have been first worked out in the fifteenth century by an italian, one felice feliciano; after him followed fra luca paccioli ; but the best known diagrams are those of dürer, who in his book on proportion ( ) gave twenty- two pages to them, and yet the types of letter he adopted are by no means unimpeachable. the fact is, all this mathematical jugglery is beside the question of art, and especially of design. it is not so that letters are designed, nor anything else. the artist must learn to write-painfully if he should have no turn that way; but when it comes to lettering, he must do it straight off ; that is necessary to spontaneity, without which it will never be anything but cramped. there are occasions when exceptional care is necessary, and warencia tpecimensi laminit intima pir of:mediÆval architecture ochiefly selected to from:examples sof:the: ano: : centuries:in:| france:x:italy ano:orawn:by| w:eoen:nesfielo architect:lonoon be piper suvaww published:by.dayano:sonat date:street:near lincoln's inn: fielos januaryao: m . title page by w. eden nesfield. a high degree of finish and exactness; but there is no middle course between direct penmanship or brushwork and most carefully drawn lettering. there is not much to be done in the way of touch- ing-up letters which have been freely put in. it must be one thing or the other. spontaneity, it should be explained, does not imply rashness in setting out writing, or careless- ness in penning it. the lines should be straight, of equal length, and at equal distances. the soul of the scribe must not be beyond measurement or calculation. it is not till he has taken the neces- sary precautions, mechanical and other, that he can safely go ahead and write freely. is unmistakably very much what he would have designed for a brass. there is a dignified austerity about it not usually to be found either in the printing or the penmanship of his day. of such importance may be the dignity of letter design, that some facility in reading is readily to be sacrificed to it. it is not imperative that an minsgleits blos okvartesgrossa okwondinsdless osivtes scrwetsa xdiesesbitterbeit Ögociisbruirzikit . back of carved pine ch. stall, . inscription should be read as you run; enough if it is apparent that there is an inscription which, if you care to pause and study it, you may read. accordingly, the rules which apply to print or inanuscript may in monumental inscription be re- laxed. it is no longer necessary to keep the lines of lettering wide apart so as to form horizontal bars of text; they may follow closely one upon the other, and the words themselves may be closed up to form a compact mass. in place of orthodox punctuation, and of the ordinary division into sentences, the artist may mark the pauses in his own way. should it be by the interpolation of flowers, badges, or other ornaments, these may now be, and usually will be, of equal weight with the lettering, it being no longer so necessary to make reading easy as to present a dignified inscription. the utmost the reader has a right to ask of him is that there shall be no possible mistake about it when he comes to study it. architectural dignity is best preserved by the adoption of the simplest and severest character, and by distributing the lettering in the evenest and most formal way. the style of it must depend upon that of the architecture; but straight-lined charac- ters, roman or gothic ( , ), seem always to take their place in a building more as if they belonged to it than any florid writing; and this is especially the case with carving in stone or engraving in metal ; anything in the nature of a flourish is more appropriate to the pen or brush. there is no possible rule, however; an artist is guided by his feeling in such matters, and if he has taste it will guide him aright. the beautiful panel of lettering, well deserving its place of honour in the tomb of mary of burgundy, at bruges ( ), shows that it only needs the competent artist, and he can, with- out offence, give play to his fancy even in serious monumental design. it will be seen that he reserves in this instance the more fantastic flourish- ing of the letters for the base of the panel, where their work is over and they may safely be playful. francis ptolemaevs aeditvvs hocpvlpitvm instavravit exornavit etavxit an:d md xliii . raised letters in marble. inscriptions are written by common consent in horizontal lines. it is not so universally conceded that the lines should be of equal length, and form therefore a compact rectangular mass of lettering. this may not be possible in the case of an ample inscription within, let us say, a wreath, which was at one time common enough ( ). the lettering must often in that case perforce follow the lines enclosing it. but similar or other fanciful distribution of the words occurs also where there is no such reason for it, where no framing lines constrain the writer. in that case he loses something of the dignity and decorative value of inscription by straying from the straight line : there is virtue in its verticality. even should there be some reason against a simple four-sided patch of lettering, the lines may with advantage be grouped so as to give at least a rectangular figure. an edge meandering in and out unmeaningly, or following a florid framing line, is a thing to avoid. and if the frame compels it, the fault was in designing a frame so ill-adapted to its purpose. the rectangular space is invariably satisfactory ( ). given a frame to fill, the designer of an inscription must do his best; and a competent artist will make the best of even a very bad job; but, clearly, the better way to set about lettering in decoration is, to set out the inscription before designing a tablet or setting of any kind for it-to design, in fact, the frame for the lettering, not adapt the lettering to the frame. to the inexpert a word or two may be accept- able as to the setting out of an inscription. there may be many ways of doing it. mine is one which works out satisfactorily. it is this:-- . imagine about how you think the inscription would subdivide-say into so many lines (long or short according to your scheme of design). benoti i defede rigis el fesvlan. qvi virin egerimen vitÆsvma cvmavid vixit-anno qve lim.cccci defvna ctvs est . incised marble, luca della robbia. . write one line as it comes. . count the number of letters in the line (reckoning the space between word and word as equivalent to one letter). . reckon to how many lines your inscription + tu batteotovic nl vigogt? stonosi inside statsivering voroveim. voirotot putkistoautini? (oridomru totoo gotivi . embossed in silver-gilt, dalmatia. will run, and how this number of lines will suit your space. . if it does not accommodate itself, you may have to begin again; but each successive guess is likely to be nearer the mark than the last. . . having determined that your inscription shall be in so many lines, averaging so many letters, at such or such a distance apart, the next step is to note (upon the rough copy of the words) where the lines would end, and how the words would be broken. . you will probably find that, by a little readjustment, taking a letter or two from one line and including it in another, you can divide your inscription into lines containing each a number herlioevvnd-vorwÄsen s. jacobi, lÜbeck, . of making free with the normal letter-shapes is given above ( ). apart, of course, from the style of letter deter- mined by the architecture of a building or monu- ment, is the character which comes of its execution in stone ( ), or metal ( ), and of its standing up in relief upon a sunken ground ( ), or being cut into the surface ( ). the face of the letters may, indeed, be carved, and sometimes is, especially in wood; it may be modelled, and sometimes is, in clay; and there is no precise limit to the relief or modelling in which the artist may on occasion indulge; but it is not often that it is desirable to interfere with the flat surface of lettering ; there is a danger of frittering away the valuable surface of the material; and the forms of most letters express themselves sufficiently by their outline alone. even the so-called ribbon letters ( ), in which the turnover of the ribbon needs to be expressed, want little more than one sharp cut to express the fold. to insist upon nearer resemblance to ribbon is to indulge in a florid form of letter- ing remarkable, not for architectural dignity, but for a certain playfulness, pleasing indeed, but ill-suited to very serious and sober decoration : it l. . littluwhiteni ml) mlimuinua la fitili hithiimtindo antimit what . ribbon-like gothic is not so much lettering in ornament as ornamental lettering—which is not the subject of this chapter. there is less occasion, then, in architecture for actually modelled lettering than for letters cut into the ground or left in flat relief upon it. either expedient is in its place equally perfect. in incised lettering the surface of the slab is preserved ; but the simple “grounding out” of the letters, leaving the metal, stone, or wood intact, to form their face, is also a sure way of preserving their breadth of surface. it is quite commonly employed in brass and bronze, plain strips of metal (measuring perhaps as much as twice the thickness of the strokes of the letters) being left between the rows of writing, broken only by the tops and tails of tall letters engraved across them, and by an occasional avo umido um muis: himah tt hmi rittÄitmi auttiimi widiotihilirimit tottitt hitsiltumine dodattimum inscription from a flemish brass. initial ( ). this expedient of the band was, in fact, almost necessary for the accommodation of the projecting parts of the minuscule letters ; certainly it has invariably a good effect. the grounding-out of letters upon brass was sometimes done with a view to filling in the space with black or coloured mastic; but the sunken parts, being beyond the reach of the polisher, soon tarnish in any case, and deepen of themselves in colour, with the result that the letters tell light and bright upon it. so in the case of wood or stone, the surface of the raised letter is apt to get in time a polish which the ground does not. a sunken ground is commonly adopted in black letter inscriptions, in which the upright strokes come close together ; e and there is seldom any broad surface of ground between. in the case of roman letters, or gothic letters more or less of the roman type, there are apt to be gaps in the ground, which give rise to the occasion, if not the need, for ornament of some kind, in order to preserve the evenness of the inscription. the danger may, however, be evaded by closing the letters up and minimis- ing the space between them, especially if the inscription is in channels with plain raised bands between. a similar plan of crowding out the background may be employed with good effect by the penman or painter. by merely draw- ing his letters in outline as close together as he can and filling in the background, he gets a character in his lettering ( ) quite different from that which would result from painting light letters upon a dark band. in the case of black letter inscriptions, the engraver of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries often, as before said, made incisions in them to suggest the turn over of a strap or ribbon, playing indeed slight variations upon that simple idea with admirable effect; but he was happiest when he was content to suggest a turnover and did not want to imitate it. bastito . diagram. litsuclnralira p:oluri hir: galimsalim rtov o . sandstone slab, regensburg. the flaw in black letter inscription is the incon- gruity of the capitals used with it. they break the line perhaps happily, and relieve the monotony of an exceptionally rigid form of minuscule; but they rarely seem to belong to it ( ). the capitals above ( ) are much more in keeping . ruum.s j, rbittiar:uer, lchil turerbaruudwrijk here? i watotizdir. don sotgawig ruumo.jsza.deniz.ditob:uniſhni dipürbar undcüzmiliaftsmi y salitaniwleiti etuirthdagufgiteding . bronze from a grave at nuremberg. with the other letters than those on this page ( ); but really satisfactory capitals to go with black letter have never been, and are perhaps not to be, designed. this is a matter of less practical im- portance to us, seeing that the days of that particular character are, except for occasional purposes, already passed. there is no reason why grounding out should not more often be employed in stone or marble when the scale allows it; it is employed to ad- mirable effect in the wooden pew-end opposite ( ), and in the inscriptions upon the much earlier doors of the cathedral at le puy ( ). small lettering is more naturally cut into stone, as the cuneiform and greek and roman warden in ucc t inscriptions invariably were. in the little byzan- tine iron shield at the end of the chapter ( ) the incised lettering is filied in with silver. between sunken letters and letters in re- lief, the choice is determined partly by the jest mnieri consideration as mathew to which is the easier to do, partly by which will be the more secure from in- jury; when nei- ther would be difficult and either would be safe, it becomes a question mere- ly of effect. the lasting charac- ter of lettering . old english . pew-end. on a sunken ground, in metal, is witnessed by numberless mediæval monumental brasses, in which the decorative use of lettering is shown trium- phantly. we have only to compare these with the tombstones of a later date to see how monumental lettering may be used to artistic and to ineffective purpose. which of the two it det might be, was in the past very much a question of period: engravers of the seventeenth and eighteenth and especially the nineteenth centuries fell on evil days for design: with us it is a question of taste. we have lost hold of tradition, but we have freer choice; and out of our eclecticism, may i call it, better things should come—if we but take the pains to inform ourselves. the work of a man who knows what master workmen before him have done, must needs be better than he could spin out of his own ignorant imagining. skypieg ® boho ti . iron inlaid with silver. byzantine. . ivory carving of the tenth century. v. decorative lettering. many and various were the methods of intro- ducing inscription into decorative design. it found its way even into picture, until the time when the pictorial ideal ceased to include decora- tive effect. long inscriptions claimed for them- selves, as a rule, a place apart; shorter ones were used sometimes to frame the picture, sometimes to form part of it. in introducing lettering into decoration, people accustomed to write in horizontal lines from left to right naturally adopted that direction. they might occasionally be led by considerations of design to scheme an inscription otherwise ; but, in the main, decorative lettering takes the hori. zontal direction. such, in fact, is the decorative use of some such horizontal band as lettering gives, that one is inclined to suspect that in- scriptions have often been introduced into design quite as much for the line they gave as for the information it was desired to convey in them. about the earliest and most uncompromising use of inscription that we know of is seen in the well- known bas-reliefs from nineveh (eighth and ninth centuries b.c.), in which broad belts of cuneiform lettering deliberately cross the picture in a way which, brutal as in a sense it must be called, is not sheer brutality, so useful is it in the com- position, and so little hurt is there to broadly conventional sculpture of that kind in a treatment which, applied to more delicate workmanship, would be downright cruel. we find indeed some- thing of the same kind in quite late gothic tapestry and wall-painting, where the names of the personages represented are sometimes written straight across their drapery. the gentler treatment is to write only upon the background to the figures, where the horizontal bands or belts of lettering are of use in crossing narrow upright spaces between the figures or between the figure and its frame, and in binding the parts of the composition into one. another use to which bands of inscription are commonly put is to separate tiers of small picture panels one from the other, as, for example, in the narrow lights of tall gothic windows, which they hold together in a most satisfactory manner. a s racht beribila rrossinele ПРЕЗ tzemdvsme ja সত্যিটিতে esler ГІ ТА etknerico pasuresigarette lora divagen sie . part of a door of the cathedral at le puy. very pronounced use of bands of lettering to sepa- rate little figure subjects is made in the doors of the cathedral at le puy, of which a portion is illus- trated ( ). the lettering there is on a pro- portionately very large and important scale ; but it holds its own perfectly both with the ornamental borders and with the figure subjects. the carving is of the simplest kind, mere flat “grounding out,” but the effect is singularly rich; and certainly not the least interesting part of the design, when you examine it in detail, is the lettering. it proves to be latin hexameters, explanatory, of course, of the incidents depicted, running right across the four divisions of the doors. the upright post between the two doors (to the right of the illustration), shows another use of lettering. clearly, where all about it was so full of pattern, that called out for enrichment. why should not the carver make use of it to sign his name? and who is not grateful to master godfrey for the way he has done it? he could hardly have devised ornament more effective or more fitting. there is no need to multiply instances of pictures kept apart by interspaces of lettering. the mediæval decorator delighted in a multitude of little figure groups, and he knew no better way than this of separating them-nor do we for that matter, though nowadays we are not so fond of lettering. it is no uncommon thing to find in one and the same mediæval composition inscriptions treated o manhatycomel doctoanthly uoat h ТАТВОРНАЯ АНТӨМРО Ламет amnmuwire . silver-gilt cover to a copy of the gospels with slavonic inscriptions, . xviyn ys '\ h - 'xstoso **** * nb alte come n tar meine solcetiri n .. iveste in a variety of ways. the designer had the wit at the same time to diversify his design and to make his meaning as explicit as might be-after all, words are the most explicit form in which to convey it—and he succeeded in making them subserve an artistic purpose also ( ). there is a flemish tapestry at the victoria and albert museum representing the seven deadly sins ( – ), in which the names of jeremiah, justice, pity, etc., are written across their bodies, whilst the words of the prophet occupy a scroll. it is a rather important point in design that in a single composition different forms of inscription should be adopted only to convey different kinds of information; and that, vice versa, different kinds of information should be conveyed in dif- ferent ways. what is necessary to intelligibility may be made so, to contribute to decorative effect. of old it did not accur to the writer to intro- duce all manners of writing into his design ; he confined himself habitually to one form of letter, varying perhaps in scale, or in the manner of its rendering, but in its main lines the same through- out-for the simple reason, it may be, that no other was familiar to him. to-day we turn our know- ledge of many types to the worst possible account in mixing them together. our scraps of know- ledge lead us continually into danger. it is often desirable, and even necessary, to make some words stand forth in a design, and others to shrink back; it is the business of a designer to give such words as he may introduce their due and precise value, to make some perhaps larger than others, some more solid, to reduce certain of them to relative insignificance; but reason and art alike demand that all should be in one handwriting. natural as it is to write from left to right, and useful as cross bands of lettering are in counter- acting the upright lines in figure composition, the n sechi vicu har dir . engraving on copper by h. s. beham, . artist has always felt himself free to depart from the usual practice when that did not suit his purpose. if he had no need of any definite line, he preferred perhaps merely to break the surface of the background with quite irregular lettering. he made bold, if need were, to place the letters of the words in vertical instead of horizontal order, or to scatter them about the ground more in the form of a diaper; perhaps he preferred to write them on a tablet or a scroll ( ) designed to receive them, nadnodooil no olhospodybduesaineet . cad: vorn aradis obito edes atc . stone grave slab, gotland, . · emphasising the roundness of a vase, and some- times in correcting its proportions. quite rude instances of this occur in the mugs and other common earthen pots decorated in “slip” after a staffordshire fashion of the end of the seventeenth century ( ). more refined examples occur in old greek vases; but there the inscriptions are so deli- cate that, reduced to the scale of our illustrations, they would hardly be seen. they are, in fact, so inconspicuous that, but for the fact (pointed out to me by mr. cecil smith) that they occupy a position of honour in the scheme of greek vase painting, one might take them to be an afterthought of the designer. the lip, the neck, the shoulder of a vase may each in turn conveniently be decorated in this way, the words engraved on silver, painted on pottery, enamelled on glass. successive rings of letter- ing, with or without other ornament between, make excellent decoration, which, as the wording is never seen all at once, does not assert its meaning. the hispano-moresque potters frequently introduced bands of mock arabic inscription into their lustred earthenware, preferring, it is said, not to profane the name of the prophet by putting it upon the infidel market. they also hashed up into ornament the roman and gothic character, not perhaps know- ing the havoc they were working with its sense. the practice speaks for the value of lettering in ornament; but it does not justify mock inscrip- opicidetrite tituluce . part of a moorish door, with gothic inscription. Է tion, for which there is no honest place in decora- tion. if something like lettering is wanted where there is a reason why real words should not be used, it should be within the power of an artist to design ornament having nearly enough the value of lettering without ever making any pretence to be inscription. lettering makes a very good border-not merely in connection with ornament, though there is scope for that too in very broad borders, but by itself, as may be seen in many a grave slab ( ) and old brass, where it frames a monumental effigy or heraldic device as effectively as any pattern would do. the letters make, in fact, pattern enough, excellent and appropriate in proportion to its severity. the formality and rigidity of letters make for that steadiness which is so desirable in a border; the parallel upright strokes of gothic black-letter, of which an orientalised version is given ( ), fulfil very much the same purpose as the rectangular lines of a greek fret; but it is seldom that lettering comes amiss. the one objection to a border of lettering is, the difficulty there is likely to be in reading it from one position. that, however, does not apply to brasses and tombstones which you can walk round, or to a thing like a book cover, which you take in your hand and turn about. moreover, the difficulty is in great measure got over, say in the case of a door, by making the inscription run uninterruptedly round only three sides of the thing, and on the . part of an iron door in toledo cathedral. fourth (or bottom border) making it read as in the top one. this is seen in a portion of an iron door from the cathedral at toledo ( ). in a circular disc, where the ring of inscrip- tion is precisely analogous to the rectangular frame to a slab, the lettering naturally follow's round, in case the thing is small enough to be handled. in case it is not, the difficulty of changing the direction is not always very happily kn. on on moxx . greek coins in the british museum. managed, as may be seen in the mark of alfonso the wise ( ) ; nevertheless it is good lettering. for coins, seals, medals and so forth, lettering proves to be the absolutely perfect border. enclosed within marginal lines or without them, incised or in relief, singly or in double row, it frames the portrait or the coat of arms effectively, giving weight to the design just where it is wanted. not the least serviceable use of it is where it is made to pass, as it were, behind the image, forming something between a border and a back- ground to it. boldly used it never comes amiss. it is only the mean lettering of an artist who does not value it, would rather not use it, and is in fact half afraid of it, that is uninteresting. the great medallists who have given it the importance it deserves have never had cause to repent it. for all the value of the ring of inscription on a aachanart antipnoy ΒΑΣΙΛΕΣ kt staboabo bazue yokt. katy alan pl. pri cevettet apc akos % * . greek coins in the british museum. coin or medal, the scope of the designer does not end there: that is one way of doing it, but not the only one. it is the hard and fast rule we have adopted in modern days; but the greeks, who were our masters in art, and the medallists of the renaissance, knew better than to act on any one mechanical idea. the greeks, it will be seen ( , ), wrote the inscription across the coin, or in an upright line, or in two such lines, ge rar. leonellvs marchio desten sis d. fern sarie-regil-ety Ⓡet.mvtine . italian renaissance medal. or in one horizontal line (as a base for the figure), and lines at the two sides of the coin, and even in four straight lines giving a square within the circle. framed in double lines of inscription ( ) the figure is, as it were, set in a diaper of lettering. other devices are where the ground between the symbolic creature and its encircling wreath is diapered with lettering ( ), where the inscription is confined to a rectangular nisvs-rel i s-alpho w diws cccc wwum vir see sapi ensv stovuni tru soto amon xlviii to trivaphator et -pacific vs. . italian renaissance medal. frame within the circle, and where single letters are used to balance the composition ( )--and all this during the finest period of design. another beautiful use of single letters is seen in the ivory carving of a later period ( ). the medallists of the renaissance, as well as the greeks, often wrote inscriptions across the background to a portrait head ( , ). a second ring of incised lettering, within the outer band in relief ( ), is a convenient means of occupying the field of a medal without either confusing two separate inscriptions or calling undue attention to the less important of them. some modern medallists make good and characteristic use of lettering, but they employ sometimes too much of it to keep it bold enough. its proportion in the design of so small a thing as a coin or medal is all-important. the temptation appears to be to make it too small; but it seems to have been the constant endeavour of the great medallists to keep it as large as possible. go sic egreso ss almerivs foto vivo dine . italian renaissance medal. vi. scrolls or labels. pao a device from which very happy effects of decoration have resulted is that of a label, scroll, or ribbon, to bear an inscription. it is a means at once of giving dis- tinction to it and of introducing into the com- position lines invariably useful. its origin is not far to seek. a strip of parch- ment made a convenient ticket on which to write a name or description. . gothic such labels must often glass : the have been attached to things upon which they scratched were more or less a dis- figurement. the artist solid paint. naturally preferred to paint, or carve, or weave, his own label; and it seemed to him to give actuality to the thing if he represented also the buckling and the curling over of the ends of parchment, an accident sure to occur to it in the end. when he found that the cleavin esr: ddcfcios letters out of the turning over of the ends led to a characteristic form of ornament, he naturally developed the idea; and so we get the ornamental label, severe at first, eventually, as taste became more florid, twisting about in the most fantastic fashion. it takes, finally, the fluttering form of ribbon; but the effect was happier when it was less flimsily conceived, in the likeness, that is to say, of more robust strapwork. labels of the squarer ticket-like shape were often represented as if attached by pins to the surface of the thing they adorned. longer and more strip- like labels were invariably turned over or curled up at the ends; sometimes the ends were first split and then so treated. the twisting and twirling of the label itself was an affair partly of the reign- ing fashion of the day (severe in the thirteenth century, florid in the fifteenth), partly of the function of the particular label in question : it might not allow much scope for fancy, or, on the other hand, it might almost demand to be turned into ornament. the label is seen in its simplest form on the drug vases of the italian majolica painters, just a band of bold inscription between two lines which, upon examination, turn out to be the edges of a simple label, the indelible, and, at the same time, orna- mental, substitute for the common parchment ticket. the broad horizontal bands, also, which separate the subjects in a fourteenth or fifteenth century stained glass window, suggest the parch- swalavini . carving from the choir of the cathedral at albi. ment scroll; and so do the phylacteries in the hands of prophets and others, though these are . part of an ivory reading desk. made also to take a form more deliberately orna- mental, in order to occupy the background, or conveniently to cross the body of the figure. the sculptured figure from the wonderful church at albi ( ) is one of a series of prophets holding each his label, which both crosses the figure and occupies the background. it need hardly be pointed out how useful the line of the scroll is in the composition of the panel, and how well it contrasts with the name of the prophet horizontally incised in bolder lettering on the flat background in a line with his head. a commoner and more conventional form of label is that on the first page of this chapter ( ). such a label was planned to occupy the space about the head of the saint, descending in front of him ; the turn- over at the end was grasped in his hand. a similar but more elaborate use of the label occurs in four- teenth century tapestry, where it is seen curling about the heads of the personages, making quite a pattern in the upper part of the picture, or per- haps ( ) all over the background. labels, together .... where it makes a most appropriate accom- paniment to the central shield of arms. it is used also, for the sake of the meandering line given by its recurring form, in the broad borders of engraved brasses and appliqué embroidery. at times, too, other short contrasting scrolls ieri . plaque of gubbio faÏence. cross it at intervals, at an angle calculated to steady the flow of the foliage. the label is employed sometimes in coins, medals, and the like, but without so much reason. there is rarely need for it or room for it; the available space is better given to the lettering itself. it is happier as the border cf corporation or other important seals, and in medallions of larger dimensions it forms often a useful feature, the ends, as they turn about, satisfactorily occupy- ing the vacant ground. they are made even to fill it with their flourishing, as in the rather typical phl . plaque of gubbio faÏence. examples of italian majolica illustrated ( and ), in which the twisting of the label is a little too obviously designed to fill up. it is, no doubt, one very valuable use of the twisted scroll, that it does fill up a space; but it ought not to strike one at a glance as devised merely with that end. in so doing it confesses itself too l.o. : plainly a makeshift. there is less danger of betrayal when it is cunningly contrived to bear just the words wanted, and just as they should come ; which is hardly the case in these gubbio plaques, in both of which the label is, in fact, better suited to the inscription of two words than of one. the fact is, the label asks rather more conscientious design than we must expect from the italians of the cinque cento. it was said above that enclosing shapes should be designed with a view to the lettering to be inscribed upon them; and this applies with especial force to the label, which should be schemed to accommodate the words upon it. in fact, the position of the words needs first to be planned and the label designed to take them. given an existing space, it is the business of the artist to fit his design to it; but no practical designer would of his own accord first twist about a label and then begin to consider how best he could arrange the words within its lines. as well choose a canvas irrespective of the picture to be painted on it. the lettering is here the picture, so to speak, and the label but the canvas for it ; and, however fanciful its convolutions, they should be so contrived as to accommodate, not merely so much wording, but such and such words in the order of their reading. the question occurs as to the way the lettering ought to run. should it conscientiously follow canh d wer mica ottic www/ acy nemmice immer အမြို့ sborrar wulguliw.de martini . enlargement of a bookplate by h. s. beham. g planned the label bearing the words, “ all nations," better than that inscribed “in-dus-try.” an in- genious designer seldom finds himself compelled to break up his inscription awkwardly; he does not, for example, introduce a fold in the middle of a word; rather he reserves the fold to mark a break in the wording. he is careful to avoid the impression that his lettering was in any sense an afterthought. he designs the label for the words; and design is, literally, forethought. it is not pretended that labels have always been scrupulously designed. artists even who ought to have known better have before now shirked the difficulty of design, in so far discounting the merit of otherwise masterly work. it will be seen that the robust designs of hans sebald beham are not in this respect above reproach ; in the one case ( ) the letters flow evenly on, but are written upon both sides of the label ; in the other ( ) the words do not follow the direction of the label. the germans of the early sixteenth century made extraordinary use of the label in their design, more particularly in association with heraldry, and, to a man almost, designed it, as they did their mantling, with unfailing vigour and effect. a curious and perhaps unique instance of the length to which, already in the fifteenth century, they carried the device occurs in a carpet in the victoria and albert museum, a portion of which is illustrated senovasjao . old german lettering. fifteenth century. vii. hidden meanings. it has been contended in these pages that, though the first and usual purpose of lettering is that it shall be read with ease, there are occasions when easy reading is of secondary consequence (so long as it is readable enough), and that the more important consideration is decorative propriety. it is further maintained that its very legibility may under certain circumstances be endangered, and more than endangered, in the cause of ornament. plain reading is by no means the invariable purpose of lettering in ornament, and it is a mistake to suppose that it ought always to be read at sight, or readable at all, except to those whom it may concern. it may be intro- duced only for the satisfaction of those who have the key to its meaning-in which case all that the outside world has a right to ask is that it shall be ornamental; a sign or symbol which is a blot upon the design is indefensible from the standpoint of art. . iron bolt-plates. franÇois jer. miss the meaning of the words upon the scroll ingeniously composed to occupy the background to a picture of the annunciation ? one reads them by anticipation, and they may safely therefore be reduced to a form which in itself would not be easy to decipher. there is little difficulty in following even the most intricate of ornamental lettering when the very position of the words puts the reader on the track of their meaning. that, of course, is the justification of inscriptions such as that at the head of this chapter ( ); elsewhere it might be unreadable, occurring where it does in the gospels, it explains itself at a glance, secundum lucam. the use of the words is little more than a formality; they might almost be “taken as read.” the desirability of not clearly stating a meaning, still less of emphasising it, gives rise to the use of single letters only hinting at it ( ). even then the letter need not stand revealed in the naked form of the familiar alphabet. the florid initials upon the façade of the château at blois make more satis- factory ornament than the bald n which figured upon the walls of public buildings in paris in the time of napoleon the third : there was about that an air of advertisement in harmony only with the cheapest form of imperialism. the f of françois i er. was put to all manner of decorative purposes. the crowned f in the form of a bolt-plate ( ) is just a little too self-assertive. better for all purposes than the simple initial was the cypher, commonly used by henri ii., or the monogram—to which a chapter by itself is devoted. enough has been said to account for the meaning of lettering being hidden by the artist. the ways of hiding it are many. the letters themselves may be so playfully treated as to be disguised; they may be intricately interlaced, they may branch out into confusing ornament, or be half hidden in scrollery intertwined with it. in the case of the cunningly designed initial page from mr. walter crane's “ book of wedding days” ( ), the june roses grow from thorny stems which spell the name of the month, half lost in leaves and further hidden by the cupid errant with his shield. a much simpler growth of ornamental lines is enough to transform words van. into ornament out of which the meaning emerges as you look. in the masterly design of israel van meckenen ( ), the letters of his name, israel m, are delibe- rately designed to look like scroll- work merely, in which a casual observer would not suspect there lurked a meaning. they form, it will be seen, a fine panel of florid ornament, satisfactory decoration apart from the significance of the lines on which it grows. the con- fusion, more or less, that may result n from interlacing letters not in them- . a page from selves very fantastic, is seen in the the “book renderings of the word prophet of wedding days," by ( , ). where two separate walter crane. words are interlaced ( ), the disguise is naturally more complete, each, as it were, entangling the sense of the other. by merely taking liberties with the letters themselves (to some extent necessitated in order to adapt them to fretwork in ivory) the portuguese artist respon- sible for the cabinet in the cluny museum from which the words audeo-spero ( ) are taken has brought them to the desired condition of orna- ment which does not thrust its meaning on you. a simple means of preventing words from staring at you is, to break the continuity of the letters by colouring them arbitrarily, as was done in early saxon manuscripts. the obtrusiveness of individual letters may be guarded against in a similar way by breaking them into parti- colour, so that the forms which strike the eye are only parts of letters, and do not insist upon the fact that they have a meaning. the particular character employed in the old german embroidery from which the letters overleaf ( ) are taken, seems to us at this date hardly to necessitate further removal from the obvious; but the needle- woman evidently meant to make sure they should not be too evident; and so, not merely confused them with ornamental foliation and tendrils, but rendered them in colours which may be said to blur any possible distinctness of statement con- veyed in them. severer forms of letters might with even more reason be treated in the same way and so reduced to ornament. the sculptor or - modeller may arrive at a similar result by varying . engraving by israel van meckenen. l.o. . german gothic embroidery. the relief and the texture of his letters instead of the colour. the fringe of cloisoned letters dependant from the seventh century visigothic crown ( ) is a singularly happy device; barbaric it may be, but admirably ornamental. this is a votive crown, it will be understood, designed to be hung up before a shrine, not worn on the head. it was dug up in the neighbourhood of toledo, and one seems to trace in it the influence of moorish ingenuity in ornamental device. by no possible chance could the name of the donor, reccessvinthus, intrude itself. it is there by way of record ; to the casual observer it is ornament. the degree of illegibility permissible in orna- mental lettering is determined only by the purpose of it. what is meant to be hidden may well lie hid from all but those who have the key of the mystery. even where the secret is an open one, there may be a charm in the mystery in which it is wrapped. if it is a riddle, we have a right to expect it to be possible of solution. if it is meant to be readable, it should not puzzle us beyond measure. it is annoying to suspect, as we cannot help suspect- ing, that the designer meant us to unriddle many wwws s மாயமாilruicasin mரை t od ddr ). arc rodaje veiling in ? palauteticambia nowotw juni . visigothic votive crown of the th century. a seventeenth and eighteenth century cypher, which after all our pains remains to us a mystery. the handsome panel from a cabinet in the victoria and albert museum ( ) has all the h i air of telling us more than it does. was that the intention of the carver, or was it not ? a printer's or a mer- chant's mark , ) is often built up of lettering not easy to read; and it need not be readable; it is his sign, known to be such; and that is enough. so, too, a stamp, such as that of domitian, which forms the tailpiece to this . merchant's mark. . chapter ( ), might well be less easy to read than it is, and yet perfectly fulfil its function. it is difficult for us to realize how clearly the meaning may be expressed in lettering which we do not understand. all the unlearned can say of the icelandic ( ), the sla- vonic ( , ), the chinese, the arab, or other to them strange character, is that it is most satisfactory as ornament; and the fact that, as such, it interests . merchant's mark. them, speaks eloquently for c.e.g. ccccc ioi wm lor the decorative use made of it. possibly it would strike us as less entirely ornamental if we could read it; we find it perhaps all the more ornamental because it cannot possibly intrude upon our ignorance; but there is no doubt of its being ornamentally rendered. it seems certain, too, that the eastern artist was allowed an enviable liberty of rendering, which enabled him to reach something like the per- fection of lettering in ornament. the short and seemingly simple inscrip- tion on the persian mirror back ( ) is not to be read right off. even an accomplished orientalist takes his time to puzzle out the words, “o, thou satisfier of wants.” the writing of the arabs. is, of itself, enough to show that they were not often in a hurry. in the use of it in ornament they took it for granted that the reader would be more than leisurely. prohibited by the laws of the prophet from picturing god's creatures, and desiring, after the manner of mankind, to say something . icelandic in their design, they indulged pro- mangling im- fusely in inscription ; and their natural plement. ol van gil vrte . russian ornamental lettering by victor vasnetzoff. ingenuity and ornamental instinct not being hampered by any popular prejudice against free and fanciful treatment of the alphabet, they did marvels in the way of beautiful design, more ela- borate it is true than is our western wont, but undeniably the work of masters in their art ( ). lettering forms one of the most striking features in what we call arab art. we find it in the lustred tiles, the enamelled glass, the fretted brass of the persians; in the plaster-work of the alhambra and other buildings of the moors in spain ; in the wood-carving of the tunisians; in the embroidery of the turks; in saracenic silk-weaving; in illuminated copies of the koran; throughout, in fact, the whole range of mohammedan design. the power of the artist is shown in the perfect wÁkustektobeck . slavonic inscription of the th century. . the word “allah " forming an ornamental device. there is clearly not anything like the same elasticity in roman or gothic lettering as in arab, nor have we the mastery of those eastern ornamentists over the signs and symbols with which we have to deal; but the lesson of their work ought not to be entirely lost upon us; and it would be interesting to see what we could do in emulation of their manner. the result would probably not meet with popular approval; but it might be well worth the pains; and in particular we might learn the way to hide a meaning in our prova . the word "prophet" in italics. ornament, and to hide it just as effectually as seemed good to us--to screen it, if need be, from all but sympathetic observation. the few experiments here given ( , , ) do not, in the least, pretend to show what is to be done . the word "allah" in this way: they are after the manner of but a beginning, an a chinese seal. . the word “prophet” in interlacing strap-like letters. indication, merely, of the direction in which experiment might be worth making. something, too, is to be learnt from the severely square-cut chinese character ( ), as well as from their freer brush-writing (the two styles have analogies with the cufic and neskhi respectively), and from other script, which, in proportion as we do not understand a word of it, we can judge without bias as ornament. our western temperament puts us at some dis- advantage. we are a matter-of-fact people, and the practical view we take of lettering hinders us from making full use of it in ornament. our attitude towards the alphabet is somewhat too respectful. if we could bring ourselves to play with letters we might easily reduce them to ornament. the first step is to believe in the possibilities of lettering: only in that faith is art possible. . iron stamp. byzantine. sidic sivus . enamelled bronze pendant. viii. conjoined letters. we are to a great extent debarred from the use of contractions, which, obvious as they must have been to monkish readers, to whom mediæval writing was addressed, are enough to scare a modern one from the very attempt to decipher old manuscripts abounding with them. but there is no such undeniable objection to the mere conjoining of letters in the old way. a certain amount even of complication might be excused, where the writer did not wish to be too plain, or had a right to expect the reader would anticipate the word. there are cases without number in which it is clear from the first word or two of an inscription what is to follow. it may safely be taken for granted that the faithful will not want to read through the crede, the ave, or the lord's prayer. there is no need to spell out every word of a familiar quotation; and if there were, there it is, though not as plain as print. any hardship the reader might suffer from the conjunction, here and there, of letters other- wise awkward to manage, would be as nothing to the convenience it would be to the designer, who, as it is, is tied by popular prejudice as never ancient writer was fettered. but there is not necessarily any confusion resulting from conjoined letters. the wording on the doors of le puy ( ), in which it is carried to most interesting excess, is, it is true, only with difficulty to be deciphered- which may be said also of the gothic inscription from a flemish brass ( ); but the compound letters add no little to its variety, and were pre- sumably not difficult to read at the time they were written. it is mainly the misplaced satisfaction of the philistine with printed type which inclines him to resent the liberties a writer is naturally tempted to take with forms the printer has stereotyped. time was when even printers were not averse to combined letters (accustomed as folk were to them in ms.), but the diphthong and the ampersand alone survive, and that mainly in the form of &c. this particular sign was never at the best of much artistic use—it does not range with the line for one thing- but why not simply join the letters? we have only iio dematerik et titre ope; doorwerviti k ofte bine if azmi vo . from a to let the two upright strokes of the n form on the one side part of the a, and on the other part of the d ( ), and we have a perfect monogram which, moreover, acknowledges by its contrac- tion the comparative insignificance of the word. at all events a writer is free to indulge in any such monogrammic device which does not interfere with the legibility at which he aims; whatever helps the artist in spacing his letters is to the good. there is no occasion to keep sacred the separate identity i xxq&aÆ © © © ieor . diagram of conjoint letters. confessed, but turned if possible to characteristic account. what though the monotony of hard and fast form is inseparable from a page set up in type ? the penman, painter, carver, engraver, or other craftsman claims that he, for his part, shall be allowed to show, by deviation from the fixed forms of printed type, he has used his brains about his work; and his just claim is not invalidated by the incompetence of this scribe or the affectation of that. the word engraved within the wreath overleaf, from a piece of old roman silversmith's work ( ), was probably meant to tell no more than it does. ad anno herv gott . diagram of conjoint letters. . em s, continuous. ix. monograms. the use of conjoined letters and contractions leads immediately to the design of the monogram —which is in fact neither more nor less than a contraction—two or more letters writ in one. a monogram is a compound letter, or, as its name implies, the combination in one sign (simple or complex) of two or more letters no longer separate. whether the letters form, as in the beginning they apparently did, the first letters of a word (xp for xpixtos), or whether they are the initials of a man's several names, as is the more common use nowadays, does not matter, nor whether they are used as badge, symbol, or trade-mark; the point is that it is one sign conveying the significance of several letters. in a monogram, rightly so called, there is no letter which does not form part of another ( ). this is not generally understood, or we should not hom u dom vun عيالها tap ma w 工 ​< ( bade rbs gpm. da ama sab . monograms. i commonly hear the interlacing of any two or three letters described as a monogram. the interlacing i.h.s., for example, whether we read the letters to signify jesus hominum salvator or ihoye, are not properly called the sacred monogram, nor the intertwining a and , nor the initial letters of xpietos, except when one limb of the x forms the stroke of the p. the rule that no one letter in a monogram shall be independent, but that each letter shall form part of another, makes the design of monograms no very easy pas- time. much depends upon the letters to be joined in one. it is not as if, in naming chil- dren, sponsors d the . old weight. convenience of designers ; and grains. they provide some of their godchildren with initials which seem bent upon maintaining entire independence. whether they are absolutely irreconcilable re- mains in each case to be proved. one may have spent hours in vainly trying to bring them to- gether, and all at once they come, as it were, of their own accord. as an instance of the likelihood of happy combination, i have taken the letters of the alphabet and tried what could be done with them, three by three, as they came, at a short sitting ( ). the monograms are by no means perfect; two or three of them do not read in the order of the letters in the alphabet; but that is the best i could do right off, and i give the results as they came. they come well enough, i think, bog kdo iwx . the alphabet in monograms of three letters, to promise a fair likelihood that letters, take them as they come, will be amenable to ingenious treatment. if they are by no possible means to be reduced to a single sign, that may be enough reason for . f l, reversible. . s p l, continuous. interlacing them, or tying them together, or other- wise bringing them to the condition of ornament; but the result, beautiful or otherwise, will not be a monogram ; and should not be so described. it causes only confusion to call things by names to which they are not entitled. the one case in which there can be a question as to the title of monogram is, where the letters, though in a sense independent, are continuous ( , ). it is sometimes possible to devise a mono- gram in which one letter forms part of another and yet the line is continuous, and the contrivance adds interest to the design ( , , and d); but any device drawn in one stroke might claim etymologically to be a monogram, even though one of the component letters could be removed • and leave the others complete. a reversible design, which you may turn upside down and it reads the same, is a rare possibility ( ). lr sur . by holbein. . by holbein. character render it unfit. it is quite true that lombardic capitals, for example, are exceptionally amenable, all the more so as their shapes are not so definitely fixed as the roman, and one may with less offence take liberty with them ; but, though there is something final about the form of roman lettering, and its lines are straight and rigid-holbein himself could not always bend it to his purpose ( , )—it is by no means always unmanageable, and when it does lend itself to the combination desired, the resultant monogram has a sort of dignity all its own. it is a great convenience to have two or more forms of a single letter to choose from. the rounded form may offer possibilities which the angular does not, and vice versa. it is not, by the way, always a question of roman or gothic character, as may be seen in the diagram opposite ( ). there is scope for choice within the range of either roman or gothic. absolute symmetry is not essential to satis- factory design, but there must be in it a sense i of balance; and in pursuit of it the designer is tempted, not merely to tamper with the shapes of letters, but to place them out of their order. it is better that the natural sequence of the letters should be at once apparent in the monogram ; but in any case it should not be so flagrantly violated as to compel one to read them awrong. so also with regard to the value of the letters, their relative importance should be maintained. in the letters aa he Ά ΜΜ c d mm © a mm ee nn ee nn gg t mm ww . diagram indicative of variety in available letter shapes. of a single name the initial would naturally domi- nate. in the case of initials it might be desirable to insist either upon the christian or the surname, or to pronounce the two equally, or to relegate to insignificance the second of two christian names habitually dropped. only for some good reason should the letters of a monogram differ widely in size. they need not be all of a size, but there should be no appear- ance of any difference in scale. this is the more in order to illustrate in a practical way some of the points above discussed, i have taken the letters of the word the and made monograms of them ( , , , ). it will be seen that they lend themselves to a variety of combinations, some of which read in the order of the word, and others do not—though these last were really written in the right order. in most the t is made to take its due prominence; occasionally it is a capital followed by minuscules. those of them which read in the order t e h are, in so far, unsatisfac- tory. in two instances (h and c ) it is only by a slightly fanciful treatment of the termina- tion of the e that the letters are completely made out. the kind of balance observed in k is a thing to aim at in monogram design. of the minuscule versions ( ) a is readable only if we accept a disconsonant h; b is not a monogram at all; and c reads eth. supposing the letters th e stood for the initials of a man's name, it would be desirable to give importance to the e of the surname, and the h might possibly, as only the second christian name, take quite a back place in the design. the point is that the letters should retain as nearly as possible their actual value. another condition which enters into the design monograms the. b. c. . monograms the. d. of a monogram is, the space it has to fill, or, failing that, the shape it will give. a given space to occupy may put out of the question an other- wise possible composition. a given arrangement of letters may compel a circular, upright, squat, or irregular shape, as the case may be. a cartouche or other shape enclosing a mono- gram ( , ) may help to bring the compo- sition together ; but is no part of the mono- gram. a monogram if well designed should stand alone. to fall back upon the frame for help is, in a measure, to confess yourself beaten; but if the frame exists to begin with, then you have a right to rely upon its lines; in fact it is one of the conditions to which you have to conform. another confession of weakness is to resort, in the design of a monogram as such (and not as an ornamental device for some particular decorative purpose), to ultra-fantastic treatment of the letter forms, and a yet more abject one is the introduc- tion of independent ornament. there would be less occasion for any such makeshifts, were we not possessed by a demon of symmetry. we forget that it is not equal- sidedness but balance that is essential; and that there is a compensating charm in cha- racter. this is not to say there may not be good reason for devices in which for some symbolic or . lf d, with other sufficient purpose an em- border, stencilled. blem is included. the excuse is the more sufficient when the symbolism (as in the case of the rays in , which hold the stencil plate together) fulfils some practical purpose. the component parts of a monogram should be coherent, consequent, and quite clearly belonging to the letters they unite to represent; but the designer need have no compunction in departing widely from the normal proportion and symmetry observable in the separate letters. the consideration is now the shapeliness of the monogram, not of the individual letters of which it is made up. the letters may be of the artist's own designing; he is bound to . lfd, with back- ground device,stencilled. no alphabet: but they . reversed cypher, french wood-carving. x. cyphers. even if it were within the scope of design to make any given letters into a monogram, the only possible one would many a time be ugly. in such case an artist naturally discards the idea and falls back upon cypher: he may indeed in any case prefer that device as the more appropriate to his ornamental purpose ; at all events it is never the forlorn hope which a monogram may be. a cypher differs from a monogram in that it is not a contraction, not a separate sign compounded of several letters, but a commingling or interlacing of signs, each of which is in itself a perfect and independent letter, the one as it were planted in l.o. front of the other, or, more commonly, entangled with it. letters thus interlocked are commonly accepted as monograms; but, though they pass current, they are not coin of the realm. for the rest, however, the rules which govern the com- position of the cypher are very much the same as those to which the monogram is subject. lettering of all kinds lends itself to this device of cunning interlacing, but none perhaps so readily as cursive writing, the flowing forms of which were so commonly employed by the designers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, to whom the straight line, ever-recurrent in the upright roman letter, was abhorrent. so entirely did they adopt this one slanting form of letter, that it is some- times assumed that the term cypher applies only to letters of the cursive type; but this is not so. it is further fallaciously assumed that a cypher must be absolutely symmetrical. there was once a generation of artists who apparently determined . glass quarries with monogram and cyphers. sex . wrought-iron cypher, reversed. necessity for reversal was never very great, seeing that designers were not hampered by any thought of keeping strictly to the letter, but indulged quite freely in wreathing lines of ornamental scrollwork only in so far part of the lettering that they grew out of it. an inventive mind might readily by means of such extraneous ornament have made good the balance of design, and so avoided all occasion for reversing letters; but the real truth is, that letters sloping all one way. do not naturally lend themselves to symmetric design. the confusion which comes of overturning letters is worse confounded by the fact that one letter reversed may in combination with the . painted tiles, with cypher ? i c. thuty . கல் ண் ண் cad quano வ o a b moris g & ta sis ' paad cassas samsa iii. bookbinding tooled with cypher diaper j l reversed. lines of another letter give a third which is perhaps not needed. the letter e in the wrought-iron cypher illustrated ( ) might be the accidental result of inverting the b, or vice versa. a difficulty with which the designer has to contend is that (say) of three letters, two perhaps . cyphers, not reversed, carved. unite as it were inevitably into a single sign, whereas the other refuses obstinately to give up its independence. the result is, properly speaking, neither a monogram nor a cypher; but something between the two, and, by reason of its indeter- minateness, not quite satisfactory, though per- haps the best possible under the circumstances. reason that it is the best that could possibly be done with given letters. that is so in the case, for instance, of the familiar combination of a hd in the monogram of henri deux and diane, which, frequently as it occurs in work done for . cypher g r s. the king or his mistress, seems never to come amiss. it has a dignity which the sloping italics of later date never reach; and it is difficult to imagine how it could be bettered. again, in the ɔ i c in painted tile work of the same period ( ) it will be seen that the beautiful severity of the letters, . cypher b e. their proportion, and the simplicity of their compo- sition, give an air of distinction to a cypher which, less perfectly proportioned, might have been mean or commonplace. orna- mental devices of this kind are so readily resolvable into their elements that there is no possi- bility of the confusion always likely to occur when intricately interlacing forms are reversed. for a similar reason one has . cypher w s. wanawa * nothing to say against the reversal of a single letter, the double c, for example, of charles viii., and of our own charles ii. if the artist can make a satisfactory badge or ornamental device out of a letter, he is within his province: the condition is that he shall make ornament of it. even for more fanciful reversing, the excuse of ornament holds good. as a cypher of the letters j l, the device on page ( ) is very much like other interlacings of the period : as an ornamental diaper, it makes most excellent decoration in tooling the determination to abstain from turning letters over results in a form of severity ( ) of which lovers of symmetry do not approve. bookbinders made admirable use of the simple initial as a repeat, with or without a surmounting crown, in binding books for royal patrons such as louis xiii. before that the crowned f of françois ier figured prominently in the details of his châteaux. as for the h of henri ii., it was used in such a plain and simple way that one almost wonders how it is that it does not look bald. it forms, however, perfectly adequate decoration, owing to the extremely judicious way in which it was everywhere introduced. in the fine ceiling of the salle de diane, at fontainebleau ( ), both the simple h of henri and the monogram ( h d are used in a quite masterly way. one is apt to associate the idea of o . cyphers a m, i hs, a n. monograms and cyphers with something small or finikin ; but the breadth and dignity of decoration such as that is unsurpassed. enough, however, about reversing; let us return to the cypher. the interlacing of separate letters does not hinder them from being each of a different colour (b ), by aid of which colour (or in the . ... . cypher i hc. case of carving it might be texture) letters most intricately interwoven may be traced and easily identified. by the same means any one letter may be emphasised at will. thanks, therefore, to colour, or to texture, the artist is enabled safely to venture upon combinations of letters which, apart from it, would be inextricably involved. of the gothic minuscule cyphers on page the the tailpiece below is not so much a cypher as a symbolic device in which a cypher is included- that being of course quite a right thing to do, though it is not precisely cypher design. it is one thing to design a monogram, it is another to design it for a specific place or purpose, or to include it in some scheme of decoration. here as elsewhere there are few things the artist, for all that may be said to the contrary, dare not do with lettering, provided only he is competent, and that he cares for lettering. if he loves it, he may safely be trusted with it. . device including cypher and masonic symbol. www enne mi m whose plain business it is to enlighten us, and that without great tax upon our attention. deviation from accepted form, prompted by the artistic conscience, may be in one or more of several directions. the designer is open to suggestions arising out of his scheme of decoration, out of the nature of the inscription, out of the position it is to occupy, out of the material in which and the implement with which it is to be written; and, apart from de- liberate decorative purpose, and no matter what the general character of the lettering he may adopt (that may be deter- mined for him by architectural and other considerations) the implementand methodemployed . stamp. the. in rendering it will affect his letter in metal rendering, removing the lettering i somewhat from theoriginal type, and giving it a character more or less of its own. we do not want telling whether lettering was written with a pen, or painted with a brush; indented with a point in something soft, or cut with a chisel out of something hard ; we see at once that it was cut in wood, or stone, or metal, and whether it was incised or grounded out. the inevitable character of its execution is seen even in work which is meant to be graphic and no more, and it is seen to be so much to the good as art. tape on rough deal. pour estre celebre po rriie du mois de juli estre distribues iiți conuertis en pains aurr celebrant diach . part of a flemish slab ings, and, almost in spite of himself, gave it character. the rudeness of the work enables us in this instance the better to see how design is influenced by the conditions under which work is done. but similar influences may be seen at work in the letters engraved upon greek coins, which look sometimes ( ) almost as if the die-sinker had set about elaborating the greek character, so curiously are the letters rounded at the points. very little consideration shows us, however, that he had no such fantastic idea. it simply happened in that way. there was always a danger, in cutting short sharp lines with no matter what implement, of overshooting the mark. a safeguard was, first to drill holes at the points where the lines met or ended, and then engrave the lines from hole to r chun an enuiron te t, auquer a ordonnie tts de bred froment blancg de čen la ras kloubdiacre,parens cut in stone or slate. hole. that is what he did with the result that the drill marks, not being effaced, assert them- selves sufficiently to give a quite peculiar character to the writing. in the case of the coins of course the strokes end in little pearls. a precisely similar device is adopted in a greek inscription on a bronze tablet in the museum at naples, where the engraver has evidently begun by boring holes at the points where the lines of his letters are to end, omitting, however, to do so where, as in the case of the bar of an a, the grooved lines already cut were all the help he wanted—thus clearly showing the practical purpose of the little cells at the ends of the longer strokes. penmanship is writ large upon the initials of the gothic scribes and in many of the engraved initials founded upon penwork ( ). the . fretted ivory plaques. portuguese. out. letters of about the same period cut in stone ( ) have quite a different look. so also the white letter upon a black ground, with its background of thin foliage, etc., in certain wood- cut initials ( , etc.) is plainly not altogether unaffected by the fact that the white parts repre- sent the cutting away of the wood. in like manner the square-cut characters on the icelandic match- box ( ) remind one of the knife with which they were cut; and one can see, in the rendering of lombardic capitals in gothic glass painting ( ), that they were scratched with a point out of a layer of pigment on the glass. the letters audeo, spero ( ) have a certain portu- guese character, but the character of fretwork is more emphatically marked in them than that of nationality; and the cyphers which form so frequent a feature upon old key-bows ( , ) are, as it were, translated into pierced and engraved metal. the name on the italian comb-case ( ) tells, not only that it belonged to a de boen, but that it was chased on leather. ca rose . cut leather. italian. in event of an artist not duly observing the character proper to material, it has a way of retaliating. the inscription, for example, on the beautiful french lock opposite ( ), is too much of a tour-de-force in piercing; the letters are over frail for chiselled iron, with the result that the inscription is in a lamentably ruinous condition. the iron has here its obvious revenge upon the designer. character, then, and it may be ornamental character, comes of allowing material and the way it is worked to have a hand in shaping it; and the ornamentist is not merely safe in following the lead thus given to his invention, but foolhardy in not following it. further, his own personality, presuming him to have one, will find expression in his rendering of no matter what alphabet by no matter what method - it will be just as much his handwriting as though he had written it with a fountain pen upon a sheet of cream-laid note. furthermore, the exigencies of composition will ervomaatate ibidatti ctaliscotshui a . gothic iron lock-plate. suggest innumerable modifications of the letters as they appear in the copy-book, and an artist were no artist if he did not venture upon them. it would be absurd for a designer not to prolong the tail of a letter if he wanted it to fill a space, or otherwise to assert the rights of art, as explained above in reference to handwriting. in the word sten- cilling ( ), the heads of c and g and the tails of e and l are lengthened with a view, not only to artistic effect, but to the strengthening of the stencil plate. it is when artistic devices make clearly for workmanlikeness, and workmanlike expedients for artistic effect, that the design of lettering (as of all ornament) proves thoroughly satisfactory. there is, however, scope for ornamental letter- ing beyond this. the designer is, in strict justice, at liberty in many cases deliberately to make his letter-shapes ornamental; though the right is in these days of matter-of-fact so grudgingly allowed to the artist that it might almost as well be denied him. the wider tolerance in this respect in days before type-printing led to the devising of delightful lettering ( ). there are two ways of designing ornamental lettering. the one is to compel the letters into the shape of ornament. this was the idea of the byzantine and other primitive illuminators. but as early as the sixth or seventh centuries writers began to be diverted from the path of ornament pure and simple by the unnatural—or is it only too natural ?-delight in torturing the forms of birds, beasts, fishes and imaginary monsters into some- thing which might do duty for lettering. the ornamental pranks with them, in making, if need were, letters which were unmistakably ornamental, ornament which was unmistakably lettering. with the advent of printing, and the inevitably fixed type of the founder, a blight of uniformity spread from the printer to the scribe: the ideal of freedom declined; but, so long as the gothic spirit lingered, designers would still at times sport with the shape of a letter. what a variety of shapes a single letter takes ( ) in even printed initials of the days when printing was yet young ! in the case of handwriting the artist was con- trolled only by his own taste, which, until the time when late german penmanship went off into an hysteria of incoherent flourishes, seldom failed him : there is, we may say, no standard type of lombardic lettering; but, with all its variety of proportion and shape, it seldom goes far astray from fitness or beauty. this applies to the main outline of the letter. lombardic and gothic capitals generally allowed of very considerable variation in the parts of the letter, in the thicken- ing of the curved lines, in the curving of the relatively straight-all of which made for orna- ment. the next step in that direction was to play with the lines of contour, to fret the outline as it were, and slightly to foliate it, but at first only so slightly as barely to interfere with it. at junctures, too, where two lines met ( ), a loop was often substituted for the point, and this loop developed at times into a very effec- tive ornamental feature. it had been, it will be remembered, from the time of the keltic scribes, a practice to elaborate the letter by interlacing, 顯 ​顯 ​ mw oso . varieties of the letter a from early printed books. and some of the most charming letters of the six- teenth century depend upon interlacing for their ornament ( , ). the slight foliation of the terminations of the letters develops finally into free, and it may be florid, growth, which, according to its degree and en w elt . too much the effect of having been put together. the ebullition of ornament out of the slender lines of the italics in illustration is rather sudden, but it is directed by a sense of grace. in the letters of the word regina on the prayer- book of mary tudor ( ), the ornament is in part very ob- viously added to the letter; it is as if the gold smith had first made his letters and then belted them. such added ornament has generally the appearance of . grotesque woodcut. . an excrescence; here it is judi- ciously employed, and results, for once, in adequate decoration. the abuse of ornamental lettering is patent to every one. marvels of ugliness have been per- petrated in its name. so little is lettering esteemed among us nowadays that it is usually left to the incompetent hands of draughtsmen, who look upon l.o. wurm m ornament as a convenient means of disguising faults of penmanship or draughtsmanship. as to the use of ornamental lettering, there is . french wood carving. franÇois er. plenty of room for divergence of opinion; but, admitting that in serious inscription ornament may be for the most part out of place, it has its place in lettering, and a very useful one. the artist's calling is not of such a grave and lofty nature that he may never descend from the heights of academic design and indulge in the frivolity of ornament—if so it be considered. the potter plays with his brush, the needlewoman with her thread; to the worker work becomes play; and his playfulness touches, if only because it is a sure sign of enjoyment in the work, a sympathetic chord in us, and wins our approbation. . frivolity in lettering. xii. initial letters. to many the idea of lettering in ornament will suggest at once the thought of initial letters, for the most part, though not necessarily, dis- tinguished by ornament-their essential peculiarity being that they do distinguish themselves, in whatever way, from the surrounding text. it is in books, manuscript or printed, that initials are most useful. there is less occasion for them in mural and decorative inscriptions, where even distinctive capitals are not always necessary. in fact, with the one exception of black-letter, inscriptions are happiest all in capitals. the minuscule was not adopted for architectural or monumental purposes until a period when design was fast losing its dignity: it belongs to parch- ment and paper; and with it are associated the capital and the initial. the ostensible purpose of an initial letter, it is a truism to say, is to mark a beginning, the point at which the reader is to begin, or to begin anew. the term “versal” is only another name for what is practically the same thing, the letter, namely, to which the officiating priest shall turn. the decoration of this letter is by way of signal or reminder. the initial heads the chapter as the capital heads the sentence. it is writ large and beautiful by way of emphasis, more or less; and by strict rights the letter should be glorified in proportion to the importance of its position. logically, as well as artistically speaking, there is no reason why several series of initials should not be used, with varying emphasis, upon a single page; but it would not seem to the printer worth his while, and it would sorely tax the judgment of the compositor. an initial, however, is not emphatic according merely to its size. in common speech a word is more effectually emphasised by a pause before its utterance than by shouting it. and the notion of pause explains and justifies a certain disregard of immediate legibility in the initial. there, if anywhere, the artist may give loose to his fancy. ornament which elsewhere might be distracting is - here attractive, literally of use, that is to say, in calling attention to the letter ( ). a pause before the reader begins or resumes his parable is not without dramatic effect, and a letter must be indeed entangled with ornament if during that respite it has not plainly distinguished itself. there are occasions, again, where it may be taken for granted that the reader expects a certain letter, in which case there is no need to aos wi wpis hood nh . initials by israel van meckenen. . . from an illuminated choir book at siena. making of which there goes a dignity inseparable from reticence and self-control. the air of wild gesticulation so characteristic of a certain class of illuminated initials is enough of itself to convict them of extravagance. they presume, too, on the mere grounds that they are put in by hand, to sprawl over the page as though it were theirs. it is all of a piece with the incli- nation of the illuminator to look upon the margin of a book as a fair field for his exploits. it is not to be wondered at if, in the scarcity of parchment and paper, the mediæval artist seized upon the margins of the books which came within his grasp. his excuse will serve us, however, no longer. let us have initials, by all means, and borders too, for that matter, but let them be ornamentally rendered. it was not enough for them that the shape of it was ornamental, there must needs be ornament or foliage also, interlacing with it, or forming, it might be, a rich background to the letter ( , ). eventually, with the renaissance, when letter shapes became more definitely fixed, ornament was confined entirely to the background ( ). colour is, of course, the exception in printed books. but even in black and white one gets . woodcut initials. french. as nearly as possible its equivalent by means of ornament which, according to its density, tells lighter than a solid black letter or darker than a letter merely in outline, and gives a patch of com- paratively solid print, calculated to call more peremptory attention to it than a naked letter of the same proportions would do. this froth of ornament about a letter may be regarded as a sort of danger signal, no more to be mistaken than the foam about a rock not otherwise clearly distinguishable. a haze sr . woodcut initials. french. of ornament, on the other hand, in which the letter is lost to view, is in itself a danger. still, in the case of a letter big and heavy enough to hold its own, a tint of ornament is useful, in softening its lines and mitigating what might, but for it, have been a harsh and brutal contrast between its blackness and the white paper ( ). it has the further use of doing away with the blarik unprinted area about it which otherwise would tell as a gap in the type; and may readily be designed to give (and naturally is designed to give) a compact right-lined device ranging con- veniently with the lines of the text. except where the letter itself takes square lines (which it cannot oodcut initials. italian. a d . woodcut initials. german. always be made to do), something of the kind seems to be almost necessary. we get by means of such ornamental framing to the initial a rectangular patch of print which there is no overlooking; and within this, attention once called to it, the form of the letter is promptly perceived. moreover, such uniform patches break the page more pleasantly than initials of varying contour would be likely to do. upon this customary tune of a letter involved in ornament, or set in a framework or against a background of ornament, very interesting varia- tions were played throughout the sixteenth century. at times such ornament was made to follow closely the lines of the letter ( ), at times to contrast with them ( , ), at times apparently to take little or no account of them ( ); but apparently only; for the very test of an artist's capacity for such design is that . woodcut initials by g. tory. range from solid black ornament to pattern in outline only, from mere diaper to vigorous arabesque or foliage, to say nothing of eventual picture. a heavy letter against a lighter background of ornament was naturally the first to occur to the artist ( ). but he did not stop there. letters in outline relieve themselves quite enough against a more solid scrollwork, as may be seen in a french alphabet of which two letters are here repro- duced ( ), where the niello-like enrichment gives importance to otherwise modest initials, even if if it does not make them easier to read than they would be without it. this is a case, by the way (others occur in , ), in which the rectangular shape is clearly enough marked without aid of enclosing outline. the feat of making black letters clear themselves orbit dos ova show ouyaa : . woodcut initials. french. mentists were before him in the field, and had done good work before he entered it. the one uniformly unsatisfactory way of relieving a letter against its background is to shade it, whether by merely thickening the outline on one side of it, or by throwing half of it in shadow, as though it stood up upon the page. theoretically the shading makes the letter "stand out”; but it does not make it more easily readable; it simply vulgarises it. it looks as if in the initials d. i. ( ) the rather clumsy outline, black against a background of lines giving a half tint, were meant to suggest relief. if it is desirable to reduce the volume of white in an initial too assertive on its dark ground, a simple expedient is to introduce into it a central line of black, as frequently was done ( ). this may suggest perhaps the idea of incising, but n tolle re . holbein's “dance of death." grows dim. happily, the modern picture is independent of lettering; it has been left to the advertiser (who is not easily put to shame) to print across it, or on the foreground, or on the sky behind, his name and the description of the wares he has to sell. why not? it may be asked, if sir e. burne-jones and the old assyrians are justified. the answer is simple: it all depends upon the scheme and treatment of the picture. the letter- ing, which is an integral part of the composition, adorns a picture; that which is not, is a blemish upon it. the picture must be such that without the lettering it would be incomplete. the designers even of the sixteenth century often hesitate between the graphic and the wesi mites . “dance of death " initials. german. decorative motive, and especially between the use of arabesque ornament and of figures. they are most completely happy with ornament, but they are happy also with “putti,” as the italians called them, not children precisely, but robust little would-be baby forms playing about, and always playfully presented. perhaps it is because they are so entirely the children of the artist's brain wwwmmte wwwww whith . woodcut initials. german. that he is so fond of them. some of the best of these boy figures are attributed to holbein ( ). they measure only about two inches across, but it would be difficult to find, except perhaps in greek coins of the finest period, larger treatment of design in little. another fine alphabet ( ) is ascribed to dürer, on what authority i know not, perhaps because the letters are evidently the work of a strong man not endowed with any very subtle image! id comar a r mu .' woodcut initials, with medallion heads. appreciation of beauty. it is in the spirit of the italian renaissance that godfrey sykes designed an alphabet ( ) not precisely of initials : the letters are meant to spell inscriptions for the decoration of the refreshment room at the victoria and albert museum, and were executed in glazed majolica—white figures on a yellow ground: the modelling of the figures can be better appreciated in the larger version of the letter s ( ). the artist was one who, following in the steps of alfred stevens, went back for inspiration to a source it is the fashion with us to neglect just now—by which neglect our modern design is greatly the sufferer. in the initials of the elder cranach ( ) one italir - " . woodcut initials, with architectural background. may trace the influence of the goldsmith. they might almost have been designed to be beaten in gold. the excess of ornament—the outline of the letter is well-nigh lost in arabesque-may be taken -as indication of the lingering spirit of gothic art, by this time ultra-florid. it is only at the beginning of the period that the artists of the renaissance elaborated the simple roman form in this way. the admirable paint- ing alike of ornament and figure in certain illu- minated initials does not makethem by any means types of what initials should be. the choir books in the piccolomini library at siena are justly famous for the . majolica letter by rare beauty of their illu- godfrey sykes. mination. the pictures are perfect miniatures; but, framed in mon- strously big initials ( ) quite out of scale with the picture, they are miniatures misplaced. the art of design is in putting things in their places, and giving them their right value. the somewhat impractical idea of framing pictures within enclosing letters has never yet been satisfactorily carried out; but it appears to wood acdonssy coofrey sykes ad mdccclxiv vw rek sa sanotaan van aka xma as . alphabet by godfrey sykes. have haunted the designers of initials. most persistent attempts at picture-frame initials were made in by mathias gereon, who designed letters and pictures to be framed by them, which, as may be seen opposite ( ), were interchange- able, the same letter d serving as border to two separate pictures. the limits of these little picture blocks, to be inserted in larger blocks, are plainly pronounced by the square lines the pictures take. the expedient of designing letters which will frame any subject, and subjects which will fit any letter, promises economy, no doubt; but it does not fulfil all the conditions of composition : the letter has sometimes to be sacrificed to the picture. in the case of gereon's s, for instance, a most important section of the initial is eliminated to make room for it. in the series of which examples are here given the printer, indeed, appears to have felt that his initials did not speak for themselves, and has introduced accordingly a little explanatory letter that there might be no mistake about it ( ). a more practical, but at the same time quite commonplace, device is that of american printers, who use sometimes, by way of cheap initial, a border or frame of ornament within which movable capitals in large type can conveniently be adjusted; but this has not even the merit of novelty; plantin was guilty of it before them. the excessive elaboration of the forms of letters between the difficulty of inventing a form which shall be at once accepted for the familiar sign and have at the same time a character of its own, of designing, in fact, a new letter, and of devising more or less fitting ornament about an old one. . initial. p /c/e/e . wood-carving from the bedchamber of henri ii. at the louvre. xv. lettering and ornament. it is only natural to assume that lettering, conveying as it necessarily must a meaning, is introduced into ornament only on that account. the ornamentist, who has experience of its use in many an emergency of design, knows better. it has happened to him so often to find that lettering just met a want in design (lettering which but for reasons of composition it would never have occurred to him to introduce), that he does not for a moment doubt that, difficult as it may be to others to believe it, an appreciable amount of the lettering in ornament is addressed in the first l.o. place to the artistic sense, and only in the second to the understanding. it goes almost without saying, that lettering introduced for reasons of art must satisfy the mind, just as lettering introduced for purposes of explanation must at the same time flatter the eye. it is the business of the artist, having assured himself that lettering is what he wants in his design, to find a good excuse for it; and, with a little wit, he may alight on words so absolutely to the point, that it never occurs to those who have not penetrated the mysteries of the workshop to doubt that they were part of his original scheme, if not its starting-point. my own opinion, based upon personal practice, is, that many a time the modest lettering which takes a subsidiary but not unimportant place in design was, i will not say an afterthought, but a happy thought, which occurred to the artist in the course of developing his idea ; and that it was suggested quite as much by the feeling that it was wanted there for effect as by the thought that its meaning would give interest to the design. and this applies not merely to ornamental lettering. the very unlikeness of plain letters to the usual forms of ornament makes them exception- ally useful in design, as a foil and contrast to it. without obtruding themselves, they give point to pattern. it is a common experience in design to feel the need of intervals in one's ornament, places e- o ovo . ceiling of the salle de diane at fontainebleau. o of rest to the eye, too important to be treated as background, and in a sense prominent, but not calling for much enrichment. the cartouche, which plays such a prominent part in wood-carving of the period of henri ii., is an outcome of that need, affording as it does a broad surface of wood (not on the same plane with the ground, but itself another ground) which by its position demands decoration, and even decoration which, though it must not attract, shall not be insignificant. the design, in fact, leads up to such points in a way which would logically almost imply a figure com- position or some such enrichment; but artistically that would be too rich; what is wanted is some- thing simple, which will not disturb the breadth of surface. lettering, as may be seen ( , ), seems just to fill the place. it may be so sirnple in its lines and so flat in treatment that it barely disturbs the breadth of surface; and yet, when attention is attracted to it, as in such a position it must eventually be, the sense of fitness is not shocked by any inadequacy of detail. in the same way the cypher „ic ( ) just sufficiently fills a space which it is absolutely necessary to keep broad, and yet could not well be left bare. the fact, of course, that an artist could rely upon the vanity of his patron to appreciate the introduction of his cypher, did not make him the less ready to avail himself of the device. so with the scroll or label, ostensibly designed always to accommodate inscription, and actually shaped for its accommodation, we cannot doubt . english gothic paving tiles. that at times the inscription was first thought of only as an excuse for the ornamental label : it is even used at times without the excuse of lettering ( ). a case in point is the elaborate design of h. s. beham ( ). again, it would probably not have occurred to the designer to introduce the royal motto in connection with the cypher at the end of this chapter (the instinct of the designer is to make his cypher self-sufficient) had he not felt the need of the lines of the scroll to help him in the emergency of combining rather awkward letters. if, on the one hand, it can seldom be asserted positively that lettering is introduced for orna- ment's sake, neither, on the other, can we always be sure that the most absolutely appropriate lettering was introduced solely or primarily on account of what it tells us. it is just as likely that the letters on the old english encaustic tiles ( ) were thought of as appropriate filling for the spaces in the band, as that the band was . pew-ends from a church in somersetshire. the problem offered to the artist is, in the one case, to find words so appropriate, and, in the other, to reduce them so absolutely to ornament, that we neither know nor ask how the design came about, but are content that he has solved the problem, and, in so doing, given us a thing of beauty. it can hardly be said that the use of lettering in ornament, whether in the form of plain inscrip- tion, or of pattern built upon the alphabet, is sufficiently appreciated by modern designers. lettering recommends itself to the designer in that, when it comes to design and not mere inscription, he can do with it so nearly as he will. by nature it asserts itself somewhat; its lines, whatever the character, are inclined to distinguish themselves plainly enough from foliage or scroll- work, from animal or human form, with which they may be associated. but there are number- less ways of keeping it in its place, indeed in the precise subordination the artist may desire—ways of distributing the lettering, of shaping its outline, of treating its surface, of entangling it with orna- ment-any one or more of which may safely be followed. allusion has been made already to the breaking up of words capriciously, and to colouring the letters at will ( ). they may be made to alter- nate with ornament, as in the hispano-moresque plate opposite ( ), a very usual plan; or it may be not words but cyphers in themselves none too intelligible, which alternate with symbolic ornament. that occurs in the collar of the saint hdc . spanish earthenware dish painted in blue and lustre. esprit worked into the embroidered cloth of which a portion is here given ( ). the design of the collar is adapted also to the border of the cloth, where the larger scale of the design makes it more easy to appreciate how ingeniously the artist has combined his steady and even rigid cyphers with the dancing flames which figure again in the diaper on the field of the cloth. similar use is made of the cypher in a delightfully simple piece of actual goldsmith's work in the louvre, in which alternate links are formed of a cypher d e. the distribution of the separate letters of a word according to the artist's fancy is another cunning way of sufficiently removing it from bald announcement. there is no possible mistaking the meaning of the letters studding at precise intervals the velvet binding of queen mary's prayer-book ( ); and yet the word “regina ” does not shout at you. even straightforward lettering, following the plan, for example, of a greek fret in the french encaustic tile ( ), and making with the sudden patch in the centre most excellent ornament, would never thrust its meaning upon one, even were it upon examination readable, which, in this par- ticular instance, it can hardly claim to be; nor yet the inscription upon the english tile pattern ( ). if it was the intention of the artist to announce something in his design, the tidings reach but few ; if it was ornament he meant, there is no mistake about that. the disguise of lettering in the form of mono- grams and cyphers has been alluded to already. one looks upon the cyphers tooled upon le gascon's book cover ( ) less as lettering than as diaper. even the crowned l sprinkled over the bindings for louis xiii. asserts itself less emphatically than it would if it occurred singly, and were not used as an ornamental repeat. the form of lettering can, it is evident, be easily modified to the degree at which it is quite unin- vis: :blon anvra:lf bajuutal hamis:h:b] . old french paving tile. telligible; the main difficulty of the designer is in making ornamental letters which shall not be enigmatical. the foliation of the letter-shape is itself enough to transform it absolutely. but departure from the normal shape should be in the direction of beauty. that is hardly the case in the black letter which grows out into truncated tott . from the back of an old german wooden seat. branches in the words “ jesus” and “maria” ( , ), a rustic notion which crops up con- tinually in late german gothic, but it is never happy. it is seldom very desirable to break the surface of lettering with enrichment, unless indeed the idea is to merge it in ornament, to devise a mystery of richest scrollery out of which, as you dwell upon it, the words grow gradually into significance. van meckenen did that perfectly in the scroll- work which ( ), as at last it dawns upon you, spells his name. he designed also some very elaborate initials ( ), in which both the thickness of the letters and the background bellova e . from the back of an old german wooden seat. &疏忽索 ​sk . old painted roof decoration, norfolk. way it is executed. the ground of the building stone is cut away and broken flints are inlaid. but though the cement jointing makes a sort of outline le . wood-carving from an old scottish casket. between the black and the white, it is not con- tinuous; and where there is no background of aint it is left to the eye to make it good. the confusion of lettering with a background l.o. tes a rsm জীবন তোমার এ যা l s/ এ . alphabet in cutwork from an old sampler. be, to restore the balance of the composition. it will be seen ( ) that the hard effect of flat, sharp-cut letters may be greatly softened by a mere filigree of fine, close, evenly distributed ornament upon the ground, which by its very busy-ness dazzles the sight and so seems to blur their outlines. countless other ways of bringing lettering into focus in design will suggest themselves to the artist. it would be impossible to enumerate them all; and there is no need to do so; for they are devices not in the least degree peculiar to lettering, but in general use among artists for the purpose of subordinating one feature in ornament to another. indeed, very much of what is here said applies, not exclusively to lettering in orna- ment, but to the ornamental treatment of all manner of arbitrary forms. it is one of the difficulties besetting the discussion of any side issue of ornament, that it is practically impossible to refrain from wandering continually off into the broader question of design, taste, art in short- so true it is that art is one. in theory. in prac- tice the arts are many; and what is called general training in art is at most bare preparation for the pursuit of the least among them. hence the occasion, or at all events the excuse, for books dealing in detail, as this does, with quite a subsidiary branch of ornamental design. they will not teach the artist his trade, nor save him down v brad sa - . lettering with ornament to soften effect. page decorative value of let tering .. .. .. i, , , die-sunk letters .. .. directness .. .. .. distribution .. , , , , doors .. .. .. .. double column .. .. , outline .. .. drapery .. .. .. , dürer. .. .. .. , page illegibility .. .. .. illuminators .. , , independent ornament influence of technique on lettering .. .. .. initials , , , et seq. (ornamental) .. et seq. , (pictorial) et seq. inscriptions (monumen- tal) .. .. .. .. et seq. interlacing .. , , , , , , italics .. .. , , embroidery , , , exactness .. .. .. knife-cut letters .. feliciano .. .. .. .. figures .. .. .. , finish .. .. .. .. flourishes .. .. .. foliated letters .. , framing pictures with lettering .. .. .. , fretwork.. .. .. .. gereon (mathias) .. .. germans .. .. .. , godfrey (master) .... gothic characters , , , , , greek .. .. .. , greeks .. .. , , grounding-out , , , , gubbio plaques .... labels .. .. et seq., larisch (herr von) .. leather .. .. .. .. legibility , , , , , , , , , , le gascon .. .. .. le puy .. , , , lettering plus picture , , , liberties.. , , , light on dark.. .. , lombardic capitals .. , , london (victoria and al- bert museum) , , , hidden meanings o et seq. holbein .. .. , , horizontal bands.. .. line .. , manuscript .. , , margins .. .. , , mastic .. .. .. .. material (its influence on design) iii, , et seq. meckenen . , , page stone.. .. .. .. , sunken letters .. , surface breaking.. , , , sykes (godfrey) .. .. symbolism , , , symmetry.. , , , , page toledo .. .. .. tombstones ...... treatment .. , , turnover . . . . . , type .. i, , , , , variety .. ..... vases.. versal .. .. .. vertical lines .. visigothic crown .. in :::: .. tablets .. .. .. .. tapestry .. .. . , texture .. .. .. .. tint of ornament. . , , title page. .. .. .. wood.. .. .. .. , the end. bradbury, agnew, & co. ld., printers, london and tonbridge. a list of standard books on ornament & decoration, including furniture, wood-carving, metal work, design, &c., published and sold by b. t. batsford, , high holborn, london, w.c. the books in this list are marked at net cash discount prices, and will be forwarded carriage free on receipt of remittance. decorative flower studies for the use of artists, designers, students and others. a series of coloured plates, printed by hand by a stencil process in facsimile of the original drawings, accompanied by studies of detail drawn to show the development of the plant in successive stages, and descriptive notes. by j. foord. imperial to, handsomely bound in cloth gilt from a special design by the author. price . net. [just published. “these studies are no slight sketches devised for mere pictorial effect, but accurate and careful presentments of the growth of the subjects selected... . . the beauty and value of the growth of the sectional studies from the designer's point of view may be gathered at a glance."-home art work. “each plate is, in line and composition, a faithful and realistic study from nature, the rendering of the flowers being strictly true to their originals, while suggesting their adaptation to decorative treatment. .. miss foord excels in the drawing of flowers that grow in massed heads of small blossoms.”—the queen. "seldom, indeed, has one the good fortune to meet drawings so pleasing, and the various parts of the flowers are explained by accompanying drawings. miss foord is an artist with the pen as well as the pencil. :: the book is altogether admirable, and may be heartily recommended."--country life. “a truly valuable and beautiful book..... the coloured plates are nearly all good; they have a certain spaciousness of treatment that is full of delicacy and freedom ; and we have no doubt at all that the book, considered as a whole, is a real gain to all who take delight in the decorative representation of flowers.”—the studio. mr. lewis f. day, writing in the “ art journal” says :- ««• decorative flower studies' go very far indeed towards satisfying at once the decorator, designer, or student who wants trustworthy data upon which to found his work, and the lover of nature who delights to see deft and delicate rendering of the thing he knows. “ the author is duly regardful of the designer's wants, and supplements the coloured page by outline drawings of details likely to be of use to him. in these he will find flowers in various stages of growth, in bud, in full bloom, over-blown, and in seed; and often various views of these, as well as diagrams of the parts of the flower, and sections. the historic styles of ornament. containing , examples from all countries and all periods, exhibited on plates, mostly printed in gold and colours. with historical and descriptive text translated from the german of h. dolmetsch. folio, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt, price £ . net. this work has been designed to serve as a practical guide for the pur- pose of showing the development of ornament, and the application of colour to it in various countries through the epochs of history. a sketch book of artistic objects in pottery, glass, and metal work. by professor anton seder, director of the school of applied art, strassburg. with an introduction by lewis f. day. containing full-page plates, exhibiting upwards of novel designs for vases, beakers, jugs, teapots, lamps, candlesticks, electric light fittings, photograph and mirror frames, knives and forks, and ornamental ironwork, &c. large to, fancy paper covers, cloth back, price . net. “it is no slight recommendation of professor seder's work that he is at once fertile in invention and familiar with what has been done. in the sketches here collected he appears to be amusing himself by roughing out ideas for vessels and objects of all kinds, and they are all the more interesting in that they are but sketches, which he himself would very likely have considerably modified if he had carried them out. herein seems to me to be the value of these plates--in their suggestiveness.”—extract from introduction by lewis f. day. a reviewof modern decorative art in england and abroad. (“der moderne stil.”) containing examples of wall papers, textiles, lace, embroidery, bookbinding, pottery, carving, stained glass, metal work, &c., by walter crane, c. f. a. voysey, lewis f. day, william morris, selwyn image, e. grasset, heywood sumner, g. c. haité, and many other famous designers. selected from the art magazines of recent years, and arranged by j. hoffmann. to, boards, price s. net. a review of modern decorative art (“ der moderne stil”).—a second series of the above publica- tion, containing about further examples of the work of the leading english and continental designers. to, boards, price os. net. fust published. a review of modern decorative art. (“ der moderne stil.") third series. containing many hundreds of photographic illustrations of all branches of design and art industries, on full-page plates. to, boards. . net. this series comprises a great number of late designs, including french decoration and furniture from the paris exhibition. the collection is most varied as to its subjects, being especially important in regard to pottery and furniture, and is drawn from almost every country of europe. b. t. batsford, , high holborn, london. mr. lewis f. day's works—continueit. nature in ornament.— with full-page plates and illustrations in the text. third edition (fifth thousand). thick crown vo, in handsome cloth binding, richly gilt, price s. d. net ios. "amongst the best of our few good ornamental designers is mr. lewis f. day, who is the author of several books on ornamental art. 'nature in ornament' is the latest of these, and is probably the best. the treatise should be in the hands of every student of orna- mental design. it is profusely and admirably illustrated, and well printed."- magazine of art. “a book more beautiful for its illustrations, or one more helpful to students of art, can hardly be imagined."-queen. windows.—a book about stained and painted glass. containing pages, including full-page plates, and upwards of illustrations in the text, all of old examples. large vo, cloth gilt, price s. net. decorative brushwork and design – ele- mentary stage. a manual for the use of art students and others. by henry cadness, master of of design in the municipal school of art, manchester. synopsis of chapters: materials -- preparatory work — methods of expression--forms of ornament-nature- influences of styles-application of study, &c., &c. with upwards of examples of design on plates. crown vo. [ready shortly. professor meyer's text-boor's. a handbook of ornament.-— with plates, contain- ing about , illustrations of the elements and application of decoration to objects. by f. s. meyer, professor at the school of applied art, karlsruhe. third english edition, revised by hugh stannus, lecturer on applied art at the royal college of art, south kensington. thick vo, cloth gilt, gilt top, price i s. d. net. os. "a library, a museum, an encyclopædia and an art school in one. to rival it as a book of reference, one must fill a bookcase. the quality of the drawings is unusually high, the choice of examples is singularly good. .. the work is practically an epitome of a hundred works on design."-studio. “the author's acquaintance with ornament anazes, and his three thousand subjects are gleaned from the finest which the world affords. as a treasury of ornament drawn to scale in all styles, and derived from genuine concrete objects, we have nothing in england which will not appear as poverty-stricken as compared with professor meyer's book."- architect. handbook of art smithing.-- for the use of practical smiths, designers and others, and in art and tech- nical schools. by f. s. meyer, author of “a handbook of ornament.” translated from the second german edition. with an introduction by j. starkie gardner. containing illustrations. demy vo, cloth, price s. net . b. t. batsford, , high holborn, london, the furniture of our forefathers. by esther singleton. with critical descriptions of plates by russell sturgis. being examples of old english, french, and dutch furniture, taken out by the early colonists to new england and also of pieces manufactured by them. containing about plates, reproduced by photogravure, in half-tone, and illustrations from drawings. to be completed in eight parts, not sold separately, of which four are just issued, the remainder shortly. priče to sub- scribers only s. net each part. (illustrated prospectus on application. hepplewhite's cabinet - maker and uphol- sterer's guide ; or, repository of designs for every article of household furniture in the newest and most approved taste. a complete facsimile reproduction of this rare work, containing nearly charming designs on plates. small folio, bound in speckled cloth, gilt, old style, price £ ios. net. ( .) original copies when met with fetch from £ to £ . chippendale's the gentleman and cabinet- maker's director.-a complete facsimile of the rd and rarest edition, containing plates of designs of chairs, sofas, beds and couches, tables, library book cases, clock cases, stove grates, &c., &c. folio, strongly bound in half-cloth, price £ . net. ( .) examples of old furniture, english and foreign. drawn and described by alfred ernest chancellor. containing photo-lithographic plates exhibiting some examples of elizabethan, stuart, queen anne, georgian and chippendale furniture; and an interesting variety of conti- nental work. with historical and descriptive notes. large to, gilt, price £ . net £i is. the decorative work of robert and james adam. being a reproduction of all the plates illustrating decoration and furniture from their “works in archi- tecture,” published – . containing large folio plates (size, inches by inches), giving about examples of rooms, ceilings. chimney - pieces, tables, chairs, vases, lamps, mirrors, pier-glasses, clocks, &c., &c., by these famous eighteenth-century designers. large folio, handsomely bound in old style, price s. net. [just published. this volume contains every plate of decorative value from the com- plete work, which now fetches £ , and therefore forms a complete key to the graceful style for which the brothers adam are so universally renowned. the decoration of houses. by edith wharton and ogden codman, architect. pages of text, with full-page photographic plates of views of rooms, doors, ceilings, fireplaces, various pieces of furniture, &c., from the renaissance period. second edition, revised. large square vo, cloth gilt, price s. d. net. this volume, written by an american lady artist, and an architect, describes and illustrates in a very interesting way the decorative treat- ment of rooms during the renaissance period, and deduces principles for the decoration, furnishing, and arrangements of modern houses. old clocks and watches and their makers. being an account of the history of clocks and watches, their mechanism and ornamentation, with a list of , old makers. by f. j. britten. containing over illustrations, many reproduced from photographs, of choice and curious examples of old clocks and watches. pages. demy vo, cloth, gilt, price os. net. “mr. britten, the best living authority on clocks and watches, has given us a book altogether admirable. every kind of watch and clock is here dealt with historically and completely."- the artist. furniture designing and draughting. being notes on the elementary forms, methods of construction, and dimensions of common articles of furniture. by a. c. nye. fully illustrated by diagrams, many of them being full-page. large vo, cloth, os. net. a practical manual on the preparation of working drawings of furni- ture, prepared from material collected during an experience of some years as a designer of furniture for several of the most important furniture makers in new york. remains of ecclesiastical wood - work.-a series of examples of stalls, screens, book-boards, roofs, pulpits, &c., containing beautifully engraved plates, from drawings by t. talbot bury, archt. to, half-bound, price os. . net s. d. details of gothic wood carving.–being a series of drawings from original work of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. by franklyn a. crallan. contain- ing large photo-lithographic plates, illustrating some of the finest specimens of gothic carving extant. with intro- ductory and descriptive text. large to, in cloth portfolio, or bound in cloth gilt, price s. net . b. t. batsford, , high holborn, london. published with the sanction of the science and art department. french wood carvings from the national museums.-a series of examples printed in collotype from photographs specially taken from the carvings direct. edited by eleanor rowe. part i. : late th and early th century examples ; part ii. : th century work ; part iii. : th and th centuries. the three series com- plete, each containing large folio plates, with descriptive letterpress. folio, in portfolios, price . each net; or handsomely bound in one volume, £ . net. “students of the art of wood carving will find a mine of inexhaustible treasures in this series of illustrations of french wood carvings. . . . each plate is a work of art in itself; the distribution of light and shade is admirably managed, and the differences in relief are faithfully indicated, while every detail is reproduced with a clearness that will prove in. valuable to the student. sections are given with several of the plates.”—the queen. “needs only to be seen to be purchased by all interested in the craft, whether archæo- logically or practically."-— the studio. hints on wood carving for beginners.—by eleanor rowe. fourth edition, revised and enlarged. illustrated. vo, sewed, price is. in paper covers. “the most useful and practical small book on wood-carving we know of.” -- builder. “is a useful little book, full of sound directions and good suggestions.”- magazine of art. hints on chip carving.—(class teaching and other northern styles.) by eleanor rowe. illustrations. svo, sewed, price is. in paper covers, or in cloth, price is. d. “a capital manual of instruction in a craft that ought to be most popular.” saturday review. progressive studies and designs for wood). carvers.. by miss e. r. plowden. with a preface by miss rowe. consisting of five large folding sheets of illustrations (drawn full size), of a variety of objects suitable for wood carving. with descriptive text. second edition, enlarged. to, in portfolio, price s. net. ancient wood and ironwork in cambridge. -by w. b. redfarn, the letterpress by john willis clark. folio lithographed plates drawn to a good scale. cloth gilt, a handsome volume, price os. d. net s. d. leadwork-old and ornamental.- by w. r. lethaby, director of the london county council's school of arts and crafts. with illustrations of leaded spires and turrets, fonts, statues, vases, finials, pipe-heads, lead glazing, &c., &c. vo, cloth, price s. (published at . d. net). an interesting and charmingly illustrated volume upon a subject about which practically nothing has hitherto been written. only a small number of copies remain for sale at the reduced price. a facsimile reproduction of one of the rarest and most remarkable books of designs ever published in england. a new booke of drawings of ironworke.- invented and desined by john tijou. containing severall sortes of iron worke, as gates, frontispieces, balconies, staircases, pannells, &c., of which the most part hath been wrought at the royall building of hampton court, &c. all for the use of them that worke iron in per- fection and with art. (sold by the author in london, .) containing folio plates. with introductory note and descriptions of the plates by j. starkie gardner. folio, bound in boards, old style, price s. net. only copies were printed for england, and very few now remain. an original copy is priced at £ by mr. quaritch, the renowned bookseller. decorative wrought ironwork of the th and th centuries.-by d. j. ebbetts. con- taining large lithographic plates, illustrating english examples of screens, grilles, panels, balustrades, &c. folio, boards, cloth back, price . d. net ros. an illustrated dictionary of words used in art and archÆology. by j. w. mollett, b.a. giving concise descriptions of the chief terms used in decorative art and architecture, with derivations. illus- trated by over woodcuts of objects of art, &c. large square vo, price . (published at .). costume of all nations - ancient and modern. by f. hottenroth. (le costume chez les peuples.) containing full-page coloured plates, and over other illustrations in the descriptive text (in french). large vo, fancy boards. . net. an interesting and comprehensive handbook on costume. pen drawing: an illustrated treatise. by charles d. maginnis. with illustrations, including reproduc- tions of the work of the principal black-and-white artists. vo, linen, price s. d. net. contents :—i. style in. pen drawing. . materials. . technique. . values. . practical problems. . archi- tectural drawing. . decorative drawing. b. t. batsford, , high holborn, london. ii plastering—plain and decorative. a practical treatise on the art and craft of plastering and modelling. including full descriptions of the various tools, processes, &c., employed. with over full-page plates, and about other illustrations. by william millar. with an introduction, treating of the history of the art, by g. t. robinson, f.s.a. thick to, cloth, containing pages of text, price s. net. examples of english mediÆval foliage and coloured decoration. — by jas. k. colling, architect, f.r.i.b.a. taken from buildings of the xiith to the xvth century. containing lithographic plates, and woodcut illustrations, with text. royal to, cloth, gilt top, price . net (published at £ s.). dedicated by special permission to sir edward ). poynter, p.r.a. examples of greek and pompeian decora- tive work. measured and drawn by j. cromar watt. containing collotype plates, reproduced from the original pencil drawings of the author, comprising architectural details, and ornament, terra cotta, and ornamental bronze work, &c. a handsome folio volume, cloth, price £ os. net. early renaissance architecture in england). an historical and descriptive account of the development of english architecture during the tudor, elizabethan and jacobean periods, - . by j. alfred gotch, f.s.a., author of “the architecture of the renaissance in england,” &c. with collotype and other plates and illustra- tions in the text from drawings by various accomplished draughtsmen, and from photographs specially taken royal vo, cloth, s. net. [ just published. ** this work is quite independent and distinct, both in plan and illustrations, from the author's larger work, and is in no sense a reduced or cheaper edition of it. the orders of architecture: greek, roman and italian.—edited with notes by r. phenÉ spiers, f.s.a., f.r.i.b.a. fourth edition, revised and enlarged, containing plates, several new to this edition. to, cloth, price ros. d. net s. d. “a most useful work. ... mr. spiers has done excellent service in editing this work, and his notes on the plates are very appropriate and useful.”— british architect... ornamental details of the italian renais- sance. a series of full-page plates of measured draw- ings of pilasters, panels, friezes, capitals, and other details, with some inlaid work; also a variety of choice ironwork, selected from rome, milan, padua, bologna, &c. by g. a. t. middleton, a.r.i.b.a., and r. w. carden, a.r.i.b.a. small folio, cloth, price . net. voer o note the pennsylvania state university library atet nnsy viver te pen liso qisal. the arts library od : காலை text books of ornamental design. by lewis f. day. nature in ornament. text books of ornamental design by lewis f. day. price three-and-sixpence each, bound in cloth. introductory volume. some principles of every-day art. second edition, revised, with further illustrations. with numerous illustrations in the text. the anatomy of pattern. third edition. with thirty-five full page illustrations. the planning of ornament. third edition. with thirty-eight full page illustrations. the application of ornament. second edition. with forty-two full page illustrations. the three text books, bound in one volume, cloth gilt, price ten and sixpence. plate . sen ca j akerman, photo lith london, fleur-de-luce text books of ornamental design. nature in ornament. by lewis f. day, author of “every-day art.' with plates and illustrations in the text. second edition, third thousand. london: b. t. batsford, high holborn. . p + . . d preface. . : the scope of my subject explains, and justifies i hope, a volume exceeding in bulk the three former text-books of this series rolled into one. that scope is perhaps sufficiently expressed in the words “nature in ornament.” it may, however, be as well to say here that my aim has been, not so much to show the obvious adaptability of plant form to the purpose of ornament (which has been done already, more than once, and more or less adequately), as to demonstrate the natural development of ornament from nature, to show its constant relation to natural form, and to deduce from the practice of past-masters of the craft of design something like principles, which may put the student in the way of turning nature to account in ornament of his own. lewis f. day. , mecklenburg square, london, september th, . note to the second edition. little alteration beyond verbal correction has been made in this edition; but some few illustrations, which in the first came out unsatisfactorily, have been drawn anew. l. f. d. note. i have to thank my friend mr. walter crane for my frontispiece, mr. william morris for plate , and mr. heywood sumner for plate and illus- tration . i am further indebted to various gentle- men for permission to reproduce designs belonging to them; to the proprietors of the 'art journal for plate ; to mr. alfred carpenter for plate ; to messrs. erskine beveridge & co. for illustra- tion iii; to mr. edmund evans for illustration ; to messrs. heaton, butler, & bayne and the editor of the journal of decorative art' for, illustration ; to messrs. jeffrey & co. for plates , , , , , , and illustrations , , ; to messrs. maw Ô co. for plates and ; to messrs. turnbull & stockdale for plates , , and ; and to mr. john wilson for plate and illustrations and . l. f. d. table of contents. page : .- introductory .. .. .. .. .. .. .. i ii.-ornament in nature .. .. .. .. .. iii.-nature in ornament .. .. iv.-the simplification of natural forms v.—the elaboration of natural forms .. vi.-consistency in the modification of nature .. .. .. .. .. ... vii.- parallel renderings .. .. .. .. .. viii.—more parallels .. .. .. .. ... · ix.-tradition in design ... x.-treatment .. .. .. .. .. .. .. xi.-animals in ornament . .... .. xii.—the element of the grotesque xiii.-still life in ornament .. .. .. xiv.-symbolic ornament .. .. .. .. .. : : : : : : : list of plates. i. fleur de luce--treatment of the iris by walter crane. . japanese roses--from various japanese printed books. . budding branchies-drawn from nature. . natural leaf-sheaths—from a japanese botany book. . various berries-drawn from nature. . some seed-vessels—from a japanese botany book. . pods—drawn from nature. . flower and leaf buds-drawn from nature. . oak and oak galls—tile panel, l.f.d. . natural growth-from a japanese botany book. ii. greek scrolls. . roman scrolls. . acanthus sculpture and brush-work-illustra- tive diagram. . two versions of the same frieze design, l.f.d. tj. details of roman mosaic—from carthage, b.m. . transitional scroll-german, by d. hopfer. . painted wall panel—from the palazzo det-t, hy giulio romano. list of plates. . lustre dishes—of the sixteenth century-s.k.m. . german gothic scroll—from tapestry in the museum at nuremberg. . arab-esque renaissance ornament-german. . ornamental bouquet—of the seventeenth century- design for goldsmith's work. . book-cover—designed by owen jones. . sunflowers and roses-wall-paper by b. j. talbert. . details of greek terra-cotta—from vases at naples and at the b.m. . details of ancient coptic embroideries-s.k.m. . detail from an indian kinkaub-modern tradi- tional design. . details from pompeii--wall painting and mosaic. . carved cabinet door—from cairo,s.k.m. . english gothic details—from various sources. . indian renderings of the iris—painting and damascening. . inlaid flower-panels—l.f.d. . lyons silk-weaving of the seventeenth or - eighteenth century-dresden museum. . details of eighteenth century foliage-from old english silks. . silk damask of the sixteenth century-italian. . old lace-ivory point, munich museum. . details of hammered work-german gothic. . wall-paper-—conventional growth—l.f.d. . wall-paper founded upon nature-l.f.d. list of plates. xi . tile panel based on the lily-l.f.d. . chrysanthemum pattern-comparatively natural- l.f.d. . archaic greek foliage—from a bronze cup-b.m. . modern gothic lily panel-b. j. talbert. . lily ornament—italian inlay, siena. . eighteenth century flower renderings-from old english silks. . a renaissance medley-s. croce, florence. . pea-pod ornament—pilaster by brunellesco. . dutch and german conventions—of the seven- teenth century. . scroll and foliage-l.f.d. . ancient coptic embroidery-s.k.m. . vine and olive panel-lateran museum, rome. . italian gothic vine—from giotto's tower, florence. . vine and apple-tree frieze-l.f.d. . classic renderings of the vine-b.m. . arab vine panel-showing one-half of the design. . vine sculpture-lateran museum. . stencilled vine decoration-heywood sumner. . coptic vine ornament—from ancient embroideries- s.k.m. . english gothic vine-stall-end, from christchurch priory. . vine in stained glass-l.f.d. . vine by dÜrer—from a woodcut. . conventional vine-leaf pattern-l.f.d. хіі list of plates. . artificial renderings of the rose—from english silks of the eighteenth century. . tudor rose—from the bronze doors to henry vii.'s chapel. . tudor rose—from a stall-arm, henry vii.'s chapel. . italian version of a persian carpet--rose and tulip-s.k.m. . marble inlay—from the taj mahal, india. . indian lotus panel-stone-carving, from the buddhist tope at amarivati. . details of buddhist stone-carving-lotus flowers, &c., from amarivati. . the pink—various renderings of the flower. . eighteenth century versions of the pink- english. . poppy by ghiberti—from the bronze doors of the baptistery at florence. . poppy pattern-wall-paper, l.f.d. . pomegranates—chinese colour-printing and german incising. . gothic oak ornament~after pugin. . comparatively natural lily panel-l.f.d. . orchid and fungus pattern-old chinese em- broidery. . conventional tree work--indian stone carving. . persian foliage-silk-weaving of the sixteenth cen- tury, lyons museum. . details of egyptian sculpture-b.m. o. details of ninevite sculpture-b.m. list of plates. xiii . details of greek vase-painting-b.m. . roman sculpture--lemon and apple trees--lateran museum. . sixteenth century german design-peter quentel. . late gothic “pine” ornaments—from various textiles. . conventional tulip frieze-l.f.d. . peony frieze—by w. j. muckley. . fruit pattern-wall-paper by wm. morris. . chinese lotus-porcelain painting. . cobea scandens—linen damask—l.f.d. . conventional dandelion-l.f.d. . german gothic thistle-scroll - wood-carving, s.k.m. . japanese cranes—from a printed book. . japanese tortoises—from a printed book. . peruvian eccentricities—from fragments of stuffs. . . sicilian silk patterns-of about the thirteenth century. . sixteenth century wood-carving - s. pietro, perugia. . conventional butterflies—chinese and japanese. . modern german renaissance-by anton seder. . seventeenth century scroll-work-from a book of designs, published , by s. gribelin. . sixteenth century arabesque—italian. . late gothic illumination — the annunciation. xiv list of plates. . lustre plaques—l.f.d. . studies in ornamental figure-work-by holbein. . grotesque panel-by sansovino. . grotesque figure—by marco dente da ravenna. . grotesque scroll-cretonne, l.f.d. . keltic interlaced ornament—from a ms. in the b.m. . conventional wing forms — sixteenth century italian carving. . diapers with a meaning—japanese. iio. early greek wave and lotus diaper—twelfth or thirteenth century b.c. iii. seaweed borders-l.f.d. . seaweed pattern-l.f.d. . peacock-feather pattern-japanese. . peacock-feather diapers—from various sources. . peacock-feather pattern—turkish embroidery. . rococo scroll-work-by philippo passarini. . seventeenth century scroll-work — german, by nicolaus drusse. . pompeian wall painting. . indian naja-stone-carving from the amarivati tope. . conventional trees-- from various sources. . late gothic fleur-de-lis tracery—from wood. carvings at s.k.m. . marguerite panels-wood-carving. . symbolic ornament-book-cover-l.f.d. list of illustrations in the text. page : . various tendrils .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . vine tendrils .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . romanesque ornamentation of the stem-ely .. . part of a pompeian candelabrum--b.m. .. .. . renaissance use of pea-pods (prato cathedral) . . unequally divided oak-leaf .. .. .. .. . chinese rendering of wistaria-old embroidery .. . acanthus leaves reduced to brush-work .. .. . simple acanthus leafage .. .. .. .. .. .. . step between wave and acanthus scroll-roman mosaic, b.m. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . olive-like leafage .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . oak-like leafage .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . vine-like acanthus leafage, from the jubé limoges .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . crocket-like foliage, from limoges . . . modern modification of classic leafage .. .. . seventeenth century scroll—boulle .. .. .. . details of romanesque ornament .. .. .. .. . details of early gothic ornament-stained glass .. : : : : : : xvi list of illustrations in the text. page . spiral persian scroll .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . iris-like details of persian ornament-sixteenth and seventeenth centuries .. .. .. .. .. .. . details of early persian ornament-tenth to twelfth century .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . sixteenth century arabesque details—german .. . rosette in rouen faïence .. .. .. .. .. .. . chinese foliage, not easy to identify .. .. . . bouquet of conventional ornament-persian porce- lain, s.k.m. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . abstract ornament, not free from foliation . conventional chinese flower forms .. .. .. .. . conventional chinese foliage .. .. .. .. .. . rectangular acorn patterns-old german .. .. . simplified thistle—by the late g. e. street, r.a. . gothic leaf border, wood-carving—maidstone .. . rosette or rose ?-german gothic .. .. .. .. . gothic leaf-and-flower border-wood-carving . seed-vessels from nature .. .. .. .. .. .. . conventional buds, or seed-vessels ?-marble inlay, florence .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . conventional greek ivy leaves and berries ..... . japanese border, buds or fruits ? .. .. .. .. . conventional tree-from a sicilian silk .. .. .. . simple roman tree-mosaic, b.m. .. .. . hawthorn crocket .. .. .. .. .. . vine crocket .. .. .. .. .. ... . late gothic pomegranate-stencil pattern - . indian renderings of the poppy-niello : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : list of illustrations in the text. xvii page . greek border with lily buds .. .. .. .. .. . early gothic foliated ornament-pavement tiles .. . natural and ornamental foliage-early french .. . bud-like ornamental forms-gothic wood-carving .. . peony simplified to form a stencil—by h. sumner . indian wood-carving .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . gothic wood-carving .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . greek that might be gothic-stone-carving .. .. . persian details which might be gothic-porcelain of the sixteenth or seventeenth century .. .. .. . japanese treatment of the iris-embroidery .. .. . wheat-ears, simplified or elaborated ?-seventeenth century italian silk .. .. .. .. .. .. . . floral forms within floral forms—italian velvet, persian design .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . pomegranate berries arranged in bud-form-per- sian silk .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ornamental pomegranates—italian velvet .. .. . ornamental pomegranate-eighteenth century silk . ornamental pomegranate-old german embroi- dery .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . foliated forms geometrically diapered-japanese .. . elaborated flower—from an embroidered gothic altar frontal .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . elaborated flower—from a table-cover of german embroidery, .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . bulbous hop-leaves--german gothic wood-carving . indian corn adapted to ornament-italian wood- carving .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. xviii list of illustrations in the text. page . rigid lines of the growth of corn turned to orna. mental account-by the late c. heaton .. .. . artificial grace of line-italian .. .. .. .. . quasi-natural rendering of the lily—by sammicheli . quattro-cento lily-s. bernardino, perugia .. .. . narcissus compelled into the way of ornament- l.f.d. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . incongruous treatment of the oak-roman .. .. . characterless design-albertolli .. .. . . . inconsistency between flower and leaf-japanese . graceful artificiality-lyons silk, about .. . de-naturalised floral details—by gribelin, ... . confusion of effect without confusion of growth, persian tiles, s.k.m. .. .. .. .. .. .. . the vine in assyrian sculpture-b.m. .. .. .. . vine from a greek vase—b.m. .. .. .. .. . pompeian vine border-silver on bronze_naples . italian wood-carving—hop or vine ?–s.k.m. ... . conventional gothic vine and grapes—york .. iii . gothic vine with mulberry-like grape-bunches- york .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . conventional vine, from toledo — more or less moorish .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . moorish vine, from toledo . .. ... .. . naïve byzantine vine-ravenna .. .. .. .. . early french gothic vine-notre dame, paris .. . square-shaped vine-leaves — scratched earthen- ware, b.m. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . diamond-shaped vine-leaves —gothic .. .. .. iio * list of illustrations in the text. xix page . vesica-shaped vine-leaves – york .. .. .. .. . diagram of italian gothic treatment–padua .. . transitional vine scroll—german linen damask .. " . italian quattro-cento vine scroll—venice .. .. . german renaissance foliage—by aldegrever .. . vine in gothic glass-painting-malvern . . . quasi-persian rose — italian velvet, sixteenth century.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . oriental rose border—embroidered in silk and gold on linen .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . rhodian rose--from a faïence dish .. .. .. . roman lily forms—a candelabrum . .. .. . indian lotus—buddhist stone-carving, b.m. . . seventeenth century iris--appliqué embroidery, italian, s.k.m. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . renaissance pinks-needlework .. .. .. .. . modern gothic pomegranate—by the late b. j. talbert.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . pomegranate—spanish brocatelle.. .. .. .. . oak-from the cathedral of toledo . .. .. . assyrian tree of life .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . oak—from a sicilian silk .. .. .. .. .. . romanesque tree of life—from a painted roof at hildesheim .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . renaissance silk-showing persian influence . . egyptian symbolic papyrus . . . . . . assyrian symbolic ornament-glazed earthenware, b.m. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. iii. abstract greek ornament—from a vase .. .. xx list of illustrations in the text. page . later greek ornament-from a vase .. .. .. . assyrian rosette of lotus flowers and buds .. .. . gothic ornament—from notre dame, paris .. . fifteenth century fir-cone ornaments .. .. .. . chinese flower forms .. .. .. .. .. .. . etruscan and greek anthemion shapes .. .. . japanese diaper .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . japanese diaper .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . lily-like greek details—from various sources .. . romanesque detail approaching to the fleur-de-lis . gothic pattern-early fleur-de-lis .. .. .. бо . concentric forms-seaweed .. .. .. .. .. . gothic-anthemion shape—from the nimbus of a figure in one of the stained-glass windows at fairford .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . gothic diaper-radiating-from a painted screen . . ^ » renaissance ornament-italian wood-carving .. . renaissance anthemion-by mino da fiesole, florence .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . abstract foliage-persian inlay, s.k.m. .. .. . would-be ornamental celandine - albertolli .. . chinese rendering of “kiss-me-quick” – em- broidery .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . comparatively natural treatment of poppy- l.f.d. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . comparatively natural treatment of fig—l.f.d... . ornamental treatment of strawberry-l.f.d. ... . dolphins used as ornament-by george fox .. list of illustrations in the text. xxi page . circular bird (and flower) crest .. .. .. .. . circular bird crest ar bird crest .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ornamental indication of birds in flight . diaper of storks and chrysanthemum flowers combined .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . dragon-fly diaper-japanese .. .. .. .. . diaper of conventional bats .. .. .. .. .. . bird diaper by the late wm. burgess, a.r.a. .. . repeating figure pattern .. .. .. .. .. .. . conventional peacock border-indian embroidery . egyptian wing treatment—vultures . .. .. . egyptian wing treatment—hawk in cloisonné enamel .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . bat diaper-old japanese .. .. .. .. . . embroidered bat—chinese .. .. .. .. .. . pilaster by signorelli- orvieto .. .. .. .. . grotesque iron grille—german .. .. .. .. . wings reduced to ornament—italian wood-carving . ornamental dragon-japanese .. .. .. .. . arctic american grotesquerie-embroidered cloth . spring blossoms on the stream-j.ipanese: .. .. . diaper of spiders' webs .. .. .. .. .. .. . diaper of flames . .. . cloud and bat pattern .. .. .. .. .. .. . cloud pattern .. .. .. . wave pattern .. .. .. . water and water-lilies .. .. .. .. .. .. . wave pattern and water-fowl . .. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : xxii list of illustrations in the text. page : : . wave pattern-japanese porcelain .. . wave pattern-japanese lacquer .. .. . wave ornament .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . wave ornament .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . wave and spray pattern.. ... ... .. . ... . decorative rendering of incoming wave-japanese . shell ornament.. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. . seaweed ornament .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . heraldic mantling-part of a painted frieze- l.f.d. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . heraldic mantling – german gothic wood. carving .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . inlaid peacock-feather ornament-by b. j. talbert . coptic feather border-s.k.m. .. .. .. .. . coptic feather diaper-s.k.m. .. .. .. .. . persian peacock feather pattern-painted tiles, s.k.m. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . trophy panel-renaissance .. .. .. .. .. . françois ier skull ornament-wood-carving, fon- tainebleau .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . early phænician wreath .. .. .. .. .. . swag of fruit-bunches .. .. .. .. .. .. . egyptian sacred beetle .. .. .. .. .. .. . diaper of waves, clouds, and sacred birds .. .. . cross of fleurs-de-lis—thirteenth century .. .. . assyrian sacred tree .. .. .. .. .. .. . assyrian sacred tree-b.c. - . .... . iris or fleur-de-lis ?-seventeenth century vene- tian velvet .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. < list of illustrations in the text. xxiii bols . . .. page . egyptian symbols .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . gothic fleurs-de-lis—from old glass, lincoln . . heraldic badges-sixteenth century, mantua ... . symbolic eye-egyptian .. .. .. .. .. . segment of greek border of eyes-painted terra- cotta .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . symbolic burder of seed-vessels-l.f.d. .. .. . heraldic oak-italian renaissance .. .. .. abbreviations. b.m.-british museum. s.k.m.-south kensington museum. l.f.d.-lewis f. day. nature in ornament. i. introductory. the bias of the natural man is not un- naturally in the direction of nature. almost alone in the history of art, the greeks and the moors appear to have been content with ornament which was ornament pure and simple. it is not too much to say, even in these days of supposed interest in things deco- rative, that the englishman generally speaking neither knows nor cares anything about the subject. he is in most cases absolutely out of sympathy with it. possibly he has even a sort of contempt for the “ornamental,” as some- thing opposed to that utility which he so highly esteems-never so much as appre- hending the fact that ornamental art is art applied to some useful purpose. the forms of ornament he most admires are those most nearly resembling something nature in ornament. in nature, and it is because of that resemblance he admires them : abstract ornament is quite outside his sympathies and beyond his under- standing. he begins, for example, to take a feeble interest in greek pattern-work only when he sees in it a likeness to the honey- suckle. show him some purely ornamental form, and it is neither its beauty, nor its character, nor its fitness that strikes him; he is perplexed only to know what it is meant to represent. to him every form of orna- ment must have its definite relation to some natural object, and therein lies all its interest. relation to nature there must be indeed, and every one will acknowledge the interest with which we trace such relationship; but no one who really cares for ornament at all will allow that it depends upon that for its charm. " when ornament has gone astray, it has been more often in the direction of what i may call rusticity than of that artificiality which is at the other end of the scale. art passes through periods of affectation, when it becomes before all things urgent that opinion should be led back again to the for- gotten, grass-grown paths of nature. that is not our urgency just now. if there was at one time within our memory some fear of artificiality in art, the danger now lies in the introductory. opposite direction of literalism ; a literalism which assumes a copy of nature to be not only art, but the highest form of art; which ignores, if it does not in so many words deny, the necessity of anything like imagination or invention on the part of the artist, and accepts the imitative faculty for all in all. to venture upon the sweeping assertion that all art whatsoever is, and must be, con- ventional, would be very likely to lay oneself open to the rebuke of judging all art by the decorative standard ; but with regard to orna- ment, i have no hesitation in saying that more or less conventional it must be, or it would not be ornamental. not, of course, that the ornamentist denies in the least the supreme beauty of natural form and colour, or thinks for a moment to improve upon it, as some seem to imagine, who insinu- ate that he proposes to surpass nature, pre- sumes to “paint the lily,” and so on. on the contrary, he is modest enough to recognise the impossibility of even approximately copying anything without the sacrifice of something which is more immediately to his purpose than any fact of nature—consistency namely, fitness, breadth, repose ; and is content, there- fore, to take only so much of natural beauty as he can turn to use. he regulates his b nature in ornament. appetite, that is to say, according to his digestion. such self-denial on his part is not by any means a shirking of the difficulties of the situa- tion. in art nothing is easy, except to such as have a natural faculty that way. it is not every one who finds it easy to make a striking study from nature; but that comparatively elementary accomplishment does demand ability of a lesser kind than the production of a picture in which there is design, unity, style, and whatever else may distinguish a master- work of the renaissance from a study of to-day. in like manner, the mere painting or carving of a sprig of foliage is within the reach of every amateur ; but to adapt such foliage to a given position and purpose, to design it into its place, to treat it after the manner of wood, stone, glass, metal, textile fabric, earthenware, or what not, demands not only intelligence and inborn aptitude, but training and experience too. it is the easiest thing in the world to ridicule such decorative treatment; but it would puzzle the scoffer if he were asked to pause a moment in his merriment and point out a single instance of even moderately satisfactory de- coration in which a more or less non-natural introductory. treatment has not been adopted. the fact is, the artist has not yet arrived at a point where he is able to dispense altogether with art. it is his misfortune (more so nowadays than ever it was) that it is extremely difficult for him to make up his mind precisely as to the relation of art to nature. that it is dependent upon nature, more or less, is obvious. only by way of paradox is it possible to contend, like mr. whistler, that “nature is very seldom right.” nature is our one and constant model. the question is as to how freely or how painfully, how broadly or how literally, how individually or how slavishly, we shall render the model before us, how much of it, and what of it, we shall depict. and this is a question which, if not quite beyond solution, must be solved by each man according to his idiosyncrasy, and that only after much anxiety and doubt and difficult self-questioning. it is the good fortune of the decorator, the ornamentist, the worker in any of the more dependent arts, to be comparatively free from such incubus of doubt. in his art there is much less room for hesitation. for him to adopt the realistic creed would be to deny his calling, and to cut himself off from the art of his adoption : for the very idea of nature in ornament. ornament implies something to be ornamented, and accordingly to be taken into account. by the adoption of any one of the applied arts, a man is bound to draw the line at realism so soon as ever it is opposed to the application of his art. in other words, the purpose to which his art is put indicates to him the limits of possible realism. and so, while the dispute about realism is still at its height so far as literature, the drama, and even painting are concerned, the question as to the adaptation of natural forms to ornamental design has resolved itself, for all who know anything of the subject, into inquiry as to the degree and kind of modification calculated to render natural forms applicable to orna- ment and the various purposes to which it is put. this modification of natural form to orna- mental purpose we are accustomed to call conventional. in accepting this term, how- ever, we must be careful to distinguish con- vention from convention, and especially from that academic acceptation of the term which would give us to understand that the modi- fication of nature has been done for us, and that we have only to accept the classic, mediæval, renaissance, or other more or less obsolete rendering at hand. as though the introductory. tombs of buried peoples were heaven-sent habitations for live men ! the one thing to be insisted upon in refer- ence to convention is that it has not been done for us once and for all, that we have to do our own conventionalising; and not only that, but that we have to do it again and again, each time afresh, according to the work in hand. it is only by this means that art in ornament subsists and grows: when it ceases to grow, decay sets in of course. to accept a convention ready-made is to compromise your own invention; to go on copying the accepted types, be they never so beautiful, is just to stifle it. but one must be familiar with them : one must be aware of what has been already done in the way of art, as well as conversant with nature. simply to study nature is not enough. we have to know how artists of all times have interpreted nature; how the same artist, or artists of the same period, treated natural form differently, according to the material employed, conform- ably with the position of the work, in view of the use it was to serve. knowing all this, and being perfectly at home in the world of nature, one may set to work to conventionalise on one's own account. there is some chance of success then, not otherwise. nature in ornament. those who most keenly feel the need in ornament of a quality which the modern nature-worshipper delights to disparage, will be inclined to pray that they may be pre- served from some of their allies. there is, or was not long ago, a class of ornament in vogue, which appears to have originated in the idea that you have only to flatten out any kind of natural detail, and arrange it symmetrically upon arbitrary lines, and the end of ornament is achieved. decorative design is not so easy as all that. to emasculate a natural form is not to fit it for ornamental use, and to distribute detail according to diagram is not to design. the result may be conventional, but it is not the kind of convention i am upholding ; one touch of nature is worth all the mechanical and life- less stuff of that kind that ever was done. one hopes, and tries to think, that this sort of thing is dying out, if not quite dead already ; but then one flatters oneself so readily that what has been proved absurd must be extinct, or moribund at least; until, perhaps, an enforced stay among the philis- tines brings us face to face with the evidence how very much it is alive. we have only weeded it out of our little garden plot ; about us is a wide world where it is rampant. there introductory. is no hiding it from ourselves, there is life in the old dogma yet; and, alas, in many another. it is still as necessary as ever to deny the claim of merely geometric reconstruction to represent the due adaptation of natural forms to decorative needs. it is no more fair to take this ridiculously childish work to repre- sent conventional design than it would be to instance the immature studies of some raw student as examples of naturalistic treatment. compare the best with the best. compare the ceramic painting of sèvres with that of ancient greece, china, or japan; compare the work of palissy with that of the potters of persia and moresque spain; compare the finest aubusson carpet with a persian rug of the best period ; compare the earlier arras (such as we have at hampton court) with the most illusive of modern gobelins tapestry ; compare the traditional swiss wood-carving on the châlet fronts at meyringen and there- abouts with the most ingenious model pro- duced in the same district for the english and american tourist; compare the peasant jewellery of almost any country except our own (we never seem to have had any) with the modern gewgaws which have taken its place; and who would hesitate to choose the more conventional art ? nature in ornament. conventional treatment, it will be seen, is no mere stopping short of perfect rendering, no bald excuse for incompetence. it will be my task to show that, if it does not on the one hand consist in the substitution of the diagram of a thing instead of its life and growth, neither does it mean the mere distor- tion of natural details, nor yet that mechanical repetition of ancient conventions which is a weariness to every one concerned in it. our rendering of natural form must be our own, natural to us; but without some sort of con- ventionality (if we must use the word) deco- ration is impossible. there is no art without convention; and your most determined realist is in his way as conventional as the best, or worst, of us. it is not the word conventional for which i am contending, but that fit treatment of ornament which folk seem agreed to call by the title, more especially when they want to abuse it. by whatever name it is called, we cannot afford to let go our hold of that some- thing which distinguishes the decorative art of every country, period, and master, from the crude attempts of such as have not so much as grasped the idea that there is in art some- thing more than a dishing up of the raw facts of nature. introductory. ii work as nearly natural as man can make it, though not in itself decorative, may be at times available in decoration. but forms de- naturalised by men alike ignorant of the principles and unskilled in the practice of ornament, and more than half contemptuous of design to boot, are of no interest to any one but their authors, if even to them. nature and art are not on such bad terms that to be unnatural is to be ornamental. i nature in ornament. ii. ornament in nature. nature being admittedly the primal source of all our inspiration, it is rather curious to observe the limited range within which we have been content to seek ideas, how we have gone on reflecting reflections of reflections, as though we dared not face the naked light of nature. with all the wealth of suggestion in the world about us and the never-ending variety of natural detail, the types which have sufficed for the ancient and mediæval world, and for that matter for ourselves too, are, compara- tively speaking, very few indeed. how largely the ornament of egypt and assyria is based upon the lotus, the papyrus, and the palm ! the vine, the ivy, and the olive, the fir-tree and the oak, together with the merest remin- iscence of the acanthus, went far to satisfy not only the greeks but their roman and renaissance imitators as well. gothic art went further afield, and gathered plate . apanese roses "photo-tint, by james akerman london wc japanese roses. ornament an in nature. into its posy the lily and the rose, the pome- granate and the passion flower, the maple and the trefoil, but still only a comparatively small selection of the plants a-growing and a-blowing within sight of the village church. oriental art is more conservative still ; in it a very few types recur continually, with a monotony which becomes at last tedious. one wonders what chinese art would have been without the aster and the peony, or japanese without the almond blossom and bamboo, what arab ornament would be but for the un-leaf-like leaf peculiar to it. one is struck sometimes by the degree of variety in the treatment which a single type may undergo in different hands; more often it is the sameness of the renderings which impresses us. probably in the case of no single plant have the possibles in the way of ornamental adapta- tion been exhausted, and in many instances the very plainest hints in the way of design have not been taken. the rose, for example, has been very variously treated ; but comparatively little use has been made of the fruit, or of the thorns, or of the broad stipules at the base of the leaves. we have to be grateful when the buds, with their boldly pronounced sepals, are, : nature in ornament. lato breros <a p/ condta canden y x bryony tendrils . various tendrils, from nature. once in a way, turned to ornamental account (plate and pp. , ). the japanese roses on plate are some- what directly inspired by nature, but then they are not very ornamentally treated. they might almost have been drawn directly from nature. it is mainly the simplicity and direct- ness with which they are rendered which gives them some decorative quality. take the conventional vine again, with its stereotyped leaves and prim grapes. and its tendrils, how seldom they have suggested more than a rather meaningless wriggle, useful, no doubt, to fill an awkward gap in the composi- tion, but without either character or beauty. probably no feature of flower growth has been more badly treated than the tendril. artists have thought themselves free to add a tendril to any plant whatsoever, and whereso- ornament in nature. vine tenurils . vine tendrils, from nature. ever it pleased them. the clinging character of the bindweed, the hop, and plants of that kind, has suggested to artists who look with- out their eyes the necessity of support of some kind, and they have accordingly provided the tendrils nature has denied, neglecting all the while the peculiarly decorative character of the twining stem. designers have seldom taken much account of the essentially orna- mental way in which plants like the nasturtium and the clematis attach themselves to what- ever they can lay hold on by their leaf-stalks ; nor have they rendered in design the suckers by which the ivy and the virginia creeper adhere to the wall. it is so much simpler to provide convenient tendrils than to study nature. and what tendrils they have provided ! all of one pattern ; whereas in nature they are nature in ornament. delightfully diverse. how vigorously the mature and woody tendril contrasts with the silky growth of the young shoots groping for something to support them! how different the branched tendril of the pea from the simple bryony tendril, and both from that of the vine! certain poets of a past generation thought fit to compare the tresses of their lady-loves to this last; and there was, perhaps, a certain suggestion of the corkscrew in both to warrant the comparison ; but what a lively corkscrew the tendril is, how friskily it twists and twirls about, and how gaily it starts off, as it were, on a fresh lease of life ! it is too exclusively in the leaf, the flower, and the fruit, that the ornamentist seems to have sought his model. the leaf-bud, for ex- ample, whether as giving character to the bare twigs (plates and ) or conveniently softening the angle between the leaf-stalk and the stem, has been comparatively neglected : one type of bud at all events has usually done duty for all. the thickening of the leaf-stalk, again, at the joint with the stem, has rarely been made use of; nor yet the quite young shoot, which not only fills the empty space about the stalk, but gives an opportunity, most invaluable in design, of contrasting smaller detail with the larger forms of the general design. plate . elm huthurn iblar sycamof silver birch limes bestnut "photo-tant", by james akerman, london w.c. budding branches, from nature. ornament in nature. the stipules of the leaves, which also enrich the meagre joint, have been equally left out of ornament, characteristically ornamental as they are in the pea, for example, the sow thistle, and the passion flower. but even in the less marked form in which they appear in the hop, the medlar, the common nettle, and numberless wayside plants, they are worth an attention which they have not often received. nature seems to neglect no opportunity ; the very scars left on the stems of certain trees, such as the horse-chestnut, form a kind of decoration. even in the scarred stalk of an old cabbage you may see pattern. in the case of the palm, the remains of the leaves of years past resolve themselves still more plainly into ornament; and for once the roman sculptors, who saw palm-trees growing about them, adopted the idea in the decoration of their columns. the indian rendering of the same notion, on plate , is yet more conven- tional; but there is no doubt as to the origin of that zigzag. was it so, perhaps, that the idea of decorating columns in zigzag, common enough in norman architecture, originated ? in greek ornament and its derivatives (plates , , &c.), use is made of the sheath to clothe the branching of the spiral stems, but nature in ornanent. . romanesque ornainentation of the stem. there is still much to be learnt from the way in which nature wraps round a stalk with leaves, sheaths it, hides it, discreetly discloses it (plate ). the leaf seems sometimes to close round the stem so that that has almost the appearance of growing through ; so much so that the “thorough-wax" (same plate), owes its name to that appearance. still more plainly does the stem seem to grow through where the leaves are opposite and grow together round it, as in the teasel and the honeysuckle. the arbitrary ornamentation of the stem in the romanesque details above, indicates a feeling on the part of the artist that some- thing is needed to relieve the baldness of a stem. that something nature is very ready to suggest, as the pompeian bronze-worker plate . leaves clothing stem “thorough-wax leaves sheathing stem stem growing through" the leaves sheathes tube rose canna ste wrapped round by leaves sheath j. akerman, photo-lith. london. natural leaf sheaths. ornament in nature, realised when he went to the river- side for a reed as “motif” for the ornamentation of his candelabrum. certain fruits have, as i said, been made use of in design, either as affording convenient masses in the composition or, like the grape and the pomegranate, for reasons of symbolism. the smaller fruits have seldom had justice done to them. bunches of berries are com- mon enough in ornament, but they are just berries, without as a rule the character of any particular plant. yet how various they are in nature, and how differently they grow! this is indicated, however inadequately, on plate . space will not permit me to illustrate this part of my subject at all fully; but only compare the bryony with the spindle-berry, the snow- berry with the privet, the solanum with the laurel, the aucuba-berry with the barberry, and you will see that neither are. berries all of one shape, nor do they grow always in one way-in nature, that is to say. . part of a pompeian candelabrum. c nature in ornament. in the seed-vessel there is yet greater variety of natural design, in many cases most ornamental. the pea-pod has been slightly used in renaissance ornament, in the anthe- mion for example below, and on plates and , where it is most effectively and characteristically treated. on plate are a variety of cressworts in seed, indicating how in a single and un- pretending family of plants there may yet be considerable va- riety and character in the seed vessels. again, on plate are some studies of the open pods of the common broom curling up as they dry in the sun, strictly . renaissance use of pea-pods in copied from nature, but almost ready-made, as it seems to me, to the hand of the ornamentist. the dried husks out of which flowers and seeds alike have fallen are often delightfully ornamental, as for example in the salvias, where they form at intervals a sort of crown round the stalk just above the starting point ornament. plate poto - tine, iyy james alerta an london wc. various berries from nature. ornament in nature. of the leaves. in certain thistles and kindred plants, the balls of seed-down are scarcely more beautiful than the silver-lined calices, from which the feathery seed has flown; they shine in the sun like stars. very considerable ornamental use has been made of the bursting of the full pomegranate fruit (plates and and pp. , , , , , ). it is strange that the effective treatment of this symbol has not suggested the availability of other opening seed-vessels, the horse-chestnut for example and other nuts, the pod of the iris, and so on. in the representation of fruits it is usually the ripe fruit that is given ; but there is often quite as much if not more character in the unripe ; and some variety of form and size is very desirable. the leaf in ornament is usually attached in a rather arbitrary way to the stalk, without sufficient heed to the twist and turn of the natural leaf, or to the angle at which it leaves the stem, to the length and thickness of its stalk, and to the way alternate leaves, say those of the lime, pull the stem out of the straight and give a zigzag line-in all of which there is character, and possibly a hint in design. look at the poppies in the corn. scarce nature in ornament. one of them ever gets over the crick in the neck, which comes of hanging down its heavy head so long when it is a bud (see p. ). there is always a tell-tale nick in the stalk of the full-blown flower, hidden it may be by drooping petals, but plain enough when they have dropped off and the seed-urn is left naked. it does not stand up straight and stiff like a barrel on a pole, but is poised with a subtlety characteristic always of the natural line as distinguished from the mechanical. notice how the apple-tree blossoms (plate ). in each bunch a single topmost flower always opens first, so that it is . unequally divided oak-leaf, quite a common thing to see a white flower nestling among its five pink buds. in the case of the oak again, the empty cup (see plates and ) is a characteristic variation on the acorn shape, and there is usually at the end of the fruit-stalk a withered button or two, never to arrive at due development, which may be turned to account in design (plate ). from nature. plate . cressworts in seed borageworte j akerman photo-lith london some seed vessels from nature. ornament in nature. the gall-fly, again (same plates), comes to the help of the artist, and furnishes him with a further variety of forms more or less fruit- like in appearance, growing often in places where fruits would never be, on the unequal leaf for example. i have counted rosy clusters of a dozen and more on a single leaf. besides the soft oak-apple, associated in our boyish minds with king charles, and the hard ink- gall which decorates the bare boughs in winter, there is a canker which attacks the leaf-bud and results in something rather like a small fir-cone. every one is familiar with the beautiful feathery burr of the rose : there are other rose- galls peculiar to the leaves, and looking like little beads of coral on their surface. in the poplar too, the prominent gall-knob at the base of the leaf-stalk is distinctly characteristic. almost every plant, in short, is attacked by its hereditary enemy, that seldom fails to leave his mark behind him, suggestive, it may very likely be, of orna- ment. and so with great part of the vicissi- tudes to which vegetation of all kinds is subject—the ceasing of the sap to flow, the drying of the leaves, the spread of some parasitic growth, and so on. historian and poet find in the misfortunes nature in ornament. and death of their characters a pathetic interest : the ornamentist may discover in the very decay of vegetation, apart from any sentimental interest, at least incident, character, and colour. the vicissitudes of plant life, it may be said, are accidental, and what has accident to do with design? the very word implies, no doubt, the total absence of design. for all that, it is in some measure owing to the elimination of whatever is accidental in nature, that conventional ornament is apt to be so tame, and that the orthodox seems doomed to be dreary. there is nothing, strictly speaking, acci- dental in design ; but the designer is bound, nevertheless, to take every possible advantage of accident, not of course in order to incorpo- rate into his work, after the manner of the realist as he calls himself, the awkward or ugly traits of nature which others have for obvious reasons left out of account, but that he may seize upon every freak of nature suggestive of characteristic and beautiful design. strict attention to botanic accuracy has resulted too frequently in ornament much more mechanically exact than anything in nature. if natural leaves grow at ordered intervals, they do grow, vigorously and vari- plate broon b c.f. kell, photo-litho.b.furnival st holidan.e.o. pods from nature. ornament in nature. ously, as if they had something like a will of their own. the ideal of the horticulturist is a flower- head as even as if it had been struck geometri- cally, a spike of blossoms as trim as a clipped yew-tree or a french poodle. that is not nature's way. regularly as a natural flower- spike may be planned, the actual blossoms have a way of shooting out in the most casual manner. you see this very plainly in the salvias, for all the gardener's pains with them ; and everywhere, in the woods and in the meadows, by the wayside and the river bank, nature never wearies of playing variations upon the symmetric plan of plant growth. certain plants, says the gardener, have a bad · habit of “sporting.” truly there is nothing at all sportive in his reduction of all nature to one dead level of sameness. ornament might fairly be compared to the growth of a garden, not of a wilderness. but if, on the one hand, nature cannot be allowed to run wild over this garden, neither, on the other, should it be clipped and trimmed and formalised until there is no character of its own left in it. i have alluded to the method of the florist because it affords a perfect example of what not to do in the way of modifying natural nature in ornament. form. his plan is to eliminate whatever is wayward, occasional, uncommon, character- istic. look at his hyacinth, and compare it with the wild bluebells. look at his double dahlia : the flower was prim enough in the simple single form, with its obviously even- numbered petals insisting upon your count- ing them ; but what a bunch of ribbons it has become in his hands! to reduce a flower to the likeness of a rosette is not to make it the more ornamental; and every accident indica- tive of a return to nature is a welcome relief from such unmeaning evenness of form. those who would limit us to a hard and fast rule of growth, betray perhaps their own ignorance of the latitude nature allows her- self. we have to acquaint ourselves with the anatomy of plants, and especially with their growth; and where it comes to anything like natural treatment, we have further to take into account the habits of a plant, its manners and customs, so to speak—for which there is, of course, if we enquire into the matter, good structural reason always. it is, how- ever, with the outward form of things that the art of the ornamentist has to do, and for the most part it will be sufficient for him to confine his studies to the visible side of nature. very slight observation will show plate . apple see ild onion elm hornliean beech tulip tree larch "photo-tint", by james akerman. london, w.c. flower & leaf buds ornament in nature. him that nature is not so careful always to emphasise botanical points as are some of us, and that she appears often to break her own laws : or perhaps it would be more accurate to say, she breaks the laws we have been bold to make for her. at all events plants very often seem to grow differently from what science has taught us to expect. against a wall, for example, where leaves cannot grow in the orthodox spiral fashion, they will arrange themselves quite contentedly on two sides of the stem or on one side of it. if that may be so in nature, why not also in art? there is only one caution necessary against it: that the designer must not let it seem as though he were ignorant of the normal way in which a thing grows. to do full justice to a plant it is not enough for the designer to make a drawing of it. one has to watch it through the year, perhaps through several years, in order to seize the moment when it reveals all the possi- bilities that are in it. certain seasons are peculiarly favourable to the development of certain plants in the direction of ornament. in a wet summer, for example, when things grow quickly, the apparently confused way some plants have of growing is made clear. nature in ornament. the stalks are so much longer than usual, and the leaves so much further apart, that they disclose for once the way the plant grows ; . and this opening-out of natural growth goes some way towards fitting it for the purposes of ornament. again, it depends in some cases very much upon the season whether the sepals of the withered aower remain intact on the ripened fruit, and whether the stipules at the base of the leaf-stalk and the bracts at the axes of the flower-stalks adhere or not. in excep- tional seasons, also, fruit-trees begin to bloom ågain whilst the ripe fruit is on the tree. and what a vast difference all that makes to the designer who would found himself always upon nature ! many a happy inspiration of design is no more than the turning to account some fortu- nate accident in nature. you notice, as you walk through a clearing in the woods, where an oak-tree has been cut down close to the root ; and it has sent out a ring of young shoots all round it, so as to form a perfect garland of oak-leaves on the ground. a few days later and you would seek in vain a living, growing model for your oak wreath. the conventions of artists are not so far removed from nature as we are apt to think. plate . "photo-tint", by james akerman, london.w.c. tile papel, oak galls. ornament in nature. trees do grow in umbria as perugino, and raf- faelle after him, painted them. the artist did not altogether imagine those graceful sprays of leafage, any more than ve- ronese evolved his lovely green- blue skies from his imagina- tion. you see just such skies in italy; as you see also in titian's country the purple hills and quasi-con- ventional land- scapes he put in- to his pictures. apropos of colour, we are too much dis- posed to take it for granted that red, blue, purple, and yellow are . chinese rendering of wistaria- colours nature has reserved for flowers, and that leaves, stalks, and so on are only green. but as a old embroidery. nature in ornament. matter of fact, the flower-stalk is often more in harmony with the flowers than with the leaves, as in the begonia, salvia, sea holly, and other plants. the leaf-stalk, also, is sometimes bright crimson, as in the little wild cranesbill and in the sycamore; or vivid yellow, as in the case of some poplar- leaves. leaves themselves, again, are sometimes anything but green. i do not mean that they are merely greyish, as they often are, or olive, which they seldom are, or that they merely change colour in the autumn, but that the foliage is of a delicate brown, as in the young growth of the wistaria (which the chinese embroiderer (see p. ) has meta- morphosed into something more like tendrils), or madder-coloured, as in the late shoots of the oak, briar, hornbeam, and other trees. and then what variety of tint there is in the backs of leaves : purple as in the wild lettuce, rich red-brown as in some magnolias and rhododendrons, silver grey as in the alder, the poplar, the willow, and some garden plants. the japanese have made admirable use of the contrast in colour between the back and front of leaves. they will make the leaf solid black with white veins, and sketch its reverse in outline only with black veins, plate sa asparagus ornament in nature buckwheat ipea j. akerman, photo-lith. london natural growth. ornament in nature. counter-changing the colour as frankly as a mediæval herald did in his treatment of the mantling about a shield. whether, then, it is form that we seek or colour, everywhere in nature there is material for the ornamentist, often, as it seems, almost ready made to his hand (plate ); but, promising as it may be, it is not yet orna- ment—it lacks always adaptation to our especial purpose. it is by our treatment of nature that we justify our use of its forms. nature in ornament. iii. nature in ornament. it is not at first sight obvious how much all ornament owes to nature. there is even a still surviving superstition that it is designed by the aid of the kaleidoscope. true it is that the “itch to make patterns” was one of the very earliest symptoms of that artistic fever to which the human race has from the first been liable. man may or may not have begun by scratching animals on bones of other animals, he very soon began to scratch ornamental devices. the english race scarcely suffers from the malady nowa- days. when it does break out in us it may be traced probably to some welsh or other celtic ancestor. but to certain of us, however few, it is every bit as natural to trace patterns as to draw animals or to kill them. for all that, even the born pattern-designer is necessarily, as man, and more especially as artist, so intimately acquainted with nature that his work is inevitably imbued with it. plate . lettribute al e ttrodomestimation turiuo meta . stahl sa tatrin u rmarito mahtu engel sul u c.f kell, photo-litho.g.furnival si hoidorn, l.o. greek scrolls. nature in ornament. in almost every detail of design there is, whether he be conscious of it or no, a re- miniscence of nature. in the most abstract design he is accustomed to obey instinctively the natural laws of construction and growth, so much so that we resent his departure from them, and take exception, for example, to the scroll, even the most arbitrary, which violates the rule and presumes to grow, so to speak, both ways at once. i have explained at length elsewhere * how the greek honeysuckle ornament, as it is called, originated in no attempt to imitate natural bud forms, but grew, as one may say, out of the use of the brush. the fact remains, notwithstanding, that the brush-strokes came to range themselves very much on the lines of natural growth—all the more readily, of course, because of the memories or impressions of plant form stored away in men's brains. the fact is those memories, vague as they may be, prompt the ornamentist at every turn in design. what we call the acanthus scroll grew, i suppose, simply out of the desire to clothe with some sort of leafage the mere spiral lines with which archaic ornament, whether in greece, or northern europe, or the fiji * •some principles of every-day art,' p. et seq. nature in ornament. islands, invariably set out; which spiral line not only occurs in many shells and in the horns of animals, but results inevitably from a cer- tain natural action of the draughtsman's wrist. the greek scrolls on plate ii consist practically of little more than branching spirals, with just a husk of something like foliage to mask the dividing of the stem : the lilies and the like are minor features obviously put in to fill up; they form no integral part of the main purpose. the roman scroll (plate ) is plainly more full of sap; it seems to be bursting out into leafage ; but it remains only a de- velopment of the greek idea : it is simply a spiral clothed in conventional leafage, devised primarily to disguise its lines, and especially the branching of the lines. that is the root and origin of the acanthus scroll—not any attempt to reduce the acanthus to ornament, but a desire to clothe the lines of the scroll. nun archaic greek orna- ment is made up mainly of spiral lines and groups of brush-strokes. on plate i have re- duced two typical acan- thus leaves to brush- . acanthus leaves reducid work, in order to show to brushwork. plate roman scroll plate . o. f. kell, photo-litho, .furnival st holborn, e.c. acanthus sculpture & brushwork. plate "photo-tint", by jones akerman. london.w.c. versions of the same frieze design. nature in ornament. ak how, starting with the idea of deco- rating bald lines with brushwork, a painter, haunted as we all must be by the ghosts of natu- ral growth, might have arrived at something uncom- moniy like the con- ventional classic leafage. and again, on plate , i have translated a renaissance scroll of my own into the same language of the brush. it is not, of course, meant to imply that that is, as a matter of fact, how the acanthus scroll came about, but that it might have been deve- loped in that way. the fable about calliinachus and the corinthian . simple acanthus leafage. d nature in ornament. anuntutettiin rete jo. step between wave and acanthus scroll-roman mosaic. capital is the invention of a poet, not of a practical ornamentist. again, on the roman pedestal on p. , where there is no scroll and no branching and no great variety of foliation, one may see, i think, very plainly how the familiar type of foliation may have grown out of the very simplest idea of clothing a straight line. it is one step, just one step, beyond the greek bay-leaf pattern (plate ): instead of simple bay-leaves in pairs we have opposite groups plate . "photo-tint, by jamer akerman, london,w.c. details of mosaic from carthage. nature in ornament. of five, not separate leaves, but massed together sculpturesquely, forming at the junction of the groups the “pipes” so conspicuous in the full-grown classic scroll. in the roman mosaic border on p. is an indication of the growth of a very similar idea ; a simple wave stem is supplied with a spiral offshoot, and both are clothed with leaflets of the very simplest description. serrate or subdivide such leaflets, and we should not be far from the familiar arabesque. something of the kind does in fact occur in the mosaic detail from carthage on . olive-like leafage. plate , which looks almost like the next step forward in the development of the scroll. such a system of foli- ation once invented, it was easy and natu- ral enough to make the detail more or less . oak-like leafage. like some natural leaf. it has been made to resemble the acanthus and the olive ; and it is clear, by the acorns accom- nature in ornament. limoges. panying it, that it was used also to represent the oak. the quasi - classic scroll of the renaissance assumes at times also a distinct re- semblance to the vine. this . vine-like acanthus leafage, from the jubé at is very plainly seen in the leafage from the famous jubé at limoges (above). judging by this particular instance, one might pretend that the stock pattern of conventional foliage was suggested by the vine. the vine-leaf is here as unmistakable as the relation of the ornament to the an- tique. the detail in question belongs of course to a transition period. it halts be- tween two opinions. . crocket-like foliage, from limoges. plate . wy cl. a polo lid.. fumival .e.c. transitional scroll, d. hopfer. nature in ornament. . modern modification of classic leafage. you see the hesitation, perhaps, more plainly still in the bracket from the same source (no. ). that was plainly inspired by classic art; but the sculptor was more accustomed to carve gothic crockets than roman scrolls. the result is ornament which, but for associa- tion of ideas, would never suggest the notion of the acanthus. a very characteristic and individual modern rendering of the old theme is given above, the design, i imagine, of the late godfrey sykes. had the classic scroll really been only a conventional treatment of the acanthus, it would have been difficult to understand how the sculptors stopped short at that one type, and did not attempt to manipulate other forms of leafage in the same way. that merely abstract leafage should, on the other hand, eventually remind us of olive, oak, or acanthus leaves, is readily understood. the gothic scrollery of hopfer (plate ) is very remote indeed from the acanthus. the spirit of the renaissance was already in nature in ornament. the air in the time of hopfer, and probably influenced his work. if it did so to any extent, it shows how differently men could interpret the same notion. if it did not, it shows how from different directions they arrived at some- thing of the same kind. there is nothing of the acanthus here—the foliation is more sug- gestive of the thistle—but yet there is in the design a family likeness to classic and re- naissance types. the more naturalistic flowers introduced to fill up remind one distantly of the lily-like additions to the greek scroll (plate ii), and even the too natural birds have their counterparts in roman and renais- sance arabesque. in the typical renaissance arabesque the idea is still to clothe lines in themselves merely ornamental; and in the best work these lines remain always apparent through the clothing (plates and ). but that the italians of the cinque cento did not allow themselves to be hampered by any consideration of natural possibility, still less of probability, is shown by their indulgence in the absurdities which deface many of their most graceful compo- sitions—such for example as da udine's in the loggie of the vatican, and those of giulio romano at the palazzo del t at mantua, one of which is given on plate . plate . "photo-tint", by jame. akerman, london, w.c. painted wall panel, by giulio romano. nature in ornament. the italian of the sixteenth century was seldom very particular how he arrived at his effect, so he arrived at it—the end justified the means with him ; but, little as he cared for natural growth, he could not do without it, and his most un- natural ornament bristles with natural details. the ornament round the faïence dishes on plate (a class of ornament commonly distin- guished as raffael- lesque) begins plainly with the idea of purely ornamental lines. it is another develop- ment of the foliated line. both lines and masses are here ob- . seventeenth century scroll- i viously quite arbi- boulle. trary, suggested by ornamental considerations ; but, almost in spite of the artist, they take the form of winged head, dolphin, leaf, flower. that fault already re- ferred to of growing two ways at once, which nature in ornament. . romanesque leafage . details of romanesque ornament. may be here observed, is a very common de- fect of italian arabesque (as of arab art also, although in the latter case the detail is so much farther removed from life that the defect is less apparent). even in its degradation however, the renaissance arabesque never quite let go the thread of nature ; and in the hands of boulle (p. ) it blossomed out into something more distinctly floral than the purer scroll of the cinque cento. in romanesque ornament, which is in the first instance only a rude rendering of roman detail, there is, towards the twelfth century, some return to nature. the details above, for example, are not to be traced to any natural type, but they are alive with remi- niscences of nature. it is plain, nevertheless, always, from the freedom of the rendering, that the primitive idea was not to reproduce plate . wallan ce "photo-tiny", by james akerman london. w.c. lustre dishes " century. nature in ornament. y gothic centyd . details of early gothic ornament. · nature, still less to represent it naturally, but only to find a starting-point for design. the same may be said with regard to early gothic ornament, originally little more than a carrying on of the romanesque idea, and reminding us at times, even in the thirteenth century, unmistakably of classic detail. in some of the details at the head of the page may be seen how, eventually, the artist went more directly to nature; but though you might trace these home, they are as yet very arbitrary renderings. and for my part i think the earlier and more arbitrary gothic forms by far the more ornamental : the stone budding into crockets or other sculp- turesque foliation, is to me far more beautiful than the would-be natural leaves and flowers spread over the architecture of the fourteenth century. in other words, the more strict + nature in ornament. . spiral persian scroll. adherence to the natural type has resulted in the less satisfactory ornament. the artists of the latest gothic period seem to have realised that themselves. in the german tapestry on plate there is, properly speaking, neither leaf nor flower, but only ornamental detail corresponding to both. the lines are in a way ornamental ; but the growth is of more account with the designer than the line of his ornament. in this respect it is interesting to compare it with more deliberately ornamental arabesque. in its vigorous gothic way it too is a model of the use that may be made of nature in ornament. plate han ... uw wa that ith d . the last new mid . ali c.f. kell, photo-litho. .furnival st holborn,e.o. gothic scroll nature in ornament. warna an iris ys persian ( m " canis . iris-like details of persian ornamen in the persian pattern on p. , the spiral line is decorated in a quite different manner from the classical : it is not so much clothed in leafage as relieved by leaf-like touches and broken by daisy-like rosettes. it is quite certain that no natural type ever suggested the design; it was in seeking ornamental forms that the painter happened upon some- thing which suggests, but only suggests, nature. on the other hand, there are forms above, which, though scarcely recognisable at first, are distinctly formed upon the flower of the iris. still more remote from actuality are the details of arab and older persian ornament. and yet the most frequent feature in it is nature in ornament. . details of early persian ornament. not altogether unlike a folded leaf in profile ; and in other shapes (above) a likeness has been traced to the unfolding fronds of the young fern. if these forms are indeed founded upon nature, it only goes to show how far one may, perhaps unconsciously, stray from one's starting-point. if they are not, it indicates how impossible it is to invent forms which shall not in some degree recall the life and growth about us. mohammedan design, we know, purposed deliberately to avoid the natural ; but, for all that, the forms it borrowed from nature are perpetually betraying themselves, reminding us, if not of leaf or stalk, then of flower and bud. it looks as though, try as they might to plate . vevaquvcgaedt@: aral-esque renaissance ornament. nature in ornament. hans kolbein flortner . sixteenth century arabesque details. evolve ornament out of their inner conscious- ness, the arabs could not altogether silence their memories, even though conscience for- bade them to represent anything “on the earth beneath.” doubtless they sinned often un- consciously ; but they were foredoomed to sin. and so with their renaissance imitators, german or italian. whenever they strayed from the source of eastern inspira- tion, it was in- variably in the direction of na- ture. there is sometimes growth enough in the abs- tract orientalism of flötner and . rosette in rouen faïence. holbein to make nature in ornament. vi-iwow . chinese foliage, not easy to identify. us wish it were more thoroughly consistent. one feels the lack of some controlling con- science in the growth. it is curious to note how, on plate , the deliberately ornamental lines of strapwork break out into something like foliation—as . bouquet of conventional ornament. plate . i poti cf kell moto-litho b furnival st molwoine.c. ornamental bouquet " century nature in ornament. . abstract ornament, not free from foliation. for the undergrowth of filigree it does grow. even nicho- laus drusse (plate ) does not man- age to get clear of natural influence, though it must be admitted that he treated nature with very scant respect. so in the arbitrary . ao inlay pattern above, the abstract lines of ornament must needs break out incontinently into something like foliation. and again, in the faïence pattern on p. , the painter, working on radiating lines in- dicated by the shape of his dish, seems to have arrived as a matter of course at a rosette suggesting a flower, and calling for something like a leaf in connection with it. it is not by any means in the scroll alone that we trace the influence of nature in orna- ment. it is quite a common thing in oriental art to find bouquets of quite conventional flower forms. there is an ingenious example of this in the persian plaque on p. , in which the ornament consists almost entirely nature in ornament. sin chinese flowers . conventional chinese flower forms. of flower forms, evenly diapered over the dish, and yet conforming to the idea of growth. the oriental influence is seen again in plate , where the ornament, far removed as it is from nature, conveys quite clearly the idea of a nosegay. forms only remotely resembling flowers are arranged, with due regard to balance, i will not say in imitation, but in recollection, of a bunch of flowers, and lines are found to connect and support them, and give them a sort of artistic coherence. the artificiality of the design is obvious, but it is the artifice of an artist, and a very accomplished one too. it represents a type of ornament suggested by a wealth of flowers, where the stalks and especially the leaves go for very little. there is a considerable amount of tradi- tional ornament which was founded, no doubt, plate . j. akerman, photo-lith london book cover by owen jones. nature in ornament. oy . conventional chinese foliage. originally upón natural types lost in the mists of long ago; artists have repeated the form so often, and at last so perfunctorily, that in the end it is as difficult to decipher as a man's signature. one has almost to take it on faith that the flowers on p. are asters, peonies, and so on. so with the border above, the flower is, i suppose, an aster, but what goes for leafage belongs to no flower that ever grew. even owen jones, who laid it down as an axiom that the recurrence to a natural type was by so much a degradation of design, could not do without foliation and growth, more or less according to nature. this is very plainly shown in the typical example of his work on plate . he had the strictest views as to the lines on which orna- ment should grow, but he insisted that it should grow; and his theory led him in practice to something always more or less suggestive of nature—because the logical way in which he went to work was indeed the way of nature. e nature in ornament. iv. the simplification of natural forms. to conventionalise is in some cases scarcely more than to simplify. so plainly is this so that the frequent occurrence of certain floral forms in decorative design is in part at least accounted for by the fact that they could be very considerably simplified without losing their clear identity. the sunflower, for ex- ample (plate. ) came into fashion not entirely because of the whimsical folly of a few so-called æsthetes, but because its hand- some and massive head was such an unmis- takably ornamental feature. foliage and flower alike lent themselves to, and indeed almost compelled, a broad and simple treat- ment; whilst the character of the plant was so well defined, that it was difficult by any kind of rendering or any degree of conven- tionality of expression to eliminate it. it was never in danger of being reduced to the mere abstraction of a flower, that might have been suggested equally by any one of a dozen different natural types. plate . un on in m c.f. kell, photo-litho. o.furnival st holborn, e.c. sunflowers & roses by b. j. talbert. simplification of natural forms. . rectangular acorn patterns. so also the acorn asserts its identity even in the rudimentary form in which it occurs in the old german stitching above. you may see again in the late george edmund street's cleverly contrived panel overleaf how a really characteristic and ener- getic shape will hold its own. shorn as it is altogether of its leaves, its prickles, the very featheriness of its flower-heads, there rcsts not the least doubt that it is a thistle. less emphatic forms lose, when simpli- fied, all individual character ; and indeed you have only to carry such simplification far enough, to reduce the greater part of natural forms to one level—i might say perhaps one dead level—of convention. it is remarkable how slight a modification will remove a flower from recognition. an alteration of scale is sometimes enough to puzzle us. to magnify a flower is in most cases to disguise its identity. draw the pimpernel the size of a flax blossom, or the flax blossom the size of a mallow, and who nature in ornament. is to recognise it, especially when the subtler characteristics of texture and the individual turn of the petals are conventionalised away? one can never be quite certain that any con- ventional five-petalled flower, such as the german gothic rosette on p. for example, is not meant for a rose. even in the case of more characteristic blossoms, like the speedwell, with its pe- tals three and one, we are put off the scent at first by unaccus- tomed pro- portions in . simplified thistle. g. e. street, r.a. the flower. and so, with leaves. failing anything like strict accuracy as to their growth-very rarely indeed observed in ornament—it is more than difficult to distinguish between one lanceolate leaf and another : the same shape may stand just as well for willow as for bay or olive. the heart-shaped leaves in the plate tv orion conven tional grecky gree illa conventional floral ornament from greek vases oran como kama greek vine arina: un iring doltooliloodulidu tt o roccord iolconegoldogodilocotoort details of greek terra cotta painting simplification of natural forms. lalo sur horial . wed, ca ca vons odd amw w avo la..see petv wd oriyasu maille . gothic leaf border-wood carving. border above may indicate the poplar or the lilac: possibly the carver had in his mind no leaf in particular. it cannot be said that the danger of mis- take in the identity of natural forms has de- terred the designer from simplifying them. we find in every period of art floral or foliated forms which may be meant for this or that, but which it is quite . rosette or rose ? impossible to identify with any degree of certainty. the gothic border below may stand for a rose, for all we know; the greek border a on plate may stand for a convolvulus; and b, i feel pretty certain, consists of birch-leaves and catkins. the strange leaf in border c on the same plate used to puzzle me until i discovered cm . gothic leaf and flower border-wood carving. nature in ornament. its source in nature. it proves, as you will see at a glance on this page, to be no leaf but a seed- vessel : soften theangularity of the stem, pulled out of the straight by the pods, and you have the starting- point of the greek design. there is sometimes in this greek pattern an indication of the way the seed - vessels split asunder and shed the . seed-vessels from nature. seeds. the identification of this peculiar two-lobed feature plate . ddress mountain westerse vihar brown celdcocoddddddsgdgccbusegggggescegeccgdegggggecugggggges grrppgecagrrrrrrrreprerroreearepqubool necdecreuar igang relaw. ceturins "photo-tint" by james akerman london. w.c details of ancient captic embroideries. simplification of natural forms. ms . . conventional buds, or seed-vessels ?-marble inlay. was all the more difficult, because you see in other greek vases something like the same shape doing obvious duty for a leaf. the conventional tree, on the same plate, is quite impossible to name; the ivy in the border above it, on the other hand, is for once very clearly indicated; the berries, in par- ticular, are very characteristically given. compare them with the more usual greek ivy-berries below. again, in the coptic embroideries on plate , we have heart - shaped leaves and tre- foils and fruit and flower, all alike symbolic no doubt, but without any meaning in par- ticular to us. in the floren- . conventional greek ivy- tine border above, leaves and berries. nature in ornament. am tum buds or fruits ? as in the japanese bor- der here given, we can please ourselves as to whether they are buds or seed-vessels that are repre- sented. again, the sicilian tree, below, may stand for any- thing with a serrated leaf. simplicity could not much further go than in the roman version of a tree . japanese border- on p. . in the indian kinkaub pattern, on plate , the character of the flowers and leaves, no less than the growth of the plant, are part and parcel of the process of weaving employed; there is a dis- tinct reminiscence of some plant with large foot-leaves and small stalk- leaves, but it would be rash to say more than that. the pompeian details on plate . conventional tree, from a betray more or sicilian silk. plate . detail from an indian "kinkaub? simplification of natural forms. less a natural source of inspiration, but with the exception of a tendril and something like a passion flower, there is not much in the mosaic that one can identify; whilst in the painted panel the various details are so remote from lily or campanula, or what- ever may have been their starting points, that one accepts even the arbi- trary way in which they are put together. com . simple roman tree. pare this pompeian panel with the roman candelabrum on p. . again, in the carved door from cairo, plate , the details of the flowers are reduced to something very nearly approaching to chip- carving ; the details consist not so much of leaves and flowers as of cuts of the chisel, an effect all the more satisfactory in as much as the types, as far as one can make crocket them out, are rather mixed. even o-dco -mm d . hawthorn crocket. . vine nature in 'ornament. so, by the way, they are exceptionally natural for arab work. in gothic art, as elsewhere, we identify a plant in many in- stances only because we expect to find it there. whatever can by any stretch of ima- gination pass for a vine-leaf (plate ) we accept as such-any bunch of berries we take for grapes. in very many cases, . late gothic pomegranate. it is only by the flower or fruit that the definite relation of the leaf to nature is recognised. the crockets on the plate referred to are more like crockets than leaves; it is only by the berries and the winged seeds that one knows them to do duty for hawthorn and maple. one guesses that one of the crockets on p. may also be a hawthorn leaf. it is only the tendril which gives us to suppose that the other is a vine. and so with the foliage from henry the vii.'s chapel on plate . but for the acorn cups, no one would ever have suspected the carver of having plate . details of mosaic painted v panel naples museuin o “photo-tint", by james akerman. london.w.c. details from pompeii. simplification of natural forms. - mooth.dondose ! ........... , . indian renderings of the poppy. bara had any thought of oak-leaves ; and with regard to the sprig of painted decoration on p. , we make up our minds that it stands for the pomegranate only be- cause it comes nearer to that than to any other symbolic fruit. it is all the more difficult, sometimes, to identify the plant which is meant, because one can never be sure of the knowledge, or of the con- scientiousness, of the artist. the two damascened patterns above presumably represent the poppy, but, in the one case at least, the artist has supplied the flower with five petals and a calyx-details which, if one had perfect faith in the artist, would complete- ly put one off the scent. · one is puzzled also by the wiry shoots between the lily- *with lily-buds. aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa ΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑΑ . sic naaaaaaaaaaaaa powinno nature in ornament. na பாரியாகவும் rudros . early gothic foliated ornament. like flowers in the admirably severe greek border on p. , and wonders as to the source of its inspiration—the solomon's seal per- haps ? any trefoil or cinquefoil may have in- aluenced, in its turn, the shape of early gothic foliage, such as that above, which is founded, as we know, directly upon no natural type at all, but is a recollection of a recollection of a recollection going centuries back. it grew out of byzantine or romanesque forms, them- selves derived from classic foliage ; and it was only when the sculptor had arrived, through symbolism, at something reminding him of clover, or wood sorrel, or hepatica, that he began to think of making it more nearly like nature. it is clear that the carver of the detail on p. , had in his mind some natural leaf; what that leaf is, is not so certain. one of plate . an "photo-tint", by james akerman london.w.c. carved cabinet door froid cairo, s.k.m. simplification of natural forms. . natural and ornamental foliage-early french. the charms of early gothic is that, conven- tional as it is, and in the main of one type, there is always a chance of our coming upon some touch of nature which brings the work- man nearer to us. you can see sometimes, in early french gothic, how the detail was niin ha wddm . bud-like ornamental forms. . rname nature . in ornament inspired, as viollet le duc points out, by the fronds of the bracken and other plants; but the sculptor . peony simplified to form a stencil - h. sumner. leaves out so much, that it is not always easy, even with the assistance of viollet le duc, to detect the natural type. whether of set purpose or by instinct, too, the sculptor chose persistently the simplest floral forms, which lent themselves to breadth and dignity of treatment. it is not surprising that, magnified in stone, they should appear to us abstractions. in many instances, it is tolerably clear that no leaf was intended, but only foliation, no particular plant, but growth. and it is marvellous how the early mediæval sculptor contrived to convey that idea of vitality in the stone. in the crockets so peculiarly characteristic of early french gothic, for example, he imitated no particular bud, but the stone itself seems budding into life. a later gothic instance of that bud-like ornament in wood is given on p. . plate . uns sav umum vine. arques normandy. winchester rose carved to wood rosette beauchamp chapel hawthorn beverley siv u a > maple beverley oak west quinster ) vine? oxford hawthorn knapton... nut winchester vine beddington christchurch vine beddington j. akerman, photo-lith london english gothic details simplification of natural forms. . · how far the primitive gothic sculptor could, if he had been so minded, have rendered nature in the coarse stone in which he . indian wood-carving. worked, is doubt- ful; happily he seized that in nature which he could express, and expressed it like an artist. it is of the very quality of an ornamentist, that he should be . gothic wood-carving. willing to omit much that he could have put into his work had it been to the purpose. in the peony pat- tern on p. mr. sumner has had the courage to leave out whatever could not conveniently be ren- dered în stencilling. dif- . greek that might be goihic. it is curious how - nature in ornament. . persian be gothic. ferent artists, working at different times in different countries, have arrived sometimes at results not so very different. there seems to me a curious correspondence between the detail of the indian scroll and the late gothic rosette on p. , the result, presumably, in each that might case, of a sympathetic use of the othic. tools the carver had. so, again, the fragment of archaic-greek sculpture on the same page is so like certain rude stone carving of the gothic period that one would have taken it almost for mediæval work. that bulging midrib is characteristic of a certain form of perpendicular carving, derived no doubt from beaten metalwork. did greek and gothic work- man alike refer for inspiration to goldsmiths' work, and so arrive at some- thing like the same form? once more, in the persian details above, . japanese treatment of the iris. can alden ala us m meseller plate . www wmwwww null inhalt . um dir ri vandru min herne pain tema cod doo sonnells smo! swag. memes to o g f kell photo-litho. .furnival st holborneo indian renderings of the iris. simplification of natural forms. there is a most marked resemblance to certain decorated gothic crocket forms—especially as they are rendered in stained glass—the play of the brush accounting no doubt partly for the likeness. at other times one is struck by the variety in the sundry simplified versions of the same plant. there is a wide difference between the painted iris and that in niello, on plate ; and between these indian renderings, again, and the characteristic adaptation of the plant in the japanese embroidery on p. , in which nature is reduced to extreme simplicity with- out any loss of character. again, in the panels on plate , modifi- cation consists mainly in simplifying the natural forms. the leaves indeed are elon- gated and refined, and, like the flowers, arranged to suit the ornamental scheme. but the liberties taken with the growth of crown- imperial, fritillary, bluebell, and lent lily, are such as would not greatly shock the botanist. the lines on which they grow are (organi- cally) not altogether impossible. at times the simplification resolves itself into something very different indeed from the actual thing, as in the italian silk over- leaf, in which the ears of corn take the form of a distinct pattern; from which we may f nature in ornament. apprehend how easily, from the simplification of natural form, the ornamentist glided imper- ceptibly into its elaboration. but that will form the subject of a separate chapter. wonin iii tin . wheat-ears, simplified or elaborated ? plate . l.f.d. c.f. kell, photo-litho.b.furnival st holloan, e.o · inlaid flower panels. the elaboration of natural forms. it has been shown in a preceding chapter, how the necessity of simplifying natural forms led as a matter of course to conventional treatment. it will be seen presently, that there is sometimes sufficient technical reason for the elaboration of the type before us. the omission of the superfluous in orna- ment is indisputably right. how far it may be desirable or permissible to elaborate the simple forms of nature, is more open to question. it rather suggests to us painting the lily or gilding gold. there is a strong flavour of artificiality about it. as a matter of fact, the practice flourished, though indeed it existed long before, in arti- ficial times, that is to say during the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries. it would be scarcely fair, however, to take everything of the kind as an indication of decadence. we are bound in justice, no less than in reason, to inquire if such elaboration may not have nature in ornament. led to some satisfactory results, and what those results were. it may possibly prove that what was best in the later french styles, for example, was more or less of the artificially elaborate type. the rockwork and the broken scrolls, the gar- lands and the trellises, the bows and ribbons, and all such frivolities of the later french monarchy, have much less to recommend them than the patterns of the silks of the period. restraint was out of the question. licence was the order of the day, and kings' mistresses reigned over art. granting, how- ever, the absence of restraint in design, more objectionable to us than in french eyes, there is in the lyons silks of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries not only considerable beauty of colour, but quite exceptional inge- nuity of design, especially in its relation to the technique of weaving; and it will be time well spent to seek out the method, artificial though it may be, by which results so beauti- ful are arrived at. the effect may be so far from nature as to be quite characteristically artificial, and yet it may turn out that almost every detail in the design is directly borrowed from reality. one might say, for instance, that in plate natural forms are mainly removed from nature plate . photo tint, by james akerman london wc lyons silk of the th or th centy the elaboration of natural forms. by diapering them over with other details borrowed equally from the same source. and this was quite the current way of design. forms more or less natural were adopted, probably because they occurred most readily. but the natural veining of leaves and petals did not present sufficient variety and interest of surface for the artists' purpose ; and so they supplied its place by a subsidiary growth of smaller foliage. by the judicious alterna- tion of light on dark and dark on light, they even went so far as to produce an effect equivalent to—not at all resembling, but equivalent to—that of shading. something of the same kind is seen again on plate , where a sort of shading resolves itself into fresh forms of ornament. those leaves are characteristically of the eighteenth century. this is a device at all events much more appropriate to silk weaving than the futile attempts at natural shading which have also had their vogue. besides, in the rendering of the details themselves—observe the orna- mental serration of the large leaf on plate , the cresting of the fruit, its calyx, the diaper- ing of the forms generally, and the rendering of the smaller foliage—there is such consistent artificiality throughout as to give a distinctly ornamental character to the design. nature in ornament. if the artists of the artificial periods were not always tasteful or intelligent, all the more opportunity for us to show how, by the exer- cise of intelligence and taste, it may be possible to turn their expedients to new and better account. it was not they, however, who first hit upon the expedient. a simpler, bolder, and altogether nobler example of the saine kind of thing is shown on plate , an italian damask of distinctly earlier date. such a design loses very much by reduction to the scale of the illustration, and it depends also very much for its effect on its fitness to the simpler kind of weaving ; but on the scale of the original, in single-colour damask, it is simply perfect for breadth and richness—a model of appropriate treatment. that is at all events one way of proceeding, namely, to design big, bold masses of foliage, and to break these again with smaller foliated detail. that this should be done consistently would hardly need to be pointed out, were it not that in old work consistency has so fre- quently been lost sight of. there is no de- fending flowers and fruits which agree neither with one another nor with the leaves in asso- ciation with them; but if the pattern be but plate ) conrentional greator from old silks - "photo-tomt", dy domes akerman. london. wc details of th century foliage. the elaboration of natural forms. open te homogeneous, it would be absurd to say that it should not be constructed on the principle exemplified in plate . that principle, indeed, dates farther back than the renaissance. the italians borrowed it from the persians, as the french borrowed it from them. the bro- cade here illustrated ( ) is of old italian manufacture, but the design is pretty literally taken from a persian source. the way in which the broad surface of the main design, itself floral, is broken up with smaller floral detail, is distinctively eastern. precisely the same principle is in- volved in the design of the persian silk on . floral forms within floral plate . you see it, too, on the pottery of damascus, and in all manner of oriental ornament. a characteristic persian treatment of the pomegranate is shown overleaf, where the bursting of the fruit takes a peculiarly ornamental bud shape. other elaborately itself floral, is broken forms. nature in ornament. vw os . pomegranate-berries arranged in bud-form. ornamental variations are shown on pp. , , , , , and on plates and , the italian version ( ) is ornamental enough, but the artist has not realised that the crown of the pomegranate represents the sepals of the flower, and has added a sort of calyx beneath the fruit. in the eighteenth cen- tury version, the seeds are more fantastically rendered than ever—they are represented not merely by diaper as on p. , but by diapers as on p. . observe also the ornamental scalloping of the rents in the fruit. natural plate . tadana, saad saada c. kell, photo-litho.b. furnival st holborneo silk damask of the ! century the elaboration of natural forms. hong form is used, indeed, only as a means of getting variety of texture in the silk. one great advantage in the method of thus break- ing up broad surfaces is, that the introduction of the smaller detail does away with any possible appear- ance of baldness in the design; whilst yet, at a sufficient distance from the eye, the broad masses alone assert themselves. you get, in short, breadth at a distance, and detail on close inspection, each without interfering with the other. leaves and fruits are very naïvely diapered in the japanese pattern on page , de- signed presumably for . ornamental pome- weaving. with the larger floral forms in french silks are usually associated (see once more plate ) subordinate floral details, more on the scale of the detail within anninn " ttt vumuur color . . wa w . monumuhimu ce amal granates. nature in ornament. . ima ... .... . the larger detail, introduced mainly for the purpose of breaking the back- ground. it is ob- vious that such undergrowth must be ornamentalised accordingly. . ornamental pomegranate- by this means you th century silk. get a further advan- tage in the opportunity it affords of mingling in the same design effects of light on dark and dark on light. if, for example, the ground is dark and the larger details light, and the smaller details breaking these dark again, any smaller details in light on the dark ground will contrast with the dark details on the same scale, and create a certain mystery in the design, which is of very distinct artistic value. the substitution of geometric diaper in place of subordinate foliation, which occurs, for example, in the japanese pattern on p. , is less absolutely satisfactory-least of all so when, as is often the case in silk (plate ), it takes the form of imitation lace. in actual lace there is perhaps more excuse than anywhere for elaborately orna- plate . photo-tint, by james akerman london wc old lace, ivory point." the elaboration of natural forms. certain artificiality in jnnoa german embroidery. mental treatment, and there geometry seems not to come so much amiss. a certain artificiality in the material seems to justify something very much like fri- volity in the design. this refers more . ornamental pomegranate-old especially to the fanciful patterns of the lighter and flimsier lace of pre-revolutionary frills and flounces. a more dignified example of lacework, also elaborately artificial in its way, is given on plate . it is open to the objection of combining in one growth flowers of various families, but in the general richness this effect of discrepancy is to some extent lost. the lily, the heartsease, and the picotee do not assert their individuality. in lace and in certain kinds of embroidery ultra elaboration of detail is accounted for by the process of work. in stitching there seems some reason in making much of the stitches ; and this is what lace-workers and embroiderers have continually done. an equally characteristic; but very different kind of elaboration grew out of the conditions nature in ornament. of smiths' work. given the idea of foliated ironwork, and the facilities of cutting, hammer- ing, and twisting, it was only natural it should take something like the late gothic forms on plate . some such excuse for elaboration makes a confessedly dangerous practice more tolerable if no safer. another good excuse for ela- boration is when, in what may be called fictitious detail, the fiction is founded upon fact, when it is the development of some natural form or effect, when the hint has been given by nature, and . foliated forms geometrically diapered. the ornamental character is only an exaggeration of natural characteristics. the seeds of the pomegranate already referred to are a case in point. in the em- broidered fruit on plate they are repre- sented by a diaper of chequers. in the plate . ge gothic german ironwork "photo-tinť, by jumes akermon. london wc. details of hammered work the elaboration of natural forms. german embroidery on p. they are indicated by a lattice of silk cord, with here and there a spangle. the most impossible development of the gothic ornaments below and overleaf is par- tially accounted for as a remini- scence of some flower in which the pistil was very strongly pronounced. no such ex- cuse can be pleaded for the treatment of the leaves in the design for wall paper on plate . the more or less natu- . elaborated aower. rally drawn leaves are just enriched with pattern, which takes the place of natural veining, and gives variety of sur- face. that personally i think such a proceed- ing not altogether unjustifiable, is shown by my adopting it. another form of elaboration very common nature in ornament. . in fifteenth and sixteenth century ornament, consists in the turning over and curling up of the ends and edges of foliation of all kinds. something of the kind occurs indeed in greek and roman scrollwork; but it is not until late gothic times that it becomes a marked and charac- teristic fea- ture in de sign, partly, perhaps, owing to the influ- ence of the worker in iron, just as a certain coarse bossy cha german worsted racterin per- table- embroidery pendicular cover cloth carving is . elaborated flower. derived from goldsmiths' work. you see that bossy cha- racter in the rendering of the hop on p. , and in the leaves on pp. iii, , , . the limits, within which the character of cercler . onu um mo nach wall paper, conventional growth. the elaboration of natural forms. one material may fairly be given to another are soon reached. it is clearly a mistake in taste to give, as gothic carvers did, to leaves in wood or stone the bulbous look of beaten metal, or to give to an embroidered scroll the character of forging. but one would be loth to give up that very valuable and practical device in design, the “ turn-over," whatever its origin. what indeed would perpendi- cular and flam- boyant ornament be without it? the gothic scroll would be robbed of half its energy, the tudor rose would . bulbous hop leaves-german gothic. flat rosette, the leafage of aldegrever (p. ) would lose all its crispness. i have resorted freely to the use of overlapping in plate , a wall pattern founded upon the artichoke. taking the plant only as a motif of ornament, and attach- ing no significance to it, i felt comparatively free to be-decorate nature. there would seem to be in nature some nature in ornament. sort of precedent even for the be-frilling of floral growth. certain ferns grow with every appearance of artificiality. there is a particular kind of cabbage, much in favour with mediæval illuminators, which grows very much as though the milliner had taken it in hand; and there is a wild flower, not un- common in marshy places, which looks for all the world as if it must have been designed somewhere about a.d. . the excellent rendering of the gooseberry- leaf on plate is a further application of the manner of the sixteenth century, to new forms. it reminds one of the vine-leaves of aldegrever, and i have a recollection of the leaves of the clematis treated in the same way in some renaissance carving at brescia. professor anton seder has worked out the problem of treating vegetable form à la renaissance very thoroughly in that sumptu- ous work '“ die pflanze.” it might be sug- gested that the growth of the gooseberry in the example given is rather too rustic for the extremely ornamental turn of the leaves. the danger of such discrepancy is inherent in such treatment, and is seldom completely overcome. as it is, this is a most competent and indeed accomplished piece of work. once more, to presume to elaborate natural plate . "photo-tint" by james akerman. london w.c. wall paper, founded upon nature. the elaboration of natural forms. form is to trench upon very difficult ground; but we cannot afford to shut ourselves off from any opportunity in design. it is easy enough to dismiss whole schools of thought and treatment with a word of contempt. we have most of us done so in our time. as we grow older we become, let us hope, more just, and confess to ourselves that there are more things in art and ornament than were dreamt of in our phiļosophy of a while ago. g sa nature in ornament. vi. consistency in the modification of nature. according to the use we make of natural form, it helps or hinders us in design. the flow of line, the grace, the growth, the tender- ness of colour, the subtlety of suggestion, which so delight us in ornament, would never have been evolved from man's imagination apart from natural influences; but nature does not provide for us ornament ready made; were that so, our occupation would be gone. nature is the starting-point, by no means the end of ornament. when owen jones went so far as to say that in proportion as ornament approached natural form it had less claim on us as orna- ment, he overstated his case quite as much as they who contend, on the contrary, that only in so far as it approaches nature has it any claim on our sympathy at all. the two opposite contentions may be taken to balance one another. the truth lies midway between. plate . oblong panel for figvre svbject ssr on sia ubyt sous ps vpright panel for figvre svbject re te ---centre line.com ornament founded upon the l wis day "photo-tunt, by james akerman. london w.c. tile panel consistency in modification of nature. to reconcile the rival claims of nature and art it needs only the artist. but how, it may be asked, can nature be, in any case, a hindrance to design? whatever diverts for a moment the atten- tion of the artist from his artistic purpose, is distinctly a hindrance. the purpose of the ornamentist is ornament. nature has a way of claiming too much attention to herself; and the artist, in his frailty, is only too likely to yield to the seductions of a mistress, worthier, it may be, than all others, but not the one he has, so to speak, sworn to love and cherish, if not to obey. the designer can hardly make too many studies from nature, but he can easily make bad use of those he has made, and easily encumber himself with them. a man can design quite freely only when the burden of natural fact is so familiar that to him it ceases to be a burden. refreshing as it may be to refer to his studies, or to nature herself, he cannot design with either in front of him. the actual thing is not malleable enough for his purpose, whereas an impression or a memory of it accommodates itself in the most surprising manner to the conditions of the case, and the necessary modification occurs as though it were a matter of course. nature in ornament. in our happiest moments that is so. at other times the question as to the necessary modification has to be deliberately decided. it is not possible to lay down any limit as to the degree of naturalism permissible in ornament, or to say that the most natural rendering may not sometimes be the best. the conditions of the case may determine the elimination of the natural element in design altogether, or permit it to rule para- mount: they determine the degree of modifi- cation necessary, or the degree of naturalness permissible. and even where they leave the artist free, as soon as ever he begins to design he sets himself his own limits. he pledges himself by what he has done, and is bound in con- sistency to carry his idea logically through. a formal arrangement of lines involves an equally formal kind of foliation, and free growth pledges him to equally natural foliage. so also natural detail prescribes free lines of growth, and conventional detail implies lines proportionately conventional. if, that is to say, it is proposed to clothe a geometric skeleton with foliage, it is quite easy to make the turn of the leaves too natural; the danger in the case of a more natural skeleton would be in making them plate . why "photo-tint", by wames akerman london wc chrysanthemum pattern. consistency in modification of nature. too hard and formal. on plate the sym- metric lines on which the design is set out logically determined a certain restraint in the rendering of the lily, and it is reduced accord- ingly to what might be called mere ornament. on the other hand, the free growth of the chrysanthemum, on plate , not only per- mitted, but demanded detail more in accord- ance with nature. it was possible, therefore, to proceed altogether on the lines of nature, only modifying natural form in the direction of symmetry and ornament: one of the most irritating things in design is to see flowers like catherine-wheels, or other such prim rosettes, on stems suggesting growth, or to find naturalistic flowers spring- ing from quite arbitrary and mechanical lines. in the otherwise masterly design on plate , by the late b. j. talbert (an artist who deserved better than to be so soon forgotten), there is just that flaw, that the eyes of the sunflowers, in comparison with the freer growth of the leaves and petals, are so formal as to stare out of the pattern at you. this effect is to a great extent obviated in the wall-paper by judiciously soft colouring, but the fault in design is still there. this point of consistency needs the more to be insisted upon, because it has at no nature in ornament. . indian corn, adapted to ornament time been strictly enough observed. every- where, in greek no less than in gothic art, we find the artist (weak creatures that we are) lapsing into inconsistency. the border, in particular, is a pitfall in his path. in it arbitrary arrangement is, one may say, a necessity; and it is only with difficulty, often, that he brings himself to reduce leaves and flowers to consistency with the waves or spirals or other symmetrical lines on which they grow. in the border at the top of the page the adaptation of the indian corn to its place is perfect : that is ornament. on plate there are sundry instances of much less successful treatment, where the ivy-leaf is natural enough in shape to make us want it to grow more naturally; which is the case also in the borders on plate . on plate the leaves and their arrangement are equally remote from nature, and the result is correspondingly satisfactory. the happy mean of conven- tionality is found also in the borders on pp. , , , , &c. the arrangement of wave or other scroll plate 重重黑園園國國題國國風圈圓圈圈圓国国国i国i国i国iii 自愿意观國國圍爾魔風圈圈圈圈剧照照留剧想国 ​以上 ​- 強​。 (组图因国画國國風國剧照會回到国會出面力​! cf.k., photo leth., furnival . .bor, e.c. archaic foliage. consistency in modification of nature. i lennox so co sun desigence eočas $ og oso arror with leaves alternately on either side of it (or leaves and flowers, or leaves and berries) is objectionable (plates , , , , ) just in proportion to the natural- istic rendering of leaf, flower, berry, or what- ever it may be. there are two separate start- ing-points in ornamental de- sign. natural form, once mo- dified, may re- solve itself into ornament pure and simple; and, on the other hand, ornament has always a coin f tendency to as- sume familiar . rigid lines of growth turned to natural shapes. on ue loesus gu brod reggs dos | unor . jocs ugo cowevs s : ornamental account. nature in ornament. but, though somewhat similar results may be arrived at from such different directions, nature modified by considerations of ornamental pro- priety is one thing, ornament modified by memories of nature is quite another. if you start with nature, the difficulty is in making natural forms subserve decoration without eliminating too entirely the natural element. when the lines of growth peculiar to a plant are not in the direction of orna- ment, what is to be done ? the better plan is not, if you can help it, to go against nature, but to per- suade, if possible, the . artificial grace of line. natural and charac- teristic growth into lines more in accordance with the purpose of ornament. even the greeks, as i have said, when they resorted to arbitrary lines in connection with natural forms, did not succeed. it must not too readily be taken for granted that a certain rigidity of growth may plate saun ila c.f kell, photo-litho. .furnival st holborn,e.c modern gothic lily panel. consistency in modification of nature. not possibly be turned to account in orna- ment. there is evidence of the availability cm . quasi-natural rendering of lily. nature in ornament, of rigid lines of growth in the in- genious composi- tion of the late clement heaton on p. , com- pared with which the admittedly more graceful italian version of the bearded wheat on p. is not without a sug- gestion of sick- liness. what is fanciful in this last design makes for ornament, no doubt; but there is something al- most discordant in the association of lines so sweet with the growth of corn. sanmicheli's quasi-natural lily (p. ), with its five impossible . quattro-cento lily. plate conventional lily italian anaissance cya, date lath. furnival . ..c. inlaid lily ornament. nature in ornament. . incongruous treatment of the oak. bush or twine like a creeper; nor need he wish it. it is quite possible, to one suf- ficiently at home in nature and in design, to indue any such refractory plant with a grace of line and a general suavity of form which, though by no means characteristic of the natural growth, do not, at all events, bluntly contradict it. the graceful character of the growth on plate is not precisely that of the lily ; but one is hardly disposed to quarrel with a com- position in itself so satisfactory. the detail is not so natural that you miss the natural growth. as a rendering of the lily, the design may not be all that one could wish ; as ornament there is not much fault to find with it: the deviation from nature is all in the direction of design. it is evident, too, plate honeysuckle (love-in-a-mist from old silks about - are kiss-me-quick wild flag "photo-tint", by j. akerman, . queen square w.c. th century flower rendering. -- -- --- - - - - - - consistency in modification of nature. that the artist looked at the lily for himself, and conventionalised it according to his needs. it almost seems as though the plant might have been trained to grow so. this is the natural evolution of ornament, and not the mere distortion of nature which is sometimes mistaken for ornamental treat- ment. in the panel on p. it has been at- tempted to subject the narcissus to somewhat similar ornamental treatment. in the eighteenth century version of the wild flag on plate there is a certain ap- pearance of naturalness, or, more properly speaking, of picturesqueness ; but it grows with a grace and elegance absolutely arti- ficial. that same affectation belonged indeed to the period (see plates , , , ); but it is at least a graceful affectation, and con- sistent with itself. that can hardly be said for the rendering of the oak on p. , which has the unfor- tunate appearance of being either too natu- ral or not natural enough. and even . characterless design. were the lines more nature in ornament. . inconsistency between flower and leaf. satisfactory than they are, one would still feel that there was something incongruous in the combination of lines so suave and slender with the oak. and so again in the case of the still more timid treatment of the leaves by albertolli on p. . this par- ticular tree is, more than all others, associated always in our minds with the idea of sturdy angularity. the rendering of a plant may be by no means very natural, and yet by far too much so. in the ornament above, the flower is too distinctly an orchid to go with foliage dis- tinctly belonging to another family. this is a fault rather exceptional in japanese design, where the rendering of nature is usually either frankly natural or deliberately and uncompro- misingly conventional. in the art of the renaissance the fault of inconsistency is of the commonest occur- plate . mega careers "photo-tint", by j. akerman, . queen square,w.c. a renaissance medley. consistency in modification of nature. rence: the nuts, the pods, and the five-petalled flowers on plate , are not espe- cially life-like; but that forms so im- mediately recog- nisable as nuts and pea - pods should grow from the same stalk as a flower of five petals, to say no- thing of their con- junction with ab- solutely artificial lines, and with foliage of the usual renaissance type, is enough very con- siderably to dis- count the charm of an exceptionally graceful and well- balanced composi- tion. a rather more coherent, and in some ways ad- . graceful artificiality. mirable, version of the pea-pod is given on plate . kal h nature in ornament. in the example on p. the offence of incoherence is somewhat mitigated, inasmuch as the detail is not very real. all sorts of different flowers grow from a single stem indeed, but the stem is not very obvious. there is a kind of natural confusion in the foliage, and the types are not strongly pro- nounced. everything is uniformly graceful . de-naturalised floral details. and artificial, and the unreality of the detail prepares one for the violation of natural growth. even then it is hard to forgive it. much the same criticism might be passed on the less graceful panel in the centre of plate . the manner in which flowers of various kinds grow from a common stem is plate . toni a sr leht longueur sa peter ya ondon er ols cos c ne "photo-tint" by james akerman london w.c pea-pod ornament, renaissance. consistency in modification of nature. of the eighteenth century, not of nature. in the panel at the top of the plate there is less shock to us, inasmuch as the details are more distinctly ornamental : the danger in design of this kind is in proportion as the details assert their natural identity. better de- naturalise them altogether, as in the orna- ment on p. , than jumble up all manner of detail into a quite heterogeneous whole. it is easily understood why eighteenth century designers mixed their types so reck- lessly. they aimed at effect, at any price; and consistency was, in their eyes, a very small price to pay for it. by making lilies and roses and daisies and pomegranates all branch from one stem, it was easy to get variety and contrast. the more consistent way would have been, of course, to intertwine one stem with another, and so account logically for the variety in detail. it would be comparatively easy for us to get the qualities of eighteenth century orna- ment, if we were willing to pay the same price for it. art and puritanism have not much in common, but even the artist may well be puritan enough to sacrifice some- thing of effect for the sake, i will not say of honesty, but of consistency. he is quite free to efface, as i said, the natural type; h nature in ornament. but, once it asserts itself, it binds him to a certain adherence to natural growth and de- tail. he is not justified in pocketing his conscience. his details may bear, if it so please him, but the vaguest resemblance to leaves and flowers and fruits; but if they are recognisable as such, they must grow as such : a stem, for example, has no business to grow two ways at once. moreover, the artist will instinctively select his types : he will not associate compound leaves with lily flowers, or simple leaves with pea blossoms. if the growth of his ornament suggest a forest tree he will not fill-up with tendrils. if the fruit suggest an acorn he will not decorate the stalk with thorns. where the flowers occur singly he will not make berries in clusters; or if the flowers form a spike he will not make the fruits droop. he will not make apple blossoms develope into acacia pods or daisies into gooseberries. according to his acquaintance with nature, and to his artistic sense of fitness, he will abstain instinctively from incongruity, and conform at least so far to the law of order, that there shall be in his design no suggestion of conglomeration ; it shall be one growth, reminding you of nature or not, but in any case consistent with itself. if several flowers are used in combination, plate guan wan . y tovu il conce us nnnn c.f kell, photo-litho.o.furnival st holboan, e.o. dutch & german conventions of the th century consistency in modification of nature. ioi e . com . confusion of effect without confusion of growth. each should have its identity. the orna- mentist chooses naturally, where he can, the types in nature most amenable to ornament. but, apart from the fact that many of the most accommodating have been long since, as one may say, appropriated, there are cases in which he is bound to use such or such a plant, which may possibly be very awkward to deal with in the way of ornament; and one very obvious and convenient way out of the difficulty is, to associate with it some other plant or plants complementary to it, by help of which the qualities lacking in the original plant are supplied. yet there is no necessity that the various flowers, fruits, and what not, should all grow from one stem. in the side borders on plate , mere disjointed sprays of flowers are fitted together, without producing any very unpleasant effect of disjointedness, which of two evils would certainly be the lesser. in the detail of damascus tilework above, nature in ornament. the separate flowers have separate stalks. it may not be easy always to get rid of so many stalks in the composition, but in the intertwining of them there arise fresh pos- sibilities in design—if you are man enough to seize the opportunity. another way out of the difficulty of com- bining various floral forms is to introduce the one only as the undergrowth to the other, as shown on plate . by this means it is pos- sible to contrast bold with delicate detail, broad masses with broken surface, without doing violence to natural laws. how far one is bound to adhere strictly to the lines on which a plant grows, and to the character of its detail, depends to some extent always upon the purpose of the artist; only in strict fidelity to that purpose lie the possibilities of perfect art. what if even great artists have been guilty of all manner of inconsequence in design? they are so much the less to be trusted as safe guides in the matter of taste. one may find authority for any kind of ill-doing. the accepted precedents are not all of them sound by any means. i would have every precedent stripped of its prestige, and scrutinised as carefully as the newest of recruits; and the ricketty among them i would dismiss once and for all. plate . la sa "photo-tint", by james akerman, london, w.c. scroll & foliage vii. parallel renderings. the study of ornament should proceed, i think, pari passu with the study of vegetable forms—not botany necessarily. the scientific study of botany is quite a thing apart. the ornamentist has no more occasion for exact scientific knowledge than the painter has need to know surgically about anatomy, no more occasion and no less. we want, in either case, just science enough to enable us to see the surface of things, and no more. the classification of a plant according to its hidden organs is as nothing to us com- pared with its character, its beauty, the hint in it of ornament. its order and its family concern us only as they affect its outward development and growth. we need not greatly concern ourselves in pulling flowers to pieces. an artist can do with comparatively little science, if only he make full use of his eyes. suppose the student in ornamental design nature in ornament. to have begun by being thoroughly well grounded in practical geometry; soon he might proceed to put together, somewhat on the kinder-garten systein, geometric patterns, simpler or more complex according to the degree of his ingenuity. then, as he grew beyond this elementary stage, he might exer- cise himself in drawing freer and more flow- ing forms—say, until he acquired the facility of sketching off (with the brush) ornament of the kind the greek pot-painters drew with such freedom (p. ). simultaneously with this he should be making intelligent studies of leaves, flowers, fruits, and all manner of details of plant-form and plant-growth. with equal diligence he should be studying the masterpieces of applied design, especially noting the way the masters treated those same natural forms, and always choosing his model, whether of plant form or of ornament, for the definite reason that it meant something to him. his studies should be carried just so far as their purpose warranted : there should be no attempt to make pictures of them, or show- drawings, or to make them even presentable. what the student has to do is to make notes serviceable to himself, sufficient in every case to impress upon his memory what the original plate . sorter vine from tombs in upper egypt : roto *) centuries "photo-tint') by jones akerman, london ,w.c. ancient coptic embroidery. parallel renderings. conveyed to him, records of what he wanted to record, that is all. the urgent need of choosing each example needs the more to be insisted upon, because the designer cannot too early begin to culti- vate the selective faculty. judgment is one- half the battle in decoration. the closer the relation between a man's studies from nature and his studies from old work the better. take, for instance, any flower you like and study it from nature carefully -its form, its structure, its growth, its colour, its character; then see how it is rendered in classic art, in gothic, in renaissance, in japanese, in persian, and so on. observe again its treatment in sculpture, in inlay, in metalwork, in textile fabrics, and what not. a series of such exercises conscientiously and thoroughly done, would be an education in itself, and would in some degree fit one to conventionalise on his own account — all "without the aid of a master.” the already mentioned partiality of each particular period and country for a certain few, usually symbolic, types (p. ), makes it impossible to trace any one single natural form through all history; but you can trace most forms through a variety of historical developments. nature in ornament. . the vine in assyrian sculpture-b.c. – . the type of most universal occurrence in ornament is probably the vine, symbol of philosophies as wide apart as the poles. we find it in the bas-reliefs of nineveh, and the painted decoration of egypt; on etruscan vases, and greek and roman altars; on byzantine sarcophagi, in coptic embroideries, and in early sicilian silks ; it recurs in every form of gothic art, and throughout all phases of the renaissance. in the assyrian treatment of the vine above one finds, of course, the archaic formality of the age of sennacherib, but at the same time a certain adherence to the natural type which has not varied from that day to this. if the leaves are all spread flat against the wall, they are quite unmistakable in shape. if the branches are symmetrically displayed (plate . m வலம் காலைக் பாருங் பா பாவoriental பாகலாவைpatities யையாகவியலைன் manamங்கை கவலையான வாயாகபratasanam காதuman accorpi sn * - miratnapuramanerunthtகாபுசகலைவாகபw taluthi | rrent தியாக | nenானவதியவாமையாலodinamani vage e * naatridangal rs நாதா பாக கனமாலா பட பாட்டியை shree marren mae பாக poe மா - 'photo -tirt, by james akerman london.w.c- vine & olive panel, parallel renderings. there is a suggestion in that of the way fruit- trees are still trained in modern orchard houses. again, there is a sort of natural spring in the lines themselves; and in the arrangement of the five branches (which is not according to nature) i seem to see a reference to the veining of the vine-leaf. at all events, this arbitrary grouping is so characteristic of the ninevite sculptures that it can scarcely be accidental, and must almost certainly have some symbolic meaning. the irregular shape of the assyrian grape bunches is a curious concession to nature, seeing that some of them stand up on end, and that the grapes are just square. it will be noticed that leaves and fruits do not occur in the order in which a botanist would place them, and that the tendrils are made use of only as a convenient means of ending off the branches. on plate is a coptic rendering from a tomb in upper egypt, which is equally archaic, but infinitely more ornamental. ob- serve the reticent use of grapes, their syste- matic arrangement, and the fact that they also stand on end. the vine-leaf on the same plate, veined, as it were, with a growth of vine, is also extremely curious. the way in which the tendrils ornament the stem is worth noticing nature in ornament. . vine from a greek se. the greek treatment above is, if not more natural, at least more florid. the stem indeed diminishes in thickness towards its extremity, and is clothed at the same time with smaller leaves ; but the stem itself is a mere wave-line, and the leaves, though founded on a more graceful natural variety than the assyrian, are less unmistakably vine- leaves. it is a rather curious thing in the decorative treatment of the vine in early art, that although there is no plant growing which varies more as to the shape of its leaves-heart-shaped, round, angular in outline, divided into three or five, the divisions deeply cut or scarcely noticeable, sometimes not seen at all—it is yet the rarest thing in the world to find in any ornamental version of the plant more than a single type of leaf. that is one point at least in which there is opportunity for a new departure in design, and to considerably ornamental purpose. plate . sti ret these when pay la sur sr re ine wine we rah and gros he "photo-tint" by james akerman london wc. italian gothic vine. parallel renderings. . pompeian vine border. the tendrils in the greek vase painting are, for the most part, more obviously twirls of the brush than transcripts from nature ; even when they are branched they take the lines of our old friend the spiral scroll, and are graceful where in nature they would be vigorous ; there is never anything like clutch in them. the artist seems sometimes just to have realised that leaf and tendril grew from some- where about the same point on the stem, but no more. if he had any definite idea at all of the relation between leaf and tendril, it would appear to have been the erroneous notion that the leaf grew from a point of junction between the tendril and the stalk. perhaps the most natural thing in the design is the way in which it is composed, very much in the way of the trellis—another method of training that has survived without change from the beginning of vine culture. the bunches, besides, do hang down, obedient to the law of gravity. a more formal greek rendering occurs in the disc on plate , but in both cases the iio nature in ornament. . italian wood-carving-hop or vine ? grape bunches are much the same in out- line. in later classic sculpture, especially in roman work, the vine-leaf is often repre- sented naturally, only again without the variety of nature, one shape doing duty throughout. and here also we find the ten- drils always deliberately made softer than in the living plant. they have no inclination to twine themselves round anything; they are not much more than graceful scroll lines. what growth there may be in them is certainly not studied from the particular plant. leaves, tendrils, fruits, occur wherever the artist has occasion for them. there is a touch of nature in the thickening of the leaf-stalk at its base, but this feature also is softened down to gracefulness; it is rather suggested than ex- pressed. the very grapes are frequently reduced to bunches of five or seven. they are rather fuller on plate . the plate vine & apple tree frieze. 'li of kell, photo-litho. .furnival st holborn, e parallel renderings. diamond . conventional gothic vine and grapes. disregard of natural scale in this design is as frank as in the assyrian treatment. it is strange to find, in connection with such an arbitrary rendering, anything so realistic as the knobby bowls of the olive trunks, which are as cavernous as you see them in naturc. again, in the vine from giotto's tower, at florence (plate ), the artist, contrary to the usual gothic practice, has thought fit to sup- port the vine, perhaps because the leafage, distinctly ornamental as it is, is intended to represent a vineyard. it forms a sort of canopy over the subject of noah's drunken- ness. in the more natural frieze of my own, on plate , the vine is supported by apple- boughs: the upright trunks of the trees, cor- responding in position to the beams in the ceiling, form a marked feature in the design. among the græco-roman details on plate , the grapes are rather more natural than the leaves, which are in one case just the reverse of natural. the leaf cut in cameo ii Ņature in ornament. cui . gothic vine, with mulberry-lige grape-bunches. is, however, at once natural and ornamental. in the embossed silverwork a distinctly orna- mental character results from the employment of the stems, tendrils, and fruits only: the same thing occurs in later classic sculpture. in the border from a pompeian bronze in the museum at naples, on p. , the thick- ening of the leaf-stalk is indicated; but the growth is again absolutely arbitrary. the leaf, though like enough to nature, could not be identified with any degree of certainty, were it not for the accompanying grapes and ten- drils : but for that evidence it might just as well pass for maple, or cranesbill, or hibiscus. leaf. such corroborative evidence of identity is often needed. in the process of adaptation to ornamental conditions the unmistakable cha- racter of a plant is not uncommonly eliminated. one is perplexed, for example, by the italian wood-carving on p. . according to its tendrils it should be a vine, but its fruits are more like hops. in gothic ornament one has as i said, frequently to take the vine-leaf on plate . vine modelled in stucco greek gold stucco a. vine & ivy cut in ameo asos glass embossed silver "photo-tint', by james akormon london, w.c. clasical rendering of the vine. parallel renderings. faith, failing grapes, and more particularly tendrils (p. and plate ). the grapes are sometimes as remote from nature as the leaves, and the scale to which the bunches are reduced often removes them ana im . conventional vine, from toledo. still further from recognition. it is possible that the mulberry is sometimes mistaken for the vine. many a conventional vine leaf (as for example on p. ) is much more like the leaf of the white mulberry of lombardy nature in ornament. than it is like a vine-leaf; whilst the compact little bunches of diminutive berries look occasionally much more like mulberries than any grapes one has seen. in the border on p. they might almost be blackberries. it is possible also in gothic work to confound them with the berry- spike of the wild arum. it is only our famili- arity with similar con- ventions which en- ables us to understand that the gothico- moresque foliage on . moorish vine. p. stands for the vine. for growth the moorish sculptor has simply branched a spiral line. his vine- leaves would answer at least as well for bry- ony leaves, and his berries would do as well for bryony berries. his reason for bunches of plate allery oi soy t a ko arab vine panel nature in ornament. nature, whilst professedly avoiding it. the treatment of the tendrils is a peculiarly happy feature in a most satis- factory design. as a repre- sentation of the vine it may not be alto- gether ade- quate—it pre- tends to no- thing of the kind—but as a piece of sur- face ornament suggested by a natural type, it is in its way about perfect. the byzan- tine vine from ravenna, on . early french gothic. p. , is not without a cer tain grace, rudely as it is carved. its growth is distinctly ornamental ; and the way in plate . "photo-tint", by james akerman london w.c. vine sculpture nature in ornament. . diamond-shaped vine-leaves-gothic. of the twisted stems form the necessary ties in his stencil-plate is most artful. the berries may be taken as evidence that the thirteenth century gothic scroll from notre dame at paris, on p. , is meant for the vine; and there is some likeness in the leaves, when one looks for it. we may take it also, i suppose, that the still more conventional scrollwork of the early gothic period did symbolic duty for the vine. in the pre-gothic circular design on plate , one sees the five-pointed vine-leaf dwindling away to quite a conventional trefoil. it is only in the comparatively uninteresting middle period of gothic art that we have leaves as much as possible in imitation of nature. in later gothic we get design again. the mediæval sculptors deliberately designed their leaves, as it were, into set spaces—taking a square, a diamond, a circle, a vesica, and so on, as its general outline. the assy- rians did so before them (p. ), and the italians after them, as may be seen in the plate . j. akerman, photo-lith london stencilled vine decoration, h. sumner. parallel renderings. . vesica-shaped vine-leaves, york. vine border on p. , with the odd shell-like tendrils. this would come about in a very simple way. they would begin by blocking out the leaf mass, then. they would hollow out the main divisions, and finally they would notch the edges. in roughing out the design it would occasionally happen that some other inass—square, diamond-shaped, or what not- came more happily; they would accordingly adopt it, and the leaf needs must follow suit. hence such treatment of the leaf as we find on pp. iii, , , and above, where it is designed to conform to an outline of diamond or vesica shape, or made, together with the berries, to fit the spaces formed by the waved stem and the margins of the border. in plate also it is plain how the leaves are designed, so to speak, into the corners of the panel. it is curious to see just such a system of composi- tion in the coptic borders of centuries before (plate ). the gothic sculptor sometimes went so far as to rough out the foliations of his scroll in i . nature in ornament . diagram of italian gothic treatment. the form of trefoils (a, above), leaving it ap- parently to the inspiration of the moment to determine afterwards which of these should be finished as leaves (b), and which as grape- bunches (c). in a certain case at padua he went much farther than that, and even turned over here and there a part of the leaf (d and e), without in any way altering its general outline. it came more naturally to him to do obvious violence to possibility than to modify his predetermined outline. this is not mentioned as a thing worthy of imitation, but as an instance of simple-mindedness not without its charm in old work. in plate , part of the design for a gothic window, i have endeavoured to follow, more strictly than i have ever seen it followed in old gothic work, the actual growth of the vine, whilst at the same time very scrupu- lously fulfilling the conditions of stained glass. much as there is to be learnt from the breadth and simplicity of the gothic treat- ment of the vine (as of other foliage), it by no means solves for us the problem of treatment. plate bom vine upper egypt centuries "photo-tint", by james akerman jondon wc. coptic vine ornament. parallel renderings. it is seldom that it shows much appreciation of the essentially characteristic vine forms. one wearies of the regularity of the “ecclesi- astical" grape-clusters, and resents their stand- ing up like bunches of privet-berries. why should we be content with the continual recur- d irdiriwww.lahathi ren . transitional vine scroll. rence of one stereotyped pattern, when nature is so varied and that variety is so ornamental ? in later gothic ornament, and especially as it began to be influenced by the spirit of the renaissance, it is no uncommon thing to see a scroll that halts between two opinions, nature in ornament. clearly showing that the artist did not quite see how to reconcile the one with the other. in the instance of this given on p. , the rather loosely drawn leaves contrast curiously with the purely conventional foliation pro- ceeding from the same stem ; and yet, for all the hesitation of the artist, the general effect is that of direct and accomplished workman- ship. here the main lines of the stem remind one more of fifteenth century gothic window tracery than of growth. the ornamental arrangement of the tendrils is ingenious, and so is the way the grapes form a sort of diaper on the background. this is a device not uncommon in late gothic work, especially german work—that, for example, of albrecht dürer. dürer, to tell the truth, had but a poor invention in ornament—his facile pen is con- tinually running away with him ; his flourishes remind one too much of the writing-master of a more recent generation. the vine scroll on plate is an exceptionally good specimen of the great draughtsman's ornament, but it misses at once the grace of nature and the dignity of ornament. only in respect to the variety in the size of the grapes, and the looseness of the bunches, does it approach more nearly to nature than the earlier plate . "photo-tint", by james akerman london w.c. english gothic vine. parallel renderings. . italian quattro-cento vine scroll. work. it is, indeed, picturesque rather than decorative; and the picturesqueness seems almost like a foreshadowing of the then still distant rococo. - the artists of the renaissance followed pretty closely in the footsteps of ancient precedent, and when they departed from the scroll and branched out into something more like natural growth, adopted by preference a form of leaf plainly recalling the vine. it was less a rendering of nature than an ornamental leaf more or less in its likeness. italian, french, or german rendering was modified always in some degree by national character. in the françois premier foliage (p. ), there is always a certain severity, showing that the carver had not quite thrown off the gothic yoke, under which italian ornament (above) never passed. the german version was still more determinedly, national -indeed it was always more clearly teutonic than renaissance—witness the ornament of . nature in ornament. aldegrever on this page. before our days of archæological pre- tence, there was in all ornament an under- tone of national feel- ing, telling of the country to which it belonged. there was no need then of a trade-marks act to identify it as carved in france or ger- many. at the risk of trenching upon a subject discussed at length in a previ- ous text-book (“the application of orna- ment') it is necessary to allude briefly to the influence exer- cised by material and manner of workman- ship on the modifica- tion of natural form. this is really half the secret of convention- . german renaissance. plate . "photo-tint by james akerman london.w.c. vine, stained glass. parallel renderings. alism, the other half being in the fitness of the form to its place and purpose. the sculptor has thus been a powerful factor in the development of the ornamental vine. you can see, as i said, in the assyrian example (p. ) how he blocked out his five- pointed shapes, scooped out the main divisions, and notched the serrations round the edges, much as the gothic carvers did, and how he just chiselled two series of lines across his bunches to suggest the grapes. in the greek vine (p. ) the leaves are this time serrated by brush touches : in designing his tendrils the painter just played with the brush ; whilst in the case of the grapes, he first washed in the mass of his cluster in two shades of colour, and then, with little blots of white, indicated the grapes upon it. the græco-roman border (p. ) is inlaid in silver on bronze, and the serrations of the leaves are produced by so many digs of the graver. the stiffness of the zigzag stem, i should mention, is modified, in the actual bronze, by the fact that it is on a curved moulding.. the severe simplicity of the byzantine design (p. ) fits it for its intended purpose of a pilaster. nature in ornament. the breadth of the leaves in the example from toledo (p. ) is calculated to contrast well with the broken background. on a smooth ground it would have been desirable inco ]), tod . vine in gothic glass-painting. to mark the subdivisions of the leaves more emphatically. in the arab leaf (plate ) the need of something like veins was felt by the sculptor ; plate . u tru je alumni an ka ) )))) calci r ca cellphoto lith., .fueniral . lben, e.c. vine by albrecht dürer. parallel renderings. and the ingeniously ornamental tracery by which he has supplied their place is a lesson in design. in plate i have taken a hint from some sixteenth century damascening, and diapered the leaves with arabesque in the place of veining. the idea was to break the surface of the leaf whilst preserving an effect of flatness. dürer's leaves (p. ) are pen-work, and had they been drawn with any other imple- ment they would never have been just so." the resolute avoidance of modelling in the german damask napkin (p. ) is in order to show off the quality of the linen. in the various gothic renderings of the leaf the tool is plainly to be traced. there is considerable difference between the convention of the wood-carver and that of the carver in stone. in the wood-carving on p. , the veining is indicated and a certain effect of modelling obtained by leaving the gouge marks—but then the gouging was done to that end, and with intelligence. the greater delicacy of the quattro-cento leaves (p. ) shows how the finer marble led to altogether more delicate workmanship. the coarser stone employed in english gothic buildings made it absolutely necessary to mass the tendrils together, if only for the sake plate . ba venia owoche wewe bin á vaccini ci kell, photo-litho. .furnival st holborn,e.c conventional vine leaf pattern. viii. more parallels. not to depend too entirely upon a single illustration, it will be as well to compare, as briefly as possible, the various renderings of certain other plants which occur by way of illustration throughout this volume, and which have been chosen partly with a view to such comparison. the japanese treatment of the rose, on plate , is only in so far decorative as the detail and the point of view are carefully chosen, and as the execution is simple and direct. compare the energy of its growth with the sweeter lines on plate . this last expression of the decadent renaissance is not nearly so accurate as it somehow pretends to be. the stipules of the leaves, for example, are very inadequately acknowledged ; and what at first sight looks like picturesque shading of the leaves, turns out to be quite arbitrary. indeed, it is only as ornament that zal nature in ornament. m mitimin toto பலியாயமா ki siimti uvod oto inium muni! immunitet i . quasi-persian rose-italian velvet. this quasi-natural treatment has claim at all to our respect; as nature it has none. as a model of conventional treatment, the tudor rose must always hold a very high place. what could be better in its way than the dignified simplicity of the gothic rose and crown on plate ? how good the lines are, and how well the panel is occupied ! a certain breadth is gained by the reduction of the compound leaf to the simple form, and a certain character is given by the exaggeration of the stipules, unlike as they are in form to the natural type. in the other tudor rose from the stalls of henry vii.'s chapel (plate ), the treat- ment is at once traditional and distinctly individual. it was something of an inspira- tion to twist the leaves and stalks encircling plate various renderings of the rose designed for silk wearing date about sterona "photo-tint, by j. akorman, , qusan square.w.c. artificial rendering of the rose. plate . london "photo-tint", by james akerman london wc tudor. rose bronze. plate le tudor rose from the stalls of henry ii t'a : chapel westminster "photo-tint', by j. akerman, . queen squan,w.c tudor rose, wood carving plate erunda re c.f kell, photo-litho.b.furnival st holborn, e.o. italian version of a persian carpet: plate . oooooooooo tommmmm co ООООООООООООО ОООООООООООООО "photo-tunt, by james akerman, london.w.c. indian lotus panel. plate . semarang sc bs "photo-tint by jamee akerman, london.w.c. details of stone carving, (buddhist.) nature in ornament. ing the square web of the linen on which it is worked. the rhodian example below would hardly be taken for a rose, but for the un- mistakable bud once more: the open flower is more like a marigold. the broken stem is a convenient, and in rho- dian pottery not an un- common, means of bend- ing the lines in the way it is desirable they should go. once in a way that may pass, but it is not a device upon which it would be well to rely in design. comparison has already been drawn (p. ) be- tween the quattro-cento lily on p. , the cinque- . rhodian rose. cento lilies on p. and on plate , my own lily ornament on plate , talbert's gothic lily panel on plate (something like, and yet unlike, the panel from the taj mahal at agra, on plate ), and the more natural growth on plate . these may further be compared with the more or less lily- shaped flowers occurring in greek scroll-work more parallels. hp (plate and p. ), with the greek pattern on p. , and with the roman cande- labrum opposite, a characteristically clumsy way not so much of designing as of compiling ornament. in the greek lilies already re- ferred to, and still more in those on p. , the relation to the anthemion is obvious, and to the lotus, that other form of lily so conspicuous in egyptian and as- syrian art (plates and and pp. , , , ). the hindoo ren- dering of the water- lily on plate is very much like the i . roman lily forms, nałure in ornament. . indian lotus-buddhist. egyptian, but it is sometimes looser, as on plate . a very characteristic treatment is shown above. the chinese rendering on plate is yet freer, but still essentially ornamental. referring once more to the greek shapes on p. , one may see in some of them a resemblance to the young growth of the lily as it bursts from the ground in spring. that is seen still more plainly in the assyrian ornament on the lower part of plate . more parallels. there is something most natural in that very stiff conventional upright growth—reminding one rather of the young iris shoots. the iris flower is, as i have already said, the origin of the fleur-de-lis. compare the flamboyant fleurs-de-lis on plate with the earlier gothic renderings on pp. and , with the renderings on p. , and with the romanesque ornament on p. . the flowers in the central ornament (p. ) are remarkably like the iris. in the re- naissance ornament on p. , the characteristics of the iris are reconciled somewhat to the shape of the fleur-de-lis. in the indian damas- . seventeenth century iris. cened pattern on plate , there is distinct re- semblance to the fleur-de-lis. the painted version above it, whilst pretending to be more pictorial, is altogether less characteristic of nature. in the persian examples on p. , the flower is reduced to ornament, as it is also in the ingenious border of the frontispiece which mr. crane has designed for me. the figure of iris in the centre is designed in a vein nature in ornament. peculiarly the artist's own. his “flora's feast" is a very feast of ingenious and fanciful and alto- gether delightful design of the same kind. ornamentally as the flowers are treated in the damascus tiles on p. , they are still most cha- racteristic — as are the equally abstract forms in the japanese embroidery on p. . these are quite unmistakably wild flags. the sixteenth century italian embroidery, on p. , is scarcely far enough removed from nature to be effectively ornamental. in the eighteenth cen- tury silk weaving (plate . renaissance pinks. ). there is a certain suavity of line which goes towards ornament, plate german embroidery incisecl-work' elizabetha broidery zarious italian carring of the patiens pink persian textile italian inlay panese c. f kell, photo-litho.furntvÁl st holbornec the pink plate . various renderings of the pink javor grat razs plus designed for silk wearing clate about bocu lorem "photo-tint by stes akerman london wc th century, versions of the pink. nature in ornament. mahal (plate ) the poppy is trained de- liberately in the way it should goma delicate and graceful way, for all its formality; and, for all its symmetry, varied. the damascened patterns on p. are more distinctly indian. in one of these, the occurrence of sepals, which the bud naturally sheds as it bursts, has already been pointed out; in the other the severe lines within which the growth is compactly grouped, result in distinct dignity of design. ghiberti's poppy on plate is one of the most satisfactory of the flower-groups bordering the celebrated doors at florence. the leaves are just conventional enough, and the seed-vessel or poppy-head tells for what it is, at once a characteristic and an admirably ornamental feature. in my own poppy-pattern on plate , the brush touches are such as could most conve- niently be reproduced in block printing. it is meant for pattern first and poppy after- wards. in the border on p. , the growth is comparatively natural. the flowers are arranged in the order indicated by the necessities of composition, and the growth is made to accommodate itself, with as little violation of nature as possible, to them. plate . "photo-tiny", by james akerman london.w.c poppies by ghiberti, bronze plate . "photo-tint", by james akerman.london.w.c. poppy pattern. --- --- - - - … ……… …… more parallels. wheat ears are a favourite symbol in gothic work, but the rather intractable growth of corn seems to be against any great variety in its treatment. the stiffness of the design udo on or . modern gothic pomegranate. b. j. talbert. on p. , which belongs to the period of the gothic revival, is likely to be more noticed than its ingenuity, which is all the artist's own. in the italian silk on p. , the wheat ear nature in ornament. is reduced to a pattern ; in the carving on p. , it is the leaf-blades that are manipu- lated. to adapt the rather rank growth of the indian corn to the purpose of a simple and satisfactory border, as on p. , is some- thing like a triumph of ornamental modifica- tion. it is mainly in gothic art that the thistle has been taken as a motif ; but there is a wide difference between hopfer's scroll on plate , and that on plates and , and between any of these and the late g. e. street's bold experiment in modern gothic on p. . my own pattern on plate is thistle-like it was in fact suggested by the artichoke, the king of thistles), but the natural characteristics of the plant are deliberately sacrificed to the purposes of pattern. in the representation of the pomegranate, the bursting of the fruit (as already mentioned on p. ), has been very variously rendered. the late b. j. talbert, too (p. ), turned the seeds to ornamental account. mr. morris's fruits on plate burst natu- rally. in the chinese pattern . pomegranate. on plate the bursting odobo apa canon odoboy more parallels.: of the fruit is indicated only by a change of colour: no seeds are revealed. the sixteenth century german treatment (same plate) is equally arbitrary. ornamental treatment of the oak ishano) , . oak from the cathedral of toledo. persian influence is seen again in the italian rendering on p. . one assumes that the pear-shaped fruit on p. is meant for a pomegranate. the gothic ornament on p. nature in ornament. life. stands also, no doubt, for the pomegranate ; but it is quite a traditional rendering, by a man who probably never saw the fruit. com- pare this also with the pine in patterns on plate and on p. . the various renderings of the oak, classic on p. , gothic on plates and , italian on p. , sicilian below, and other examples . assyrian tree of on p. and on plates and , have none of them any resemblance to the characteristic hispano-mauresque oak scroll on p. , which is akin rather to the vines on pp. and . reference is made elsewhere (p. ) to the daisies on plates and , and (p. ) to the examples of the ivy occurring on plates . oak-from a sicilian silk. plate , mas late gothic renderings of thе да puigen sa "photo-tunt, by jameo akermon. london .w.c. gothic oak ornament. more parallels. and and on p. . the ver- sions of the olive on plates and need only just be alluded to. there is some- thing to be learnt from a comparison of the various con- ventional trees, as- syrian on pp. and and plate , greek on plates and , roman on p. , indian on plate , coptic on plates and , sicilian and italian on plate and p. , romanesque opposite. it is wonderful with what unani- mity ornamentists have everywhere, . romanesque tree of life. and from the be- ginning of time, resolved the growth of the nature in ornament. tree into its elements and made it into orna- ment, reducing its outline in many cases to the shape of a single leaf, and its branches to something like smaller leaves. those to whom such rendering of natural form does not come easily, by instinct as it were, were not born for ornamentists; let them turn their attention to work for which nature has fitted them. comparison may further be made between the works of modern men (plates , , , , , , , and , and pp. , , , , , , , and ); and, lastly, reference to my own design (plates , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , iii, , and , and pp. , , , , , and ) will help to explain more clearly than words, not what i think necessarily good, but the degree of naturalism on the one hand, and of convention on the other, which seem to me personally permissible in ornament. to any one in the least susceptible to natural beauty, it is not difficult to under- stand the resentment which some persons feel towards any interference with nature. to disturb it is to deform it, no doubt; but in the interest of cultivation it has to be done. brier, and bracken, and yellow gorse must give place to rose gardens, apple orchards, plate . of kell, photo-litho, o,furnival st holyoan, e.o. comparatively natural lily panel. more parallels. and fields of corn. they too are beautiful ; not the less so that they owe something to the hand of man. it is, after all, a false and rather a cowardly sentiment which makes us afraid of disturbing what is beautiful, when the end is a beauty better worth having. those who profess to follow nature seem sometimes rather to be dragging her in the dust. there is a wider view of nature, which includes human nature and that selective and idealising instinct which is natural to man. it is a long way from being yet proved that the naturalistic designer is more “true to nature” than another. it is one thing to study nature, and another to pretend that studies are works of art. in no branch of design has it ever been held by the masters (least of all could it be held by the masters of orna- ment) that nature was enough. it is only the very callow student who opens his mouth to swallow all nature whole; the older bird knows better. “lor, how natural !” bursts out the admiring rustic: the artist in like case thinks to himself, “what perfect art !” l nature in ornament. ix. tradition in design. there have been times, perhaps, when art ran too much in the ruts of tradition : there is no danger of that just now—inore likeli- hood of our wandering so far from any beaten track as to lose our bearings altogether. whatever the danger of merely traditional treatment in design (and i am the last to deny that danger), it is time we bethought ourselves that traditions are not inherently pernicious. they represent, when all is said, the sum of past experience. the past masters of the crafts must be presumed to have known something. the course of art ran, at all events, more evenly along the broad smooth ruts aforesaid. whatever the traditions of his art, and whether he mean to follow them or not, the student must acquaint himself with them. it is not until he is acquainted with the traditional ways of doing a thing that he is in a position to form an opinion as to the relative merits plate . *photo-tint", by james akerman, london, wc orchid & fungus pattern - chinese. nature in ornament. it is not meant to suggest for a moment that japanese ornament is in every way per- fect : it lacks qualities indispensable to any really dignified and noble style of design ; but in the mere treatment of natural form as naturally as possible and yet ornamentally, there is probably more to be learnt from japan than from any other source. although the traditions of the japanese are inherited directly from the chinese, the work of the younger race is characterised by a vigour and spontaneity of design, with which we are not accustomed to credit the elder. but the floral element of design is character- istic of mongolian art from the first, so much so that its prevalence in persian and indian art betrays, one may say, the mongolian conqueror. if at its best chinese ornament is less characteristically natural than japanese, it is more characteristically ornamental. whatever modification there may be of natural form is all in the direction of design. orchis, fungus, and butterfly (plate ), each is designed into its place, and is, moreover, made to conform to the necessity of ornament. musicians have no very high opinion of what they call 'tuney” music. chinese ornament may be “tuney” perhaps, but at least it is in tune. plate om id kell, photo-litho .furnival st holbornec conventional tree work tradition in design, that is even more true of the kindred art of india (plate ). there also everything is doubtless inspired by nature, but every- thing is compelled into ornament. the very luxuriance of the design is suggestive of tropical vegetation, but the ornament never runs wild. the date-palm is there with its . renaissance silk showing persian influence. scarred trunk, but the scars are made into a pattern. so with the branched stem contrast- ing with it, it branches into distinctly orna- mental lines, and breaks out into equally ornamental foliation. the man who carved the lattice of which a portion is given on plate loved nature, no doubt, but he was an ornamentist to the tips nature in ornament. of his fingers; and the superiority of oriental art in respect to rhythm, harmony, sweetness, is the immediate result of working on the lines of tradition, of devoting trained faculties to the perfection of an accepted method, of refining upon refinement until the acme of easy grace is reached. the persian rendering of natural forms is more free : there is more of the variety of nature in it; but its starting point is always nature, whatever liberties the artist may take with it: it must be confessed he does not stand upon ceremony. one favourite freak of his (plate ) was to break the surface of a leaf by diapering it over with other foliated or floral detail. he was enabled thus to introduce amidst the smaller forms bolder shapes, contrasting most usefully with them, and yet not forming unbroken patches in the design. the artists of the renaissance bor- rowed this idea and made considerable use of it. the way in which the big pomegranate shape on the piece of six- teenth century silk, . egyptian symbolic papyrus. wo prebenberg ts மரப்பப்படியானாய barat mer craft grube com ainu plate . perai c. k ho lith., furialx hobe e.c. persian foliage. tradition in design. ancona . assyrian symbolic ornament. shown on p. , is enlivened by the introduc- tion of smaller floral details, betrays distinctly the influence of stuffs imported from persia (compare it with the velvet on p. ); the design is renaissance, but with a difference. a similar influence is apparent in the damask design on plate ; indeed, there was a period when european silk designers worked habitually on those lines. tracing tradition back to its beginnings, we find that the art of ancient egypt was con- fined within very narrow lines; but within those lines it fulfilled admirably what it pur- posed to do. it is worth study, if only to see how the symbolism which was at the root of it was made to subserve to ornament, how orderly arrangement and restraint in treat- ment went far towards decoration, and how the most severe simplicity resulted in in- variable dignity (p. and plate ). much the same may be said of assyrian design. it does not afford, it need scarcely be said, any more than egyptian, a fit model for nature in ornament. nineteenth century ornament; and the re- straint which we observe in either (p. and plate ) was, perhaps, if we inquire into it, not so much a matter of restraint as of neces- sity ; but none the less it shows us what may be done by self-control ; and, working as we do under conditions which make it almost necessary for us to assert ourselves, it is as well that we should be remind- ed from time to time that if the world went on the whole no better then, at least it . abstract greek ornament permitted a naïve and simple-hearted kind of art, from which the most advanced of us have much to learn. greek ornament is in the first instance quite abstract in character (above), consisting of curling lines and touches of the brush; but, such abstract forms assuming by chance (or, as i should say, of necessity) some resem- blance to floral forms, it occurred to the artist plate . ses "photo-tint', by james akerman, london.w.c. details of egyptian sculpture. tradition in design. . later greek ornament. to develop the naturalistic idea—much, as it proved, at the expense of beauty and design. this is plainly to be seen in the ornament of the later period (above), in which the spirals in perspective and the scrolls which look like wood-shavings, mark a very distinct step downwards in design. when it came to the rendering of the natural shapes of leaves, berries, and so on, the greek continued to arrange such details arbitrarily, with a view to composition and without regard to natural growth. there is no objection to that so long as the leaves are not so natural as to call for something like natural connection ; but in greek ornament the growth was not always consistent with the detail. in the lower border of ivy on plate , leaves, berries, and growth are alike conven- nature in ornament. tional; in the upper border the three-pointed leaves are more natural than the berries, and the stalks are too natural for the arbitrary order in which these are arranged. again, in the borders of olive, there is a sort of naturalism about the fruits inconsis- tent with their arrangement two and two along the stem. moreover, the flower intro- duced into the lower example is a quite incon- gruous feature. the altogether abstract rendering of the bay at the bottom of the plate—so abstract that one cannot be quite certain it is meant for the bay—is more absolutely satisfactory. the earlier greek traditions were the best. eventually, in classic sculpture, bay, olive, ivy, and other plants were rendered almost naturally. in the fragment of roman carving on plate we have quite a different kind of thing: natural growth, that is 'to say, is twisted into ornamental lines, the tree is made to grow as the ornamentist would have it. there is a certain decorative treatment in that (as there was almost invariably in ancient art), but it is not ornament, and it is orna- mental only to the extent that all sculpture was, until in recent times it broke loose alto- gether from tradition. plate ot cf kell, photo-lithd, .furnival st holborn, e.c. details of ninevite sculpture. tradition in design. anaa that idea of making natural things grow unnaturally is continually cropping up in ornament. it is illustrated again in plate . there is no mistaking master peter quentel's types. the nightshade, the columbine, the pea, the oak, the thistle, are natural enough- too natural almost for the impossible lines on which they grow: the oak branches, for example, are shown to have each two separate starting-points. however much we may prefer the vigour of the gothic work- man to the somewhat effeminate grace of the oriental, in that one . assyrian rosette. respect eastern art is more consistent by far : detail and its distribu- tion go together, and are one growth, however artificial it may be. the difficulty in adapting comparatively natural forms to artificial growth is very great; only a master ever quite gets over it. i have already explained (p. ) the de- velopment of the classic scroll. the tradi- tion was taken up again by the italians of the renaissance. the arabesques of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are classic nature in ornament. with a difference; and down to the period of the french revolution, if not indeed of the exhibition of , through all the changes which it underwent, we can trace in the scroll the development, or it may be the degradation, of classic tradition. examples in point occur in plates , , ; and whether the deviation from the ori- ginal idea be in the direction of nature (plates , , and ), or of abs- tract orna- ment (pls. , , and . gothic ornament from notre dame, ), the descent of the design is always easily to be traced. for better or for worse, one style grew, that is to say, out of the other. as certainly as the assyrian rosette on p. was influenced by egyptian tradition, so certainly did the tradition of such work influence the greeks. paris. tradition in design. and so it was with gothic art. we can trace it through its various phases back to the romanesque, and so find a connection with the classic. indeed, in some details of early . fifteenth century fir-cone or pine-apple ornaments. gothic ornament one can trace a distinct resemblance to greek art, from which in important particulars it is most remote. in the detail from notre dame at paris, on p. , there is a distinct relationship to the painted ornament on greek vases, and the typical “early english” detail assumes at times in the hands of the glass painter some- thing of the same character. not only may one historic style of ornament be traced from another, but the very details' of ornament are in many instances traditional, and survive long after they have lost any significance they may originally have had ; so much so, that what is traced . chinese flower strange and unaccountable forms. nature in ornament. . etruscan. greek. greek. greek. in ornamental design, proves often to be only the survival of some long lost tradition. the fir-cone, or, as the french call it, the pine-apple, which figures in nearly all fifteenth century pattern-work (see plate and p. ), figures not only on the thyrsus of the greek god, but in assyrian ornament (p. ), and in still earlier egyptian sculpture (plate ). on plate the assyrian fir-trees are regu- larly cone-shaped. it is possible, no doubt, to work oneself into a state of mind in which it seems plausible enough, if not quite proven, that all ornament is derived from a single source, the “hom” or date-palm, to wit. but without going quite so far as sir george birdwood in his ingenious theory as to the development of the knop-and-flower pattern, one cannot but admit that the unanimity with which, from the days of the pharaohs to the days of eliza- beth, ornamentists have put together similar forms on similar lines, leaves no possible plate "photo-tint, by james akermon. london w.c. roman sculpture, tradition in design. wi . japanese diaper. doubt as to the lingering influence of tradition upon design through all that time. it is especially curious, also, to notice how on very similar lines very different and yet clearly related forms are developed. whatever may have been the origin of the characteristic form popularly known as the honeysuckle ornament of the greeks,* there is no mistaking its relation to the egyptian lotus and papyrus or- naments, pp. rid and , and to the assyrian palm ornament, p. . see also plate . ia in chinese flower forms, also (p. ), one seems to see very much the same lines ; . japanese diaper. * some principles of every-day art,' pp. - . m to e . ' am iwili unui i bol w wmv n vo itp uu = u w ' w utir plate ono bay yawya eve peter qventel - luou>e - n wur awal q ya los by in wiele c.f. kell, photo-litho.o.furnival st holboan,e.o century german design. tradition in design. the resemblance of the japanese diapers on p. to greek brushwork is explained somewhat by the fact that they also are brushwork. other greek details, especially some of those on p. , take, as i said before, dis- tinctly the form of lilies. in the romanesque development of the anthemion (p. ) we have, indeed, leaves of the most conventional, but there is no mistake about its source ; and, strangely enough, the leaves spring from a semicircular feature resembling that from which the separate serpents' heads issue in plate . here, too, as in the early gothic tile pattern on. p. , is foreshadowed the fleur-de-lis, which assumes a more distinctive shape in the gothic cross on p. . fully developed instances of the fleur-de-lis occur on p. . the fleur-de-lis, says voltaire, was obvi- ously derived from the top of a halberd ; but whence, then, the form of the halberd ? there is not much room for doubt that the actual form of the fleur-de-lis was suggested by the iris ; but for all that the ornamental shape is only a development of the old idea in a somewhat new direction. it seems as though, whether because of the perpetual recurrence in nature of radiating and m nature in ornament. ri . . concentric forms, or whether because of the inherently orna- mental disposition of the old lines, the ornamentist could . concentric forms, seaweed. never get quite away from them for long at a time; their influence appears even in the comparatively natural design on plate . certainly the glass painter in designing a cruciform niinbus, the detail of which is given ( ), had no idea that he was following clas- sic precedent at all ; nor he who stencilled the diaper . got of rays on the screen of a norfolk church (below). the rays of light arrange themselves more or less in the familiar order ; as do the lines of a cockle- shell (p. ),—so much so that it has been contended that the renaissance shell ornament is only a varia- tion of the anthemion. . gothic diaper. in the renaissance or- plate . $ b certy cenly rm an o to mb. centy. als th j akermann late gothic' pine ornaments. tradition in design. ornament. naments below, distinctly founded upon the ancient lines, the introduction of the oak-leaf and of the pods is not altogether happy; the designs are too plainly made up; on the other hand, the serrating of the leaves (p. ), and the substitution of pods (p. ) in their stead, are new departures, quite justi- . renaissance fied by success. it is only by such departure that success is possible. what has been done is done with, so far as design is concerned. its teach- ing is what is valuable, if only we would learn from it the way it was done. we waste our time in copying the forms of ancient art in- stead of trying to pene- trate its secret. it is by virtue of its eclecticism, not of its archæological accuracy that the work of such a man as the late william burgess has any hold upon us. he founded . renaissance ornament. himself, indeed, upon m nature in ornament. early french gothic, and he was inclined to like anything answering to that title, but he did not scruple to borrow from oriental or classic art what suited his purpose. and although his manner was archaic, his ideas were his own. he found room in his deco- ration even for a joke now and then, the very surest sign that he was quite at his ease in the habit of mediævalism he chose to assume. such assump- tion may not be altogether affecta- tion in some men. yet our art must be ours, whatever else it may be. . renaissance anthemion. a man may confine himself to the lines of tradition and follow them, if he will, or if he must ; but why follow traditional forms? there is no good tradition for that. (plate . conventional tulip frieze. "photo-turt', by james akerman, london, w.c. le chamberlaina h ichts atrastarello mon sa gitaratuarvestuvan b ril v aadates relim calais o gensersze una oprestereikningsbyxonline sorrison breeding a ndor u ngen aantalinis verran varionovo sector resu l ts ducakap ton yere crescono bersalin @ c pen avere saw ara . treatment. the obvious fitness of certain natural forms to certain purposes of ornament, and to certain processes of work, needs no pointing out. some simple leaves suggest of themselves how easily they could be rendered in painting. one stroke of the brush is enough to indicate a blade of grass or a willow-leaf; a series of touches will express at once the compound leaves of the acacia, tare, or other pod-bearing plants—or such leaves are used indefinitely (plate ), to suggest indeterminate foliage. again, the petals of many flowers may be painted with so many dabs of the brush. with the finger-tip one can indicate a bunch of berries, a berry at each touch. and not only in painting is this so ; each particular craftsman sees in nature the chance for his particular craft, and, if he is worth his salt, seizes it. it is clearly the business of the ornamentist to select the natural types which lend them- nature in ornament. selves to his purpose; not to take things as they come, but to choose for painting, forms which are paintable ; for carving, what is carvable ; for metal, malleable shapes; and so on. it would be absurd to adopt for any process of conventionalism a model of which the character is inevitably lost in such a process. you would not choose for rendering in coarse material a type characteristically delicate, for a colourless substance one depending altogether on its tint, for a dull material forms characteristically crisp, or for one diffi- cult to manipulate forms full of intricate and subtle detail. that would be at best only bravado. ordinarily it comes of sheer ignor- ance. in design, as elsewhere, brains count for something we have, then, to seek in nature, not only beautiful types, but types amenable to our artistic purpose and the means by which we intend to carry it out. the very mention of a material is often enough to suggest avail- able types in nature. indeed, it would be time well spent by the student if he were to ask himself from time to time a question or two of this kind :-to what decorative purpose are such and such plants fit? or, what plants are adapted to such and plate . "photo-tint, by james akorman. london w.c. peony frieze, -w.j. muckley. treatment. w il. such materials, to such and such treatment?— and so on. and it should be noted that, just as it is not in the most romantic, or what is called picturesque, scenery that the landscape painter finds subject matter for his pictures," so it is not in the most obviously elegant and grace- ful forms of growth that the designer seeks his inspiration. the convolvulus, the passion- flower, and the birch tree, do not lend them- selves especially to ornament. the experienced designer gets to know how useful some forms are, and how hopeless others. he knows, too, that nature, kind as she is to those who approach her in the spirit of conciliation, never does his work for him. natural form is resolved into ornament, that is to say, only by treatment. this is a point on which dogmatism is peculiarly dangerous, and advice of practi- cally no value. an artist must settle for himself what he shall render, and how he shall render it. no one but himself can determine for the individual what he can do. he may take by assault the position we pronounced impregnable. the conditions of success are that he should form a just estimate of his own powers, and regulate his ambition accordingly. · his treatment of a natural type is his nature in ornament. justification for choosing it. having selected a type, he should have no great difficulty in treating it. technical difficulties suggest to him fresh expedients in design. and if he really belongs to the “natural order” of designers, he works with perfect ease under all manner of limitations as to space, line, colour, and so on. the weight of conditions only steadies him. between the treatment which consists in merely composing natural forms with such regard to decorative needs as may constitute what by a stretch of terms is called orna- mental arrangement, and the reduction of such forms to ornament pure and simple, there is the widest possible range, the whole range of design in fact. the merely pictorial treatment, on the one hand, seems as remote from ornament as the absolutely abstract invention, on the other, is removed from nature. and yet it is impossible to deny that a painter, for example, may combine with a very natural rendering such regard to the conditions of design as will constitute a decidedly decorative, if not precisely orna- mental treatment. such a treatment is exemplified in plate , part of a frieze by mr. muckley. this is flower-painting, if you like, and not orna- plate "photo-tint", by james akerman london .w.c. fruit pattern, william morris. . nature in ornament. . would-be ornamental celandine. been derived from any one of a hundred dif- ferent plants, designed by a man who probably could not have painted a natural flower to save his life, fulfils almost per- fectly the conditions of ornament. albertolli's feeble celandine opposite fails, on the other hand, precisely for lack of treat . would-be ornamental ment. one great charm in more conventional treatment is that it reveals the individuality of the artist. mr. william morris is very plainly recognised in the design of the wall-paper on plate . it is not often that one sees in design the considerations of nature and of ornament so evenly balanced as they are here. the straight lines of the stems, for instance, are characteristically natural ; but by the direction they are made to take in the design they give diagonal bands, which fulfil a dis- tinct decorative purpose, preventing the eye from wandering away in the direction of other lines which would be less pleasing. the rendering of the fruits again, whilst it is dis- tinctly like nature, is emphatically ornamental. treatment. the balance between natural form and ornamental design is sometimes very evenly adjusted in chinese art. in plate , for ex- ample, forms of leaf and flower are given with considerable fidelity to nature. the art has consisted mainly in their systematic distri- bution. light-coloured water-lilies occur at regular intervals, backed each by a leaf in middle tint, with leaves in reverse of still darker tint connecting them, the light ground being diapered over with wave lines (appro- priate enough to the water-lily), so as to give value to the whiteness of the flowers. the scheme is here very simple, but it results in extremely beautiful colour, and nature is not outraged. there is a wonderful look of nature, too, in the quite ornamental render- ing of the “kiss-me- quick” below. compare it with the more artificial flower on plate . other instances of chinese treatment occur on plate , and on p: . the ornamentist arrives . chinese rendering of “kiss-me-quick.” nature in ornament. on t his werey dee . comparatively natural treatment of poppy. very soon at the conviction that it is of no use entering into any kind of competition with nature. he is not impressed by the antiquity of the old, old theory that what is fittest in nature is without more ado most fit for ornament. in the design on plate , the form goes about as far in the direction of nature as i am personally inclined to go. the growth is strictly according to nature. a cobæa scandens might grow so. all that has been done is to make it take lines which conform to the very arbitrary demands of the jacquard loom, and to choose details which were not merely graceful and characteristic, but capable of being rendered in two flat tints, or i should say textures, upon the ground. the border of field poppies above, con- forms in an equal degree to nature. the flowers are not only chosen and composed, they are made to grow as they were wanted. treatment. loka . comparatively natural treatment of fig. and again, in the fig border, above, the growth is as natural as i could bring myself to make it for the purpose for which it was designed. the next plate illustrates, on the other hand, how far i think it fit to go in departing from nature when it is desired to retain something of the character of the plant. the dandelion on plate is systematically re- duced to ornament. the lines it takes are, if not actually systematical, very carefully balanced. the jagged edge of the leaf assumes almost the form of a greek wave- line. the bracts develop into radiating lines of ornament. but though the growth is thus made formal, the serration of the leaves thus simplified, the bracts thus exaggerated—the idea is yet to suggest the dandelion, and no other thing in nature. plate . exe lewist. day "photo-tint" by james akerman.london.w.c. conventional dandelion. treatment. that is really the spirit in which to accept tradition. it is not something to be religiously preserved, but handed on. we are too much in the habit of adopting traditional forms, as though all necessary modification had been done for us. that is not how the good old work was done. it was the result of constant reference, if not to nature, at least to the conditions of the case ; and our modern essays in what is called "style” prove us often more gothic than the goth, more classic than ever greek was. the result of adopting any ready-made selection of types and details, the very signifi- cance of which is nowadays a thing of the past, is inevitable common-place and dreari- ness. our treatment should be not only modern but individual. the adoption of the old lines is pardonable only on the assumption that the perfect rendering has been found and cannot be bettered. that may be so occasionally. and one readily admits there are render- ings so perfect in their way that they must always influence us; but even though the old rendering were perfect, what was perfect then is rarely quite 'what is wanted now ; and so it cannot fairly be contended that tradition, powerful as it is, has any right xi. animals in ornament. no doubt the most amenable model for orna- ment is to be found in vegetable growth. this is not because it is without order—the anatomy of plants needs, indeed, as careful study as that of bones and muscles—but because in vegetation the proportions of the parts are naturally subject to such infinite variety, that, so long as one obeys the general law of growth, there is no great fear of over- stepping the bounds of verisimilitude ; and verisimilitude, not "truth to nature,” is the law to which ornament owes obedience. the forms of birds and beasts lend them- selves less kindly, but still more kindly than the human form, to ornamental manipulation. the less, that is to say, one is likely to resent a liberty with the normal proportions of a thing, the more readily it can be turned to account. it is not surprising, then, that the orna- mentist has sought his inspiration mainly in n plate san japanese cranes. animals in ornament. something like sheer perversity on the part of the artist. whatever may be the temptation to intro- duce into a design anything which will occupy an empty space and complete the composi- tion, without regard to natural fitness at all, it is really as absurd, when you think of it, to put together night moths and daisies, or butterflies and evening primroses, as it would be to paint peacocks strutting about on our northern shores, or polar bears prowling in the jungle. it is not meant to say, of course, that in ornament only the particular creature which preys upon a plant should ever be associated with it. but it is an additional source of interest when such creatures have some ex- cuse over and above that of filling a vacant space. here, as everywhere, nature herself will often furnish the designer with a valuable hint. notice the bronze-green beetles forag- ing in the full-blown rose. see the bees on the sunflower : i have found them diapering its plain disc in the most interesting manner; but i never remember to have seen that inci- dent made use of in ornament, not even when the sunflower reigned for a brief moment of fashion over all english ornament. you may have noticed also how the common n nature in ornament. soovivad gdget elee la c ovaur des yek decida den ongr ess . dolphins used as ornament. george fox. broom, of which the foliage is so insignificant as to go for little, is sometimes dotted over after a shower of rain with the daintiest little snails, whose delicately-marked shells form quite a feature in the pattern of the shrub. it is a very common fault in modern orna- ment to introduce into it animals or human figures for the sake of bringing them in- as though merely by their introduction the design gained an additional artistic value. it is only when such figure or animal serves some distinctly ornamental purpose that it does so, only then that it ceases to detract from the value of the design. figures or animals in ornament should themselves be part of the ornament—as they are in the designs of signorelli and holbein (p. and plate ), and as they are in the frieze above. the dolphins there are not mere porpoises but plate . japanese tortoises nature in ornament. c . ' a.. . lu e ....series are ...... . diaper of storks and chrysanthemuin flowers combined. natural action are rendered, is such as to make us feel that the graphic power of the artist was well under the control of his decorative sense or instinct. their remarkable appreciation of what is characteristic in natural form enabled the japanese the more effectively to reduce such natural form to absolute ornament. to adapt a bird shape to the circular shape, as on p. , or to express the action of flight in a few strokes of the brush, as on the same page, appears to be as easy to a japanese as it would be difficult to us. his ornamental faculty is still more plainly shown in a diaper such as that above. are they storks or chrysanthemums of which it is made up? he has so successfully combined the character- istics alike of bird and flower that you are left in wonder as to which it was he adapted to animals in ornament. . dragon-fly diaper-japanese. the likeness of the other. it is so essentially and so simply a diaper, that it seems not so much to have been designed, as to have grown out of a natural likeness between the flower in profile and the bird in flight—which likeness would, however, never by any chance have occurred to us but for the designer. similarly, the diaper of insects, above, is so obvious, when we see it done, that we scarcely appreciate the ingenuity with which the dragon-flies range themselves in hexagonal order. the crested bird, by the way, on p. , forms once again something very like a flower. absolutely archaic or non-natural creatures lend themselves very readily to diaper work. this is illustrated in the diaper of bats over- leaf and in the primitive patterns from peru on plate . the peruvian attempts at human or semi-human form strike us only by their comicality ; but the nondescript creatures in plate win audi . ey www narum www wwwwwwwwww www shumica. up to fkel! hoto-lith) .anival st holborn ec ww on sicilian silk patterns. wmwamini ryny ammur wawawa www ra my warna wa mwm vlastimilla miti ha ta hili ndip unc schwall film do animals in ornament. seemse sesu w ulle . bird diaper by wm. burges. imitators of lucca and elsewhere in italy, made considerable use of animal form in their patterns—carrying it, indeed, to the extremest limit in actual pattern-work. there was usually, one may presume, some heraldic significance in the creatures they represented (plate ); but there is a lesson in the way they are introduced, and in their treatment, especially in the way their broad masses contrast with the smaller foliage and other such detail associated with them. fan- tastic they often are, but still they are quite natural enough. the continual recurrence of creatures more like life would be intolerable. the fault in the otherwise amusing pattern overleaf is that one cannot put up with the same little twins ad infinitum. nature in ornament. birds are very frequently to be found amidst the arabesques of the renaissance, with which they are not, it must be confessed, always in keeping. the introduction of a bird is rather a cheap solution of the difficulty there may be in occupying any awkward interval in the scroll itself without in any way interfering with the grace of its lines or the ease of its curves. it was quite a common practice to terminate a pilaster or other tall panel with an eagle taken bodily from the imperial roman standard, its feet planted firmly on the rim of a vase, its wings amply and very conveniently filling those topmost angles of the panel so diffi- cult in many instances satis- factorily to oc- cupy. this is well enough, once in a way, if only the eagle be not too much of an eagle for its place. or- dinarily the birds pecking . repeating figure pattern. its place or r $ plate . sas loucun wuuhuo denumirantau "photo-tint, by james akerman london w.c. th century wood carving. animals in ornament. . . . conventional peacock border-indian. at berries or what not in renaissance ara- besque, as on plate (and in the roman work from which they are borrowed), are comparatively too real. they would be more in place had they been modified in conformity with the ornament about them. the oriental ornamentists were invariably more careful in this respect. the peacocks, for example, at the head of the page, whilst like enough to nature to be recognised at a glance, are quite conventional enough to correspond with the foliage ; and their value as masses of solid colour amidst the smaller and more broken detail is none the less on that account. as a rendering of the bird, and especially of the bird's wing, the indian example leaves much to be desired-how much will be seen if you compare it with the ancient egyptian renderings. the vultures over- leaf, and the hawk on p. , afford types of animals in ornament. tiny cupid's wing, for example, just budding from his chubby shoulders, the mere germ of a wing, seems to belong more intimately to his body than any other form of wing yet invented. still more difficult is it satisfactorily to arrange the wings about a cherub's head. one remembers in certain old windows a glory of colour resolving itself, as you look, into a mystery of mingled wings and angel faces; but the attachment of the wings is best not too closely inquired into. neither is it well to consider too accurately the mechanique of the wings in which della robbia embeds his sweetest of child faces. one is too thankful for their beauty to blame him for not having accomplished what is after all impossible. a coutli muutuu be emmtitwa ! paninin latt wp w wood do w woon vadovas . egyptian wing treatment-hawk. nature in ornament. the idea of wings in the place of arms (a common occurrence enough) or in the place of ears (as may be seen in the beautiful bronze head of hypnos, in the british museum), seems more anatomically possible, and may be most ornamentally rendered. in dealing with quadrupeds a single device has for the most part sufficed : alike in the winged bull of assyria, in the greek gryphon, and in the evangelistic symbols of early christian art, the wing is made usually to grow from the shoulder so as to form, as it were, one member with the fore leg-remov- ing the creature, indeed, by so much from nature, but not bringing it anywhere near to the ideal winged creature. the mechanism of the trick is too apparent. there is none of that mystery by which alone we might pos- sibly be impressed. in sansovino's griffins, on plate , one misses the fore legs no doubt, but the wings which take their place seem on that very account to be anatomically more possible. the outspread bird's wing has always been considered a most valuable "property” in ornament; but although it is usually the bird's wing that one meets with in design, the bat's wing occurs also, more or less in associa- tion with devils and dragons, as the bird's plate go chinese sese butterflies c.f. kell, photo-litho.o.furnival st holioan, e.c. conventional butterflies animals in ornament. es . bat diaper. wing with angels and cherubim. the bat itself is a symbol very frequent in chinese art and its derivative japanese (pp. , , and above). it is represented, however, in the gayest of gay colours, and in shape so turned to ornament that it is difficult at first to identify it. were either form or colour more naturally rendered the effect would cer- tainly be less distinctly decorative.. the wing of the butterfly is so obviously ornamental that one wonders how it is that only the celestials have turned it to any good account. in their embroideries especially the chinese have made admirable use of it (plate )—ornamentalising it sometimes in the most extravagant manner, as, for example in the most important instance on plate , where the under-wings are fringed somewhat in the manner of the tail of their sacred bird which itself is a sight to see. that the anatomy of the creatures found in nature in ornament. ornament is so seldom all that a naturalist might desire (the creatures on plate are more realistic than an ornamentist could wish), is sometimes, and to some extent, owing to the exigences of ornamental design; but it is more often the fault of insufficient acquaint- ance on the part of the designer with the facts of zoology. . few men have even nowadays the chance of studying nature from end to end; and in the middle-ages the “zoo" was not within a shilling cab-fare of the church. the medi- æval sculptor, however, was, according to his possibilities, more studious of nature than we are accustomed to suppose : there is abundant evidence of that in his work. his compara- tive ignorance saved him at all events from too directly recalling this or that zoological type in the demon or dragon of his invention -and presumably of his belief. of the decorative, as distinguished from the ornamental rendering of animal form, this is not the occasion to speak at length. the egyptian lion statues and the assyrian bas- reliefs show what may be done in adapting it to decoration ; and these abstract renderings come very near to perfection-nearer, at all events, than any modern has come with his zoological realism. plale . "photo-tint, by james akerman, london.w.c. • modern german repaisance- a. seder. animals in ornament. the sculptors of these master-works had no occasion very likely happy mortals !—to concern themselves about treatment; their manner was traditional, and art had not yet “emancipated” itself from the control of fit- ness. possibly the sculptor exercised no sort of conscious restraint over himself. he was a slave, perhaps, and did as he was bid, or a member of a caste content to work patiently on in the accustomed way. it matters little to us why he did thus and thus so long as he did it. the moral of his work is the same. it is a plea (even though the artist thought of no such thing) for self-restraint on our part. where he stopped short instinctively, never dreaming of realism, we may stay our hands deliberately, knowing the value of restraint. this we should do in decoration. in orna- ment, the modification of all natural form being inherently essential to it, even the human form divine must step down from its pedestal and submit itself to the lowly use to which it is put. i have mentioned at least two old masters who could, without offence to nature, bend the human shape to ornamental purposes. in our own day the late alfred stevens and walter crane have shown them- selves equal to the task. if others cannot modify the human figure without degrading nature in ornament. it, that may be an argument for omitting it from their scheme of ornament, it is no excuse for the introduction of raw nature in the place of art. it is one of the ill effects of compelling every student of design to acquire a certain acquaintance with the figure, that he is tempted to introduce it in season and out of season into his compositions, at the cost very often of consistency and ornamental effect. one is inclined to ask what the little love on plate is doing amongst the scrollery. it would be at least as satisfactory without him. . embroidered bat-chinese. xii. the element of the grotesque. that the element of the grotesque has been abundantly abused in ornamental design is no argument against the discreet use of it in design. but if we would reconcile reasonable persons to its use we must ourselves keep within the bounds of reason—not of fact, indeed, but of sober fancy. one has a right to expect of creatures, how- ever remote from natural possibility, a greater degree of consistency than the artists of the renaissance appear to have thought necessary. we are not satisfied, for example, that a substantial beast should suddenly taper off into wiry lines obviously and absurdly out of relation to it, or that its neck should be so inordinately lengthened that when one comes upon the head at last it is with something of a surprise : our dissatisfaction is aggravated if that head should not after all tally with the body, as when a human head is joined to the trunk of a quadruped. nature in ornament. it is a peculiarly unpleasant shock to us to find that a creature has not only two heads, but one at each extremity of its body: even of a myth we expect a beginning and an end. a scroll may, so to speak, blossom into creatures, just as a creature may develope into foliage ; but it should be that-development; it is not enough that the tail of a beast break out into vegetation. we don't expect a creature so far developed as to have what can be called a tail, to make quite a new departure in the direction of foliage or scrollery ; and we resent such freaks, as evincing a want of taste in the artist. it would be mere pedantry to pretend to define in so many words the precise limits within which one may take liberties with animal forms; but one may safely say that the more familiar they are to us, and the more realistically they are rendered, the more dangerous it is to take them. the grotesque which reminds us obviously of some par- ticular animal, is apt to strike one as if it changed into ornament instead of developing into it; and wherever a creature has the appearance of having been put together the limits of discretion have been passed. those creations are happiest which seem to belong entirely to the imagination of the artist, plate ! "photo-tint", by james akormon. london.w.c. century, italian arabesque. the element of the grotesque. to have been conceived in the spirit of grace. we cease to judge them then by any standard but that of fit design and beauty. there is a peculiar difficulty in harmoniously combining in one creature the characteristics of various animals. the acceptable grotesque must be less a combination of creatures than their hybrid offspring in the artist's brain -a dream, a remembrance, a fancy—any- thing but a patchwork. there exist, no doubt, in nature, impossible-looking animals like the giraffe, with its preposterous neck and absurd little misfit in the way of a head at the end of it; but that is no excuse for dispropor- tion in design. it is not as with plant form, where we are at perfect liberty to shorten or elongate the stalks and branches, seeing that under certain conditions nature will do much the same, modi- fying them, indeed, almost out of our knowing. she seldom takes such liberties with the limbs of animals, and when she does we take excep- tion to it, and find deformity in the abnormal proportion. the artist may, in short, only do what he can make seem right. the romancer who can imagine, like dumas, impossible persons involved in impossible adventures, and yet interest you in them, make you for the nature in ornament. moment believe while you read—or at least forget to doubt—has, so far as you are con- cerned, created them. the ornamentist may equally be permitted to invent what never was or could be, if he can but persuade you, while you look, i will not say to believe in the impossible, but to accept it. the taste of the artist and the prejudices of the critic will not always go together. there will always be risk of offending susceptibilities in introducing the grotesque element into design. on the other hand, to repudiate the grotesque is to give up a valuable element in design, one difficult to secure by means of pure ornament—and worth having, as it seems to me, even at some risk of offence. recognising the temptation to its abuse, and the remarkable unanimity with which artists of the renaissance succumbed to temptation, i am bold to assert the possibility, and the exis- tence too, of such tasteful and artistic use of the grotesque as only a purist could find it in his uncomfortable conscience to reject. to persons of a somewhat rigid way of thinking, and they are not a few, the impossi- bility of grotesque creatures is quite enough to condemn them; they see only, as they would say, the absurdity of it all; they would pass over the grotesque as a mere blot upon plate . un ct. liphoto litho, furnival . .lbon, .c. late gothic lllumination. the element of the grotesque. italian arabesque, of which it is so essential a characteristic. i would maintain on the con- trary, that something at least of the variety and pregnancy of quattro- and cinque-cento design is due to it, and accept it for what it is, a most convenient and effective means of counteracting the dangerous tendency of mere ornament to lapse into monotony and all-overishness. moreover, whatever we may think of it indi- vidually, it would seem as though not only the cinque-centists, but artists before and after them, came to the unanimous conclusion that they could not well get on without something of the sort—and he must be a marvellously clever fellow who can do without it all that the craftsmen of the renaissance did with its help. an artist must obey his conscience. i should be sorry if mine cut off from me a resource so helpful in design, so near at hand, so needful. the fact is, a mere scrollwork of something like vegetable form scarcely suffices. the designer wants here and there certain masses, or weight, which it is difficult to get in the form of flowers, fruits, and such like. the difficulty has been solved sometimes, or rather shirked, by the introduction of actual figures, nature in ornament. human or animal, among the foliage, excusable only when they are reduced, by their treat- ment, to strict conformity with the surrounding foliage. the nearer such creatures approach to reality, the more incongruous they appear in the midst of non-natural foliage. you feel that in the italian decoration on plate , the masks and griffins belong, in a way, fairly well there; and the goat-legged figures are not so much amiss; but the life-studies below are entirely out of place. so are the little birds in the corners. as for the disproportionate duck, it beats the record of absurdity. dispro- portion of this kind is a very common failing in design. for, to tell the truth, the difficulty of keeping figures, human or animal, at all in scale with the surrounding ornament is very considerable. in the persian panel on p. , the ducks are disproportionately small. and again, in plate for, the figures are for once overpowered by the ornament. the artist was no doubt naïvely pious : to us such an “ annunciation ” is simply grotesque. in the case of creatures frankly ornamental, with no claim to possibility, the danger of disproportion is in great part avoided. you are enabled by means of them riot only to get just the weight and mass you require, but to plate lon aa w vavan arusha "photo-tont, by james akerman, london lustre plaques. nature in ornament. mental lines, those of the human figure came natu- rally to him, and he was so familiar with every turn of it that it was easy to him to bend it absolutely to his purpose — which purpose was orna- ment. it is sel- dom indeed that a master of the figure cares enough about ornament to submit himself to its conditions. when he does, it is probable that he was well grounded in it before ever he took to the figure. that was certainly so in holbein's case. you can see in holbein's work (plate ), how . pilaster by signorelli. the element of the grotesque. every line and every pose was dictated by considerations of ornament, for all the dra- matic intention he managed often to combine with it. it is pretty plain to the designer that such dramatic quality grew out of the lines of his ornament, and did not suggest it. it is that extra something which the consummate artist always throws in—it was not bargained for in the ornament. signorelli's pilaster (p. ), is more entirely made up of the figure—and the upper portion of it illustrates to some extent the dangers which beset the painter. the lower half illustrates how much can be done in figure- work almost alone. only a designer, per- haps, can realise how studiously the lines of the figures, actively engaged as these may be, have been not merely controlled by decorative requirements but suggested by them. the figures were designed, not worked into orna- ment; they are conceived or remembered, not taken from his sketch-book. like holbein, signorelli too delights to find a reason for the form dictated by ornament. the work of these men does not go to show that the figure is peculiarly amenable to orna- mental use ; but it shows at least to what good ornamental purpose it may be put by those who have thoroughly mastered both the nature in ornament. . grotesque iron grille-german. figure and ornament. they are not many- and never were. sansovino's monsters on plate are ex- travagant, but still ornamental. the lines are so cleverly schemed, and the effect is so satis- factorily decorative, that the strongest objec- tion to such detail as that of the two-legged quadrupeds at the top of the panel is swal- lowed up in admiration of the composition as a whole. but sansovino's design is by no means a model of what arabesque ornament should be. it is an instance, rather, of what a consummate artist may be excused for doing. the artist begins by blotting in his design, intent at first mainly upon the lines of his composition and the distribution of its masses. i take it that it was in order to get the requisite weight of form that he roughed out certain bolder masses, half accidental perhaps, which suggested animals, much as one sees faces in the fire. once he has resolved upon such masses in his composition, the designer is bound to give them an interest worthy of mate "photo-tont, by james akormon, london.w.c. grotesque panel, by sansovino. nature in ornament. ment springs, as in plate , or the outcome of the scroll, as in my design on plate , the one essential thing is that it should be, not merely in harmony with it, but part of it; gro- tesque and arabesque must be one growth : the least shock to our sense of congruity is disenchantment. just so in scandinavian and celtic orna- ment (plate ). those strange and impos- sible birds, beasts, and dragons, which you discover in the interlacings whether of carving or illumination, had doubtless a symbolic origin ; but, so far as carver or penman was concerned, he never conceived them first as independent and then twisted them into knot- work; it is perfectly plain to my mind that he gladly accepted the symbol because he knew the value of emphatic masses in orna- ment, and found it most convenient to end his strapwork with a head, to broaden it out somewhere into a body, to make it branch into legs or wings, as best suited his composi- tion. in short, he invented his interlacings, and then by the addition of legs, wings, head, and so on, converted it into a sort of dragon. abuse of the grotesque, which goes far to account for the disfavour with which any- thing of the kind is by some regarded, comes partly at least from the fact of the plate . aa * grotesque figure, marco dente da ravenna. nature in ornament. will find the simplest solution of the difficulty in removing his imagined creatures consider- ably from nature. they should be fancies, not misshapen or distorted facts. the foliation of animal form, fantastic as it may be, should seem to us almost a matter of course—what, under certain impossible conditions, nature might possibly have done. it is so in the land of dreams. the objection to the animals, grotesque or · natural, which figure among the scrollwork with which the loggie of the vatican are deco- rated, as also in the panel from mantua by giulio romano (plate ), is that they are inconsistent with the ornament; it is too thin to support them, too conventional to har- monise with them ; they are not part of the ornament but patches in it. this is a common fault, more apparent in painting than in sculpture. in colour other than monochrome one expects something in the direction of natural colour; and the sphinx, for example, which is half flesh colour and half fur colour, looks more than ever a compound and not a creation. so also with the texture which a painter is tempted to give. the vaguer a monster the more possible he appears. realise him and he becomes ridicu- lous. when hair and scales and feathers are plate . po. s eoseo w c.f. kell, hoto-litho. .furnival st holborneo grotesque scroll. nature in ornament. hotuottamuoti minitalunteers her wi . ornamental dragon-japanese. ornamental as to partake, as it often does, more of the nature of foliage than of feathers. over and over again the sculptors of the renaissance have shown that it is possible to endow a monster with members which are neither arms nor wings, and yet something more alive than mere scroll-work. the one essential thing, of course, is that such members should belong to the creature. the japanese dragon above conforms ad- mirably to the conditions of ornament. he does not even break out into scrollery—he is the scroll. his construction is anatomically impossible: from the curl of his mane to the turn of his claws he is unlike any imaginable creature. yet he is full of life and go, grace- ful without any loss of energy, and altogether one with himself—a fantastically ornamental creation. i have confined my remarks on grotesques . plate un asis c.f kell, photo-litho. ,furnival st holioan, e.o. keltic interlaced ornament. nature in ornament. conscious aim at anything of the kind on our part argues us wanting in that first essential towards practical design, common-sense—if, indeed, it might not justify a certificate of insanity. as the work of arctic american indians one recognises in the design on p. qualities decidedly ornamental; as to founding ourselves upon it in any way, we might as well throw off at once the clothes of civilisation and tatoo ourselves forthwith. plate ornamental wood- carving "photo-tint, by james aksman, london.w.c. conventional wing forms. nature in ornament. eif raft ya aans sa . diaper of spiuers' webs. by them alone would be much as if we estimated tropical scenery by the botanical specimens at kew. the impression one gets from a casual glance round any museum is that greek ornament is all very much alike; so is roman, and so is renaissance; and still more so is gothic, byzantine, assyrian, or egyptian ornament. undoubtedly there is always a certain dis- tinguishing character about the work of any ancient period, which is the first thing that strikes us about it. the family likeness asserts itself before everything to our unac- customed eyes. but as the shepherd knows his flock, though to us they are just sheep, so the artist detects, even in ancient art (which was not to our ideas particularly individual) the individuality of the craftsman ; and the more familiar he becomes with it the more he sees in it a variety of which at first he had no suspicion. plate lumromm "photo-tont" by james akertu on. london.w.c. japanese diapers ., with a meaning. still life in ornament. فحملهعحا . diaper of aan.es. on an ancient roman tripod in the louvre is carved a crown-imperial, quite conventional and yet quite unmistakable. the top-knot of leaves is very like the greek anthemion ; at the top is a bee; two more bees attack the flowers, and fill the gap where naturally no leaves occur; and again there are two others between the foot-leaves and the leaves of the stem, where there would be in nature an empty length of stalk. if an artist of our day had introduced such a composition into greek work he would have been accused of seeking inspiration rather from a japanese than from any classic source. the truth is that all ancient art was, as i said, once alive, difficult as it seems to be to us to realise that obvious fact. nevertheless it would appear that japanese art is not only more directly and spontaneously natural than, for example, classic art, but that its range is wider and more varied. japanese nature in ornament. . cloud and bat pattern. art has been fashionable, and is now for the moment under a cloud of disfavour, the inevit- able consequence of reaction. when that is dispersed we shall still perhaps continue to over-estimate or to undervalue it, according to our idiosyncrasy. but, whatever its short- comings in the way of grace and purity and dignity of form, there is no denying its dis- tinctive charm of spontaneity, variety, and freshness. no one was ever more alert to everything in the shape of ornament about him, more ready to seize a suggestion from nature, than the japanese craftsman. the snow falls, the . cloud pattern. . wave pattern. nature in ornament. see . wave pattern, and water-fowl. purposes of art pretending to no serious aim, such, for example, as that of the cotton printer. it is not essential that ladies' dresses or peasants' petticoats should be designed strictly on architectural lines. if, on the whole, inanimate nature has not been turned to full account in ornamental design, historic ornament exemplies pretty well its fitness to our purpose. the flames of fire—to go beyond still life—were only very occasionally made use of by the japanese (p. ), . wave pattern. very occasionally alla still life in ornament. . wave pattern. but they were a very common motif of orna- ment in gothic art, so common indeed as to give its character and its very name to the style we call flamboyant. in later times, william blake founded his wild style of ornament almost entirely upon flames, and there has been even a later sect, founding themselves upon him, whose ornament is still more alive with tongues of fire, still more restlessly flamboyant. humperdin prill plin i ith w . wave ornament. . wave ornament. nature in ornament. in gothic art, again, cloud patterns are of quite common occurrence, although so remote from anything aerial that it is only by the use to which they are put (as borders round a halo, for example) that one knows them to have any reference to clouds. that may be said also of chinese and japanese cloud patterns (p. ). the bats certainly help to reassure one that these odd forms do stand for clouds. the birds on p. are of similar service. at all events, there is some variety in the various jap- anese renderings. the lines of . wave and spray pattern. waves have from the first been used as ornament. the egyptian zigzag, the assyrian water-diaper, and the greek wave, are among the earliest border patterns. there is a late renaissance rendering of the classic wave on p. . ; rijeru tegrep liit slav ouenscha plate . . ottic mit s hann f rance c.f. kell, photo-litho. .furnival st holborn,e.o. seaweed pattern. still life in ornamient. . heraldic mantling. selves so beautiful in line and colour, that they are quite sufficient to form the motif of ornamental design. it is, however, mainly the scallop shell which has been turned to account in orna- ment-for symbolic reasons, originally, no doubt, but also because it is so obviously ornamental. it falls, indeed, very nearly into the lines of the anthemion, of which it has been contended the renaissance shell orna- ment is only a variation. but, as in the days of the renaissance, and of the roman empire before that, it was quite a common thing to supplement decoration in mosaic or stucco with actual cockle-shells embedded in the walls and pillars, it is natural to conclude that plate . oo oo oo j akermar po'o lith london peacock feather pattern-japanese. nature in ornament. zuaza pattern. for example in the doria chapel at ge- noa, shields, helmets, breastplates, swords; and other insignia of war can scarcely be called out of place ; but the conditions of ornament are not fulfilled by stringing such things together . persian peacock feather down the length of a pilaster. the composition on p. may or may not be ornamental—but it is not orna- ment. whatever excuse there may be in ancient art for the sacrificial emblem which occurs at the top of the pilaster, it has no significance, and no excuse in work of the renaissance. in work of our own day, the bull's head reminds one too much of the butcher's shop, and the classic ox-skull is still more un- pleasantly suggestive. artists of the renais- sance, however, seem to have seen no reason why they should not treat the skull orna- mentally. to me the rather graceful detail on p. loses all its charm when one realises that the cartouche is really a skull. it is possible, of course, to dispose almost any series of objects, natural or artificial, in still life in ornament. such order as to present what passes for an orna- mental appearance; repeat a shape several times over, and it forms a sort of pat- tern; but that is not ex- actly ornamental design. the occasional introduc- tion of such a thing as a cor- nucopia (plate ), or a vase (plates , , , &c.), is not only useful sometimes as affording a convenient start- ing point for growth, but it may be the means of in- troducing a mass which is very valuable in the com- position. in that respect the recurring vases in the centre plaque on plate , and in the border on plate , are useful, casually as they occur in the design. the most satisfactory of such vases are the least re- alistic. in persian art in particular we see the thing reduced to the mere outline of a vase filled in with orna- inent, which by its treat- ca . trophy panel. nature in ornament. ment contrasts with the floral ornament springing from it. an equally arbitrary rendering of the vase occurs on plate , the pattern on which must be taken to represent the water in it. the shield, the tablet, and the cartouche are so conspicuously useful in ornamental composition, that at certain periods of design artists seem with one accord to have relied mutlu in . renaissance skull ornament. upon them, to the exclusion of other and more fitting devices. used for its own sake, or merely for the convenience of composition, shield, tablet, or cartouche becomes a mere stock property, a shift or stop-gap in design. its introduc- tion is quite happy only when it is called for to bear a coat-of-arms, an inscription, a cypher, an emblem, or whatever may form still life in ornament. . swag of fruit bunches. little more than a border of leaves and fruit, strictly confined, it may be, within the lines of parallel mouldings. it looks as though the sculptor had felt the need of a break in this border, and so had crossed it by a ribbon at intervals. perhaps he felt there should be some beginning and some end to his border, and so he finished it with bows and loose ends. you cannot help seeing that his starting point was not so much the idea of a wreath as the idea of due enrichment. that his design resolved itself into a wreath was something in the nature of an accident. it happened so. in later renaissance swags you are often painfully aware how proud the artist was of his fruit bunches, and especially of the masterly way in which he could carve them. there is, it must be owned, a certain dandified self- sufficiency in the not ungraceful swag above, still life in ornament. pared with the “canopies,” which were the stock in trade of so many gothic craftsmen ; but it seems to me that, whether in true or (what was more usual) false perspective, such constructions are a very poor substitute for design. they have been employed pretty freely, and will be so again no doubt. but the unprejudiced taste is so little likely to be led astray by their attractions, it is hardly necessary to point out that the device is really banal beyond endurance. symbolic ornament. hukogujali winnaume lllllllllliii! ! !llllllll . egyptian sacred beetle. adequate craftsmanship. the rest of the world finds craftsmanship inadequate, and asks for something more. we find accordingly that in ancient and mediæval ornament there is usually an under- current of symbolism. indeed, one might safely say it is always there, and that when we do not see it, it is only the distance that dims its meaning to us. there is probably no single detail of ancient ornament to which a sym- bolic origin could not plausibly be assigned by those who give themselves up to the inter- pretation of such mysteries. eastern ornament, in particular, is apt to em- body some sentiment or meaning. egyptian art was, practically speaking, hieroglyphic picture-writing (plate ) of the same kind (only much more nobly developed) as the totems of the north american indians. persian ornament, again, is always inspired by some poetic notion—it is, in fact, a sort of plate goo re . s sp photo-tint, by james akerman london.w.c marguerite panels, wood carving. nature in ornament, in my own rendering of the marguerite on plate , the idea was that the meaning should be there (just as there is a meaning . heraldic oak—italian renaissance. in the arrangement of the flowers) for the satisfaction of a personal sentiment, but that it should not be too obvious. for one's own sake and for those whom it may concern, . padaniemi bilde borbeite day nature in ornament a hemcnway e-f dition, ac .', t. vernon st. boston, mass. origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art william h. holmes [extract from the fourth annual report of the bureau of ethn l y wash inc, ton government printing office s.sc i lmks.j origin of ceramic forms. origin of form. in order to convey a clear idea of the bearing of the preceding state- ments upon the history of form and ornament, it will be necessary to present a number of points in greater detail. the following synopsis will give a connected view of various possible origins of form. (by adventition. origin of fern, by imitation {§f "xctaimodeu. i by invention. forms suggested by adventition. the suggestions of accident, especially in the early stages of art, are often adopted, and become fruitful sources of improvement and progress. by such means the use of clay was discovered and t he ceramic art came into existence. the accidental indentation of a mass of clay by the foot, or hand, or by a fruit-shell, or stone, while serving as an auxiliary in some simple art, may have suggested the making of a cup, the sim- plest form of vessel. the use of clay as a cement in repairing utensils, in protecting com- bustible vessels from injury by fire, or in building up the walls of shal- low vessels, may also have led to the formation of disks or cups, after- wards independently constructed. in any case the objects or utensils with which the clay was associated in its earliest use would impress their forms upon it. thus, if clay were used in deepening or mending vessels of stone by a given people, it would, when used independently by that people, tend to assume shapes suggested by stone vessels. the same may be said of its use in connection with wood and wicker, or with vessels of other materials. forms of vessels so derived may be said to have an adventitious origin, yet they are essentially copies, although not so by design, and may as readily be placed under the succeeding head. forms derived by imitation. clay has no inherent qualities of a nature to impose a given form or class of forms upon its products, as lave wood, bark, bone, or stone. it is so mobile as to be quite free to take form from surroundings, and where extensively used will record or echo a vast deal of nature and of coexistent art. in this observation we have a key that will unlock many of the mys- teries of form. in the investigation of this point it will be necessary to consider the processes by which an art inherits or acquires the forms of another art or of nature, and how one material imposes its peculiarities upon an- other material. in early stages of culture the processes of art are closely akin to those of nature, the human agent hardly ranking as more than fokm and ornament in ceramic art. section in which pouch-like nets and baskets, a, were formerly in use and in which the pots were often modeled. invention of form. in the early stages of art, forms are rarely invented outright and i shall not stop to consider the subject here. modification of form. the acquisition of new materials, the development of new uses, the employment of new processes of manufacture, and many other agencies lead to the multiplication of forms through modification. the proc- esses by which highly differentiated forms are reached are interesting throughout and repay the closest study. a preliminary classification of the various causes that lead to modi- fication is given in the following synopsis: modification of form by iulventition . by intention ( lo assume form, retain form. incapacity of mat incapacity of the artisan changes in method of manufacture. changes of environment. changes of use. lack of use. influence of new or exotic forms, etc. <to enhance usefulness. j to please fancy for t,le beantifnl- ( for the grotesque. modification by adventition. incapacity of material.—it is evident at a glance that clay lacks the capacity to assume and to retain many of the details of form found in antecedent vessels. this necessarily results in the alteratiou or omission of these features, and hence arise many modifications of original forms. the simple lack of capacity on the part of the potter who undertook to reproduce a model would lead to the modification of all but the most simple shapes. the acquisition of the art by a superior or an inferior race, or one of different habits would lead to decided changes. a people accustomed to carrying objects upon the head, on acquiring earthen vessels would shape the bases and the handles to facilitate this use. improvements in the methods of manufacture are of the greatest im- portance in tbe progress of an art. the introduction of the lathe, for example, might almost revolutionize form in clay. as arts multiply, clay is applied to new uses. its employment in the manufacture of lamps, whistles, or toys would lead to a multitude of dis- tinct and unique forms. from the fine arts library fogg art museum harvard university הוקי קוקין, גולגול ח גילוח גילוח' קויל קוק וק, ו), ולכן פול ג ולן קול קול dya ni w.m. cabot. christmas . ornamente its application lewis f. day ornamente its application, abook for students treating in a prac tical way of the re lation of design to material,tools and methods of work by lewis f day author of pattern de sign, nature in orn ament, lettering in ornament. alphabets, london, b.t.batsford new york:scribner's sons printed at the darien press, edinburgh. preface. this book is based (like “pattern design ”) upon the founda- tion of an earlier volume. but, though it covers the ground of “the application of ornament,” now out of print, it covers a larger area. it is really a new book. here and there a frag- ment of the earlier one is incorporated in it; but even that has been shaped anew ; for it seemed, looking back upon the work of fifteen years ago, there was little in it which could not be more simply said. the aim of “ornament and its appli- cation” is throughout practical. it appeals, however, less exclusively than some of my books to students of design; in fact, it is addressed to all who are really interested in orna- ment. to those not practically acquainted with the subject, it may serve as introduction to that quality of workmanlike- ness which to a workman is of the very essence of design. what i have endeavoured to do is, to show the clear and close relation of design to workmanship; to arouse interest in a side of art which, regarding it in the rather forbidding light of "technique,” lovers of art are accustomed to dismiss from their minds as no concern of theirs; and so to open their eyes to what is indeed a never-failing source of interest in art. much of what is said will of course be familiar to artists preface. and workmen practically engaged in design. to them i can only hope to open out perhaps a wider view of the limits of their craft; to show the difference between certain arts, crafts or trades commonly grouped together, and the likeness between others not usually regarded as in any way connected ; and, generally, to stimulate workers in the arts to a more comprehensive study of their particular subject. "ornament and its application” will be found to contain a great deal of information at once necessary to the student and interesting to the more general reader; but that is rather by the way. its purpose is not to cram the student with knowledge, profitable only in proportion as it comes to him through personal experience or individual study; not so much to inform the reader as to stir in him a desire to inform him- self; to indicate how much there is in ornament which nearly concerns him, did he but know it; to set him a-thinking and a-seeking, and to suggest directions in which search will be fruitful. if, when all is said, and read, he is still unconvinced that ornament is dependent upon conditions, perhaps purely practical ; that the various styles of ornament, “historic,” as we call them, grew to a great extent out of such conditions ; and that the secret of appropriate design is in cheerful obedience to them, i have failed, so far as he is concerned, in the purpose of my book. with regard to the illustrations, there remained constantly something of interest to be told about thein which was not relevant to the point apropos to which they are referred to in the text. this, whether it refers to the source of the work, its author, date, country, or present whereabouts, its preface. vii colour or the detail of its execution, will be found in the comparative and explanatory index of illustrations. a friendly critic of “ pattern design ” found fault with it that it did not discuss the appropriateness of pattern to the process of its execution. the subject was purposely reserved for the present volume. the relation of ornament to natural form is, again, the subject of a separate treatise. lewis f. day. taviton street, gordon square, w.c., ist september . contents chapter page . introductory - ii. conventional treatment - iii. applied art. . iv. the character which comes of treat- ment - - - - - v. the teaching of the tool - vi. against the grain . vii. where to stop - - viii. where to stop (continued) ix. more than enough x. from process to process - xi. allied processes - xii. like to like . . xiii. partnerships. . xiv. practical design .. xv. obedient ornament - - xvi. the adaptation of ornament petition xvii. the possible palette . xviii. the inevitable line - index . . . . . . - comparative & explanatory index of illustrations. b. m. =british museum. v. & a. m.=victoria and albert museum. : : : : : animal forms in ornament. see figure incised stone - ivory - • wall-paper • woven pattern · , , appliquÉ embroidery. bed furniture. the pattern on the strip to the left, and the ground of that to the right, cut out of one piece of velvet, and laid on to the paler figured silk ground. venetian, ca. . v. & a. m. . . . see also embroidery patchwork patchwork : : basket-work, african . . . . . . blown glass. see glass - - - - , , bookbinding. see cut leather . - - filigree - leather binding , , , onlaid leather onlay - - silver gilt silver gilt . . . . , tooling . . . boulle. see inlay - - - - - - - - index of illustrations. figure brass writing-box lid, engraved, the ornament bright upon a blackened ground. cashmere. v. & a. m. - - brassheaded nail work.-from a chest covered with russia leather and mounted with brass. english. seventeenth century - - - - - - - - brick. wall decoration, with enamels or glazes separated by raised outline. from the palace of darius at susa. assyrian. louvre - - - - brocade. see woven pattern - - - - - , , bronze. candlestick encrusted with silver. arab. fifteenth century. spitzer collection - - - - - - detail from a screen in the cathedral of prato. brunelleschi ? - - - - - portable font, cast, hammered, and chased. french ? twelfth century. spitzer collection - see also onlay - ioi handle brooches of the safety pin type. ancient irish. b.m. mi brushwork. see diagram lettering pottery • , , , byzantine ornament from the church of theotokos, constantinople - · cabinet in oak. french. sixteenth century. (v. & a. m. ?) carved sandstone glazed with vitreous enamels. turke- stan. v. & a. m. - - - - - carving. see marble, stone, wood carving, &c. carpet. see woven pattern - - - - - - index of illustrations. xiii chains. see figure goldsmith's work . . . - champlevÉ and cloisonnÉ enamel. blended colours. italian. eleventh century. b.m. - italian. eleventh century. b.m. - - champlevÉ enamel. blended colours. german. twelfth century. b.m. enamel. bronze. french. thirteenth century. b.m. - enamel. designs by johannes baptist? constantino. see also incised - - inlay · , , , , , pierced bowl - - pottery - - - - - - - , chasing. see silver . , : silver gilt - : : . . . . chip carving. side of a box in the form of a book. bought in spain - - chiselling. see iron . . . . . . , , , circle. see diagrams . - - - , , circular ceremonial fan or flabellum with carved ivory handle. in the bargello at florence. twelfth century. also diagrams to illustrate the rings and radiating lines which the decoration of a circular space is apt to follow - - - - cloisonnÉ. enamel on copper. the cloisons of twisted wire, the enamel opaque blue, green, yellow, and black on a white ground. part of a bookcover. russian. v. & a. m. - see also champlevÉ - . - , inlay - - , , , counterchange pattern. mosaic and inlay - . see also mosaic - - - - - - - - xiv index of illustrations. figure crystal hanap, cut and mounted in enamelled gold. italian. sixteenth century. spitzer collection - - cut leather bookbinding. hungarian . . . cut linen with needlepoint insertion. italian. seventeenth century. v. & a. m. - - - - - - see also lace lace . . . . . . . . - damascening. design slightly enlarged from original. sixteenth century see also designs - onlay - designs - : : : : : : : damask. see woven pattern - - - - - - darning upon handmade net. old hungarian . .. designs for damascening in silver, or etching on steel. german. sixteenth century. virgil solis - - - diagram of the lines on which the decoration of the circle may be set out. . ringed. . bisymmetrical. . rayed. . diamond. . pentagon-flowing. . hexagon-flowing. , . cruciform. . ring on lines of the cross. . flowing round. ii. flowing in opposite directions. . flowing - showing cruciform construction of design. the unit of repeat= of the whole. but for the interlacing of the pattern it would work as § repeat, turning over - - showing lines on which the decoration of the circle may be set out - - - - - - - to show how the consideration of ties may affect design. the upper border is a brushwork patiern which can equally well be stencilled. when it came to the stencilling of the ground instead of the ornament, the necessary modification of the forms led to something like a new design - - see also circular ceremonial fan - index of illustrations. xv door. figure oak, carved and inlaid, and clamped with pierced and ena- melled iron. william burges. latter part of nineteenth century - - - - - - - wooden. from s. gengoult, toul. gothic. france - see also . wood carving - . . . . . - , , io joinery. embossed and lacquered leather. designed by stephen webb - leather case. italian. sixteenth century. spitzer collection wall-paper, gilt and lacquered. l. f. d. . - see also embroidery - - - - enamelled candlestick - gold cup - goldsmith's work - iron - , silver - , , , embroidery. in outline with portions of the ground tinted by partial darning - - - - - - in silver and silver gilt thread on crimson velvet, from stapleton church, shropshire. second half of the sixteenth century - - - - - - - or quilting. pattern in blue and gold thread stitched down upon red satin. italian. sixteenth century - - satin stitch on canvas, following the lines of the mesh. chinese - - - silk appliquÉ in various colours upon deep purple velvet, outlined in couched gimp, and gold and silver thread. spanish. sixteenth century. v. & a. m. - see also appliquÉ darning lace leather - patchwork xvi index of illustrations. enamel. see figure champlevÉ . , , , cloisonnÉ - enamelled candlestick, painted in translucent enamel and gold. limoges. jean flambeau. sixteenth century. spitzer collection - - - - - filigree of silver gilt wire enclosing jewels “au cabochon.” from a processional cross at hildesheim. romanesque - - of silver wire, flat and twisted on a gilt ground. part of a bookcover. german. seventeenth century. b.m. - fret. see glass - iron joinery - pierced - stained glass - - , , , - - - . - . fretted boxwood comb inscribed "de bon cœur je le donne.” french. sixteenth century. spitzer collection - - - leather from a shoe. white over green, stitched down with strips of gilded leather. found in britain. roman. b.m. - oak vallance. gesso. gilded. from a cassone. italian. fifteenth century. v. & a. m. - shield. the charge painted, the background gilded. italian. v. & a. m. . . glass. blown. greek. b.m. blown. oriental flask. old venetian glass with spots of opaque yellow enamel. common italian fiasco. v. & a. m. blown. venetian. . v. & a. m. - - - plown into a pierced silver cup, giving the effect of sapphires “en cabochon." late roman. b.m. index of illustrations. xvii glass-continued. figure blue and white marbling. cut out of the solid con- glomerate. north italian. eleventh century. spitzer collection - - - - - - - bottle. alabastos. from a greek tomb. decorated with onlaid threads of coloured glass, drawn up and down into a zigzag pattern. phænician. fifth century b.c. v. & a. m. bottle. white, with threads of white and coloured glass onlaid in the form of a scroll. in parts pressed down in the molten state with a tool. greek. b.m. - - clear white, decorated with strips of opaque white, alter- nately plain and twisted. blown. venetian. ca. . v. & a. m. - - - - - - - cup with ribs of glass onlaid and pattern in white enamel and gold. venetian. end of fifteenth century. spitzer collection - - - - - - - cut in the manner of crystal. german, thirteenth century. nuremberg museum - - - - drinking cup of greenish white with onlaid streaks of glass indented in the molten state with a tool. anglo-saxon ? b.m. - - - - - - - - drinking cup, whitish, with threads and other appliqué of green glass. spanish. v. & a. m. - - - . drinking vessel, green, with “prunts" softened in the fire. metal foot. flemish. seventeenth century - - drinking vessel, greenish white, with “prunts." german. seventeenth century. b.m. - - - - - shallow cup. the outside moulded with scale pattern. white. inside, in the centre, the arms of france and brittany. louis xii. venetian. early sixteenth century. spitzer collection - - - - - - vessel with ribs of glass onlaid. Émile gallé of nancy. modern see also glazing - inlay - - - mosaic - glazing in white glass, the leads forming the pattern of the window. l. f. d. see also stained glass - - - - - - - - xviii index of illustrations. goldsmith's work. figure . chain of gold beads with dependent ornaments inlaid with precious stones. cloisonné. egyptian. . gold chain with globular dependent ornaments. greek or græco-roman. . gold beads with dependent crocodiles in embossed gold, alternating with drops of lapis. egyptian. . chain of stars. gold. late greek. . twisted ribbons of gold, one ornamented with seeds of gold grouped to form flowers. finest greek period. . chain of silver gilt, with cut stones set in filigree. spanish. seventeenth century. . gold beads, embossed and seeded. greek islands. . chain of flat-twisted gold wire and beads of lapis. roman. . chain of gold, with pendant ornaments embossed and seeded. sardinia. . chain of gold, with pendant ornaments, wire. beads of lapis. roman. . gold chain of looped wire. anglo-saxon - - - cup. etruscan. fifth century b.c. v. & a. m. (com- pare ) - - - - enlarged detail of ornament in beads of gold soldered on. etruscan. fifth century b.c. v. & a. m. (compare so) pendant. pattern in gold wire soldered on. wye down, kent. b.m. - - - - pendant. pattern repoussé. wye down, kent. b.m. - see also filigree - inlay - - - - - - - , pierced bowl - - gouging. see wood carving - - - - - - - , granite. figure of pasht carved in black granite. from karnak. egyptian. ca. b.c. b.m. - - - grotesque. see inlay - . . . . guipure of gold and silver lace from st mary's church, dantzig. spanish. seventeenth century - index of illustrations. xix handle figure of japanese fans or hand screens. modern : - of kettle. in bronze wire. japanese - of lacquer measure. in bamboo. indian or burmese - see also iron - - . . . . human figures in ornament. see wall-paper - woven pattern woven pattern : : : : : : pottery impressed. see pottery .. . . : tooling : incised detail of cypress wood coffer. the ground once inlaid with coloured mastic. italian. - . v. & a. m. - stone. german. late sixteenth century .. see also lettering pottery inlay. see counterchange incised - ivory - lattice - - , , , pierced bowl . . inlay of brass and tortoiseshell. “ boulle” and “counter." french. louis xiv. designed by berain - - brass wire into brown wood. india, n.w. provinces. v. & a. m. - - baked clay into wood. egyptian. b.m. - clay into clay. egyptian. b.m. - clay into clay. egyptian. b.m. . cement? in marble - ebony in golden brown wood with ivory pegs, forming part of a design from a portuguese cabinet. seventeenth century. v. & a. m. - - garnets into cloisons of gold. anglo-saxon. b.m.- - mosaic - xx index of illustrations. inlay of figure garnets in cloisons of gold (the eyes rounded) and filigree of twisted gold wire. anglo-saxon. b.m. (larger than actual size) - - - - - - - glass (coloured and foiled) in cloisons of gold on a bronze fibula. merovingian - - - - - - glass mosaic in carved marble. from the bishop's throne at ravello. byzantine - . holly in oak. detail and complete panel. from sizergh castle in westmoreland. latter part of sixteenth century. now in v. & a. m. - - - - - - ivory into brown woon. engraved. panel of a small casket. german. sixteenth century. v. & a. m. - ivory and ebony on brown wood. oriental - ivory into ebony. italian. v. & a. m. - - lapis, &c., into carved ivory from north-west palace of nimrod. egyptian. b.m. lapis and other precious stones into cloisons of gold. part of armlet. græco-bactrian. b.m. - .. marble. from the pavement of the cathedral at siena - mother-of-pearl in lacquer. indian . mother-of-pearl into gilt and lacquered gesso. s. george and the dragon. by fred marriott. - - marble (black and white). details engraved and filled in with grey cement. from the pavement of the cathedral at siena. fifteenth century - - - - - marble (red and grey into white). from the cathedral at florence. italian. fourteenth century - - - marble (white) into steatite. saracenic marbles (white and tinted). from the pavement of the cathedral at siena. beccafumi. sixteenth century serpentine (dark green) into white marble. from the floor of the baptistery at florence. thirteenth century - - slips (coloured) into impressed tiles. modern. l. f. d. - vitreous pastes or pottery into engraved ivory or bone. egyptian. b.m. - - - - - wood and ivory. italian. fifteenth century - wood and ivory. italian - - - wood. showing arab influence. italian. sixteenth century - inlay pattern in brass wire. l. f. d. l. f. d. - - - . - - - - - - index of illustrations. xxi figure intaglio carving in lacquered wood (black). painted in dead colours and gold. from a folding screen. chinese. v. & a. m. iron chiselled hinge. nuremberg. ca. - - - chiselled lock plates. french. late fifteenth century - chiselled terminals of a washstand. italian. v. & a. m. details of terminals. leafage, &c., beaten into “swages.” english. thirteenth century - - - - detail of wrought hinge. plates of shaped and beaten sheet metal superposed for the flowers. german. sixteenth or seventeenth century - - - - - door knocker with tracery background formed by two pierced plates, one laid over the other. french. fifteenth century. spitzer collection - .. - - - embossed sunflower leaf. designed by b. j. talbert. nine- teenth century . gate with fretted panels. from the chapel in the castle of the counts of flanders at ghent. flemish. sixteenth century - - - - - - - grille. pierced. french gothic. fifteenth century. bar- gello. florence - - - grille. wrought. french. thirteenth century - - handles or knockers. french. sixteenth century - lock plate. pierced, embossed, and engraved. german. ca. - - - - - - or steel horse muzzle. chiselled. german ? . spitzer collection - - - - - - wrought. details chiselled, stems threaded. augsburg. ca. - - wrought. details of sheet metal, stems threaded. nurem- berg. ca. - - - - - wrought gates. italian. seventeenth century. v. & a. m. - - ivory. carved and inlaid into lacquered wood. modern japanese - casket with brass mounting, carved with fleurs de lis. french. late sixteenth century. salting collection - casket, carved. spanish ? twelfth century. v. & a. m. - figure of tragic actor. greek. first or second century. dutuit collection - - - - - xxii index of illustrations, ivory-continued. figure figure of virgin. gothic. fourteenth century. spitzer collection - . - see also - - , , , , , , inlay joinery. designed in the form of a fret. modern japanese - doors in cardiff castle. by william burges. nineteenth century see also door . . , knife work. see chip carving - wood carving - . . . . . . . . lace. greek (so called), or “reticella,” or “ point coupé.” design by federigo l'inciolo. italian. - - - needlepoint. linen foundation practically disappearing. the culmination of drawn or cut-work. venetian. sixteenth century needlepoint or “punto in aria," with pearled “brides.” trimmings of an altar frontal. venetian. ca. . v. &a. m. pillow work. buckinghamshire. nineteenth century .. pillow, with fancy réseau and open work. buckinghamshire. early nineteenth century - - - - - rose point. the outline of cordonnet, the “brides” thorned. spanish or venetian - - - so-called), not really réseau but a sort of embroidery on net, the mesh pulled out of shape by the stitching. limeric. - see also cut linen - - - guipure - - - - - - - pillow lace - - - - lacquer. see inlay - intaglio - index of illustrations. xxiii figure - lattice of turned and inlaid wood. arab lattice work. with turned spindles. old arab . with turned spindles. arab . . - . - . - . leather. pookbinding, inlaid and tooled. french. henri ii. - bookbinding, tooled, and the imprint of the tools used in producing the design. french. louis xiii. - - bookbinding, tooled in gold. “point coupé.” french ? . bookbinding, tooled in gold. poinctillé. by le gascon. french. louis xiii. seventeenth century bookbinding, tooled in gold, with engraved and pierced silver mounts. german. seventeenth century - - - box-top. the centre onlay with leather of various colours, the pattern outlined with stitching in white. embroidered border. modern indian. v. & a. m. - - - targe. embossed and studded with brass rivets. rob roy's shield - - - see also - embossed leather - fretted leather onlaid leather , cut leather lettering. brush writing. japanese - - - - - greek. incised with a stylus. roman cut into stone. uncials, and lombardic capitals and other pen work incised. cuneiform inscription in stone. ca. b.c. .: - - - - linen. see woven pattern - linenfold. panel. late gothic . panelling. late gothic panels. late gothic - various examples. late gothic - lustre. see pottery , , , , index of illustrations. xxv - onlay. figure of gold cord. couching on velvet. bookbinding. henry viii. b.m. - of silver upon bronze. kurdish .. see also bronze - - - - - - - - opus alexandrinum. see inlay - - - outline. which hardens form which softens form - see also embroidery . . . . . . , onlaid leather , stained glass - - woven pattern - painted roof decoration. l. f. d. . . - - patchwork of appliqué silk. by mr and mrs r. a. dawson pierced. and carved marble panel from the church of santa maria dei miracoli, venice. by tullio lombardo - . . balcony decoration. the planks sawn into shape before being put together. traditional swiss - - - bowl of gold. originally enclosing precious stones. by- zantine gothic. found at petrossa, a village in roumania. probably by dacian workman, ca. fifth century - - lattices. the planks notched before being put together. old arab - - - - - spiral ornament. javanese. b.m. see also iron gate silver gilt . - stained glass - pillow lace in imitation of venetian point, the “brides” knotted. milan, italy. seventeenth century. v. & a. m. - plaster. enrichment. arab. v. & a. m. . incised or stamped. arab . . . . - xxvi index of illustrations. plaster-continued. figure stamped in high relief. from the synagogue at toledo. moorish - - - - - - see also stained glass - - poinctillÉ. pattern. l. f. d. . see also . . . . . leather bookbinding . . . - pottery. base of a white salt-glazed stoneware candlestick with incised and stamped ornament. siegburg, germany . - detail from a cylindrical white salt-glazed stoneware jar, scratched pattern. meckenheim, germany - - - detail of earthenwere dish. sgraffitto. buff glaze streaked with green and yellow. italian. late fifteenth century. v. & a. m. - - - - - - - detail of raised yellow slip on a dark brown ground. glazed. persian. v. & a. m. - - - - - detail of salt-glazed stoneware. the ornamental details in relief. slip applied to the body and stamped with a die- the stems dug in. cobalt blue and manganese purple on greyish body. dutch. . v. & a. m. - - - detail of sunk ornament on salt-glazed stoneware. the leaves impressed with a stamp, the stems dug in with a tool. ground cobalt. limburg. v. & a. m. - - detail of white slip on a less pure white ground. glazed. from a turkish mug. sixteenth century. v. & a. m. . details of rhodian and persian ornament. free brushwork in blue and white faience. v. & a. m. - - - earthenware dish. painted in blue and manganese on white. rhodian. ca. . v. & a. m. - - - earthenware jar. reddish, unglazed, with ornamentation in slip, in which are embedded jewels of blue glass or vitreous paste. roman - - - - - earthenware vessel' with patternwork - earthenware with embossing pushed out with the fingers in the moist state of the clay. glazed and lustred. gubbio, italy. end of fifteenth century. v. & a. m. index of illustrations. xxvii pottery-continued. figure glazed earthenware dish painted in blue and silver lustre. hispano-moresque. valencia. fifteenth century. spitzer collection - - - - - - - glazed earthenware, painted and lustred, with slip orna- ment in relief. fine diaper picked out. persian. v. & a. m. . . . . . . . . glazed earthenware. persian. v. & a. m. . . painted earthenware. persian. v. & a. m. - - painting. blue and white. earthenware. persian painting in brown on greyish white. stoneware. from satsuma, japan - - - - pÂte-sur-pÂte decoration. by m. l. solon. nineteenth century - - - - - - - pattern stamped with bookbinders' tools in white earthen- ware, and filled in with coloured clay. french. henri ii. plaque of earthenware. inscription in raised slip, coloured, on a ground of lustre, with pattern in white. the fine diaper picked out. persian. spitzer collection - porcelain vases with coloured glaze. chinese. v. & a. m. red unglazed earthenware with whitish slip decoration in high relief. roman. b.m. - - - salt-glaze stoneware. beer jugs. old german - - salt-glaze stoneware. dutch. . v. & a. m. - stove slab of earthenware glazed with copper green. german. sixteenth or seventeenth century. v. & a. m. - tile--star-shaped earthenware-just sufficiently modelled in slip to give value to the metallic lustre on it. the forms defined by painted outlines, &c. persian. sixteenth century - - - - - - - tiles of clay shrunk in the drying so as to show “crackle” . tiles. modelled and glazed. l. f. d. . . tiles with raised outlines to form cells for coloured glazes. made at seville. sixteenth century - - - - tiles with raised outlines to form cells for the coloured glazes. l. f. d. - - - . - - - unglazed black earthenware with refined slip decoration in creamy white. found in britain. roman. b.m. - see also carved sandstone - - mosaic - index of illustrations. xxix silver gilt-continued. figure mounting to morocco bookcover. pierced and chased. dutch. . v. & a. m. - - - - - reliquary. french ? gothic. fifteenth century. spitzer collection : - - slip. see pottery - , , , , , , , , , stained glass. detail showing-a. glazing. b. painting. c. painting and glazing together - framed in pierced plaster. from cairo. v. & a. m. - grisaille pattern. french. thirteenth century - - tesserÆ of different colours fused on to a sheet of clear glass. french. . daumont tournel - - - - two lights with figures of a bishop and s. elizabeth of hungary under canopies. german. fifteenth century gothic. spitzer collection - - - - - stamped. see leather bookbinding pottery tooling - - , , , , - - , - - - - steel. see designs for damascening - - stencil design. see diagram - - stencil plates. japanese - - - stencilled leaf forms with ties made use of to render veining, &c. japanese - - - - - pattern. flights of wild ducks across the sky. japanese - pattern. by george f. wood pattern. iris. japanese . . . patterns. cherry blossom. japanese xxx index of illustrations. stone carving. gothic. laon, france. thirteenth century - - romanesque from le puy. french. thirteenth century spandril from wells. thirteenth century - - figure - stoneware. see pottery . . - , , , , . strapwork. see byzantine ornament designs for damascening leather bookbinding plaster silver - wood carving - . . . . - , · , , , , , tiles. see inlay inlay. - . - : : : : : pottery , , , , tissue. see woven pattern woven pattern - - - - - , , tooling. the pattern impressed in blind. italian. sixteenth century - - see also leather bookbinding - - - , , , , translucent inlay. see pierced bowl - - - - - turning. see lattice - . . . . . . , , velvet. see woven pattern woven pattern - - - - - , , wall-paper for a nursery. “ the house that jack built.” designed by walter crane for jeffrey & co. - - - - see also embossed . . . . . . . embossed index of illustrations. xxxi wood. see door - fretted inlay of linenfold pierced figure , , - , , , , , , , , , - , wood carving. arabesque in walnut from the stalls of s. severino, naples. italian. sixteenth century - - - . box of pine with flat strap ornament. knife work. icelandic. v. & a. m. - - - - - - - coffer (part of) in walnut. french. v. & a. m. . . door of a cupboard. late gothic. german door panel with strapwork in low relief. french. sixteenth century. edinburgh museum - - double doors. arab. twelfth century . - end of a long shutter panel with raised centre. french regency . . . . . . flat strapwork ornament from the base of a walnut wood coffer of which the upper parts show gothic influence. north of france. sixteenth century. v. & a. m. - - gouge work. from an oak coffer. french. to . v. & a. m. - - - - - - - gouge work. salt bowl. old italian. v. & a. m. - grotesque from a cassone at pistoja. italian . heraldic. cupboard door. oak. german. late gothic - modern indian. v. & a. m. - - . oak panel (detail of) sunk in a longer panel. french. françois i. v. & a. m. - - showing the relation of to the long panel. french. françois i. v. & a. m. - - - - - oak panel with strapwork and vine. english. sixteenth century. v. & a. m. - - - - - - somersetshire. fifteenth century - walnut woon door panel with flat strapwork ornament foliated. french. sixteenth century. from a cast in the v. & a. m. - - - - - - - walnut wood door panel with flat strapwork ornament. lyons. second half of sixteenth century. v. & a. m. - xxxii index of illustrations. figure wood carving-continued. see also chip carving - incised - oak cupboard - - - . - - . - : - woven pattern. brocade with diagonal “binding." green satin warp (ground), white figure (weft), brocaded with gold. italian. seven- teenth century . . brocade. green satin ground brocaded with colours, white and gold - - - - - - - brocade. yellow tabby ground, white ornamental figure. colours of flowers brocaded - - - - - brocatelle with design in yellow on a red ground, all crossed with gold. part of a stole. the assumption and coronation of the virgin. italian. fifteenth or sixteenth century. cluny museum, paris - - - - carpet. portion of border. old persian. v. & a. m. - damask. fifteenth century - - - - damask. green and yellow on violet silk with silver thread running through. spanish. sixteenth century. spitzer collection - - - - - - figured tabby. two warps, one shuttle. white ground, red figure. eighteenth century - german. fifteenth century - linen damask. part of a tablecloth border designed by walter crane - - - - - linen damask. seventeenth or eighteenth centuries. dresden museum - - - - - - satin tissue. ground purple (warp), leaves green, flowers white, and cream colour, changing shuttles. eighteenth century - - - - - - - tissue. crimson satin ground (warp). crimson and white figure (weſt). italian. eighteenth century - - tissue. red satin ground standing up above vellum coloured figure (tabby). silver tissue. seventeenth century - velvet (crimson) with two piles. italian. fifteenth century. v. & a. m. - - - velvet (crimson). italian. to . v. & a. m. - velvet. details showing the use of “terry” as an outline, &c., as intermediate texture between satin ground and soft pile - i. introductory. ornament inseparable from the thing ornamented-must be adapted, therefore, to conditions - historic style the result of workmanlike acknowledgment of this-necessity, therefore, of studying ancient ways of work-modern workman must concern himself about other methods than those of his own workshop--knowledge imperative-not hurtful to originality but helpful to it. ornament and its application, says the title of this book; but apart from its application there is no such thing as ornament. it is ornament relatively only to its place and purpose. in theory we may discuss it independently of them, in practice ornament is inseparable from the thing ornamented. the absolute necessity, therefore, of adapting its design to inevitable conditions is obvious. the equal need of con- forming to the more technical conditions imposed upon the workman by his materials and tools and the various ways of working, is not so generally appreciated—and naturally: it takes a workman thoroughly to appreciate that. working artists, no matter what their particular work, are aware of the strict subservience of their art to con- ditions inherent in it. a man may think that workers in some other medium are not so tightly bound; he may resent the conditions under which he works; he is wiser if he bows to them. for the truth is, and the closer we inquire into the matter the clearer it becomes, that they are common to all practical design. the art we most esteem is that of men who cheerfully accepted them. the style we ornament and its application. recognise as “historic” grew out of obedience to them. it is for that reason, and for the light it throws upon technique and its very close connection with design, that some serious inquiry into the evolution of design is a necessary preparation to invention of our own. there is a point of view from which the consideration of primitive and very likely obsolete ways of working may appear to the progressive mind worse than useless. the student of to-day, it is sometimes said, knows already more than enough of the art of other days and other nations; to inquire too curiously into the past is to confuse his mind; he should work by rights in the spirit of his own times. there would be more force in that contention if there were any question of disturbing the simple-minded and whole- hearted devotion of modern workers to a modest ideal of craftsmanship such as we may imagine to have been natural to workmen of the middle ages. there is no longer any fear of that: we have long since outgrown content with tradition. whatever advantage it may have been to the old-world artist that the range of his experience was so limited—it certainly set natural and proper bounds to his ambition, bounds which we are not disposed willingly to accept-for good or ill, we have quite given up old pre- cedent for new experience. and, though it were the sub- stance that we have dropped for the shadow, the moment is passed when it is possible to recover what the stream of events has carried out of reach. we have outgrown the naïveté of innocence. the greater our need of knowing. now that we have no longer trustworthy traditions to go by, we want all the enlightenment tradition can give us, if only that we may choose our own way. in fact, we live in days when it is as necessary that a workman should be acquainted with all manner of methods, as it was once natural for him to be ignorant of all but what was going on about him in the workshop. introductory. ༢་དུ་འx པའི དེང་ m l i. ancient assyrian wall decoration in enamelled brick. ornament and its application. . old spanish tile decoration in coloured glazes. to refer merely to the glazed earthenware of the past. there was most admirable and essentially modern work in grès at the last paris exhibition, which would never have been done but for the remarkable enamelled brickwork from susa, now in the louvre ( ); and some of the most effective of modern tiles have been designed on the hint given by the old spanish work in coloured glaze ( ). it is a mistake, no doubt, to cram the artist with in- formation he cannot properly digest, to load the workman with learning to an extent that would hinder the free play of his faculty. but, if art is to take its place in the world, artist and workman must be up to the level of contem- porary enlightenment—they cannot afford not to know what is within general knowledge. and the choice is not between ignorance and cramming. there is the alternative of moderate indulgence. after a surfeit of good things we instinctively starve awhile. at the worst, however, the case is not desperate; nature comes to our relief; a moment's sickness and the evil is past, a healthy appetite asserts itself once more, knowledge is once again easily digested, ex- introductory. perience assimilated ; and, refreshed and strengthened, the artist is more an artist than before. it is strange that there should be any occasion to insist at this date upon the necessity of knowledge, and to combat the common superstition that the artistic faculty, because it is inborn, is all-sufficient. as if the faculty of learning from what went before, the distinctively human faculty, were not inborn! whatever our native genius, it needs sustenance. knowledge can but strengthen an artist in the exercise of his power. as for the theory that it weighs upon originality, we forget how rare a thing originality is—and was, even in the days when knowledge, too, was rare. if ever individu- ality was extinguished by the breath of education, it must have been at best a feeble flame, hardly worth nursing, certainly not worth keeping alive by screening off all knowledge: it could never have been kindled to much purpose, or it would not have been so soon snuffed out. an artist is an artist very much because, however well informed, he is himself, and depends in the end upon his own initiative. for all that, sure sign of weakness though it be to rely upon the experience of others, inborn instinct is not all the guide he needs. there are times when he must follow that though all the world said no- but only after weighing what they had to say—and to do that he must not be entirely unequipped with what is common knowledge. he owes that much to his art. ii. conventional treatment. the necessity of conventional treatment - the meaning of the word-- conventions proper to one craft not the conventions of another-ex- amples - conventional as compared with natural - ornament implies modification of natural form--conventional treatment in the interests of reticence and self-restraint. no artist will be found to deny the claims of " treatment” in design : many will protest it ought not to be conventional. i maintain it should. it seems almost as if the terms employed to throw light upon the subject of art had been devised for the express pur- pose of making darkness darker. more especially is that so in the case of words which have a general as well as a technical meaning, and are used now in one sense now in the other, or it would be more exact to say another, for the choice of interpretation is not limited to two alternatives. lame and misleading, however, as the terms may be, without them discussion would progress at a pace so slow that nothing short of “parliamentary” would describe it. the language of all specialists is a sort of jargon, but it helps along discussion. it is the current coin of technical traffic. but we must first know its value; and in the case of words coined, shall we say, in bohemia, that is not always precisely determined. we may, and must indeed, begin by defining the terms to be used. that is easily said ; but the difficulty is not so easily overcome. no sooner do we set out to define than we fall into the use ornament and its application. . details of ancient floor mosaic. place and purpose; in the other for all that is outworn and lifeless. in the latter sense it is a term of reproach —and deservedly so. and there are grounds for the use of it in that way. a convention is literally something which has come to be accepted ; and as a general rule we do not accept an idea until it is already stale, nor settle down into a way of doing until it is already overdone. it is but natural, therefore, to identify acceptance with dul- ness. and well we may, if convention is taken to imply certain stereotyped forms of ornament. then indeed there is an end to the flow of invention: the word stands for stagnation. but in the stricter and truer sense it is not the forms of ancient days which are to be accepted as models, but only a certain principle to be deduced from the best work of the best artists in the best periods all the world over- the principle of what artists in general call “treatment." and certain lines of treatment have been agreed upon, by those capable of forming an opinion upon design, as best suited to certain purposes, and in particular to certain conventional treatment. . details of japanese stencilling. materials, to certain tools employed or processes used in working them; and so we have "conventions” not merely worthy of the respect of the workman but without which he is unequipped for his work. the convention of one craft is often as remote from that of another as from nature itself. the mosaicist designs a leaf or bud adapted to be built up of three-or-four-sided rough chips of marble ( ). the stenciller ( ) turns the veins of his leaves into convenient “ties.” the ironworker, too ( ), makes ornament out of veining, but beats up the interspaces into ornamental bosses. the persian potter (like the old greek before him) invents for himself a kind of leafage which he can render auently with the brush ( ), and the indian lacquer-worker ( ) leaflets which will give him as little labour as possible in filing his mother-o'-pearl into shape. it was perhaps an evil hour in which the word "con- vention ” was chosen to express such treatment; it has led admittedly to much misunderstanding; but since we find it in use, it is as well not to be frightened by any odium that may cling to it, but to accept it, and try if we cannot turn a badge of undeserved reproach into an honourable ornament and its application. distinction. as well fight under one banner as another, so long as it is for the cause we have at heart. for my part i see nothing for it but to accept the term “ conventional” to express the kind of treatment adapted both to the use and purpose of ornament and to the material, tools, and methods of work employed upon it- not by any means necessarily the treatment heretofore employed, though it will hardly be quite independent of it. advance in art is a process not of uprooting but of growth, often very gradual, seldom sudden. we talk of the “principles” of old work. they are at best elusive. those who have attempted to grasp them have sometimes seized only upon the forms in which they hap- pened to be embodied, forms ex- pressive, it may be, to the seeing eye, but still only forms, which, even if not outworn, are probably in some degree unsuited to express a modern . detail of embossed tron, nineteenth cen- idea. we are, after all, moderns. tury english. it is especially unfortunate that the examples referred to as illus- trating the principle of conventionality, are commonly of a character so dry and rigid as to give colour to the notion that "convention” is a thing altogether without elasticity, another word in fact for “formula." there is no great difference of opinion among artists as to the value of “treatment" in design ; where they really differ is in their interpretation of the word "conventional." it is according to their interpretation of it that they esteem or despise it. by their estimate of it you may tell what it is they understand by the word. if by conventional ornament we are to understand conventional treatment. . detail of persian pottery painting adapted to free brushwork. perpetual variation on the old, old tunes long since played out, if we take it to mean slavish adherence to well-worn types, if we identify it with the affectation of a manner not our own, if we argue from it a bigoted adherence ornament and its application. x+ +i+ii+hii+i+i+hihihi > . detail adapted to inlay of mother-o'-pearl-indian to the letter of an antiquated and obsolete law- no one with a spark of originality or invention in him (no artist, that is to say) can consistently belong to the party of convention. if, on the other hand, we understand the term to imply just that judicious treatment of natural form inspired by the sense of fitness, and illustrated from time immemorial in the practice of all masters of ornament, then it is difficult to understand how any cultivated or thoughtful person can admit the idea of ornament other than conventional. natural and conventional represent, in common parlance, methods as wide apart as the poles. yet all artists are the children and the servants of nature, looking to her as the one source of inspiration. those do not serve her best who most slavishly, or faithfully—in any case thought- conventional treatment. lessly - copy the natural forms nearest at hand. there is no reason to conclude that natural forms, perfected for a natural purpose, are necessarily and without more ado adapted to the very different purposes of art. we are only following faithfully in the footsteps of nature when we modify them as our purpose may require. the very conception of ornament implies modification of the natural forms on which it may have been founded. there is little in nature which is ready made to the hand of the artist. a masterpiece of art is what it is in virtue of a something which was not in the natural motif of the artist, but in his treatment of it. a better word might very likely be found for this apt treatment of ornament, if it were worth while to go out of our way in search of it; but, call it what you will — conventional, ideal, indi- vidual—there is in all applied art (in all art for that matter, but it is here only the question of ornament) a something, non-natural it may be (in the sense that it is not borrowed from natural forms), but by no means contrary to nature, and least of all to human nature. instinctively men shape things to their needs. conventionality in ornament is the natural consequence of reticence or self-restraint, of doing, not all that the artist could have done, but just what is called for by the occasion. and, apart from that reserve which is the surest character- istic of artistic strength, restraint is continually imposed upon the designer of ornament by the natural conditions of his work, by the consideration of its place and purpose, by the means employed in doing it, and very especially in view of that repetition which becomes in these days more and more a necessity of its very being. iii. applied art. the term “applied ” used in reference not to ornament but to the art in it-ornament properly no after-thought, inherent in the design of the thing ornamented, a consideration from the very beginning of the design -examples—the test of well-applied ornament, that it does not seem to be added-applied art always practical art, the solution of a problem- the logic of design. the proverbial distinction between use and ornament points to a mistaken but very prevalent idea that ornament is a sort of after-thought-a something added to a thing after it is made. a county councillor, for example, is quite capable of supposing that an engineer has only to plan a convenient and substantial bridge, and it is for the artist afterwards to make it beautiful with architectural trimmings. absurd as this misunderstanding is, it is quite a common one even with persons of intelligence, who are misled, perhaps, by the use of the word “applied" design. it is, however, by no means in the sense of added or superfluous ornament that artists use the term. it is not to the ornament but to the art that they refer as being applied or adapted to some decorative purpose-surely a perfectly natural and clearly comprehensible use of the word. all art, it has been said, is in some sense applied. that may be so. still, practically speaking, there is a difference between the art, let us say, of the modern painter or illustrator and the art of the decorator-still more of the designer of things manufactured. to pretend otherwise is to create a confusion in which discussion of the subject becomes hopeless. applied art. some other term might possibly be found : “concerted,” for ex- ample, would quite express the kind of art-art working, that is to say, in concert with some craft or useſul purpose—and would definitely dissociate it from the art which has only to play its own fiddle. but fantastic terms are better avoided; and “applied” art does well enough to dis- tinguish the art of the modest member of a band from that of the soloist: it is in use, and we may as well accept it. on no account, however, must it be taken to imply that ornament is separable from its use. it is not ornament until it is applied. the purpose to which it is to be put determines it from the very beginning. it is neither an after-thought nor an added something, but inherent in the design of the thing to which we say it is "applied ”; it is not so much extra to it as a modifi- cation of it in the interests of beauty. the designer is influenced in the very choice of his material by its colour and texture, by the ease with which it can be cut, beaten, or otherwise worked into . design applied to the shape which is at once practi- lead glazing. ornament and its application. cally useful and artistically sufficing. in so far as his plan is affected by considerations not purely utilitarian, he is en- gaged from the beginning in ornamental design; and in so far as such design is schemed with a view to its practical purpose, it is in the strictest sense applied. to shape a thing beauti- fully is no less "applied ” design than to ornament it www.iii uudii . design applied to joinery-william burges. applied art. ii. irish brooches of useful form. after it is made. the glazier who proposes to build up his window with small pieces of glass, as in old days he was obliged to do, and as it is still often expedient that he should ( ), applies his art to leading them together at once securely and in satisfactory lines, and the result is a pattern. the joiner (or it may be, as in the case here illustrated— —the architect) who is not content simply to frame his door together strongly, but is careful as to the proportion of its panels, is engaged in applied design before ever he bethinks him of ornamental chamfering. and in softening off the sharp edges of his stiles in that way, he is at once forestalling injury to them, and further applying his artistic powers to practical purpose, which he does again when he proceeds to make ornamental use of the broad bands of iron by which the wooden frame- work is in one instance strengthened. forms which we find ornamental were in some cases at least suggested by use. the irish brooch ( ) or the roman ornament and its application. . old english tankards of serviceable shape. fibula is in its simplest form just a safety pin. it was in the first instance designed to fasten and hold tight. when, however, the goldsmith or the bronze worker began to take thought of beauty and to modify its lines, however slightly, with a view to shapeliness, he ventured on what we call applied design, though he may not have added a feature to it which had not its origin in use. it is use again which determines the shape of a drinking or other domestic vessel, which fixes its dimensions and capacity and suggests its general shape, which settles that its mouth shall be open or that its neck shall be narrow, that its spout shall be so devised as to pour out only at the right moment, that its foot shall be firm, its handle fitted to the hand and placed with due regard to equilibrium. the reconciling of purely utilitarian considerations such as these with considera- tions of proportion, grace, in short the look of the thing, is already the function of applied art before any thought occurs of what is generally understood by decoration. and art is by no means to be measured by the ornamental character applied art. of the design. there is more art in the severely simple silver tankards on page (english manufacture of a not very flourishing period of art) than in the over-elaborately ornamented piece of german silversmith's work ( ) of an earlier and better period. and of the two english tankards the more severely plain is the more artistic. the application of art is shown again in the simple shape of the little roman jar, overleaf, to be recognised at once as clay, whereas the excrescences upon it, applied in the sense that they are stuck on to it (the process of execution is described on page ), are an ingenious aberration from art. the reconciliation of the shape demanded by use with that proper to material-glass ( ), earthenware ( ), metal ( and ), or whatever it may be, and further to the kind of glass, blown or cut, the kind of clay, stiff porcelain or plastic earthenware, the kind of metal, beaten silver or cast bronze (see "where to stop,” page et seq.)—is again the function of applied design. no better instance of applied design could be given than the shapely treatment of any feature, such as handle, spout, hinge, bolt, or lock, which may be necessary to use, and its judicious introduction. the test of artistic application is that it should not appear over-elaborated sixteenth century ewer. ca de ornament and its application. to be added. there should be no suspicion of its having been an after-thought. it belongs by rights to the design, and must be foreseen by the artist from the earliest stage of his conception. it may even be its starting point, as it appears to have been in the case of the japanese handscreen on page , in which the bamboo of the handle is shredded and spread out to hold the paper; or where the flat handle is made to ex- pand at one end, in order to embrace the gathered shreds radiating from it; or where the haft of a screen of plaited bamboo is overlaid with strips of the same, at once enrich- ing and giving grip to it. the handle on page is made out of a single length of bamboo which has been notched away where it bendsover, leaving only a thick outer skin to cover the joint. it is curiously appropri- ate, by the way, to the lac- quered measure to which it is frankly attached by narrow ties of bamboo. the handle from which the bronze kettle on page is suspended, . jar shape appropriate to after a fashion common earthenware, but with in japan, appears to have excrescent ornament. applied art. been devised with the idea of con- ducting the minimum of heat to the hand of the person holding it. it consists of closely compact cop- per wires entangled with loosely twisted ones, all brazed together at the ends, which hook into the eyes attached for that purpose to the body of the kettle. a handle solely for effect is artistically as superfluous as it is practically useless; and not much more is to be said of a second handle for symmetry's sake. the few instances given will be enough to illustrate what is . shape appropriate to blown glass. meant by the contention that ornament is not something added— that applied art need have nothing to do with ad. ditional ornament, and is in fact at its best an integral part of the thing adorned. applied art means only practical art. the . shape appropriate to embossed silver. applied art. quality of distemper colour ; the number of printings commercially worth while. in short, the requirements of the public, of the decorator, and of the paperstainer, have all to be satisfied. how best to meet them, that is the problem which the artist has to solve in his design. and it is so with other manufactures. in cotton printing there is the important consideration of dyes and mordants, in weaving of the jacquard loom, in pottery of clays and glazes, and the action of the fire—which to ignore is to court disaster. the problem of the artist not con- nected with manufacture and who exe- cutes, it may be, his design with his own . bamboo handle. hands, will be in many respects different; but in his case, no less than in that of the man who works for a trade, applied design is always the solution of a problem. such and such things being so and so, given such facilities, failing such other possibilities, what is to be done? he answers the question according to his art—but ac- cording to his intelligence also. applied design makes never- ending demand upon common . wire handle. ornament and its application. sense, a faculty which was never common, least of all among artists. that is why draughtsmanship is so much more frequently to be met with than design-a matter of feeling, no doubt, but of feeling under control, or perhaps more strictly speaking of feeling and reason combined, of logic as well as of art. this logical side of the designer's faculty is not commonly enough recognised. in acknowledging the art of design we do not sufficiently appreciate the element of science which goes to it—which goes, it might be said, to achievement in art gene- rally, but which is indispensable in art applied—the faculty, in fact, which guides us in its application, which steadies us and keeps us sober. arab art, as we call it, which is more consistently ornamental than any other, is the work of a mathematical race if not of mathematicians. the orderliness essential to ornament generally is more a matter of the mind than of emotion. it may be doubted if any one will ever be very successful in applied design who is not capable of think- ing out a question, balancing with something like precision what is for and what is against a step in design before he . takes it. applied design may or may not be imaginative, it must be logical. sa . handles of japanese fans. iv. the character which comes of treatment. processes give rise to appropriate ornamental form--examples : clay, metal, &c.-ancient ornament to be studied from the point of view of its application to material and process-intelligent design-appreciation of “treatment”—natural form only the food of the artist-conditions of manufacture leave their mark upon design-the treatment appropriate to design in itself of value, or of none-design indicative of embroidery, of weaving and of various kinds of weaving—as affected by printing and by different kinds of printing-as affected by the use to be made of a woven or printed stuff-lace design of various kinds-embroidery design-tile design and its relation to enamel-design adapted to inlay and mosaic— translation of design into the terms of craftsmanship. the fit treatment which it has been agreed to call “con- ventional” gives character to ornament. a new method of work gives rise to a new style of design. a process of work itself gives rise to ornament. what is more, the forms arising in this way are sure to be appropriate. natural forms must needs be reconciled to their new conditions ; forms which grow out of conditions are ready shaped to the hand of the designer. ornament so formed is by birth, what ornament founded upon nature is only by adaptation. material, tools, and methods of technique have determined it; and further treatment is unnecessary. there are generic qualities of design which, when once our eyes are open to such things, we recognise immediately as belonging to wood or iron, clay or textile fabric, to carving or forging, to modelling or weaving, as the case ornament and its application. may be. the material em- ployed proclaims itself, it may be emphatically, it may be with- out asserting itself positively; but its influence is nearly always appreciable. this character in ornament is neither arbitrary nor accidental. it comes of fol- lowing the hint which materials, tools, and ways of work, are so ready to give to the designer, and of his endeavour to get out of them what they can give and give best. a practical designer of sufficiently wide experience can often tell at a glance the material of which a thing is made. its shape alone tells him that a vessel is of clay, or of metal, and perhaps what kind of clay or metal. the least experienced in such things hardly want telling that the reliquary here given ( ) is silver, for all the archi- tectural character of its design, or that the jewellery on page is of gold. it is derived from various sources, egyptian, greek, roman, anglo-saxon, spanish; but whether it is beaten up from thin plates or drawn out in wire, bent into . fifteenth century silver filigree, or twisted into chains, gilt reliquary. whether they are little pearls character which comes of treatment. । কষ্ট দিবি @ ও on} - . ancient goldsmith's work. ornament and its application. of gold that are soldered on, or cloisons to hold inlay of lapis and other precious stones, everywhere the ductility and yielding disposition of the metal is to be perceived, to say nothing of its fusibility. and so with other ornamental detail, a workman sees at once that it was designed to be done with a brush, a point, a chisel, a punch or a hammer. in the naïver work of early days this kind of character reveals itself more plainly than ever. the stiffish curve which comes of bending an iron rod into shape, as in the knocker, opposite, to the left, is wholly different in character from the subtle undulation in the handles of the venetian glass vessels on pages and , which tell by a sort of sudden droop in the curve that they were shaped whilst the material was red-hot. so also the stiff twist in the iron handles is characteristically unlike that in the soft clay handles of the earthen jar on page . the source of all practical design is in the sympathetic appreciation of material. we are born with sympathy (or, alas, without it); but it grows with knowledge, and ap- preciation comes of understanding. the secret of appro- priate treatment is best learnt from the study of what has been done in the way of practical design, and from the observation of its relation to technique, old or new. the way to get at the root of ornamental design is to ask yourself always in the presence of a satisfactory piece of work why the artist did just so. at first you can but conjecture; but, as you compare, and test, and cross- examine, conjecture grows into conviction. you say to yourself: this kind of thing occurs so continually in iron work, that so constantly in textile fabrics, there must be something in the nature of the metal or of the stuff, in the art of smithing, or of weaving, to account for it; and, with a very little knowledge of the craft, the light of cer- tainty breaks in upon you. and one such secret solved is the key to another. character which comes of treatment. sil . twisted iron handles and knocker. it is a mistake to suppose that there is nothing to learn from processes which modern mechanical appliances have superseded. methods of work may change, but the nature of materials does not. many a new device has failed for want of attention to what the old one would have taught the innovator. old work would teach us, if we had the modesty to study it, how to go about ours in a new way. the changes we have made are not all in the direction of progress—unless we are to call that progress which is in the wrong direction. design-and still more its application-makes consider- able demands upon the intelligence. art is to a great extent a matter of sense. it may be almost entirely sen- suous, not taxing the intellect. there have been artists, and artists of great ability, who, apart from their painting or whatever it may have been, were rather stupid. it is not from excess of intellectuality that actors and musicians as a rule suffer; they cultivate the emotional at the cost of the intellectual side of their nature. design, however, and the fit treatment of it, depend as much upon the judicial as upon the purely artistic faculty. it depends throughout upon the appreciation of actual conditions, a ornament and its application. the red-hot glass. faculty, it is true, no more common than that of design; but without it a man is not equal to the de- mands it makes at every turn upon his mother wit. for it is always the outcome of conditions, always in answer to something. it has to be thought out-not merely felt; and in proportion to the clearness of the artist's mind is the practicality of his design. to the necessary equipment . greek vessel with for practical design there go, in- handles-suggestive of telligent appreciation of conditions (the outcome of a logical mind), readiness to meet them (implying sympathy), suppleness in coping with them (which asks resourcefulness and skill). it is necessary, in view of the theory that art is nothing but emotional, to lay stress upon the mental side of design. it is only one side, of course; but it is the side upon which success in practical work largely depends; and it is the one most commonly neglected. there are twenty who can draw or paint for one who, when it comes to purposeful design, knows what use to make of drawing or modelling. a student of design must keep his mind open as well as his eyes. he has to learn what to see and how to see it. that, it is sometimes said, he must discover for himself; and it has been urged that students taught to see, end in seeing only what they have been taught. well, then, they had never either eyes or mind of their own, and they may as well see with the eyes and think with the mind of those who have both. what if we do begin by seeing very vividly what we have been taught to see? suppose for a while we see nothing else! is there any character which comes of treatment. harm in that? surely not. one great use in teaching is to show us what is there, to make us see it, and see it in focus. half of the art of teaching is, to teach us what to see, and how to see it. it is to claim very little for a man's personality to suggest that he will see for long through any eyes but his own. no harm will be done by his seeing for a while through the eyes of artists more experi- enced than himself and better able to appreciate. it will never in the end hinder his individual outlook — supposing him to have one, or to be capable of hav- ing one. on the contrary, his trained sight will be the keener to discern every slightest detail which concerns him personally. what more can age do for youth than lead it open-eyed into the paths trodden smooth by experience for its . venetian glass with uncertain feet? characteristically curved handles. ornament and its application. broken lines of carpet weaving. character which comes of treatment. it would be difficult to lay too much stress upon “treat- ment." therein lies the whole secret of designing ornament strictly so called. the very purpose of ornament, its position, the lines of its construction, the manner of its production, call for and insist upon it. there is no form of art in which it is not necessary-unless it be that of men whose boast it is to leave design out of their pictures, and in den . . ti hora . stepped outlines following the square mesh of net. ornament and its application. nomino . chinese embroidery influenced by the canvas ground. whose eyes it is a positive demerit in a work of art that there should be composition in it. and even these ad- vocates of artless art ask for some sort of treatment in painting, though it may consist in depicting nature as it appears to short-sighted people who see everything in a haze. it is according to its treatment that we pronounce a design to be appropriate and workmanlike or the reverse. fully to realise the treatment befitting some fixed place or purpose, some available material or convenient process of work, is to have mastered the first principle of orna- mental design. fit treatment is, in fact, the translation of natural or other form, not merely into the language of art, but into character which comes of treatment. up . brocade weaver's “binder” turned to account in design. the dialect of some particular handicraft. we detect in it the homely accent of sincere workmanship. it is that which charms us in mediæval or other simple ornament by no means cunning or accomplished. it is because we find in it no turn of native or vernacular expression that modern manufacture is so dull. the part which nature plays in ornament is discussed at length elsewhere.* * “nature in ornament." ornament and its application." : . broken line in satin tissue. there is usually in ornamental design some relation to natural form; there is always some occasion, if no actual necessity, to modify the forms derived from nature accord- ing both to the nature of the work and the method of its doing. the designer is confronted with the questions: how far it may be well to go in the direction of nature; to what extent must he accept the ruling of artistic fitness; how far shall he submit to the dictation of conditions, and especially of the materials and tools he works with? these are questions only to be answered in so far as they apply to a particular case. the balance between art and nature has always to be struck afresh. broadly speaking, one may say that natural form is the food of the artist; how much of it he may apportion to himself depends upon what he can digest. it is a question of the man's powers of artistic assimilation — always an uncertain quantity. that which is barely enough for one man's nourishment will lie heavy on the digestion of character which comes of treatment. another. and, then, there are times when a man craves for natural sustenance, times when he is easily surfeited with it. precisely the same difficulty occurs in determining how far the artist should adhere to some preconceived idea he may have when he sets out to design, and how far he should allow conditions to affect it as they arise. all that is certain is that in applied design and ornament he must allow them their due weight. it may be very considerable. there comes a point at which treatment is peremptory —though it should consist merely in leaving out so much as it is impossible to render. that amount of convention . tissue in which tints are represented by diapers. ornament and its application. uuttare . silk in which the tints are given by diapers. is not to be gainsaid. but long before the point of im- possibility is neared we reach the limit beyond which it is at the risk of consistency that we go on, the point at which conditions begin to rule, where art dictates con- vention—some sort of treatment, that is to say, which the work itself suggests. to begin with a case about which there is no dispute : whether, for example, ornament is woven or printed, how it is woven, or on what it is printed, are considerations seriously affecting its design-if it is to answer in any sense to the term “applied.” it has been shown already (“pattern design," page et seq.) how the conditions of the loom, of the wood block, of the character which comes of treatment. copper roller, affect the planning of pattern; how in weav- ing the pattern is easily turned over ; how the colour follows the lines of warp and weſt, and gives stripes, checquers, and so forth ; how, in fact, the reversing of the design and the band-wise arrangement of colour (characteristic of byzantine, sicilian, and early italian silks) belong to the loom. the . shading suggested by diapering. ornament and its application. kind of weaving employed leaves also its mark upon design. the relatively coarse weave of a carpet affects not the scale of the pattern only but its lines ( ). it is not merely that they are jagged at the edges, or stepped according to the tesseræ of wool (a carpet is properly a sort of mosaic of square tufts), but that it is impossible to render delicate curves: they become at the best broken in the weaving ; and the rational thing for the designer to do is, either to depend upon the square and diagonal lines that carpet weav- ing gives, or to rely (as the orientals do) for his effect on colour, as to which there is in hand weaving literally no restric- tion. it is, after all, the more important thing in a carpet. . brocade in which the treatment is not beyond reproach. character which comes of treatment. o ki via . broad treatment of old velvet design. a similar difficulty besets no less the needle-worker following the lines of a pronounced square mesh ( ). a dis- tinct, by no means unpleasing, character comes of frankly following its lines. it is wonderful what an artist with an eye to the essential in form can do in the way of rendering it under strict limitations, for example in darning rigidly confined within the square lines of open net. naturally the needle-worker chooses the forms which she can render, and modifies them in the direction of the mesh. more cunning advantage is taken of the square lines of a canvas ground by the chinese embroiderer ( ), who, though working ornament and its application. . printed velvet with colour in broad masses. in satin-stitch, follows its lines strictly, and by the length of the stitch (or more properly its well-judged shortness) gives not only the drawing of the design, but very pretty diaper work. the key - patterned background is most in- geniously chosen. it was absolutely necessary, unless the silk was to float dangerously loose upon the surface, to shorten the stitches. to have done that, and at the same time to have diapered the ground with pattern judiciously contrasting with the more important pattern work, is proof of consider- able mastery in applied design. the embroiderer was under no sort of obligation to work on the square lines of the character which comes of treatment. . cotton print--.“ busy" pattern appropriate to a poor stuff. ornament and its application. canvas; but, having determined to do so, has played the game, except in the single instance of the stamens of the flower which radiate from the centre—a hint, as it were, that the worker was not so bigoted as to admit one only way of artistic salvation. another method of overcoming the objection to long "floats” of silk upon the surface is to stitch them down as the needlewoman does in “laid work,” a process effectu- m (vy . japanese and ( ) persian earthenware in which a scribble of lines is used to give texture. ally, imitated by the weaver, who in brocade (which is a kind of mechanical embroidery upon the surface of the stuff, and no part of its texture) binds down the floating floss by cross lines of weaving. in the example on page a difference of texture is given to the more leafy part of the scroll by bringing the diagonal "binding" lines closer to- gether than in the more flowery parts of it. even in silks of relatively fine texture it is not artisti- cally desirable (though nowadays mechanically possible) to character which comes of treatment. care ru ogo . cretonne pattern in lines and dots conveniently to be discharged. ornament and its application. obliterate the square jagging of the outline altogether. a slight“ step” in the line softens it, at the distance from which the stuff is usually seen ; and when you get near to it it tells its tale-to some of us, at all events, an in- teresting one-witness the old silks on pages , , , in two of which is to be noticed, in addition to the "stepped” outline, the diapering of parts of the design, always in patterns frankly built upon square and diagonal lines. this is really a device of the weaver for getting intermediate shades between ground and pattern colour without using more than a single shuttle. the happy practice lingered, as will be seen on page , even to a period when design was falling into naturalistic ways; but, so long as the attempt at shading did not go beyond what is seen in the satin tissue there illustrated, all individuality was not lost. it is impossible to compare the clumsy ugliness of the flower in the brocade on page with the delicate and dainty lace-like pattern- ing of the more conventional ornament without realising the wisdom of designing, so to speak, with the woof of the stuff; and this an expert never fails to do. the texture of a material makes all the difference in the kind of pattern appropriate to it. a damask or velvet designer appreciative of the material designs his pattern, as in the fifteenth century example on page , broadly, to show the material to advantage, and keeps it flat, because he can rely upon its varying sheen to save it from possible harshness. it is the worst possible policy to adopt in designing for a noble material a method calculated to dis- guise the poverty of a base one. the weavers of shoddy have so naturally had recourse to fussy patterns that any textile worried all over with pattern lays itself open to suspicion. we owe the looser character of the later lyons silks partly to a loose age, but partly also to the fascinating colour of brocaded silk. in any less lustrous material it character which comes of treatment. would have been seen how ugly were the forms of the design. true, in a dress fabric it is the colour that is important; but that is no reason why an artist should sus . pattern in which the outline is left clear between the two prints—not safely to be done in block printing. ornament and its application. not take some heed of the forms he employs. designers of an earlier period, more seriously considerate of their art, have shown that care in this respect is not incom- patible with perfect colour—that it goes, on the contrary, to the beauty of the fabric. plenty of plain ground is the obvious device for show- ing the quality of damask, velvet, wood, marble, or what- ever the intrinsically valuable material may be. but it is not the only one. big patterns with broad surfaces show equally the inherent beauty of a rich material, and may therefore with advantage be allowed to crowd out a less significant ground. it follows from what was said above that full and crowded pattern has its uses. the comparatively fussy detail which demeans a fine material helps to redeem a mean one. printed wall-paper, for example, or common calico, wants detail to give it a richness which in itself it has not. there is a richness even in cotton velvet which allows one to indulge in flat masses of rich colour ( ); and in printed linen, too, the material gleams through the dye and gives life and brilliancy to broad patches of colour ; but in printed cotton flat colour looks dead and lifeless. the old cotton printers used what they called a "pinning roller"- a wooden roller (for hand printing) into which brass pins or wires were driven. the dots printed from this roller relieved the flatness of the printed colour, and gave “texture” to it. william morris adopted this idea of dotting in his cretonne and wall-paper design with admirable effect. it became in his hands an admirable convention in place of more natural shading. ornament might well be described as, in the first instance, a means of getting texture—of making a difference between one part of a surface and another. it may be mere scribble with that purpose-and was often not much more. the pattern from a piece of japanese stoneware ( ), roughly drawn character which comes of treatment. saa . embossed wall-paper, in which the high relief is kept clear of the joints. ornament and its application. in brush lines, is not much more than scribbling to give a texture or tint, and the pattern on the pattern in the persian earthenware ( ) is still in the nature of a scribble. there is no reason why such unconsidered scribble should not develop into more coherent pattern, as in the cotton print on page , the relation of which to the last mentioned persian earthen- ware will reveal itself at a glance. the enrichment of ground and pattern with secondary pattern-both alike overgrown with it—in order to make amends for the poor quality of the colour, gives a certain mystery to it which goes towards reconciling one to the absence of sheen in a cotton print. in a woven stuff of any worth it would not have been necessary thus to inhabit every part of the stuff with small pattern. there is yet another reason for the be-diapering of the main forms of the ornament, and in fact, for drawing the pattern in fine lines and dots, as in the cretonne on page , if it is to be discharged. it is possible for the dyer, it should be understood, to get a much deeper and richer ground colour than could be printed. hence a practice of first dyeing the cloth and then discharging the pattern, or, what amounts to the same thing, printing in a medium which will resist the colour and then dyeing. there is always a risk, however, that the discharge or resist may not be perfect. the colour discharged may stain the white cloth, and stain it unequally. this, which in the case of flat surfaces might be very objec- tionable (at all events to the philistine purchaser of the goods), is barely perceptible in lines and dots; and so there arises occasion for a kind of pattern which, to those who know the process, is confessedly designed for discharge or resist printing there is a difference, again, between patterns appropriate to block and to roller printing. the difficulty of printing first the ground and then the pattern (or some part of it, as in the cretonne on page ), so as to leave a clear but narrow outline between the two, would be so great in block printing that it character which comes of treatment. would not be worth while to attempt it; but a designer for roller printing may safely expect the printer to register his two prints so exactly as to give him the line he wants. a wall-paper printer has to bear in mind in his design the consistency of thick distemper colour, which would clog the step a . . so-called greek lace, showing, in the squareness of its forms, traces of its linen foundation. ornament and its application. fine lines a printer in dye has no difficulty in leaving open. he has to plan a gold ground so that very little of it occurs on the joint, where there is always a difficulty of avoiding a discrepancy between the printing of one strip and another (" sheeriness" is the trade term for it). so in a highly embossed paper, such as that on page , parts in very high relief must escape the joints. on the other hand, the block printer has the option of blending and “patching” his colours so as to get variety of colour out of a single block. but all that has to be ingeniously planned, and seriously affects the possibilities of design. the purpose of the pattern, again, to hang in folds, to be used for curtains, or straight on the walls, or for furniture coverings—is for the designer to consider; and whether a wall pattern is to be in itself attractive or a mere background. the prospective purpose of the material affects equally the hand-worker-painter, stenciller, or needlewoman. this it is which has determined the comparative dignity and frivolity of the earlier and the later kinds of lace—once designed for church furniture or ceremonial costume, and by degrees accommodating itself to the conditions of modern dress. the “ venetian point” on page shows in its square de- sign, like all so-called “greek lace,” the lingering influence of the linen foundation out of which it is worked. it is the culmination of " drawn” or “cut” work; and this trace of a groundwork which has practically disappeared is a pleasant reminder of the process. in lace not worked out of a foundation but stitched “in the air” as the italians say ( ), the square lines properly disappear from the design. a clumsy modern imitation of “greek lace” in crochet has pre- judiced us to some extent against it; but it is in its way as delightful as the “punto in aria.” both are as beautiful as they are characteristic of the way they are done. a feature in this last is the variety of filling stitches which, like the geometric patterns already referred to in weaving (page ), character which comes of treatment. sidan . venetian point or “punto in aria.” ornament and its application. . buckinghamshire pillow lace. give the effect of tint, lighter or darker according as they are worked close together or open. the lighter the lace the more important becomes the consideration of these “filling stitches ”—not stitches in the strict sense that a new way of using the needle constitutes a "stitch,” but more properly speaking diaperings done with the needle. in pillow-made lace half the battle of design is to provide for well-planned difference of more or less gossamer groundwork, effectively contrasting with the simple net ground, and with the rela- tively solid but never dead white pattern on it. the speci- men of buckinghamshire lace above shows, in addition to the net, an open and an intermediate filling or réseau : the patch of very fine net is a patch. it shows, too, how convenient the pillow-worker finds it to work in narrow strips. the réseau of the bobbin-worker will be found on character which comes of treatment. . pocos social oceno stora . . a . “limeric" fillings-not lace but embroidery on net. character which comes of treatment. side wa . rose point lace with “cordonnet” outline. ornament and its application. for a particular stitch or method. the actual stitches may either follow the forms of the pattern or be worked across them —but they should do one or the other, and not hesitate between the two courses. worked in the direction of the drawing they are extremely helpful to it, explaining the form in a way possible only in handwork. that is the best of reasons for working in the direction of the pattern. for it is plainly expedient for the most part to do with the needle what the loom . moresque patchwork or mosaic of glazed earthenware. cannot-not, for example, repeated pattern laboriously even in tint, but free-growing design, in stitches taking their direction from the design, and modified in colour according as they catch the light. the preciousness of embroidery has been rightly insisted upon. it is superadded, and should be worth adding. but, though there is scope for work by no means ambitious or pre- tentious, the simplest needlework takes so much time to do that there is no excuse for shirking the labour of its design. character which comes of treatment. vitu . saracenic inlay of marble into steatite. ornament and its application. . tiles decorated in coloured glazes separated by a raised outline. ornament and its application. with which they will conflict. the joints must somewhere cut across a continuous pattern: he contrives that in so doing there shall be the least possible danger of their distorting or disturbing it. it has to be remembered that tiles will shrink in the fire, not always equally, and that perfectly fitting lines are not to be reckoned on. . in the same way the assyrian of old ( ) evidently scratched the jointing of his bricks on the “unbaked” clay, modelled his design with careful regard to them-look how the lion's head is placed in relation to them-and then cut up his slab into bricks, afterwards baking and enamelling them. the raised outline, perceptible in the ornament, was, there is no doubt, necessary in his case to prevent the coloured enamel from running beyond its allotted compartment-a cloison in fact (see chapter x.). this was equally the case with the spanish tile maker, who arrived out of his own experi- ence at the same means of keeping his coloured glazes within zm . counterchange pattern in which patchwork and inlay are used in combination. character which comes of treatment. . thirteenth century patchwork of light and dark marble counterchanging. bounds. he began by laboriously cutting up glazed tiles into little pieces and fitting them together mosaic-wise. he did, in fact, in glazed earthenware ( ) very much what the marble worker did in his inlay ( ), except that he had not a solid slab into which to set his pieces, but had to build up his design entirely out of small pieces of tile. and this he did because he had no other means of sufficiently controlling the flow or his enamels or glazes in the fire. when it occurred to him that by digging shallow cells into the clay he could get little party-walls between his colours, which would prevent their running together, he proceeded at once to do in square tiles what before he had done in mosaic, reproducing at first the very same patterns. once familiar with the method, he was inspired by it to do work in which no trace of geometric pattern is to be found ( ). in the modern tiles ( ), de- signed on the principle of the raised outline, the ground has been sunk unequally so as to give, not modelling, but variety ornament and its application. aavutiwwanawawa znnnn num tan aw nnnn kaunimum unui diumerang ay nan wimmovanej lt iii ЛИЛИ . oriental inlay including patchwork. in the transparent glaze, according to its depth. (compare " basse taille” enamel, page .) the flowing of the glaze on a modelled tile ( ), so that the colour shows lighter or darker according as the surface is in high relief or deep sunk, affects the spacing as well as the modelling of the design. if the raised edges are too sharp they will shoot off the colour and stare out white and startling. if the hollows are too deep, or there is no outlet from them, the colour will be so dense as to show no gradation at all. on the other hand, a modeller familiar with the process can, if he wishes it (let us hope he does not), produce an intaglio, which, when it is glazed, will have the effect of monochrome painting. what he in any case has to do is to realise the depth of colour which will result from a given relief in the modelling upon the ground or a given depression in it. the difference between inlaid and mosaic pattern, between, that is to say, a ground into which a pattern is inlaid and a patch- work of separate pieces, is illustrated in the panel above ( ). character which comes of treatment. . italian inlay more or less mechanically done. a patchwork of only two colours is of itself enough to account for the origin of “counterchange," no matter whether or not it did actually arise in that way. it is quite certain that patch- work leads, as it seems infallibly, to a kind of design very different from that natural and appropriate to inlay (see pages - ). the perfect design from the baptistery at florence ( ) could not possibly, for example, be stencilled (see again page ); the inlaid patterns from the same floor ( ) might well be. still the two processes are constantly overlapping. the counterchange design on page is a mosaic into which lines and eyes of the contrasting colour are inlaid. again, the wood panel on page is inlaid with patchwork of ivory and ebony: the central rosette, the fans in the corners, and the inner border are first built up of little pieces and then put into their place. the geometric pattern- work introduced in this way into italian intarsia was actually the outcome of a process existent to this day in what is known as “ tonbridge ware.” long rods of wood of various colours are glued together (alternate rods of black and white give a ornament and its application. . . italian inlay more or less mechanically done. checquer), and the mass has only to be cut in slices across to give thin slabs of diaper, which the marquetry worker uses as if they were pieces of simple veneer. the italian work of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries shows by contrast what very poor use we make of this practical device. the trick is so easily done that it is almost invariably overdone ; but there is no valid reason except our want of self-restraint why we should not take real advantage of it. a practice of this kind was carried to extraordinary perfection in egyptian or græco-egyptian art. not only did the glass worker put together rods of glass in this way, and melt them together in the furnace; but, having made the compound rod red-hot, he drew it out to great length, thereby considerably reducing its circumference, so that, when this was cut into slices, the section appeared to be made up of the minutest tesseræ, like the miniature mosaic made in rome for brooches and other trinketry. a slice of glass produced in this way would show of course on the under side of it the reverse or turn-over of the design; and the glass character which comes of treatment. workers of old were cunning enough to avail themselves of such an opportunity of saving labour. they went even to the length of making one half of a design do duty in this doeo us . mosaic of glass more or less mechanically patterned. way for the two sides of a face—a questionable expedient, which may pass on the minute scale of the actual picture, though the line where the two halves are joined up may always be detected. ornament and its application. the fragment of tile-like pavement on page is put together in pieces of glass, some of which are inlaid with pattern, not built up of rectangular rods as above described, but worked in the molten state of the glass, more after the fashion of particoloured sugarsticks. the patera and other patterns are sections of such sticks of glass. a different development of very much the same idea is shown in the “marbled” cup below, in which flat ribbons of white glass have been embedded in blue, the whole fused alu . venetian cup cut out of a conglomerate of blue and white glass. into a solid lump, and the cup carved out of it as if it had been agate or some other precious stone. it is, in fact, the combined work of glass worker and lapidary. a much ruder but somewhat similar effect was more simply got in english earthenware by agglomerating shreds of different coloured clays, and working them together until a section of the solid lump gave very much the appearance of marbling-sufficient, when enhanced by a harmonising glaze of transparent colour, to justify the description of “agate- ware.” character which comes of treatment. the range of surface design and the influence exerted on it by practical conditions is so wide that the attempt to cover it here would be absurd. enough, it is to be hoped, has been said to show how much designers lose who confine their attention to the one sort of work for which they happen to design. the design of men working in a direction apparently quite unrelated to their own may yet be a most fruitful source of inspiration. not only is it likely to be suggestive, but they may freely draw from it. for, in the very act of translating a borrowed notion into the terms of his own craft, an artist of any personality will go far to make it his own. “translators, traitors,” says the proverb, truly. here, by way of wonder, is an occasion when treachery is a virtue. the teaching of the tool. style of ornament, and not enough upon the character which comes of its workmanship. that was influenced, of course, by the pro- gressive course of civilisation and culture, by the transmission of ideas and the adoption of traditional devices; but it was inherently the outcome of treating ornament according to its kind; of applying it to the case in point, of adapting design, not to wood or metal merely, but to some particular kind of wood or metal; and, further, to the way of working, the one with saw or plane, with gouge or on the lathe, the other with graver or with punch or on the blacksmith's anvil; it was the result of regard- ing pattern as applied not simply to weaving, or to weaving in silk only, but to damask, velvet or brocade. studies in the direction of the essential char- acter of design will, it is true, lead the student of ornament to the consideration of racial, national, and local characteristics ; but this is rather by the way. his point of view is the very opposite to that of the historian. he is keen to see the mark left upon historic ornament by the mode of workmanship employed at the time, to trace the evolution of technique and its sure influence upon design. the historian is interested in ornament because of the light it throws upon the life of folk in times past; the ornamentist is interested in history because of the light thrown by the course of events upon the de- velopment of ornament, explaining to him, for example, the eastern character of italian inlay, such as that here given, by the close inter- century inlay course between venice, the port of the medi- . italian sixteenth inspired by arab work, ornament and its application. emie w n cuneiform inscriptic terranean, and the other side of the water, in the sixteenth century. style, therefore, must not be taken to mean only the traditional or historic character of ornament as influenced by time and place and race. were it wholly a question of the development of a people, that, in turn, is bound up with the conditions of workmanship current among them. as a matter of fact, what we recognise as traditional style in ornament is to a great extent evolved from methods of workmanship; and the character which comes of work- manlike use of material and tools is really what artists, as distinct from archæologists, call style—characteristic and expressive treatment, that is to say. style in this sense is inseparable from material and y & & nye & at japanese brush writing. the teaching of the tool. workmanship; it is analogous, as mr wornum long ago pointed out, to “hand” in writing. but handwriting is determined not only by the personality of the writer but by the pen he uses. there never was a process but wrote its character upon the work done by it; and the tools of the writer have always left their mark upon his writing. id thi ba . incised mediÆval stoneware. the cuneiform character of the assyrians ( ) (curiously like the dig of the rhenish potter upon his clay ( ), though he never heard of the writing on babylonian slabs and cylinders) tells of the chisel with which it was cut; the flowing lines of chinese and japanese characters ( ) proclaim the brush. the lettering overleaf tells a tale there is no mistak- ing. the blunt greek letters are plainly indented in some ornament and its application. ppeek roman uncini letters lombard lowercase italics round german gothic • types of lettering determined by the implement used in writing. the teaching of the tool. soft material with a not very sharply pointed stylus, the acutely spurred roman cut in a hard one with a chisel ; the uncial letters, with their thick and thin strokes, tell not merely of the pen but of the varying pressure upon it; the lombard capitals are clearly penwork, too, though not done with one stroke of the quill, except in the thin strokes, in which sometimes, as in the tail of the r, it runs away with its driver. the relation of printers' "lower case” african basket-work characteristically plaiting. to the penwork from which it is derived is not difficult to trace when we compare it with the well-shaped italics of which our ordinary round-hand is a crude and clumsy version. but it is perhaps in german gothic, whether of the angular or the more flowing type (both given at the bottom of the page) that the penmanship is most unmis- takeable. that printed type does not more distinctly tell of the intervention of the type-founder, may be attributed to the fact, that the aim of printing was to imitate manuscript, if ornament and its application. not actually to pass itself off for written. a genuine artistic impulse on the part of the printer would certainly have led him so to modify the character of script that there was no mistaking his handiwork for it. with regard to modern script, we are in far too violent a hurry nowadays to indulge, except in our signature, in the ornamental flourishes of the scribes of a more leisurely period ; but our scribbling has, nevertheless, the character of quill or steel nib, stylo- graphic or fountain pen — whichever it may be. and as it is with the pen of the writer, so it is with every tool a man uses. there is a great deal of talk just now about techni- . door panels on cal education, and the way to “linen- of the need(urgent fold.” enough) of techni- cal teachers. perhaps our most efficient technical teachers are the tools we use. we are accustomed to trace a tradi- tional form of ornament back to greece or egypt, and to think we have dis- covered its origin ; we should find most likely, if we could go back further still, that, even though at the root of it there were symbolism, its development was due in considerable part to the use of some particular material or the thr efore employment of a particular tool-in . gothic "linen- short to technique. it takes perhaps fold” panel. the teaching of the tool. - cemre unes -- line of style .fbbbbbbble ) scratched unes pvnched holes witam -center tee ioddbu examples of linenfold panels . simple forms of gothic "linenfold." ornament and its application. a workman to perceive everywhere this influence of “treatment” upon orna- mental design, still more to appreciate its effect upon time-honoured "historic" forms; but no thoughtful workman will doubt the fact. it jumps to eyes that have been trained to see. and it could not be otherwise-as experiment will surely prove. take any tool in hand and pro- ceed to design—and see . “linenfold” with added what comes of it. the foliage. result will be not at all what you would have drawn on paper. it will be something much less literally like any natural object which may have inspired it; and the difference will be according to the tool with which, and the substance in which, you are working. they will, in fact, largely determine your treatment of form, and, con- sequently, the character of your design. pattern happens, as it were, inevitably. the potter “throws” a lump of plastic clay upon his wheel, and, as it revolves and he draws up the vessel into shape, his fingers furrow it with rings, perhaps pleasing enough to be left as ornament, but in any case, more the result of accidental pressure than of de- liberate intention on his part. it is the same in other simple crafts. the primitive weaver did not set out to produce the stripes continually recurring in his work: he had only to take up in succession, shuttles of differently coloured wool, and they gave him stripes. the basket- maker, with no thought of pattern, had only to plait straws ornament and its application. of two different tints and he had a checquer. and to the end of his plaiting, whatever the elaboration of his design ( ), and whatever the symbolic significance of it (ethnologists tell us it is all imitation ; but then they do not appreciate the ornamental instinct of the savage), it has a character there is no mistaking for anything but basket-work—any more than tartans can be mistaken for anything but the sure result of the crossing lines of warp and weft arranged in bands of different colours. in work, also, no longer primitive, material may be trusted to advise the designer what to do, and his tools to tell him how to do it—so surely that to explain the treat- ment characteristic of the various periods of historic orna- ment would be to tell the story of the various crafts practised. all that is possible to do here, is to give typical instances of the influence material, tools, and processes of exccution, have had upon design. not one of them but antal and . severe designs, not harsh, in gently contrasting shades of damask. the teaching of the tool. . design disturbing the least possible surface of velvet pil.e. will support the contention, that design has always and inevitably been, if not in the first place due to treatment, eventually determined by it. it is much too readily assumed that imitation is the beginning of all ornament. the resemblance of orna- mental to natural form is often only an after-thought. the designer evolves out of his way of working forms more or less like something familiar to him, and proceeds then to make the likeness as near as may be to it. a case in point is the well-known gothic panel enrichment which goes by the name of linenfold—contemptible enough as the imitation in wood-carving of a folded napkin. but it is not in the first instance imitative at all. nor, as it happens, is it wood-carving—but the work of the joiner's plane; and, more than that, it is the direct result of his endeavour to get sufficient play of surface on his panels to distinguish them from the flat stiles. nothing is easier ornament and its application. . loose forms of bobbin lace. for him than with a moulding plane to plough along his plank until the surface is all in ridges, and then cut it up into lengths according to the requirements of his panelling. the difficulty occurs when it comes to framing them up. the ridges must needs be shaved down at the ends to an even surface which will fit into the rebate. in the little door from the church at toul illustrated on page (which may be regarded as a step on the verge almost of linenfold) the carpenter has just bevilled the ends of the plank in a way which plainly shows its curved or angular section. the sloping section of a waved panel might not be so satisfactory; but, as the carver soon found, there was no occasion to leave it in that state ; it wanted only a very little carving to reduce what might be an ugly line to a graceful one. in reducing his section to something like ornament he arrived very soon, but not (see page ) invariably, at something like the overlapping edges of a folded cloth ( ). the notion appears to have caught the fancy of the day, and he worked it for more than it was worth. happily his representation of the napkin was at the best fantastic enough to foil to some extent his the teaching of the tool. . square forms of cut linen. ornament and its application. imitative intention. but the more he thought about grace and interest of line, and the less about linen and its folds, the better. as a simple means of surface enrichment, for the most part easily done with a moulding plane, and only calling for the finishing touch of a not very expert carver, this idea of simple semi-mechanical surface en- richment (as distinguished from the imitative form it happened to take) is worth, perhaps, more consideration at the hands of a generation priding itself upon its practi- cality than it has received. another and more popu- lar form of decoration, in which the mechanism of the method has a great deal to say as to the design, is book- binder's tooling. the in- genious and beautiful book- cover designs of the henri ii. and other periods, specimens of which are given on pages , , and , bear on the face of them evidence of the way they were built up. the lines do not aow freely but are compounded of short curves given by "gouges ” . surface silk bound down and and of details impressed by a in square-lined patterns comparatively small number natural to weaving. of tools which the “finisher” the teaching of the tool. meie code: . onlaid wire. dan rest w . ornament beaten up. . pattern in beads of gold soldered on. could dispose and turn about as he pleased. the louis xiii, cover on page is a very simple one, chosen on that account to show the different uses to which the same tools may be put (there are very few of them, it will be seen); but even in the richest and most luxurious examples of a better period the absence of growth in the line tells of the tool. the remarkable thing is how well the great binders of the sixteenth century did without that freedom of line which we are apt to consider indispensable. they did not, as the modern custom is, seek safety in mere diaper work, but, accepting rather mechanical curves as a necessity of the case, produced with them designs in which the mechanism, apparent as it is to the expert, is not so much as suspected by some admirers of old bindings. ornament and its application. w uud roula s . etruscan cup, of which detail is given on page . • it has been shown already at some length in a volume more or less preliminary to this (“ pattern design”) how the very construction of pattern may be affected by, if not entirely due to, some particular method of work, and the conditions arising out of it. much more is that so with its detail. the broad masses of an old silk damask or other textile, in which the quality of the material is all in all, are planned to give it value. patterns which in black and white ( and ) would be harsher than is pleasant, are just the thing to give effect to the gentle contrast between the two shades of a colour which result from a difference of woven texture. the thin and rather wiry line, which is so characteristic of the velvet patterns of the fifteenth century ( ), is designed to disturb as little as possible the surface of the sumptuous pile. the teaching of the tool. contrast, again ( and ), the looser and more indetermi- nate forms of pillow-lace, in which net and ornament are alike the work of the bobbins, with the severer forms belonging (as was shown on page ) to cut-work and other forms of lace in which the threads are drawn. it will be seen that the square lines of the warp and weſt survive always in cut-work ( and ) to remind one of the way it was done. in the same way the minute diapering of the surface of leaves and flowers in old brocades of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ( ) is a device inspired by the very practical considera- tion of securely binding down loose floats of silk, and their rectangular character is the natural result of the square mesh given by the loom. so, to the end of the long chapter of design, ornament grows out of conditions of work, and the character resulting tells of them. unintelligent use of orna- ment is the result of not consulting the conditions inherent in the thing to be done. material and process may be trusted to suggest the character of ornament. let the designer take their hint, and have always clearly in his mind the conditions under which his design has to be carried no . chip carving-knife work. ornament and its application. in twitter out, as clearly as though he were himself working under them. there are theorists who will tell him that the designer should carry out his own designs always, and the workman design whatever he does. happily that is not essential, for practical men know that it is not under modern con- ditions possible. the condition on which a man may be trusted to design ade- quately is, that he shall know all about his material and the way it is to be worked, that he shall appreciate the treatment proper to his material, realise what can be done with it, what can best be done with it, and what cannot be done with it at all. he is in a position then to decide upon the form and colour of his design. technique will have something to say on both points. what is under the circumstances of the case the simplest and most natural to do, will commonly be, not only the safest course, but the one most directly conducive to success. and the directness of downright design has always a charm of its own. when first our attention turns to design we wonder why handi- craft goes on in certain lines. . french couge work. the teaching of the tool. why did the artist do this? why didn't he do that? he has got into the ruts of tradition, we conclude. that is to some extent so; but it is too readily assumed that tradition is amiss. there is usually some very good technical reason for a prevailing practice. traditions may, no doubt, be too coisa . le s un utan . italian gouge work. narrow; they may be outworn ; but they are the outcome of technique; and it is to technique that the designer must look to point out the path to him. the way of technique is the straight way to success. other ways are relatively roundabout; if ever they lead there at all, there is waste of energy at least in following them. the easiest thing to do may not be the best worth doing ; but we have always to ask ourselves, was it worth while ? and in every art or handi- craft there is much which, possible though it may be, is clearly not worth our pains. ornament. and its application. hence the direction which design has taken. a workman reckons up what can be done, and at what cost. he sets himself to do what can be done at a cost of labour at which it is worth while doing it. he follows for a while at least the beaten track; and it leads him further on his way than he could have gone over untrodden ground. for the track is marked out by conditions it would be simply foolish to disobey. in every difficulty the designer turns for help to the conditions." the first hint of form or colour, the en- couragement to dare, no less than the caution to beware, come to him from the conditions. they are his signposts all along the road. there is possibly no characteristic form of design which has not eventually been shaped, if genomull pot feeder in launchuoli ma . direct and simple indian wood carving. the teaching of the tool. . characteristically wooden treatment of arabesque. it was not originally suggested, by conditions-conditions of place and purpose, of material and the means of working it. the familiar forms of architecture, for example, to what- ever perfection of proportion they may have been brought, whatever of symbolism or sentiment may have modified them, beautiful as they may be, or tiresome, all grew out of use. and, though eventually we come to accept them as features of "style,” the very proportions of an architectural "order" cannot be called independent of mechanical con- siderations. when we come to detail more or less significant, it is no merely artistic impulse which suggests that the sharp edges of overlapping stones should be rounded off until we get something like mouldings; that the lower wall of a room should be furnished with wainscotting, leaving a frieze space above; that the height of a dado should correspond with that of the chairs set back against it. ornament and its application. ..muliable guntin . the character of the material preserved in finished wood carving. the teaching of the tool. characteristic wood carving. the style of architecture depends, too, upon the stone, brick, timber, plaster, concrete, iron, or whatever may be used in the building of it. so, again, the character of a vessel is affected by the material, wood, clay, metal, or whatever it may be, of which it is made. nor is it merely with wood, clay, or metal, that a designer has to reckon, but with par- ticular kinds of wood, clay, or metal-each of which has qualities and defects peculiar to it. a potter has to deter- mine whether he shall “cast” his vessel while the clay is liquid, or throw it on the wheel whilst it is still plastic, and whether he shall finish it on the lathe; and the expediency of one process or the other depends upon the fine porcelain, the stiff stoneware, or close-grained earthenware with which he has to deal—upon the nature of the clay, in short. then there is the question of the after-decoration of the ware. shall he build up his ornament upon it in wet clay, or scratch into it? shall he dip it into colour, or paint it? ornament and its application. shall he leave it in the biscuit state, or glaze it? and suppose it is to be painted, shall the colour be put on to the ware before it is glazed, or after ? or shall it be in the glaze itself? and in the latter case, how had he best keep no m ava . wood carving in which the use of the drill is apparent. his colours apart? these are only some of the conditions with which the designer for pottery has to do. again, we talk of the metals as base or precious. but the designer has to regard them from another point of view also—according to their ductility, the ease with which they can be beaten into shape; and their fusibility, the tempera- the teaching of the tool. w alau . early gothic stone carving -english. ture at which they will melt. shall he cast or forge them? hammer them whilst they are red-hot, or chisel them when they are cold ? beat them up from the back, or work them from the front? chisel, chase, or engrave them ? shall he inlay or dama- scene them with other metal, enamel or bejewel . late gothic wood carving—english. ornament and its application. a ta wideot . french romanesque stone carving. them? to what extent, in gold and silversmiths' work, shall he depend upon solder and the blow-pipe ? the illustra- tions of goldsmiths' work on page show three absolutely le . thirteenth century stone carving_french. the teaching of the tool. renaissance marble carving-italian. ornament and its application. s tate different means of producing a raised pattern. in the simpler anglo-saxon pendant the pattern is produced by thin wires of gold soldered on to a thin circular plate. the more elaborate interlacing of the other is beaten up out of the plate itself. in the etrus- can cup (the general design of which is shown on page ) only the long bulbous features are beaten up, the more delicate lines are produced by minute pearls or grains of gold sol- dered on to the surface of the cup, a kind of work peculiarly adapted to gold, which is easily soldered. there are designs, of course, which might be rendered in either of these ways, but the design of a practical goldsmith would be very considerably influenced by the method or methods to be employed in its execution. when it comes to relief on a larger scale the choice of the artist lies be- tween carving and modelling. and they are very different arts, logically involving very different treatment, and, in ornament, leading to characteris- tically different design. i say “in ornament” because there is, no doubt, a point in fine art when the expression of beauty, whether of form or feeling, overrides all technical consideration excepting that of adequate expression. even in carving, though we use the same term no matter what it is that is carved, the material makes all tar . egyptian basalt carving, the teaching of the tool. french renaissance ivory carving. the difference—that and the tool employed, knife, chisel, or gouge. it is in the first place to the knife that we owe "chip carving”( ), a pastime well within the range of any sailor handy with his knife, and practised by all manner of primitive people to roughen and enrich the handles of their clubs, paddles, or any implement of which it was necessary to get a firm grip. the little triangular pockets which are a feature in the design of chip carving all the world over, are the very simplest thing to do with a knife. it is about the first thing also that a beginner is likely to do with a chisel. chip carving is, of course, a most elementary form of work; but it is none the less sufficient for many very useful decorative purposes, if only those who practise it would resist the temptation to worry with it every single inch of the surface to which, sparingly employed, it would give value. the gouge gives sweeping lines, and was in old days most effectively employed by joiners without pretensions to ornament and its application. winti . greek ivory carving. ant art to give the finishing touch of enrichment to their work. they, too, abused it —that was their want of cultivated taste — but their work was truly decorative; and the scoop of the gouge led them to a form of design which showed at once ( ) the instrument employed and their skill with it. the anxiety of the in- competent is always to efface the mark of the tool, because it betrays them. a skilled workman on the other hand, even when, as in the case of the salt bowl illustrated on page , his design is re- miniscent of embossed metal, will make such frank use of the gouge that you feel that his pattern, or at all events the detail of it, grew out of its use. the grain of wood allows a longer and more precise stroke than stone, and the evidence of this direct and certain line gives character to all simple wood carving, and to the best and most accomplished of more finished workmanship. what the man in the crowd ad- mires in the work of grind- invitv zanvi the teaching of the tool. ling gibbons, is the resem- blance to nature: what the carver appreciates, is his treatment, the mastery of his direct stroke-expres- sive not only of wood, but of the softish lime or pear tree in which he worked. the detail of indian carving on page (modern, but traditional) is almost as simple as the european joiner's gouge work, only it is more artfully disposed. the carrying further of the simplest and most direct workmanship is shown in the portion of a cassone ( ), in which ornament of a type familiar in marble distinctly differentiates it- self by its handling, and could, even in the repro- duction here given, not pos- sibly be mistaken (by any one appreciative of treat- ment) for anything but wood. this, it may be said, is at some cost of modelling. nothing essen- tial to relief or modelling is sacrificed in the arabesque ( ) from the stalls of s. severino at naples, in which the hand of the wood carver is hardly less apparent than . gothic ivory carving. ornament and its application. section hiselled iron hinge. in the cruder work already discussed-of a wood carver, too, as sure of what to do in walnut, and just how to do it, as grindling gibbons—for whose looser design, by the way, the artist is less to blame than the times in which he lived. a quality expressive of wood carving is exemplied in the detail from a french coffer ( ). it is not only that very flat relief like that is suitable to the surface of a coffer, but the modelling is got without roundness at all; the wood has . chiselled iron terminals. the teaching of the tool. plainly been scooped away from the surface of the leaves, to give them their delightful variety of surface; the furrows of the gouge are left to tell their story. a very different specimen of wood carving, the german cupboard door ( ), points to the time when another instru- ment, the drill, came into use in the carver's shop-a little too certainly perhaps : there is a monotony of puncture which strikes one as rather mechanical. more judicious use of the instrument is shown on page , not by any means a twitt . chiselled iron lock plates. mechanical piece of work, though the family likeness be- tween the two doors is striking. we find the influence of the drill again in the byzantine rendering of acanthus foliage borrowed from the greeks. in stone the carver (see the spandril from wells cathedral, page ) got something of the spring of life into very con- ventional foliage by sweeping lines of growth; but in the work itself, though it is not possible to show this in the drawing, it is plain they were not cut with a sweep of the gouge, like the late gothic border in wood on the same page. ornament and its application.. vitamin euroin . renaissance bronze casting. the treatment of the leaves is there again, perhaps, sug- gested by beaten metal work, but they become in the carver's hand characteristically wood-like. it will be seen at once how different in character from wood carving are the romanesque and early gothic stone carvings from le puy and laon ( and ). of these the gothic work has the rounder look, in strongest contrast to the flat concavity of the ivy leaves carved in walnut on page . the romanesque leafage is reminiscent of classic acanthus foliage, reduced by the simplicity of the rude worker in coarse-grained stone to something which we recognise as the style of his period. more properly it is that of his material, tools and artistic naïveté. the very mention of an historic style conveys at once to the educated mind a clear idea of character. but that, as before said (pages et seq.), is the outcome not merely of national temperament, but of the material in which the people worked. we have no difficulty in distinguishing the carving of egypt or greece, of mediæval england or renaissance italy; but we recognise the teaching of the tool. : , it plainly also as carving, and as carving in the material of the country—though of course the local conditions of sunshine or grey skies, of direct or reflected light, had always a say in its character. an italian of the renaissance, working in a sunny climate and in marble, worked very much in the classic manner, the refinement of which was made possible, if it was not suggested, by the quality of hard limestone. the texture of the flowers in the italian scroll, shows, even in the drawing on page , the marks of the chisel —not ploughing along like the gouge, but driven by a succession of little taps of the mallet. when by chance the work of the sixteenth century artist happened to be in sandstone, it had more the coarse character we associate with the idea of gothic. the somewhat savage enrichment of our own norman buildings forcibly recalls the rude way it was done. it is more properly speaking chopped than carved. just as the refinement of greek and italian renaissance ornament is by no means inde- pendent of the marble in which the sculptor worked, so the restraint podo: . cut cristal. ornament and its application. of egyptian design is not to be credited entirely to symbolic expression and artistic reserve. working in granite or basalt, the carver was under no temptation to insist upon the folds of drapery or the curls in a lion's mane. it was certainly not artistic incapacity which prevented the carver of the noble figure of pasht ( ) from indulging in detail ; and, had he been working in a softer material, he might very well have gone beyond the simplicity which gives such astonish- ing dignity to his design. ivory is a material which lends itself to the simplest as well as the most finished carving, to pattern just grounded out, little more than flat engraving, and to com . ancient cut glass. the teaching of the tool. . cut leather bookbinding. ornament and its application. minutely worked ornament ( ). the design, however, is restricted by the size of the tusk and even by its shape. in the fourteenth century madonna ( ), no less than in the earlier greek figure of a tragic actor ( ), the twist of the figure may safely be ascribed to the curve of the tusk out of which it was carved. the carver, that is to say, cut his com- position according to his ivory. mediæval blacksmith and locksmith, also, used the chisel under severe re- strictions, and were as little likely as the egyptian carver, to indulge in florid forms of ornament. the hinge cut out of solid sheet metal ( ) is a very different thing from what the smith habitually did in hammered work. his terminal heads too( ) have an egyptian simplicity ; but their squareness comes from the fact it was iron he was chisel- ling—to which also we may attribute the angularity of design in his lock-plates ( ), a sort of notching or facetting peculiar to and expressive of the lock- smith's means.. cast metal has naturally the qualities of modelling, subject, of course, to the condition that it shall "draw" from the mould. and there is the further opportunity of chasing the cast. of this, it may be said that, either it should be thoroughly done, and carried in fact to a point of perfection beyond the founder's art, or the metal left as . embossed leather instrument case. the teaching of the tool. . quilted silk. nearly as possible as it came from the mould. half measures are seldom satisfactory. the designer of the screen at prato cathedral, a part of which is given ( ), has accepted the current type of acanthus scroll, but his version of it is what neither carver nor modeller would have made of it, and may be fairly accepted as appropriate to bronze. it is rather strange that, in face of the triumphs of the bronze founder, we should persist in denying the artistic possi- bilities of cast iron. there is nothing contrary to art in iron casting-except the use we make of it, and in particular our futile attempts to reproduce by means of it wrought-iron forms. memories of what has been done at the forge hinder our appreciation of what the foundry might do. it may not be so easy to cast in iron as in bronze; but can any one doubt that if the great german and italian founders had had our ornament and its application. lio . punched silver work. appliances they would have stopped short of great things in iron. all that is wanted to make iron-founding an art creditable to the century is that spirit of artistic craftsmanship, which informed, not only the great sculptors of the renais- sance, but the mediæval smiths and bronze workers whose names are not even known to us. to return to carving and the influence of material upon its design. there is a squareness, once more, about the workmanlike cutting of crystal (none the less carving that the teaching of the tool. iii it is cut upon the wheel) which tells ( ) both of the way the cutting is done and of the material, facetted to catch the light and give the prismatic quality, in pursuit of which cut glass has since been deprived of all artistic interest. facets are rightly calculated to show the quality of "flint” glass (as distinguished from "soda” glass) perfected in deliberate imitation of rock crystal. the modern manu- facturer knows no more where to stay his hand than the chip carver who patterns his panel all over with monoto- nously fidgety mechanical detail. more interesting design, in cut glass, derived no doubt from earlier crystal cutting, and in imitation of it, is the old german cup on page devised with plain intent that the opposing surfaces should gleam like crystal. cut leather lends itself to ornament which could hardly be anything but what it is. the process employed is to sjon ננננכונכונה studio monoton . simple beaten silver work. i ornament and its application. nas wali canal wabu . embossed, punched and chased silver. soak the hide (perhaps in boiling water), and with a sharp kniſe cut in the outlines of the pattern, punching down the ground to a lower level (consequently throwing it into slight relief) and pushing up more salient parts of the ornament from the back. portions of the ornament are also pressed down from the front. but, apart from that, flat surfaces have a way of shrinking from the incision, so as to give them a slight concavity. that is to be seen in the bookcover on page , and there is more individuality and consequent charm about flat design of that kind. leather may be beaten up and punched down until all trace of the knife is lost; and, owing to the deep colour of the old leather, the boxes, powder flasks, and instrument cases ( ) wrought in this way, have much the appearance of beaten bronze. the opposite effect to that given by the shrinking or curling up of the leather as it dried in flat cut- work occurs where a soft material is sewn upon another. it the teaching of the tool. results (more especially if there is any sort of padding between) in a puffed up look, at once indicative of the work and in itself pleasing. except for the more crinkled surface where the silk is puckered, the quilting on page might be beaten metal. repoussé ornament itself takes two rather distinct forms, according as it is punched from the front or beaten up from the back. the first of these processes is very clearly illustrated on page no, where the all but flat strapwork is relieved against punched grounds varying in texture ac- cording to the punch used. the design of the strapwork is, here, not very interesting; but the play of surface in it and in the punched diaper work is delightful. the silver dish on page in is interesting for the naïve way in which it illustrates the evolution of embossed design. you read in it, as in a confession, how the silversmith marked out on his disc the rings and rays to guide hin, then beat up the vesica shapes radiating from the central boss and following round the border, added smaller circular bosses between, and further embossed the bosses with seeds or ts ito, embossed and chased silver. h ornament and its application. pearls, finishing with rings of pearls and other lines to steady the effect. simple as it is, the result, in silver, is far more satisfactory than the most part of more ambitious embossing. in the russian bowl on page , two processes of work are used—the main forms of the vessel are beaten into prominent relief from within, and then enriched on the face, alternately with chased ornament on a beaten ground and with punched diaper. in the rim of the venetian bowl again on page , bulbous forms of a characteristic kind, which runs through embossed metal work of widely dif- ferent times and countries, are beaten up from the back, and then chased from the front. this particular design is interesting for the clever way in which the alternate divisions are broken up so as to give variety within the shapes, contrast of surface, and just the right proportion of plain silver. the reproduction of the pastoral staff on this page is on too small a scale to do justice to the beautiful embossing on the upper part of it; but the rod alone shows admir- able varieties of embossed surface per- fectly adapted to its end. the sympathetic embosser con- ceives his design as bosses of various proportions and shapes, connected perhaps by less bulbous shapes into a whole; and, though he may work iii. beaten silver crozier. the teaching of the tool. them into leaves, or fruit, or living crcatures, he never forgets that they are bosses. embossing, whether in leather or inetal, comes sometimes very close to the effect of modelling, which differs from carving very especially in that, whilst the carver gets relief by cutting away from his material, the modeller gets it by adding always to it. the sympathetic manipulation of the soft clay is to be . modelled earthenware. ornament and its application. .dan us oba s till . persian earthenware with inscriptions in raised “slip.” felt, it seems to me, in the treatment of the mantling in the glazed earthenware on page , very different from the crispness of a cut surface. the material allows a certain sketchiness. one may easily suggest in clay what it would be very difficult to express in carving, even if the idea were possibly to be conveyed in clean cut form; and design depending upon precision of line is rarely the thing to attempt in it. the teaching of the tool. yet looser form than is given by modelling clay, comes of working in the wet clay with which the potter often gets relief—the persian, for example, who pours out his creamy slip (compare page ) upon the surface of his tiles ( , , ), allowing it to settle very much into its own shape- shape which is at all events significant of the way it was dropped on, not modelled. a similar looseness results from a similar way of working in gesso. the blunt look of the ornament below, which would be objectionable in carving, as well as the rather broken line which would be against it in embossing, is here justified as being the expression of the material-gilded gesso. it is quite apparent how the relief is got by dropping on the gluey plaster and just trailing it with the brush. the artist, intent upon the relief necessary to enhance the brilliancy of his gold, was rightly satisfied with very sketchy modelling. . gilded gesso. ornament and its application. . gesso. the teaching of the tool. > > sain . glass blown into a mould. the use of gesso is carried further in the italian shield opposite ( ); but even there the method is employed to more characteristic purpose in the diaper upon the ground than in the griffin, admirably as the charge is treated. we britons are much too fond of hard precision, regard- less of the fact that even dumb ornament may be expressive of a workmanlike device. compare the cut glass on page with the venetian cup above, in which the delicately suggested pattern is produced by blowing the cup into a mould, naturally not giving any very sharp impression, ornament and its application. . : boy . . des p . eco > - : . . dobio paaandise aaa aao vaca aad aaa aaa sons svava xx ioioio x saac san ar . opus alexandrinum—the utilisation of waste. and it will be seen that there is in each a quality, which, as it is inherent in the process of workmanship, ought not lightly to be sacrificed by the worker, nor left out of account by the designer. the plain hint of the material was promptly taken by the designers of the pavements in what is known as opus alexandrinum ( ), who made such splendid use, not only of waste chips of porphyry and serpentine, but of great slices of circular and other columns, which they introduced as a foil to the geometric pattern-work built up of the smaller the teaching of the tool. i fragments. the disc or panel forms a perfect focus to the design. it is curious to reflect that, but for the economic instinct prompting man always to find use for a waste product, lu dan og o ds . glass mosaic inlay, ornament and its application. orna -- - ww o *** bis * pohor . turned arab lattice work. nothing like opus alexandrinum might ever have been done. no one, we may be sure, would have thought of cutting up precious porphyry and serpentine into little bits, if he had not found it already broken into scraps too small for bolder use. the artist proved his capacity by the effect he got out material in itself ineffective. to the circumstance that appliances for cutting hard stone were not in the old days so perfect as to tempt the workman to shape his triangular or other units with anything like the teaching of the tool. geometric accuracy, we owe, also, the satisfactory effect of the old patchwork of white and colour, with its irregular veining of grey cement between-so absolutely unlike the clean-cut, close-fitting, modern work with which the ubiquitous restorer is fast replacing it. the arab or byzantine workman, it may be said, and with truth, was never prone, as we are, to mechanical pre- cision ; but, then, our modern inclination in that direction is, in no slight degree, the result of our facilities. having perfected mechanism, we become its willing slaves. the geometric character of this marble pattern-work points to its oriental origin; but, traced to its first cause, there can be no doubt that the unequal colour of the marble (no less than the case with which triangular and other right-lined cubes could be shaped) encouraged the use of severe pattern. the danger inherent in purely geometric design is a tendency to be mechanically precise; and accidents of colour, sure to occur in marble, just counteract it. there is a corresponding fitness between the hard forms of geometric mosaic ( ) and the bright colours of the glass employed in it. the little facets of glass catch the light at all manner of angles ; they glitter each according to its own bright will; and the shimmer of the surface, nowhere absolutely even, puts the possible contingency of harshness out of the question. in wood inlay again, originally equally geometric in design, the same fitness between form and colour is to be observed, the same softening of hard forms by colour natu- rally uneven. uncertainty of tint makes amends for certainty of shape, and gives an air of mystery to what might else appear mechanical. it is plainly upon the lines familiar in the geometric mosaic of the east that the arab lattices opposite are built ; but would they ever have been put together just in that way but for the opportunity thereby offered of using up ornament and its application. . so-called “greek ” lace design-old italian. method than the one employed—a folly not altogether, as is sometimes implied, the invention of our own times. late gothic stone carving is often more than reminiscent of the forms of goldsmith's work; and elizabethan woodwork affects the form and very facets of brobdingnag jewellery. the borrowing of a form of design characteristic of another material or process is justifiable only when the borrower makes it his own—when he sees in it an appro- priateness (not perhaps before suspected) to his own method of work. an instance of this occurs in a form of bookbinder's tooling unmistakeably based upon the so-called “greek” lace opposite. it is impossible to doubt the origin of the tooling above. imagine the lace design of vinciolo cut in metal and the likeness between the two would be more striking still. but it is to the artist's credit that, in the first place, he has not imitated the loose line of actual lace; and, in the second, it is to be observed that the borrowed form of pattern fits in to perfection with the process of tooling. the against the grain. . bookbinder's tooling based upon “greek” lace. tools needed for the execution of such patterns are easy to cut and their manipulation is equally easy for the “finisher.” it seems, then, that the binder is quite well advised in adopting a style of design, borrowed though it be, which he can turn to such workmanlike use. another instance of adaptation is, as it happens, from the tooling of the bookbinder also,—and in this case the actual tools of the binder were employed upon pottery, of all things. yet it was quite a right use to make of bookbinder's tools : to stamp them into softish clay ( ), to cover that part of the vessel with clay of another colour, and to scrape off the superfluous clay from the surface so as to leave an inlaid pattern, which, when the ware was fired, was of one substance with it. the wood carver again, it was shown page , makes good his claim to forms suggested by embossing when he shows how the gouge itself would almost have suggested them to him. there would be less to say for the “gadrooning” of the earthenware jar on page (compare it with the embossed gold cup on page ), were it not actually embossing. the wili il. ornament and its application. . pattern stamped into pottery with book- binder's tools. pattern stamped into leather with similar tools. potter has, as a fact, pushed up these embossed forms from the inside with his finger in order to get the rounded surfaces which will catch the light and give value to his metallic lustre. embossed leather paper ( ) as it is called is perhaps rather unfortunate in its name. as an imitation in a cheaper substance of old spanish or venetian leather it is confessedly a sham. but there is no very good reason why one age should not do in paper what in another was customarily done in leather, and more especially when it happens that the one will answer practically every purpose of the other. the fact is that there is nothing specially belonging to leather in the old lacquered and painted leathers. some excuse for imitation may be found in a sort of childlike propensity to copy. from time immemorial the chinese were never quite so happy as when they were imitating in one material the effect of another, making porcelain to look like jade, glass like agate, or bronze like bamboo. and so it was, and is still, with the japanese, who take a positive delight in reproducing in the costliest and most extravagant manner a substance of no intrinsic value whatever-evidence that it is out of the very innocence of their hearts and in no spirit of ostentation that they en- deavour to deceive. it is by way of boast-but only of their own cleverness. italian artists, even of the period when art was at its best, had never any conscience in the matter of simulation. if they could make marbling do duty for veneer, or grisaille for against the grain. they could make marbling do duty for veneer, or grisaille for sculpture, the end justified the means to them : the effect was all they cared about. equally bad offenders in the present day are the french, who seem to have no other idea of a wall- paper than to make it look like damask, lace, embroidery, mosaic, painting, tapestry, no matter what so long as it has no character of printed paper. it is in contrast to mistaken methods which give no chance to the qualities inherent in every material and in every way of working it-adopted in a spirit of frivolity at least if not of pretentiousness or fraud—that the fitness of fit ornament stands out as the one condition of workmanlike design. apart from any motive of pretence, apart from the com- mercial incentive to meet demands no matter how far re- i . embossing in plastic clay. ornament and its application. moved from the natural course of workmanship, a workman is led by a workmanlike instinct to do what is most unwork- manlike. whatever is reputed to be beyond the scope of his particular art, that he is tempted to try and do; natural ambition it may be or foolish vanity ; unhappily it leads him many a time astray. it is a besetting sin of the exceptionally clever workman to want to get more out of a method than it naturally gives, to think only that worth doing which will show off his skill. he will do it even at the cost of character. so it happens that we are asked to admire, for example, carving which might have been modelled, terra cotta which might just as well have been stone, cut leather which looks more like beaten bronze. the wrong thing is done sometimes in such a masterly way as to compel admiration. it needs all the excuse of consummate accomplishment. high finish has its own charm. but if it wipes out all record of the way the work was done, the price paid for it may be more than it is worth. the attraction of a tour de force to the worker is obvious: to any but himself it is more interesting than attractive. we ask ourselves was it worth doing? was it worth while forsaking safe and satisfactory lines for that ? an artist should know where to stay his hand, and have the self-restraint to stay it. and, in ornament applied to any useful purpose at least, the point at which to stop is where the material tells you to desist. the "convention” which comes of obedience, not to tradition, but to the conditions of the case in hand, is always right. often it is singularly satis- factory. we ask no more of basket-work than ingeniously plaited pattern ( ); no more of joinery than well-propor- tioned panelling ( ); no more of turning than the lathe will give ( ). a spidery pattern in black on white is more to the purpose of a pavement ( ) than the battle picture in coloured marble mosaic which ranks as a treasure of the naples museum. and reticence needs all the more to be insisted ornament and its application. applied art, the claim to independence is presumptuous- neither more nor less. if we miss in modern ornament the character which comes of workmanlike treatment, it could hardly be otherwise. in the process of modern manufacture everything gets planed down to a marvellous smoothness; the ideal of execution us mammairaalaannamunamannannanirrus ooo beri . panelled joinery. is mechanical precision; and design itself (no longer affected by the old conditions of execution) sinks into dull monotony. but the fault does not lie altogether with our much- abused machinery, though mechanical execution has helped both to pervert artistic taste and to prejudice men's minds in favour of something in the way of workmanship which ornament and its application. about its technique. still there is a lesson for us, and some consolation in the success of the skilled craftsman where the great painter failed—for to make a design which in execution works out less satisfactorily than the drawing is to fall short of practical efficiency. it is not so easy as some seem to think for even a great artist to step down from his eminence and show the expert workman how to do it: all trades want learning. another case in point is mosaic. great painters have been enlisted in its service; but it is not the work of titian or tintoretto that we linger over in st mark's. the archaic figures of the earlier mosaicists, severely silhouetted against their gold ground, give us infinitely more satisfaction. the lesson of ravenna and palermo is that the satis- factory mosaics are the work of men accustomed to design in tesseræ. from the middle of the sixteenth century onwards tapestry weavers seem with one consent to have agreed to work against the threads, mosaic workers to design as though it were for paint—and not one of their works in these kinds will compete for an instant with more workmanlike design. it is not then so entirely mechanism as-civilisation shall we call it? which smooths all character out of workmanship- until, if we want idiomatic expression in design, we must travel back to some remote period of craftsmanship our modern appreciation of nature is the plea on which we depart from despised “convention.” artists have always loved and studied nature, even when they treated it so as to convey by their rendering that it was the doing of carver or modeller, weaver or needlewoman. whatever the work it was removed by a touch of the tool not so much from nature perhaps—the instinct which directs such workmanlike modifi- cation is natural enough—but from the imitation of nature. pray art, deliver us from that! the workmanlike touch grows, unhappily, rarer; the note of individuality is less often struck. workmanship tells less and less of the workman. he no longer confides in us, nor against the grain. arrantorbrbqqobrodoloqd aaqda rrors exa go promo r dishninions ostetustic idriorandolandirondresdunddrogeobonorgdordon odtdoutootdorldustoodooo . appropriate mosaic pavement pattern. talks to us even ; he has no time to gossip over his work. the fault of modern execution is its smoothness, tending, for all its elaboration, rather to polish than refinement, making no sort of amends for simple workmanship, for crisp and vigorous handling. finish does not mean minute detail, but perfection and refinement, by which alone smoothness is justified. the tale of the tool (brush, chisel, hammer, no matter what) is never discreditable to the workman who can use it, and to him at least it is always interesting. there is a sort of smoothness which is artistically about on a level with the polish on a man's boots. it is that which makes one disposed to tolerate any degree of roughness if only it be the expression of vigour, freshness, individuality. the smoothness which disguises a feeble and niggling touch has no charm, nor that which panders to the popular prejudice in favour of sleek respectability. frank workmanlikeness is none the less acceptable for a suspicion of bohemianism that lurks about it. it is not, for all that, a thing to affect; and it is a mistake common enough in our reaction against smooth “finish," so-called, to over-accentuate the mark of the tool, and insist upon it as if it were in itself the end of workmanship. ornament and its application. the tediousness of commonplace mechanical production, depressing beyond measure to the sensitive artist, has induced a desire on the part of some to go back to mediæval ways of workmanship-not a very reasonable desire, intelligible as it may be. in their enthusiasm these would-be goths have overshot their mark and scared away adherents they might by a more discreet advocacy have attracted to their side. theirs is surely a counsel of despair. teele vecuretecoli . characteristic but archaic javanese ornament. it is of no use trying to persuade the twentieth century to revert to the rudeness of the thirteenth. whatever the charm of early gothic work, its rudeness is out of keeping with the ways of life to which we have long been accustomed ; and it is no sign of degeneracy in us to ask for something that is neither rough nor archaic. it is a pleasure to come, for example, upon an unsophisticated piece of ornament like that above, where the javanese artificer has simply rolled up guttapercha or some such substance into the thick- ness of stout wire, curled it round into spirals (which remind against the grain. one of the metal worker), attached it to papier mâché, fretted away a part of the ground, and gilded the whole. there is something quite taking in its barbaric character, and perhaps a hint of something one might do; but it would be a foolish thing for us to go and do that. in design and workmanship alike we must go on, or give up the game. our choice happily does not lie between the methods of mediæval workmen following the lines of tradition and those of latter-day capitalists. we have yet to try what seems the obvious way out of the difficulty in which a sudden change of industrial conditions has landed us—the experi- ment, not of returning to the rude or leisurely manner of old days, but of devoting ourselves to the solution of the artistic and industrial problem of the moment. the artists really effective are those in touch with their times, who know them- selves not to be independent of existing economic conditions, who are in no way hostile to science or resentful of mechanical appliances which, turned to right account, might be of service to them. it is not so much manufacture that is to blame for he existing state of things as the attitude of the manufacturer -and, let it be confessed, of the artist. the conditions of modern production are out of joint. manufacturers know too little about methods of beautiful or artistic making, even if they realise that there is such a thing. artists know too little about the means of modern manufacture, which, by their aid, might be put to much more artistic use than unaided com- mercial or mechanical instinct can possibly make of them. if only artists and workmen knew as much as might easily be known as to what has in the past been done, and how it was done, and why it was done so, if they but realised what can nowadays be done, and under what conditions, they would not be far off finding for themselves ways which, without going against the irresistible current of modern industry, would meet the case of art. artists who set their face against either mechanical or scientific invention, whether they oppose ornament and its application. it actively or merely stand aside, only widen the breach they are always deploring between art and industry. their atti- tude is the result of ignorance, more or less wilful. none the less it is want of knowing which makes them so unpractical. a designer must know what there is to know about design, handicraft or manufacture, its past achievements and its present possibilities, before he can start fair. not until he knows both sides of the question of industrial design (its many sides would perhaps be the more just expression) is he in a position to judge between one aspect of it and another ; his opinions are until then but prejudices. it is because, unfortunately, artists so often look only at one side of it, and manufacturers only at the other-and they happen to be the two opposite sides—that they get on so badly together, and manufacture has become what it is. the attitude of artists is not always such as to command the respect of practical men. to praise the imperfections of mere accident as more beautiful than perfect workmanship, is not to show much real appreciation of design. neverthe- less the artist expert in one art, or in one subdivision of art, is curiously tolerant of imperfections in another, the technique of which is unfamiliar to him. he has been heard to say, when it was pointed out to him that what he was admiring was really only the result of careless or incompetent work- manship,—“so much the better !” and to expatiate at large upon the charms of the unexpected. but it is only in regard to crafts in which he is at most an amateur, that he gives vent to these unworkmanlike opinions. when it is a question of his own craft, he knows better than that. the relation of science to art has never been very clearly defined. the one is in a sense the very opposite of the other, and the artistic temperament the antithesis to the scientific. but to a work of art there goes an amount of systematised knowledge which is nothing less than science—knowledge which is the necessary equipment for the successful pursuit against the grain. . especially of an applied art. there is many a handicraft in which without definite scientific teaching the artist is at a disadvantage. what control can a potter have over his clays and glazes, or a cotton-printer over his dyes, without sufficient knowledge of chemistry? in truth such know- ledge belongs to the very groundwork of design. and it might easily be taught, if artists were not so impatient of science, if men of science could see things more nearly from the artistic point of view. the difficulty is in imparting the necessary information in a way that does not revolt on the one hand the artistic, on the other the scientific spirit. we talk of art teaching! artists know that it is not art which can be taught, but only the things that go to its successful pursuit—the way to use eyes, hands, and brains, the control of such artistic faculty as may be born in a man. what training does, and teaching should do, is to make good workmen. out of workmanlikeness art is most likely to develop itself. it is the source, too, of all a workman's satis- faction in doing, and in the doing of others. to him at least there is unfailing interest in the way a thing is done, in its character as well as its beauty. he looks for evi- dence of that, and delights to recognise behind the work a workman with whom to claim fellowship. it is not alone that he likes to see how some one has solved difficulties with which he has had in his time to deal, or taken advantage of an accident which occurred to him also, and ended possibly in disappointment; he has a thrill of purest satisfaction in perceiving how some one years ago and far away felt as he himself feels about his art, saw nature in the same light, accepted the same restrictions, and seized opportunities in the same way. work thus sympathetic to him is a sort of approbation in advance of his own practice—the approbation, too, of a workman in whom he recognises a master. that warms his heart more than all praise. vii. where to stop. taste and liking-stopping points suggested by material and process : ex. pottery-- what can be done on the wheel, and with various kinds of clay- the quality which comes of throwing clay—the very different quality which comes of blowing glass-coated clay-accident turned to account : ex. crackle porcelain and crystalline glaze-devices growing out of the nature of clay and the way it is used-scratching through an outer coat of clay to the different coloured body— modelling a surface to show variety in transparent glaze-decorating clay with liquid clay or slip-decorating glass with molten glass (prunts, &c.) pâte sur pâte-- pottery painting and the potter's palette-- the ordeal of fire. there is no more common fault in ornament than the endeavour to go too far. artists want to do more than the conditions demand, more than they justify. in deter- mining the limits of decoration we have to take account of the personality of the artist. it is not a question of taste only, but to some extent also of liking. one man may like more enrichment than another and yet be no less surely controlled by a fine sense of restraint. nor, were it otherwise, is it of any use attempting to lay down rules to be upset by every change in ever-changing conditions. the one sure and constant rule is that, with regard at least to common things about us, use and handiness mark the limits of fit ornament. and, just as the thing itself, the material it is made of, and the manner of its making, show the way to appropriate design, so they may be said to warn the artist when and where to stay his hand. a convenient stopping point occurs naturally where ornament and its application. . rudely thrown german stoneware shapes. the familiar and typical pottery forms grow again so naturally under his fingers, you realise how it happens that ugly forms are rare in primitive pottery ( ). it is plain that the ugliest pot ever made on the wheel must have passed in the making through more than one stage of beautiful form-lost because the workman, sitting over his work, is not in the best possible position for judging when his forms are perfect, and, as likely as not, before he is aware of what he has done, it is undone again. the wheel, then, gives beautiful shapes typical in their vi . refined chinese porcelain shapes. where to stop. soft gradation of the action of the hand in shaping them. why call in an after process to harden them? there may be a sameness in thrown shapes; but is there no monotony in the forms arrived at by more mechanical devices? the fact is that for very many purposes the wheel gives, and gives naturally, all the variety and beauty of form that artist need desire. and if potters were in the habit of depending upon it, they would find means of using it to yet further purpose. reticent but effective use may, for example, be . blown glass shapes. made of modelling tools to give, if necessary, graduations of form less blunt than the finger tips alone are bound to give. the charm of thrown shapes ought not, however, to blind us to the limitations of throwing. the consistency necessary to the manipulation of the plastic lump will not allow (though something will depend upon the quality of the clay itself) the throwing of shapes such as we find in the old greek vases. they are the result of an after-process akin to turning. but their refinement is gained at the loss ornament and its application. . simple metal shapes. of a quality more characteristic of potting. mechanical trimming in the half-dry state of the clay effaces what was done whilst it was amenably moist to the hand—and that so effectually that one is inclined to ask whether, if in the end a vase is to be shaved all over on the lathe, there is artistically any reason for throwing it at all, and the thing might not just as well be made mechanically from the first. refinement of form may or may not be worth the sacrifice of the plastic quality of clay. the important thing is that we should realise the cost of what we get, and face it. the too eager advocates of throwing forget, if ever they knew it, that the process is not equally applicable to all kinds of clay. an expert potter throws, turns, presses, or casts his vessel, partly according to the kind of shape he wants to get, and very much according to the kind of clay he has to deal with. the effect of finishing processes generally is to undo something already done. the worst use to which they can ornament and its application. ol www irriba if lightness is the quality desired the wiser plan would be to em- ploy a material of which that is the characteristic -glass, for example, which, in its molten state, is blown like any other bubble, and has all the charm of airiness ( ). (the phænician bottle on page shows another charac- teristic glass shape—a . vase modelled to give value shape not unlike that of to the glaze. the glass bubble when first the blower begins to roll it about on his slab to bring it into something like cylindrical shape; but it has none of the lightness of blown glass—and as a matter of fact it is not blown but worked in the red-hot glass upon a core of sand, afterwards removed.) the colour of clay is commonly muddy, its texture gritty. both of these shortcomings are made good by the simple process of coating the coarse dull body with finer and more brilliant clay. the condition is that the two clays shall be of equal shrinkage in the fire. even the unequal contraction of the two and the consequent cracking of the outer skin have been turned to advantage, as in the "crackle” which gives interest and "quality" to chinese celadon and other ware ( ). a keen workman loses no hint his material may give him. an accident puts him on the track of new discovery. for the last few years the most expert of european potters have all been aiming at starry, crystalline effects on porcelain, like frozen breath upon a window pane. this was in the first instance the unexpected result of some- where to stop. thing“ going wrong” with the glaze. if a man can gain sufficient control over such accidents to make tolerably sure of the result, there is every reason why he should thus play with the glaze—making it, as it were, a partner in his venture. variety of colour is very simply got by scratching through the outer coat of fine white clay to the darker body of the ware beneath—and so in search of colour the potter stumbles, as it were, upon incised pattern. it is a means of decoration which could not fail to occur before long to the man who had once coated his vessel with clay of a colour different from that of the body. again, a glaze of transparent colour gives of itself occa- sion for pattern, for hollowing out recesses in which it will lie thick and dark, for raising up points from which it will flow and show lighter than elsewhere. the melon-like modelling . detail of persian “slip” decoration. . detail of turkish "slip” decoration. ornament and its application. of the persian vessel on page , though not perhaps unin- fluenced by beaten metal, is perfectly adapted to give value to the glaze with which it is coated. the simplest and most characteristic means of raising ornament in pottery is by means of liquid clay, or slip as it is foot flere . roman "slip” decoration in high relief. called, of about the consistency of cream, which may be painted or dropped upon the body. there is something peculiarly interesting in the direct use of slip, where the touches of the brush and the drops of the liquid clay are left to tell their plain straightforward tale, no matter whether the workmanship is of the rough and ready kind which is often all that is to be desired ( ), or carried to a point at which we wonder at the artist's control over a seemingly very limited resource. the examples illustrated ( - ) show progres- where to stop. sive stages of the painter's mastery over the liquid clay- but they are one and all characteristically slip. the likeness between this slip decoration and the “prunts” of the glass-blower ( ) is too striking to be passed over. it looks as if the one must have been inspired by the other. that the one was influenced by the other there can be no apd . roman slip decoration very delicately modelled. doubt : the glass-worker goes to work so nearly on the lines of the potter. but each was working in the direction of his art—the one in clay upon clay, the other in glass upon glass—and in either case the characteristic form seems to grow naturally out of the way of working. the very "prick” in the centre of the prunt comes almost as naturally from liſting the brush gently from the surface when the clay ornament and its application. . glass decorated with “prunts.” is in condition, as from withdrawing a rod of adhesive glass from the surface it has touched. the softening of the prunts, by submitting the glass once more to the oven, and melting them down ( ), has very much the effect of comparatively sloppy clay which has sunk down to the ground. one fortunate result of slip painting is that the relief so obtained can hardly be sufficient to interfere, as modelling easily may, with the form of the vessel it enriches, or to impair its usefulness. in this it resembles the similarly where to stop. restricted relief of repoussé ornament in metal. ornament beaten up from the back or put on liquid with a brush, is with difficulty to be made so bold in relief or so detached from its ground as to appear like an excrescence upon it. the apotheosis of "slip painting" is the process known as pâte sur pâte, in which mr louis solon is a master. it is really only slip that he employs, but the china clay is of the finest, allowing him by its transparency to give upon a dark tin mit . “prunts” softened in the fire. ornament and its application. ground the most delicately modelled gradation. mr solon carries the process of which he is a master to the point where danger begins, but his sympathy with the clay keeps him straight. consummate work of this exceptional kind, the direct outcome of a workmanlike process, is a kind of luxury in which here and there an artist-given the requisite mastery of his art—may indulge. the rule more generally applicable to workmanlike technique is spontaneous execution. “if it were done, when 'tis done, then 'twere well it were done kumica . “pÂte sur pÂte” decoration by m. l. solon. where to stop. cos . liquid-looking pottery painting. quickly." this holds more than good with pottery painting, whether upon the unglazed "biscuit,” which sucks up each separate brushful of colour as it is laid on, or upon the slippery glaze itself. in either case the artist gets, by float- ing-on his colour quickly, a juiciness which any subsequent niggling goes to destroy. there is a liquid quality in water- colour which the painter wishes only he could retain beyond the wet stage of his picture. this is just what the pottery painter gets as a matter of course by floating on his colour with a full brush—and keeps ( ). the on-glaze colour sinks (or should sink) into the glaze, the under-glaze colour floats up into it- ornament and its application. and is held there in suspension-hence the quality of “blue and white," cobalt being the colour most sure to spread in this way, so that you see into it. could anything be more ill advised than to give up this advantage inherent in the medium used ? and yet, instead of securing a superlative result, easily within reach, european china painters persist in fidgeting and stippling with the brush, dabbing the colour with cotton wool, or laying on coat after coat until there is no trace of transparency in the triumphant evenness of colour. you will find sometimes a piece of old worcester in which the blue ground is extraordinarily fine (there is one in the jones collection). closer inquiry goes to show that it is only because the painter had not quite succeeded in his attempt to obliterate the natural transparency it should have been his first care to preserve. there was reason for the reservation (above) as to on- glaze colour. it is only under the happiest conditions that it sinks into the glaze. more commonly it lies upon the surface, glossy indeed, but without the transparency of under-glaze colour. why then resort to it? the only reason an expert pot painter has for so doing is to increase his palette- the fierce fire necessary to fuse the glaze burning away many of the colours he would like to use—and he has not the reticence to stop at the point suggested by the fire. without denying an artist's right to use the means which give him what he wants, it may be remarked that the secret of ancient triumph is commonly in the restricted means of the workman, which compel him to simplicity; and that the failures of modern times are as commonly to be accounted for by the multitude of facilities, leading astray from it. where is the piece of sévres or dresden china to compare with a fine bit of nankin blue and white porcelain ? and so in earthenware the glory is all with rhodian faience ( ), italian majolica, and hispano-moresque lustre ( ), in which even when the painting was on the glaze, it was restricted where to stop. . d dy di do . nigel site . hispano-moresque pottery painting. to a very limited palette. the beauties of colour and iridescence which lie, so to speak, in the crucible, are worth more than all the elaborate miniature painting of our euro- pean factories (the little chinese on-glaze pictures were at least freely and spontaneously put in) marvels of skill but decoratively ineffective, even if the painter got what he wanted—which, presumably, he did not ; for his work falls between the two platforms of decorative and pictorial effect. the starting point of a painter should be the qualities inherent in his medium (oil, distemper, fresco, encaustic, or whatever ornament and its application. it may be)—which he ought not to adopt without first asking himself whether it is the one fit for his purpose. having adopted it let him respect it, and regulate his aim according to his appliances. let the pottery painter think out a scheme of colour his palette will allow him to realise. the oxides at his service will deprive him of possible indulgence in natural effects, but will lead him in the main to results more perfect in their decorative way than he could ever get by disregarding the nature of vitreous colour, in no case inde- pendent of the uncertain action of the fire upon it. that alone should be enough to keep him from entertaining the idea of colour depending upon precisely accurate tones or tints. the one thing certain about colour that has to pass through the fire is its uncertainty in the kiln. pity as we may the sorrows of the poor pot-painter whose ambition is all in opposition to his craft, we cannot hold him blameless for his misſortunes: his plain remedy is to abandon a medium for which he has no sympathy, and to adopt one in which he can express himself, if not with ease, without for ever breaking his heart over it. viii. where to stop (continued). “grounding out” (the first step in carving) suggests filling in, i.e., inlay--- inlay suggests engraving, to get finer detail-outlines of cement in marble inlay-couched cord or stitching in appliqué embroidery-smith's work--spiral scrolls easily forged— terminal ornament beaten into swages -chiselled ornament-threaded bars-cut and hammered plates- pierced iron--armourer's work. pottery is no exceptional instance of how material or method points the way, and leads on, stage by stage, from one process to another, between each of which is a convenient halting place. the first step of the carver is to “ground out” his pattern, and the mere cutting away of the ground, so as to leave a pattern in slight relief upon it, the texture of which is natu- rally not so smooth as the original surface of the plank, is quite enough for some simple purposes of decora- tion. the panel illustrated ( ), which is in its way quite satisfactory door decoration, goes very little beyond that. time intensifies the difference between ground and pattern, as the hollows catch the dust and the face of the wood gets polished by use. . wood carving this is seen to be an advantage, and little more than the desire arises to anticipate this “grounded out.” ornament and its application. - e al . wood grounded out and filled in with coloured mastic. stronger contrast between the pattern and its background. the carvers of the fanciful italian cypress chests of the fif- teenth century did that by filling in the ground with a cement or mastic, which at the same time gave them colour—though in the example given above very little of it remains to this day to bear witness to the fact. from that to the inlaying of different coloured wood is a step the worker could hardly fail to take, though, in view of the labour involved in scooping out the hollows to receive it, he naturally inlaid the pattern ( ) and not the ground. in the case especially of very hard ornament and its application. . wood inlay secured by ivory pins which form part of the design. where to stop. . ivory inlaid into wood, and engraved, happier in ivory or box than upon wood of a more open grain. in the casket panel above the german artist makes good use of engraving—which there is always a danger of carrying too far. very nearly the same stages of development occur in marble inlay. the first stage is the grounding out of slabs of white marble and inlaying marble of different colours, as ornament and its application. in the detail from the facade of the duomo at florence ( ). the second is the addition of detail engraved or grounded out and filled in with cement—which has its value also in soften- ing the contrast between black and white marble—as in the ornamental border from the pavement of the cathedral at siena ( ), and again in the figure subjects enclosed by such borders. it is a great descent in taste from that to the later practice of beccafumi (in the same pavement), who not only cal . coloured marbles inlaid into white. made use of cement lines for giving modelling to his figures but inlaid his cast shadows in shades of grey marble, as may be seen in the detail opposite ( ), a striking example of what not to do in inlay, and least of all in a pavement. analogous to the outline of grey cement in marble inlay is the stitched outline sewing down the onlay in appliqué embroidery. the indian leather-worker stops discreetly at that point ( ). in silk or velvet the actual sewing down is usually masked by couched lines of cord or filosel or gold thread. in appliqué where to stop. marble inlay with engraved detail filled in with cement. figure embroidery ( ) the stitched outline becomes (like the engraving on ivory, page , and the cement in marble inlay above) further necessary, on the surface of the silk, to give the features of the face, the folds of drapery, the feathering of till . marble inlay aiming at effects of light and shade. ornament and its application. hu our tibio vase tietootout . forged iron scrollwork of the thirteenth century. that. welding them together he got as in the french grille illustrated ( ) a satisfactory suggestion of growth. but he did not always stop there. by beating out the ends of his branches to the size he wanted, and hammering the red-hot iron into hard steel dies (swages is the technical term for them) much as wax is pressed into an intaglio to give an impression in relief, he shaped them into leaves, berries, or . details of forged iron beaten in “swages." where to stop. e n den hann gangandarantat hindu ia proficer tron worm century . forged iron scrollwork of the seventeenth century. sen en ԱՐԱ Ս (Ա) Ս ԱՆԱՅ enship ii im t w uhairimtiv ՄՍ ԱՍԷ Ի ###yesert/lil/: th | հետ / ԱՐՋ ՍԻՐe fl/r//Վի Էս Սgդի իրիդ Այսիր իրեր te memorab e sloan aruble i autobuslar bithelathabitabin edun o an innan ornament and its application. . forged and chiselled ironwork. rosettes, such as those on page . there was never much danger of bars wrought on the anvil having anything like the mechanical effect of our machine-made strips; but the smith would sometimes (it occurs at le puy) punch little circular depressions in the thickness of the bar, thus giving the profile a subtly waved appearance; or he would notch the sides of the bars at short intervals (this is done at palermo) to give serration. it may be mentioned in support of what was said above, as to the dependence of historic forms of ornament quite as much upon technical as upon local or national conditions, that even as late as the seventeenth century the italian smith worked very much on the principle of four or five hundred years before. his straps, as shown on page , are thinner than the gothic workman's, he thinks more of grace- ful line than of energetic growth—that is of his time and where to stop. . threaded iron bars with leafage, etc., cut out of sheet metal. voru country—but his craft leads him to employ in his own way the very same device of curling straps, welded together or tied with separate straps of iron : in either case the forms of the design are not merely those of the thirteenth or the seven- teenth century, but very largely those of the forge. foliation takes in early renaissance ironwork comparatively aowing form, still of a distinctly scrolly character, but no longer beaten into swages but chiselled. a good step forward is to be noted in the direction of freedom. an interesting feature in this german work is the interpenetration of the stems, by which of course the work is strengthened. they are some- times, as in the nuremburg grille above, closely matted to- gether. this threading of the bars is not so simple a matter as it looks. it is in fact not so much an outcome of the way of working as a cunning overcoming of a difficulty. the bar which runs through is in reality made up of a number of short lengths forged together after each successive threading. it is plain when you think of it that a long iron bar could not ornament and its application. be kept at a temperature which would enable it to be drawn at once, like a thread, through half-a-dozen eyes. the detail of a nuremburg scroll marks yet another process of work- inanship, the welding on of leaves and other features cut out of sheet iron (as may be seen most plainly in the flowers) and modelled with the hammer. the portion of a hinge below shows in the flowers no less than three of these hammered plates fastened together with a central five-petalled rivet. in . flowers built up of shaped and embossed plates of iron. late gothic work conventional leafage cut in this way out of flat iron was curled up into the most luxuriantly forid and at times uncomfortably bristling ornament. the severe and well-knit ornament in the horse inuzzle opposite tells of quite another procedure, the chiselling of cold iron or steel-armourer's, no longer blacksmith's work—a pro- cess which does not invite excess. the forms are in some respects reminiscent of hammering ; but the more they are examined the more evident it is that they are produced by piercing—fretted (see chapter xi.) out of the solid, and engraved on the surface. a smith who has it in him to strike out in a direction of his own will always put his mark upon his work. it is so where to stop. awwwwwwwwww nutitioned innnn iluilal lllllll llllllll d oubleuponep unia , ili vile mas dinal . chiselled iron. that successive schools of workmanship were formed. the “ local ” style was always the harvest of some one man's sowing ; but, in the case of blacksmith's work, it bears also the marks of the forge, of hammer, shears, and pincers, each of which in turn helps to shape it; and when the smith gives way to the armourer or locksmith the style of his design tells of the change. more than enough. ornament. in the intervals of hunting and fighting he had nothing else to do, and so he went on whittling away at the handle of his club, until he had occasion to knock some one on the head with it. in countries where it has not yet been discovered that time is money, and life flows lazily along, a similar profusion of enrichment is everywhere the custom. but in proportion war . geometric strapwork relieved against more flowing ornament. ornament and its application. to the culture of the people there is order in the intricate maze of their design, restraint in the seeming wild luxuriance of its detail. our western habit is to contrast always enrichment with plain surface, as a foil to it; and, at its best, a rather con- spicuous self-restraint gives dignity to our art. the oriental instinct is rather to cover a surface with ornament, in which, nevertheless, for all the minute elaboration of its detail, somelibabu . arab candlestick-bronze encrusted with silver- fifteenth century. more than enough. . a triple scheme of ornament. certain more emphatic forms distinguish themselves—at the right distance from the eye ( ). it is anything but the meaningless elaboration which it may appear to the casual observer. excess is not easily pardonable in ornament. those, however, who look coldly on ornament generally are much too ready with the condemnation "overloaded with orna- ment.” ornament may be extremely rich and yet not “over- loaded.” our northern temperament puts us too much out of sympathy with the exuberance of oriental ornament to do justice to the art with which an eastern artificer will use ornament and its application. c . henri ii. strapwork design derived from oriental interlacing. ornament as a foil to ornament, relieving his arabesque not by plain ground but by other ornament-elaborate mouldings perhaps (where we should use plain framing) or lettering only less ornamental than the damascening all about it ( ). redundancy is not with him, as with us, a sign of inex- . flat strapwork in wood carving. ornament and its application. absolutely necessary to the effect of opus alexandrinum and the minute mosaic designed by the cosmati in emulation of byzantine workmanship ( ). in byzantine carving the strapwork was sometimes itself moulded to give it a texture distinguishing it both from the plain ground and from the richer bosses of ornament contrasted with that ( ). it abounds in romanesque stone carving. it is the main element in scandinavian design. further use of strapwork in orna- ment will occur to every one. it has been dwelt upon so far only to indicate how the simplest device may run through . moulded strapwork. the design of periods and countries wide apart, and to show how kindly it will sometimes adapt itself to crafts as different as inlay from carving, as carving from embossing. in this connection it should be mentioned that the cartouche work which is so typical of ornament of the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ( ) is only a develop- ment of strapwork. it is not in itself a feature of much interest, and it was abused beyond endurance, but it offers a simple means of obtaining great variety of relatively plain surface—a thing sometimes very much to be desired in more than enough. beautiful wood or metal or whatever material is worth showing--and by no means easy to get. the proportion of ornament to plain surface is, then, partly a question of east and west, partly of the material whose surface may or may not be worth preserving. we are led astray from our national sparingness of enrichment by facilities of too easy production. unhappily, too, ornament is a very convenient cloak for the many sins of manufacture. were it not for these considerations, economy (which is supposed to rule the day) would be for once on the side of art and keep us in the way of reticence. luxurious ornament is no sin against good taste-only it is more difficult to restrain than coldly calculated enrichment. the normal taste is towards a preponderance of lean; some like more fat; a few have appetites not to be cloyed by any surfeit of richness—if only they can digest it! the artist should know how far he can safely go in the indulgence of his appetite for ornament. enough is all the feast for him. if he has any doubt, let him be advised to use as little as possible, he should design that little all the better that he has no more of it to do. and enough is reached sooner than we think. the man who hesitates as to whether he has reached it, has very possibly overshot the mark already. in any case the danger of too great restraint is as nothing in comparison with that of excess. unless he is confident that further enrichment is wanted it will be safe to conclude that he has indulged already if not in too much ornament in quite ornament enough. x. from process to process. scratched ornament on clay- picked out pattern in paint upon pottery or glass or gilding-colour rubbed into incised lines--patterns impressed in plaster and painted or enamelled-- from incising to inlay, to niello, to damascening, to enamel-champlevé and cloisonné enamel-the relation of ivory, etc., inlaid with precious stones, to champlevé, and of mosaic of encloisoned jewels to cloisonné enamel-enamel in relation to goldsmith's work-- various kinds of enamel. it is not for a moment suggested that, convenient as it may be to have halting places on the road, the course of design should be hindered in its development or stopped short. all that is urged is that it may be as well not to go on blindly, but to pause from time to time, and ask oneself what is to be gained—whether something may not be lost—by going further. there is not much fear of holding back the artist by such advice. he is by temperament not of the easily contented sort. and, as will have been seen, one process has a way of leading on to another, and by such gradual succes- sion that progress is inevitable: the artist finds himself across the border of a neighbouring process before he is so much as aware that he is trespassing. the simple device of scratching on wet clay with a point -practised by the first savage who ever thought of orna- menting his rude pottery, of digging into it with a knife, or otherwise impressing it (as the assyrians did when they dug the cuneiform inscriptions into their written tablets)-gives us the art of sgraffitto. but the simple process of scraping out ornament goes much further than is commonly supposed. a from process to process. ਵਰਟਵਰਕ . persian earthenware with diaper picked out of the lustred ground. painter has been known to expatiate upon the delicacy of the painted ornament on a gilt frame, when as a matter of fact the surface of the gold had simply been covered with a coat of paint and the pattern picked out of it with a point. so the glass painter picks out diaper work on glass coated with opaque pigment, and the potter out of colour or lustre upon the smooth glaze of his earthenware. the scribbled back- ground of the white ornament filling up the space between the raised letters on the persian tile above is filigreed over with a pattern of white showing through the lustre. characteristically scratched ornament occurs on a stone- ware pot ( ) done with a little comb by means of which a number of scratches could be given at a single stroke. the ornament and its application. . scratched stoneware. jagged lines of the stalk in the illustration show the difficulty of scratching curved lines cleanly on comparatively dry clay. the method of scraping through a coat of clay to a ground of different colour has already been mentioned. the worker in . sgraffitto earthenware. from process to process. sgraffitto goes sometimes further than that, and lays a ground now of this colour and now of that, so that he can cut through . patterns in plaster. ornament and its application. . impressed and painted plaster. from process to process. the surface coat to the colour he wants for his design; but he must make up his mind betimes as to the plan of his colour. an alternative to the use of a coloured ground is to rub colour into sunk lines. it is easily wiped off the surface. the patterns on page have all the character of having been incised on wet plaster : the lines are just such as the tool would take. eventually designs like that would come to be impressed upon the plaster more or less mechanically. i deeply cut sandstone glazed with vitreous enamel. but with the facility of so doing we get without fail more elaborate pattern work, such as the intricate diapering upon the upper walls of the alhambra. the example opposite is from the synagogue at toledo. much of this moorish plaster work is so sharp that the workman seems in some cases to have trimmed it with a knife; but, even without that further manipulation, the work is clean and crisp enough for all decorative purposes—the more especially as it was from process to process. it has been shown (chapter viii. how incising led to inlay in wood and stone. the same thing follows in metal. the bright pat- tern, for instance, on a black ground, which goes by the name of "niello,” is forced upon the engraver. it comes about naturally. a de- sign such as that upon the goblet opposite would show up at best indistinctly upon an engraved ground; but oxidisation would soon blacken it, and if it were deeply enough sunk, when the cup was polished the ornament would tell out so effec- tively as to point the way to this new de- velopment of the en- graver's art. what more natural than to fill in the ground with an amalgam of quicksilver, copper, lead, and sulphur, which at a sufficient heat is perfectly fused to it, and presents a surface at once black and smooth . niello. ornament and its application. . niello or damascening design. with . engraved brass blackened ground. from process to process. . designs for champlevÉ enamel. to the touch ? a siinilar effect is arrived at from the other side by damascening-engraving the pattern, that is to say, in iron or steel, and beating into the channels thus prepared for it silver or gold wire telling bright against the relatively black ground. the design on the opposite page was pro- bably made for damascening; but it would serve equally for niello, except that in it no advantage is taken of the opportunity of leaving broader masses of bright metal to con- trast with the finer filigree, as the strapwork does in the pattern on the german goblet. analogous to damascening is the process employed in indian bidri ware, where a black amalgam forms the ground ornament and its application. into which silver is inlaid. the use of a black varnish or other such filling as a background to engraved brass ( ) (as we fill in the background to a memorial tablet) is a less thorough way of getting the desired effect; but, apart from its liability to lose its hold of the metal, and its unpleasantly shiny surface, there is less satisfaction in these easier ways of getting effect. in woodwork, similarly, one pre- . garnet inlay --cloisonnÉ. " fers wood inlay to a stopping of mastic. a niellist with a sense of colour would insensibly be drawn to enamel. champlevé enamel differs from niello only in two respects: that it is not confined to black, and that it is no longer an amalgam of metal but a vitreous paste that is filled in. the designs on page are of a type characteristic of early seventeenth century gold- smith's work, the white parts representing the gold, the black the enamel. the more rudely executed thirteenth century french enamel upon bronze below shows a thicker wall of metal between the colours of the shield and the charge upon it, very obviously left in re- lief by digging out the cells for the vitreous pastes. in the german work opposite, in which the brassy surface of the metal is character- istically left to form a background to the enamel, they are filled in with colour which is not flat. the cells, it must be under- stood, are necessary to keep the various colours apart and give the metallic . champlevÉ enamel. it from process to process. outline to the drawing ; but in cases where the colours may with advantage blend one into the other there is no reason why pastes of two or three different colours should not be filled into the same cell—and so the enameller proceeds a stage further, and gradates his colour from blue to green, from green to yellow, and so on. autmang euunit poli haiti whituu cocci wellery julent cornulla . champlevÉ and cloisonnÉ . champlevÉ enamel. enamel. ornament and its application. historically speaking, cloisonné enamel anticipates champlevé. it always looks to me as if champlevé were the earlier of the two. in any case, if cloisonné had not been invented before, the worker in champlevé would have hit upon it as a way of sparing himself the labour of carefully cutting away the ground so as to leave, for example, such fine lines as those marking the folds of the drapery in illustration , which are as obviously cloisons of wire as the outline of the drapery itself is plainly cut out of the solid metal. the convention of using metal to represent flesh tints distinctly belongs to champlevé. the cloisons, again, intro- duced into the background of the lion of s. mark below are suggested by the necessity of breaking up areas which it would m otooo econd . champlevÉ and cloisonnÉ enamel. ornament and its application. theat bkuru winwin clay inlaid in clay w ille: i clay irlaid in wood , , , . inlays of vitreous paste and clay in bone, wood and pottery. practice, the engraving of the metal—whereby the breadth of effect is endangered. in the lion of s. mark ( ) such engraving is judiciously used only to give the necessary drawing, the mane of the beast and the feathering of its wings. whether this had better be done in enamel is from process to process. partly a question of scale. the features of s. james( ), it will be seen, are traced in lines of enamel colour. referring again to the origin of champlevé, it was of great antiquity, though not perhaps in the form of vitreous inlay of the kind we call enamel. the egyptians of the time of nimrod inlaid not only precious stones in ivory ( ), and pottery or vitreous paste into bone and wood, but, finally, clay into clay ( to ), forestalling thus by long centuries our so- called “encaustic” tilework. the modern tiles here given ( ) are a development of the old “encaustic" process. the design is impressed in plastic clay, and clay of different colours is laid into the cells thus given-or, as a matter of fact, piled on and scraped level with the surface of the tile. the use of enamel was preceded by the inlaying of precious stones—which enamel and coloured glass itself were both at first no doubt meant to simu- late. in the egyptian ivory ce . champlevÉ tiles inlaid with clays. from process to process. oooooo noooo ico obrado ooooc oooooo lord bouw . fretted framework of translucent jewellery. forerunner to enamel is so clear as to need no demonstration ; but it is interesting to compare, for example, such work as the anglo-saxon cloisonned garnet work on page and the champlevé designs on page , in a way so much alike, and yet so distinctively in the one case built up in wire, in the other ploughed out of the solid metal. cloisonné enamel is essentially a goldsmith's device. his habitual use of gold wire and solder prepares him for the work. it is even possible for him to fuse enamel with the blowpipe, in the use of which his art compels him to be expert. in looking at a design in filigree such as the byzantine work on page one almost wonders how the goldsmith came to stop short of enamel; the cells are ready built for it, the jewels seem to ask for its support. in the more modern russian work on page the enamel strikes one as being the natural completion of the design in filigree; and the use of a twisted wire is one reason at least for leaving the surface of the enamel as it came from the fire. the more common practice in opaque enamel is to grind the face of it level with the edge of the cloisons, so as to get a quite smooth surface. the chinese and the early mediæval enamellers have ornament and its application. land . byzantine filigree in silver gilt. didro g xe rara a > > . glass inlay in bronze-cloisonnÉ. . garnet inlay-cloisonnÉ. painter's art. at its most decorative, it was a goldsmith's art, the means which his appliances allowed him of intro- ducing into his work colour over and above what precious stones would give. ornament and its application. piercing. but the problem how to give free play to the saw without something like alimsiness in the fret has so rarely been solved that the idea of fretwork is associated in men's . fretted marble. allied processes. warm also ko . fretted iron. allied processes. the designer's business to anticipate. the fret-saw is a con- venience only so long as we do not allow it to affect design in- juriously. working as the mediæval smith did with the chisel ( ), he arrived as naturally at well-knit pattern as we with the fret-saw wander away from it. the use of fret over fret (page ) was the fifteenth century locksmith's means of arriving at tracery in relief which it would have been most laborious to carve out of one solid sheet of iron. uvuvituoi mittitvtuntiavalarimau . fretted boxwood. some interesting variations upon ordinary fretwork de- serve to be mentioned. the acme of simplicity in fret- sawing is where planks are merely sawn at the edges so as when placed side by side to show pierced pattern-work. this device does away with all necessity for any preliminary drilling for the insertion of the fret-saw, and several planks can, of course, be cut at once. it is quite commonly and very cleverly used to lighten and enliven the balconies of swiss châlets (page ). the arabs employed it, too, and carried it further still in the wooden vallances which formed a feature in their domestic architecture. in a similar way they notched ornament and its application. nox z planks of wood and crossed them so as to form ingenious trellis patterns (page ). the intricate wooden lattice work of the japanese which looks as if it had been fretted out of a single plank but was not, is put together in a somewhat similar way, the notching, however, in that case being in the thickness of the laths and only for the purpose of construction. the drawing on page should make this clear. apart from the consideration of the fret-saw, the principles in- volved in the planning out of pierced work are those which govern the design of stencilling. for a stencil plate, as a glance at the japanese examples on page will show is neither more nor less than a fret (of cartridge paper or whatever it may be) through which pig- ment is rubbed in to form a pattern on the ground beneath the plate protecting the parts where no pattern is to be. stencilled ornament is lite- rally a positive of which the negative is a fret. lay any fret close down on to a sheet of sensitised paper, and the light will do the stencilling and print di . fret over fret. allied processes. a pattern for you. nor would it be a very great stretch of imagination to regard the dark background seen through a pierced panel as thus printed in shadow. whether the print from a fret will make a satisfactory stencil will depend upon how far the print has been taken into account in its design. in the design of a stencil plate the print is the prime consideration; the fret is only a means to the end of printing. the consistency and strength of the stencil plate impose a very stern condition upon the design of a pattern to be . patterns sawn out of planks-swiss. stencilled. the smaller the parts of the design, and the wider the space between them, the stronger the plate. in any case the design must be broken up into small parts. the art of the designer is in not making the design look “bitty” in con- sequence. he has to get his effect by means of a plate which holds together, which is strong enough to endure battering with a stiff brush, and which leaves nothing to be made good by hand after printing. his “ties,” that is to say, must in no way hurt the design. they should in fact be an integral part of it. they are the controlling condition, and have a great deal to say as to the style of design to be adopted ( ). ornament and its application. in powderings and other disconnected diaper work the difficulty of stencil design is reduced to a minimum. the effect of continuous lines is not so easily to be obtained, since they must actually be broken at short intervals. it may be got, however, by judiciously crossing them with features in such a way that a helpful tie takes its place in the design as the necessary outline to a leaf or whatever it may be. see how the iris flowers cross the leaves in the japanese stencil on page , and how conveniently the leaves stop the horizontal lines which give a sort of tint to the back- arabia ) sawn work - o- mmmm kohomomom . notched planks—arab. allied processes. . fretlike japanese joinery. ground. crossing stems and interlacing bands of ornament are thus turned to excellent account in stencilling. the very breaks in a line may be turned to use, as in the backgrounds to the fruit blossom on page , where in the one case the ties are used to suggest the snowfall, and in the other canes of bamboo. in the cunning design on page a shadowy effect is given to the flying wild ducks by the simple but ingenious device of rendering birds and sky by continuous vertical lines, varying in thickness as they represent the one or the other; and these upright ties are held firmly together by long horizontal cross ties, suggesting streaks of cloud. fortunately for the stencil designer, absolute continuity of line is not necessary to the coherence of a design. the mind is quicker to perceive than the eye, and will make good something that is not there—how much will rest partly with the individual. the imaginative artist may perhaps be trusted to leave to the imagination just what it will ornament and its application. donec . japanese stencil plates. allied processes. velvviluje = llll : || ilm iii . linn nllu. wit montuit . japanese stencilling. supply ; but there is always a likelihood that familiarity with danger may breed a certain disregard of it; an expert stenciller gets into the way of expecting too much of those who come unprepared to take technique for granted. wrn . les . japanese stencilling, ornament and its application. iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii hivini uuuuuu immu win itunu . japanese stencilling. the question is here of stencilling only as a craft in itself. as a mere preliminary process it may be used for what it is worth to the painter. he may paint out all trace of it. it ceases to be, or does not arrive at being, an artistic process. regarded as such, however, it is the art of designing in ties. the pattern shapes itself in the practised artist's mind as a fret in paper from the very first. the consideration of the ties is a very serious difficulty to the novice; the expert hardly thinks about them; they come to him ; he bothers himself no more about them than a painter about the strokes of his brush. ties may sometimes be used which are not part of the pattern proper but only make a network on the ground. that happens commonly in certain of the heavier kinds of lace (page ) in which the ties (or “brides” as they are called) are added for practical purposes to a design otherwise complete in itself. even there, the design needs to be so allied processes. schemed that there are no large open spaces, and that short ties will hold it firmly together. sometimes the “ brides " (in that case sparingly used) are made to bristle with tufts or prickles (page ) which take away from the rigid look of straight supports. an artful stenciller will introduce ties not really part of the design in such a way that they do not obtrude themselves at all. the use of successive stencil plates, legitimate enough, has this against it, that it is apt to obliterate all evidence of sten- cilling. it is a practice more useful in manufacture than in art. the deliberate effacing of the ties is not only a gratuitous sacrifice of character but something like a shirking of con- ditions, a departure at all events from that frank acceptance of them which one expects of a workman-especially if he claims to be an artist. moreover it is the evasion of a diffi- culty not confined to stencil design, but (as will be seen . ties which affect design. ornament and its application. before this chapter is ended) common to design in which there is no possibility of going outside the rules of the game. that is an excuse for making more of the subject than of itself it might deserve. there is another reason also. sten- cilling is an art which students have of late years urged to do, not more than it can perhaps (it is possible to do by means of . ties in needle-point lace. allied processes. . stencil pattern by george f. wood. ornament and its application. . counterchanged veneers of brass and tortoise-shell. it more than is expedient), but more than it should. “why cut stencils for a design which could in less time have been painted, and better painted, freehand ? it is a trespass against fine art !” says one. "why stencil what could just as well, and more economically, have been printed? it is a coco . . % boooooooo . ivory inlay too suggestive of the fret-saw. allied processes. trespass upon manufacture !” says another. and, though we may be disposed to claim a right of way, and ask who it is that says "no thoroughfare," and on what authority, there is reason in the objection, from the objectors' point of view. but theirs is not the one and only standpoint tenable. an . counterchanging frets of velvet on a ground of silk. artist may spend more time in cutting stencil plates than it would have taken him to paint the subject right off ; he may devote time and trouble to the stencilling of a pattern which might have been as easily, more economically and much more promptly, printed. and in so doing he chooses, not only the best way, but the only way—for him. he has presumably allied processes. . inlaid marble. ornament and its application. airportertroo entonces tory inwoord cobrar sav e comunnaruunadamo ng ordualaustawowerartiu cacau , seventeenth century filigree. wa no soncanesa noticcono . tenth century filigree. allied processes. . brass wire inlaid in wood. trimming the plain linen which is as much as her appliances allow her to weave for the family garments. with regard to stencilling there is something more to be said, and that more to our point: it enables a student to put his powers of design to the test of practicality. it is a con- stant source of difficulty to the student that he has not the knowledge, and no means of acquiring the knowledge, of the processes of manufacture for which he would fain design. but here is a process of which he can learn for himself the whole art and mystery by practical experiment. it wants no teaching but that which comes by practice, and as it happens, it is a very fair test of ability to design under conditions; it is a severer test than embroidery (which comes of course more readily to a woman's hand) because it is possible to work almost anything in stitches : there are very strict limits to what is possible in the way of a stencil plate. to have perfected, for example, a pattern so ingeniously adapted to its method of reproduction as that on page is to have explored to some effect the unknown region of practical design which a student cannot too soon enter. to many forms of inlay a fret is as much the necessary preliminary as it is to stencilling, and in marquetry the fret- saw finds its fit employment. there being no occasion for the fret to hold together of itself, long sweeping lines are possible. the saw invites the use of unbroken scrolls. if ornament and its application. the pattern seems sometimes to float too free in consequence (page ), that is in part at least the fault of the designer. it naturally suggests itself to the inlayer working in veneers to cut both ground and pattern at one operation of the saw. (he can in fact cut half a dozen or more.) he has then only to separate his two veneers, to lift out the fretted pattern from the one veneer and lay in its place the corre- sponding part of the other. economy suggested a further step, to utilise the two remaining portions of the veneer (otherwise waste) in a similar way. so to scheme a design that the two resulting panels (page ) are equally or almost equally satis- factory, is a triumph of inventive ingenuity. one of the means employed in boulle to that end was to adopt a plan of composition according to which the ornament was partly in brass on tortoise-shell, partly in tortoise-shell on brass. the idea of counterchanging frets occurred, as a matter of course, to others than marquetry inlayers, to the embroiderer, for example, who had only to fret a design out of velvet (page ) and to overlay the two resulting strips on to another material, to get striped bed hangings in which the pattern counterchanged. the apparent difference in strength between the two scrolls in the illustration comes of the cord which masks the sewing down confounding itself, in the one case with the ground, and in the other with the pattern. an oriental, working in close cloth, would actually have inlaid one material into the other. another example of an onlaid fret occurs in the case of a roman shoe in the british museum (page ) white leather over green, sewn down with flat strips of gilded parchment which complete the pattern. the elaborate openwork designs in cut cloth on ladies' capes and so forth are (presumably) cut in the expeditious way that the wholesale tailor cuts out the parts of a garment- namely, with a circular knife which, like a fret-saw, cuts through layer upon layer of cloth at the same time—the worker having simply to guide the solid pile of cloth. ornament and its application. in gold the curves of his design, without any mechanical repetition whatever. indeed there need be no repetition at all, since he has only one tool, in the use of which he is quite free. le gascon may have been thinking of filigree ; but it hardly looks as if he had not had also in his mind the brass nailwork which was once a characteristic decoration on chests . dotted pattern in nail heads. and coffrets of which a fine specimen is given above. it is, otherwise, a curious coincidence that these two different kinds of work, both on leather, should look so much alike. large-headed nails are, it will readily be understood, in some degree necessary to tack down the leather on to its wooden frame; and the development of this necessity into allied processes. an ornamental feature is all in the direction of practical design. the brass-headed nails at once keep fast the leather and protect it from wear. they also establish a sort of con- nection between it and the metal clamps and other mounting. the origin of this useful ornamentation is plainly to be opor ng ooo ouooooooooº oo o yooo a o . ooooo oc be အ၁၀၀၀ကို ooooooooo ooo > ha od sn r % aq donood c.codoo ca oooooo ooo oooo . pogo . rob roy's shield-embossed leather with metal rivets. traced to the nails or rivets in the primitive leather “targe,” as the scotch call it, in which they are not only constructively useful but efficacious against sword cuts. the combination of embossed leather and nailwork in rob roy's shield (above) makes up a scheme of decoration none the less effective for a certain air of the barbaric about it. xii. like to like. the danger of added ornament-should be inseparable-like to like- incrusted ornament in goldsmith's work-carved inlay-glass upon glass, in the form of prunts and threads-cast and stamped ornament- expedients permissible in rude work not allowable in work more pre- tentious- wedgwood ware-mechanical aids to manufacture not a modern device— their use and abuse. ornament being, rightly understood, a part of the thing ornamented, there is some risk always in adding it to a thing already fashioned. but the danger is imminent when it comes to incrusting a surface with added ornament. it has a way of appearing to be stuck on, not part of the thing. and it is the appearance of being added which is so objectionable. there are delightful forms of decoration which are always, as it were, put on-embroidery for example. and yet that is no less admirable than tapestry, which is worked into the warp, and goes to make the texture which it decorates. the point seems to be that, though ornament may, and in many cases ought to, show frankly how it was done ; though it may, and often ought to, look like what it is, it ought never to look as if it could be removed. once added, it should seem to be inseparable. that is more likely to be the case if it is applied at a comparatively early stage of the work-relief in clay, for instance, before the vase is fired, in glass whilst yet it has to be submitted to the furnace. in these cases the ornament is in the material of the thing ornamented. there is an obvious and satisfying fitness always in the application of like to like, of metal to metal, glass to glass, clay to clay, silk to silk. it is something to feel that the thing is of like to like. one consistency throughout. and there may be the further practical reason for satisfaction that there is then no danger of unequal wear or unequal shrinkage. in the case of any- thing which must go through the fire to be fused some- thing like equal contraction and expansion is a necessity. goldsmiths have from the earliest days made good use of incrustation in the form of fine wire or of grains and pearls of gold ( - ) soldered on. a thin foil of soft metal may be attached by the aid of heat without solder to a ferlin sar . decoration in glass upon glass—venetian. surface roughened to give it tooth. oriental metalworkers have made admirable use of this expedient, using, for example, silver and copper upon brass or bronze for colour's sake ( , ). the effect is more that of inlay than of incrustation, and it is open to the reproach of being a makeshift for damascening ; but it is undeniably beautiful decoration. metal incrustation of a more substantial kind is not always so happy. undue relief sets one imagining what the vessel or whatever it is would be without the added ornament, and wondering if it is quite secure. there is like to like. with a blunt instrument; and in the spanish glass overleaf thin threads of greenish colour have been carried round and round the neck, and at its base a sort of calyx of green leaves has been applied. in the ring round the neck of the venetian vase on page the thread is gouffred as it is laid on. the pattern on the little phænician bottle on page is typical, and one may read in it the way it was done- how the glass - blower first wound round his little bottle threads of different coloured glass, heated it again, and then with a pointed instrument or hook dragged them up and down into zigzags, somewhat in the way that the book- binder combs into pattern the film of colour with which he marbles the edges of his volume. to bring the bottle to an even surface he had only to heat it once more, and roll it on the slab on which from the beginning he works his vessel into more or less cylindrical shape. in fact these vandyked patterns are but a carrying further of the airiuosenessereselorlageleasestore ng phone inayod malment hli wamillwww uitimi wwwma . glass upon glass saxon. like to like.. spontaneity and freedom. manipulation of the onlaid glass is sometimes carried further. a prunt of glass may be, and in roman work often was, impressed with a metal seal just as though it were wax. the sixteenth-century venetians would sometimes stamp the prunt into the form of a little flower, and then plant a little drop or bead of coloured glass, like a jewel, in its centre. devices of this kind are permissible in proportion to the unpretending char- acter of the work. one has nothing to say against the application of cast en- richment to rude stoneware for domestic use, against the beating of hot iron into moulds or swages after the manner of the mediæval smith, or against the stamping in of simple patterns upon leather with . dies or punches. the ruder the work the coloured threads more obviously proper to it is the use of of glass upon glass these somewhat mechanical shifts. if the end of simple and satisfactory enrichment can be got in this way, there is no occasion to spend unnecessary labour in doing without such help. there is a great deal of rough and ready work upon which it is expedient to spend no more time than is necessary—and it may yet be artisti- cally all that is needed. when it comes to work of more artistic pretensions, however, such as figure medallions, cameo heads and so forth, rather bluntly stamped on glass, one begins to resent the use of mechanical appliances. the chinese have done charming things in the way of applying glass of various colours to a vessel and then cutting away all but the leaf, flower, fruit, or other form destined to be in that particular colour. where the design was to be in one -phoenician. xiii. partnerships. the limits of a craft - partnerships between joiner and carver ; turner and inlayer ; glazier and glass painter ; glazier and mosaicist ; silver- smith and glassblower ; cabinetmaker and locksmith ; bookbinder and silversmith-relief and colour--intaglio and colour-modelling and mosaic—the concert of the crafts. a fair inference to be drawn from chapters past is : that a workınan does well to keep within the limits of his craft, to aim at precisely what that will allow him to do, and neither to waste his energies in striving after the impossible, nor to stultify himself by doing at great cost of labour something that could better and more easily have been done by some other means. “let the shoemaker,” in short, “stick to his last.” but there is no reason why he should not go into partner- ship-so long as the partners are well assorted. and there are some undertakings better conducted in partnership than single-handed. mason and carver, joiner and inlayer, gold- smith and jeweller, have from the first been associated together, and enamelling was at its best when it was bound up with goldsmith's work and not a painter's art simply. two or more of the crafts we are now accustomed to keep separate were in old days commonly practised by the same man. the slight carving necessary to the completion of linen- fold panelling ( , ) came quite within the scope of the joiner—and the gougework enriching so many an old oak chest or settle ( ) was without a doubt his doing—the last touch to his handiwork, the expression of his pride and ornament and its application. m ain pollo il l'lto lan maranath bisnis a . joiner's “linen fold” panelling, satisfaction in it, a sort of crow now that it was done—and, in a way, a voucher that he had done his best. the partnership between joiner and carver (in all proba- bility different men) is better illustrated opposite ( ), where the proportions of the one are corrected by the other. the workman of a later period would have framed up his work into smaller panels. the early sixteenth-century joiner confessed the plank in the length of his panel ; and the carver, by introducing a little sunk panel within the panel (cutting away only the background of the carving and so not cutting good wood to waste), at once gave interest to the work just on a level with the eye, and, by the horizontal band of carving, which resulted when a series of such panels were put together, corrected the stripey appearance which would have resulted from such long panels. something of the same kind was done by the joiner and carver together in the period of the regency. the panel illustrated on page is not a model of ornamental design, but it shows a very ingenious way of partially enriching a panel and yet not planing away the whole of its surface. it is the practice in most trades for one man to make use of many processes, and to use them often in combination. he frets away the background to his carving and leaves it partnerships. stained glass fit for something more than small domestic window panes. our pictorial tendencies blind us to the splendid possibilities in the way of purely mosaic glass altogether independent of painting. the truth is that for purposes of the most gorgeous ornament at least the glazier need ask nothing of the painter. and at the paris exhibition of mr daumont tourmel showed some interesting ex- periments, even in figure design, into which painting did not enter (page ). he substituted, that is to say, for painting the juxtaposition of tesseræ which he fused in the kiln to naasas oddstrardo . fretted ivory carving —“À jour.” one homogeneous mass with the sheet of colourless glass on to which they were laid. such partnership as this between glazier and mosaicist might be of great use in the execution of the flesh and other minute features in the case of figure compositions glazed for the rest in plain potmetal glass. once admit the use of paint upon glass and it is not easy to know where to stop. silversmith and glassblower have worked together to some purpose in the production of a small late roman vase in the british museum. the cup on page was first ornament and its application. riddled with oval piercings, and into it the glassworker blew his expanding bubble, with the result that the glass, slightly pushed out by the breath of the blower through the openings, stands up upon its surface like sapphires "en cabochon.” mr louis tiffany has followed up some such hint as this from ancient craftsmanship by blowing glass into a vessel of glass lattice-work, which, being no longer red-hot, offers similar resistance to that of the silver cup, and results in very inter- esting work due entirely to the glassworker. . fretted, engraved, and slightly embossed iron. many a time necessity compels some sort of partnership between one handicraft and another—resulting in design of a compound character—as where in joinery and cabinetmaking provision is made for ironwork in the way of clamps ( ), hinges, locks, and so forth ( ), in which the mediæval smith found scope for most ingenious and it may be fantastic invention. partnerships. wm. burges, one of the foremost leaders in the victorian gothic revival, and learned above his contemporaries in mediæval practices, delighted in the association of one craft with another. in the door on page he combines in a way of his own (though he would have called it mediæval) not only wood and iron, but carving and inlay, piercing and enamel ; and there is a severity in the result hardly to have been expected. the partnership between bookbinder and governo w when w ila www. . inlaid turning. metalworker, primarily also for practical purposes, gives again occasion for interesting schemes of ornament, sometimes, like the opportunity of the smith in the case of door furniture, turned to personal rather than artistic account. the seven- teenth-century tooling on page is not of any great account, whilst the corner pieces (engraved and pierced) are in their way admirable—which may be taken as some sort of excuse for the metalworker's thinking only about his part of ornament and its application. . carved ivory inlay. the work; but nothing will make amends for the painful want of unity in the joint undertaking. we have here the evil effect of craftsmen working not together but in rivalry one with the other. the partnership between colour and relief, so gaily entered into, is one that by no means ends always happily. the coloured reliefs of the della robbias, for example, gain sometimes considerably when we see the reproduction of them in monochrome. the monument is less pleasing than the photograph of it. this is of course largely the fault of the harsh colour which was the best they could get in tin enamel. there are plaster reliefs of the same period, coloured in a medium over which the painter had more control, which we would on no account have otherwise. a happy association of partnerships. colour with relief occurs in persian faience, where the modelling is kept purposely dumb, needing in fact a traced outline to give the necessary definition to the pattern. that may be seen in the eight-pointed tile on page , though tilemakers adopted the same method in figure-work. the relief is, in fact, no more than a slight convexity in the surface of the ornament-just enough to catch the light and give sparkle to the colour, and yet more to the metallic lustre of the ware. “slip” (see page ) gave, oco dogo oc . ooo осоооо oooco e . combined glazier's and painter's work. ornament and its application. . stained glass in coloured tesserÆ fused on to a slab of colourless material, as it happened, just that amount of relief. here we have the result of one man employing a double process to an end all the while clearly in his view. and it is worth noting that it is in this case the painter who introduces into his work the bare amount of relief necessary to his purpose, and who is relying all the while upon eventual painting for the effect he desires. a modeller would not be so easily content with the relief that is sufficient; he would be less sure of what painting would do for his work. in the same way, it seems that the degree and kind of modelling suitable to tiles or other earthenware to be coated with a coloured glaze ( , ), is rather what the painter finds necessary than what a modeller would be disposed to do. referring to coloured relief in another material, it would hardly have occurred to a modeller to make such sparing use of relief as mr fred marriott judiciously employed in the panel shown by him at the arts and crafts exhibition of ( ). it is executed in mother-o'-pearl of various colours (some of it artificially partnerships. stained) and gesso, gilt and glazed with transparent colour ; but the gesso is only raised just enough to bring the surface into correspondence with the shell inlay (most artfully chosen to give the glint of the armour of s. george and the scales of the dragon) and to impart to the colour a quality not to be got in flat paint. the gesso is in fact that of a painter, intent always upon his colour, and using relief only to enhance the colour effect. the sculptor's opportunity of like success is in using colour only to assist his relief. but, though there have . coloured glass blown into, a pierced silver cup. ornament and its application. update gen been chryselephantine statues, and though sculptors of our own day have made in- genious and effective use of coloured ma- terials, painters have on the whole been more successful in making use of relief than sculptors in add- ing colour to their work. in the case of com- bined colour and relief the first question is always which is to be of predominant import- ance. the one must be subsidiary to the other. the difficulty of subordinating colour to form is simplified by confining it to the background as in the beautiful panel from the bishop's throne at ravello ( ), where the interstices between the carving are filled in with gilt and coloured glass mosaic; but the colour probably did not stop there; the circular cavities now onlil nie lilla . door by wm. burges. partnerships. . panel in mother-o'-pearl and gesso, by f. marriott. ornament and its application. . carving in marble with glass mosaic background. a remarkable specimen of coloured relief remains to be noticed (page ). it is one of two small panels of mosaic in the museum at naples, discovered at metaponto, in which the figures in relief are entirely worked over in tesseræ. partnerships. the mosaic, being of marble, may very possibly have been worked upon with the chisel after it was set; but, whether that was so or not, the mosaicist has succeeded in what might have been thought to be an impossible task. the idea may have been suggested by an accident which happens constantly to the worker in tesseræ. in pushing them into the cement, and pushing that down consequently, a neigh- bouring part of the work already done may be pushed up, and present quite a rounded surface. these particular panels are, if only for their rarity, and for the skill with gese geeee eesee . sunk ornament painted. ornament and its application. oyuinn c a nt) vw up att im u od on w u tom qua hin malumnow hostorno dno obronazan c ut in an ann an aon cd unin thoi go or cd onn tady do rial hd a m u t m w dia m oodus din ar ot otwo thin lato un luo o on mil a n ucun tororap mix fru un gu gun ocd no one or mor e in to un momur wod.) nadian dy mu u out omon mudidaya o uso de um cd od metodu m u mor unor i sound (wandmontano anum - he count on dir ( to id did wil jomum ih us our a utant nu cum and cum id odad no tom d mutta la top n o . w போரும் mo un thun cucu volwiem vo um men me b analog analroman onomo modada . fu ikes lab u ku dged womand i will aln (on m the alshe adhund mun c ah (non au mula ng illa candit ebee er u ae man munur die oor bli we dy aun en eenmode u samo pre rqlobod asis: b sa re mw) duqu (nam on ne m . o mal a d aw all au oir le void in upor own cudumudud min ud die on new and an au moinmol . ogum t un uniu? r'an ina huyu a los hw df or un ad op over mama albin ) o ou grudin da quale dod ( ( qo obd mun upua elaman. s h ahmanan mordid lok , mood om uit d amoudu am in faolu it our un gibi juwid om i t uu amor do con nom dumny. u u u dis d os hid am d a l hud ef ma w on tvmb unung we dig tin ne oomoo oib cr nju ot ohm dud oh id un lb volumenom.com imalan un an ur unem d i eb s se hong m mm mm. thun cian m um du lavoro u nomined un du no cam in un ann (m cid in comme on th onu od mg nie en dw dus non toh od od uld out what we man nu al on outdoor: mtote le un lieu di un endohuni u மாற்றமயையைகைவயம்பமயமாய மாயயையயயயயயா பழருமை hele taro que me ut qli on on → el ar an nu a dpur ud din vink lt lt lt mod qu un o vw w d qin onon u_ , lennom a ru w t but uimaruluir an und uh ni why be a no in m du ll i la aut seeee lweni il tud . mosaic in relief. xiv. practical design. the technique of design---the distribution of ornament-composition- masses and lines-system-symmetry-recipes-flat treatment-the function of shading-variety--proportion-how far rules are of use- full and open pattern-emphasis. it has been attempted, so far, to show the relation of ornament to technique. there is also what may be called the technique of design-its application, that is to say, to its position, place, and purpose, quite apart from the material used or the tools and processes employed—the question in short of the distri- bution of design. the painter's answer to it is "composi- tion.” but he has only, as it were, to inake a plain statement. the designer of ornament has to undergo the severest cross- examination. he has not merely to distribute his design over a rectangular area of his own choosing, but to accommo- date it to a shape and proportions as to which he has no choice. there is no use in pretending to lay down rules for the disposition of design. it is so entirely dependent upon circumstances. nor is it advisable to map out the lines on which ornament might be distributed over a given surface. even then much depends upon its purpose, place, and sur- roundings generally. and, were it possible, it would only be to make the more effective arrangements of line and mass tedious by insisting upon them, and to hinder the exercise of that personal bias which goes so far towards individual design. it is in planning that originality has scope. new forms are only once in a while to be evolved, but infinite variety is possible in arrangement of forms free to us but not our practical design. personal property. a teacher may with advantage demon- strate to his pupils on the blackboard the lines on which a given problem is to be solved; but anything like the dogmatic laying down of rules would be hurtful, if it were not futile. the only way of learning composition is to compose. no better exercise could be given to the student than to set him to plan a panel to take its place among existing panels or to form part of a predetermined scheme of decoration. in the criticism of such designs the teacher would naturally point out where they failed, and why, and how they might be made better; he might in that way impart without pedantry some- thing equivalent to not-to-be-written rules of composition. a designer goes to work somewhat according to his temperament. one man will attack the problem with a rush; another will creep up to it. one will begin by planting a shape (or shapes) upon his panel, supporting it by subsidiary shapes, and finally connecting them by the lines necessary to his composition ; another will prepare the way for his design by a more or less geometric groundwork, on which he will build up the lines of his pattern, eventually giving point and focus to it by the introduction of masses judiciously breaking the monotony of line. and either of them is equally right. it depends upon what he wants and what he can do. if, for example, a man can trust himself to start with irregular forms arbitrarily disposed, accidental patches as it were upon his panel—why not? though another might find it impossible to connect them by any system of lines whatever. the safer plan for him, at all events, is to start with some orderly system determining the distribution of any prominent features in the design. it may suggest also the size and shape of them ; but it does not follow that because a designer starts on systematic lines that he may not in the end depart from them widely-so widely that only those who look for the scaffold- ing would ever suspect it to have been employed. symmetry is an element of design worthy of all respect ; but it has been practical design. wa tontos tot ya . fifteenth century stained glass windows. practical design. it is something to know the proportions which are at all events safe, still more to be aware of those least conducive to satisfactory results—the panel for example which is too nearly square, or disproportionately long. a teacher will, of course, give his pupils object lessons on such points; but in the end an artist will depend upon himself. he may like a shorter or a narrower panel than the approved proportions give. he will work out the problem for himself; and in the end he will depend less upon measurement than upon his eye. given the proportions, then, of a panel or other space to be enriched, the problem is how to distribute his design over it; how proportion the ornament, rich or rare, to its ground? all that can be told him for his guidance is, that the most dangerous course is midway between the two: a half and half effect is never satisfactory. the actual proportion of ground to ornament is not easily to be measured. it has been said that on a well-balanced mediæval shield of arms the charge is equal to its field—the area of the rampant lion, for example, precisely that of the ground not covered by the effigy. if that is in reality so, it does not give one that impression ; the charge seems to occupy the ground, not to go shares with it; there is no appearance of half and half. it may be doubted whether any composition would be likely to satisfy the eye in which ground and ornament appeared to be more evenly proportioned than as three to five. satisfactory ornament generally appears either to cover the ground or leave it rather open. "the distribution of the design needs in each case to be thought out; but there is less chance of disguising any want of balance in the parts when the lines of the design confess themselves openly against a plain background. it is for this reason, perhaps, that we all begin by crowding our design as full as possible, and only arrive with experience at the difficult art of making a little ornament occupy the space. fulness of pattern does not, however, relieve the designer xv. obedient ornament. loyalty to conditions— the natural subservience of ornament to the con- structional idea-the point at which it ceases to be natural-success the only justification of revolt-undue insistence upon structural subdivisions --examples, window mullions, wings of a door-symmetry by implication - nothing casual in design-design conforms to the space to be filled- the lines on which a circular design is planned—the lines on which a cylinder or vase is decorated-contradictory forms—distortion. decorative art in general and ornamental art in particular are pledged, so to speak, to obedience. an artist is free to choose his trade, but not to rebel against conditions to which, by implication, he agreed in choosing it. and if he has in him the stuff of a practical designer he will be loyal to his engagement. in art, however, no man is called upon to accept a ruling contrary to the clear interests of design and workmanship. it is an axiom of design that decoration should follow and enforce the lines of the thing decorated, from first to last faithfully subserving the constructional idea. it is in the nature of accompaniment always. in theory we all endorse that view. in practice the case is not so clear. it is not always easy to decide between the maker of a thing requiring decora- tion and the man who takes it up where the other left it. the one may ask more than due subservience, the other may claim unwarranted freedom. it is not, to take the case of an art embracing so many arts, a question between architecture and painting, but between an architect and a painter, either one of whom may be the master mind. would any one capable of appreciating the scheme of ornament and its application. ceiling decoration we go to rome to see have had michael angelo pay more heed to the building which he certainly treated with very scant respect? has he not vindicated his right to flout construction such as that? a froward painter degrades, no doubt, a noble work of architecture when he takes it as the mere framework to his pictures. a great ܬܬܬܬܐܢܐܬܐ . corrective ornament. artist, on the other hand, as surely glorifies a commonplace building by his contemptuous treatment of its poor con- struction. and so in matters of less moment. the natural function of ornament is to fulfil the idea of the man who first conceived the thing to be enriched. the lines and limits obedient ornament. of right decoration are properly laid down by him. the decorator goes beyond them at the risk of offending against good taste; and, assuming the ground lines to be worthy of respect, he is bound, in practice as in theory, to conform to them. on the other hand, assuming them to be of small account, there is no occasion to pay them a deference not their due. if the rafters of the roof (see opposite), occurring very much as the convenience of building may suggest, give panels not of satisfactory proportion, or result in stripiness, a decorator with the courage of his opinions will not hesitate to correct the proportion or to counteract the tendency. why enforce or even preserve lines in themselves unpleasing? why not, if possible, obliterate them? the dictum as to following lines of construction holds good only in so far as they are worth consideration. this may be heterodox teaching; it is none the less true. if existing lines are bad, a decorator worth the name will not hesitate to depart from them—to draw the eye away from them to something on which it can dwell with satisfaction. it rests with the rebel, of course, to justify the assumption that he is a better man than his ostensible master. he must succeed; or he lays himself open to the charge of disobeying conditions-a crime not to be pardoned in design. we are too much inclined to accept structural or other subdivisions as rigid limits of design. there are some who would insist that the separate lights of a gothic window should be treated separately, and the design on no account run through from one to the other. this seems very much like ignoring the fact that the inde- pendence of the lights is at the best only relative—they form always parts of the window. to confine the decorator to the smaller limits is to put broad treatment out of the question. of course the mullions of a window have to be taken into serious account; in proportion to his ambition the artist in- creases his risks; but, in spite of all, he has managed before now to come out of it triumphantly. it is just a question of ornament and its application. bowl . symmetry of joiner's design disturbed by locksmith. obedient ornament. the man and his competence. perhaps after all no law is broken, only some accustomed ceremony disregarded. it is not, for instance, in the nature of things that the two wings of a double door ( ) should be designed as separate panels - mutttttttttt w ini. . itt . one wing of a double door. it takes the two wings to complete the pattern of the butterfly —they are only in a measure independent, only the two halves of a single door; their separate framing does not do away with that fact; and if an artist should see fit to lay more stress upon the pair of doors than upon their com- obedient ornament . one-sided bookcover design. ornament and its application. venturesome. if he can go counter to what we have accepted as a rule, and yet give no offence, we may be sure it was not by accident but by deliberate design, very skilfully carried out. there is nothing careless or casual in design. not even in the little art of ornament. the space to be filled or the shape to be decorated (determined very often by circumstances quite beyond the control of the designer) is the only possible starting point for the appropriate planning of design. further than that it is not possible to say much that will be helpful to the designer. happily the space or form itself is likely to suggest to the ornamentist the lines of ornament which will preserve and perhaps emphasise proportions that are already admirable, or amend what disproportion there may be. that there are lines into which the decoration of a given space naturally falls is shown in the case of the circular shape. do what he may the designer comes almost inevitably round to ornament which takes the form of rays or rings, very possibly of the two combined-as surely in fact as the pattern designer (see pattern design, pages et seq.) is reduced to setting out his repeat on the basis of a rectangular lattice. in fact, as m. henri mayeux has pointed out (“ la composition decorative"), rings and rays are to the circle what a lattice of square lines is to the rectangle. a strip of paper folded as at a, opposite, has only to be gathered together at one end as at b to give a fanshape, and a longer strip gathered together as at c would give the rayed circle. a striped band as at d wants only bending to give the concentric curved lines at e, and the process of bending has only to be continued, with a longer band, to give the ringed circle as at f. it will be seen that here are no new principles of design in- volved but only new lines, resulting from the adaptation of vertical and horizontal lines to the circle. the crossing of the two series of lines gives, as in the beautiful ceremonial ornament and its application. cunca ou ovo ovo roaond aua conor cao dunun be orion couny ringed. bisymmetric. rayed. flowing round. flowing two ways. flowing. oily cruciform. diamond. pentagon. hexagon. . diagrams to show various ways of decorating a circular space. obedient ornament. gobe . radiating plan— unit circle, turned over. fan from the bargello ( ), the interesting lines, which, as was said, are what a lattice of vertical and horizontal lines would be to a square. it is not suggested that the idea of decorating a disc in ringed and rayed lines was developed in the manner above described. that explanation of the relationship is only given to show how naturally the artist fell into them. as a matter of fact he had only to draw lines from the margin of his circle to its centre to get rays -only to describe line within line from the margin of his circle inwards to get rings. and it may be gathered from the inevitableness of such lines what a valuable scaffolding they are for design. in most of the skeleton designs opposite (chosen as . turnover and flowing designs. xvi. the adaptation of ornament to repetition. the test of repeated pattern-abstract form suited to repetition-nature not enough, not necessarily the starting-point of ornamental design- repetition as an element in composition-forms not amenable to treat- ment in so far unsuitable for repeated ornament-human and animal forms — grotesque — arabesque - playfulness in ornament - summary treatment. a condition of at least one kind of ornament-pattern- is repetition, which the artist unaccustomed to the restraint implied by it is not very ready to accept. he is given to indulge in compositions which, admirable as they may be in all other respects, lose by repetition. no doubt he schemes his lines and masses with a view to their recurrence, and to the forms they take in repetition-he would be no artist else -but he is disposed to regard all forms as equally available elements of pattern design. all is grist that comes to his mill. but what if the mill will not grind it? or if it should turn out something not to be kneaded up into consistent pattern-stuff? that is a matter of taste, it may be objected. not alto- gether, i think. forms which, beautiful and interesting as they may be in themselves, lose their interest in repetition, fail to answer the test by which repeated pattern is fairly judged : does it gain by repetition ? the evidence of satisfactory pattern goes to prove that forms in order to be fit for reiteration must be abstract. the fact alone, therefore, that form is to be continually repeated demands departure from literal transcript in the rendering it. ornament and its application. nature, however prodigal of repetition, repeats her forms with a difference. the simplest flower that grows may be incomparably more beautiful than any abstract ornament can possibly be. but what of that? if with each successive copy of it there evaporates (as there does) something of the charm which was in the original, until at last the stereotyped repetition of it becomes exasperating, that is surely a very good reason for not degrading it by repetition. it is not as in the case of nature's repetition where no two flowers are quite alike. our business is to invent forms which shall not lose by repetition. the very faculty of draughtsmanship (the designer's means of expression) exposes an artist to the temptation of aiming at natural representation. and there is not much in the way of public opinion to keep him in check. most people are familiar enough with nature to take some interest in natural form, no matter how unsuited it may be to the purpose in hand; whereas, to appreciate in any degrce the fitness of ornamental treatment argues some slight under- standing of design. whoever can draw likes to make a good drawing and to carry it as far as he can. drawing, however, is here not the end but only a means to it. the point of all-importance in applied design is the decorative result, the effect of the work in execution and in its place. the designer of repeated ornament is bound, in the interests of his design, to take into account its repetition ; which means, if not to create his own forms, at least so to render the forms he borrows from nature as to make them gain by repetition and not lose. a capable workman conforms to decorative conditions not so much because he must as because he sees in their acceptance the surest way to success and to the full expression of himself. he submits therefore with a good grace. there are yet other reasons for the choice of ornamental forms remote from nature, or for removing them from nature ; designed to repeat. and chief among them the modest, and it may be incon- spicuous, part which ornament commonly plays in the scheme of decoration. it is so easy to go too far in the direction of naturalness. it is the direction natural to the untaught workman. he wants to show what he can do in the way of detail, texture, and so forth; and succeeds to perfection in showing the futility of such minutely natural doing. he has to learn that a tour de force is a sign of weakness, just as brag covers real cowardice. why wish to carry naturalism to a point not . ornament not deliberately based upon natural form. hitherto reached ? it is probable there was very good reason why better men did not attempt it before. there were great artists among them, and men not without ambition, too. was it merely that they were kept in check by conditions no longer binding upon us ? alas, then, for our freedom—to go astray! the harm done by those who preach the sufficiency of nature as a guide in design is the more serious because their sermon flatters the vanity of all who have yet to learn what design is, or to realise that such a thing exists. nature does ornament and its application. not teach treatment. it is by the study of art, and not of nature, that a man learns to omit the multitudinous details in nature which would attract attention he does not desire to call to them, to emphasise this feature and to subdue that, to modify form and colour according to his purpose. the ornamentist very often does not even found himself deliberately upon nature ( ). he draws his inspiration from nature of course ; but he starts continually from the decorative conditions ; and it is at their prompting that natural forms occur to his mind. so occurring, he may be sure that they come in appropriately modified form, unconsciously adapted to the purpose in hand. thus in ancient greece the vase painter arrived through the use of the brush at the device which we call honeysuckle pattern, and the sculptor came to clothe the joints of his scroll with foliation more or less reminiscent of acanthus leafage. in either case it was art which taught him the secret of design. high priests of nature from ruskin downwards have omitted to insist upon this point-a vital one to design. they have on the other hand so persistently urged the claims of nature on the artist, and only nature's claims, that, though they may not in so many words have said that nature is enough, that is the impression left by their preaching on the minds of their disciples, who have somehow the infatuation that they can do great things in art without more knowledge of its principles than comes to them by instinct. art is worth the wooing—and the way to her heart is not by holding on to the apron strings of mother nature. but to return to ornament and to repeated ornament in particular. the condition of repetition is imposed on pattern by the necessity of more or less mechanical execution (see pattern design, page ); but, apart from any inducement of manufacture or economy, artists resort to repetition, not merely because the human brain cannot go on inventing without the comparative rest of manual labour, because it is a preventive against loose and rambling ornament, because designed to repeat. s.si saņemo: s: s::::asi . animals in ornament by walter crane. repeated pattern ought to be. the further natural detail is removed from nature the more safely it may be repeated. naturalistically rendered it will not bear so much as redupli- cation. it becomes, then, a question, in designing ornament, how far the forms employed as "elements” will bear the necessary modification. we cannot in reason take the liber- ties with animal form which we safely may with vegetable. the human figure, for example, is not lightly to be tampered with. it assumes, wherever introduced into ornament, such prominence that it can hardly be repeated without danger of offence. the picture of the “ assumption of the virgin ” in the venetian orphrey on page is so far lost in a shimmer of cloth of gold as not to be obtrusive at all ; but it is less effective than a much simpler woven pattern would be ; and when we look into it we are disappointed to find the same subject recurring throughout the length of the stuff. the interest of a pattern is enhanced by the occurrence at ornament and its application. intervals of appropriate figures; but with every recurrence of the same figure, human or animal, its charm is lessened, until at last the obvious iteration becomes in most cases exasperat- ing. and yet, in the face of old byzantine, sicilian, and other early woven patterns, with their recurring animals ( ), and of mr crane's consummately ornamental patterns ( ), it cannot be said that repeated animal (and even human) forms do not make satisfactory pattern. it seems, however, to be only on one of two conditions, either that, as in the aforesaid textiles, the creatures are so summarily conventionalised as to be remote from any living thing, or that, as in some of mr crane's designs, they are so lost in the general effect of surface richness as not prominently to assert themselves as figures. modelled in very low relief, subdued in colour (as in the table damask on page ), or cunningly interwoven with other ga du jte vil thys ys ye house thatte dack built pro . humorous use of figures in nursery wall pattern. ornament and its application. . grotesque forms in italian arabesque. nevertheless, it is far better that animals in ornament should not be repeated, but as was the case in the less severely treated incidental animals in the incised border of which a portion is given on page , that the hunt should go gaily along without continual recurrence in the incidents of it. in sedate pattern there is a strong primâ facie objection to the repetition of living and especially moving creatures. the human or animal forms which we most readily accept are those which we do not at the first glance take to be more than ornamental forms. when we recognise the life in them we begin to regret their recurrence, or, what amounts to the same thing, the want of variety in them. in a mechanically repeated unit variation is, of course, out of the question, and the advisability of introducing animals at all depends entirely upon the possibility of holding them in designed to repeat. strict subjection. it is by no means every artist who can keep them in their place. where animal forms can be infinitely varied objection to them ceases to hold good. the grotesquerie of italian arabesque ( ) is for the time being out of fashion ; but the men of the renaissance who peopled their scrolls with creatures, or grafted together animal and vegetable forms, did so in such a way as to convince you of their ornamental capacity. the result, pleasing or not to our modern taste, is unmistakeably ornament. you detect as your eye dwells upon the carving, living creatures among its leafage, or the scroll itself grows into fantastic life, the longer you look the more you see in it; but it is first and last ornament, all the more attractive for the fancifulness or the mystery of its detail. the animal form which makes satisfactory ornament is by men to whom it was easy and more amusing (natural, in fact, for all its artificiality) to play with such forin, and who could handle it, and were content to handle it, according to the conditions of design. instances of living form so far removed by treatment from their prototype in nature as to be proof against criticism occur in ornament from the days of the pharaohs to those of alfred stevens : and the lesson of it all is, that it should be of the simplest kind, spontaneous, done without effort, suffering no disadvantage from summary treatment. neither in greek vase-painting nor in italian majolica is accuracy of drawing a characteristic. grace and spontaneity of brushwork in the one, richness of colour in the other, directness of execution in either case, and the restriction of the painter's effort to what his means will readily give—these are what we find, and what gives them their reputation and us our satisfaction in them as ornament. the possible palette. mixed, or stained with metallic oxides; but the colour of the clay is always felt in the tint so obtained, except where the natural earth is so much alloyed that the vitreous result scarcely deserves to be called clay. and it is not without a moral for us that, for example, very powerfully stained flooring tiles, such as the bright blue, clash horribly with the more sober hues proper to baked earth. these are in themselves harmonious, and make a useful palette, though too low in tone for many purposes. brighter colour is to be got in the form of enamel or of glaze, which is really glass, not clay at all. the colour of opaque enamel is determined by its composition. oxide of tin turns glass a milky white in the fire—and affects the colouring matters mixed with it in much the same way as body white affects oil or water colour. the harsh colour of the della robbias was none of their choice, but the best they could do with tin enamel : they would have made their blue like lapis if they could. in the same way the opacity of enamel is due to tin; and, what is more, the tin contained in brass or bronze clouds the colour. the chinese enamellers, thanks to their much greater experience, could do things quite beyond the scope of sculptors experimenting in pottery ; but they could not get the translucency to be obtained upon gold or silver. the lower tone of japanese enamel as compared with chinese is explained by a difference in the composition of the metal foundation. the most beautiful pottery colour is that produced by more or less transparent glaze over a pale body, and its great charm is in its variety. potters have done and still do their best to get rid of it; but the colourists among them have made the most of its incidental variety, not only in depth, according to the way it flows, but according to its “aashing” in the fire. they have taken advantage of the flow of the glaze and schemed that one colour should flow the possible palette. is a matter not of oriental and european temperament but of the composition of the glaze. the italians aimed no doubt at oriental colour, but the lead in their glaze turned the persian turquoise to a greener shade, destroyed their purple, and developed, what the persians could not get, brilliant tones of yellow and orange. it is the same in other crafts. the green and yellow tints of glass, abandoned in favour of colourless “flint,” were not the choice of early glassblowers, but the result of impurities in the sand employed in glassmaking. directly the stained glass window painters discovered the means of staining white glass yellow, the whole tone of their windows was altered to a brighter and gayer key. white glass was accepted as a convention for flesh colour (much to the advantage of the work), because the only flesh tint procurable in potmetal was a rather unpleasant pink. the dyer was no freer to choose his palette than the potter. william morris made his own use of the tinctures employed from time immemorial in the east, but added nothing to them. the natural dye-stuffs are rapidly being displaced by the products of synthetic chemistry; but they give quite a different palette. and, when it comes to printing with them, they entail quite different processes, which in turn materially affect the artist's colour scheme. the fresh colour of an eastern print is not to be got by modern processes of cotton printing—any more than the old-fashioned printer could possibly get the effects produced by some of our methods. and the colour scheme is affected, too, by the considera- tion whether it is to be printed by hand or by roller, and whether the printings follow quickly one upon the other or whether there is time for the one to dry before the other falls on to it. allusion was made on page to discharge print- ing. that, again, affects the artist's colour scheme. there are only a limited number of dyes-indigo is one—which can ornament and its application. be trusted to discharge with certainty enough. and there is the question of the stuff to be dyed, which may have affinity with one dye-stuff and none with another. the worker in natural materials has his palette still more rigorously set for him. the marquetry inlayer is confined not merely to natural woods but to woods which will shrink something like equally; the pavement worker to marbles that will wear evenly. it was not purely out of affection for red and green that the italians in their opus alexandrinum kept so faithfully to white marble, serpentine and porphyry. workers in distemper, in oil, in fresco, have each their own palette. it is a painter's business, perhaps, to get over that as best he can-his high pictorial purpose is not to be con- trolled by any such consideration. the purpose of the orna- mentist seldom warrants his departure from the palette natural to his material. its restrictions, if he only knew it, are a blessing in disguise. the inevitable line. themselves to reproduction. the workman is, presumably, from his very position as workman, not the artistic equal of the designer (or is the artist willing to share his credit with him ?)—he wants a line to work to. and it is the designer's business to give it him. if in outlining his forms he hardens them, better that than their rough treatment by another and less sympathetic hand. no one will murder your work so ten- derly as yourself. sure consola- tion awaits the de- signer who has the courage to make his design such as the available work- man, and the ma- chine perhaps after him, can render. he will find in the work executed from it, if not the quality sacrificed in his drawing, compensation it may be even more than equivalent. . pierced or fretted ornament. the light shining through stained glass will soften the harsh lines of leading, the bright cloisons of enamel will give quality to the colour, the corded outline to appliqué embroidery will not follow the hard lines of his drawing so precisely as to look inappropriate to stuff, the gloss of silk or the sheen of linen damask will redeem the forms ornament and its application. he drew with such uncompromising precision for the “point paper” draughtsman's guidance, even though the jacquard loom did not of itself sufficiently blur them. the practical designer distinguishes himself from the unpractised by the scrupulous care with which he defines in his drawing not merely the outlines of his forms but the limits of each separate colour or shade of colour entering into it. the fear alike of amateur and painter is of hardening the effect : what the designer fears, seeing beyond his drawing, is lest the workman following him, shall not have lines definite pi . designs for on steel etched ornament or iron, enough to go upon. he knows how easy it is to soften them in the finished work, even if the fabric itself does not do that for him. precise lines such as those in damascening do not in the result lead to hardness of effect. in fact it is not easy in the mingled shimmer of bright bronze and silver to make out the intricate pattern of the kurdish ornament overleaf ( ), for all the precision of its outline. in design for manufacture, to be woven, say, or printed, the softening a hard line is simply a question of choosing the the inevitable line. colour—all-important, it is true, but a thing the colourist does, when the time comes, without thinking about it. the workmanlike use of a material if not actually the material itself may, as i have said, not only imply the use of an outline but determine its character. a practical man knows that, and, far from being afraid of it, relies upon it for continual help. he reckons with and makes much of the thickness of the lead in his design for glazing, and throws the outlines of his design into them ( ), he takes advantage of the fine edge of the flat wire forming cloisons for his enamel. cloisonné enamel is distinguished from champlevé not only by the fact that the one inveigles the artist into linework and the other makes him chary of it: the wiry quality of the cloisonned line is quite different from a narrow strip of metal left in relief by the cutting away of the ground on either side of it. moreover the evenness of the cloisonné line justifies itself when we realise that it is in fact the edge of the metal tape used to build up the walls of cells in which vitreous pastes of various colours are confined and kept apart. gold tooling makes the best possible outline to painted ornament on leather ( ), and when the binder took later to inlaying or onlaying coloured leather, it seemed to be specifically designed to mask the joints. so the embroidress overlays the edges of appliqué with a line of cord, or threads of gold, or strands of soft filoselle, giving perhaps to this last the appearance of beading by the way she allows it to expand between the close-set, tight drawn points of couching; and so the worker in appliqué sews it down with buttonhole or chain- stitch ( ), each of which has a character of its own. the leather-worker, it will be seen, uses a line of chain-stitch for its own sake also, apart from appliqué, and the worker in silver thread ( ), depending almost entirely upon line, makes use of the returning outline to get a double line of couching strong enough for the stalk. it will be seen, too, that the turning of the thread gives a rounded line where another ornament and its application. wha * ** . colour outlined with gold tooling. ornament and its application. . linework in silver thread. the inevitable line. a man draws in outline perhaps because he has a pointed instrument to work with, perhaps because it gives him the quality of form he wants. he outlines forms already drawn for one of two definite purposes-usually to emphasise them, sometimes for the diametrically opposite purpose of blurring them. ornament telling light upon a relatively dark ground would be further pronounced by an edging. either of lighter colour upon the ornament or of darker upon the ground; the contrast between the two would be hala . velvet with soft outline of “terry.” ornament and its application. . hardening effect of outline. intensified by this darker or lighter outline. on the other hand an outline intermediate in tint between the ornament and its ground would soften the effect, as may be seen in many a velvet pattern in which the "terry” effectually prevents any too great contrast between the rich pile and the poorer satin ( ). the hardening and softening effects of outline are shown in two renderings of the same design. in the one ( ) the white ornament upon a tinted ground is made rather rigid by a hard black outline. in the other the white ornament ( ) upon a black ground is blurred by outlining in a soft tint. the colour of an outline is sometimes given by the material —the dull lead which holds together a stained glass window, the grey cement in inlaid flooring, the gilt cloison of enamel, the silver wire of damascening. where it is not, it is a ready means of bringing tones together or detaching them one from the other. a network of gold lines harmonises the harshest contrasts of primary colours. an outline in a deeper tint of the local colour, say red on flesh colour, strengthens it consider- ably. a grey outline cools it. the crudest colour may be used for outline with the result simply of lighting up the effect where a lower tone would have dulled it. the inevitable line. . softening effect of outline. outline is of such use in ornament and so often useful that it has come to be regarded as the necessary passport to decora- tion. the saving faith in it has been preached as though it were a dogma of design. it has been taken for the outward and visible sign of fit treatment, not merely removing art from the pictorial but stamping it with the hall-mark of decorative propriety. this insistence upon outline for the sake of outline is worse than pedantry; and the effect of it is but to degrade it to something like the trade-mark of the decorating shop. there is no law of art or decoration making outline compul- sory. does the occasion demand it? that is the question and the only one. design may quite well be decorative in which there is no insistence upon outline. the artist must decide, and in each case decide afresh. the real truth is that outline where it is not necessary to construction is just a matter of expediency and no more. in view, however, of the conditions of reproduction, and especially of the prompt and economic production of modern ornament, the expedient may safely be described as necessary. we have not only to put up with it, but to make the best of it, and to turn it to all possible use. ornament and its application. there we come back to the very nature of design. if it is true, as i began by saying, that, apart from its application, there is properly no such thing as ornament, it follows that, personal as may be the work of its designer, it is still the outcome of conditions, the solution of a problem set by circumstances outside himself. it is his only in so far as he works it out in his own way. he will bring to it what is his to give ; but his art is the art of making the best of it. index. page page cement inlay - - , veining . , ceremonial fan - - , champlevÉ el seq., , , chasing · · · , , checquer · · · · china clay . . . . chinese celadon ware . embroiderer (the) , glass . . . porcelain · · pottery - - , chip carving · · , i chisel (the) , , , , circular space (decorating) et seq. clay , , , , , , , , , , , cloisonnÉ enamel , , , , , colour - - - et seq., , (distemper) - - , , ,, and relief. - et seq. coloured glazes · · , , composition - - , , conditions , , , , , , , , , convention . , , , conventional treatment et seq. "cordonnet" . . . cosmati mosaic . . , cotton printing · · , , “ couching ". . , counterchange · · , counting the cost . . “crackle" . . . . crane (mr walter) - , cretonne crystal · · · · · cuneiform , curtains · · · cut glass . . . , , leather · · , , » work - - - , cypress wood · · · · damascening - - - , damask - - . , , dawson (mr and mrs) . . della robbia - - - , design , , , , , , , , et seq., , designer and executant · detail . . . . . diaper - - - - , , work (punched) - , diapering (minute) · - . directness - . , for “discharge”. · , , distemper colour · · , distribution • . , door · · · , , dots . . . . , dotted line . . . . double outline - draughtsmanship · · · drawing - - - , , “drawing " . . drawn-work - - - drill (the) - - - duran (carolus) - dutch earthenware - - dyeing · · · · , dyes . . . . , earthenware , , , (dutch) - - (english) . . (glazed) - , , (persian) . , ebony . . . . , egyptian carver (the) - , embossed design - . . leather - - . leather paper - metal - , , embossing . , , , embroidery , , , , et seg., , emphasis - - - - - enamel et seq., , , , index. page “ encaustic” tiles · · english earthenware . , tankards - - - engraving . . , , excess . . . . . page glass (stained) , , , (venetian) . . , , mosaic · · · , » on glass - - et seq. , painter (the) , , shapes · · · · glaze . .' . , , , glazed earthenware · , , glazier (the) . . . . » and glass painter • , and mosaicist · gold . . . . , » and silver thread , goldsmith - - , goldsmith's work , , , , , gold tooling (see tooling) gouge (the) , , , , grain of wood . . . granite . . . . . greek lace · · , , letters - - - vase-painting grÈs • • • • grille (flemish) . . - grindling gibbons , grounding out . . , growth . . . . . facets . . . . , fibula . . . . , filigree - - - - - , and wrought iron filling stitches · · , finish - - , , , finishing processes - , fire (the) · fitness · · · · · “flashing ” . . . , flat treatment : flaxman's models - · flemish grille . . flint glass , floats of silk · · · forge - - - - , , and foundry - - french carving . . , , wall-paper - - fretsaw (the) - - , , fretwork , , , , and stencilling , frivolity . - - - furniture coverings - - fussy patterns - - , tiandles · hard precision hinge . . historic style human figure · - - - · , , · , - - , , , , , “gadrooning” - gallÉ (m. Émile) - - . geometric mosaic - - , german silversmith's work , wood carving · · gesso - - - , , glass · · , , , ,, (blown) - , , , , (cut) . , (fint) . . . iii, , (marbled) - · et seq. , (soda) . . . : il imitation : , , , incised pattern - , , incrl'station • . independence - - - - indian carving - - , lacquer-worker (the) , leather-worker - individuality · · · , inhabited pattern - - index. page page quilting . . . . raffaelle's cartoons . . raised outline - .. relief - , , , , renaissance - - - - repetition - - - et seq. repoussÉ - · · · , " rÉseau " . - “resist" reticence roller printing roman jar - » letters roof . . . . rudeness . solon (m. l.)· · · , spanish tiles - - - - square mesii . . . . stained glass , , , stencilling et seq., , and fretwork , stenciller (the) - - , "step” . . . . . stitches · · · · , stone • , ,, carving . . , , (romanesque) · „ (late gothic) - stoneware , , , , (japanese) · · strapwork · , et seq., stripes . . . . , style (see also historic style) , , , stylus . . . . . supplementary processes - surface . . . . , symmetry . , , . . . : ruskin . . salt bowl . . . . sandstone . . . , science and art · · , scratched work . scribble · · · · · script - - sgraffitto . . , , shading . . . . , shape and use , shapes (glass) · · , (thrown) · · · ,, (turned) , shaping . . . “sheeriness” · shoddy . . sik damask - - . , silks (lyons) . . . . silver - - - - - , (beaten) . . . . , work. , , , silversmith and glassblower , “slip” . , , , , slip painting - . . , smoothness . . . . soda glass . . . . . tankards (english) . . tartans - - teaching - , , , technique · · · , terminal heads tesserÆ . - , texture · . , throwing - , , , ties - - - - , , tiffany (mr louis) - . tiles · · · · et seg. tint- . . , tonbridge ware - - , tool (the teaching of the) - et seq. tooling (bookbinder's) , , , , , , tournel (m. daumont) - . tradition . . . . , translation . . . . index. page translucent enamel . - transparent glaze · treatment , , , , , , , , , , turned shapes , turning · · · · , type - - - - - under-glaze colour - - unpremeditated pattern use · · · · , , , page wall-paper - - - , , (french)- - - , printing · · weaver (the primitive) - . weaving · · , , , wheel (the) - - , , window lights - - - wire inlay · · · · wood . . , , , , carving - et seq., » » (french) - , » (german) „ inlay · · , , wooden lattice - work (japanese) - - - - wooden vallances (arab) - woodwork (elizabethan) - · workmanlike instinct - workmanlikeness , , , , woven stuff · · · , wrought iron vague forms · · · , value of plain surface - variety · · , , vase decoration - · et seq. vase-painting (greek) - - velvet · , , , , (cotton) . · veneer (inlay in) - - - venetian point · · · venice . . . printed at the darien press, edinburgh. fa . ornament & its application; a book fine arts library ayf this book should be returned to the library on or before the last date stamper below stay .com i not to leave fine arts library fa . rnia minc library of the university of california library of the university of california ena iddinv li 中国​青年​,一 ​老子​看了​一下​。 pok人人 ​看​是​要​重​事实​不单​单子​是​不是 ​scartaff overo ornamenti arricchimento di camere e pealcove fatti da fr: "ertinger corn. galle formis. { ཐག Ālifo cal vingo library of the university of california library of the university of california elibrary of the univer gii guyan officer rege a waugh archolit. library arch. * . penia fornia in nitve ornia ined vingo با library of the university of california library of the university of california elibrary of the univef : 높 ​lilican iluna oilimilavivivilv:t ornia ve ania งาะ) library of the university of california porrary of the univer nad os library of the university of california 事​。 六​: 十七 ​其 ​nian 會 ​自動​重​自​自身​重量​。 本 ​ domin wallpf ХООР annoе Сауд fornia vin&c jale library of the university of palico dnia " ping library of the university of california و و - !!! آر :::. ornia fornia library of the university af california lindarv ac tweiiniver ke ) library of the university of california wwwwwww.uuuuviu. h tabernacoli da ornare e abellire di altari fatti in anyersa corn. galle formis ertinger fecit ornia ornia noord library of the university of california fiddidv ac tuc ii niwcd library of the university of california sob redes sociechogel, gigihin sy is? 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Тие itur for urni on enia カス ​ ! 전 ​ st. pau campus library joni 一 ​ st. pal campus library ti com —— su ornamental design, embracing the anatomy of pattern. (second edition.) the planning of ornament. (second edition.) the application of ornament. by lewis f. day. p with one hundred & sixteen full page illustrations. london: b. t. batsford, , high holborn. . d - finefan plate square plan plan hexagon plan diamond (squares set angle-wise) on circles square plan circles on diamond plan reversed “scale or "ogee"! plan construction of stripe german gothic plan tracery patterns wave plan lewis f. day: text books of ornamental design. ily the anatomy of pattern. by lewis f. day, author of every-day art,' etc. second edition, revised. illustrated. london: b. t. batsford, , high holborn. . preface to the second edition, in the preface to the first edition of the anatomy of pattern, i explained how the recollection of my own want of some practical direction in the first steps towards orna- mental design, had led me to think, that there must be students who would find it helpful to have set before them plainly what i had pain- fully to puzzle out for myself. the call for a second edition leads me to the gratifying conclusion that my text-book did actually fill a vacant place on the student's book-shelf. the occasion of reprinting has afforded also an opportunity for revision. wherever a passage has seemed to be open to mis- understanding i have made it more precise. i have added, here an explanation, there a diagram. some of the plates which came out unsatisfactorily in the first edition have been worked on or altered : one new one has been added. vi preface. it should be understood, however, that the illustrations are literally illustrations. it has naturally been endeavoured to make them in themselves as interesting as might be ; but it is only as diagrams that they have any claim to insertion at all. indeed, if they fulfil their function, it should be possible to gain from the study of the plates alone, apart from anything that is said on the subject, some notion of what pattern construction is. throughout this text-book (as throughout the series) i have assumed no particular knowledge on the part of the reader, but only that he wants to know. it follows from the very rudimentary nature of my subject, that is not by any means free from the difficulties which beset all beginnings whatsoever. of course pains of mine will save the student the pains of study ; but i have done my best to present to him, in as few words as possible, the sum of my experience-for what that may be worth at second hand. lewis f. day. no , mecklenburg square, london, w.c. april th, . table of contents. page .-introductory . .. i .. ii.- pattern dissection .. iii.-practical pattern planning iv.-the “ drop” pattern v.-skeleton plans vi.-appropriate pattern .. .. . plate . brick or masonry ale fret diapers formed on squares ti il ha - - e e e [ewis f.day checquer plate . cross liv;es chess board lattice plaids lewis f. dan plaiting + cross patter hu m diamond chevron or g-gag introductory. ar means so. if, indeed, the design be of that absolute uniformity all over, that there is no one feature in it more pronounced than another, it may pass muster, notwithstanding the want of backbone. but that is not to claim much for it as a design. and it is scarcely worth the pains to take a round- about way to this insignificant end. if, on the other hand, a design be above the level of insignificance, there must be in it some dominant feature or features, which, when many times repeated, will appear more prominent than ever. it is to these features that the eye will irresistibly be drawn; and it is the lines they take in relation one to another, which will assert themselves. it is hardly to be expected that, if these lines have never been taken into consideration, they should come out very satisfactorily—and, as a matter of experience, they always come out awry. every one must have suffered more or less from wall-paper and other patterns, in which certain ill-defined but awkward stripes impressed themselves upon him; and he may have imagined possibly, if he thought about it, that this effect of stripes came of working upon the vertical, horizontal, or diagonal the anatomy of pattern. lines, which thus asserted themselves. it was much more likely, the result of not working upon definite lines at all. a designer who knew the a b c of his business, would make sure of lines not in themselves offensive; he would counteract a tendency to stripes in one direction by features directing the atten- tion otherwards; and he would so clothe any doubtful line that there would be no fear of its unduly asserting itself, as in its naked- ness it might. he foresees the danger (it is a danger even to the most experienced) and he is fore-armed against it. the mighty man of valour who disdains to be trammelled by principles, or any such encumbrance, is with- out defence against contingencies practically certain to arrive. it is only by a miracle, or a fluke, that he can escape failure. the over- whelming odds are, that the petty considera- tions he has despised will be quite enough to wreck any venture he has dared in defiance of them. since, then, it is practically inevitable that there shall be definite lines in ornamental design-seeing that if you don't arrange for them they arrange themselves—it is the merest common sense to lay down those lines to begin introductory. with, and, in fact, to make them the skeleton or framework upon which you build up your pattern. you will see, when they are laid bare for you, that these skeletons are after all very few. the anatomy of pattern. ii. pattern dissection. repeated pattern may be classified ac- cording to its structure, i said. first in order of obviousness comes the stripe. it comes also very early in order of invention : the loom must from the begin- ning have suggested the stripe-pattern, which practically grows out of it. the stripe, however, carries us only a very short distance in the direction of design. for as soon as you make any break in the re- peated line, the recurrence of that break gives other lines in the cross direction. suppose a series of horizontal bands broken at equal intervals by a series of rosettes. is clear, that if the rosettes fall one under the other, they give upright lines; or if they are shifted you get diagonal cross lines. if the line itself is broken, as in the case of a series of waved lines, or, still more plainly, in a descriptive list of plates. . the construction of gothic tracery patterns- showing the square, diamond, hexagon, circular, or other plan on which elaborate tracery is built. . the square-checks and other diapers built on cross- lines. . the lattice and the diamond-plaids, zigzags, &c., built on cross-lines. . frets, &c.—showing their construction on a network of cross-lines. . all-over pattern—showing the cross-lines upon which it is planned. . the triangle-diapers of star, hexagon, and lozenge shapes, built up on the lines of the equilateral triangle. . the triangle-diapers composed of the equilateral triangle and its compounds. . the hexagon—honeycomb and other diapers based upon the hexagon and its compound. . the octagon—simple octagon diapers and the lines of their construction. . arab lattice pattern—dissected, and their anatomy laid bare. . curvilinear patterns-showing the construction of the wave, the ogee, the net, &c. x list of plates. . diapers of circles—with lines showing the points from which they are struck. . other circular diaper forms-produced by inter- secting circles. . free japanese diaper—the repetition of geometric forms not geometrically disposed. . the scale pattern–together with ogee, cusped, and other shapes derived from it. . a star pattern-showing six different ways of arriving at a simple diaper. . italian damask-showing its construction upon the lines of the scale pattern. . henri ii. book cover—showing result of reversing, and again reversing, the pattern. . some pattern plans-showing (a) the square plan, (b) the dropped parallelogram plan. . sicilian silk--with the cross lines on which the design is built, and the diagonal lines it assumes. . tapestry of the xvth century— with the rect- angular unit of repeat, in which the pattern is turned over, after the manner of the weaver. . late-gothic velvet-showing horizontal effect of pattern constructed upon the lines of the ogee or hexagon. . wall-paper pattern-showing ogee lines on which it is planned. . a drop-pattern-in which the construction is not at first apparent. list of plates. xi . map-showing three plans, on either of which the same simple pattern may be produced. . various drop-patterns--showing the effect of the drop according to its length, &c. . diagonal damask pattern-showing its construc- tion on the diamond, which is not apparent. a. diagram—how to prove a drop design. . arab tile and lattice patterns-showing the simple means by which intricacy is produced. . design—exemplifying the intentional confusion of forms. wall-paper design showing a drop ” in the ornamental scroll, whilst the grotesque creatures in- troduced follow the lines of the square block. . persian textile-showing the lines of the double square on which the pattern is constructed, as distinct from the lines it takes. . foliated scroll-a design made on square lines, yet assuming an ogee shape. italian silk-showing ogee, hexagon, or diamond plan. . set pattern-explanatory of economy in weaving. . damask—on the plan of waved upright lines, crossed by horizontal bands of rosettes. the anatomy of pattern. i. introductory. the dictionary scarcely helps us to a defini- tion of the word pattern, in the somewhat technical sense in which it is used by the designer. inasmuch as a pattern signifies a "speci- men," one might argue that repetition is im- plied in ornamental pattern. but inasmuch as any “shape or model for imitation” is quite as strictly speaking a pattern, one cannot exactly define pattern as repeating ornament. nevertheless, pattern mostly comes of re- petition. many a pattern bears on the very face of it the evidence that it grew directly out of the necessity of repetition. it is more than probable that some me- chanical necessity gave rise to all geometric b the anatomy of pattern. pattern ; certainly it is impossible to plait, net, knit, weave, or otherwise mechanically make, without producing pattern. it may be infinitesimally small, as in weaving, where the warp and weft are often invisible to the naked eye; but it is there; and all that re- mains for us to do is, to efface it as far as we can, or to make the best of it. out of the determination to make the best of it has grown much of the most beautiful pattern-work. to neglect this source of in- spiration, therefore, to say nothing of the attempt to suppress it, would seem to be wasteful of opportunity to the very last degree. so certainly will the repetition of parts result in some sort of pattern, that one may say, wherever there is ordered repetition there is pattern. take any form you please, and repeat it at regular intervals, and you have, whether you want it or no, a pattern, as surely as the recurrence of sounds will pro- duce rhythm or cadence. the distribution of the parts need not even be regular. the wave marks on the sand, the veins of marble, the grain of wood, the crystallisation of the breath upon the window- introductory. panes, the curls of the hair, the very features of the human face-resolve themselves into pattern. so distinctly is this last the case, that the ornamentist finds himself con- tinually devising, malgré lui, patterns that remind one of faces. there is even room for speculation whether it may not have been with a view to escaping this danger, or anticipating it rather, that the designer first took to the deliberate use of those masks and grotesque heads, which form so prominent a feature in certain styles of ornament. the popular idea of the process of orna- mental design is, that the artist has only to let his hand crawl over a piece of paper, and, like a spider, spin out the fancies that may crowd his fertile imagination. indeed, there is scope in design for all his fancy ; but he is no zeus, that ornament should spring, athena-like, full-grown from his brain. ornament is constructed, patiently (i will not say laboriously, for the artist loves the labour), patiently built up on lines inevitable to its consistency_lines so simple, that to the expert it is not difficult to lay bare its very skeleton; and just as the physiologist divides the animal world, according to anatomy, into b the anatomy of pattern. families and classes, so the ornamentist is able to classify all pattern-work according to its structure. like the scientist, he is able even to show the affinity between groups to all first appearances dissimilar ; and, indeed, to point out how few are the varieties of skeleton upon which all this variety of effect is framed. before enumerating those varieties, let us suppose for a moment a man to imagine (and this is by no means an imaginary case) that he will make to himself a repeating pattern without regard to its logical construction-as though in his domain there should be no skeletons. that would be, from my point of view, a profoundly foolish thing to do; but, more than that, it is impossible. he may design a unit in which there is no repetition, and no formality ; but the moment he repeats that unit, the very order of its repetition proves to be, if i may call it so, the cupboard in which the skeleton will be found. it might be imagined that by designing in some such haphazard fashion as i have just supposed, the artist would secure to his design a freedom of line, an absence of formality, not readily to be obtained by adopting the more systematic method. but this is not by any plate php the construction of frets & interlacings skeleton a nel of cross lines 면 ​ఎటత pattern dissection. series of vandykes, the turn of the wave, or the point of the zigzag, when it is repeated, gives the cross line just the same. and so we come at once to the vast order of patterns constructed upon cross lines. this is probably quite the first in point of time, arising as it inevitably does out of the very primitive art of plaiting. you liave only to interweave strips of two different colours, and you get at once a check, or what is familiar to us in black and white as the chess-board pattern. (plate .) suppose the interwoven strips were all of one colour, then the lines of intersection would make a lattice or basket-work pattern. the simplest form of check or lattice is when the crossing is at equal intervals and at right angles. vary the interval, and you have all manner of plaids and tartans. alter your point of view (or turn the design degrees round) and you get the diamond. the difference in point of view makes no real difference in plan: a stripe may take any direction, yet it is always a stripe. but if we alter the angle at which the lines cross, we get not only a fresh variety shapes, but we obtain also a diamond shape io the anatomy of pattern. which, for the sake of clearness, i will call the diamond. this plays a very important part in the next order of patterns, at which, however, we have not yet arrived. various plaids, diamonds, and other developments of the lattice are exemplified in plate . in the case of a regular network of cross- lines there is no particular reason why they should always be filled in alternately à la chess-board. they may just as well be grouped in twos, threes, fives, and so on, re- solving themselves into patterns of great variety and even of intricacy, as may be seen in plate . this theory, however, must not be pressed too hard, or you may squeeze something very like a false idea out of it. it might be contended that all patterns are formed on the square, or all patterns, at least, that can be woven, the threads forming the squares on which the design is laid. this is obviously absurd. the only patterns which can fairly be described as built on the square are those in which the artist (consciously or not) worked upon square lines. the actual squares apparent in a coarsely-woven scroll, or in the old-fashioned sampler, belong, not plate pattern dissection. ii to the pattern, but to its translation into a textile fabric. if instead of the chess-board we take the lines of the lattice, and work upon them, we get, without departing from those lines (only intermitting them) a wonderful range of inter- lacements and the like ; some of them of ex- ceeding intricacy, as in the case of the "fret." a number of these are shown on plate . there seems no limit to the ever-increasing range of pattern-work thus disclosed, all built upon the same constructional scaffolding. from the intermission of the lines results a kind of spot pattern, more or less free, which might be mistaken for a distinct order of design. but it is only a variety. in a certain sense it matters little whether a design is constructed on geometric lines, or only arranged so that it falls within them. the skeleton, when you come to dissect the two, is the same in either case. our theory of construction, therefore, applies quite as much to sprigs, spots, and all so-called free patterns, as to those in which the constructional lines actually occur as lines. you have not done away with construction when you have suc- ceeded in keeping the scaffolding out of plate . le diapers constructed on equilateral triangle lewis .day % star. hexagony lozenge shape ceka, ph.... plate . diapers constructed diapers tequilateral triangle lewis day cik-, pantoth, furnival . ob e.c. plate b yay byny bvy honeycomb & other diapers the hexagon vased lupo i wis. dan b ctx photothewal robem, ec pattern dissection. the blunter angles, you have only to bisect the blunt angle of the diamonds by this third series of cross lines to arrive at the equilateral triangle, which of all triangles is far away the most useful in design. by merely grouping the equilateral triangles, as in plate , we get the hexagon (a group of six triangles), the star (a group of twelve), and other shapes, such as that on plate , which is made up of seven triangles (i. e. three diamonds and a triangle); or that on plate , which is composed of eighteen triangles (i. e. three hexagons.) a glance at the three plates , , , will show how immensely the designer's scope is now widened. we have already the basis of all that in- finity of geometric pattern which we find in byzantine mosaic, and in the moresque tile-work derived from it. it will be seen that the hexagon, the star, and other compound shapes, themselves form exactly-fitting diapers. by the use of a fourth series of cross lines another new shape is evolved. returning once again to the square lattice, if we cross it diagonally both ways, cross it by itself, the anatomy of pattern. will “ that is, so that each square is cut up into four, we get out of those lines the octagon (plate ); but not an equal-sided octagon; that is, built on a cross lattice of different proportions. the octagon, however, is not a unit which will of itself form a diaper, as the hexagon will. it is only in connection with a square, diamond, or other four-sided figure, that it repeat.” place side by side a series of octagons, and there will appear four-sided gaps between (plate ). nevertheless, this new series of lines gives us new varieties of radi- ated pattern: witness once more the elaborate interlacings of the arabs; all of which, even the most magnificent, are closely related to the seat of a common cane-bottomed chair. it is possible to carry the principle of radia- tion further still. you may, for example, cross this more elaborate lattice by a lattice like itself; but you get by that means rather intricacy than variety-especially when the intersecting lines are in part interrupted. in certain arab patterns, where this ultra-elabora- tion of lines is employed, it appears almost as if a new principle had been introduced (plate ); but upon analysis the designs plate . ele y ola oko (simple octagondiapers dotted lines show onstructions ewis f. bru . c. koli, chotodicho, fumul *. holb., ec plate upon the based hexagon based upon the square construction of arala ice patterns based upon the square set diamond-wise d interlacing octagons based upon the square set angle- wise ya cp xi,photo lithe, funwal bom. e.c. pattern dissection. resolve themselves into the elements with which we have already had to deal—so few are the plans upon which pattern is con- structed. already we have come to the end of the straight-lined family. why, it may be asked, can you not make a diaper on other lines, on the lines of the pentagon for example? well, you may put together so many pentagons-and a very re- spectable diaper they form-especially if you further enrich the pentagons with five-pointed stars. not long since i came upon just such diaper, which, for a mo- ment, promised to upset all my neatly arranged theories the subject of pat- tern anatomy. pentagon diaper and its skeleton. however, i had only to dissect it, to discover that it was our old friend the diamond in disguise ; but so artfully made up as at first sight to deceive. there it is. it consists of a on the anatomy of pattern. pentagons put side by side, the interstices between them ingeniously filled with stars and triangles, much as the pentagons them- selves are filled-so that one does not readily distinguish the main divisions. it wants no telling that shapes of any kind may be put together to form a pattern ; but that does not alter the fact that the lines on which they are arranged, or into which they fall, must be those i have already laid down; which are indeed the base of all possible pattern. for further variety in design, we must resort to the use of the circle. the circle itself has, indeed, to be arranged on one or other of the foregoing plans. it must be struck, that is to say, from centres corresponding to the points of intersection of lines, such as have already been described. in so far it is only one of the innumerable arbitrary shapes that may be so arranged. but the circle is so important a feature in itself, it so entirely alters the scope of geometric pattern, that it deserves to be considered apart. one cannot lightly pass over the element of curvilinear design in ornament. whether or not the idea of flowing patterns originated in the circle, is of no great conse- plate hexago w zigza ve to vforin janet wis f. day wave)-( ines joined to form logee opposed (wave diapers opposed crossed ctk- .photo litho. fursa!..c -- pattern dissection. quence. instinctive practice must have pre- ceded geometric principles in the mind of man. one may very easily deduce many of the common curvilinear patterns directly from angular motives. (plate .) the wave, for example, is a zigzag just blunted at the points. soften the lines of the hexagon, and you have the ogee. interlace straight rods, and you get waved lines, as may be seen in the perspective view of the common hurdle. round the corners of the hexagon or octagon, and you arrive at a rude circle. the relation of the hexagon or octa- gon diaper to the diaper of circles is obvious. presumably, the busy bee, if one may suggest such a thing without irreverence, only works in a circle ; and the hexagonal form of the cells of the honeycomb is simply the result of gravitation; just as you find that cylinders crowded crush themselves into hexagonal prisms. geometric shapes offer themselves to us from the first—stars in the heaven above and in the grass below, circles in the sun's disc and in the eye of the daisy. for all we know, the very first pattern ever traced by c the anatomy of pattern. so. human hand may have consisted of circles the primeval artist had only to pick up the nearest dry twig and indent the damp earth with the end of it, to get a series of round impressions which would pass for a very respectable diaper. i do not say that was i only mean to say that the ways in which patterns can be formed are of the simplest ; and that they practically force themselves upon the workman-making him, as it were, an artist in spite of himself. the circle, with its segment the curve, and its compound the spiral, assumes extreme importance when we come to the consideration of the scroll (with which just now we are not concerned); but it will be seen that even in mere diapers it leads to an apparently new order of things. the simplest form of circle diaper is when the circles are arranged on the square or the diamond plan, and so as to touch at the edges. by the intersection of the circles one by another, an effect of much greater elabora- tion is at once obtained : and it makes all the difference whether you determine the pro- portions of the circle according to the inter- sections of the lines on which they are struck plate . the intersect - of dotted lines show centres of rcles. segments also forn diaper. diapers of circles carcles & cross lines inicrlacing. on square diamond lines indicated...... lewis. day plate . dotted lines show construction diapers on the lines of intersecting circles geometric construction of scale pattern. the intersection of dotted lines shows centres of circle in dan 。 plate $ wa free diaper japanese the repetition of geometric forms + geometrically arren pattern dissection. (as in plate ) or not (as on the upper part of plate ). out of the circle, or its segments, we get the trefoil, the quatrefoil, and all manner of cusped shapes (plate )—which also must needs be put together on one or other of the plans already set forth. further, out of the segments of the circle you can construct the scale pattern; which (as you may see on plate ) might equally have been derived from the scales of a fish or the plumage of a bird's neck. the scale may also be considered as a translation of the diamond into curved lines. re-arrange the scales and you have a more graceful, as well as a more complicated, diaper (same plate)- in which appears the ogee shape, once before referred to as being a curvilinear modification of the hexagon. the hexagon itself may be deduced from it. suppose a network of interlacing wave lines or ogee shapes—it amounts to the same thing—and the result is a series of six-sided figures (plate ), very nearly approaching the straight-lined hexagon. in this way the straight-lined series might be derived from the curved ; and so once more, c the anatomy of pattern. nex agon by a very different road, we reach always, in this maze of pattern-work, the same point, which is, the limited variety of skeleton on which pattern is built. from the combination of straight lines with curved (plates and ) result all manner of new diaper forms; which, however, present nothing very new in the way of skeleton. you might start a scroll pattern, such as that given in plate (a type common in the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries), on the lines either of the hexagon or of the ogee, or of a mixture of curved and straight lines which i may call the broken ogee; and in the end it would not be very clear which of them you had taken for a groundwork; or even whether you had not founded your design upon the diamond-such close kindred do those various skeletons betray. i have dwelt at some length upon rudi- mentary diaper forms, for reasons quite apart from anything intrinsically interesting or beautiful in them, although they may be both the one and the other. more especially is this likely if tender colours be employed to soften ogee broken ogee - scale pattern kwish day wave pattern feather patlern ogee pattern scale pattern derivatives houble ogee pattern dissection. the forms, or if the colour variations do not quite follow the pattern, as in the case of marble inlay, where the accidental colour of the material is a relief from the geometric monotony of the shapes. the japanese some- times go so far as to interrupt the pattern, wiping out a bit of it here and there, anti- cipating, indeed, the softening effect that age might impart to it. (plate .) but it is more as a basis of design that we have at present to consider geometric forms. the basis of all repeated patterns is, as i said, geometric. and, this being so, it is as essen- tial that the designer should be acquainted with simple geometric principles, as it is that a figure draughtsman should have some knowledge of superficial anatomy. for all the simplicity of the skeleton lines he has to deal with, the pattern designer's art is not such a simple thing as you might suppose. he has not merely to invent pretty patterns, but patterns that can be conveniently worked—and the lines mapped out for him by the conditions of his work, are, in most instances, not just those which beauty would have decreed. they prove, however, to be identical with the anatomy of pattern. the lines already shown to be the basis of all recurring pattern-work; and so we begin to see that, had there been no such thing as pattern design before, and no traditional forms of design for us to follow, those very forms must have been evolved as certainly out of the more complex conditions of modern manufacture as they were out of the simple contrivances of primitive handicraft. that is to say, that the lines first given to us by the primary processes of netting, plaiting, and so on, would equally have been prescribed by the printing roller or the power loom. it is one of the most interesting points in the analysis of pattern design to see how regularly we work round, again and again, to identically the same shapes. you cannot safely dogmatise as to the origin of this or that pattern; there are always so many ways in which it might have been suggested. put side by side a series of waved lines so that their curves are opposed (plate ) and the effect is exactly the same as though you had opened out an ogee diaper ; you can deduce either pattern from the other. or, again (same plate), if the ogees interlace, it is impossible to say whether this was the outcome of the plate . stiropordianfonès voide myloide / land crosslinos padded cross tozsjyes t tines t diamonds each occupied by a star six ways of arriving at a simple draper pattery crosszig zag interlacing octagon tines cross lewis f. day pattern dissection. ogee, or of waved lines, or simply of the pro- cess of netting on plate are shown six different ways in which one and the same simple star pattern may be arrived at. . by the juxtaposition of stars and the addition of cross-lines. . by the juxtaposition of diamonds and the addition of cross-lines. . by the juxtaposition of right-angled diamonds, each occupied by a star. . by the interlacing of two series of octagons, and the addition of cross-lines. . by the crossing of two series of zigzag lines, and the addition of cross-lines. . by the crossing of two series of diamonds or lozenges, and the addition of cross-lines. and this does not by any means exhaust the number of ways in which the same result might have been reached. to take another instance, of a very dif- ferent kind, you know how common it is to see a waved line with leaves alternating on each side of it. this appears on the face of it, a quite mechanical and arbitrary arrangement; but you have only to note how, in nature, the alternate leaves on a slender stem, pull the anatomy of pattern. it out of the straight, to see the natural and inevitable origin of the idea. by merely ex- aggerating the slight wave of the natural stem, you get one of the most conventional of ornamental border patterns. so it would seem that, whether you begin with mechanical construction or with nature, it works round to the same thing in the end-in the hands of an ornamentist. plate pg on the lines of a scale pattern). cyka, photo-lath, fumisal ...e.c. practical pattern planning. iii. practical pattern planning. pattern design is very seriously affected by this circumstance—that the possible lines of construction are not in all cases practicable. in practical design for manufacture the limitations are strict ; and it is only by sub- mission to them that success in ornamental design is possible. nor is it only the style or character of the design that is affected, but its plan also. the oriental mind, delighting in geometric intricacy, has availed itself largely of the triangular unit, and has built up with it all manner of delightfully elaborate patterns. the modern european finds it more con- venient to him to adopt the simpler paral- lelogram. he may now and then use hexa- gonal or other many-sided tiles, but he prefers the square.' so also the weaver's cards are inevitably in the shape of parallelo- grams, and the printer's blocks, too; and the anatomy of pattern. though the printer make use of the roller instead of the block, the conditions of design remain unaltered; for the roller is, for all practical purposes of design, only a block bent round in the shape of a cylinder. even the bookbinder of earlier days, who was comparatively free to do what he liked in the way of tooling," was led, whether by instinct or by his tools, to adopt a rectangular repeat, as in plate ; in which also is exemplified what may be done in the way of reversing, and again reversing, the unit of design-so as with comparatively littie drawing to produce the effect of an extensive pattern. we have, ordinarily, to reconsider the pos- sible lines of pattern construction in their relation to the rectangular figure, which is the repeat determined for us by the conditions of nearly all modern manufacture. the base of our operations is, then, usually a parallelogram. furthermore, this parallelogram is in all cases restricted in size, and in most cases of more or less arbitrary proportions. for example—in the case of wall-paper printing, it is practically determined for us plate . the french th century the ruled lines indicate the extent of the udsign. which being reversea and again reverseas, forms a repeat of tinies that extent. cfx-d, ehotolith. fursal st. holbon, e.c practical pattern planning. that the printer's block shall be rectangular. custom has further fixed its width at inches. and, since a block of greater length than that would be unwieldy, we are restricted to a square of inches by inches. the block may represent a fraction only of the design, which can theoretically be made up of as many blocks as you please. but in practice the expense of such a pro- ceeding would make the paper-hangings cost more than paper-hangings are ordinarily worth; and, apart from commercial consider- ations, which would be enough to prevent that kind of extravagance, it is contrary to craftsmanship so to misapply labour. the most capable artist is he who can apply his art to most purpose, and get full value out of his materials. as a matter of fact, the wall-paper designer has to content himself, then, except in very few instances, with a repeat of at most inches square. within those limits he is comparatively free; but, as i have already shown, do what he will, his repeated pattern will fall into geometric lines, if only those of the parallelo- gram on which it is built. a pattern, such as the anatomy of pattern. a, on plate , may seem at first sight to conform to no conditions of restraint; but the actual lines of the repeat reveal them- selves, on closer inspection, in any single feature whose recurrence is to be traced. it is based, you will find, upon the square. apart from the conditions of actual manu- facture it is found commercially expedient to adopt certain fixed dimensions for the tile, block, roller, or whatever it may be—and we are thus constrained to design tiles (if they are to be of any use) on the usual three-, six-, eight-inch or other accepted scale ; textiles to a width fixed by the loom, and a length controlled by the consideration of economy; block-printed fabrics under very similar con- ditions; and roller-printed to a length as well as a width prescribed. the proportion of the parallelogram within which our design must be confined varies, that is to say, with the manufacture for which we are designing. an experienced designer could often tell, from its proportion and scale alone, for what par- ticular manufacture a design was made. and it is in the impracticability of his ideas that the novice most infallibly betrays his lack of experience. plate. al ss s .f. kel, photo-litho. o.fuanival st holborn, e.o. practical pattern planning: there is no occasion to enter more fully into all the various technical reasons for the limitations to which the designer is subject. the practical convenience of them, however, is patent. it is as desirable that the architect, for example, should know what sized tiles may be available, as that he should be able to reckon upon the “bond” of his brickwork ; and it is equally clear that without some uni- formity in the width of materials (such as silks, velvets, carpets, chintzes, and so on), it would be difficult to estimate, off-hand, the relative cost of each. as it is, the public is not seldom misled in that way. the difference between and inches in width, is not so apparent to the eye that the purchaser of a french wall- paper need realise, when he selects it, that it is actually nearly seventeen per cent. dearer than an english paper nominally at the same price! something very like a swindle is perpetrated when facts of this kind are deliberately kept from the buyer. there is a further fraud in withholding from him the in- formation that certain foreign goods sold by the piece are only about three-quarters of the length of english goods competing with them. the anatomy of pattern. to return to the subject--the upshot of it is, that the designer has habitually to shape his design according to a rectangular plan, and that of limited, if not fixed, dimensions. it becomes, then, a very serious question with him how far he can avail himself of any other basis. the student might with advantage set himself to tabulate the possibilities in the way of adapting the various units of repeat to repetition, within the square. it would then be seen that, though all things are possible, there are schemes the artist would like to adopt, which, in order to be brought into the repeat permitted, would need to be worked out upon so small a scale as to become quite too insignificant for use. one instance of this it may be worth while to give. suppose a square block of inches, and you wish to adapt a hexagonal design to it. only those who have tried the experi- ment have any notion how small the hexa- gons would come. if you made your hexa- gons inches wide, so as to get two in width, they would not come true in the length; they would be too long. if you made plate . early confiry gidiliant silk kn, phots lath, fursal . holbum, ec practical pattern planning. them true, they would not fill the square, but only a space about inches by . three and a half hexagons in the width would work, but only as a "drop" pattern: that would give hexa- gons of six inches across. in order to occupy the square with true hexagons repeating without a “drop,” they would need to be re- duced to half that size ; that is to say, there would have to be seven hexagons to the width, measuring each only three inches across. it will plainly be seen, in this instance, how very strictly the artist is bound by considerations which scarcely occur to the scale inche-> the anatomy of pattern. uninitiated, considerations which have always had a great deal to do with the design of pattern-work. fashion has had her say in the matter, too, no doubt-it is a wicked way she has; but though certain lines have been generally adopted at certain periods and in certain countries, i think it will invariably be found that there was some technical or prac- tical reason for their adoption in the first instance. out of the conditions of weaving came, for example, the adoption of upright patterns and cross colouring (as in the silks of byzantine, sicilian, and early italian design), as well as the turning over of the design on the two sides of an upright steni, or purely imaginary central line; examples of which are shown in plates and , the one taken from an old sicilian silk, the other from a coarse woollen fabric of the th century. in plate may further be seen what great influence material may exercise upon pattern. there was a whole class of pat- terns of this kind schemed in the th and th centuries, with the obvious purpose of disturbing as little as possible of the plate . plate . titel gothis horizontal rows of gee shapes with big jag intervals between tiyeul c kel, prolete, furnival bom, fc practical pattern planning. rich pile of the velvet for which they were designed. * the turning over of the pattern is essen- tially a weaver's device. in a pattern similarly planned for printing there is no occasion for that same rigid symmetry of the two sides. on the contrary, it is desirable rather to introduce some variations, such as occur in the design on plate . * see ‘the application of ornament,' page . d the anatomy of pattern. iv. the "drop” pattern. the most useful skeleton to work upon, all things considered, is the diamond. for it is on the basis of the diamond that “drop patterns are most readily designed. the "drop" is a device by means of which the designer is enabled, without reducing the scale of his work, to minimise the danger of unforeseen horizontal stripes in his design, a danger which is imminent when the repeats occur always side by side on the same level. the printer's block, we will say, is a square ; or the roller is its equivalent; or the cards take that form. in the printed or woven strip, whether paper, cretonne, silk, or what not, the end of one repeat must tally with the beginning of the next, in order that the pattern may be continuous throughout the piece. equally of course the design must be so schemed that the right side of one plate 验 ​- the “ drop” pattern. piece of the stuff will fit on to the left of another, and so on. but it is clear that the design may be so contrived that each succeeding breadth has to be dropped in the hanging. if this drop were only very slight-say three inches—it would take seven breadths, in a pattern of inches deep, before a given feature in the design occurred again exactly on the same level. there would be no dan- ger then of any horizontal tendency in the lines which recurring features of the design might take, but, on the other hand, great like- lihood of a diagonal line developing itself, with even more unfortunate effect. the design would seem, rather, to step down- wards; and the shorter the steps, the more noticeable would be the line such features might take. this difficulty is avoided if you make the “drop” just one-half the depth of the pattern, so that every alternate strip is hung on the same level. then the diagonal lines correct themselves. if any line at all asserts itself, it is more likely a zigzag (instead of a step), which, in connection with corre- sponding zigzags above and below, may very possibly form a trellis or lozenge pattern. d the anatomy of pattern. there is good reason, therefore, for saying the diamond is a useful plan to work on; for upon it is formed the safest variety of drop pattern-that, namely, which drops one-half its depth. instances of drop patterns are given in plates , , , , , and others. one has heard persons, more familiar with the forms of ornament than expert in practical design, complain of the difficulty they ex- perience in scheming a "drop.” if they would only think of the problem as the filling of a diamond shape, it would come very easily to them. there is this further advantage in adopt- ing the lines of the diamond—that it affords an opportunity of working out a design which is apparently twice the width of the material. if you subdivide a block of inches thus, so that the two smaller a divisions a and v together a equal the larger division it v amounts to precisely the same ♡ thing as though you designed upon the basis of a squat diamond inches high by inches wide. you have only to plate c.f. kell, photo-litho.b.furnival st holborn,e.o the “ drop” pattern. transpose the component triangles to produce the squat diamond. if, therefore, you design your pattern within the lines of the squat aja diamond, in. by v in., you will find that it can be printed on a material in. wide from a block in. square. the advantage gained in this way is, of course, only apparent--what is put into one strip is taken out of the other-but in the case of pattern appearance goes a long way. from the practical point of view, it is difficult to over-estimate the value of this expedient in design, the common property of designers for all manner of fabrics, but undreamt-of in the philosophy of the amateur. theoretically, it is all the same whether you design a drop on the lines of the square, on the slant, or on the diamond, you may arrive in either case at identically the same result. this is plainly shown in plate , in which the dotted portions of the ground will ex- plain how the same pattern might be built on either one of three plans. you might snip pieces from the four corners of the square the anatomy of pattern. and make with them the diamond ; or, if you dispose them differently, you might produce the oblique shape ; which lasť would amount to the same thing as though you had cut off only two corners and transposed them (diagram page ). nevertheless, it makes practically all the difference in the world which plan you adopt. your design must be influenced to a very considerable degree by the shape you set yourself to fill. it would never occur to you, for instance, to stretch a festoon, or wreath, across a width of space you did not see before you. so it may be fairly said, that such extension of the design beyond the width of the material, is the direct result of working on the lines of the diamond : whilst you are designing within the lines of the square, you have naturally no impulse to go beyond its limits. in designing for tiles and such like, where the material is not continuous, the conditions are somewhat different, and the possibilities accordingly. where the unit of design can conveniently be turned round, or half-way round, or three-quarters of the way, the scope of the designer is increased — out of four . plate . lewis f. dan the “ drop” pattern. repeats of a six-inch tile he can get, for ex- ample, a design in the nature of a circle inches in diameter. so again, the book- binder, with a comparatively limited set of tools, has very considerable scope in design; but even then the lines he can work upon are always the same-although more of them may be open to him than to another. the anatomy of pattern. v. skeleton plans. the designer finds it ordinarily more con- venient to design at once upon the diamond lines, because their simplicity enables him better to keep in view the effect of his pat- tern in its repeated form than any other lines (there are others) on which the "drop can be worked. even though one may have no intention of taking advantage of the full width of a block, it may still be found convenient to design within the diamond, if only in order to economise design : and, mind you, economy is an absolute necessity of the case. but for economic reasons there would be no weaving, printing, stamping, and so on; we should confine ourselves to embroidery, tapestry, painting, and other work of our own hands. if you begin by dividing the width of inches into two, and make your pattern a “drop," inches long by wide, it is the same as though you had worked upon a plate . | inch block a k inch block b diamond ) x inches gou diamond x linches? inch blocks d skeleton plans. diamond inches from point to point, as may be seen at b in plate ; although, as i said before, the same pattern would probably not have suggested itself to you in either case. designing on the diamond such a pattern as the last-mentioned might very likely occur to one ; on the lines of the dropped parallelo- gram, more likely such as b on a one plate . again, if you divide the width of inches into three (a, plate ) and on those lines set out a diamond pattern inches long by inches wide, so that the block contains one unit and a half in the width, this will work as a drop, to fall one-half its depth. it is clear, also, that the half diamond on the one side of the block (a) and the two quarter diamonds on the other side (a a) must together form a b complete unit, and the two half c А diamonds (b b) another, or the b block would not work. with that proviso, the diamonds need not all be filled alike—that is to say, the three diamonds (a b c) comprised in the repeat may be variously filled. if you still divide your inches into three a a plate diagonal stripe formeð upon the 'basis of the diamond th contury plate a no В / ni lewi diagrain showing how to prove a design of kell, moto-litho. .furnival si holioan, e.c. skeleton plans. upon the lines of that diamond, but probably upon a network of diagonal and horizontal cross-lines-as did also the inventor of plate . the inevitable influence on your design of the lines upon which you start, is the excuse, and the only excuse, for puzzling over all the various skeletons upon which pattern can be laid out. it is a good test of your design, when you have roughed it out on one plan, to make the finished drawing on another. by that means you see it, as it were, from two points of view, and can form a very fair idea as to how it repeats, without drawing much of the repeat. the practical designer (who has learnt not to attach great value to the appearance of his design as a drawing) often cuts it up deliberately, and re-arranges the parts, in order the better to prove his repeat. the use of this expedient is shown in plate a. fig. i gives a pattern as the designer might sketch it-and not much more of it than is enough to show the lines it will take in repetition. but, as i said, the simpler way of proving it would be to cut up the repeat (the square with black background in diagram no. ) and re-arrange its parts. the anatomy of pattern. this has been partially done in fig. , in which the design has been cut horizontally into two equal parts a b and cd; and, by the transposing of these two halves, what were the upper and lower edges are brought together, showing plainly how this portion of the design will appear in completion. the joining of the side edges is tested in fig. . here the drawing has once more been cut in two, vertically this time. and, since this is a drop pattern, it is not merely the two halves that have to be transposed; but, whilst parts b and d remain relatively to each other in the same position as in fig. , parts a and c are reversed in order (a c becomes c a). the remaining figure, , supposes us to have left parts a and c in the same position relatively to one another, as in fig. , and to have re-arranged (on the same principle as before) parts b and d (b d becoming d b). the four quarters of the design have thus been shuffled and dealt out in every practic- able manner, and each portion of it in turn promoted to the position most in view. in the case of a pattern which did not drop, the proving would have been, of course, plate . simple construction of intricate arab lattice & tile patterns overlaila -- . . kell, photo-litho.b.furnival st holborneo piate . > sy a photo-text" by james akerman london.w.c. skeleton plans. a yet simpler matter. obviously, too, the operation of cutting up might be (and in practice would be) performed at a compara- tively early stage in the designing, so that the various joints might in turn be tested and adjusted before the details of the intermediate spaces were finally determined. the way in which the parts of the dia- mond may be re-arranged, in like manner, is sufficiently in- dicated by the accompanying diagram. but the best of all possible tests is to cut ever so rude a stencil of the broad masses of the design, so as easily to multiply it to any extent. a child can be taught to apply that test for you; and it is infallible. whatever the lines of the skeleton, in any important work they are usually dis- guised. sometimes (as often in arab art) they are so crossed and interlaced that it is difficult to follow their intricacy. the really quite n the anatomy of pattern. simple patterns on plates , , and are at first sight very puzzling. again, the lines may be interrupted so that you lose the thread of the design. or, further, two or more schemes of ornament may be, so to speak, interwoven, the one asserting itself here, the other there, so that neither thread of idea is too conspicuous. the effect of this is to be seen in plate , a drop pattern, in which the attention is diverted from the formal lines of the scroll by a con- ventional growth of much freer character over- running it. furthermore, features may be introduced of such importance in the design that the eye is drawn to them, and fails to perceive the connecting lines between. in plate the strongly marked bird- forms counteract to some extent the simple ogee or diamond lines on which the pattern is set out. in fact, the birds emphasise the actual repeat of the block, just as the scroll reveals the real construction of the design ; and out of the two contrasting schemes arises a certain confusion, which is of some artistic account in design. obviously, however, the most effective way of disguising the skeleton is to clothe it, as we plate sts g a ook lond viac od tm car....... plate . constructed upon che waved tines of running stalks or on the plan of double square cpx, ekoto it, fumiwalalham, e.c. plate . . ton oo ** " and falling into ogee shapes not at first square of. scroll pattern, designed on the lines of the !!! . yu ". )) while an s un while w! lewis day. cykl, te lith. final holbom.e.c skeleton plans. are nature does; and the most natural way of doing this is, with something in the nature of folia- tion; beneath which the bare constructional lines as little noticeable as the stiff branches of a tree under their burden of leaf and blossom. (plates , , &c.) by this means, you get at once life, interest, and variety so great, that one might continue this already lengthy explanation until it be- came tedious,—and yet, perhaps, fail to make the sceptic quite believe in the absolute sim- plicity of the skeleton forms underlying all pattern. the foliated scroll, as you see it, for example, in roman or renaissance arabesque (or even in plate ), looks almost as though it were impossible of geometric construction. and, of course, it never is mathematically built up. but, for all that, it falls into the familiar lines. the spiral itself is only a series of segments of circles; and if you dissect any repeated scroll-pattern, you will find most likely that its back-bone is a wave line or spiral. certainly you will find it has a back- bone. pattern is a vertebrate thing; and in a scroll the spinal cord is very decidedly pronounced. you can soon see when a scroll is broken-backed. the anatomy of pattern. vi. appropriate pattern. it is only by experience that a designer learns to know what may, and what may not, be done within given lines. many a notion which one had a thought of adopting, turns out to be practically quite unamenable to existing conditions. you cannot have a bold, flowing scroll with- out considerable allowance in the way of length in the blocks, cards, or whatever may be the medium of execution ; nor can you well avoid a certain upright tendency in pat- terns where the width is very much restricted the fact of the matter is, the characteristic lines of time-honoured patterns are mainly the direct result of the restrictions under which the craftsman was working. it is owing to the facility with which triangu- lar cubes or tiles can be arranged in pattern, that the peculiarly geometric character of much piate > form ogee construction plate of kell, moto-litho. .furnival st hoi doan,c.c appropriate pattern. oriental ornament is due. so also with us, the proportions of the square tile have resulted in a distinctly characteristic form of ornament. i do not pretend to say whether the turning over of the design which prevails in early silks, was suggested by the fact that such turning over could be so readily done in weaving ; but it looks, at all events, as though the sicilians, and, in fact, weavers generally, until comparatively recent times, adopted that plan of design, because by means of it they could without more ado double the scale of their pattern. in the renaissance silk, figured on plate , and in all such turned-over designs planned upon the diamond, hexagon, or ogee, one- half the labour of designing and card-cutting is saved. naturally, the nineteenth century manufacturer has not been slow to adopt a plan so obviously economical. it has been said, that the idea of reversing a pattern owes its origin to the circumstance that you may double a sheet of paper, and so, with one action, cut out the two sides of it. if that is not so, it well might be—except that, pro- bably, reversed patterns were common long before paper was. very possibly it is derived e the anatomy of pattern. from the practice of folding or doubling. one may put together, for example, several sheets of veneer, or even several planks, and, with one action of the saw, fret all of them alike. that facility gave rise at all events to boulle's characteristic inlay patterns ; * and in the balconies of swiss châlets one still sees a very effective kind of pierced pattern-work, which is accounted for in a similar way.f bands or stripes of different colours are so common in eastern curtains, blankets, &c., because they can be so easily woven. ^ even in more elaborate silk and other designs, certain of the colours are very often dis- tributed band-wise. the variety of colour so obtained, is obviously due to the ease with which the weaver can change his shuttle. at the same time, economy is thus often effected. if in such a design as that on plate the flowers were meant to appear in gold, or only the eyes of the flowers, the gold thread need only be used in the bands where the flowers or eyes actually occur. you have but to look at the back of any * the planning of ornament,' plate . † “the application of ornament,' plate . À 'the application of ornament,' plate . plate . yt. wave-lines crossed by borizontal bands of largs rosettes appropriate pattern. old piece of many-coloured silk damask to see the changes of the shuttle very plainly marked. the aim of the designer is usually to disguise them more or less in his pattern. but in the early days of silk weaving the unso- phisticated artist had no fear of a horizontal line. in such a pattern as the sicilian silk in plate , he would boldly make the various bands of animals in various colours. he would sometimes even carry bands of colour straight across the animals, regardless of their shape. and the effect of this rough-and- ready proceeding, in the silk itself, certainly justifies him (plate , vol. iii.). in early examples of weaving both the turning over of the pattern, and the banded arrangement of the colour are very frequent; indeed, so much so, as to form quite marked features in the design of the eleventh and fol- lowing centuries, whether sicilian or italian. (it was from sicily, you know, that the art of weaving was introduced into italy.) designers would be the more ready to adopt, and to adhere to, the plan suggested by the loom, in that the horizontal line, due to it, was in no way injurious to the effect of a fabric meant to fall in folds. the dim vertical the anatomy of pattern. line, which was likely to occur from the turning over, was calculated to lose itself in the more strongly marked verticality of the folds, so the horizontal band emphasised by the change of the shuttle had an absolute value in marking the fulness of the hangings. in flat decoration the horizontal band is less unobjectionable; and it is for that reason that so many of the wall-paper patterns, borrowed or stolen from good old stuffs-by their stripes you shall know them-are altogether unsatis- factory on the wall. to me, horizontal stripes usually suggest the ample hanging, and seem to want the folds. the bold and beautiful effect of such damask pattern as that in plate would be lost if it were rendered in flat decoration, especially without the charm of the texture of the stuff: those waving lines and bands of big rosettes would be unendurable. that pattern, by the way, although it actually works on the principle of the parallelogram- was obviously arrived at by carrying a broad horizontal band of rosettes across a series of waved upright lines. many an admirable textile pattern, suit- able in all respects but that of its marked a appropriate pattern. horizontal lines, is inapplicable to flat deco- ration, whether in the shape of silk, or chintz, or wall paper. some persons appear to be of opinion that, a pattern (according to dr. johnson) being "something to be copied,” design consists therefore in copying what has been done before. that is all very well so far as con- cerns the definition of the word pattern ; but how about the meaning of the word design ? i would go against the lexicographer, and say: not every pattern is an “exemplar.” in adapting a design, from one material to use in another, it is not enough to copy the original : it needs to be translated; which translation is not so easy, but that an artist gifted with any invention of his own, will find it, on the whole, better worth while to say what it is in him to say for himself, and not go on harping on the old, old tunes, melodious though they be. the most perplexing thing to us just now is that we are asked to design, to-day under these conditions, to-morrow under those. we have no traditions and no style. our consolation is that in the very variety of the efforts demanded of us there is relief of a the anatomy of pattern. kind : and in the presence of difficulties our ingenuity, if we have any, is excited. the more difficult the conditions, the more they provoke solution. a designer must have in him something of pugnacity; he must enjoy attacking a tough problem. indeed he proves himself a designer, not when he has somehow or other arrived at a design, but inasmuch as out of unpromising material and untoward circumstances he can contrive a thing of beauty. london: printed by william clowes and sons, limited stamford street and charing cross. (plate . ले म "photo-tint", by james akerman, text books of ornamental design. [r. the planning of ornament. by lewis f. day, author of some principles of every day art,' • the anatomy of pattern,' 'the application of ornament,' etc. second edition, revised, with additional illustrations. london: b. t. batsford, , high holborn. . preface. the second of a series of text books stands scarcely in need of preface. the aim and scope, as well as the origin, of this series were duly set forth in ‘the anatomy of pattern.' what was there said applies for the most part to the present volume. a new edition gives me the opportunity of revising both the text and illustrations, and of adding some new plates. it is encouraging to find that the demand for the text books is not exhausted with the first issue, and that they appear to be fulfilling the purpose i had in view in under- taking them. lewis f. day. , mecklenburg square, london, w.c. september st, . - table of contents. page i.-introductory i ii.-the use of the border .. iii.-within the border iv.-some alternatives in design v.-on the filling of the circle and other shapes vi.-order and accident descriptive list of plates. . panel after the manner of du cerceau-order in apparent disorder. . border in the manner of flÖtner—example of comparatively important frame. . roman pavement-in which is shown the development of a geometric diaper into a more important scheme of ornament. . greek border—instance of simple and very formal treatment. . diapers—schemed to fit panels. . painted door—showing the influence of the propor- tions of the panels upon the design of the decoration. . book cover of xviith century—illustrating the use of border within border, . panel—invaded by ornament springing from the border. . interlaced henri ii. book cover - in which a border line is suggested. . panel—in which the border is inseparable from the filling. . panel—in which the filling breaks over the border, in the japanese manner. х list of plates. . panel-in which the border is invaded by the field. . inlay, after boule-in which the border, so to speak, loses itself. . free design–which by the orderly arrangement of the parts constitutes itself a border. . broken borders-showing various ways of breaking them. . inlaid panel-showing a break in the border, and the suspension of the principal ornamental feature. . cartouche, after jost amman—a very free treat- ment of the frame. . panel_with medallion, &c. pattern-in which the detail is grouped so as to give medallion shapes not otherwise marked. . diaper -not schemed with reference to the panel it fills. . panel in niello—with geometric diapers disposed in eccentric japanese fashion. . bands—their application to a cylindrical shape. . door panels— treated from the ends. . book cover—treated from the corners. . doors-one-sided scheme accounted for by the position of lock plates. . part of cabinet-in which the construction has sug- gested the scheme of ornament. . lacquer box-in which the artist takes the whole object for his field. list of plates. xi . cabinet door-jacobean panelling. . carved dado-with square panel shapes within the panels. . design-in which the borders are interrupted. . door—in which the disproportion of the panels is recti. fied by borders supplementary to the mouldings. . . panel-where the borders round a central medallion interrupt the borders of the panel itself. . subdivisions-each with its own ornamental filling. . panel-eccentrically cut in two. . broken surface-japanese diaper without repeat. . stencilled roof decoration - designed in cross bands to correct the parallel lines of the joists. . vases—illustrating lines on which they may be decorated. . diagrams-explanatory of the subdivision of the circle. . circles—illustrating lines on which they may be deco- rated. . book cover-one ornamental feature designed to disappear behind another. . panels-jointly symmetrical. the planning of ornament. . introductory. "the anatomy of pattern" concerned itself with the lines on which repeated pattern is built. it is proposed in this second text- book of the series to discuss the order in which ornament not necessarily recurring may be distributed. and it will not be diffi- cult to show that, illimitable as those lines may at first sight appear to be, they too allow themselves to be classed pretty definitely ; and, moreover, that the classes are not by any means so numerous as might be supposed. the first step in design, or rather the preliminary to all design, is to determine the lines on which it shall be distributed—to plan it, that is to say. the more clearly the designer realises to himself the lines on which it is open to him to b the planning of ornament. proceed, the better; and if it can be shown (as it can) that these are, comparatively speaking, few and simple, so much the easier will it be for him to make up his mind promptly and determinedly which of them he will in any given case adopt. the shape of the actual space to be filled will oftentimes determine for him, more or less, the distribution of his design. that is to say, it may very likely render certain schemes altogether unavailable, and perhaps even limit his choice to a single plan; but at his very freest a man is limited, in the nature of things, to certain methods of procedure presently to be defined. plainly it would be out of the question to discuss at length the relation of every possible plan to every possible shape. i purpose, therefore, to take the simple parallelogram (which may stand for panel, page, floor, ceiling, carpet, curtain, wall, window, door, façade, no matter what), and to show the possibilities with regard to the distribution of ornament over its surface. it will then remain only to explain how the same prin- ciples apply, whatever the shape to be filled. the use of the border. ii. the use of the border. given a panel to be filled, how is this to be done? there are two very obvious ways of going to work, either of which, to the sophisticated modern at all events, seems equally natural. you may start as well from the centre as from the edge of it. that is to say, you may boldly attack the centre and let your design spread outwards to the margin ; or you may begin with a border and creep cautiously inwards. when once the border is defined, the space within remains to be treated. theoretically, indeed, you have only reduced the area over which your composition is to be distributed. but practically that is not quite so; more especially if the border be of any importance. for a border may be of such interest that nothing further is needed, and the centre of the panel is best undisturbed by ornament. especially may this be so if the material in b the planning of ornament. use be in itself of some intrinsic interest. it is distinctly not desirable to mar the surface of beautiful wood or richly varied marble with added ornament. and, for example, with the cabinet maker it resolves itself pretty generally (unless he should once in a while mean to indulge in ultra lavish enrichment), into a question of whether he shall enrich his panels or the mouldings bordering them. the proportion of a border is of more importance to a scheme of design than might be supposed. it makes all the difference whether it is simple or elaborate in character. a very deep rich border has such an entirely different effect from a moderately simple one, that it looks something like a different treat- ment altogether. compare plates , , and , and see what a different part the border plays. in each. the ornament on plate might appropriately enrich a page of text : that on plate requires obviously some more substantial filling. the strength of the border goes for something as well as its depth. borders may easily be so schemed (and should be so schemed) as to give panels of proportions calculated to allow of the decora- tion proposed for them. if, for instance, a plate . d be c. kell. noto-litho...fvinwal st nolsona.a (plate . . grade -- 和 ​ plate . oooo "oom oooo" ᏱᏊᏱᏊᏊᏊᏊᏊᏊᏊᏊ j. alerman photo-lith london the use of the border. ол panel is to be filled with a diaper, arrange- ment should be made for the “repeat” of the pattern within it. it is quite clear that the arab diaper spread over the panels in plate was devised expressly with that object. again in plate the necessity of accommodating one's ornament to shapes so unequal as the panels of the door, has obviously to a con- siderable extent controlled the design. but for those small upper panels, it would never have occurred to one to break up the longer panels just so. panels or other spaces which are to contain figures or figure subjects should be of a pro- portion and size not too difficult to occupy in that way in the case of an isolated panel, this is perhaps of less importance—the artist ought to be equal to the occasion—but in the case of a series of panels to be treated in accord, the problem is made infinitely more difficult when they are of all manner of shapes and sizes. it is no easy matter to scheme even the sim- plest ornament into panels of such awkward and widely different shapes and sizes as the decorator has only too frequently to deal with. the planning of ornament. there is a salon in the palace at fontaine- bleau in which the proportions of the panel- ling prove to be due almost entirely to the painter, who has brought the larger panels into scale with the smaller by means of a series of borders within the actual mouldings. it is much less trouble, of course, for the joiner, when he has an awkward space to panel, to determine the width of the stiles, and let the panels come as they may. but a very little consideration on his part would save the decorator, who comes after him, an infinity of pains. and though it may be the business of the decorator to get over difficul- ties of the sort, his work is not so easy that there is any occasion to put difficulties in his way. the stiles which frame a panel may be con- sidered as its border; the mouldings again, are so many borders within borders. a border which is made up of many lines really constitutes a series of borders one within the other. the use of border within border as a deliberate scheme of ornament is common enough, as was the case in certain tooled bookbindings of the seventeenth cen- tury, one of which is represented on plate . plate . j akerman photo-lith london plate c.f.ksll, litho, , furnival st nolionn, k.c. plate tutinn me mo e c. kl, photo-litho.o.furnival st holsonn,e.o plate umrette lucis i. day.is • kell, noto-utino...furnival st moldonn,l.o the use of the border. you may even add border to border (as was sometimes done) until the whole field is occupied. it is not altogether uncommon in renaissance cabinet-work to find the panel en- croached upon by border after border of mould- ings until it dwindles practically to nothing. the obvious and simple thing to do with a border is to keep it of one uniform and equal width. but such equality of width is by no means essential. you may see in mediæval illuminations the effect, more or less satisfac- tory, of emphasising two sides of the page. nor need the border necessarily be continued all round the space at all. curtains have often a border on two sides only, and some- times only on one, marking what one may call the lips of the hangings. you may look upon the architrave of a door as a border on three sides of it only. and in the same way a mantelpiece partly frames the fire-grate, the fender completing the scheme. a certain reasonableness is the most complete justifica- tion of such partial bordering. every frame is a border. no matter how irregular the shape of it may be, a frame's a frame “for a' that.” it may take the archi- tectural form of cornice, pilasters, and dado, the planning of ornament. or it may be arched ; and in either case the architectural members are but unequal borders. all this applies, it need scarcely be said, not only to an architectural picture frame, but to architecture itself, and to whatever may be framed. something like a new departure occurs when the border, so to speak, invades the field or centre of the panel, as it very often does in french renaissance work, sometimes to such an extent that little or no further décoration of the field is necessary. there is an indication of such trespass in plate , where the “swag” and corner ornaments, which belong to the border, cut deliberately across the face of the panel. in some of the interlacing strap work of the henri ii. period (the french equivalent to our elizabethan ornament), you cannot always clearly tell where the border begins and ends, or even whether a border was intended at all. it looks sometimes as if the designer had started with the notion of a border, but had allowed it so to encroach upon the field, or the field upon it, that in the end it is not at all clearly recognisable as such. an example of the kind occurs in plate . you may plate simi c.f. kell, photo-litho, b,furnival st holborn,e.c. plate ha "photo-tint", by james akerman. plate . d 'pnoto-tint, by james akerman the use of the border. see the idea of a border here, but you innot be quite so certain that the designer intended it. nearly allied to this is another variety of border, also devised so as to be quite in- separable from the filling ; in which, in fact, frame and filling are so ingeniously mixed up that but for the emphasis of colour, the effect would be confused. there is an instance of this in plate , where the scroll, whilst to some extent acknowledging the boundary line, invades, and indeed entirely occupies, the border. in such a case there is at all events no fear of the exceeding preciseness which is one of the dangers to beware of in border design. it is interesting to notice the difference between the last-mentioned method and the practice of the japanese, who will, in the most unhesitating manner, allow the panel pattern, whatever it may be, to break over the margin or border, as the impulse may prompt. it is a proceeding which may or may not result in confusion, according to the relative strength of the border and the pattern that cuts across it. in plate ii the border pattern is so subdued that the more important floral growth is very io the planning of ornament, well able to take care of itself. in the case of a panel in which the enrichment only partially occupies the ground, it is often advisable to introduce some sort of subsidiary border, losing itself behind such more pro- minent enrichment. one appreciates the freak of the japanese as a relief from the monotony of absolutely formal disposition; but it is not a thing to indulge in very freely. it is refreshing to see that a man is not afraid of infringing occasionally upon the margin-on sufficient grounds; but the licence needs always to be justified by some excuse other than the artist's impatience of order. we have to be on our guard against a certain spirit of anarchy which appears to have taken posses- sion of so many a modern artist. there is a class (one cannot call it properly a school) which will repudiate, not only all the laws of art, but the need of all law whatsoever. urgent need there may be of reform in our ideas of art, perhaps even of revolution ; but sobriety recognises in the artistic anarchist only the enemy of art. there is no peculiar sanctity implied in a margin, that it should be held inviolate; but plate border invaded by the field c.f. kell, photo-litho..furnival sy holborn,e.c plate . ) "photo-tint", by james akerinan. plate . "photo-tiny", by james akerman the use of the border. ii the very idea of ornament implies order. and the artist cannot afford to be forgetful of order, even when he allows his border to overgrow the field, or his filling pattern to extend beyond the frame. there was a fashion in vogue in the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries — borrowed probably from the east-according to which the border is invaded rather by the field or ground than by the pattern on it ; where the field, in fact, seems to eat into the border. it is usually, as you may observe in plate , rather a symmetrical mouthful that it takes. a border may be lost in a sort of confusion with the panel it began by pretending to enclose. no one ever managed that more cleverly than boulle, a panel of whose design is given in plate . there is considerable ingenuity in the way in which the pattern is made to appear alternately light on dark and dark on light, without actually confining such alternation within strict border lines, as on plate . but a border remains a border, however undefined. boundaries may be un- derstood rather than expressed. yet that makes no difference as to the lines upon which a design is constructed. you may discard the i the planning of ornament. very idea of formality ; you may determine that you will have none of it; that you will merely sketch upon your page such and such marginal forms, natural or ornamental; but if you dispose them in anything like an orderly manner, you arrive at something which comes as clearly under the category of border treat- ment as though it had been enclosed by hard and fast boundary lines. the winged heads and boys and ribands on plate form, after all, a border. every margin or marginal line is in its degree a border. the white margin of this printed page borders the type. in indian and other oriental work you often see the orna- mental details so closely packed as to define the border-shape even without actual boun- dary lines. and the germans of the sixteenth century (jost amman, for example) sometimes did with very different details just the same thing. the looser borders of the looser times of louis xiv., xv., xvi., do everything they can to hide the lines of their construction ; but you may take it as a sign of artistic demoralisation to be afraid of a straight line. hogarth, who preached "the line of beauty," was not exactly an apostle of the beautiful. plate . break in border accounted for by patera broken borders border cloubling upon itself arbitrary break in border by giova i, da udine co e.. kell, noto-litno, o.furnival t holoan,e.o. (plate ৩ ই c% c.f kell, photo-litho. .furnival st holborn, e.c. the use of the border. so great is the use of the border, that even they who least like formal lines are bound to adopt it; although they are perpetually re- belling against its formality, and doing their best to break it up, as in the case of the encroaching and interrupted borders already mentioned. the very naïvest way of getting over the difficulty—it is a difficulty, there is no denying -is by, so to speak, snipping a piece or two out of the panel, and carrying the border round the incisions, so as to get a more or less irre- gular central space instead of the four-square parallelogram. in the certosa near florence, there are some windows by giovanni da udine (the border of one of them is illustrated on plate ), in which he has deliberately snipped pieces (a) out of the space to be filled, and left them so many gaps in the design. we can forgive this kind of thing once in a way ; but it stands very much in need of justifi- cation. where a gap has some meaning it is different. in the case where there is a square block or patera occupying the corner, as you sometimes see in seventeenth century as the planning of ornament. wood-panelling (and on plates and ), that seems to account for the break in the border. it is as though the border went out of its way in order to escape the patera. nor is there any objection to the doubling of the border round an imaginary line (b on plate ); by which means the same end of irregularity is arrived at without the brutality of da udine's method. the italians of the cinque cento resorted freely to the foregoing plans—in their schemes of ceiling decoration to wit; and with marvellously beautiful results. perhaps, however, they were rather too ready,-certainly the artists of the later renaissance were too ready-to adopt any device which would enable them to depart from the simple panel form. in not a few instances, the further they went from it the worse it fared with them. a separate treatise might be written upon the construction of the border itself. it may be continuous or broken, and broken at all manner of intervals, and in all manner of ways. it may flow, or grow. it may be symmetrical or absolutely free. the outer or the inner edge may be accentuated, or both, or neither. it may spread outwards from the use of the border. a well-defined central feature or inwards from the margin, diffusing itself, and giving a less definite central shape. but it is not so much the design of the border that we are considering at present as the place of the border in design-on which point enough for the present has been said. the planning of ornament. iii. within the border. though you abandon all idea of bordering, and elect to place, as you well may, some arbitrary shape within the parallelogram, the space round about that shape may indeed be considered as an irregular border to the same. if, for example, you plant in the centre of the space a medallion, and round that medallion design a cartouche, after the manner of jost amman in plate , the cartouche and its accessories may be called the frame or border of the medallion; and, again, the ground beyond the edge of the ornament may be taken to be the margin or border to that. but it is going rather out of the way to look at amman's design in that light. in the example chosen for illustration we have shapes, fitted one to the other; but one might just as well have two or more indepen- dent and unconnected shapes. nothing is easier than to take a simple field, and to spot plate . bi borc are "photo-tiny", by james akerman, plate cs "photo-tint", by james akerman.. plate . b c. kell, photo-litko.b.furnival st holborn,e.d. within the border. about upon it any shapes you please. that is one way, not a very ornamental way, but one way, of occupying the space. when you proceed to connect such shapes in any way, you bring in another principle of design--which, however, will be more con- veniently approached from the other side, when we come (as we presently shall) to the discussion of the lines enclosing various shapes and subdivisions. abandoning all thought of border, or sup- posing a border already in existence, you may, as i said, plant any independent shape, medallion, shield, cartouche, tablet, what you will, within it. this form may be left, as it were, floating in space, or it may be sup- ported by ornament; which ornament may literally seem to hold it up; or, if you will, the ornament may appear to be suspended from it, as was most frequently the case with the festoons and garlands of the later re- naissance. instances of such support and suspension are given in plates , , . finally, the ornament may be unconnected with the central shape, and comparatively independent of it, as a powdering or sprig- diaper would be. С the planning of ornament. the central feature need not, of course, in- clude a frame of any kind ; it may be a figure, a spray of flowers or ornament, a vignette, a spot, a spray-as free as painter's heart could wish. or, just as in the case of the closely- packed border whose shape was marked without the aid of boundary lines, so any central sprig of ornament or foliage may be so densely massed within a square, circle, quatrefoil, or other imaginary form, as to assume a quite regular outline. such group- ing of the ornament is shown very plainly in plate , where the circular shape is emphatically pronounced without the aid of any enclosing line. you see the same thing very commonly in indian art. a number of sprays, or other features, free or formal, group themselves into a sort of diaper. such diaper should naturally have some reference to the space it fills, or it will appear less than trivial. the interlacings on plate form panels, plates and are only bits of diaper work, whether the com- ponent units of such a decoration be all alike, or of various design, is a question independent of the lines of their distribution. the variety in plate is at all events amusing. had plate . oktoris. dan c.f. kell, photo-litho, ,furnival st holborn, e.c. plate . * j. akerman, photo-lith. london plate . ::::: * राज "photo-tint', by james akerman. the planning of ornament. ii and , or disposed symmetrically in rela- tion to an imaginary central line or spinal cord, as in plates , , , &c. ; or it may radiate from the centre, as it naturally would in a ceiling, pavement, carpet, or other object demanding an all-round treatment. some- thing like radiation of the design occurs in plates and . the scroll work, or what not, may equally proceed from two ends of the panel, as in plate , or from the sides, or from both sides and ends, either symmetrically or at irregular intervals; or it may spring from the corner or corners, as in plate . the treatment from the corners is, again, adapted to, and often adopted in, ceiling decoration. in principle it is very right indeed ; but in practice it is not invariably all that decorator could desire. the “line and corner" tune, as it may be called, has been harped upon until one is pretty well sick of it, even when it is played in time—which is not always the case. a corner-wise treatment is seen to advan- tage when it has been suggested by use, as in the metal garniture of old book-bindings, and in the clamps of coffers such as german plate c.f. kell, photo-litho, .furnival st holdorn,e.c. plate . os j akerman photo-lith london within the border. smiths of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries elaborated with workmanlike pride. in the tooled binding of the henri ii. period, given on plate , the corner is very carefully taken into consideration, such consideration being very possibly a survival from the times when the corners were habitually protected by metal-work. there is an instance of this on plate . you see also in book covers of all times instances of a treatment where the design is manifestly “to be continued in our next," the side unseen being necessary to its symmetrical completeness. further examples of the same thing occur in the mediæval cabinet doors given in plate . the need of clasps, hinges, and so forth, no doubt gave the hint of such a manner, which, in spite of the one-sided forms it gives, is wholly satisfactory in effect. we do not sufficiently realise how readily the mind makes good what the eye does not see in design ; assuming, that is to say, a certain workmanlike reasonableness in it. in plate (which is only one half of a cabinet) the design is in a very noticeable degree the outcome of the constructional idea. the the planning of ornament. artist relied greatly upon the locks and hinges for his effect. it is worth while to compare the above- mentioned scheme, in which the symmetry is suggested rather than expressed, with the free and easy way in which the japanese lacquer- worker will overrun the limits of a box top or cabinet front, and trail his ornament over all or any of its sides indiscriminately. the front of the box is not enough for the dragon on plate . yet you will observe that there is a certain consideration for ornamental pro- priety in the disposition, for example, of the creature's claws. there also, the artist, in his very different fashion, chooses to consider the whole object his field, and not just the portion of it he sees before him. there is a certain logic in his licence, too-especially as it appears to be good manners in japan minutely to examine your neighbour's nicknacks; but the more restrained manner of the mediæval workman is, in proportion to its restraint, the more to be preferred. where the design-scroll, foliage, or what- ever it may be-bears no relation at all to the shape or space it occupies, like the diapers plate . doors of old german cabinets with heraldic carving قمل panels incomplete or one-sided c.e. kell, photo-litho, s.furnival st holyoan, e.o. plate . part of a cabinet german c. kell, photo-litho, b.furnival st holdorn, l.o. within the border. on plates and , it ceases to be surface design, and is merely a means of breaking the surface. it is only as a background that such hap-hazard distribution of forms has any meaning. but then a good deal of decorative design pretends to be no more than back- ground. a very satisfactory and effective result is sometimes reached where the artist starts, as it seems, with the idea of a diaper more or less geometrical, and, as he approaches the centre of the panel, gathers together the pattern, so to speak, into points of emphasis. you see this in the roman pavement repre- sented on plate . that is a case in which the design was unmistakably set out first of all in geometric divisions, certain of which divisions were afterwards grouped together to give point to the pattern. if you analyse any of the old jacobean ceiling designs, or the italian originals on which they are but variations, you will find that many of them may be resolved into very simple diapers, on a rather large scale, adapted to the space they fill, and emphasised here and there by figure subjects or other special filling of some of the more the planning of ornament. prominent geometric compartments. the panelling of the jacobean cupboard door on plate resolves itself into just such a diaper, to which the figure in the central octagon gives point. the difference between the method of design employed in plate , and the plan adopted in the kind of design shown on plate is, that in this last the main shapes appear rather to have suggested the corresponding interlace- ments than the interlacements to have led up to them. but even in such a case it seems desirable that the artist should have in his mind from the beginning some kind of idea of geometric construction. the longer he can manage to keep that geometric notion in his mind, without putting it on paper, the more freely he can go to work. that same faculty of holding a design, so to speak, in solution in the mind, is most invaluable to the designer. a notion is so much more manageable in its fluid state. once an idea is allowed to crystallise into definite form, it is no easy matter to modify it. should the space to be decorated be very considerable in extent, it is often nece ary to cut it up into sections, otherwise than by plate . "photo-tixt, by jamu akerman. the planning of ornament. dado, either one of which may again be broken up. thus the dado on plate , itself one division of a scheme, is again subdivided into panels—and each of these panels is further broken up by a square of carving enclosed within an irregular margin of plain wood. again one may plant upon the field any independent feature, frame, shield, tablet, or such like, and then fill in the background without regard to it, as though a portion of the design were lost behind it. as many as three, or more, plans may be associated. for example, one may, as on plate , stretch across a title-page a tablet, then introduce a border disappearing behind it, and the spaces enclosed between the border and the top and bottom of the tablet one may treat again either as one interrupted panel or as two independent parts. the fact, however, that they are both, as it were, on one plane in the design, seems to require that they should both be treated in much the same way. the possibilities opened out by this associ- ation of various plans, are obvious. plate . ... kell, noto-litho.o.furniml st moldoan, e.c .. Հ Ա Ն Ո ԼՈ ՐԿԻ ԱԼԱՆ ԱԼԱ, ԼԵՆ plate . art of decorative design "photo-tint", by james akerman. some alternatives in design. iv. some alternatives in design. the use of the border is not, of course, con- fined to the outer edge of the main space to be filled. every sub-section of the design may be provided with its own border, as you see in the case of panelling, where each separate panel has its own border of mouldings. plate shows two panels only of the design emphasised by independent borders within the outer frame. on plates and , the mouldings round the door panels are supple- mented by additional painted borders. a central feature, such as the medallion on plate , may have its border or borders, interlacing with, intercepting, or intercepted by, the borders which mark the space or panel itself. a surface once subdivided, as already described, two separate courses are open to the artist. the one is to accept each com- partment as a separate panel, designing his the planning of ornament. ornament into it; in the manner shown on plate . the other, which is no less reason- able, is to make his ornament continuous throughout; allowing it, that is to say, to cross the dividing lines or to interlace with them; more in the manner of plate . the necessary thing is always to take the dividing lines duly into account even when crossing them. again, the two plans may be combined, certain prominent parts being reserved for individual treatment, and the subsidiary spaces only being linked together by the forms of the ornament, as though in plate the pattern had been allowed to meander through the lesser panels, the central diamond only being reserved for the grotesque head. which of these plans may be the better to adopt is a question of some nicety, not always easily to be decided. what rational ques- tion is? in proportion to the importance of the framing lines, it becomes dangerous to overstep them. who ventures nothing runs no risk of failure; but neither will he achieve any great success in art. and then there is the charm of danger. soldiers, sports- men, and mountaineers are not the only class plate . moா ( ( கை ceaes 'pnoro -tnt', by janes akerman plate . "photo-tint", by james akerman. some alternatives in design. of persons privileged to run a risk. it is a luxury we may all indulge in on occasion —were it not so, art would be no congenial pursuit for any one who is really alive. only a man should look before he leaps into danger, weigh the odds before he wagers; “ erst wägen, dann wagen," is the pithy way count moltke's motto puts it. when the artist starts from the beginning, and the scheme of design rests entirely in his own hands, it is not so difficult to determine just what is fit. the scheme develops itself. but in the more frequent case, in which the art of the ornamentist is only supplementary, and he has to work, as he usually has, upon lines already laid down for him, it is only where those lines are worth preserving that he is necessarily bound to preserve them- assuming, that is, that he can obliterate them. this is heterodox, but none the less true. if the lines existing are bad, and he can by his design withdraw attention from them to lines more reposeful to the eye, he is doing good work. only he should do nothing but what he can make seem right. there must be no appearance of awkwardness, no suspicion of effort about it. it is a case in which success the planning of ornament. alone justifies the attack upon the situation. to fail is to lay yourself open to the charge of the unpardonable sin, the sin of disobedience to the conditions of design. an actually hap-hazard or eccentric scheme of composition, such as a japanese will some- times affect, is hardly in contradiction to what i have laid down. when a japanese artist cuts a panel quaintly into two, after the manner of plate , and treats each part of it as seems good to his queer mind, he is only doing what the pompeian decorator did when he cut off a portion of his wall space, and painted it as a dado; though he does it more energetically, not to say spasmodically, and with less appreciation of proportion. so, again, when the said japanese strews buds and blossoms about a box top, and breaks up the ground between with conven- tional, though very accidental, lines of crackle, as on plate , or when he crams all manner of geometric diapers into a panel, as on plate , he is merely doing in a more eccen- tric manner what the european artist does, with greater regard for symmetry, when he disposes his sprigs or what not on a geometric basis. if only he arrive at balance, which he some alternatives in design. almost invariably does (so little is his instinct in this respect likely to err), there is no occasion to cry out against him. we, on our part, are perhaps too much disposed to design as though there were no possible distinction between symmetry and balance, between bulk and value-as though the little leaden weight did not balance the heaped-up pound of fruit or feathers in the scale. design apparently quite unrestrained, such as the men of the renaissance habitually indulged in, proves very often, upon exami- nation, to be constructed upon one or other of the systems i have described. sometimes, indeed, the system of construction is very frankly indicated, though not precisely de- fined the confession, that is to say, is full enough to ensure absolution for any offence there may be against strict order. on plate i there is blotted in a panel of ornament somewhat on the lines of androuet du cerceau, in which the central feature is an echo of the medallion treatment, whilst certain vertical and horizontal lines recall, however vaguely, the notion of a border. such remi- niscences of severely constructional divisions give additional charm, as it seems to me, to the planning of ornament. design otherwise fanciful, and even fantastic in character. it is as though a man said in his design, almost in so many words : i claim my freedom, but i have some lingering respect for law and order. except on the very minutest scale, the scope of subdivision possible with regard to a space, is not affected by the amount of ornament introduced, nor by its character. no matter whether it be human or animal figure that you employ, conventional or natural foliage, scroll or growth, interlace- ment, arabesque, or geometric pattern, the possibilities in the way of distribution are the same. naturally, however, certain lines of sub- division will be found to accord with certain kinds of treatment; and so we find that, as a matter of history, the mohammedans adopted certain lines of composition, the greeks other lines, and the japanese quite others again, and so on. furthermore, the lines one would instinc- tively choose for different purposes would themselves be different. one would scarcely proceed to decorate a panel by merely cross- ing it with bands of ornament (see plate ), some alternatives in design. except perhaps in the case of some long strip of a panel which it was absolutely necessary to shorten. there is a case in point given on plate , where the disproportionate, though constructionally very proper, length of the panels of a roof is mitigated by the band-wise arrangement of the stencilled ornament. a similar system was found by the greeks to be the most satisfactory way of dealing both with vases and draperies. their pet idea of decorating a full skirt seems to have been by means of so many parallel patterns. you have only to refer to the terra-cottas at the british museum to see both of these uses illustrated, often in a single vase. what one would do, then, is not the same thing as what might be done. the possible ways of distribution are never all of them alike expedient. there must, for example, necessarily be some correspondence between detail and its distribution. for all that, there is no cut and dried rule as to the association of this kind of detail with that kind of distribution, or vice versa. it does not even follow that the description of detail usually found in connection with a certain order of composition is the only detail d the planning of ornament. appropriate to it. the happy connection of the one with the other is evidence only of their conformity, not at all of the incongru- ity of other combinations. it is just possible to fry without bread-crumbs. is it not chiefly laziness (where it is not a suspicion of our own incompetence) which tempts us to adopt bodily what has already been found to suc- ceed? there are so many people in the world to whom it comes easier to take what there is than to give something of their own. a design is in harmony, not when it is strictly according to greek or gothic prece- dent, but when the parts all fit. suppose, for instance, the lines in a compo- sition lead up to some prominent feature, that feature must be of sufficient interest to justify the attention it attracts. there are positions so prominent they almost demand figure design properly to occupy them. such central features as those in plates , , and are bound in consistency to be of more importance than their surroundings. i don't mean to say that an heraldic shield like that on plate is essentially of pro- foundest interest; but in the eyes of its owner at least it is worthy of all prominence. plate . lewis . dan some alternatives in design. in like manner also, if it is proposed to introduce the figure, or anything of that importance, it is only natural to provide for it in your scheme, whether in the shape of medallion, frame, niche, or what not. the gem of your design should have a setting worthy of it. any feature, such as a tablet, medallion, label, cartouche, shield, and so on, introduced into a composition, should bear relation not only to its surroundings, but to what it is to enclose. this is a serious consideration very often neglected. it is no uncommon thing to see a shield introduced only to bear an inscrip- tion, a circular medallion to frame a picture which demands a rectangular outline, and all manner of queerly proportioned shapes, which by their very position call for decoration, whilst, at the same time, it is almost impossible to fill them satisfactorily. upon the same principle of fitness, a pre- determination to adopt natural forms of foliage would, artistically speaking, necessitate the choice of a not too rigid skeleton for it. detail designed on a large scale would call for equal breadth and simplicity in the setting out d the planning of ornament. so with regard to the allotment of orna- ment-once the lines determined, the artist must scheme his ornament accordingly. whether he elect to ornament every portion of the surface, as the orientals and the artists of the early renaissance often do, or certain selected parts only, like the greeks, whether he chose to decorate many parts or few, and which parts, and how—that is his affair. his taste must be his guide in that; and unless he have some taste he had better not attempt to design. this may sound like discouragement; but it is only kindness to the beginner easily capable of discouragement to make him aware at once of the difficulties in his way. the lukewarm may as well be warned off. ornament is not one of those easy things a man may take up for a liveli- hood, pending fame as a painter. success in ornament implies devotion to it. on the filling of the circle, &c. v. on the filling of the circle and other shapes. the various lines on which ornament may be distributed over a simple panel or parallel- ogram having been so far discussed, it remains now to show how the same principles apply to the covering of all manner of shapes. evidently it makes little difference at all, and in principle none whatever, whether it is four sides of a figure we have to deal with, or three, or five, or how many. in either case you proceed in the same way; you work from the centre or from the sides, as best may suit; you divide your space into regular or irregular compartments, on the systems already ex- plained ; you overlay one feature with another, or interweave this with that ; you interrupt a border, or encroach upon a field, according to the circumstances of the case; and so on, much as though it were a square shape you were dealing with. the planning of ornament. in the case of anything like an awkward shape, you have even an opportunity of correcting it, by introducing into it some pro- minent figure of more regular outline, which, if you insist upon it, will occupy attention, whilst the irregular surrounding space will go only for margin or border—just as in the case of the regular panel you had the option of discounting its severity by means of any irregular feature it seemed good to you to insert. the management of the circular shape, and of the irregular forms of vases, seems to present a more serious difficulty; but it is more apparent than real. the simple treatment of a vase is ( ) ac- cording to its elevation, as may be seen in vase , plate , or in any striped venetian glass, or ( ) according to its plan, as exem- plified in vases , , , or in the rude earthenware of every period. the glass- blower falls, in fact, as naturally into the one scheme of lines as the thrower or turner into the other. (“the application of orna- ment,” plate ). a third way is to cross the shape diago- nally, which gives the appearance of twisting, plate n . no. no n° pavl flyndt nº. . n° meister) hans brosamer "photo-tint", by james akerman on the filling of the circle, &c. to be seen in the bowl of vase a device common enough in old silversmiths' work. two or more of these systems may be asso- ciated; and they often are ; as in so many a german tankard of the fifteenth or sixteenth century, where the bulbous bowl is beaten out into the semblance of a melon, and the neck and foot take the lines of the lathe. in vases and it is very noticeable how the ornament is constructed on two series of cross lines, the one series according to their plan, the other according to their elevation. now the decoration of a vase lengthwise, according to its elevation, corresponds to the striping of a panel with vertical lines; the decoration bandwise, according to plan, cor- responds to the striping of a panel with hori- zontal lines; and the twisted treatment corresponds to a series of diagonal lines crossing a panel. the way in which medallions, panels, and other shapes may be incorporated with the design of a vase is not different from that already set forth. there is, however, this difficulty, that any marked independent shape is likely to interfere with the form of the vase, or the form of the vase to distort it, which is the planning of ornament. the way with the landscape and picture medal- lions so persistently misapplied to sèvres and dresden china. not that it is impossible to introduce such features with good effect; only it needs to be done with judgment, which of all things is most rare. and, as it happens, the difficulty has been more often attacked with valour than with that discretion which is reputed to be its better part. what is said with reference to the vase shape applies equally to balusters, columns, and cylindrical shapes generally. when we come to the circular shape, as of coins, plates, medallions and so on, its decoration involves new forms rather than new principles. the circle is most naturally divided either into rays or into rings. in the one case the radiating lines may be said to answer to the division of a rectangular space by vertical lines; in the other the rings would answer to the horizontal lines dividing a panel. a reference to plate will make this more clear. imagine a series of upright lines (a) to rer present the folding of a sheet of paper. you have only to gather the folds together at one end, after the manner of a fan (b), and you on the filling of the circle, &c. have the system of radiation. repeat the fan shapes side by side, and you arrive at a circle divided into rays (c). again, in the case of a series of horizontal bands (d), you have only to suppose them elastic enough to be bent, and you have a series of concentric arcs (e), so many slices, so to speak, out of a circle decorated ring- wise (f). the identical target-like result may be arrived at by the continuation of a series of borders round the circle, one within the other. that is only another way of reaching the same point in design. as in the case of pattern planning (“ anatomy of pattern,” pages and ), one comes by various lines of thought to the same conclusion. the crossing of the two schemes (g) is much the same thing as a square lattice of cross lines in a rectangular panel. the sub- division of the circular space by lines of more flowing character (h) would correspond to the division of the panel by diagonal lines. and if those lines were crossed (j), it would be analogous to the division of the square by cross lines into diamonds. the spiral line, as applied to the decoration of the circle (k), is equivalent to the fret or key the planning of ornament. pattern as applied to the square (l). these analogies, i think, are plain enough. they were suggested to me by mr. henri mayeux's “la composition décorative” (a. quantin, paris), to which the student may refer for more ample illustration of the subject. all manner of independent shapes may be introduced into the decoration of the circle, as into that of the panel. one may plant a shield in the centre, and surround it with a border, as in the central disc on plate : one may associate any arbitrary form with ringed or radiating lines. but should any such shape form an important feature in the de- sign, the situation is not so free from danger. the limit is soon reached, that is to say, within which lines or forms at once indepen- dent and emphatic may judiciously be intro- duced into a circular design. anything which counteracts the shape of the space you have to fill needs to be accounted for. the two rosettes at the top of plate are designed on the safe lines of radiation; in the two at the bottom of the plate the design is based, in the one case on a vertical dividing line, in the other on a horizontal. the difficulty in dealing with forms con- ws plate . c.f. kell, photo-litho.o.furnival st holloan, e.c. on the filling of the circle, &c. tradictory one to another is, that you are apt to leave interspaces of irregular shape, which are not easily manageable; as for instance, in the inevitable spandril which occurs so fre- quently in architecture. if a spandril happen to be very large you can insert into it a more symmetrical shape, which will hold its own ; and if it be insignificantly small, you may ignore it. you may (where it is of import- ance enough to be accepted as an individual panel) treat it as such, with figures, scrolls, and so on. you may simply cover it with an unimportant pattern in the nature of a diaper, or leave it blank. these are the extremes: the happy mean in spandril deco- ration is not easy to find. the spandril may be taken as typical of all the many awkward shapes which come of the intersection of curved lines by straight. ornamental design would be a very much easier thing if we had only to consider the lines of the ornament, without any regard to the interspaces. from the circle to the rosette, or cusped circle, is so short a step, that the treatment of such shapes goes almost without further saying. the cusps seem almost to call for the planning of ornament. acknowledgment by lines radiating towards them. indeed, if you simply carry a series of borders, one within the other, round the cusps, the points where they meet will give of themselves radiating lines; just as in the case of the vandyke or zigzag ("anatomy of pattern,” p. ) it was shown that the recurring points gave vertical cross lines. the pentagon, hexagon, and other equal- sided polygonal figures may be considered as broken circles. the triangle offers no new difficulty: it is merely a case of three sides to deal with instead of four. a branched form may be resolved into its elements. the greek cross, for example, may be regarded as an assemblage of five squares; the latin cross as a group of as many as you please, according to the length of its arms, or as four parallelograms arranged round a square. an altogether exceptional space will be pretty sure to indicate of itself the exceptional lines on which it can best be decorated; and a capricious one may well be left to the caprice of the artist. order and accident. vi. order and accident. entirely apart from the question of the skeleton of a design, is the consideration as to whether it shall be looked at primarily from the point of view of line or of mass. in any satisfactorily completed scheme, lines and masses must alike have been taken into account; but the artist must begin with one or the other; and the result will probably be influenced by the one or other consideration which was uppermost in his mind. which of the two it may happen to be, is more often a matter of temperament than of choice with him. the primary consideration, whether of line or mass, will always lead the designer, though perhaps unconsciously, to adopt a plan accord- ingly. that is to say, the preference for mass will lead him to attack his panel resolutely, planting shapes upon it, which it will be his business afterwards to connect by means of the planning of ornament. the subsidiary lines needful to the completion of the scheme. on the other hand, a greater partiality for line will induce him to have recourse to a more orderly procedure; will, perhaps, even suggest a geometric ground- work, which, however far he may depart from the first lines, will materially help him in securing the object he has most at heart. if you start with certain arbitrary and irregular forms, arbitrarily and irregularly disposed, so many patches, as one may say, on the panel, it is clearly not such a very easy matter to connect them by any systematic lines of ornament. if, on the contrary, you begin with a system of orderly lines, these must necessarily determine in some measure the shape and distribution of any more prominent features you may thereafter introduce into the scheme. for my own part (whilst i disbelieve entirely in arriving at anything more than flat mediocrity by the adoption of set rules of proportion), i feel rather strongly that there should be by rights a strict relation between the parts of a design, however little it may be obvious. if, for example, there is a space to fill between border and central medallion, plate . > "photo-tint', by james akerman order and accident. a diaper may be enough; but the diaper should be designed into its space. and even if part of a design be permitted to disappear, as it were, behind this feature or that, it should be so schemed that no very material form is mutilated in the process. where an interrup- tion occurs in a border the pattern should be planned with a view to such interruption. even though you deliberately adopt a diaper, say as background to a scroll, the character of that diaper should be determined by the scroll, notwithstanding that the lines of the one are meant to contradict the lines of the other. the cultivated artistic sense is by no means satisfied with the casual employment of any diaper. again, where one feature of the design is overlaid by another, as frequently happens in early gothic glass, the overlapping pat- terns should be designed to overlap-as they always were. the spaces between one series of medallions should suggest the outlines of the subordinate medallions between, which again should be shaped with a view to any proposed interruption. in the book plate the tooled borders disappear as it were behind the silver clasps cover on the planning of ornament. and corners; and one sees no harm in this, because the tooling is so distinctly subor- dinate to the silver mounting, indeed one may say designed to supplement and connect it. the careless overlaying of one pattern, or of one scheme, by another, is the merest make-shift for design. the apparently "accidental” treatment, when it is at all successful, is not quite so much a matter of accident after all. you will find invariably, if you inquire into it, that there has been no disregard of the laws of composition, but only the omission of some accustomed ceremonial. to take what might seem a flagrant instance of the disregard of an obvious rule of art :-an artist like boulle would sometimes boldly treat the doors of a cabinet as one panel, notwithstanding their actual separation by a pilaster between them. however wicked this may be in theory, his practice proved it to be not so unsatisfactory. and for this reason—that the upright inter- vening space was, as a matter of fact, very carefully taken into account in the design. he only goes a step further than the obviously permissible treatment shown in the double panel on plate , where the two one- (plute . kawis dau symmetrical panel treatment: unsymmetrical panels jointly symmetrical q. f. kell, "hoto-utho. .furnival st holtoan, e.c. order and accident. sided panels are jointly symmetrical. boule chose to make a constructive feature less em- phatic than its position would have suggested to most of us it should be. but he did not really ignore it. very far from it. had he disregarded construction, the error would have been very perceptible. if he succeeded at all in satisfying the eye, it is because he did with great deliberation and judgment what might easily be mistaken by the inexperienced for an inconsiderate thing. giants can afford to be daring. it is when dangerous liberties are taken by the novice, without forethought and without discrimination, that they become offensive. where there is no offence in the lapse from what we have been accustomed to think a wise rule, be sure it was designed, and designed with more than ordinary skill. it is only a master that can reconcile us to something which, until he did it, we did not think could properly be done. there is nothing careless or casual in the art of design-not even in the little art of ornament. e london : printed by william clowes and sons, limited, stamford street and charing cross. plate dae text ornamental design. books of . ] the application of ornament. by lewis f. day, author of every-day art,' the anatomy of pattern, etc. illustrated. london: b. t. batsford, , high holborn. . preface. the former text-books of this series con- cerned themselves with the rudimentary lines on which ornament may be designed and distributed. it is only in theory, however, that orna- ment can be independently discussed. prac- tically it exists only relatively to its applica- tion. apart from its place and purpose and the process of its doing, there is no such thing as ornament. the necessity of adapting design to its · position and use is as obvious as it is abso- lute. the need of conforming to the more technical conditions imposed by material, and the means of working it, is not so generally understood. it takes, perhaps, a craftsman thoroughly to appreciate its urgency. these few chapters go to demonstrate how essential to ornament is its strict subordina- vi preface. tion to practical conditions ; how in all times and in all crafts good workmen have cheer- fully accepted them ; and how the very forms of historic detail handed down to us grew out of obedience to them. in the genesis of ornament will be found the strongest argu- ment for the study of technique. the consideration of natural form and its adaptation to ornamental design is reserved for a separate volume. lewis f. day. , mecklenburg square, london, w.c. october th, . table of contents. page i.- the rationale of the conventional i .. ii.- what is implied by repetition.. .. iii.- where to stop in ornament iv.-style and handicraft .. v.-the teaching of the tool .. vi.-some superstitions .. .. descriptive list of plates. . stencil—the ties breaking up the broad masses of colour. . ornamental figure composition-identical figures reversed. . animals and arabesque — varied creatures sym- metrically disposed. . a tree of jesse — figures ornamentally valuable among the foliage. . nursery wall paper—fun in design. . animals and arabesque—various creatures enliven- ing the ornament. . pattern with grotesques—the creatures them- selves reduced to ornament. . various vessels--characteristic of the way of their making. . wood carving-showing the marks of the chisel. . african basket work-a typical example of plaiting. ii. carved leather material. preserving the quality of the . persian faience-direct potter's work. . lettering-showing its relation to the pen, &c. the application of ornament. i. the rationale of the conventional. concerning all questions of art, the diffi- culty of coming to any clear understanding is greatly increased by the totally different meanings attached to the terms, more or less technical, one cannot avoid using. to begin with definitions does not greatly help us. we no sooner commence to define than we find ourselves stumbling against other words equally in need of explana- tion. what a flood of light would be let in upon the question of decorative design, could we but agree amongst ourselves as to what is meant by the term "conventional ”! an english ornamentist understands by conventional treatment, such a rendering of natural forms as may be consistent with the b the application of ornament. decorative character of the work in hand. it implies to him that self-restraint, that intelli- gent selection, that recognition of material and its characteristics, that strict regard for the purpose and position of design, without which ornament does not so much as deserve the name of ornament. to a frenchman, on the other hand, it stands for all that is helpless and hopeless in art. “c'est de la convention, ça," is the expression of his supremest contempt. of course it is not merely a matter of country. not all britons are agreed as to what they mean by the word conventional, nor all frenchmen; but there is in the national interpretation of the term an expla- nation of the respect, as of the contempt, in which conventionality is held. the continental use of the word is perhaps the more exact. the conventional is literally that which has come to be accepted ; and, as a matter of experience, we find that, even in a world of progress, little or nothing is ever universally accepted until it is already toler- ably stale. the accepted thing becomes, therefore, identified with all that is most deadly dull and tedious in modern art. the application of ornament. if by artist's interpretation of the word. conventional ornament we mean perpetual variations on the old, old tunes, long since played out ; if we mean adherence to well- worn types ; if we mean affectation, imita- tion, mimicry, a bigoted belief in the letter of the law as it was in the days that are happily past; no one of any originality or in- vention of his own—no artist, that is to say, can consistently belong to the party of con- vention. if, however, what we understand by the term is the spirit in which the past masters of ornament accepted nature, finding in her a never-failing source of inspiration, reverencing her most deeply—aye, and following her most truly-in that they were not content to copy, without further thought, the forms nearest at hand, because they did not imagine for a moment that what she had made fit for her ends must, without modification, perforce be fittest for their very different purposes ;-then it seems hard to understand how ornament can properly be anything but conventional. a fitter term might be found for it, no doubt ; i prefer myself the more expressive word "apt"; but in discussing the thing we the rationale of the conventional. cannot conveniently ignore the word by which it is currently known, and we find the word “conventional” in possession. one can scarcely conceive of ornament which is not, in a manner, more or less modi- fied by considerations altogether apart from the natural forms on which it may have been founded. even the human form, which is our highest type, and with which liberty may less safely be taken than with any other of nature's works-even the human form is not ready-made to the hand of the sculptor. the works of the great masters, to which we accord the title of “monumental,” are so in virtue of a something which was not in the model of the sculptor, but in his art. call this subtle quality what you will-con- ventional, traditional, monumental, ideal, indi- vidual-something there is in all applied art (in all art for that matter, but our concern is just now more especially with decorative and ornamental art), something which is, let us not say contrary to nature, for it belongs in- herently to human nature, but non-natural, in the sense that it is not directly borrowed from natural forms. conventionality in ornament is another what is implied by. repetition. ii. what is implied by repetition. the very purpose and position of ornament, the method of its execution, and even its construction, insist upon some treatment of natural forms which, for want of a better word, we call “conventionai.” first, in reference to the construction of ornament. its mere repetition, which in a former text-book (“the anatomy of pattern ') was shown to be inevitable, would of itself render such treatment necessary; and even without the inducement of economy, which calls for the use of a machine, we should still resort to repetition, if only because the human brain cannot go on inventing without inter- mission, but needs the comparative rest of repeating itself, even in hand work. in the artist's repetition of himself (unless the fatal pressure of the times have made him also a machine), there will always be a certain degree of variety, which there could the application of ornament. not be in mere mechanical reproduction. but he cannot afford to dispense with repetition ; nor need he wish to dispense with it. it is in itself an element in decorative design ; it is a preventive against loose and rambling ornament ; it exhibits order, and gives scale. the only question is, where and to what extent we should avail ourselves of it. in proportion to the naturalism of a design, and the point of realism to which it is carried, it becomes unsuited to multiplication. to put it the other way about, the oftener it is proposed to repeat a form, the more impera- tive it is that it should be removed from the imitation of nature, and the further it should be removed. it needs, in short, adaptation to the purpose of repetition. such adaptation is strictly in proportion to what one may call its reticence. a highly elaborate and attractive feature—anything, certainly, that is in the least self-assertive- will not bear so much as reduplication; where- as an insignificant device may be multiplied ad infinitum. in anything of the nature of a background (and so many manufactures are intended to serve only as backgrounds) repe- plate th. centy. geria identical figures reversed gent c. f kell, pmoto-litho.b.furnival st holdorn, e.o -- what is implied by repetition. tition is of the utmost service, and repetition implies modification, it follows from what has already been said as to the danger of tampering with the human figure, and the prominence it naturally as- sumes, that there is great difficulty in repeat- ing it without offence. the interest of a pattern is enhanced, no doubt, by the re- currence at stated intervals of appropriate figures. but it is desirable that there shall be always some difference in them; for with every repetition of the same figure its charm is discounted. there is something exaspera- ting in the reversing of identical figures in a pattern (plate ), when it is so simple a thing by the careful disposition of various creatures to retain the symmetry of effect desired (plate ). presumably the reason for introducing figures into ornamental design, is for the sake of some added interest there may be in them. but you cannot get up any absorbing interest in a series of figures all identically of one pattern. they suggest only the mechanism loyed in producing them. the multipli- cation of the figure, far from multiplying its interest, diminishes it in proportion to the io the application of ornament. number of times it is repeated. and though it be a very good thing that is repeated, the case is not greatly mended—it is so easy to have too much of a good thing. the only safety is in toning down the re- peated form until its recurrence ceases to be very obvious. this may be effected in various ways. in certain embossed leather, and such like designs, it is brought about partly by the low relief of the stamping, partly by the soft- ness of the colouring, and partly by a more or less cunning complication of the figures with the rest of the design, so that they do not thrust themselves into notice. that variety in the creatures, were it possible, would be desirable no one can doubt. the consideration which occurs in the case of figure design which it is so necessary to re- duce to comparative insignificance is, whether it was then worth doing. perhaps not. except that ornament has a way of being a trifle too ornamental, or, more strictly speaking, too monotonously ornamental ; and the introduc- tion of any bold mass, such as the figure very readily gives, is one obvious way out of the besetting danger. apart from the symbolic intention of the plate g variety in creatures symetrically disposed. german statt c. kell, pmoto-litho.o.furnival st holioan, e.o what is implied by repetition. ii figures on plate (it is part of a genealogical tree of jesse), the ornamental use of them in the design is conspicuous. we may take it that symbolism does not flourish where the symbols are ugly or unamenable to orna- mental effect. it is not suggested that we should be straightlaced to the extent of denying our- selves the amusement that may be got out of designs such as mr. crane has made popular in his nursery wall-papers, in which he has contrived to give us grace of line and charm of colour, as well as the humour of the nursery rhyme (plate ). once in a while the human figure may be degraded to do the merest pattern work. the artist must be allowed, now and again, to put off his dignity and in- dulge in an artistic gambol. even a bad joke may, on occasion, be more to the purpose than an everlasting seriousness. still it is as well to bear in mind the primâ facie objection to the repetition, not only of the human form, but of the forms even of birds, beasts, and all living, and especially moving, creatures. the occurrence of the stag, boar, hare, fox, hounds, and birds in the border of which what is implied by repetition. hidden, so that it is only by degrees that one becomes fully conscious of them all, scarcely the purist can find cause of complaint. some sort of mystery in design is always delight- ful. the perfection of art is reached when, however attractive at first sight, it continues to grow upon you, and the more you contem- plate it, the more you see in it. natural forms, to be admissible in ornament, must be decoratively treated. natural though they be, they must be at the same time orna- mental. a lion, as landseer modelled it, is not fit for any decorative purpose. an egyptian or assyrian lion, on the other hand, dona- tello's lion at florence, or stevens's outside the british museum, are admirably decorative. the objection to naturalism, or perhaps it would be more exact to say literalism, in forms repeated, applies not only to animal but even to floral forms. it exists in a less degree, inasmuch as they are of less prominent interest; but for all that it exists. the charm of the simplest flower is lost when we see, side by side, so many copies of it -not varieties, as they would be in nature, but stereotyped repetitions of the same thing. the designer is exposed, by his very artistic the application of ornament. ability, to the temptation of aiming at natural effects, a temptation all the stronger because, few persons having knowledge enough to appreciate design, whilst all are more or less familiar with natural forms, there is nothing in the shape of public opinion to keep him in check. every artist likes, of course, to make a good drawing, and to carry it as far as he can. but that is not at all the vital point in de- corative design: the all-important thing is the effect of the work in execution and in its place. any one who thinks twice about it must realise that in very self-defence he is bound to consider the repetition of his design, and all else that concerns its use. if he is really a designer, he will know how to make capital out of the very poverty of the condi- tions to which he submits. submit he must --better do it, then, with a good grace. some adaptation of natural forms, some simplification in fact, is demanded, not only to fit them for repetition, but, further, by the position and purpose of the work; sometimes in order that the detail may not assert itself too much, sometimes in order to give it the emphasis that is needed. plate in combination of scroll & hunting scene incised stone what is implied by repetition. for example, it is quite a common thing to see an infinity of elaborate and laborious work misspent upon details of domestic furni- ture, which not only pass unnoticed, but which ought never to attract notice. it often seems as if the workman had set himself to show how far it was possible to go in the direction of minuteness of detail. it is quite possible to show that, and at the same time illustrate the futility of going anything like so far. in proposing to carry execution to a point beyond what has hitherto been attempted, it is as well to ask oneself, whether there may not be good reason why the attempt has never been made. our forerunners were not all of them fools, we may be sure. as a tour de force, once and again, most things may be ad- missible; but a wise workman rarely indulges of his own accord in that kind of “brag (there is no better word for it) which exhibi- tions, international and other, have done so much to encourage. a master is loth to waste labour, and he knows how to make his work hold its own without shouting at you. he deliberately does less than an inexperienced person would have thought necessary, with a view to making plate. જે કોઈ c.f. kell, photo-litho.b.furnival st holborn,e.c 一 ​ where to stop in ornament. iii. where to stop in ornament. assuming, on the one hand, the urgency for some inodification of natural forms accord- ing to the work in hand, and on the other, of some continual reference to nature in design, the question arises as to the limits of the one and of the other. how far may one safely go in the direction of nature ? and to what extent is it well to admit the dictation of the tool ? in order to settle that point quite definitely, each separate craft would have to be discussed. an excellent pre- scription would be, just so much of natural food as the artistic stomach can digest; but then we have to take into account each man's powers of artistic assimilation-always an unknown quantity. the degree of ornament which is barely enough for one man will be far too much for another. any attempt to define the limits within which decoration should reasonably be con- С the application of ornament. fined may seem at first sight rash enough. but with regard at all events to things of common everyday use, there clearly is a point at which the line of decoration must be drawn. and, more than this, just as the object itself, its use, its material, and the manner of its making, indicate plainly enough the fit method of its decoration, so also they give the hint as to the measure thereof. it would seem, in short, as though the point at which a material or a process failed were the point at which we night most conveniently stop, rather than bring in some supplementary process, which, under pretence of helping it out, ends more likely in supplanting it. this will be made clearer by an example,- let us say pottery, in aid of which so many of the applied arts are called in, that we shall necessarily have to branch out by the way into discussion of the wider subject of applied ornament, with which this text-book is con- cerned. the primitive way of making a pot is by what is known as “throwing,” that is to say, shaping the lump of wet clay with the hands as it revolves on the wheel before the potter. this, it should be observed, is at the same plate ihrown surneo earthenware greek vase porcelain stoneware blown glass (ut crystal "photo-tint', by j. akerman, . queen square w.c. plate pistoja wood carving "photo-tint", by j. akerman, . queen square, w.c. where to stop in ornament. the hand. if any such final shaving is to take place there is, artistically, small reason for the preparatory process of throwing. the thing might just as well be cast, or otherwise mecha- nically made from the commencement, since there is to be nothing but what is mechanical in the result. there is this against after- processes generally. they are apt to undo a great deal of what has been done. how fatally the final process of glass-papering wipes all character out of our modern wood- carving ; whereas one great charm about old work (plate ) is in that crispness of touch which tells of the carver's chisel. the excuse in the particular instance of earthenware (there is always an excuse ready for unworkmanlikeness) is in some supposed advantages of lightness and so-called elegance. the answer to this is that lightness is not the quality most characteristic of, or especially desirable in, pottery. if it is elegance we want we had better employ glass (plate ), the convenient and conventional treatment of which is all in the direction of grace and airi- a bubble, whether blown in molten glass or soap and water, is a bubble. in earthenware we had best be content with ness. where to stob in ornament. of work in which that hint has been taken, there is always a fitness or rightness which is inestimable in art applied. would any more pretentious form of art be so entirely satisfac- tory for the purpose of basketwork as the ingeniously plaited pattern on plate ? if you once go beyond the resources of your material there is no knowing where to pull up; and few indeed are they who manage to halt in time. you may go on until you reach a sort of lower stage of “high art"; but in doing that you inevitably lose those qualities of use- fulness and fitness which are the only justifica- tion of art, excepting only such as may be of the supreme beauty to justify its claims to independence. a great work of art is a kind of king among created things, deserving of all homage. but we don't want this work-a-day world peopled with kings, least of all with petty princes and pretenders. to return to the instance in point, when it comes to the after-decoration of earthenware, the rule of convention holds equally good : “ if it were done, when 'tis done, then 'twere well it were done quickly.” elaborate and difficult processes, involving something in the nature of a tour de force, are a snare to the the application of ornament. artist and a delusion to the buyer. the sales- man has a way of excusing the high price of a thing on the score of the difficulty there was in making it. but was it worth while ? that is the question. apart from its superiority in design, there is not much to choose between the portland vase and the marvellously cut glass or crystal of modern bohemia. they are the very extravagance of workmanship, and as such merit the praise due to all patient labour, and no more. the simplicity and appropriate breadth of treatment of the crystal cup on plate is vastly more workmanlike than either. patience does not rank, outside the copybook, as the virtue of virtues. with- out some share of it genius falls short; never- theless the power of taking pains does not constitute genius, nor will it even enable one to design so much as a good pattern. but this is straying rather from the point, which is, that material and process may be trusted to suggest the character of de- coration and the point at which it should be restrained. the lavish and unintelligent use of ornament about us is enough to reduce one to despair. in our longing for palat- able ornament we seem sometimes to see the application of ornament. producing faulty work, but by noting how a new and beautiful, and at the same time workmanlike, effect may be obtained by working with the material. a coloured glaze, no doubt, may be too unequal; a careless or lazy workman may stop too soon. in the glazes of the chinese and japanese the change of colour is sometimes far too sudden. but even so, it is a hundred times to be preferred to the insipid evenness of tint which is the aim of so many a modern manufacturer. it was the aim too of the celebrated french potters, who laboriously produced some of the most excruciating tints -whether due to their own want of taste or to the vulgarity of the du barry and other such patrons, one hardly knows. in how many of the arts is insipid evenness reached, with infinite pains, and at the sacrifice of beauties peculiar to the material ! greater variety of colour than is to be obtained by simple glaze may naturally be arrived at by in any way roughening the sur- face of the ware before it is dipped. and the judicious contrast of smoother and rougher parts is only what would naturally occur to the artist. this roughness may consist in the where to stop in ornament. merest scratching, or in raised modelling, which last is capable of being carried to the point even of competing with sculpture. in that case it enters a class of work not now under consideration. if the perfection of figure modelling is what is wanted (and this, again, applies to a great deal of misplaced figure work in decorative art generally), it would be so much more properly put to so many other purposes, that it is a mistake to apply it to the useful but homely pot. the genius of flaxman was, relatively speaking, wasted on those finikin and crudely- coloured medallions with which the most familiar form of wedgwood ware is encrusted. a much more workmanlike process is that of painting in clay on clay, usually in white upon a coloured ground. m. solon, with whose name it is associated in england, is not a flaxman ; but his paintings in pâte sur pâte, as it is termed, are infinitely superior as pot- decoration to wedgwood's moulded medal- lions. you get here the utmost delicacy of which the material is capable. not that this utmost delicacy is a thing universally to be sought. it is a kind of luxury in which one may be occasionally allowed to indulge, or plate . "photo-tiny", by j. akerman, , queen square, w.c. ។ plate . "photo-tint", by j. akerman, .queen square w.c. where to stop in ornament. simplest and most spontaneous kind, such as can be done without effort and under no special disadvantage, such as in no way pre- tends to the accuracy, finish, or dignity of art unapplied. the figures on the etruscan vases (plate ) were, ordinarily, painted right off without any great care for accuracy. some- times they are wild enough in drawing. if it comes easier to a man, or is more amusing to him, to devise human or animal forms rather than any other, by all means let him do that; but, in so doing, let him aim at what he can best do under the circumstances, and not ignore them, nor yet attempt to oppose them. how desirable it is to let the mode of work- manship suggest the design, is shown by the futility of searching for qualities difficult of attainment in the material used. this is nowhere more apparent than in the painting of pottery. think of all the miniatures in china turned out from the factories of sèvres, dresden, and stoke-marvels of misapplied skill—and compare their absolute ineffective- ness as decorations with a bit of italian or persian faience (plate ), and see how the glory is all with the direct and untrammelled “conventional ” art of the potter who made the application of ornament. the most of the beautiful capacities for colour and iridescent beauty which lay in his crucible, and how vain were the efforts of the would-be miniature or landscape painter. if he ever succeeded in getting what he sought (which is very doubtful), he certainly failed to produce decoration ; that was sacrificed, as it so often is, to a misplaced pictorial ambition. this applies, mutatis mutandis, with equal force to decorative treatment in general. whatever medium a painter may adopt, he is bound in reason to consider that medium, as he is bound to consider the work before him in adopting it-distemper, fresco, oil, encaustic, or whatever it may be. in ceramic painting the choice lies between painting on the glaze and on the “biscuit,” as it is called before it is glazed. for ordinary earthenware the more limited resources of the "underglaze" method offer all that the orna- mentist need desire. one reason for our modern failures lies in the multitude of our facilities; the secret of the ancient triumphs is often in the simplicity of the workman's resources. the artist's choice of manner will be regulated to some extent by what he wants where to stop in ornament. ances. to do. in any case, if he is discreet, he will limit his ambition to the range of his appli- the china painter, that is to say, will think out a scheme of colour which, if not suggested by the oxides employed in ceramic painting, is not in any way opposed to them. this will, indeed, deprive him of some pos- sible indulgence in naturalistic effect, but in the main it will lead him to more perfect achievement than would the pursuit of mere difficulties, without regard to the nature of vitreous colours and the action of the kiln upon them. one appreciates more fully the colour of the persian or damascus pottery when one realises that the painter's palette was set by the circumstances. it is only when we respect our materials that we get so much out of them. the uncertainty of all colour which has to pass through the fire renders it most unwise to entertain a scheme which (whether founded upon nature or not) depends upon absolute accuracy of tint. the certain thing about vitreous colours is their uncertainty in the kiln. the potter is working always more or less in the dark, since the value of his work is not d where to stop in ornament. medium has its inherent advantages as well as its limits—and it is these which should be turned to account. there is a liquid and transparent quality in water colour, which every water-colour painter wishes he could only retain beyond the wet stage of his picture. this is just what the china painter can get, without the least trouble, by simply floating on his colour with a full brush. surely, then, that is the kind of thing to aim at, when it is within easy reach ; instead of fidgetting it, or stippling it, or dabbing it with cotton wool, to the dull evenness so dear to the commercial mind, or otherwise laboriously seeking effects more easily and much better produced by other means. that loose, juicy, pot-like look is more valuable in ceramic painting than any degree of mere finish, and should be valued accordingly. so also the scheme of colour should have reference to what can best be done with the palette available. in pottery painting, or whatever it may be, in all kinds of carving, in mosaic, in embroi- dery, in jewellery, everywhere it holds good, that the selection both of the forms and the colour should have direct reference to the technique employed. what is simplest under d the application of ornament. the circumstances is not only safest but most directly conducive to success; and there is a further charm in the evidence of directness itself. in all applied art, and in every stage of it, the work in hand points out the appropriate treatment; it suggests the degree as well as the kind of conventionality to adopt; you have but to heed its prompting and it will tell you what to do, and where to stop. the application of ornament. in a certain bluntness of the early greek character the influence of the stylus is ap- parent. chinese and japanese writing must first have been done with the brush. the various shapes of letters on plate are instructive. the simple form of the roman capitals a b c might, like the greek, first have been indented on a soft substance with a point. the later form of lettering, def, with its varying thickness of line and its spurred extremities, was better calculated for engraving on hard stone. the use of the thick and thin lines (the down-stroke and the up-stroke) comes of the use of the pen, and so, plainly, does the characteristic thickening of the backs of certain gothic capitals such as the g. the smaller roman letters, h i j, and still more plainly the italics k l m, are unmis- takably related to the “round-hand” no p. but it is in the medieval “ black letter " that penmanship is most plainly pronounced, as in the letters q r s, in the capitals t uv, and in the more fantastically flourishing on on the same plate. that our own printed type does not more distinctly reveal the intervention of the metal worker, is accounted for by our following the style and handicraft. historic, pen-born, fashion of lettering—i would say, too closely, but that history and senti- ment must be allowed to count for something ; and it would be hard to set a limit on their just influence. in our day we are given to the cultivation of “a good business hand,” which is just a little characterless and monotonous, as are indeed the lives of some of us who accomplish that modest end. time was when the pen of the ready writer indulged in occasional flourishes. there is no time for such frivolity nowadays; and what little character there is left in our handwriting seems likely to be sacrificed to the convenience of the stylographic pen-even if we do not give up penmanship altogether in favour of the "type-writer.” style, then, is not so much a thing of dates and countries as of materials and tools. whenever the development of ornament is discussed, it is the custom to begin with the savage. how the aboriginal developed into the assyrian is not very clearly shown. but from assyrian art is traced egyptian, and from that again greek art, and its roman imitation-all very plausibly. the foun- dation of byzantine art upon the ruins of plate iring "photo-tint', by j. akerman, . queen square, w.c. plate . greek marble "photo-tint", by j. akerman, , queen square, w.c. the application of ornament. directly due to, some particular manufacture or method of work. so it is with the details of ornamental design. the exquisite simplicity of certain cha- racteristic patterns familiar in the figured velvets of the th century, is cleverly calcu- lated to disturb the least possible amount of the sumptuous pile, so that the full value of the rich texture is preserved. in the old-fashioned damask patterns the big broad leaves and scrolls are planned (like a turkey carpet or an indian rug) with a view, before all things, of getting a broken effect of colour. the designer relied upon the quality of the silk with its varying sheen to alleviate the exceeding flatness of the pattern. no treatment less broad would have done justice to the quality of the stuff, which in those days was worth consideration. compare even the comparatively debased specimen of woollen damask on plate , with the current designs in linen damask, and it will be seen how well advised were our grandfathers. nineteenth century manufacturers who desire equally to exhibit the quality of their woof, can think of no other way of doing it than by leaving the ground for the most part empty. they style and handicraft. dearly love a spot pattern. is it possibly out of consideration for the lady purchaser that modern table-linen is for the most part so petite in style ? the consideration of the customer and not the thing to be done, is responsible for much of our modern misdoing. in certain woven fabrics of our time the hope of disguising the shabbiness of the substance has prompted the adoption of the fussiest kind of pattern. one had need be- ware of textiles worried all over with pattern; they are often expressly designed to hide shoddy. the manufacturer of bona fide silk, or wool, or other worthy material, would do well, for his part, to identify his goods with a kind of design which the baser fabrics cannot imitate without convicting themselves. the character of the lyons silk designs of the th and th centuries owes very much to the circumstance, that the lustrous material was so fascinating that artists were led astray from beautiful form, and simply revelled in the delights of colour. charming as these silks often are, translate any one of the pat- terns into uncompromising black and white, are disillusioned at once. the most characteristic of them lose all their and you the application of ornament. ever charm in monochrome. it is hard to realise that forms like those on plate can pass for beautiful; but it is wonderful what colour and texture will reconcile us to in the way of design. that is no reason why the artist should leave us to reconcile ourselves with ugly forms, still less why we should accept such models without attempting to improve upon them. the byzantine colouring, in bands, accord- ing to the weft (plate ) is almost brutal in its outspoken acceptance of the limitations of weaving. it speaks volumes for the safety with which such limitations may be accepted, that the contradiction between the forms of the design and the scheme of colour does not in the least offend one in the silk. the same kind of thing occurs sometimes in japanese stuffs. until recently, the conventional treatment of foliated forms always and everywhere con- fessed quite frankly the way it was done. the so-called honeysuckle of the greeks i have shown elsewhere † to be directly trace- able to the use of the brush, as was the case * see ‘anatomy of pattern,' pp. , . + see 'everyday art,' pp. - . plate uc raden mesteste test bygantine colouring according to the weft. cf kell, photo-litho. ,furnival st holican.e.o. style and handicraft. with other familiar forms of painted greek ornament. the corinthian capital and the acanthus scroll, even when they most nearly approach nature (which is never very closely), are always modified according to the conditions of sculpture. in the byzantine version of the classic leafage, in which the sculptors made abun- dant use of the drill, the drill-holes form an element in the design. the same thing occurs in much of the later gothic foliage, more especially in german work.* the arabian borders on plate leave no possible doubt as to their having been traced on the plastic stucco with the modelling tool. the workman did what was simplest for him to do. we may be sure, too, that it was the ease with which the plaster could be manipu- lated, which led to the extraordinary elabora- tion characterising the impressed diapers on the walls of the alhambra. the somewhat savage enrichment of our own norman buildings forcibly recalls the rude way it was done. it is more properly speaking chopped than carved. * see “the planning of ornament,' plate . plate th century italian iron th century french retriviteter plate types of wrought tronwork german centy: vot style and handicraft. there is nothing contemptible in cast iron, if we would but abstain from the reproduction in it of forms inappropriate to casting. we should have no cause to regret the institution of the foundry, if founders would but put art into their moulds; and the first step towards that end would be, to dismiss from their memories the familiar forms of the forge. it is customary to talk about cast iron as if it were an abomination. it is its misapplication only that is objectionable. there is no reason why we should not do in iron something like what the italians of the th century did in bronze unless it be th century incom- petence. it is one of the wicked ways of our civilisation to smoothe out all character from workmanship. for idiomatic expression in ornament we have generally to travel back to a remote period. the angularity of the piece of darning on plate is what might be called old-fashioned. but how it explains itself! no one who cares for needlework would wish to have it otherwise. so in embroidery (plate ) we look for colour and not perfect lines ; and so again in mosaic or stained glass (plate ),—just as e the application of ornament. in glass-blowing (plate ) we properly expect to find lightness rather than precision of form. in the pursuit of mechanical finish and the blind worship of nature, considerations of this kind are commonly lost sight of. the love of smoothness comes of our abuse of ma- chinery. the love of nature is not, as the realists (so-called) would have us believe, an invention of to-day. artists have always loved and studied nature. only, in the historic treatment of natural forms, modelled in clay or plaster, carved in wood or stone, painted on wall or window, wrought in metal, or on a loom, or with the needle—there is always a touch of the tool which removes the rendering by so much,—let us not say from nature, for the instinct which directs such modifications is natural enough,—but from the imitation of nature. . the application of ornament. punch the pattern from the back. now, if you have any feeling for the material at all (and if you have not, you have mistaken your vocation), you begin very naturally to do what can be done in it. accordingly you set to work to beat out certain round bosses, plate , a, which you surround with smaller bosses, b, arriving so at something like flowers. these you go on to connect with rounded stems, c, from which grows a kind of foliage, d, large or small in detail, as need may be, but always more or less bulbous in shape. we have thus a pattern, which is characteristically repoussé, beaten work, and which has grown to a great extent out of the conditions under which you were working. plate pretends to do no more than illustrate this method of proceeding. your bosses may take the form of figures, animals, or what not; yet, in the the hands of a sympathetic workman, they will not cease, whatever their individual shape or interest, to be always bosses. it is your unsympa- thetic workman who designs without fore- seeing how every detail is to be carried out, and misses the characteristic qualities of his material. plate . > d- b "photo-tiny", by j. akerman, . queen square w.c. plate filagree acomo byzantine old germ ..f. kell, photo-litho. .furnival st holdorn,e.c plate javanese ornament inspired by way of working cf kell, photo-litho, .furnival st holborn,e.c. the teaching of the tool. it cannot be insisted upon too strongly that, in designing for ornament, it is abso- lutely essential always to have those con- ditions in mind, as clearly as though you were yourself working under them. in beaten work you descend from the mass to the minutiæ ; in filagree, on the contrary, you would work from the minutiæ to the mass. commencing with wiry lines, you would perhaps clothe them with more com- pact spirals, clustering these together where you wished to concentrate the effect. the design of the byzantine artist of a thousand years ago is not, you will see (plate ), very different from that of the medieval silver- smith, nor yet from that of the genoese and maltese artificer of to-day. this is the type of all ornament in deli- cately elaborate line, as, for instance, damas- cening, embroidery in gold or silken outline, and, on a larger scale, hammered ironwork. substituting straight lines for curved, it has its parallel in certain kinds of lacework, such as the so-called “greek lace.” (plate .) a very curious instance of design directly inspired by the way of working occurs in the javanese work on plate . some plastic the application of ornament. substance, paper or gutta-percha, is rolled out into the thickness of stout wire, curled round into spirals, and laid on papier-mâché. the ground is then partly fretted away and the whole gilded. there is something delight- fully naïve in the result. fret cutting affords another homely illus- tration. the very necessities of the saw suggest the nature of the design. you are led to devise some form of pierced ornament not unlike stencilling; or, if you prefer to cut away the ground instead of the pattern, you are compelled to hold the design together by ties. unless these ties were from the first taken into account, they would be sure to mar the effect. the artist, accordingly, finds himself, as if by instinct, evolving a kind of strap- work, which reminds one of the typical elizabethan ornament—which very possibly originated in some such device fret carving, although the forms show also the influence of types more proper to metal. the likeness of the strip of low-relief pattern- work, on plate , to fret cutting, is too striking to be merely accidental. the rela- tionship challenges recognition. as plate embossed fret in metal - german arab fret work in wood elizabethan strap work ge مر the teaching of the tool. in the comparative massiveness or delicacy of a fret pattern, one sees at once whether it was designed for stone, or wood, or metal. the artful fret-worker leaves no frail project- ing ends, in stone or wood to be promptly broken off, and in metal to catch hold of any textile thing that may brush against them. the strength of a metal fret naturally affords facility for indulging in more florid forms of ornament. the iron lock-plate represented on plate shows this, and exemplifies be- sides how the metal may be in part embossed, and, of course, engraved. even simpler and more direct than fret- work is the plan of notching thin planks of wood and crossing them (as in plate ). it has all the effect of elaborate fretwork. the acme of simplicity is shown in the no less ingenious device of placing the notched planks side by side, so as to produce a pierced pat- tern of singular effectiveness. instances of this, taken from the balconies of swiss chalets, are given on the same plate with the arab lattices referred to above. the likeness between a fret pattern and a stencil pattern is explained when one realises that a stencil plate is a fret of cartridge paper, plate gadv design complete second stencil ar first stencil b.f. kell, photo-litho.b.furnival st holborn, e.c. the teaching of the tool. the ground left clear. in the case of an elaborate series of stencils each one may be schemed to make good the ties of another; but, to the workman at least, there will always be an interest in the evidence of the way an effect has been produced. he looks for character as well as beauty. it must be confessed that he is the only one who does. this merit of workmanlike-ness is one which the public cannot, as i said, be expected to appreciate. it is reserved for the craftsman to recognise behind his work a craftsman with whom it is his pride to claim fellowship. his interest in it is not alone in seeing how another solved a difficulty which had occurred to himself, or took advantage of an accident which to him had been fruitful only of disappointment. he has a thrill of purest satisfaction in feeling how some one, far away and years ago perhaps, realised, as he does, that this, and not that, was the spirit in which such and such thing should be done, such and such material should be treated, saw the same hint in nature as he sees, or felt the same limitation in his art as he feels. this is the satisfaction, not of the sentimentalist but of the workman. and no workman of any (plate . இரு - m surein the sools (ased @ "photo-tint', by j.akerman, , queen squars ,w.c. the application of ornament. tainty of shape, and gives an air of mystery to what would otherwise be only so much mechanism. the rigid forms of the diaper on plate are plainly in need of some such softening influence of colour. again, in geometric ornament like the “niello" on plate , the silvery brilliancy of the metal glorifies, so to speak, the nakedness of the design. so in the ornamental glass mosaic so often used in italy about giotto's time in connec- tion with white marble, the shimmer of the surface, more especially as it was never absolutely even, put all contingency of harsh- ness out of the question. such a thing was barely possible with all those little facets of glass catching the light at all manner of angles, and glittering each according to its own bright will. in marble inlay of strongly contrasted colour there is no such excuse for severity of form; some of the old pavement patterns, that for example in the baptistry at florence (plate ), are exceedingly graceful in design. even there you see the influence of the material. the desirability of maintaining the solidity of the white slabs into which the blackish-green the application of ornament. lattices it would be difficult to find, or a better means of employing otherwise not very useful scraps of wood, or a better employment of wood turning. this cairene woodwork in- dicates equally the scarcity of large timber, the cheapness of labour, and the dependence upon the lathe. had the conditions been other, we should never have had just such patterns as the arab builders evolved in infinite variety. the characterlessness of th century orna- ment is due very largely to the absence of any direct impress of the tool upon design. in the process of modern manufacture, every- thing is planed down to a marvellous but monotonous smoothness; the mark of the tool, which is the evidence of workmanlike- ness, is popularly regarded even as bad work -want of finish, indeed. even in this age of enlightenment there are some who have yet to learn that work may be smooth and smug, and yet not beautiful, nor so much as finished. this mistaken ideal of perfection is not, it must be owned, altogether a modern one. in tapestry, for example, designers have been working for centuries past, steadily in the pictorial direction, and against the threads; plate . "photo-tiny", by j. akerman. .queen square, w... the teaching of the tool. until there is now little difference between the picture and its copy in wool, except that the copy costs ever so much more than the original. already in the comparatively early tapestries of raffaelle, you can see at dresden or beauvais what inferior and characterless hangings his famous cartoons make, as com- pared with the neighbouring designs of earlier, unknown, and less accomplished draughtsmen, who knew their trade. that raffaelle either knew little or cared little about tapestry, is clear. and in his failure there is some con- solation for the least of us. if we only love our trade, and know it (as only those can who love it) we may succeed where a raffaelle would fail, though we be anything but raffaelles. it is easier said than done, for a great painter to step down to mastery in the minor arts. all trades want learning. the crowning point of ignorance and incon- sistency in design is reached where the con- vention peculiar to and characteristic of some quite different material is affected, as in the bulbous forms of beaten metal reproduced in th century gothic stonework, or the facets of brobdingnag jewels in elizabethan wood- carving plate we mu will an llllllmlimantan alg arab lattices characteristic wood-turning w o mito c.f. kell, photo-litho.g.furnival st holiorn,e.o. plate mighted baureliana lehiasaanut out th century geria duo මමත් th century french kas ? enamel champleve cloisonne * century talian ...f. kell, photo-litho. b.furnival st holboan, e.c. the application of ornament. the hard shapes drawn for the damask weaver are redeemed by the sheen of silk or linen,- and so on. in such cases the artist who has been equal to the emergency will often find again in the executed work something of the delicacy belonging to his original. even in autograph work, where the artist executes his own design, he still avails him- self of a soft outline. decorative art is a kind of shorthand. its very existence seems to depend upon its being done with readiness, quickness, and certainty-so that he who runs may read. the art which only careful scrutiny reveals to us will, for the most part, fail to win appreciation. whatever its merits, if it hide them, no wonder that men pass them by. even poetry of the over-subtle order is not popular; and decorative art (unpopular though it be) is essentially popular art. the effectiveness so much to be desired in decorative art, has to be obtained without many of the resources of which the painter is free to avail himself. it is not often that the ornamentist can indulge in extremes of light and shade, nor yet in very strong model- ling under these circumstances, an outline some superstitions. is invaluable in helping to detach a pattern from its background. it is not generally understood how effectually even a delicate outline will sometimes do this (plate ). in work placed at a great distance from the eye, outline is quite the simplest means of definition. the greater the distance off, and the less the contrast in tone and colour between the design and its background, the more urgent something of the kind becomes. for all that, there is no law making outline compulsory, unless the artist feels the need of it. he may, if he please, detach his pattern from the ground by deepening the one, or lightening the other, or by doing both. that would, however, ordinarily be a much more laborious business. besides, it is only fair to assume that there was always some reason for the choice of tones adopted in the first instance; and it may be anything but desirable to modify them. so it happens that in many instances the expedient of an outline is most handy. it enables one de- liberately and safely to adopt a scheme of colour which, but for it, would be altogether ineffective. so far from invariably hardening or empha- the application of ornament. sising form, outline may equally be used for the diametrically opposite purpose of soften- ing the shapes, as may be seen on plate , where a small portion of the pattern is harsh by comparison with the part outlined. the softening effect of outline is exemplified also in the embroidery on plate . the use of outline must not be taken as a justification of its abuse. to accept the dogma of its saving merit and submit to its tyranny, is sheer foolishness. art may quite well be decorative in which the outline is not emphasised ; nor does the insistance upon it make design decorative, however effectually it may remove it from the pictorial. so with regard to flatness, symmetry, and other qualities supposed to pertain to deco- rative treatment,—one must in every instance use one's wits. any effect of relief which disturbs the sense of flatness in a surface characteristically flat, is plainly out of place. just so much of symmetry as may be needful to convey the sense of balance is to be desired —but no more. the fear of offending against the arbitrary laws of authority, often altogether “irrespon- sible,” is a bogey which may scare some from london: printed by william clowes and sons, limited, stamford street and charing cross. orna- mentets bok andra upplagan en samling stilfulla ornament frÅn alla konstperioder fÖrklarande text h. dolmetsch Öf versÄttning gustaf upmark stockholm gustaf chelius . us ornamentets bok en samling stilfulla ornament frÅn alla konstperioder planscher med Öfver figurer, de flesta i rikt fÅrgtryck och fÖrklarande text af h. dolmetsch andra tillÖkade upplagan i bearbetad ÖrversÄttning frÅn originalets tredje tillÖkade upplaga af gustaf upmark f. d:r. intendent vid nationalmuseum. stockholm gustaf chelius. rec'd uco envi jun stockholm texten tryckt hos isaac marcus boktr-aktiebolag . environ. design cift life •nkie förord. cash وت viron s e. ny upplaga af ornamentets bok har visat sig behöflig och anbefalles härmed hos den svenska allmänheten, särskildt hos konstslöjdens idkare och vänner. med afseende å arbetets plan och dess syfte, hänvisas till förordet till den första, år utgifna upplagan: “det intresse, med hvilket konstslöjden och dess sträfvanden i våra dagar omfattas, den betydelsefulla ställning, som den intager i samtidens industriella lif, de höga fordringar, som ställas på dess utöfvare, ha i de stora kulturländerna framkallat en rik tillgång på hjälpmedel, en storartad litteratur, belyst af omsorgsfulla och präktiga afbildningar. dessa dyrbara special- verk äro dock åtkomliga blott för ett fåtal.' deras plats är i de offentliga biblioteken och muséerna eller i den rike privatmannens bokförråd. ornamentet, och särskildt ornamentet i färger, spelar dock på alla konstindustriens områden en så viktig rol, att en rikhaltig, men likväl jämförelsevis lätt tillgänglig ornamental handbok väl må anses vara af behofvet påkallad. ornamentets bok, en delvis bearbetad öfversättning af h. dolmetsch’s ornamentenschatz, gör ej anspråk på en i alla riktningar uttömmande fullständighet; den afser ej heller att meddela några teoretiska föreskrifter om ornamentets användbarhet eller dess användning. men den vill tjäna som en praktisk vägledning, den vill visa, hur ornamentet, och särskildt ornamentet i färger, utvecklat sig hos olika folk, under olika tidehvarf och framträdt i ständigt nya och växlande former. den samling af ornamentala typer, som här föreligger, lämnar ett ej ringa material för systematiska studier, men bör å andra sidan dels direkt, dels indirekt, genom att gifva uppslag till nya idéer, blifva af gagn för den utöfvande konstslöjden. Åt arkitekter, mönsterritare, dekoratörer, konstindustriidkare, åt lärare och lärjungar vid tekniska och konstindustriela läroanstalter, åt dem, som i hemmen egna sig åt konstslöjdens utöfning, åt konstvännen och samlaren, som vill lära känna de allmänna dragen af ornamentikens utvecklingsgång, åt alla dessa erbjudes ett rikt urval af de viktigaste ornamentala motiv från olika tider och inom olika stilarter. de talrika litteraturhänvisningarna kunna lämna en utgångs- punkt för ytterligare studier.“ den nya upplagan, en öfversättning från originalets tredje, omfattar helplanscher, till allra största delen utförda i färgtryck. den är således tillökad med ej mindre än blad, hvilka företrädesvis äro egnade åt det förra århundradets, -talets konst, barock, rokoko, den nyklassiska riktningen, sådan den framträder i ludvig xvi:s, revolutionens, kejsardömets stilarter. härtill kommer ett stort antal textillustrationer, en rik samling litteraturhänvisningar och en be- tydligt utvidgad text. till följd af min faders, intendenten gustaf upmarks, långvariga sjukdom och efter hans död ( maj ) har arbetet med utgifvandet af denna andra svenska upplaga till en del om- besörjts af undertecknad. stockholm i juli gustaf g:son upmark. e. o. amanuens vid nationalmuseum. i pl. i. egyptisk. mÅlning och plastik. enligt hvad historiens vitnesbörd ge vid handen, bildade egypten ett par årtusenden igenom mer. nligt hvad historiens vittnesbörd ge vid handen, bildade egypten ett par årtusenden igenom en kulturhärd, som då stod ensam och allena på hela jorden. för första och enda gången möta vi hos detta folk en alltigenom ursprunglig monumentalkonst, som ej visar spår af att vara grundad på äldre for- denna frånvaro af tidigare förebilder, liksom det afskilda geografiska läget forklara i viss mån den egen- domliga orörligheten i den egyptiska konstfantasien, som årtusenden igenom rör sig med blott ett fåtal typer. man skiljer dock äfven här mellan äldre och yngre konst- riktningar. till den äldsta hänföras de jättelika pyra- miderna, de mest oförstörbara stenmonument, som nå- gonsin blifvit tänkta och utförda. jämte de samtida underjordiska klippgrafvarna och några få spår af tem- u. us pelbyggnader, delvis rätt väl bibehållna, kvarstå de som talande vittnesbörd om den äldsta forntidens kultur. på väggarna i dessa grafkamrar framställas i en liflig, stundom ganska tilltalande stil, berättande bilder ur folk- och familjelifvet. i förening med de i grafvarna gömda och bevarade husgeråden, prydnadsföremålen och andra konstflitens alster ge de en färgrik föreställning om de gamla egypternas lif och utgöra härigenom en af de viktigaste källorna för kännedomen om den gammalegyp- . tiska folk karaktären. framför allt vittna de om en högt uppdrifven teknisk skicklighet på konstslöjdens olika om- mv råden. bilderna visa, att man kände konsten att väfva, fläta och brodera, att forma bilder i lera, sten och metall; man öfvade stensnidarkonsten, möbelsnickeriet, guldsmeds- konsten; man förstod redan nu glaseringskonsten och glastillverkningen. bilderna på väggarna äro i regeln utförda i ett slags låg, målad relief med djupt inristade konturer, så att re- liefens mest framspringande delar ligga i plan med den omgifvande väggytan. härjämte förekomma äfven fram- ställningar, som endast äro målade på ytan. under den äldsta tiden afsåg väggmålningen att efterbilda och er- sätta på väggarna upphängda väfda bonader, och de en- skilda framställningarna omgåfvos med bårder af rent dekorativ art. sådana ytmönster, se. fig. , , -- , utmärka sig alltid för tilltalande symmetri och god för- delning. Äfven i takdekorationen använde man på denna tid motiv hemtade från vätnader och broderier. om- tyckt var jemväl en blå grund beströdd med stjärnor. härtill kommo i en senare tid den bevingade solskifvan med uräusormarna, (pl. . fig. och ), de väl- diga gamarna (fig. ), skalbaggen – scarabeus – (pl. . fig. ), djurkretsens bilder och andra astronomiska . . . hm bre cu suvi symboler. vid prydandet af väggarna använder den yngre stilen i stället för rent dekorativa motiv en symbolisk orne andra utan öfver- ring, i hvilken in- gångar, alltid med gå räckor af skrift- skarpa konturer. tecken, hieroglyfer. den färgskala, som härigenom trän- användes, inskrän- ges det egentligen ker sig till rödt, dekorativa elemen- blått, gult, svart, tet tillbaka, och huf- hvitt och grönt. vudvikten lägges väggarnas socklar på framställningens prydas i allmänhet innehåll. med målade lotus- utom de ofvan- och papyrus-stånd nämnda symboler- på svart botten (fig. na lånar man motiv ). Äfven de öf- från växtvärlden, så- riga ytorna voro som lotusblomman, understundom må gudinnan isis' attri- lade i mörka färger but och en symbol med brokiga bilder, för de alstrande na- men den ljusa grund- turkrafterna, nym- färgen var dock för- phæa, (näckrosen), herskande för att papyrusstängeln, underlätta läsandet vasstrået, palmkvi. af hieroglyfskriften. star . s. v. vid framställning af färgerna i dessa menniskofigurer bilder och orna- tecknade man huf- ment äro alltigenom vud, fötter och ben konventionella, utan i profil, men lät på skuggning och utan samma gång båda luftperspektiv, med axlarna synas. gå. rena och fulla färg. ende figurer trampa toner bredvid hvar- . på båda fotsulorna. den mellersta periodens figurframställningar visa försök att framställa kvinlig skönhet och behag. kaune ulet bot moji に​の ​fig. i. målad relieffigur från en kolonn i templet i denderah. , . målningar å mumiefodral. , . ytmönster å ett mumiefodral. louvre i paris. . målad bård å en sarkofag. . bård å ett mumiefodral. british museum, london. . ornament i en träsarkofag. london. . bård å ett mumiefodral. british museum, london. del af ett halsband. london. bård å en sarkofag. london . sockel med målade lotus- och papyrusstånd; därofvan ett ytmönster. - . målade ytmönster och bårder. . ett egyptiskt rum. . ornament: målad gam, hållande två fjäderbuskar (den högsta maktens symboler). io. ii. . skulptur i monumental massverkan den äldre tidens. figurerna från den äldre tiden äro i stället ofta af nästan snillrik porträttlikhet med i brons infattade ögon af bergkristall eller onyx, men i stället för denna naturalistiska riktning inträder senare en idealise- ringsperiod under hvilken skapas skulpturverk af ut- märkt skönhet och fulla af själiskt lif. armar- nas och fötternas fria rörelser lyckas man dock ej häller nu ge uttryck åt. . fig. . pylon (portaltorn) med figurframställningar och hieroglyfer. louvre, paris. . hufvudgesims från det stora templet på philae; hålkäl mellan en platt och en rundstaf. . kalkkapital från templet i luxor; s. k. öppet papyrus- eller lotus-) kapital, f. kr. . kalkkapitäl från ett tempel i thebe. . palmkapital från en portik vid edfu. . knoppkapital från thebe, f. kr.; s. k. slutet papyrus- (eller lotus-) kapital. . bård å ett mumiefodral. fjällmönster; grafmålningar, louvre, paris. fig. , . målade kolonner med baldakingesimser. protodoriskt kapital. . knoppkapital prydt med instuckna lotusblommor. , . i . assyrisk, . . v . . . b o . . . . . . . målning, målad skulptur, keramik. pl. . assyrisk. mÅlning, mÅlad skulptur, keramik. d. grålningar, som egt rum längs ofre tigris vid korsbad, nimrud och kujundsik, halva bragt i e gräfningar, som egt rum längs öfre tigris vid korsabad, nimrud och kujundsjik, hafva bragt dagen ett betydligt antal arkitekturfragment, målningar och skulpturverk af assyriskt ursprung, hvilka ge oss en åskådlig bild af den prakt och den yppiga lyx, som en gång herskade hos detta folk. bland de figurer, som förekomma å dessa byggnader, äro de väldiga portalstoderna de mest storartade; de kunna nå en höjd af ända till meter och äro huggna ur ett enda stenblock. de vanligast förekommande bland dessa dörrvaktarfigurer äro bevingade tjurar och lejon med människohufvud. säkerligen ville man här, liksom genom den egyptiska sfinxen samt möjligen under påverkan af denna, genom djurkroppen an- tyda styrkan och genom människohufvudet visheten. i palatsens inre finner man jämte dylika djurgestalter äfven skyddsgenier med fyra vingar, med människo- eller örnhufvud, utarbetade i relief. i den kristna symboliken hafva dessa mytologiska gestalter: ängeln, lejonet, oxen, örnen ingått såsom de fyra evange- listernas tecken. figurerna lida alltid af en viss tyngd; hufvudena återges ofta en face, fötterna alltid från sidan, ögat alltid framifrån, äfven när hufvudet framställes i profil. i motsats mot egypterna öfvade assyrierna ej porträtteringskonsten i egentlig mening, men man kan dock i framställningen af hufvudfigurerna skönja en sträfvan eſter ett abstrakt skönhetsideal, som hufvudsakligen vill återge manlig kraft. kvinnogestalter förekomma däremot högst sällan och äro då utan hvarje spår af behag eller skönhet. i djurframställ ningar, i synnerhet af lejon, lyckas man vida bättre än vid framställning af människor. i människosläktets äldsta urkunder prisas assyriernas mattor och tyger för sin färgprakt och sina konstrika mönster. detta bekräftas till fullo af de sömnadsmönster, som återges å de skulpterade alabaster- plattorna; å de praktfullt utförda konungabilderna (fig. ) beundra vi dräktens sirliga enskildheter. byggnaderna voro uppförda af soltorkadt tegel, som sedan bekläddes på olika sätt; dels med reliefprydda alabaster- eller kalkstensplattor, dels med glaseradt tegel, dels äfven med stuck. i alla dessa beklädnadssätt råder en rik färgprakt, hvarvid liksom i egypten, utom hvitt och svart förekomma gult, rödt, resp. brunt, blått och grönt utan nyansering. på ornamentets område förherskar under den äldsta tiden det symboliska flätverket (fig. ) jämte blom- och knoppmönstret anthemiet (fig. och ), ett årtusenden igenom bibehållet växtornament, som med sina piniekottar, tulpaner och andra från det heliga trädet (fig. och ) hemtade motiv äfven har en mystisk-symbolisk betydelse. i en yngre tid framträda flere andra dekorativa motiv, såsom rosetter, tofsar, ja t. o. m. murtinnar. fig. . del af en glaserad fajansplatta från ett palats i korsa- bad, framställande själen. — . målade basreliefer från kujundsjik (se äfven fig. ). . måladt ornament från nimrud. . glaseradt tegel från korsabad. – . målade ornament från nimrud. ii, . heliga träd; målade basreliefer från nimrud. fig. . måladt ornament från nimrud. . emaljeradt tegel från korsabad. . del af en dörrinfattning i målad basrelief från kujund- sjik, (se äfven ſig: — ) efter ebe: abriss der kunst- geschichte des altertums. . assyrisk konung, efter en basrelief i louvre, paris. pl. : grekisk. arkitektur, skulptur, ornamentik. Även om fven man måste anse, att den grekiska ornamentiken utvecklats ur äldre främmande motiv vi vilja här blott erinra om den egyptisk-assyriska lotusfrisen, om palmetterna och andra ornamentformer af orientaliskt ursprung så måste man dock med beundran framhålla de grekiske konstnärernas skapande kraft. mästerligt förstodo de att ombilda de utifrån lånade hufvudformerna efter sin egen stils fordringar och att förbinda dem med egna uppfinningar, så att hela denna period framstår såsom en själfständig och af äkta nationel anda genomträngd konstriktning. hvad som ger den grekiska ornamentiken ett så högt värde är det mönstergilla förhållandet mellan grundform och prydnad. den senare skymmer aldrig den förra, utan följer den med sina sköna linier. grundformen i och för sig framstår härigenom med full klarhet, men dess verkan framhäfves ytter- ligare genom ornamentet, och detta uttrycker i sin ordning en bestämd funktion hos grundformen. det är ej blott de härliga grekiska arkitekturverken, som öfverraska åskådaren genom sin formfulländning och upphöjda skönhet; detsamma gäller om de enklaste föremål för dagligt bruk. fig. — visa representanter för den grekiska arkitekturens tre utvecklingsformer, kapital af den doriska, joniska och korintiska ordningen. det bör anmärkas, att det doriska kapitalet i regeln saknar den skarpa indragning å halsen, som finnes å den här meddelade afbildningen. det doriska kapitälet visar en rund ekinus samt däröfver en fyrkantig täckskifva, abakus, båda med målad ornering. det utmärker sig genom lugn enkelhet och ändamålsenlighet. det joniska kapi- tälets ekinus framskymtar mellan de båda kraftiga spiralerna, voluterna; på dem hvilar en bladprydd skulp- terad abakus; öfvergången till kolonnskaftet förmedlas genom ett blomsterprydt band, kolonnhalsen. kapitälet gör intryck af lätthet och elegans. det korintiska kapitalet visar kring en korgformig stomme två blad- kransar; ur den öfre af dessa uppspira rankor, som å hörnen mötas och rulla sig samman samt uppbära en rikt profilerad abakus. i det korintiska kapitälets yppiga former framträder den praktlystnad, som från den rika handelsstaden korint utbredde sig öfver hela grekland. fig. visar en af de ståtliga jungfrugestalter, karyatider, som i stället för kolonner uppburo taket öfver det lilla framskjutande utsprånget på södra sidan af erechtheion-templet i athen. fig. , . i. doriskt kapital från paestum (med målade ornament). . joniskt kapital från erechtheion på akropolis i athen. . korintiskt kapital från lysikrates-monumentet i athen. . karyatid från erechtheion. akroterier, krön på grafsteler med palmetter. paris. , , . blommönster eller s. k. anthemier. , ii. bevingade gripar, frisfragment. , bordsfötter af marmor, museo nazionale i neapel. , . bordsfötter af marmor, brit. museum, london. . pelare-kapital från apollotemplet i miletus. fig. grekisk.. cludio -கம் வா கு "'ாா |lli பயம் goo -காரிய ul; + பாட்ட் llllllnin nill fran -s... imil க.லென் பாவாரா tnாபா''httle jiyinார் unimaramuthlin பmiliate) பாரப்பாயா arkitektur, skulptur och ornamentik. pl. . grekisk. polykrom arkitektur. swinxer, centaurer, gripar (pl. . fig. och ), vinghästar och andra dylika fabeldjur äro af orientaliskt tinxer, centaurer, gripar (pl. , fig. och ), vinghästar och andra dylika fabeldjur äro af orientaliskt ursprung och hade väl knappast för grekerna någon egentlig symbolisk betydelse; de fingo därför också under den klassiska tiden lämna plats för en mera direkt naturefterbildning, som likväl ej saknade en fläkt af poesi. inhemska djur- och växtformer upptogos; bland de senare märkas murgrönan, kallabladet, vatten- liljans blad och framför allt akantusbladet, hvars stilisering är karaktäristisk för den grekiska konsten (fig. och pl. fig. och ). arkitekturdelarna voro till en stor del målade, som vår plansch visar, men för marmor- byggnader synes dock icke någon genomgående färgton hafva användts. i senare tid öfvergaf man all dylik målning och sökte dekorativ verkan blott genom plastisk behandling, skulpterade figurer af trä eller terracotta voro alltid helt och hållet målade, detsamma var fallet med figurer af porös tuffsten med stucköfverdrag. på skulpturer af ädlare material synes färg endast i ringa mån hafva användts, i många fall alls icke. lune tilset ונענטnמשתינזון whilssantun fig. fig. i. . io. ii. polykrom sima (rännlist) med lejonhufvud från selinus. akroterion från nike apteros' tempel i athen. - . målade gesimser från propyleerna i athen. . ornament från ett ant-kapital på theseus-templet i athen. . ornament på ett tempel i selinus. . fris från jupitertemplet på aegina. sima-ornering från parthenon. ornament. pallazolle, sicilien. , mäander- eller alagrecque-mönster. . kasettornering. london. . metopornering af bränd lera. pallazolle. . kasettornering, propyleerna. athen. . gesimskrön af bränd lera. ur: hittorf et zanth, architecture antique de la sicile. semper: der stil. jones: grammar of ornament. pl. . grekisk. keramik. d var först hos grekerna, som krukmakeriet, keramiken, höjde sig till en fri konst. medan i egypten förfärdigandet af lerkärl, som visserligen blott användes till hvardagsbruk, lämnades åt slafvar, var den grekiske krukomakaren en högt ansedd man, öfver hvilken man t. o. m. slog medaljer och reste minnesvårdar. handformade kärl med plastisk ornering förekomma jämförelsevis sällan. drejskifvan var känd redan under en förhistorisk tid och nämnes af homeros. föremål tillverkade med dess hjälp hafva anträffats bland fynden i det gamla mykene. de äldsta 'grekiska vaserna äro högst enkelt ornerade: på den ljusa, hvita eller gulaktiga leran äro i brunt målade band, cirklar, kvadrater o. s. v. härtill kommo snart friser med djurbilder. under det därpå följande skedet framträda figurframställningar mellan bandorneringar, våglinier, hjärt- och lagerblad, mäanderslingor etc., ännu alltjämt mörka, på ljus botten. ofta användes äfven hvitt. jämte människofigurer börjar man äfven att använda de inhemska land- och sjödjuren till motiv i ornamenten. under den grekiska keramikens blomstringstid blir förhållandet mellan bottenfärg och ornerings- färg omvändt. figurerna sparas ut i lerans egen gulröda färg, bakgrunden utfylles i svart. rika figur- kompositioner af mytologiskt innehåll utföras med beundransvärd säkerhet i teckningen. egentliga ornament användas måttfullt; den snedt riktade palmetten (fig. ) är i synnerhet vanlig. härpå följer en polykrom period, hvilken kan betraktas såsom den grekiska keramikens förfall. olika färger användas i större myckenhet, särskildt förekommer ljusgult, guldgult, blått, violett, till och med guld. fig. ) . -- . grekiska vasformer. i. amfora, förrådskärl för olja, vin etc. hydria, vattenkärl. . urna, askkärl. oenochoë, vinkanna, tillbringare. . kylix, dryckesskål. . deinos, krater, blandningskärl. . lekythos, oljeflaska. . kantharos, dryckeskärl med två grepar. . rhyton, dryckeshorn. kvinnofigur på en amfora i museo nazionale i neapel. il-- . ornament på vaser i museerna i neapel, rom, münchen, paris, london. . målning på insidan af en skål. io. ur: genick, kunstgewerbliche vorbilder. jones, grammar of ornament. oyoyoy . . . grekisk. | et :: immirlpool olot uun . . . . . . . . . . . . 呢 ​已 ​ , . . o ))) . . . . . . . . biggo 合 ​ . . . . . a . . . keramik. . romersk. le . . . . இளம் . . . . juuuuuuu ul. . w&h. z sr stot. . . . burkhard. arkitektur, skulptur och ornamentik. . i romersk. arkitektur, skulptur, ornamentik. ett afgjordt beroende af grannfolken, af den etruskiska, men i synnerhet af den grekiska konsten. i stället för den klassiska formrenheten framträdde en ofta öfverdrifven förkärlek för det dekorativa. den korintiska ordningen motsvarar bäst romarnas sinne för prakt och glans; dess kapital visar stundom, som t. ex. å pantheon i rom (fig. .) fina och känsliga former; däremot utgör det s. k. romerska eller komposita-kapitalet (fig. ) en oorganisk blandning af det joniska och korintiska. en mängd andra om det korintiska påminnande kapitalformer, hvilka vi sedermera återfinna i renässansens konst, med del- finer, vinghästar o. dyl . i stället för voluter, vittna om en öfversvallande fantasi hos uppfinnaren. inom ornamentiken lägger man gerna an på massverkan, hvarvid dock de ständiga upprepningarna af rankverk stundom verka tröttande. de enskilda bladformerna äro så strängt stiliserade, att den natur- liga förebilden stundom är svår att igenkänna. oftast användes akantusbladet; med sina rundade alikar och fylliga former verkar det mindre fint, men yppigare än det motsvarande grekiska. akantusrankan på textfig. närmar sig väl mera naturen, men torde vara att tillskrifva en grekisk mejsel. därjämte före- komma en mängd andra växtmotiv: eklöf, lager , piniekottar , vinlöf, palmblad, murgröna, aloë, åkervinda, ax, vallmo m. a. i regelbunden omvexling och kraftiga former. vidare massor af blommor och frukter, guirlander upphängda mellan oxkranier, trofeer, offerredskap och figurala ornament. pl. . fig. . korintiskt kapital från pantheon, rom. . kandelaberhufvud, vatikanska museet, rom. . . komposita-kapital från ett junotempel, rom. . fragment af en fris från hadriani villa vid tivoli; lateranska museet, rom. - rosetter, vatikanska museet, rom. . fragment af en fris, rom. . kolonnbaser från senromersk tid. , . gesimsdelar från ruinerna på palatinen, rom. . ornament på en i marmor utförd stridsvagn i vatikanska museet, rom. (fig. , – efter piranesi, de öfriga efter fotografier.) > pl. . romersk. mosaikgolf. mosaiken leder sannolikt sitt ursprung från orienten. osaiken leder sannolikt sitt ursprung från orienten. hos grekerna nådde denna teknik en betydande utveckling och erhöll sedermera genom romarne en hög grad af fulländning. man framställde, såsom de i pompeji upptäckta golfven utvisa, i mosaik ej blott geometriska mönster, utan äfven blommor, djur, stilleben, människo- och gudagestalter, ja fullständiga målningar, i de flesta fall väl efterbildningar af nu- mera försvunna grekiska original. materialet utgjordes af stenar af olika färg, särskildt marmor, mera sällan glaspastor. i golfven af plattmosaik (fig. , ) vexlar de olika stenplattornas form efter mönstrets fasoner. i den egentliga (stift-) mosaiken sammansättas däremot bilderna, vare sig upprepningsmönster, fria rankornament eller figurframställningar, af ungefär likformiga stenbitar, som intryckas i ett betonunder- lag (fig. , - ). mosaiker af detta slag förekomma äfven å väggar och i hvalf. under en senare tid, då smaken redan var i sjunkande, använde man gärna mönster af den typ, som pl. fig. utvisar, med perspektiviskt ordnade färger och linier, som ge det hela karaktären af en relief. . . fig. . mosaikfris från casa del fauno, pompeji (eſter niccolini). , mosaikmönster i palatinska museet i rom (teckn. af dolmetsch). , . mosaikgolf från en romersk villa vid fliessem nära trier (schmidt: baudenkmale der rö- mischen periode i trier und seiner umgebung, ). , . mosaikgolf från pompeji (teckn. af dolmetsch). , , . mosaikgolf från caracallas thermer i rom (dolmetsch). ii, . mosaikgolf från pompeji (eſter niccolini). romersk. . יזיז וזיזיזוזום ta xxx : : cal mosaik. pompejansk. ra ? om rury q ho väggmålning och målad stuckatur. pl. . pompejansk. vÄggmÅlning och mÅlad stuckatur. de dekorativa väggmålningar, som påträffats i pompeji, herculanum, stabiat, men älven i rom, kunna men e dekorativa väggmålningar, som påträffats i pompeji, herculanum, stabiæ, men äfven i rom, kunna ge oss en föreställning om den forna grekiska målarkonstens karaktär; ty de äro sannolikt till en stor del reproduktioner af grekiska konstnärers arbeten, ehuru fritt och dekorativt behandlade. käckt och liffullt utförda, vanligen al fresco, i glada färger och med en beundransvärd stilkänsla, äro de dock blott att anse som handtverksarbeten. dessa pompejanska väggmålningar äro utförda under tiden mellan det årh. f. kr. till år e. kr., det år då staden förstördes. man kan särskilja fyra på hvarandra följande typer. den första är den s. k. inkrustationsstilen, hvars förebilder äro att söka redan i den hellenisk-orientaliska konsten. väggytan ser här ut som vore den uppförd af olikfärgade marmorkvadrer med i stuck utförd arkitektonisk indelning den andra typen, bilderna; enskildheterna däremot, den måleriska arkitektursti- både den målade ytornamenti- len ger ej väggytorna någon ken och de med stor naturtro- plastisk fördelning, men åstad- het utförda guirlanderna, drape- kommer genom perspektivisk rierna och bandornamenten visa målning en fantastisk arkitektur, en frisk själfständighet. det som vanligtvis omsluter en midt- samma gäller om såsom orna- bild, ett landskap eller en figur- mentmotiv använda vapen, ma- framställning. såsom den tredje sker, djur, frukter, blommor och typen kan man nämna den fria träd. bland växterna älskade ornamentstilen, där all strän- man i synnerhet murgrönan och gare arkitektonisk indelning läm- "vinrankan, äfven. lager, nas åsido och väggytan delas myrten, cypress, oliv och palm- i flere småfält, hvart och ett blad förekomma. med sin figurala midtbild. en- den glada färgprakten i staka hufvudbilder förses här lik- dessa af vanliga handtverkare väl stundom med målade arki- utförda väggdekorationer har tekturinfattningar, måhända det felet, att den allt- den fjärde och i pompeji för likformigt utbreder sig öfver vanligaste typen är den s. k. ytorna ett välgörande intryck prospektstilen, som väl när- gör den färggradation, som iakt- mast afser en ideel utvidgning tages vid väggarnas indelning. af de fönsterlösa gemaken. hela man kan härvid iakttaga en väggen upplöses här i en sirlig viss lagbundenhet. sockeln är skenarkitektur, med hvilken alle- i allmänhet svart, det mellersta handa figurkompositioner ställas väggfältet visar vanligen en djup- i förbindelse. röd, grön, blå eller gul grund, alla dessa typer ansluta under det väggens öfversta del sig med afseende på totalanord- oftast är hållen i hvitt. undan- ningen till de från alexandria tagsvis förekomma äfven väggar härstammande helleniska före- fig. . med gul sockel och svart fris. väggarna afslutas i regeln uppåt med en liten målad stuckgesims. ofvan denna vidtager det ofta hvälfda taket. de flesta taken voro dock af trä och hafva förstörts af elden, hvarför vi tyvärr ej kunna göra oss någon säker föreställning om deras forna dekorering fig. i. väggmålning; segergudinna. pompeji. , . kandelaberformer. pompeji, nu i museet i neapel. , . bårdmönster. pompeji. . fris. pompeji (återgifven af h. dolmetsch). - bårdmönster. pompeji och herculanum. , sockelmålningar. pompeji. - . målade stuckgesimser. pompeji (af h. dolmetsch). . väggfält mert nerspektivisk arkitektur. målning i pompeji. n af zahn och niccolini. - - och pl. . pompejansk. metallarbeten. nationalmuset i neapel liksom samlingarna i florens och på andra orter i italien ge oss en om fig. . fig. . ationalmuseet i neapel liksom samlingarna i florens och på andra orter i italien ge oss en om- fattande inblick i forn- på grund af sin sant tidens konstslöjd och konstnärliga form räk- dess småplastik. be- nas till forntidens bästa undransvärda äro fram- konstalster. för allt bronsföremålen. fullt jämförliga med Äfven när de äro af- dessa pompejanska sedda för det alldagli- bronsarbeten äro de gaste bruk, gör den fint gammalromerska silfver- afvägda formen, den kärl, tillhörande det be- gratiösa orneringen in- römda hildesheimerfyn- tet intrång på den prak det, hvilka äro at bildade tiska användbarheten. fig. . i textfig. -- . detta i kandelabrar, lam- fynd, som påträffades por, lampställ, oftast i år i närheten af trefotsform, vaser, kok-, hildesheim, omfattar en mat- och dryckeskärl, nästan fullständig antik sängar, stolar, kolbäc- bordsservis för tre per- ken, masker, rustningar, soner, såsom tallrikar, öfver allt spörjer man fat, skålar, tvättfat, dryc- en frisk fläkt af grekisk kesbägare, en degel, en skönhet, som ej minst trefot, ett saltkar m. m. träder fram i den visa och räknar inalles måtta, som råder i for- pjeser, utförda i drifvet mer och ornering. sär- silfver, delvis prydt med skildt är att lägga märke emalj och nielloarbete. till profilernas elegans det omsorgsfulla utfö. samt den fulländning, randet liksom ock sti- med hvilken handtag len i de använda orna- och grepar sätta an mot menten tillåta oss att kroppen. med bestämdhet be- bronsstatyetterna äro trakta dessa saker så- i regeln sammansatta af som alster af romerska flere, hvar för sig gjutna, konsthandtverkets bästa stycken. många kunna fig. . tid. fig. io. i a. b. hjelm och benskena. museet i neapel. , . lampor. museet i neapel. , . kandelabrar. louvre, paris. , . museet i neapel. . kandelaberhufvud (till fig. , förstoradt), i profil. . neapel. tvåarmad kandelaber med en faun-figur. neapel. bisellium, stol för magistratspersoner. louvre, paris. , trefötter från herculanum. museet i neapel. , . små masker, fragment. neapel. handtag till speglar af metall. hildesheimerfyndet. . dryckesbägare utan grepe. hildesheimerfyndet. . dryckesbägare med två grepar. ornamenten visa allehanda till bacchuskulten hörande symboler. hildesheimerfyndet. ii. , fig. - . - . ur overbecks och niccolinis verk. holzger: der hildesheimer antike silberfund. pompejansk. a . . . . . . . . metallarbeten. pl. . kinesisk. mÅlning, vÄfnad, sÖmnad, vÄggemalj. karakteristio arakteristisk för det kinesiska måleriet är den redan antydda fantastiska blandningen af motiv, hvilkas underlighet dock träder tillbaka för färgernas rikedom och lyckliga sammanställning. mycket omtyckta äro särskildt svarta, hvita, blå och röda konturer, hvarigenom teckningen vackrare och bestämdare afsätter sig från den ljusare eller mörkare bottenfärgen. det hittills sagda gäller i sitt fulla omfång äfven om sidenväfnader och sömnader (broderier). allmänt bekant är, att förarbetningen af silke redan långt före kristi födelse hade uppnått en hög stånd- punkt i kina, hvarifrån silkesmaskodlingen på -talet e. kr. öfverfördes till vesterlandet; mindre kändt torde det däremot vara, att de i dessa väfnader och broderier förekommande guldtrådarna tydligen icke äro annat än silkestrådar omvirade med guldpapper eller ett förgyldt kautschukartadt ämne. ett högt anseende ha de med s. k. väggemalj (email cloisonné) prydda vaserna och plattorna förvärfvat. hvar detta emaljeringssätt uppfunnits, låter sig ej med säkerhet afgöras; i alla händelser går dess användning hos kineserna långt tillbaka i tiden. tekniken är följande: sedan den teckning, som skall utföras, angifvits på metallytan, begränsas de särskilda fälten genom tunna, på denna yta lödda trådar af guld eller kopparlegering. de härigenom uppkomna cellerna (cloisons) fyllas sedermera med på behö- rigt sätt färgad glasfluss, » emalj», och denna fastsmältes sedermera i ugnen. efter afsvalnandet glattslipas ytan. Äfven här återkomma samma motiv som i måleriet. fig. framställer i emaljteknik den så ofta förekommande kinesiska rikssymbolen: den heliga draken. (jfr. fig. .) ur en drakes ofullkomliga väsen har nämligen menniskan, enligt kinesiskt åskåd- ningsssätt, utvecklats. . > fig. . frukter och blad målade på porslin. bård på ett kinesiskt porslinskärl. . målning på ett träskrin. delar af ett sängomhänge, sömnad i silke och guld ( -talet). , , mönster på väfnader. , ii. delar af en gammalkinesisk vas i väggemalj på koppar. - ornament på vaser, skålar och rökelsekar utförda i väggemalj. . dekorationsmotiv. , , . ur: owen jones: examples of chinese ornament. lièvre: les arts décoratifs. kunst und gewerbe vom bayr. gewerbemuseum zu nürnberg. . rouam: la peinture décorative. oc fig. . kinesisk, na . ত v ગs sac . . . . que . . . . målning, väſnad, sömnad, väggemalj. japansk n uu un ano na uol juan es! tur . ** s. s . we . . . ( . es . . nawasan ) . . . பப esra u # ( . ) deco . noooo # . . . lackmålning. japansk wnnn . . . . . tigio boere . xxix . . väfnad, målning och väggemalj. | c indisk. + ០៣ ០៤ e . ចត់ អ្នកតា ៦ lo. i. . . ::::: . .. metallarbeten. pl. . - indisk. metallarbeten. jemför texten till pl. . tillverkning lillverkningen af ornerade vapen och metallföremål utgjorde af gammalt en viktig del af indiens konstslöjd, och den fina smak, den dekorativa prakt, mmtww som råder i dessa alster, väcker med rätta vår beundran. särskild hänsyn är på planschen tagen till de inlagda metallarbetena. de förekomma utförda på stål, jern, koppar, tenn, tennlegering, messing. de inlagda (inkrusterade eller damascerade) ornamenten utgöras af .trådar eller blad af guld eller silfver, hvilka genom tryck eller hamring fästas i graverade fördjupningar på metallytan, hvarefter det hela glättas med poler. stålet. Äfven förekommer inläggning af koppar i messing, messing i tenn . s. v. för metallytornas färgning, specielt svärtning, användas flere ganska invecklade förfaringssätt. Öfver hufvud har den indiska konstindustrien ut. vecklat en hög grad af fyndighet på metallorneringens område. angående fig. hänvisas till pl. . och där meddelade upplysnin. sc gar om den gammal-indiska arkitekturen. : i. . > fig. tennkärl, s. k. sarai, med inlagda ornament. stridsyxa med etsning. . stridsyxa med inläggning (damascering). . sköld af noshörningshud med inläggningar och beslag af metall. - . inläggningar å vattenpipor (huhkas). . bukornering å en drifven förgyld kopparkanna. bukornering å en drifven kopparkanna. inlagd ornering på en tennvas. damascering å en dolkslida af stål. halsornering å en tennbägare. ornering å en drifven koppartallrik. . ornering å en drifven tenntallrik. . kolonn från jambuishwar-templet vid trichinopoly i provinsen madras. io. ii. . . fig. , , , - eſter originalföremål i kgl. landesgewerbemuseum i stuttgart. , – efter orginalföremål, tillhöriga hr p. stotz i stuttgart. ur bedford : treasury of ornamental art. ur waring: masterpieces of industrial art and sculpture at the international exhi- bition, . » ur w. griggs : india, photographs and drawings of historical buildings, london . fig. . pl. . indisk. sÖmnad, vÄfnad, flÄtverk, lackmÅlning. med en yppig växtlighet, med en rikedom på naturprodukter af alle slag, med custömliga fyndställen s. för ädla metaller och stenar, företer indien på konstens område samma öfversvallande liffullhet som ut- märker dess natur, samma dragning åt det fantastiska, som karakteriserar dess folk. civilisationen är ur- gammal och jemförelsevis hög; men den konservativa anda, som sedan nära ett årtusende herskat på det sociala och religiösa lifvets områden, har äfven för konststräfvandena haft sina gifna följder. inom de en- skilda yrkena ha kastindelnin- färg, mörka mot ljust och ljusa gens grundsatser gjort sig all- mot mörkt. sina motiv hemtar mänt gällande. det är först den indiska konsten, som lätt i vårt århundrade, som vi kunna förklarligt, hufvudsakligen ur uppvisa några väsentligare för- den inhemska floran. denna ändringar i den indiska kon- representeras i första rummet stens riktning af lotus, af präktiga rosor, rörlig och mångskiftande nejlikor, granater . v. visar den indiska ornamentiken oftast, särskildt å nyare konst- närmast frändskap med den slöjdalster, träffa vide all- persiska. plandekorationen, tid konventionelt behandlade, hvilken aldrig förlorar sin ka- långdraget snäckformiga pal- rakter af sådan, har att upp- metterna fig. ii; pl. visa en rent af slösande rike- fig. , ; pl. fig. , , dom på motiv, hvilkas färg- . prakt dock aldrig stöter ögat, den en gång högt uppdrifna utan skänker det en välgö. väfnadskonsten är i följd af rande hvila. teckningen sak- engelsk konkurrens stadd i nar all modellering, men kon- sjunkande, och jem väl de mo- turerna äro vanligen hållna i derna silkesbroderierna ha ge- en mot bottnen kontrasterande fig. . nom användande af de billiga, alltför bjerta anilinfärgerna förlorat mycket af sin forna lugna harmoni. de berömda kasjmirsjalarna med sin ouppnådda finhet, mjukhet och sina härliga färger skola dock ännu länge behålla sitt verldsrykte. brokiga bomullsväfnader (fig. och ), hvilkas randiga och flammiga mönster äro förträffligt afpassade för materialet, ha vunnit en vidsträckt utbredning såsom en billig ersättning för yllemattor. Äfven de flätade mattorna förtjena, både på grund af färg och teckning, vår fulla uppmärksamhet – fig. . de indiska lackarbetena, ur teknisk synpunkt mindre fulländade än de kinesiska och japanska, skilja sig från dessa i den väsentliga punkten, att lackeringen egentligen blott afser att skydda de i guld eller färger pålagda ornamenten. för fig. hänvisas till pl. och där meddelade upplysningar om den gammalindiska arki- tekturen. b , . , fig. . broderad duk. - . bårder broderade i silke. . silkesbroderi. bomullsväfnader. io. flätad matta. . infattningsmönster å kasjmirsjalar. , . lackmålning. . kolonnimpost från jambuishwar-templet vid trichinopoly i provinsen madras. ur wyatt: the industrial arts of the nineteenth century, . waring: masterpieces of industrial art and sculpture at the international exhibition, . bedford: treasury of ornamental art. lièvre: les arts décoratifs. w. griggs: india, photographs and drawings of historical buildings. pl. . indisk. marmorinlÄggning. e. blick på den gammalindiska arkitekturen visar oss, att vi här hafva att göra med en ytterst samman- satt blandningsstil, hvars element äro att söka långt tillbaka i tiden. redan de äldsta minnesmärkena ut- göras af rika med skulptur, mosaik och färger prydda stuckaturarbeten, der tekniken helt naturligt gynnar uppkomsten af yppiga, svällande former. samma benägenhet för öfverlastning framträder sedan äfven i de yngre, i klippan uthuggna eller af kvadersten uppförda byggnaderna. indiens tempel och palats förete en förvirrande mångfald och en sällsam fantastik. gudabilderna upprepas i hundratal; där förekomma hela räckor af lejon och elefanter, af fantastiska kolossala människogestalter, hvilka såsom karyatider bära de öfverliggande listverken; där äro mytologiska framställningar af alla slag, skildringar af strider och segrar och mellan allt detta brokiga virrvarr massor af inskrifter. kolonner, pelare och pilastrar förekomma i en oändlig rikedom af former; men gemensamma, karaktäristiska drag äro den städse framträdande växlingen af mångkantiga och runda grundformer, de talrikt förekommande afsnörningarna genom smala band samt de utsvällande, vidt framskjutande kapitalen. Öfver kapitalet höjer sig en långt framspringande, om träkonstruktioner påminnande, täckplatta, som ofta bär buddhas sinnebild, ett liggande lejon. (pl. , fig. och pl. , fig. .) under en senare tid, när den muham- medanska stilen genom arabiskt inflytande vunnit utbredning i indien, erhålla byggnadsverken en annan hållning, egendomlig och storartad äfven den. det är nu de svängda spetsbågsarkaderna och de väldiga kupolerna, som bestämma intrycket af det hela och utförandet stegras stundom till den mest slösande prakt. denna periods blomstringstid inträffar under det xvi och förra hälften af det xvii århundradet. till det forra hänföra sig de å pl. afbildade marmorinläggningarna från mongoliska gratbyggnader i agra (s. k. agramosaik). materialet är hvit marmor, hvarjämte byggnadens alla arkitektoniskt betydelsefullare delar äro prydda med mosaiker i brokiga stenarter: jaspis, heliotrop, kalcedon, agat o. dyl. stjälkar, knoppar och blommor äro återgifna med finaste natursinne och ypperligt anpassade efter den urgamla mosaiktekniken. the bu paul kelio fig. . fig. - . marmorinläggningar från grafbyggnaderna öfver schah jéhan och begum mumtaz-i- mahal. . genombruten väggfyllning af röd sandsten från fathepur-sikri. ur: journal of indian art. indisk. + do marmorinläggningar. 上 ​ persisk som f. haaga. barrer au . . adood bato gooogd odgad od pond capidapa apoan soghas- jonood poa to dodecae doonoodoo arkitektur. by dogodne h: opondok paoa a pada saada goood aya tod obdo qano de ga sor . huyu reciso qirma : forumero mogo soogd set pl. . persisk vÄfnad och manuskript mÅlning. bland land persiska väfnadsalster stå de i provinsen kirman af gethår förfärdigade schalarna högt i anseende. de komma i skönhet de berömda indiska schalarna ganska nära, och liksom i dessa bildar palmmönstret det hufvudsakligaste dekorations- motivet. af utmärkt skönhet äro afvenledes de persiska mattorna, sidentygerna och guldbrokaderna, i synnerhet de i schiraz tillverkade. såväl på keramikens son: på väfnadskonstens och manu- skriptmåleriets områden är det företrädesvis de sekundära och brutna färgerna, som användas, och då dessa vanligen på ett lyckligt sätt stämma öfverens med hvarandra och med grundtonen, så utmärka sig hithörande föremål i allmänhet genom koloritens friskhet och behag. dessa företräden ha gjort, att de persiska, med blommor öfverströdda, med bilder af fyrfotadjur och fåglar ofta lifvade mattorna och dukarna, liksom de omsorgsfullt målade koranmanuskripten blifvit utbredda och omtyckta öfverallt i orienten. dock stå de persiska konstalstren, genom ojämnheten i massornas för- delning öfver ytan, på visst sätt efter de arabisk-moriska. i fig. i se vi prof på en konventionel behandling af urgamla växtınotiv (det grekiska blom- och palmett-mönstret). de stora bladen å fig. visa en hos araberna ganska vanlig stilisering. – jfr äfven pl. , fig. . fig. . persisk matta från -talet. . väfnadsmönster ur en gammal persisk ornamentbok i s. kensington museum. . manuskriptmålning ur en koran. - . bokbandsprydnader. ur lièvre: les arts décoratits. bedford: treasury af ornamental art. owen jones: grammar at ornament. collinot et beaumont: recueil de dessins. torti ter fig. . pl. . persisk. metall-arbeten. kopparkar opparkärl från staden kaschan, konstnärligt utförda filigranarbeten från sendschan liksom öfriga persiska ciselerade bronsvaser och dryckeskärl hafva alltid stått högt i anseende för sin skönhet och arbetets godhet. i nästan ännu högre grad gäller detta om de damaskerade vapnen och rustningarna från korasan, schi- ras och ispahan, hvilka ännu i dag och med rätta ega världsrykte. prydda med utmärkta damaskeringar eller trent i. kihunga fig, . med drifna ornament, visa de alla den persiska stilens karakteristiska kännetecken i den rikaste omväxling. härjämte forekommer ofta som prydnad persisk skrift: tänkespråk eller satser af religiöst innehåll. – fig. och samt pl. fig. i. Äfven djur- och människovärlden lämnar motiv till ornering. fig. i, och . i fig. , . hjälm och sköld. . bård på en rustning – . prydnader på metallkärl. - skedskaft. metallkärl. fig. – tecknade efter föremål i landesgewerbeniuseum i stuttgart. - ur collinot et beaumont: recueil de dessins etc. persisk-arabisk. | || | || e & väggbeklädnad af glaseradt lergods. pl. persisk-arabisk. vÄggbeklÄdnad af glaseradt lergods. närlagda plansch framställer en i ibrahim agas moské i kairo befintlig väggbeklädnad från -talet, det starka betonandet af växtmotiven häntyder hvilken företer en blandning af persisk och arabisk stil. nämligen på ett persiskt inflytande. fig. . : textfiguren visar grundmönstret och infattningsbården på en af fajansplattor bildad persisk vägg- beklädnad. ur prisse d'avennes: l'art arabe. » » l'art pour tous.» di fig. . pl. arabisk. vÄfnad, sÖmnad, mÅlning. knappt år efter sin religionsstiftare muhammeds framträdande hade araberna redan utbildat en stil, fig , . nappt år efter sin religionsstiftare muhammeds framträdande hade araberna redan utbildat en stil, som visserligen i många enskildheter slöt sig till persiska, egyptiska, bysantiska eller ännu aflägsnare före- bilder, men som dock måste anses som en alldeles egendomlig. särskildt och i allra högsta grad gäller detta om dekorationsstilen, det område där deras konstnärliga begåfning erhållit sitt fullaste och trognaste uttryck. för deras vidtsväfvande, sjudande fantasi, deras poetiska sinnesriktning var den enkla efterbild- ningen af verkligheten ej nog. vi träffa därför jämförelsevis sällan framställningar af människor och djur, (det förmenta förbudet i koran mot utförandet af bilder existerar dock egentligen ej). däremot utmärker sig den arabiska konsten genom en praktfull och glänsande ornamentik, som i vidsträcktaste grad finner an- vändning inom alla konstverksamhetens grenar, och som lika mycket fängslar eftertanken som ögat. dess väsentligaste element utgöres af rika geometriska liniekombinationer, som i brokig växling, breda ut sig öfver de sirade föremålens ytor pl. , fig. , nedre delen, pl. , fig. i, , , pl. , vid anordningen af dessa sinnrika stjärnformer, rosetter . s. v. härskar den grundsatsen, att hvarje linie återgår till sin utgångspunkt. detta geometriska nätverk utgör i vissa fall den enda prydnaden; oftast är det dock förenadt med en växtornering, som fyller öppningarne mellan de hvarandra korsande linierna eller flätar sig in mellan och öfver dessa, eller helt och hållet kläder den geometriska stommen, som då blott skimrar igenom i växtformernas anordning. det är denna blandning af geometriska och växtmotiv, som i egentlig mening kallas arabesker. härjämte förekomma dock äfven rena växtornament. i dessa växtformer återklinga motiv från tidigare konststilar, antikens palmetter, antemier o. s. v., eller äro de hämtade direkt från naturen. karaktäristiska för den arabiska konsten äro de långsträckta, stundom klufna bladen, med omböjda spetsar pl. , fig, , pl. , fig. , , m. a. – araberna synas äfven först hafva upptagit dessa behändiga mönster, hvarå pl. , fig. visar prof, där tvänne räckor af i motsatt riktning ställda figurer bildas genom en enda kroklinie. en viktig beståndsdel af dekorationen utgöra slutligen skrifttecknen, hvilka i ornamentala former såsom bårder omgifva den öfriga orneringen eller på annat sätt foga sig in i densamma, pl. , fig. , öfre delen, pl. , fig. . genom motsättningen af olika, i allmänhet lifliga färger bringas klarhet och reda i de skenbart invecklade mönstren och utbreder sig en lugn harmoni öfver den dekorerade ytan. >> . fig. . matta från -talet, nu i kyrkan i nivelles. belgien. påläggsömnad (applikation) från -talet. . del af en målad plafond i moskén el bordeini i kairo. . fris från moskén el daher. -talet, ur prisse d'avennes: l'art arabe. arabisk. 心 ​face bmx asmronor y 能​。。。 . väfnad, sömnad, målning. arabisk. . কে [ ie ব ) গাণিতি। le aitlঠislঠ। c if ornering i trä, metall och sten. pl. . arabisk. manuskriptmÅlning. j. emväl i målningarna på pergament uppenbara de arabiske konstnärerna sin utomordentliga skicklighet i plandekoration. strängt stiliseradt bladverk omvexlar med geometriska figurer, eller inläggas arabesk- ornamenten som fyllning i de olika fälten, hvilka markeras genom band och linier. på detta sätt äro i många koranmanuskript hela sidor behandlade. - i fig. och lemnas fyra olika prof på färglagda motiv af denna art. – texten omgifves merendels af rosetter och friser, hvilka äro fylda med oupphörligt nya kombinationer af linier och bladverk. det praktfulla och dock så harmoniska intrycket af dessa målningar beror framför allt på den ypperliga sammanställningen af färgerna, hvilkas glans ytterligare höjes genom rikligt användande af guld. i fig. igenkänna vi det urgamla, både i den assyriska och den grekiska konsten förekommande palmett- och knoppmotivet, antemiet (jfr pl. , fig. , pl. , fig. m. fl.), men på ett originelt sätt ombildadt. fig. , erinra på samma sätt om vissa medeltidsmönster, men öfver allt varsna vi de för den arabisk-moriska konsten karakteristiska, omböjda eller inrullade bladspetsarna. fig. i. ornament ur en arabisk koran från -talet. , . -talet. , morisk -talet. , . arabisk -talet. - . -talet. ii, . morisk -talet. . slutvignett arabisk -talet. >> > ur prisse d'avennes: l'art arabe. fig. : : arabisk-morisk. ten be zwa sales theatre arkitektonisk ornering. pl. arabisk-morisk. arkitektonisk ornering. i nom den arabiska konsten kan man visserligen på grund af dess utbredning öfver stora och vidt skilida nom den arabiska konsten kan man visserligen på grund af dess utbredning öfver stora och vidt skiljda områden lägga märke till vissa provinsiela olikheter och egendomligheter, men man måste tillika beundra den enhetlighet, som genomgår hela denna konst. på arkitekturens område möta vi de redan i den gammal-asiatiska konsten förekommande tinnkransarna öfver de krönande gesimserna, ehuru nu på ett fantastiskt sätt ombildade, än helt släta, än rikt dekorerade (fig. - ); vidare den förut blott af praktiska skäl använda spetsbågen. estetiskt utbildad, än med raka förhöjda ben: »styltad», än med sammanböjda ben: »hästskobåge», var den egnad att aflösa den häfdvunna romerska rundbågen. kolonnerna sluta sig dels till egyptiska, dels till byzantinska förebilder, eller äro de rent af sammansatta af verkliga grekiska och romerska kolonorester. under ett senare skede (ungefär från - talet) erhålla de en egendomlig form. kapitälet utgöres då i hufvudsak af en med blad- och rank-verk prydd tärning öfver en rund hals fig. ; pl. , fig. . - corpordadoporot fig. . mea fig. . fig. . fig. . för att förmedla öfvergången från väggarnas lodräta plan till plafonden eller hvalfven användas ofta i stuck och färger utförda s. k. stalaktiter, droppstenslika bildningar, hvilka i form af på sned genom- skurna honingceller skjuta fram öfver hvarandra och utfylla vinkeln mellan de olika planen fig. , . fig. i återger ett slags väggdekoration, som ofta behandlas i färger, och som utföres af gips i låg relief. här träffa vi bland ornamenten det särskildt i alhambra talrikt förekommande s. k. arabiska fjädermotivet, tydligen en bladform med starkt framhållen nervförgrening. jfr. fig. ; pl. , fig. , , ii; pl. , fig. , , , , . i den moriska liksom i den arabiska ornamentiken äro de stiliserade växtmotiven oftast under- ordnade under eller liksom inlagda i ett geometriskt linienät. inom växtornamentiken förekomma blom- kalkar synnerligen ofta, framför allt ur araceernas familj, hvilka spelade en viktig rol redan inom den grekiska konsten och otvifvelaktigt äro lånade därifrån. fig. i. väggfyllning från alhambra. . stenornament öfver en dörr. kairo. , . kolonnbas och kapital. kairo. , . kolonnbas och kapitäl. - alhambra. , . stalaktitornering. "kairo. kragstenar (konsoler). kairo. ii- . tinnar. kairo. - . ytmönster. kairo. , . ur goury & . jones: alhambra. bourgoin: les elements de l'art arabe. prisse d'avenne: l'art arabe. pl. . arabisk-morisk. mosaik, glaseradt lergods. vissa drag i den muhammedanska byggnadskonsten, vagytornas indelning genom bågställningar, deras issa drag i den muhammedanska byggnadskonsten, väggytornas indelning genom bågställningar, deras beklädnad med rikt färgade fajans- och marmorplattor eller med mosaik, utvisa en påverkan af den sasani- tiska konsten, som blomstrade i det s. k. nypersiska riket ( — f. kr.) och som i sin ordning upp- stått under inflytelser af gammalasiatiska och af klassiska, d. v. s. grekisk-romerska förebilder. fig. . de arabiska och moriska mosaikerna äro sammansatta dels af marmorbitar af olika färg, dels af måladt och glaseradt lergods. stundom äro mönstren fördjupade i marmorplattor och sedermera utfyllda med färgadt cement. jfr. fig. -ii. - i mosaikerna är det rent geometriska elementet förherskande. vid färgvalet äro i regeln de brutna färgerna mest omtyckta. i sammanhang härmed bör anmärkas, att morerna i detta slags arbeten ej använde de primära färgerna, som eljest så godt som uteslutande äro i bruk, utan gåfvo företrädet åt de sekundära såsom orange och grönt. mosaikerna förekomma både som golfbeläggning och som beklädnad af väggarnas nedre del. . kairo. fig. i, , . väggbeklädnad af glaseradt lergods. alhambra. väggbeklädnad af glaseradt lergods, scheikhuns moské. – , - . marmor med stuckinläggning. kairo. . marmor med stuckinläggning. damaskus. målad takfris från moskén el-bordeyny. >> . ur bourgoin: les éléments de l'art arabe. prisse d'avennes: l'art arabe. goury & . jones: alhambra. arabisk-morisk. . . . oo ☺ . . x . . mosaik, glaseradt lergods. morisk. o -o cline sc as g sekeeeebesesse bud tu uudies rs idolmetsch arkitektonisk ornering. eisa a fig. pl. . turkisk. arkitektonisk ornering af glaseradt lergods. om någon egendomlig turkisk stil kan man knappt tala före -talets slut. m någon egendomlig turkisk stil kan man knappt tala före -talets slut. före denna tid blefvo t.ex. de kristna kyrkorna i de eröfrade länderna helt enkelt använda till moskéer, eller öfverlemnade man åt kristne konstnärer att utföra de nya byggnaderna. i öfverensstämmelse härmed var äfven ornamentiken i början påverkad af byzantinska, sedermera dels af persiska, dels af arabiska förebilder. ur dessa båda senare beståndsdelar har den turkiska ornamentiken sedermera utvecklat sig. anmärkningsvärd är till en början den talrika förekomsten af den djupt inskärande vinkeln i blad och rankor, hvilken leder sitt ursprung från persien jfr pl. , fig. ; vidare en viss torftighet i rankmönstren, som i motsats till den moriska anordningen lemna stora partier af bottenytan tomma och bara, fig. och . Äfven de små isättningar, som i olika färger äro målade på bladen, sakna ofta en finare form. deremot älskar jemväl den turkiska ornamentiken en konstrik sammansnärjning af flere liniesystem. de färger, hvilka användas, äro ej synnerligen lifliga, och man saknar i deras sammanställning den arabisk-moriska konstens prakt och rikedom. bottenfärgen utgjordes i äldre tid nästan alltid af ett mättadt djupblått; i senare arbeten ha gröna eller ljusröda bottnar öfverhand. hur den persiska blomsterverldens motiv i en jemförelsevis ursprunglig form träda fram öfverallt i de islamitiska folkens ornamentik, visa fig. , , ii. — Öfver hufvud bör framhållas, att persiska konstalster, i synnerhet fajansplattor o. d., i stor myckenhet vunno insteg hos turkarne och af dem användes. fig. , , . i, , , , , . från jechildjami, »den gröna moskén», i brussa. från jechil-turbé, sultan muhammed i:s graf, i brussa. från murad i:s graf i brussa. stenfris från moskén jechil-djami i brussa. io, ii. . ur parvillée: architecture et décoration turques au xvme siècle. . i pl. . keltisk. manuskriptmÅlning. h. os den keltiska befolkningen i irland utbildade sig tidigt en egendomlig ornamentik af sjelfstandig prägel, hvars begynnelse går tillbaka ända till den tid, då hedendomen ännu rådde på ön. kristendomen vann emellertid tidigt insteg och genom de irske andlige spred sig stilen till andra delar af europa. på inflytelser från irland, förmedlade genom de nordiska folkens handels- och härfarder, beror en skiftning af hvad man kallar fornnordisk diagonal-mönster fig. , de stil, den som bl. a. framträder i qvadratiska fälten i fig. . - de rikare runstensslingorna. kroklinien bildar spiral-mönster o. denna irska eller keltiska d., men framför allt dessa skarp- ornamentik finna vi använd på sinnigt sammansatta flätverk, band- metallföremål af olika slag för slingor, > valknutar», hvarå vi åter- kyrkligt eller verldsligt bruk lik- finna prof i fig. , , . härtill som å stenkors och grafvårdar, komma de ofta använda, egen- men framför allt i de talrika, domligt stiliserade djurformerna, i irlands kloster utförda manu- fyrfotadjur närmast liknande vindt- skripten. hundar, och foglar närmast lik- till sin hufvudkarakter är nande hägern, med långsträckt det en linear ornamentik, som bandlik kropp, spensliga ben, ett dock inom sitt område drar in från nacken utgående band och talrika djurgestalter, i någon mån ofta förlängd svans. alla dessa äfven menniskofigurer och, ehuru bandlika partier slingra sig i hvar- ytterst sparsamt, växtformer. den andra på mångfaldigt sätt och räta linien företrädes af s. k. t- fig. . fylla sålunda ytan fig. i, , och z-mönster, trapp-, trekant-, . mera sällan förekommer menniskogestalten eller delar deraf - fig. -, i detta fall uppfattad såsom ett kalligrafiskt ornament, till hvilket man satt ett menniskohufvud och menskliga extremiteter. ytterst oansenliga och sparsamma äro under den äldre tiden växtformerna. senare göra sig den romanska konstens inflytelser gällande. så i fig. samt helt och hållet i fig. i, . i fig. , finna vi i fiskarna ett för den ursprungliga irska ornamentiken egentligen främmande motiv, hvilket är af fornkristet ursprung och ofta förekommer i handskrifter från den merovingiska tiden i frankrike ( — -talet). färgernas antal är i början ringa; i synnerhet förekommer guld först i en senare tid. fig. i- . >> , > . -ii. . från -talet. -talet. talet. -talet. -talet. -talet. >> . ur humphreys & owen jones: the illuminated books of the middle ages. wyatt: the art of illuminating. appendice à l'imitation de jésus-christ, pl. byzantinsk. . glasmosaik, emalj, manuskriptmÅlning. i den mån det vestromerska riket på - -talet nalkades sin undergång, råkade äfven konsten på italiensk mark i förfall; men samtidigt uppblomstrade det östromerska eller byzantinska väldet och här, under skydd af det mäktiga kejsardömet, som hade sin medelpunkt i byzans, fann konsten vid det glänsande hofvet en trygg fristad. denna byzantinska konst hade ingalunda någon originel karakter; den slöt sig i allt väsentligt till den senromerska, den upptog helt naturligt många element ur den gammalgrekiska, och den visade sig mottaglig jemväl för orientaliska inflytelser. men icke dess mindre kom den byzantinska stilen, på grund af det upplösningstillstånd, som rådde i vesterlandet, att jemväl där intaga en dominerande ställning ända in emot slutet af det första årtusendet, delvis ännu längre. konstföremål infördes i massor från Öst-rom till italien, byzantinske konstnärer och handtverkare gjorde där sin tekniska duglighet och sin stiluppfattning gällande. sålunda kunna vi förstå, hvarför man i nästan alla länder i europa träffar konstföremål, hvilkas byzantinska ursprung är oomtvistligt. offentliga byggnader, palats, kyrkor voro i det inre prydda på det mest glänsande sätt. praktlusten hos tidens stormän tilltalades alldeles särskildt af den s. k. glasstiftmosaiken, som sammansätter väldiga figurframställningar, målningar, t. ex. i sofiakyrkan i konstantinopel, af idel små glastärningar af olika färg och storlek. karakteristiskt är, att man nästan utan undantag nyttjar guldgrund, liksom guld öfver hufvud finner en nästan obegränsad användning. en foljd häraf blef, att de samtidigt brukade färgerna måste hållas mycket djupa och kraftiga. vanligast förekomma rödt, blått, grönt. jemväl i väggemaljen framträda öfver allt dessa mättade färger. tekniken hade högst sannolikt redan tidigt blifvit införd från kina eller indien. som underlag för emaljen och skiljeväggarna af pålödd metalltråd användes nästan endast guld. ornamentiken rör sig antingen i geometriska, mer eller mindre enkla mönster – fig. , , - eller framställer den vackra stiliserade rankor. dessa visa under den första tiden mycken likhet med de gammalgrekiska, men snart skönjer man, ex. i akantusbladen, en allt stelare behandling af formen. sarskildt är detta fallet i manuskriptmålningarna. kristna symboler, särskildt korset, användas i stor nyckenhet. t. fig. . . >> >> >> glasmosaik från tunnhvalfvet öfver hufvudskeppet i galla placidias grafkyrka i ravenna. markuskyrkan i venedig. . en af hvalf kupolerna i sofiakyrkan i konstantinopel. . hvalfvet i dopkapellet s. giovanni in fonte i ravenna. - . emalj från ett antependium i klosterkyrkan i komburg vid hall. würtemberg. , ii. manuskriptmålningar ur evangelieböcker från - -talet i kejserliga biblioteket i s. petersburg , ornament ur ett manuskript från -talet i museet i moskva. fig. , - efter verkligheten. det öfriga ur hessemer: arabische und altitalienische bauverzierungen. salzenberg: altchristliche baudenkmale von konstantinopel. boutovsky: histoire de l'ornement russe du x au xvi siècle, d'apres les manuscrits. byzantinsk. s- se . . ts . . . . aaaaaa . . x . x . . . gropemalj, mosaik i marmor och glas. pl. byzantinsk. gropemalj, mosaik i marmor och glas. j emte väggemalj (email cloisonné) förekom äfven gropemalj (email champlevé) jfr texten till pl. . – fig. i visar ett i denna senare teknik utfördt arbete: kristus på regnbågen omgifven af de fyra evangelisternas tecken. man varsnar i behandlingen af figurerna en liflöshet, som inom den byzantinska konsten tilltager med tidernas lopp. det upphöjda lugnet har i midtfiguren antagit formen af stel orörlighet. marmormosaiken, som i slösande rikedom täcker golfytorna, visar äfven här en brokig vexling, af geometriska motiv. i denna riktning har den byzantinska konsten gifvit den islamitiska många impulser. jemte de geometriska mönstren förekomma äfven konventionelt behandlade blad och blomrankor, hvilka såsom förut blifvit antydt, erinra om antika förebilder. fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. i. bokperm af förgyld brons med gropemalj och ädelstenar. -tal. mus. correr. venedig. , , . marmormosaiker från golfvet i s. alessio. rom. . marmormosaik från golfvet i s. maria in cosmedin. rom. . i s. vitale. ravenna. . glasmosaik från s. maria in araceli. rom. . s. alessio. rom. domen i messina. - i monreale. sicilien. fasaden till domen i orvieto. , . marmorinläggning från kapital i markuskyrkan. venedig. , . väggarna i sofia-kyrkan. konstantinopel. — . glasmosaik från ett tak i markuskyrkan. venedig. , . ii >> — . >> fig. - , , , – efter verkligheten, de flesta af h. dolmetsch. det öfriga ur morey: charpente de la cathédrale de messine. hessemer: arabische und altialienische bauverzierungen. salzenberg: altchristliche baudenkmale von konstantinopel. zahn: ornamente aller klassischen kunstepochen. ongania: la basilica di san marco in venezia. byzantinsk. sm) . . . . 보보 ​일 ​) c iiii . sömnad och väfnad. pl. rysk. manuskriptmÅlning. de fornslaviska manuskript, till en del härstammande ända från x. århundradet, hvilka bevarats til fornslaviska manuskript, till en del härstammande ända från x. århundradet, hvilka bevarats till våra dagar, äro ganska talrika, i ty att af de gamla ryska klostrens bibliotek och skattkammare en stor del bibehållits i oskadadt skick. härjämte innehålla det kejserliga biblioteket i s:t petersburg och synodal- tryckeriets i moskwa bibliotek en betydande samling handskrifter. på pl. hafva vi under byzantisk ornamentik visat några exempel på manuskriptmålning, hvilka förvaras i ryska bibliotek och härstamma från det x—xiii århundradet. i anslutning härtill finnas på pl. ett större antal karaktäristiska exempel från det xiv. och xv. århundradet, det ryska manuskript- måleriets blomstringstid. under denna period framträda å ena sidan de på geometrisk grund hvilande fig. . flätverksmönstren, å andra sidan de friare, med djurbilder genomflätade motiven, hvilka senare erinra om keltisk ornamentik. de använda färgerna äro få och inskränka sig i regeln till blått, rödt, gult och grönt. denna enkelhet i färg, förenad med en symmetrisk anordning af formerna, förlänar det hela ett välgörande lugn, så att man nu för tiden med förkärlek använder denna tids motiv för färgtryck, emaljer och liknande tekniska förfaringssätt. >> och >> >> fig. . ur ett evangelium från xiv. århundradet i det kejserliga offentliga biblioteket. , , och . ur psalterier i trefaldighetsklostrets vid moskwa bibliotek. och . ur psalterier i det kejserliga offentliga biblioteket. ur evangelier i rumjantzoff-museet i moskwa. . kopplister -t. rostow. , . ur en bönbok i ett kloster i moskwa. io, ii. delar af bokstäfver -t. . ur en bönbok i bjeloserski-klostret -t. . ur ett evangelium i maria förklarings kloster vid novgorod. . ur ett psalterium, -talet. . kopplist ur verket »appendice à l'imitation de jesus-christ». . ur ett evangelium -t. i rumjantzoff-museet i moskwa. pl. är sammanställd af m. scherwinsky, föreståndare för konstindustriella skolan i riga. ur: konstindustrimuseets i moskwa samling. w. stassow: slavisches ornament nach alten und neueren handschriften. geschichte der russischen ornamente vom x bis xiv jahrhundert. appendice à l'imitation de jesus christ. > >> >> fig. . pl. . rysk. arkitektoniska prydnader och trÄsniderier. den en äldsta ryska byggnadskonsten ansluter sig såväl i form som dekoration nära till den byzantinska, ett förhållande, som förklaras däraf, att kristendomen på -talet från byzans utbredde sig öfver ryssland. dessa rysk-byzantinska minnesmärken sakna visserligen ingalunda egendomliga motiv, som först i ryssland erhållit sin utbildning, men det är dock tills vidare ej möjligt att komma på det klara med deras ursprung. många af de för denna stil egna formerna, särskildt de, som utmärka den senare, redan fullt utvecklade ryska stilen på -talet, torde väl böra anses härstamma från orienten. den ryska stilens blomstringstid räckte blott till in på -talet; vid denna tid började här, liksom i hela europa i öfrigt, det franska inflytandet att göra sig gällande. ett af de märkligaste och ). mellan tvenne hufvudstöd före- egendomligaste arkitekturverk från komma ofta sammanstötande bågar, midten af -talet är den helige hvilande på en sväfvande rikt ut- basilius' kyrka i moskva (uppförd sirad tapp, (fig. ). till minne af kasans eröfring). för i rikets mellersta och nord- moderna arbeten i rysk stil an- liga delar finna vi på landtfolkets vändas med förkärlek formerna boningshus en träarkitektur, synner- från detta århundrade. ligen rik på motiv, hvilka ofta karaktäristiska för de ryska äro af mycket gammalt ursprung. kyrkobyggnaderna äro de i de den stränga stilen i dessa arbeten mest olikartade former förekom- af hyflade utsågade bräder, lik- mande lökformiga kupolerna (fig. som den noggrannhet, som ned. i). en rik utbildning erhålla i lagts på deras utförande äro rent synnerhet baldakinerna inuti kyr- af förvånande. en synnerlig om- korna, de äro rikt utstyrda med sorg ägnas prydandet af de s. k. kölbågformiga gaflar och krönta vindbrädena i gaflarna (fig. ii, af små torn, hvarigenom det hela och ). liknande ornering något påminner om gotiken, (fig. fig. . förekommer äfven under de fram- skjutande fönsterlisterna. härtill kommer dessutom ofta målning i lifliga färger, hvarigenom dessa delar på långt håll likna de i ryssland så omtyckta, rikt broderade och spetskantade handklädena, som brukas till prydnader för helgonbilder, speglar . dyl. de omtalade prydnadsbräderna kallas också af folket handdukar den ryska arkitekturen förtjänar en särskild uppmärksamhet, och vi glädja oss åt att man i dess moderland på de senaste åren genom utgifvande af förtjänstfulla publikationer börjat söka fästa uppmärk- samheten i vida kretsar på denna i hög grad intressanta byggnadsstil. in >> figur . kyrkokupoler från jaroslaw. - och -talet. och . förgyllda träsniderier från baldakinen öfver kejsarstolen i nicolaikyrkan i jaros- law -talet. . från en baldakin i kejserliga konstakademiens museum. och . snidade rosetter från hufvuddörren till altaret i johanneskyrkan vid rostow. -talet. — . fönsterfoder från trähus i guvernementet wologda. - gafvelprydnad från samma ställe. - . prydnadsbräder på gesimser o. dyl. -- . dörrfyllningsrosetter af utsågade bräder, guvernementet samara. och . delar af dylika rosetter. kapitäl med växtornament. . figur , och — efter fotagrafier af m. scherwinsky, föreståndare för konstindustriella skolan i riga. det öfriga ur : »furst gagarin, samling af byzantinska och gammalryska ornament.» >l'architecte: »petersburg, årg. , och » viollet-le-duc, l'art russe.» rysk . + odoc . . . . co . tt . . . oo . . wan оооо care . . . . arkitektoniska prydnader och träsniderier. pl. rysk. emalj, majolika, vÄgg- och takmÅlningar, lackerade arbeten. den en i ryssland urgamla emaljtekniken på guld, silfver och koppar är därstädes mycket utbredd och mycket populär. fig. – visa oss några intressanta exempel på denna konst, i synnerhet fig. bär vittne om den vidsträckta användning denna ädla teknik funnit, i det att den framställer kanten af en gyllene tallrik, som skall hafva tillhört en servis för personer, hvilken zar alexej michailowitsch ( — ) låtit ryska handtverkare förfärdiga. redan tidigt blef majolikatekniken vidt utbredd, i det att den med synnerlig förkärlek användes till prydande af fasaderna på palats och kyrkor, men äfven i det inre på altaren och framför allt på kakel- ugnar och spislar. i många städer vid volga, i synnerhet i jaroslaw, finnas talrika exempel härpå. Äfven i nyare tid har man mångenstädes i ryssland ånyo upptagit denna vackra teknik och lyckats åstadkomma goda saker. fig. . hvad angår det ornamentala vägg- och takmåleriet så finnes däraf i ryssland ej synnerligen mycket kvar från gamla tider. hvad som återstår är i allmänhet friser prydda med sirligt rankverk med stora blad och blommor i mättade färger som mest erinra om orientaliska förebilder, stundom afbrutet af infogade porträttmedaljonger. en af de intressantaste grenarna af den ännu i mellersta ryssland öfvade husslöjden är för- färdigandet af lackerade träarbeten, hvilka äro af stor hållbarhet (fig. - ). dessa saker förses först med ett öfverdrag at fint slammad grafit, hvarpå sedan mönstren målas hufvudsakligen i svart och rödt, det hela öfverdrages därpå med ett lager af tjockt kokad linolja, hvarigenom grafiten får en grönaktig gyllene färgton, som förlänar dessa arbeten en mycket rik och varm kolorit. >> och . figur - . väggmålningar från en spiraltrappa i maria-bebådelsekatedralen i moskwa. -talet. — . hvalfornament från ett hus i moskwa. -talet. majolikapilastrar använda som fönsteromfattning i terem (kejsarinnepalatset) på kreml i moskwa. — kakel från staden ustjug. -talet, i kejserliga sällskapets för konstens främ- jande museum i s:t petersburg. bården af en guldtallrik i skattkammaren på kreml. - . hängprydnad från en helgonbild från -talet; emalj på silfver; i kejserliga sällskapets för konstens främjande museum i s:t petersburg. - . lackerade träskedar och en pallskifya; bondarbeten från guvernementet nowgorod. ornament i drifven metall. . figur — efter fotografier af m. scherwinsky, föreståndare för konstindustriella skolan i riga. det öfriga ur: »n. simakof, l'ornement russe dans les anciens produits de l'art industriel national.” »th. sonzen, altertümer des russischen kaiserreiches. moskwa – .>> » viollet-le-duc, l'art russe.» byzantinsk och romansk. . a w w . . ch . heisendsets kschaupert arkitektur och skulptur. pl. . romansk. manuskriptmÅlning och emalj. fria riast kunde den romanska ornamentiken utveckla sig på manuskript-(miniatur-)måleriets område, där framför allt de stora begynnelsebokstäfverna (initialerna) behandlades på ett glänsande sätt, fig. i, . särskildt är det djurmotiven som här framträda i förbindelse med rankverk i egendomliga, arabesklika former. grunden hålles under en äldre tid i guld, senare är den af växlande färg. emaljtekniken, som från byzans öfverfördes till tyskland, erhöll här en hög fulländning; men i stället för de dyrbara guldplåtarna använde man koppar, och i stället för den omständliga väggemaljen kom gropemaljen i bruk. – köln i tyskland och limoges i frankrike blefvo under medeltiden hufvud. orter för detta slags tillverkningar. i regeln blefvo vid figurframställningar endast bakgrunden och de omgifvande ornamenten utförda i emalj. figurerna däremot spardes ut å metallens yta; med grafstickeln angaf man därefter enskildheterna, dräktens linjer o. d., hvarefter dessa ytterligare framhöllos genom emaljering. jfr fig. . fig. visar ett något afvikande behandlingssätt, i det de inre linierna här äro utsparda i metallen och de mellanliggande ytorna emaljerade. hufvudet är här liksom å många lik- nande arbeten utfördt i förgyld koppar och särskildt tillsatt. fig. och visa de i arkitekturen ofta förekommande zickzack- och rundbågsfriserna. fig. >> >> >> > i. initial ur ett tyskt manuskript (rhenländsk skola). - -talet. biblioteket i paris. . -talet. privatsamling i köln. . relik-kors. -talets första hälft. stiftsmuseet i freising. bayern. . pilaster från den hel. heriberts skrin. -talets midt. benediktinerklostret i deutz vid köln. , . från ett relikskrin i aachen. -talet. . ur en samling i bonn. -talet. . från den hel. annos skrin i det forna klostret i siegburg. -talet. , . från ett relikskrin i s. kensington-museet i london. -talet. ii. från ett relikskrin. -talet. , . från den hel. andreas' altare i domen i trier. -talet. . emaljerad kopparplatta i privatego i bamberg. -talet. . helgongloria från ett skrin i det forna klostret i siegburg. -talet. - . prydnader å processionskors i essen. rhenprovinsen. -talet. från den hel. heriberts skrin. jfr fig. . . från carl den stores skrin i aachen. i -talet. , . från den hel. mauritius' skrin i siegburg. -talet. . från ett altare. -talet. . fig. — . emaljarbeten. ur labarte: histoire des arts industriels. weerth: kunstdenkmäler des christlichen mittelalters in den rheinlanden. becker und hefner: kunstwerke und gerätschaften des mittelalters und der renaissance. hoffman: les arts et l'industrie. romansk. so: sor x xx iesvs xp.siv s sk $ ooooo * . sin manuskriptmålning och emalj. pl. . romansk. vÄggmÅlning. de vid väggmålning använda tigerna ito glada och visa en stor omväxling, man finner ej i män- niskogestalterna samma stela gubbaktighet som inom den byzantinska konsten; de förete i regeln en större rörlighet och ungdomlighet. i dräkterna, hvilka tämligen noga sluta sig till kroppsformerna, är veckfallet bättre motiveradt än t. ex. i de byzantinska bilderna. för ornamentets former gäller äfven här hvad som i allmänhet är anfördt om den romanska stilens egendomligheter. cirkeln och cirkeldelar användas i riklig mån. fig. >> - i, . från korrundeln i basilica di s. angelo in formis vid capua. -talet. - . från kapitelsalen i det forna benediktinerklostret brauweiler vid köln. -talet. från underkyrkan i schwarz-rheindorf vid bonn. -talets midt. , ii, . från koret i domkyrkan i braunschweig. -talet. . från den forna klosterkyrkan i marcigny. Ö. frankrike. -talet. , . från kyrkan i anzy. Ö. frankrike. -talet. , från s. francesco i assisi : underkyrkan. . från öfverkyrkan i schwarz-rheindorf. -talet. fig. , efter verkligheten af h. dolmetsch. det öfriga ur weerth: wandmalerien des christl. mittelalters in den rheinlanden. salazaro: studi sui monumenti della italia meridionale del ix al xiii secolo. gailhabaud: l'architecture du v au xvii siècle. calliat: encyclopedie d'architecture. fig. . pl. . romansk-gotisk. glasmÅlning. tillverkningen af färgadt glas var känd redan i forntiden, men om glasmålning i egentlig mening kan illverkningen af färgadt glas var känd redan i forntiden, men om glasmålning i egentlig mening kan man först tala från slutet af -talet. då gjordes de första försöken att med en mörkare, påsmält färg, svartlod, schattera i godset färgadt glas. på -talet gjorde tekniken ytter- glaset anbringade en olika färg. de ligare framsteg ofärgadt glas, som särskilda glasbitarna förenades sedermera likväl alltid hade en grönaktig eller gul genom blyinfattningar, som följde teck- ton, öfverdrogs med ett lager färgadt, ningens linier. under den romanska s. k. >öfverfångsglas), och i detta in. perioden ha glasmålningarna ännu helt slipades teckningen, så att det röfver- och hållet karakteren af väfnader, af fångade» glaset efter omständigheterna förhängen, hvilka de också äro afsedda på sina ställen kvarstod tjockare eller att ersätta. fönsterytan täckes med tunnare eller t. . m. helt och hållet band- och blad-ornament, i hvilkas midt bortslipades. på dessa färglösa ställen redan tidigt anbringas medaljonger med ) kunde man sedermera anbringa mål- små figurframställningar. jemförelsevis ningar i en annan smältfärg, eller sökte sällan förekomma stående, hela fönstret man erhålla en större färgrikedom däri- fyllande bilder. de enskilda figurerna äro genom att man på hvardera sidan af ännu otympliga och teckningen bristfällig. fig. - . . . >> . io. ii, . , . . från katedralen i chartres. klosterkyrkan i s:t denis. kyrkan sit urbain i troyes. katedralen därstädes. i laon. i angers. samaritkyrkan i bourges. katedralen därstädes. i châlons. s:te chapelle i paris. katedralen i strassburg. koret till s. francesco i assisi, öfre kyrkan. s. paolo fuori le mura. rom (modern). statens samling i stuttgart. >> , . >> . — . . >> >> fig. — . efter teckningar af h. dolmetsch. det öfriga ur cahier et martin : mélanges d'archéologie. gailhabaud: l'architecture du v au xvii siècle. louandre: les arts somptuaires. lacroix et seré: le moyen-âge et la renaissance. decloux et doury: histoire de la site chapelle à paris. willemin: monuments français inédits pour servir à l'historie des arts. viollet-le-duc: dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française. fig. . romansk-gotisk. С w wayannanza vn. kolikokookookon pesan . dos kufufu e an zou glasmålning. romansk-gotisk. . . . . . f . x x m: in:honor mebeati:avdomari egidivs:filvs: fvlconis:- inoxola k x x . . sanct . đid:al sl: i i g : đ san cta : a l de vn . . wwy uw q . . . . . . . . . . golfplattor. pl. romansk-gotisk. golf.plattor. på sådana orter, där man saknade tillgång på olikfärgade stenarter, lag det nära till hands att för costa å sådana orter, där man saknade tillgång på olikfärgade stenarter, låg det nära till hands att för prydligare golf använda plattor af bränd lera eller stenhällar med graverade mönster. sådana hällar med i färgadt cement utförda teck- modell förse de särskilda plat- ningar fig. – funno torna med en fördjupad eller vi redan i den arabiska konsten upphöjd teckning. dessa plat- jfr pl. ; likaså lerplattor, tor, af hvilka vanligen fyra som kunde fogas samman till tillsammans bilda det afsedda ett slags mosaik fig. - mönstret eller »fasonens, fingo och . i senare fallet behålla sin naturliga färg, men finner man, särskildt under glaserades ofta. använd- den romanska stilens herra. ningen tillhör företrädesvis den välde, antingen hvarje särskild gotiska perioden. färg företrädd genom en sär- naturligtvis träffar man skild liten platta af motsva- å mosaikgolfven nästan endast rande form fig. - – enkla geometriska motiv. Å eller pressas ornamentet ned de andra slagen af golfplattor i lerplattan, hvarefter fördjup. förekomma däremot både ningen fylles med en olika människo-, djur- och växt- färgad massa och det hela former. bland växterna är till sist öfverdrages med en det i synnerhet liljan, stilise- genomskimrande glasyr — fig. rad i olika former, samt ek- — och vinlöfvet, som oftast åter- härjemte uppkom det komma. bruket att med hjälp af en fig. . , . >> » , . >> > > , > fig. - . graverade stenplattor från katedralen i s:t omer. -talet. (brunt och rödt.) mosaikgolf af bränd lera med glasyr. från en samling i dresden. -talet. (svart, rödt och hvitt.) ii, . mosaikgolf från klosterkyrkan colombe-les-sens. -talet. (rödt, svart och guit.) , . i s:t denis. -talet. (rödt, svart och gult.) i pontigny. -tal. (gult, rödt, svart på grön botten.) -- . glaserade lerplattor från s:t pierre-sur dive. -talet. (gult och svartbrunt.) , . kyrkan i bloxham. -talet. (rödt och gult.) beddington-church i surrey. -talet. (rödt och gult.) . graverade lerplattor från rådhuset i ravenscurg. -tal. (naturfärg utan glasyr.) . ett privathus därstädes. -talet. . lerplattor med nedsänkt botten från kyrkan vid gaildorf. -tal. (naturfärg utan glasyr.) . lerplatta som föregående, klostret vid alpirsbach. talet. . mosaikgolf från klosterkyrkan i s:t denis. fig. , , — efter verkligheten at arkitekt frey, läraren bosch och h. dolmetsch. det öfriga ur hassler: schwäbische fliese. verhandlungen des vereins für kunst und altertum in ulm und oberschwaben. cahier et martin: suite aux mélanges archéologiques. calliat: encyclopédie d'architecture. amé: les carrelages émaillés du moyen-âge et de la renaissance. violet-le-duc: dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française. > » pl. gotisk. trÄinlÄggning. bruket ruket att dekorera väggar och golf med inläggningar i olika färger gaf snart uppslag till en liknande behandling af föremål i trä. materialets natur satte likväl vissa gränser för ornamentikens utveckling: sålunda äro åtminstone inom gotiken motiv hia maat magister, johañes diagus wisc ur växtvärlden liksom figurframställningar mycket sällsynta; däremot träffar man ofta band- och linieornament, förenade med en mosaik af små träbitar ordnade i stjärnor, rutor och liknande former. vidstående textfig. tillhör egent- ligen plansch . பபப castirgouvr sŪ zi cafns moh odabo det saluatoren mauq.; cgsis piagauensis odam fig. - . från en läspulpet i domen i orvieto. canonicus et annelli , . korstolarna i frari. kyrkan i venedig. sakristidörren i -- s. anastasia i verona. ol – . > korstolarna i mynstern rius i ulm. . grafsten från en kyrka i noyon. ( ). orcoo red&ptor qgus uitig zi nouissimo dig de acclashc berita orie novio mensi oy ouitg fig. - efter verkligheten af professor borkhardt. det öfriga ur bénoit: monographie de la cathé- drale d'orviéto. stegmann: kunst und gewerbe. egle: der münster in ulm. rouam : sculpture décorative. jiuin ΒΙα loud owiskadao odd ruiwoc out fig. . gotisk, . . . . . . tae . . . . . e . . . . . * . . träinläggning. gotisk. nhis wa ma stir toioioioioioioioioioioioioio d ss. irg q: abc xx colore . ickicxooooooo abitan yoyoyoyoyoyoyoxomosyolovozc nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnny jojojojojojoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyo f yosovojo ojojoxovozolovozozot. ..... ovototojosottotonototojotojo glasmålning. pl. gotisk. glasmÅlning. u. nder den romanska perioden var det hufvudsakligen rent ornamentala former, som utgjorde motiven för tidens glasmålningar. med -talet inträdde ett helt annat förhållande. sedan gotiken numera fullständigt kommit till herraväldet, börjar man att till glasfönstrens prydnad hufvudsakligen använda figurframställningar. de hittills så omtyckta textilmönstren förekomma blott som bakgrund åt figurerna; jämte dem nyttjas för samma ändamål lätta arkitektoniska former. (fig. ). de stiliserade bladen och rankorna spela rolen af infattningar och behandlas under ett senare skede med allt större frihet och godtycke. jämte fönster med figurframställningar förekomma äfven andra af ren ornamental hållning. en särskild klass bilda här de s. k. grisaillefönstren, som äro dekorerade med mönster i svart på färglös botten, och där de bro- n kiga färgerna blott sparsamt förekomma. fig. - . i. från ett korfönster i mynstern i ulm. , . korfönstren i vårfrukyrkan i esslingen. nationalmuseum i münchen, tidigare i domen i regensburg. . ett korfönster i domen i köln. io, ii. klosterkyrkan i königsfelden (schweiz). . s. francesco i assisi, öfre kyrkan. , . undre . måladt fönster i evreux. >> fig. . samtliga efter verkligheten af f. dirr ( ), anemüller ( , ), p. haaga ( - ), h. dolmetch ( , , , ), borkhard ( ). fig. ur schmitz: der dom zu köln. » lacroix et séré, le moyen-âge et la renaissance. pl. . gotisk. arkitektur, skulptur och ornamentik. ett genomgående drag hos gotiken, om man nämligen frånger de urartade förhållandena under dess , sista skede, är att ornamentet underordnar sig arkitekturen. det skymmer i enlighet med denna grund- aldrig den arkitektoniska stommen, blir aldrig själfändamål, utan tjänar i stället att framhäfva betydelsen af viktigare arkitektoniska delar, att fullständiga det harmoniska intrycket af det hela. så erhålla de spetsbågiga portalerna och fönstren, de djärft uppåtsträfvande tornen och småtornen, fialerna, kapital och gesimser, korstolar och galerier stenarna i hvalfven, konsoler o. sin ornamentala prydnad; men s. v. äro likaledes ofta försedda äfven slöjdens alster, kyrkokärlen med bladdekoration. och skrudarna liksom husgerådet, af det sätt, hvarpå dessa erhålla en motsvarande ornering. blad och blommor äro bearbe- kapitälen utgöra merendels tade och uppfattade, kan man blott en bägarlik utvidgning af med tämligen stor säkerhet sluta kolonnskaftet, kring hvilken blom- sig till, från hvilken tid ett mor och blad äro fritt ordnade byggnadsverk, ett konstslöjd- i lösa hvarf eller kransar fig. föremål härstammar. under go- — . växtornamentet har tikens första skede ( -talet) öfver hufvud en mycket vid- är behandlingen enkel, men bred sträckt användning. så äro t. och fyllig, naturformerna endast ex. de s. k. >krabborna, hvilka lätt stiliserade se fig. - , följa kanterna af gaflar och , , . senare blir utförandet spiror, egentligen ingenting annat djärfvare, lifligare se fig. än fritt ombildade, »stiliserades . . -- . under gotikens sista skede blad fig. , , , . slut- aflägsnar man sig gärna från de naturliga förebilderna, bladen blifva buktiga, krusiga, findelade, men lida därjämte af en viss stelhet i behandlingen fig. , , på samma gång som man ofta märker en viss oro i rörelsen fig. , , . härtill bidrager väsentligen vanan att utarbeta bladen så fristående, att de tyckas endast helt lätt sitta fast vid kärnan; detta medför ofta en alltför skarp växling af ljus och skugga. löfverket hämtas med förkärlek från den inhemska foran. vinlöfvet, tistelns, ekens, bokens, murgrönans, väplingens blad, rosen o. s. v. framträda öfver allt, ofta med symbolisk betydelse. människo- och djurfigurer användas på ett stundom humoristiskt sätt, t. ex. som vattenkastare fig. , . men äfven konsoler, slutstenar, och särskildt gafvelfälten öfver dörrarna äro ofta prydda med figurframställningar. - fig. i. . >> >> snidad figur från korstolen i mynstern i ulm. konsol under en fällklaff (misericordia) å samma korstol. . slutsten från domen i naumburg. knopp på ett kapital från kyrkan i gelnhausen. . af franskt ursprung. . korsblomma från kyrkan notredame i paris. . knopp från en korsblomma därstädes. . korsblomma från den forna hospitalskyrkan i esslingen. . krabba från nürnberg. io. köln-domen. ii, , hålkälsfyllningar därstädes. , . vattenkastare därstädes. . kapital af franskt ursprung. . från kyrkan i wimpffen im thal. . vårfrukyrkan i esslingen. . en dopfunt i mariakyrkan i reutlingen. . gesimsornering från katedralen i troyes. . snidad och genombruten fyllning på en skåpdörr af franskt ursprung. . hålkälsornering från kyrkan i wimpffen im thal. . nürnberg - arkitektoniska ornament från mariakyrkan i reutlingen. fig. - , , , , , — , — efter gipsafgjutningar. det öfriga ur f. schmitz: »der dom zu köln». heideloft: die ornamentik des mittelalters. violet-le-duc: dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française. raguenet: matériaux et documents d'architecture et de sculpture >> >> >> > gotisk, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . arkitektur, skulptur och ornamentik. gotisk. . . to a | a y ity nodam e t x . vafnad, simnad, malad skulptur och emalj. pl. gotisk. vÄfnad, sÖmnad, mÅlad skulptur och emalj. vafnader och sömnader, som äfnader och sömnader, som under den gotiska perioden förfärdigades i stor myckenhet särskildt i klostren, visa till en början de från södern och östern hämtade mönstren – fig. . men man öfvergaf efter hand dessa, och upptog i stället med förkärlek ornering med blommor och blad, hvilka undergingo en sträng stilisering. det figu- skulpturarbeten i trä och rala elementet trängdes dock sten målades ofta. tygmönst- ej alldeles åt sidan. det före. ren visa då vanligen de ofvan kommer särskildt på skrudar, nämnda motiven. förhängen och dukar för kyrk. fig. , tillhöra redan ligt bruk, i regeln med sym- öfvergången från gotiken till bolisk betydelse. att jämväl renässansen. linjeornamentet bibehöll sin plats emaljen användes fortfar- inom den italienska gotiken ande, och i synnerhet under fig. — — finner sin förklaring -talet, för dekoration af de i det inflytande, som byzantinsk praktfulla relikskrinen, hvarvid och arabisk konst under en dock romanska prydnadsformer tidigare period utöfvade. jfr. stundom förekomma. äfven pl. , fig. , , , . ee re fig. . fig. i. . >> >> ii. aposteln simon. staty i kölner-domen. tygmönster från en staty därstädes. . broderad bård af franskt ursprung. -talet. . tygmönster -talet. (originalet har silfver i st. f. guld.) . -talet. - . bårder och tygmönster från väggmålningar i s. francesco i assisi, öfre kyrkan. -t. . tygmönster från en temperamålning af niccolo alunno ( ) i pinakoteket i perugia. siciliansk väſnad från mariakyrkan i danzig. -talet. mattbård från en målning af hugo van der goes i uffizierna i florens. -talet. » mantegna i s. zeno i verona, slutet af -talet. . bård från en broderad mässhake. -talet. (tyskt arbete.) , . tygmönster af franskt ursprung. -talet. . förgylld koppargravering från en reliktafla i kyrkan i mettlach. – . emaljorneringar från de hel. tre konungars-skrin i köln-domen, början af -talet. . emaljerad bård från början af -talet. musée cluny i paris. . slutsten i midtskeppet i stiftskyrkan i stuttgart. >> . >> efter verkligheten af borkhard ( — ) och dolmetsch ( , ), efter gipsafgjutning ( ). det öfriga ur weerth: kunstdenkmäler des christlichen mittelalters in den rheinlanden. hoffman: les arts et l'industrie. cahier et martin: mélanges d'archéologie. louandre: les arts somptuaires, dupont-auberville: l'ornement des tissus. viollet-le-duc: dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français. pl. . dosrint .die.dooy gotisk. manuskriptmÅlning. i manuskriptmålningarna utträngde den gotiska ornamentikens lifliga, spensliga former blott långsamt de runda, ytfyllande, som tillhörde den romanska perioden. blommorna blefvo dels stiliserade, dels höllos de fullt naturalistiskt, och vi se i fig. och , huru de båda behandlingssätten kunna förekomma sam- tidigt. så i synnerhet under gotikens senare tid. karakteristisk för denna är den kraftiga schatteringen liksom bruket af halftoner och isättandet af skarpa dagrar. anmärkningsvärd är slutligen omväxlingen och prakten af de färger, med hvilka blommornas yppiga och rika värld framställes i de ärevördiga handskrifternas miniatyrer. fig. har afseende på texten till pl. . fig. - . från -talet. - -talet. . takmålning från hvalfvet i förhallen till münstern i freiburg. >> fig. , , , direkt efter miniatyrer, de tre första i fornsaksmuseet i stuttgart. det öfriga ur humphreys & owen jones: the illuminated books of the middle ages. wyatt: the art of illuminating. fig. efter fotografi. getræst werdent. d.us. uula: weinent sello fig. . ! gotisk. . . . και υ e, achama saunre ΟΟ ΟΙ ΟΟΟΛ o Ο | ε . . . . . και ΟΣΙΟ: . . . . . . vägg-och takmålning. pl. . gotisk. vÄgg och takmÅlning. väggmåleri v ok äggmåleriets utveckling under den gotiska perioden hämmades i viss mån därigenom, att gotikens byggnader med de smala väggfälten och de stora fönsteröppningarna sällan lämnade plats för mera omfattande målningar. däremot erbjödo sig rikliga tillfällen till anbringande af ornamental dekoration. de förekom- detta ledde mande figu- emellertid un- rerna påver- der utvecklin- kades af den gens fortgång uppåtsträf- till en viss vri- vande rörelse, den, maniere som öfver rad ställning - hufvud är jfr fig. och egendomlig pl. , fig. . för gotikens draperibe- former, liksom handlingen är af den ofta mjuk, vecken mycket smala falla i långa plats, som an- vackra linier, visades dem. konturerna de ha derför uppdragas i ej sällan ett svart. schat- alltfor smärt, tering af den gängligt utse- brokiga färgen ende. men förekommer till åtskillnad mycket litet. från de roman. i fig. i är ska gestalter schatteringen na visa de utförd med nästan alltid svarta streck- något liffullt lag. fig. och gratiöst i visar ett met hållning och exempel på åtbörder. fig. . huru ett antikt motiv åter upptages, och väg sålunda banas för renässansen. >> >> fig. i. från ett stamträd i hospitalskyrkan i stuttgart. talet. . del af fig. : måladt planornament mot fördjupad botten. , . från kyrkan i brauweiler. -talet. . ett kapell i ramersdorf. -talet. , . sidogemak till stiftskyrkan i fritzlar. -talet. . jakobinerkyrkan i agen. -talet. , . site chapelle i paris. -talet. ii- . s. francesco i assisi, öfre kyrkan. » , . undre kyrkan. . undre sidan af en träbaldakin öfver den forna abbotstolen i kloster kyrkan i blaubeuren. >> fig. eſter verkligheten af p. haaga, af weiss, — af h. dolmetsch. det öfriga ur weerth: wandmalereien des christlichen mittelalters in den rheinlanden. endell: zeitschrift für bauwesen. calliat: encyclopédie d'architecture. pl. italiensk renÄssans. glasmÅlning. redan under gotiken hade man börjat afvika från äldre tiders bruk att helt och hållet fylla fönster edan under gotiken hade man börjat afvika från äldre tiders bruk att helt och hållet fylla fönster- öppningarna med färgadt glas. i stället kommo under renässansperioden smärre glasmålningar mot ofärgad botten, hvilka emellertid ofta erhöllo en infattning eller ett slags ramverk af utomordentlig rikedom. med sina från växt- och djurvärlden hämtade ornamentsmotiv, i hvilka människogestalten ofta drages in, är detta prydliga ramverk ofta att anse som den egentliga hufvudframställningen. motstående plansch, hvars innehåll emellertid tillhör en något senare renässansperiod, visar, att symboliska figurer och föremål här ej saknas. fig. -- äro efter utkast af giovanni da udine. ( - .) fig. . från nationalmuseet i bargello. florens. - . från la certosa vid florens. . undre delen af ett fönster i biblioteca laurenziana. >> florenz. samtliga efter verkligheten. fig. i af h. dolmetsch, det öfriga af professor borkhard och arkitekt eckert i stuttgart. af artisten gubitz. > kuchy borse semper fig. . italiensk renässans. . . b r , . in loco es demonstr edifica dei dicabus sum ny to bei jualcio fue e widaulatan m . . glasmålning italiensk renässans. g para si war . o us . . . pc . m. . fajansplattor. pl. italiensk renÄssans. fajansplattor. golf den ypper- site måtta an- wez colf och väggar som kläddes med fajansplattor kunde på grund af material och tillverkningssätt ej uppvisa en så fint genomförd ornamentik, som t. ex. motsvarande arbeten i marmor, trä, stuck o. s. v. när ler- godstekni- liga färg- ken sträcker vvnnnn sammanställ- sig längre än ningen. med till de enkla förståndig geometriska wwwwwwwwwya mönstren, så vände man äro de mer- härvid sällan ändels om flere än fyra byzantinska färger. och orienta ett rikare liska före- och finare bilder på genomfö- minnande rande visar ornamenten den såsom ganska fig. med anspråkslösa, delade afbild wa wmv men i stället cc ningen af ett så mycket majolikagolf, redigare och kraftigare. prydes af effekten ornaments- stegras ytter- motiv af den ligare genom fig. . mest för- vånande omväxling. en stor ryktbarhet erhöll luca della robbia ( -- ) och hans skola genom fabrikationen af dessa och liknande arbeten i bränd och glaserad lera. dessa gå på grund häraf ofta under benämningen robbia-arbeten. wam l hvars yta wania fig. , , , - . väggplattor från trappuppgången i huset n:r via luccoli i genua. – , , , . huset n:r via s. matteo därstädes. golfplattor från san petronio i bologna. . golfplattor från den heliga catarinas oratorium i siena. , efter verkligheten af professor borkhard i stuttgart. pl. italiensk renÄssans. vÄggdekoration. renässanssilen framträder i italien i början af -talet. men enässansstilen framträder i italien i början af -talet. ungrenässansen räcker till fram emot år , hvarefter högrenässansen vidtager och varar något öfver århundradets midt. renässans (fr. renaissance) betecknar efter orden en » pånyttfödelse» af antikens formvärld, ej en slavisk efterbildning, utan en fri bearbetning. detta visar sig framför allt i behandlingen af ornament, hvilket denna stil använder i en rikedom och utsträck- ning som knappt någon annan. främst kommer här växtornamentet, som under ungrenässansen intager en mycket måttfull vidd i förhållande till bottenytan. det visar nästan alltid fina, vackert svängda rankor, symmetriskt eller åtminstone regelbundet ordnade. en hufvudrol spelar det antika akantusbladet, ehuru på mångahanda sätt ombildadt. Äfven vinrankan, lagern, murgrönan o. s. v. förekomma ofta, dels med naturalistisk hållning, dels stiliserade. detta löfverk med sina grenar och frukter erhåller en rik omväxling och liftullhet genom blandningen med djurmotiv af alla slag, fantasiväsen, människo- former, hvartill ytterligare komma symboliska föremål, vapen, masker, emblem, vaser, kandelabrar o. mycket omtyckt är den direkta förbindelsen af människo- eller djurgestalter fig. , jfr äfven pl. , - med växtelement. en ej oviktig del af ornamentiken utgöra slutligen vapenbilder och sköldar, hvarvid ungrenäs- sansen med förkärlek använder den s. k. hästpanneskölden fig. , . seder- mera komma kartusch-formerna i bruk. jfr pl. , fig. - . de här omtalade arterna af ornament användas bl. a. i fasadmåleriet, d. v. s. i de målningar, som stundom helt och hållet täckte husfasaderna i stället för plastisk ornering dock förekomma här äfven rent historiska framställningar. färgerna äro lifliga och harmoniska, intrycket ofta praktfullt. under en period, då de figurrika historiska framställningarna nästan helt och hållet trängde ut ornamenten, finner man ofta fasader, som äro målade i bronsfärg eller grått i grått (grisaille). s. v. senare fig. - . från en husfasad i genua (via s. matteo n:r ). . gårdsfasaden till casa taverna i milano. -ii. palazzo piccolomini i pienza. dekorativ kandelaber efter en handteckning: >> fig. . . fig. - efter verkligheten af professor borkhard i stuttgart. det ötriga ur reinhardt: palast-architektur italiens: genua. gruner: specimens of ornamental art. italiensk renässans. ( lino . . . des... ana ve the pea . . . . . a timu . . . intarsia. مج c fig. pl. italiensk renÄssans. takmÅlning. i kyrkornas och palatsens takhvälfningar liksom å de platta träloften (plafonderna) fann tidehvarfvets konstnärliga anda ett rikt fält för sin verksamhet. de mest berömda konstnärer medverkade till orna- mentets förädling, i det de själfva infattade sina freskomålningar i en passande dekorativ omgifning fig. i, . bottenytan för detta af blandade växt- och djurmotiv sammansatta ornament hölls i regeln mycket ljus, färgerna själfva äro glada och lifliga. härjämte förekommo dock äfven enklare mönster. när figur- framställningar ej användes, ersattes de med målade kassetter eller rosetter infattade i geometriskt ordnade fält. anmärkningsvärd är vidare förbindelsen af sådana ornament i färger med en mer eller mindre enkel stuckdekoration. denna är åter i sin ordning ofta på ett illusoriskt sätt imiterad med penseln. — så i fig. i. de båda rosetterna fig. ii, tillhöra visserligen med afseende på tiden för sin uppkomst en period, som föregår renässansen, men de förråda dock en nära frändskap med former, som tillhöra denna. fig. >> - från korhvalfven i s. maria del popolo i rom (af pinturicchio). . ett af borgiarummen i vatikanen. rom. , , . » hvalffälten i la certosa vid pavia. , . bårder kring dessa hvalffalt. ii, . medaljonger från hvalffälten i s. francesco i lodi. takfält från vatikanens loggier af rafael. >> fig. - efter verkligheten af h. dolmetsch och h. weinhold. - > borkhard. » , ur gruner: specimens of ornamental art. » efter kopparstick. italiensk renässans. ge c in r spetsar. pl. . italiensk renÄssans. sÖmnad och vÄfnad. den en praktkärlek, som är ett utmärkande drag för renässansen, framträder jämväl vid utförandet af broderier, väfda tapeter o. d. framför allt voro kyrkorna rikligen försedda med detta slags föremål. konstsömnaden, gar, t. ex. »ra- antingen pålägg- faels tapeter», söm, (applika- och ornament i tion) eller platt- tidens stil. när söm, den senare geometriska eller ofta upphöjd, re- växt-motiv an- liefartad, hämta- vändas, sluta de de sina motiv sig gärna till by- från samma käl. zantinska och ori- lor som de hit- entaliska förebil- tills omtalade der. jfr fig konstgrenarna - . och använde lik- att äfven här som dessa ej blott lysande färger ornament, utan med förkärlek afven figurer, sär- framträda, att skildt inom me särskildt i konst- daljonger. jfr sömnader guld fig. , , . öfver allt nyttjas, inom tapet. motsvarar den väfveriet före- allmänna böjel- komma både sen för det prakt- figurframställnin- fulla. fig . lu l goutzwiller . >> fig. j. broderi på en korkåpa i s. croce i florens (har tillhört ärkebiskop rinuttini i pisa † ). » sammet, fornsaksmuseet i stuttgart. . broderad sammetsbård på en mässhake därstädes. . påläggsbroderi i siden . reliefbroderi i guld på siden på en mässhake därstädes. , . påläggsbroderi i siden på damastbotten. . mattbård från en venetiansk målning i verona. . målning af paolo giolfino i museet i verona. » moroni i pinakoteket i münchen. . väfd tapet i vatikanen i rom efter en af »rafaels kartonger». fig. - efter verkligheten af f. bosch i ravensburg och haaga i stuttgart. , ur dupont-auberville: l'ornement des tissus. - ur j. lessing: altorientalische teppiche. il ur rouam: l'art du tissu. > . > italiensk renässans. pg bal . a g. tociclegoodit konstsömnad och väfnad. italiensk renässans. weed bull sion store polis o a euro no suce on k. scheupert gez! sgraffito, marmorinläggning, lågrelief. pl. italiensk renÄssans. sgraffito, marmorinlÄggning, lÅgrelief. serafito graffito-ornamentet får ej betraktas endast som planornering, ty merendels framträder här en sträfvan att i teckning efterbilda plastisk dekoration; härvid stå dock endast färg- tonerna svart, hvitt och grått tillbuds, det senare erhållet genom streckning. tekniken är följande. den muryta, som skall prydas, täckes med bruk af mörk färg, hvilket i sin ordning öfverdrages med kalkmjölk. man ritar härefter med en järngriffel genom det öfre hvita kalklagret, hvarvid den undre mörka färgen träder fram. teckningen kan härvid framstå mörk mot hvit botten eller, såsom å de här meddelade exemplen fig. - , hvit mot mörk botten, i det den hvita tonen blifvit utspard. i motsats till målade och inlagda ornament och såsom en följd af det enkla framställningssättet bär sgraffito-orne- ringen afgjordt karakteren af teckning, men genom en lämplig fördelning af ljust och mörkt kunna kompositioner åstadkommas, hvilkas effekt är både rik och storartad. Å med sgraffito prydda husfasader är den plastiska fördelningen medelst listverk o. d. vanligen mycket sparsam; ofta framhålles den arkitektoniska stommen uteslutande genom sgraffito-orneringen. vid dekorationen af golf använder renässansen jemte lineära mosaikfigurer af alldeles samma slag som de antika och medeltida, marmorintarsia och marmorniello. i förra fallet inläggas på behörigt sätt tillskurna marmorstycken i fördjupningar af motsvarande form, i det senare fyllas fördjupningarna med en svart eller röd stuckmassa eller med metall. i färgbehandlingen äro dessa golfdekorationer alltid enkelt hållna; däremot gå de i aſseende på teckningen ofta vidt öfver det tillåtnas gränser: så i domen i siena, hvars berömda golf visar figurframställningar af historisk hållning jämte perspektiviska arkitekturkompositioner. planreliefer framställas merendels utan hjälp af färg, endast därigenom att ornamentet och bottnen behandlas olika. den senare prickas eller ruggas, hvarigenom ornamentet fram- står blankt mot matt. fig. >> >> >> >> . sgraffito på ett hus i rom. via giulia . . via dei coronari . vicolo calabraga , . . vigna alla via porta s. sebastiano . , . borgo al vicolo del campanile . . marmorinläggning på golfvet i domen i siena. , . från en grafsten i s. giovanni e paolo. venedig i s:t croce. florens. i frari-kyrkan i venedig. , planreliefer från grafstenar i s:ta maria del popolo i rom. , . familjen vendramins graſvård i s. giovanni e paolo. venedig . målad pilasterfyllning från rafaels loggier i vatikanen. (till pl. .) >> . >> >> ii. > fig. – efter verkligheten af h. dolmetsch. det öfriga ur janoni & maccari: saggi di architettura e decorazione italiana. graffiti e chiaroscuri. meurer: italienische flachornamente. fig. . pl. . italiensk cultate renÄssans. win vÄgg- och takmÅlning. . i sin skönaste och ädlaste form framstår högrenäs- sansens dekorativa vägg- och takmåleri i de arbeten, som tillhöra rafael och hans skola. så framför allt i vati- kanens loggier. pl. : fig. , pl. : fig. , pl. : fig. , och pl. : fig. - , . ehuru målningarna här i allmänhet ej direkt härröra från den store mästarens egen hand, så äro de dock utförda af hans lärjungar efter hans planer och i hans anda. dekorationen af titustermerna, den berömda romerska badanläggningen från första kejsartiden, upptäckt i början af -talet, har utan all gensägelse härvid utöfvat stort inflytande som förebild, särskildt för förbindelsen af stuck och målning. men de antika mönstren ha ej blifvit blindt efterhärmade, utan gifvit uppslag till nya och växlande motiv för figurer, guirlander . s. v. och sålunda erbjuder vatikanen åskådaren en oändlig rikedom på målningar, i hvilka förhållandet mellan figur och orna- ment, mellan dekoration och arkitektur, mellan olika färger och toner erhållit ett mönstergillt uttryck. anmärkningsvärdt är, att de sekundära färgerna för- härska – fig. . från en af rafaels lärjungar, perin del vaga, här- röra äfven målningarna i palazzo doria i genua. om de också ej stå på samma höjd som de rafaeliska verken, så kunna de dock uppvisa de skönaste enskildheter och vittna särskildt om ett utbildadt sinne för färgsamman- ställning. angående de använda motiven gäller hvad som blifvit anfördt vid pl. . - >> fig. . takmålning i palazzo doria i genua. . pilasterornering från vatikanens loggier. romi. , . fyllningar i en fönsternisch i vatikanens museum. . målningar från rafaels loggier. >> fig. i efter verkligheten af professor borkhard, stuttgart. det öfriga ur letaroilly: le vatican et la basilique de st. pierre de rome. efter kopparstick, fig. . pl. . italiensk renÄssans. manuskriptmÅlning, vÄfnad, marmorinlÄggning. ar den mest genomgripande betydelse för manuskriptmåleriet blef boktryckerikonstens uppfining. att . återgifva de litterära alstren blef nu mycket lättare och enklare, böckernas handelsvärde sänktes ansenligt, och i följd häraf nedlades i regeln på deras konstnärliga utsirning långt mindre möda än förut. härtill kom, att den nyuppfunna konsten själf ägde medel att framställa prydliga initialer och titelblad. dock finna vi ännu under denna period många manuskriptmålare verksamma. ty först och främst tages boktrycket under renässansen ännu icke allmänt i anspråk för alla litteraturens grenar, och vidare satte man jämväl i tryckta arbeten värde på ett för hand utfördt titelblad och på prydliga, på samma sätt utförda begynnelsebokstäfver i flere färger. af dessa anledningar har äfven denna tid att uppvisa många exempel på präktiga manu- skriptmålningar, som visa en brokig blandning af antika, mytologiska och kristna motiv. växtarabesker liksom initialernas blommor och blad förete oftare stiliserade än naturalistiska former fig. - . den naturalistiska hållningen är däremot regel i de mångfaldiga, med största omsorg och oändlig fit utförda mosaikarbetena, hvilka äro sammansatta af smärre och större marmorbitar i olika färger. med sådana inläggningar prydde man bordskifvor, skåpdörrar, altarframstycken o. s. v. i florens öfvas ännu i dag denna teknik med framgång. det gängse namnet på tillverkningarna är också florentinermosaik - fig. . närmaste frändskap med den äldre häfdvunna riktningen visar väfnadskon- sten, som visserligen ej går fri från nyare inflytelser, men dock med förkärlek håller sig till de orientaliska mönstren. - jfr pl. . fig. - manuskriptmålningar. . sammetsmönster. fornsaksmuseet i stuttgart. . väfd bård. . mosaik från ett bord i nationalmuseet i münchen. . rand-prydnad ur ett gammalt italienskt manuskript. fig. . efter verkligheten af professor borkhard : stuttgart. det öfriga ur humphreys & owen jones: the illuminated books. wyatt: the art of illuminating. dupont-auberville: l'ornement des tissus. guditz s y. fig. . italiensk renässans. t റ ) ) ) റ റ റ ) ) ))) (( thuringer *conürnbers, helioiyp. plastisk ornering i marmor och brons. pl. . italiensk renÄssans. plastisk ornering i marmor och brons. den ornamentala marmorskulpturen erhöll inom den italienska renässansen en lyftning, hvartill den före en ornamentala marmorskulpturen erhöll inom den italienska renässansen en lyftning, hvartill den före- gående tiden ej kan uppvisa något motsvarande. ungrenässans och högrenässans skilja sig i det afseendet, att den senare använder starka underskärningar både vid framställningen af växtornament och figurala motiv. kapitälen visa, sär- hvarf. — under högrenässan- skildt under ungrenässansen, sen sluter man sig trognare nära frändskap med det korin- till de antika förebilderna, och tiska. i voluternas ställe ej blott den korintiska, utan komma likväl stundom växt- jämväl den doriska och joniska former, men oftast delfiner, ordningen komma ofta till drakar, ymnighetshorn o. d. användning just på detta område uppen- bronstekniken känner barar renässansen framför allt i fråga om modellering knap- sin skapande rikedom. ej past något hinder, och detta sällan användes å kapitälen ren medför ofta omedelbar figurornering; däremot före- efterbildning af naturen, sär.: komma akantusbladen sparsam- skildt inom växtornamen- mare, vanligen blott i ett enda tiken. huru äfven alldagliga föremål i hög grad påverkas af den allmänna konstblomstringen, visa de båda präktiga portklapparna fig. , . one en fig. . fig. . fris af marmor öfver en dörr i palazzo ducale i urbino. -talet. . fris å en marmorkamin därstädes. . konsolkapital af marmor från kyrkan fonte giusta i siena. -talets slut. . fris från en grafvård. . ramverk i brons från ghibertis dörrar till baptisteriet i florens. . fyllning i marmor från altaret i kyrkan fonte giusta i siena. portklappar af brons. . kolonnkapital från portalen till la badia i florens. >> , . fig. – efter fotografier. ur herdtle: die bauhütte. italiensk renässans. g uuuu sprurupur jvcm . vägg-och takmålning. } { pl. . italiensk . fransk renÄssans. arbeten i Ädel metall och emalj. hit hånförliga föremål kunna lämpligen fördelas i två grupper. . s. v. en it hänförliga föremål kunna lämpligen fördelas i två grupper. hufvudmaterialet utgöres på ena hållet af ädel metall, som sedermera prydes på något särskildt sätt med ädelstenar, pärlor, emalj o. s. v., t.ex. i smycken. i den på det underligaste sätt, andra gruppen ombildas framträda iorneringen oftare någon sällsynt stenart, t. än de geometriska motiven. ex. lapislazuli, onyx o. d., den franska renäs- eller en vacker glasform sansen sluter sig i det stora genom tillsats af grepe, fot, hela, åtminstone under - lock till talet, på det ifrågavarande praktvas eller annat före- området till den italienska mål. en tongifvande konst- stilen. det var också ita- när var på detta område lienska konstnärer, som i omkring midten af - frankrike gjorde den nya talet benvenuto cellini smakriktningen gällande. ( † ). detta gick naturligtvis i färgerna äro i re- gotikens hemland ganska geln harmoniskt samman- långsamt, och man träffar ställda. anordningen af därför ej sällan påminnelser grepar och lock gaf tilltälle om den gotiska stilen, lik- till framställning af en rike- som stundom, där dom af ädla linier och konsten frigjort sig från fig. . former. växter, djur, män- denna, finner en rätt stor niskor, ofta sammanfogade godtycklighet. man k. coute willer fig. . >> , . >> i. krön till ett litet altare i apollo-galleriet i louvre i paris (italienskt arbete). vas af lapislazuli i uffizierna i florens (italienskt arbete). . lock af emaljeradt guld till en kristallskål därstädes (italienskt arbete). , . hängsmycken, tillskrifna benvenuto cellini. - . hängsmycken af okänd mästare (franskt arbete). grepar på vaser i apollo-galleriet. louvre i paris (franskt arbete). ii, . maskaroner på en sköld därstädes (franskt arbete). , . fot och öfverdel af en vattenkanna därstädes (franskt arbete). - . bårder från vaser i samma samling (franskt arbete). kristallskål; locket härtill se fig. . fig. , efter verkligheten af professor borkhard. stuttgart. , , , efter verkligheten af c. baur i biberach. det öfriga ur dalloz: le trésor artistique de la france. daly: revue général de l'architecture et des travaux publics. labarte; histoire des arts industriels au moyen âge et à l'époque de la renaissance. rouam: les arts du feu. » . pl. . fransk renÄssans. typografiska ornament. frans ranske boktryckare, särskildt i paris och lyon, voro redan vid slutet af -talet vidt berömda för ranske boktryckare, särskildt i paris och lyon, voro redan vid slutet af -talet vidt berömda för sina arbetens reda och skönhet. någon nationell egendomlighet i användningen af initialer, marginal. prydnader o. s. v. uppenbara de likväl till en början ej. det var först den om frankrikes bokornamentik högt förtjänte g. tory, som genom sina själfständiga kompositioner befriade sina landsmän från det slaf- viska beroendet af italienska mönster. man fasthöll nämligen länge, ända in på -talet, vid de gotiska formerna, och när sedermera de förnäma fransmännen under resor eller genom främmande konstnärer gjort bekantskap med den italienska renässansen, hade man, på grund af det sega fasthållandet vid det gamla, ännu ej kunnat utbilda något specifikt franskt renässansornament, utan var hänvisad till italienska eller tyska förebilder fig. . omkring år inträder nu genom tory en förändring. hans ornament, van- ligen blommor och bladrankor, stundom i förening med figurer, utgöras af enkla linier, i initialerna mer- endels hvita på svart botten fig. – och ej schatterade. häri följer han det italienska bruket. hans uppfattning liksom hans ornament bibehöllo sig länge efter hans död. italien utöfvade icke dess mindre fortfarande ett visst inflytande. detta visar sig t. ex. i barn- figurerna i begynnelsebokstäfver, som äro direkt lånade från italienska mästare fig. . det franska renässansornamentets sirlighet och elegans framträder särskildt i sådana kompositioner som fig. - , hvilka för öfrigt i någon mån erinra om arabiska ornament, liksom fig. om gotiken. fig. och visa en elegant användning af akantusbladet. huru titelblad eller öfver hufvud hela sidor stundom ornerades, visar fig. . fig. >> >> >> >> i. bokstaf från ludvig xii:s tid af tory. . frans i:s . claude garamont. . kartusch från henrik ii:s jean goujon. . bokstaf . ur salom. bernard's skola. , . -ii. ramverk från henrik ii:s tid af petit bernard. . bokstaf från henrik iii:s tid af joh. tornesius. henrik iv:s . ludvig xiii:s tid. . slutprydnad från ludvig xiii:s tid. >> >> > fig. . fransk renässans. . . o rs in m hwnl vita r . e w . . . . . . typografiska ornament. pl. . fransk renÄssans. vÄggmÅlning. rankrikes renässans årfde från gotiken en viss benägenhet att dekorera boningsrummens väggar med rankrikes renässans ärfde från gotiken en viss benägenhet att dekorera boningsrummens väggar med målade väfnads- eller tapet-mönster. oaktadt detaljerna i många fall äro hämtade från antiken, varsnar man dock ofta spåren ster (jfr fig. och ). ca af gotikens traditioner, där rankor förekomma, stundom äfven af orien- äro de nästan alltid starkt taliska inflytelser fig. stiliserade; en viktig rol och . i orneringen spela regen- vanligen deko- ternas namnchiffer liksom rerades väggens nedre kronor och frankrikes del, till ungefärligen två konungavapen, den heral- tredjedelar af höjden, diska liljan. brutna med ett fylligare och färger användas med för- tyngre, den öfre tredje- kärlek, och guld före- delen däremot med ett kommer ofta. enklare och lättare mön- एर fig. . fig. - . målade tapetmönster i slottet i blois från frans i:s tid. ur le nail: le chateau de clois. fig. ur: »gewerbehalle ». fransk renässans. monnai wrcrest a se top is corte roma uit ttituita r belle to %e อง nan bandono b sutno we mass plastisk ornering i sten och trä. pl. . fransk renÄssans. plastisk ornering i sten och trÄ. mera fri från främmande beståndsdelar in på andra områden visar sig den franska renässansen inom . . era fri från främmande beståndsdelar än på andra områden visar sig den franska renässansen inom plastiken. fint och ädelt framträder ornamentet i låg- och hög-relieferna, särskildt under den första tiden. det tillhör nästan utan undantag den men i allmänhet utmärka sig genom blandade arten, inom hvilken kartuschen stor sirlighet. (prydnadsramen) i de mest omväxlande former spelar en viktig rol. under ungrenässansen äro ramarna ännu tam- fig. pilasterkapitäl från en kamin ligen enkelt hållna, men med tiden bli i hôtel lasbordes i tou- de rikare och få kraftigare inrullningar. louse (frans i). liksom i den italienska renässansen, snidad panelfyllning från är akantusbladet synnerligen omtyckt frans i:s galleri i fontaine- och framträder allt efter tiden för bleau. sin tillkomst i lättare eller gröfre . snidadt ornainent från en former. dörr i palais de justice i pilastrars och kolonners skaft dijon (frans i-henrik ii). erhålla en rik dekorering (jfr fig. i, , rundstafsornering i slottet ii). kapitälen ha ofta att uppvisa anet's kapell (henrik ii). egendomliga kompositioner, hvilka visser- . från en fönsterinfattning i ligen stundom äro något öfverlastade, fig. . louvre i paris (henrik ii). fig. . trärosett från henrik ii:s galleri i slottet fontainebleau. . rosett från en kamin i slottet anet (henrik ii). . bärande figur, »herm», från hôtel d'assezat i toulose (henrik ii). . fyllning från en kamin i musée de l'hôtel de cluny i paris (henrik ii). snidad dörrfyllning från kapellet i slottet anet (henrik ii). ii. kapital från ludvig xiii:s. babtisterium i slottet. i fontainebleau. . träsnideri i museet i avignon. . efter fotografier samt efter sauvageot: palais, châteaux, hôtels et maisons de france du xv au xvii siècle. daly: motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture d'ornement. pfnor: monographie du château d'anct. > palais de fontainebleau. noé: architecture et sculpture. > pl. . fransk renÄssans. takmÅlning. planschen &terger delar af gamla bjälktak, hvilkas egenskap af sådana ytterligare framhållits genom - lanschen återger delar af gamla bjälktak, hvilkas egenskap af sådana ytterligare framhållits genom målningen. hvar särskild bjälke erhåller sin dekoration; flere tillsamman bilda sedan ett mönster, som regelbundet upprepas fig. , , . bjälkarnas sidoytor hållas i regeln i blott en ton. en synnerligen rik dekorering erhålla däremot både å sidorna och å undre ytan de stora underlags- eller bärbjälkarna. fig. , , - . växtornamentet hämtar gärna sina motiv från antiken; öfven figurdekoration förekommer ej sällan. gios ce truyer fig. . > fig. , . bjälktak från slottet i blois (frans i). , . bärbjälkar från samma tak. . bjälktak från slottet i videville (ludvig xiii). – . bärbjälkar från samma tak. . tak efter en originalteckning för ett rum i palais luxembourg i paris. (ludvig xiii.) ur daly: motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture d'ornement. le nail: le château de blois. rouyer: la renaissance de françois i à louis xiii. fransk renässans. ur . . | . väfnad, sömnad, bokband. fransk renässans. h h nulla . . . t . m . cs . . väggmålning, målad skulptur, bokband, väfnad. pl. . fransk renÄssans. gobelinvÄfnad. bruket ruket att bekläda bostadens väggar med väfnader och brokiga tyger är urgammalt. härmed sammanhänger medeltidens sed att från väfveriets område hämta de mönster, som användas å de målade glasfönstrens ytor, härifrån har väl äfven bruket att pryda väggarna med målade bilder och mönster sitt ursprung men användningen af väfnader för samma ändamål, »väggbonader», upphörde ej därför. under och -talen når tapetväfveriet med figurframställningar i nederländerna en betydande höjd och öfvades under det senare århundradet i många andra länder med större eller mindre framgång. dessa väfnader ingingo öfver allt i den förnämligare bostadsinredningen. under ludvig xiv:s tid ( ) grund- lades i frankrike en särskild kunglig fabrik för tillverkningen af detta slags konstslöjdalster. den för ändamålet inköpta egendomen, som i långliga tider tillhört en familj af färgare vid namn gobelin, bibe. höll äfven sedermera detta namn, hvilket öfverflyttades på de här utförda väfnaderna och från dem till figurprydda väfnader i allmänhet. tillverkningen af detta slags väfnader är ur ren teknisk synpunkt enkel och försiggår i en mycket primitiv väfstol med stående varp, haute-lisse, liknande den, som förekommer hos forntidens folk eller naturfolken, men arbetet är på samma gång mycket mödosamt och tidsödande, samt fordrar af den utförande både takt och vana, om ett konstnärligt resultat skall uppnås. de meddelade exemplen visa att med dessa förutsättningar några oöfvervinneliga hinder ej förefinnas, hvarken i fråga om färgverkan eller formrikedom. bezx eziziz sisse ezek prac lo ssss - . >> >> fig. . fig. - bårder från en tapet efter le brun (utförd — ). noël coypel (utförd --- ). . bård från en tapet från -talet. . tapet på slottet fontainebleau ( talet). ur guiffrey: histoire générale de la tapisserie. guichard & darcel: les tapisseries décoratives du garde-meuble. daly: revuc générale de l'architecture et des travaux publics. rouam: les arts du tissu. > pl. fransk och tysk renÄssans. planornament i olika teknik. et aldeles sirskildt behag ligger utbredt öfver handtverkets alster från denna tid, just emedan konsten så lifligt tager del i orneringen af de industriella föremålen. vapen, små skrin och skåp, husgeråd för dagligt bruk prydas på mångfaldiga sätt, trä t. ex. genom inläggning med elfenben eller andra ämnen; metallen genom inläggning (damascering), gravyr och etsning. fig. i. >> >> > io. ii. > boule-arbete på ett väggur i fornsaksmuseet i stuttgart (franskt). , . elfenbensinläggningar i ebenträ å ett bord därstädes (tyskt). träinläggning från en himmelsäng i gyllene salen i urach (tyskt). , . träinläggningar från en väggfördjupning i palais de justice i dijon (franskt). . träinläggning på ett skåp i ravensburg (tyskt). . silfverinläggning på en förgylld kanna i kgl. skattkammaren i münchen (tyskt). . elfenbensinläggning på en pistol i historiska museet i dresden (tyskt). planrelief från en himmelsäng i gyllne salen i urach (tyskt). mot förgylld botten från en träram i musée de cluny. paris (franskt). motiv för metalletsning eller gravyr af peter flötner (tyskt). . järnetsning på ett hänglås från klostret heiligenkreuz, i Österrik. museet för konst och slöjd i wien (tyskt). . järnetsning på en såg i hist. museet i dresden (tyskt). bårder på locket till en förgylld silfverkasset af wenzel jamnitzer i kgl. skattkammaren i münchen (tyskt). . motiv för metalletsning eller gravyr (okänd tysk mästare). , bårdmönster å oironfajanser i louvremuseet i paris (franskt). , . ytmönster å oironfajanser därstädes (franskt). jfr. för öfrigt pl. . . järnetsning på en kassett. . , . >> >> > > > > fig. efter verkligheten af c. baur i biberach. bosch i ravensburg. - > > p. haaga i stuttgart. det öfriga úr sauvageot: palais, châteaux, hôtels et maisons de france de xv au xviii siècle. reynard: ornements des anciens maitres. sauvageot: musée impérial du louvre, samt efter fotografiska reproduktioner. gewerbehalle . boss fig. , pl. . tysk renÄssans. . tak- och vÄggmÅlning intarsia, sÖmnad. oaktadt renässansen i tyskland tager en alldeles egendomlig riktning a aktadt renässansen i tyskland tager en alldeles egendomlig riktning och vida mer än i italien och frankrike aflägsnar sig från antiken, fram- träda dock öfverallt tydliga spår af det inflytande, som renässansens moder- land utöfvat. så är t. ex. fallet med fig. - och , där denna påverkan lätt kan förklaras genom de tyska målarnes studieresor till italien. albrecht dürer uppehöll sig ju en längre tid i venedig för att där på ort och ställe taga kännedom om den nya konstriktningen. dessa dekorativa målningar föredraga ljusa och glada toner på en ofärgad eller åtminstone nästan färglös botten. till sin allmänna karakter ha de rätt stor likhet med den gammalromerska orneringen. detta gäller äfven om fig. . upphofsmannen till dessa och liknande dekorationer i det berömda > fuggerhaus» i augsburg torde dock vara att söka i någon italiensk mästares person, hvilken antagligen af den rike fugger enligt tidens sed kallats till augsburg från italien och fått sig anförtrodt att dekorera det storartade privathuset. fig. visar oss ett af dessa talrika inlagda arbeten, hvilka med rätta uppväcka vår tids beundran genom teckningens gratie, ornamentens finhet, den outtömliga motivrikedomen, men ej mindre genom det tålamod och den noggrannhet hos den utförande, hvarom de bära vittne. Äfven i dylika föremål lades mycken vikt på färgverkningen, hvarvid schatteringen åstadkoms genom bränning. midtpartiet af denna figur visar en för den tyska renässansen mycket karakteristisk ornamentalform, det s. k. beslagsornamentet, som för sin uppkomst säkerligen har att tacka det vid denna tid till en hög blomstring uppdrifna konstsmidet. man efterbildar nämligen i inlagdt arbete flacka metallbeslag med nitar och naglar; de band, i hvilka det imiterade metallblecket löper ut, utarbetas ofta till stiliseradt bladverk eller föreställes blecket vara inböjdt och upprulladt. konstsömnad på linne var inom de tyska hemmen föremål för en liflig omvårdnad, men så ansågo till och med store konstnärer såsom hol- beinarne, far och son, ej under sin värdighet att genom egenhändiga mönster- utkast främja denna del af konstslöjden. fig. . > >> fig. . väggmålning från badrummen i fuggerhaus i augsburg. , , . väggmålningar i riddarsalen trausnitz vid landshut. . takmålning därstädes. . inlagdt träarbete från ett skrinlock. . broderad bård på en linneduk. . målad väggfyllning i slottet trausnitz vid landshut. fig. . - . . o rico efter verkligheten af p. haaga i stuttgart. > g. gräf i münchen. c. baur i biberach. ett i privatägo befintligt original, gewerbehalle . tysk renässans. . scout నూన a anala b daa -- - - -- - - -|-- --- ----- ----- ఆ ఆ c . tak-och väggmålning, intarsia, sömnad. pl. tysk renÄssans. glasmÅlning. hur kraftigt än konstslöjden i det stora hela blomstrar och frodas under renässansen, så utgör dock to ur kraftigt än konstslöjden i det stora hela blomstrar och frodas under renässansen, så utgör dock glasmåleriet på visst sätt ett undantag från denna allmänna regel. målade glasrutor med vapen, med symboliska eller historiska riet, låter glasmålningskon- framställningar äro visser- sten förleda sig till om. ligen ingen sällsynthet i fångsrika figurkompositio- rådhus och gillestugor, i ner, hvilka strängt taget adelsmännens slott och äro stridande mot dess den borgerliga bostaden, inneboende lagar. och de utmärka sig där- bland glasmålningar, jämte särskildt genom ut- som likväl hålla sig inom förandets finhet. men på sin konstarts gränser, kunna det område, där denna nämnas de här återgifna art af konstslöjd tidigare i kapellet i kgl. residenset haft bästa tillfället att ut- i münchen. de tjäna veckla sig, nämligen vid väsentligen dekorativa än- kyrkornas ornering, där damål och utmärka sig, tränges den allt mer un- oaktadt en viss benägen- dan. under sin sträfvan het för naturalism, genom att täfla med det egent- sin skönhet. liga vägg- eller tafvelmåle- fig. . fig. - . glasmålningar från kupolen i det rika kapellet» i residenset i münchen. . glasmedaljong med vapen från ett korfönster i hindelbank ( ). ur zettler, enzler u. stockbauer: ausgewählte kunstwerke aus dem schatze der reichen kapelle in der königl. residenz zu münchen. fig. ur: meisterwerke schweizerischer glasmalerei. | pl. tysk renÄssans. mÅlad plastik, den glada litlust, som kännetecknar renässansen i allmänhet, fann bland annat ett utryck i dess be nägenhet, att med färgens tillhjälp ge lif åt plastikens bilder. i slottet heiligenbergs riddar- sal nästan helt och hållet täckt med färger, hvilka stå i den yppersta harmoni sins emellan, på samma gång de framhäfva den plastiska or- neringens skönhet. likaså erhålla de båda å pl. af- bildade ramarna för jakt- troféer liksom midtbilden genom färgbehandlingen ett egendomligt behag, som ej de nakna trä- eller stenbil- derna skulle hafva erbjudit. jemväl i trä. och stenskulp- turen från den senare tyska renässansen ingå kartuscher fig. . så är t. ex. den stora praktfulla plafonden och bandornering som ett förhärskande element. den kvinnliga gestalten fig. framställer pfalzgrefvinnan ursula, gemål till hertig ludvig, uppbyg- garen af det berömda »lust- huset» vid stuttgart. i denna byggnad, som tyvärr ej mer finnes till, stod likväl på den afbildade konsolen en annan figur, på hvilken vapnet har afseende. omkring femtio liknande konsoler prydde en gång de arkader, som omgåſvo dessa praktbyggnader. yang ii. fig. - . partier at den målade plafonden i slottet heiligenbergs (schwaben) riddarsal. . konsol, anfang för ett hvalf, från arkaderna till det forna herțigliga lusthuset vid stuttgart. , sköldar af snidadt päronträ i fornsaksmuseet i stuttgart, tillhörande inredningen af ett familjen bessereri ulm tillhörigt jaktrum. i de ovàla midtfälten äro fästade - snidade hjort- hufvud med naturliga hornkronor af ovanligare art. . kaminkrön i rådhuset i liebenstein. fig. - efter verkligheten af h. dolmetsch. · - p. haaga i stuttgart. » ur: paulus: kunst- und altertumsdenkmale. fig. pl. . tysk renÄssans. bokband. till bokband brukade man nästan altid använda läder, och ornamenten höllos under den gode tiden alltid plana. i början skar man med knifven ner teckningens konturer, hvarefter bilden genom ett slags drifning lindrigt höjdes (läderplastik). sedermera tog man till hjälp små metallstämplar, som aftrycktes i rad efter hvarandra och på detta sätt bildade den bård, som omgaf pärmen. några särskilda hörnorne- ringar förekomma i detta fall i allmänhet icke, utan bårderna träffa här alldeles godtyckligt tillsamman. ofta omgifva sådana bårder bandet i flera hvarf, så att midtfältet blir mycket smalt och oansenligt. dessa midtfält behandlas då antingen som tygmönster, eller prydas de med särskilda midt- och hörnornament. — fig. - , , , - , -- visa mönster af detta slag. de äro i regeln utförda i blindtryck. härjämte förekomma å många bokpärmar fria, ofta färgade arabesker och bandmönster jfr pl. fig. , - hvilka under blomstringstiden omgifvas af en särskild bårdinfattning. senare utlämnas denna, och hörnstycken insättas, som · lifligt påminna om metallbeslag. detta slags ornering kan utföras antingen genom mönstrens infällning i bottenytan, läderintarsia, eller genom påläggning och limning, » appliqué». dyrbarast voro naturligtvis band med verkliga metallbeslag, särskildt när dessa utfördes i ädel metall. ornamenten äro då i regeln upphöjda vare sig genom gjutning eller drifning. fig. i visar däre- mot ett enkelt, sågadt och sedan graveradt beslag af silfver. ytterligare må framhållas, att man vid dekoration af bokryggen tillgodogjorde sig de motiv, som lemnades af binden». dessa antyddes nämligen antingen genom upphöjningar i lädret, ”ryggnerver», eller genom fördjupade horisontala linier, hvarigenom en indelning åstadkoms. de sålunda uppkomna fälten fylldes med enkla ornament. fig. . pärmbeslag af silfver, naturlig storlek. fornsaksmuseet i stuttgart. – . prydnader å skinnband (svinläder) framställda medels blindtryck. kgl. handbiblioteket i stuttgart. . bokrygg från stadsbiblioteket i breslau. >> efter verkligheten af h. dolmetsch. fig. ur: gewerbehalle. pl. . tysk renÄssans. sÖmnad och vÄfnad. i de olika slagen i fig. visar en af konstsömnad be- utpräglad släktskap tingas visserligen med persiska motiv. ornamentets karak- men icke ter väsentligen af dess mindre bibe- den använda tekni- håller renässansen ken men skillnaden sitt egendomliga beror naturligtvis väsen och sina äfven på de använ- själfständiga drag. da mönstren. så fig. , , . spåra vi i fig konstsöm- starka på. naden fig. här- minnelser om go- rör från begynnel- tiken, medan i fig. sen af -talet, , tydligen ori- vid hvilken tid entaliska förebilder münchen var vida varit bestämmande. berömdt för sina väfnadsmönstret silkesbroderier. fig. . fig. . . . . bordduk i korssöm. tillhör herr schauffele i schwäbisch-hall. konstsöm på lärſt. nationalmuseum i münchen. broderad bård från en duk därstädes. broderi på kläde ( - ). därstädes. bård från ett förhänge; påläggsöm, applikation» på sammet ( cm. bredt). slottskapellet i münchen. bård från en guldstickad läderväska. nationalmuseum i münchen. väfnadsmönster. kyrkan i weingarten. . . . fig. - . efter verkligheten af p. haaga i stuttgart. . ur zettler, enzler und stockbauer: ausgewählte kunstwerke etc. . efter verkligheten af lrr bosch och g. werner i ravensburg. tysk renässans. a . . . a . sunb.) isp . . go fb . typografisk ornering. f . pl. . tysk renÄssans. mÅlad plastik. m otstående plansch meddelar ytterligare enskildheter från den pl. omnämnda plafonden i slottet heiligenberg denna är helt och hållet snidad af lindträ och på det rikaste sätt behandlad i färger, särskildt blått, rödt, grönt, guld och silfver. men oaktadt denna färgrikedom och den otroliga mängden af bladrankor, bandprydnader, figurer o. s. v. gör den dock ej något öfverlastadt och oroligt intryck utan totaleffekten är, såsom redan förut blifvit antydt, behaglig och harmonisk. fig. - . delar af den målade plafonden i slottet heiligenbergs riddarsal. - . pilasterorneringar från en korstol i kapitelsalen i dômen i mainz. fig. - efter verkligheten af h. dolmetsch. - gewerbehalle, >> wa tienda eury fig. . fig. . pl. . tysk renÄssans. vÄgg- och takmÅlning. motstående plansch utgör palmträdet med devisen > at- exempel på ett präktigt, ehuru tempto » se fig. — som ganska egendomligt slag af de- ofta forekommer, hänvisar visser- ligen på grefve eberhard »med korativ målning. den s. k. gyllne salen i slottet i urach (schwaben) skägget» ( ), men salens är hel och hållen målad på detta målning och arkitektur torde med vis. väggarna äro i allmänhet säkerhet kunna förläggas till sista släta, men genom målning delade tredjedelen af -talet. i det i fält, och dessa visa i regeln en enkelt hållna taket äro bjälkarna ornering som ovillkorligen på. målade brunröda, de smala mellan. minner om förebilder från konst- liggande fälten däremot ljusa. smidets område. särskildt fram- oaktadt det ringa antalet färger: träder detta i omramningarna och brunrödt, hvitt, blått, guld, är i det sätt, hvarpå linjerna krypa målningen af både fin och be- under och genom hvarandra. haglig verkan. fig. . fig. . bågsvicklar på väggfälten i gyllene salen på slottet i urach. . fyllning i ett fönsterfoder därsammastädes. , . kolonnorneringar . från en fönsterbröstning , . midt- och hörnstycken å de väggfälten omgifvande friserna i urach. — . ornament å takbjälkarna' med upphöjda trärosetter och knoppar i urach. dörrkrön af trä. , . hvalfmålningar från domkyrkan i graz. >> . efter verkligheten af p. haaga i stuttgart. fig , . ur: vereinsgabe des steierm. landes-museum-vereines. pl. . tysk renÄssans. kartuscher, emaljarbeten. närmast komma den tyska och italienska renässansens former hvarandra i sådana arbeten, som ut ärmast komma den tyska och italienska renässansens former hvarandra i sådana arbeten, som ut- fördes i ädel metall. Å ena sidan var det hufvudsakligen genom detta slags arbeten, som den nya rörelsen först vann insteg i tyskland; å den andra lyckades det snart de tyska konstnärerna att ej blott i tekniskt afseende arbeta sig upp till samma höjd som italiens guldsmeder, utan äfven att täfia med dem i formernas skönhet. särskildt blef sydtyskland med sina många idoga städer redan tidigt en hufvud- ort för ett betydande guld- och silfversmide. dryckes- och bords-kärl, vapen, ringar, gördlar, hängsmycken, spännen, kyrkliga föremål gåfvo riklig anledning till konstnärlig behandling. det måste likväl framhållas, att lusten för en naturalistisk framställning, särskildt af blommor och rankor, att benägenheten för det öfverdrifna, underliga, här liksom på andra områden snart banade väg för barockstilen. tidens förkärlek för kartuscher visar sig i användningen af desamma för de mångfaldigaste ändamål. fig. . . >> fig. , . kartuscher från ett stamträd. fornsaksmuseet i stuttgart. — ornament från kyrkliga föremål i slottskapellet i münchen. – . delar af smycken. - . beslag å ett värjgehäng efter pergamentsteckningar af hans mielich. . hängsmycke från samlingarna i grünes gewölbe i dresden. . spetsen af en värjslida af hans mielich. . hängsmycke. museet i pest. . tallrikskant af virgil solis. > fig. , . efter verkligheten af p. haaga i stuttgart. det öfriga ur zettler, enzler u. stockbauer: ausgewählte kunstwerke aus dem schatze der reichen kapelle in der königl. residenz zu münchen. becker u. hefner: kunstwerke und gerätschaften des mittelalters und der renaissance. lutmer: goldschmuck der renaissance. schorn : kunst und gewerbe, herausgegeben vom bayerischen gewerbemuseum zu nürnberg . wessely: das ornament und die kunstindustrie. s fig. fig. . pl. , xvii och xviii Århundradet. konstsÖmnad, gyllenlÄder, guldsmide. renaissa enässansformernas upphörande samt härmed barock- och rokoko-stilens herravälde visar sig på planschen i blommornas naturalistiska hållning, i mångfalden af brutna linier, i den oroliga rörelsen i teckningen samt å fig. i sträfvandet att åt det broderade ornamentet ge en plastisk karakter. fig. tillhör helt och hållet rokoko-perioden. fig. . broderi, altarklädsel från klosterkyrkan i weingarten, nu i fornsaksmuseet i stuttgart. . broderad mässhake ur samma samling. . gyllenlädersbård. , bukorneringar från en i silfver utford, delvis förgylld pokal. efter en reproduktion i ungerska konstslöjdmuseet i budapest. » . fris af paul androuet du cerceau. fig. , . efter verkligheten af p. haaga i stuttgart. . ur hoffman: les arts et l'industrie. >> . >> guilmard: les maitres ornemanistes, det öfriga efter fotografia pl. . xvii och xviii Århundradet. darockstilen, som framträdde under ludvig xiv, är när- metallbeslag och trÄsnideri. mast att anse som en i en viss riktning gående fortsättning af renässansen. den upptager i sig många antika motiv. i det hela, i synnerhet hvad ornamentet beträffar, måste denna stil anses både praktfull och storartad. mångfald och omväxling saknas ingalunda, men stundom lider dekorationen af allt för slösande yppighet, ja öfverlastning. under de sista åren af ludvig xiv:s regeringstid, s. från år , inträdde med den store dekoratören charles lebruns begynnande verksamhet, en slags ombildning af stilen. konungen, som tröttnat på det stora ceremonielet, drog sig tillbaka till ett intimt privatlif; de glänsande festerna i versailles upphörde och beställningar af stora arbeten blefvo allt sällsyntare. i sammanhang härmed gjorde sig också gäl- lande behofvet af en stil, som, mindre pompös, mera var lämpad efter det intimare husliga lifvet. jules hardouin-mansart sökte i denna riktning åstad- komma något nytt, men en verklig förändring gjorde sig tyd- ligare märkbar först med robert de cotte omkring år . från denna tid visade sig i ornamentiken en lättare och mindre styf och stel formgifning; dess karaktär lära vi ytterligare känna genom pl. . d. v. mand ame detailliguu m ocak fig. . fig. - beslag å bord i kungliga bayerska nationalmuseet i münchen (ludvig xiv). - . diverse träsniderier af franskt ursprung, hvaribland fig. från en korstol i notre- dame i paris. väggfyllning af daniel marot ( – ). >> efteri fig. -: afgjutningar ur gipsalgjutningssamlingen i kgl. centralstelle für gewerbe und handel i stuttgart. efter kopparstick. > xvii. och xviii. Århundradet. . . . g . . we in smam . . siz ale . . . metallbeslag och träsnideri. | | li xviii, Århundradet. - sluzi plus inlagda träarbeten. pl. . xviii Århundradet. inlagda trÄarbeten. på ett å ett högst originellt sätt äro de å planchen atbildade parkettgolfven utförda. till sin stilkarakter öfverensstämma de helt och hållet med den dåvarande franska konstriktningen, som vid tiden i fråga efter hand utsträckte sitt herravälde till alla de många tyska furstehofven. den äldre geometriska indel- ningen med små figurer är blott i ringa mån följd; i stället utbreda sig öfver golfytan mera omfattande, ofta på ett storartadt sätt komponerade teckningar, åt hvilka de olika färgade träsorterna ge lif och om- växling samt ett egendomligt behag. samtliga de afbildade mönstren härröra från det af hertig karl af württemberg — upp- byggda lustslottet solitude vid stuttgart och äro utförda af dåvarande hofsnickaren johan georg beyer; likväl är blott en ringa del af dessa dyrbara golf i behåll. originalteckningarna befinna sig i snickarmästaren beyers ägo i ludvigsburg, en atkomling af den nyssnämnde j. g. beyer. nis hop del af en dörr i musée des arts décoratifs i paris, ur noë: architecture et sculpture. pl. . xvii och xviii Århundradet. plastiska orneringar. via p. anmärktes at omkring en omgestaltning gjorde sig märkbar inom barockstilen; id pl. anmärktes att omkring en omgestaltning gjorde sig märkbar inom barockstilen; ornamentiken behandlades före denna tid alltför rikt och svulstigt, de kraftigt framspringande gesimserna voro öfverlastade med antika prydnadsmotiv; i stället träder nu en måttfullare riktning; lätta, luftiga växt- ornament förläna det hela behag och elegans. de upprepade geometriska fyllningarna, som betäckte väggytorna tillfredsställde ej den nya smaken. i deras ställe insatte man taflor, tyger och framför allt speglar i symmetriskt anordnade prydnads- ramar, i hvilkas detaljer vi återfinna musslan, de stora palmetterna, palmer m. m. denna stil plägar kallas »style régences efter den tid ( — ), då »regenten philip af orléans förde styrelsen i stället för den minderårige ludvig xv. framträdande redan omkring sekelskiftet, var denna stil vid fullt utbildad och herskade ännu en tid in på ludvig xv:s regering; den kan också anses såsom en öfvergångsstil mellan barock och rokoko. fig. och på föreliggande plansch, fig. och på pl. samt textfiguren vid pl. låta oss i synnerhet förstå den förbehållsamma, fina, alltigenom gratiösa karakteren hos denna stilperiod. >> fig. . fyllning (för dörr- och fönsternischer) från tronsalen i slottet i fontainebleau. l. xiv:s stil. . fyllningsmönster, upphöjdt, från drottningens sängkammare i samma slott. l. xiv:s stil. . träsnideri från en panelfyllning i slottet i bercy. l. xiv:s stil. . kapital från en spegel i hôtel de lauzun i paris. l. xiv:s stil. . komponeradt af tyske mästaren paul decker. l. xiv:s stil. . i medaljsalen i slottet i versailles. l. xv:s stil. . hörn af en spegelram i drottningens sängkammare därstädes. l. xv:s stil. . arkitekturdekoration efter a. rosis ( ). l. xv:s stil. . vignett efter t. johnson carver ( ). l. xv:s stil. ur pfnorr: architecture et décoration des époques louis xiv, louis xv et louis xvi au palais de fontainebleau. rouyer et darcel: l'art architectural en france depuis francois i jusqu'à louis xiv. umé: verzierungskunst: muster von verzierungen aus allen stilen und zeitaltern. reynard: ornements des anciens maitres du xvau xviie siècle. : fig. . xvii. och xviii. Århundradet. 了​。 。 too plastiska orneringar. xviii. Århundradet. l mono dubro wow plastiska och målade orneringar. xviii. Århundradet. metallbeslag pl. . xix Århundradets bÖrjan. gobelinvÄfnad, fransar och bÅrder. koristen consten att måla blommor, som med sådan utmärkt skicklighet och framgång utöfvades under ludvig xv:s och ludvig xvi:s tid af mästare sådana som tessier, jacques o. andra, fortlefde äfven på kejsar- dömets tid, och fig. på vår plansch visar att den ej vansläktats. denna präktiga komposition härrör från målaren saint-ange, utan tvifvel anställd vid gobelinmanufakturen. hans namn är för öfrigt, såsom så mången annan inom detta delen utan all slags dekorativ område verksam duktig konst- utsmyckning. närs, föga kändt och skulle intressant är det att troligen råkat i fullständig jämföra formen på blom- glömska, om han ej tillika korgen i vår fig. i med sysselsatt sig med komposi- motsvarande i fig. och tioner för kopparsticksverk, på pl. . vi märka huru genom hvilkas utgifvande den fria, lediga formen från hans namn bragts till efter- ludvig xv:s tid under den världen. därpå följande perioden blir mot slutet af förra mera tvungen och rätlinig, århundradet nedlade man för att sedan få empirestilens stor omsorg på gobelinbil- stela, klassiskt »rena» prägel. dernas inramning och gaf karakteristiskt är också det dessa en särskildt konstnärlig sätt på hvilket dessa blomster- behandling empiren där- korgar anbringas under de emot återgaf i väſnad hufvud- olika perioderna. under sakligen scener hämtade från den äldre tiden framställde samtida målningar, till största fig. . man dem upphängda på lätta sväfvande band, empirekorgen däremot är uppställd på kraftigt svängda romerska akantusblad. särskild uppmärksamhet förtjänar denna komposition med anledning af färgerna, som verka välgörande i jämförelse med periodens annars så färgnyktra riktning. exempel på de under första kejsardömet så omtyckta väggbonaderna och draperierna meddelas i fig. — . fig. i. — . fyllning på en afdelningsskärm af saint-ange. siden- och sammetsbårder med öfverspunna tofsar från draperier i kungliga slottet i ludwigsburg tygmönster från > garde-meuble» i paris. . . fig. aftecknad af n. vivien i paris. - af g. kurz i stuttgart. . efter fotografi. > no empirestil. xix. Århundradet. 业 ​(。 g metallbeslag. pl. ico. xiii och xix Århundradet. siden vÄfnader. sidenindustri idenindustrien blomstrade i frankrike redan under medeltidens sista århundrade. på - och fram- för allt på -talet nådde den en ännu rikare utveckling på grund af sidenets vidsträcktare användning. väggar och möbler bekläddes då med dyrbara, i konstrika mönster utförda sidenväfnader, ett mode, som hade stort inflytande äfven på den dåtida tyska sidenindustrien. till fullständigande af de pl. atbildade få sidenväfnaderna från ludvig xiv:s, xv:s och xvi:s tid meddelas här ytterligare några prof anslutande sig till ludvig xvi:s-stilen, men visande öfvergången till empire-stilen. till den förra riktningen höra fig. och ; oafsedt några kinesiska reminiscenser, finna vi här ludvig xvi:s-stilens behagfulla blomsterguirlander och festoner, vaser, facklor och ymnighetshorn, hvar- jämte vi i de ofta förekommande kransarna, palmkvistarna och sköldarna spåra den annalkande s. k. direktoire-stilen. på samma sätt erinra i fig. de naturalistiska blomsterfyllningarna om den äldre tiden, under det att de öfriga liksom fig. , , och hafva utpräglad empirestilskarakter. fig. - . sidenväfnader efter originalmönster i kgl. landesgewerbemuseum i stuttgart. efter en papperstapet (fotografi). takornament från slottet i ludwigsburg. >> . fig. . xviii. och xix. Århundradet. be sm: ang © ds eee duos > sidenväfnader. sak-register. sima abakus . & lackmålning , , , . akantus , , , , , , , , , , , , . lampor . akroterion , . lergods, se keramik. alagrecque , . limoges . antemion , , , . arabesk , , . majolika , . arkitektur , , , , , , , , , , , , manuskriptmålning , , , , , , , , . , , , , . marmorinläggning . maskaron , io, . metallarbeten , , , , , , , , , , bokband, -perm , , , , , . , , . boulearbete , , . metopornering . broderi, se sömnad | minaret . brons , , , , . mosaik , , , , , , , , , . damaschering , , , . mäander , . djurornamentik . niello , ekinus . palissy-arbeten . emalj , , , , , , , , , , . palmett , , , . etsning , , plastik, se skulptur. | porslin ii, , . fajans , , , , , , , , , , . pylon . flätverk , fransar . robbia-arbeten , . rännlist . glasmålning , , , . sgraffito gobelinväfnad , , , , . golf-, dekoration , , , , , . skarabé i. gravering , , , . skulptur , , , , , , , , , , , , , grisaille , . , , , . guldsmedsarbeten , , , . skulptur, målad , , , , , , , , . gyllenläder , . slutsten , , . spetsar . hermer , , , . stalaktit , . hjärtbladslist . stuck , , , , , , . sömnad , , , , , , , , , , , , initialer , , , , , o. , inkrustering inläggning , , , , , , , , , , , takmålning, -dekoration , , , , , , , , , , intarsia , , , , , . tapettryck . trefot . kandelaber , , , . träsnideri, -skulptur , , , , , , , , kapital , , , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , . kartusch , , , , , , , , . typografi , . karyatid , . uræus-orm i, . kasett keramik , , , , , , , , , , , , vattenkastare . , , . vindbräde . knyppling voluter , kolonn- bas, -skaft , , , . väfnad , , , , , , , , , , , , konsol , , , . , , , . korsblomma . väggmålning, -dekoration , , , , , , , , krabba . , , , , , , , . kupol , . kyma . se Äggstaf . , , . innehÅlls-fÖrteckning. i so io . egyptisk. pl. pl. målning och plastik väfnad, sömnad, målad skulptur och emalj arkitektur och målning manuskriptmålning assyrisk, vägg- och takmålning målning, målad skulptur, keramik italiensk renässans. glasmålning grekisk. arkitektur, skulptur, ornamentik fajansplattor . polykrom arkitektur väggdekoration keramik... intarsia......... takmålning romersk. spetsar.... arkitektur, skulptur, ornamentik sömnad och väfnad mosaik sgraffito, marmorinläggning, lågrelief pompejansk. vägg- och takmålning väggmålningar och målade basreliefer....... manuskriptmålning, väfnad, marmorinlägg- bronser ning ..... majolikamålning kinesisk, målning plastisk ornering i marmor och brons ii målning, väfnad, sömnad, väggemalj vägg- och takmålning italiensk och fransk renässans. japansk arbeten i ädel metall och emalj.... lackmålning väfnad, målning, väggemalj fransk renässans. typografiska ornament.. indisk. tapettryck och sömnad metallarbeten... väggmålning sömnad, väfnad, flätverk, lackmålning metallarbete, sömnad, väfnad, målning..... plastisk ornering i sten och trä takmålning marmorinläggning väfnad, sömnad, bokband persisk. väggmålning, målad skulptur, bokband, väfnad arkitektur gobelinväfnad... keramik... emalj- och fajansmålning, metallinläggning väfnad och manuskriptmålning. fransk och tysk renässans. metallarbeten....... planornament i olika teknik persisk - arabisk. tysk renässans. väggbeklädnad af glaseradt lergods tak- och väggmålning, intarsia, sömnad arabisk. glasmålning . väfnad, sömnad, målning . metallarbeten trä- och metallornering målad plastik manuskriptmålning bokband sömnad och väfnad arabisk – morisk. arkitektonisk ornering typografiska ornament mosaik, glaseradt lergods målad plastik plastisk ornering i sten och trä morisk. arkitektonisk ornering väggmålningar, plastisk dekoration i trä och steni turkisk. vägg- och takmålning arkitektonisk ornering af glaseradt lergods ... kartuscher och emaljarbeten keltisk. xvii och xviii århundradet. manuskriptmålning gobelinväfnad.......... konstsömnad, gyllenläder, guldsmide. . byzantinsk, glasmosaik, emalj, manuskriptmålning metallbeslag och träsnideri gropemalj, mosaik i marmor och glas xviii århundradet. sömnad och väfnad inlagda träarbeten rysk. xvii och xviii århundradet. manuskriptmålning plastiska orneringar arkitektoniska prydnader och träsniderier vägg- och takdekoration i stuck, målning emalj, majolika, vägg- och takmålningar, lacke- och gyllenläder rade arbeten xviii århundradet. nordisk. plastisk ornering i färger träsnideri gobelinväfnad. plastiska och målade orneringar byzantinsk och romansk. arkitektur och skulptur xvii och xviii århundradet. konstsömnad och väfpad .... romansk. manuskriptmålning och emalj xviii århundradet. väggmålning... metallbeslag........ romansk - gotisk. xix århundradets början. glasmålning vägg- och takmålningar golfplattor. gobelinväfnad, fransar och bårder gotisk, empirestil, xix århundradet. träinläggning metallbeslag glasmålning xviii och xix århundradet. arkitektur, skulptur och ornamentik sidenväfnader ? u.c. berkeley libraries boo ornamenti european silks alan cole ********** ** ****** *******************************mesema paul joseph sachs harvard college library this volume from the harvard collection of books on the fine arts is the gift of professor paul j. sachs of the class of , of the fogg museum of art ve ri tas tec . ornament in european silks part of the painting of st. catherine by carlo crivelli— th century-. in the national gallery (fig. ) . by al!vs ( p t an, ... iee irii aking and an! ties " and lÀct; id - hit ont, h ., debenhav id: . orn a ment in european silks by alan s. cole author of ancient needle- point and pillow lace and cantor lectures on the art of lace making the art of tapestry making and embroidery egyptian tapestry and means for identifying ancient embroideries and laces etc with one hundred and sixty-nine illustrations debenham and freebody wig more street london teg . harvard university library butler & tanner, the selwood printing works, frome, and london, preface on finally passing my book for publication, i confess to feeling that my readers may find that i have put their patience to too strong a strain by asking them to refer repeatedly backwards and forwards from illustration to illustration, and thus to make their own comparisons between different and kindred plans of pattern and pattern details. the late prof. huxley has written that “comparison and that classification which is the result of comparison are the essence of every science whatsoever.” the course of pattern development, even in silks only, is worth tracing according to the methods adopted for scientific studies: i therefore venture to hope that the tax i have imposed upon my readers is justified. i fear that my work, which has had to be done in leisure hours in a rather disjointed way, does not possess that coherency, finish of phraseology and lucidity of expression which as a rule make the reading of books delightful even when they deal with subjects more difficult of treatment than ornament in silks. alan s. cole january, viii contents page . . preface . . . . . list of illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii . xi chapter i introductory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i chapter ii the manufacture of silken stuffs in europe . . . . chapter iii materials and processes in weaving silks, embroideries, and tapestries . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter iv principles which have been observed in the designing of ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter v silk patterns of sassanian, egypto-persian, and byzantine origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter vi silk patterns of saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter vii th and early th century italian patterns. . . . contents page chapter viii th century ottoman and italian patterns uman and italian patterns . . . . chapter ix th and th century patterns . . . . . . . . chapter x ornament in embroidery. . . . . . . . . . . list of illustrations fig. page · · · · · · · · · · · . circular bands or roundels . . . . . . . . . . . . bas-reliefs in archway to the garden of king's palace, near kermanchah. . . piece of persian silk or sarcenet. . . . . . . . . . . . two pieces of perso-byzantine red silk woven in colours . . . . . . piece of byzantine yellowish silk sarcenet, from the vestment of st. bernard of clairvaux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . piece of byzantine double silk weaving . . . . . . . . . . parallel band byzantine pattern plan . . . . piece of perso-byzantine silk (sarcenet) woven in colours . . plan of ogival frame for patterns . . . . . . . . . . . outline drawing of byzantine creamy satin stuff . . piece of perso-egyptian silk or sarcenet, woven in pink and white . . . . caps of perso-egyptian or syrian silk or sarcenet . . . . . . . . portion of a perso-egyptian band or clavus for a tunic . . . . . . medallion of silk or sarcenet, from ancient tombs at akhmîm (panopolis), upper egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . part of a band or clavus of silk or sarcenet for robe, from ancient tombs at akhmîm . . . . . . . band of perso-egyptian silk or sarcenet for the cuff of a robe. . . . . . half of scarf of silk or sarcenet, from ancient tombs at akhmîm . . piece of egypto-saracenic fine linen with parallel bands of ornament in coloured silks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . piece of egypto-saracenic fine linen with bands of coloured silks' . . copy of portion of a siculo-saracenic silk vestment of the th century . . . part of a siculo-saracenic vestment of the th century . . . . . . . part of the robe of don felipe, brother of king alfonso x. . . . . . . piece of hispano-saracenic silk, woven in parallel bands . . . . . . piece of hispano-saracenic silk, woven in colours . . . . . . . piece of hispano-saracenic yellow and purple silk damask . . . piece of egypto-saracenic yellow and red silk weaving on linen warp threads . piece of siculo-saracenic th century brocade . . . . . . . . . piece of siculo-saracenic th century silk damask . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · . piece of italian violet or fawn-coloured silk damask or lampas . . . . . th or th century piece of silk and linen weaving, possibly of french or german origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . piece of stuff woven with red silk and gold thread. french or german . . · · list of illustrations fig. page · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . · ..... · · · · · ....... · · · · · · · · . piece of stuff woven with crimson and yellow silk and gold thread . . . a. billet or scale-shaped framework . . . . . . . . . . . . piece of a raised white silk damask brocaded . . . . . . sicilian silk damask with gold brocaded details . . . . . . . . piece of siculo-saracenic silk and gold-thread brocade . . . piece of late th century siculo-saracenic weaving . . . . . . . . part of an italian chasuble of green and fawn-coloured silk damask . . . piece of italian brocaded silk damask . . . . . . . . . . portion of group from th century painting in norwich cathedral . . figure from th century painting of the crucifixion in norwich cathedral . . north italian rose-colour gold brocaded silk . . . north italian brown silk brocaded with gold thread . . . ... piece of north italian brown and pale blue silk . . . . north italian rose-coloured and green silk . . . . . . . . part of north italian dalmatic of blue satin . . . piece of north italian blue satin brocaded with gold thread. . piece of blue satin brocaded with gold thread. . . . . north italian silk damask . . . . . . . . . . . . . figures from orcagna's painting of the coronation of the virgin . . . . . th century painting of st. catherine, by carlo crivelli . . . . frontispiece . part of liturgic vestment of violet and gold-coloured silk damask or lampas. . portions of two orphreys of crimson silk and gold thread damask . . . conventional leaf panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . diagram of pattern of italian silk of the th century . . . . . . painting by carlo crivelli in the national gallery . . . . . . . . recumbent figure of carlo marsupini in the church of sta. croce, florence : . specimen of italian green velvet with conventional leaf panels . . . . . diagram of an italian velvet of the th century . . . . . . . . vertical serpentine pattern painted on robe of st. paul, from southwold church rood screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . diagram from an italian velvet of the th century. . . . . . . . diagram of another type of italian velvet pattern . . . . . . . italian velvet of dark blue and green conventional leaf shapes and serpentine stems on a ground of crimson silk . . . . . . . . . . portion of a painting by romanino at padua . . . . . . . . . painting of a canon of the church, by gheraert david, in the national gallery. . two panels of cloth of gold and red velvet . . . . . . . . . group of figures from the painting of the “ upright judges " by jean de maubeuge . specimen of italian th century velvet . . . . . . . . . . portion of painting, by marco marziale, in the national gallery . . . . . italian white satin, with damasked leaf-shaped ornaments . . . . . . piece of italian faded rose-colour satin damask . . . . . . . . specimen of yellow and blue silk damask or lampas . . . . . . . painting by bernardino fungai in the national gallery . . . fragment of turkish green velvet brocaded with gold thread, from broussa : . portion of a hanging of cloth of gold with pattern in red and yellow velvet, of ottoman manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii list of illustrations page . • ΟΙ . . · · . . · · · · · · . . · · . · · · · . . mulacrure . . . . . ii . . fig. . portion of a dress of a sultana, removed from a royal tomb at constantinople or broussa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . piece of crimson satin with pattern woven in white and gold, of ottoman manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . piece of crimson velvet with powdered pattern, of ottoman manufacture . . portrait of catherine cornaro, queen of cyprus, painted by titian . . . . portrait, probably of princess mary of england, by holbein . piece of patterned italian crimson velvet . . . . . . . . . . piece of italian cloth of silver or silver tissue . . . . . . . piece of green silk brocatelle with ogival frame, patterns, and crowns . piece of italian red and yellowish silk damask or lampas . . . . . . mother and child, from a painting by paul veronese . . . . . . . portrait by paris bordone . . . . . . . . portrait of eleonore of toledo, duchess of florence, with her son, ferdinand i., by bronzino . . . . . . . · . italian brocatelle of red and gold-coloured silk brocatelle of brown and gold-coloured silk . . italian brocatelle of crimson silk . . . . . . . . . . part of a venetian hanging of cloth of gold . . ini a piece of italian red and yellow silk taffeta . . • . . . . piece of taffeta material woven with green, red, and yellow silks . ii piece of crimson satin of ottoman manufacture . . . . . . . . portion of an italian cloth of silver material woven with coloured silks . piece of italian hanging of brocatelle . . . . . . i . piece of italian crimson satin damask . . . . . . . . . portion of chasuble in silk damask or lampas . . piece of italian gold-coloured silk weaving of the brocatelle class . piece of italian dark green silk velvet . . . . piece of italian silk lampas . . . . . . . . . . . . piece of italian silk lampas . . . piece of italian yellow satin with pattern in silver thread . . . . . piece of italian silk lampas . . . . . . . piece of italian silk velvet . . . . . . . . . . . . painting by cornelius de vos of his two daughters . . . . . . piece of italian red satin . . . . . . . . . . . . . portion of an italian patterned silk hanging . . . . . . . . . part of an italian chasuble of patterned white silk . . . . . . . piece of french cream-coloured silk damask . .. . iii. portrait by franz hals . . . . . . . . . . . piece of french patterned brown silk ... . . . . . portrait of donna maria of austria, by velasquez . . . . . . . . piece of italian brocaded damask drab-coloured satin . · · . piece of venetian brocaded blue satin damask : : : : : . piece of italian brocaded crimson silk damask . . . . . . piece of italian hanging of cloth of silver . . . . . . . . . piece of italian coloured velvet . . . . . . . piece of italian brocaded crimson silk damask . . . . . . . . . . · · . . · . . · · . . · · · · · . . · · · . · i · . . · . · · . . · . · · · · · . . · · . · · · . · . . · . · · · · . · · . · . · · · · xiii list of illustrations fig. · · . · · · · · · . · · · . · · . · . . . · · · . · · · · . · · · · · . · · . · . · · . . · . . . . . . . . page . portrait of elizabeth charlotte d'orleans, by hyacinthe rigaud . . . · . piece of french crimson silk damask . . . piece of french or italian brocade . . . . . . . . . . . piece of milanese silver and gold brocaded satin . . piece of gold and silver brocade (? polish). . . piece of french red satin brocade . . . . . . piece of french olive green silk damask . . . piece of french brocaded black silk . . . piece of french coloured silk brocade . . • . . . piece of french coloured silk brocade . • . piece of french brocaded pink silk . . . . piece of french ribbed silk brocade . . . . . . portrait of queen maria leczinska, by van loo. . . . . piece of french pale blue and white silk brocade . . : : . piece of french brocaded white silk damask . . . . . portion of child's tunic worked in wool on linen . . . medallion or circular panel from egypto-byzantine linen tunic. . . part of a coptic figured medallion on a linen tunic . . . . . th century outline pattern scheme or framework . part of a th century altar frontal of canvas worked with worsted . . cope of embroidered canvas, known as the syon cope . . . . . . . cope of english embroidered red satin . . . . . . . . . . panel of italian embroidered canvas . . . . . . . . . . . english altar frontal made from cope of red velvet . . : : : . flemish embroidered hood for cope representing the martyrdom of st. margaret . painting of st. roderigo, by murillo. . . . . . . . . . . two panels or apparels for a dalmatic of crimson velvet. . . three bands or orphreys of appliqué embroidery . . . . . . . . portrait of charles ix. of france, by francis clouet . . . . . . . specimens of italian th century embroideries upon linen . . . . . . indo-portuguese coverlet of linen, quilted with crimson and yellow silks . . embroidered coverlet of white cotton . . . . . . . . . . . part of an embroidered coverlet of white linen . . . portion of an embroidered coverlet of dark-blue satin . . . . . . . coverlet of white satin embroidered with coloured silks . . . . . . cap or hood of linen worked with coloured silks ; and tunic of embroidered white satin · · · · · · . portrait, possibly of queen elizabeth, in embroidered fancy costume . . . . portrait of queen elizabeth in embroidered dress . . . . . . . . cushion cover of embroidered brown silk . . . . . . . . . portion of an italian th century wall or pilaster hanging . . . . . an italian th century chalice veil . . . . an italian th century embroidered altar frontal . . . early th century english embroidered panel . . . . . . . . a th century english embroidered casket or box . . another view of the same . . . . . . . . . . red silk scarf, as worn by military officer in the th century. . . . uit vi w ie c . . . . . . · · · · · · i · xiv list of illustrations fig. page a. a th century french velvet pouch or alms bag, embroidered with arms of the city of paris . . . . . . . . . . a th century french velvet pouch or alms bag, embroidered with arms of cardinal the duke de matignon . . . . . . . . . . c. a th century french velvet pouch or alms bag, embroidered with arms of the marquis de jessac . . . . . . . . . . . . d. a th century french velvet pouch or alms bag, embroidered with shields and armorial bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . part of a set of white satin bed embroideries . . . . . . . two english th century embroidered white satin or silk waistcoats . . . two english th century embroidered coats . . chapter i introductory totwithstanding the comprehensiveness of the title, ornament iv in european silks, which has been taken for this book, it is not intended that it shall pass here as that of an exhaustive account of decorative silk works from the earliest times, when they became known and were made in europe, down to the present day. for a little pondering over what can be written under such a title conjures up possibilities of several volumes. a serious analysis of ornament, its styles and their interdependence, would of itself imply a very big undertaking. and although by limiting ornament to that expressed in silken fabrics and by silk threads, the subject becomes specialized, a wide way is left open to much that is interesting in connection with silk, its cultivation, its treatment for use either in the loom or by the needle, its varying textures and effects in decorative weavings and embroideries, to say nothing of their historical associations and innumerable archæological problems. more than forty-four years ago monsieur francisque michel wrote two large quarto volumes upon silks, chiefly in france alone. the title of this admirable compilation—invaluable to any one going thoroughly into the subject—is, recherches sur le commerce, la fabrication et l'usage des étoffes de soie, d'or et d'argent, et autres tissus précieux en occident, principalement en france pendant le moyen age. a quantity of information is given in it in respect of silk in its connection not merely with france, but also with other countries. unfortunately these volumes contain no illustrations, and a considerable effort of imagination is required in order to picture or realize the true impressions intended to be conveyed by the verbal descriptions given of mediæval ornament in silks. since the publication of monsieur michel's book, however, a great deal has been done to help students to familiarize themselves with patterns and textures of olden stuffs. important collections of such things have been formed at several places in europe : at nuremberg, at lyons, crefeld, berlin, vienna, paris, london, and elsewhere. these, supplemented by what are to be seen in cathedral and other ecclesiastical treasuries, in private ornament in european silks houses, castles, mansions, etc., furnish a mass of materials, the attempted identification of which with the fabrics described or alluded to by monsieur michel and other later writers, leads, and has led, to prolific and ingenious speculations as well as to many sound conclusions. the evidence upon which an assumed proof of identification has been based is often very slender—and many ascriptions of date and nationality of production to old textile specimens have been found to be erroneous. tombs have delivered up splendid tissues, rich in ornament, which were piously wrapped round illustrious dead according to a common custom that prevailed for many centuries; but accurate records of who the illus- trious dead were are often wanting, as well as those of where the precious fabrics originally came from. traditions, apparently of great age, which seemed unimpeachable, have been exploded and found to be quite value- less. nevertheless, as the discovery and careful preservation of textiles have progressed during later years, means have thereby been secured for approaching to more correct views upon the date and nationality of certain distinctive styles of textile patterns. the comparison of kindred stuffs is now rendered relatively easy to any one who wishes to make it. and so too is the comparison of the patterns in such stuffs with what seem to be representations of them in paintings, architectural monu- ments, and other works of art. many of these latter bear indisputable marks of their authorship and age, and so become the means of at least fixing the date, and frequently the probable nationality, of patterned stuffs themselves. these remarks particularly apply to early stuffs—those be- longing to and prior to the th century. in regard to later textiles, a few manufacturers' and designers' books of examples and patterns supply reliable indications of the periods when certain varieties of decorated textiles were in vogue. up to a certain point, the nearer one gets to re- latively modern times the more precise are the means for determining the nationality and date of specimens. but as the accumulation of textile fabrics has gone on growing, and acquaintanceship formed with many styles of ornament, confusion in them and odd anachronisms have very largely occurred, not only in attempts to revive old styles, and in making what are termed new departures, in designing patterns, but also in bring- ing together for so-called decorative purposes varieties of ornamented stuffs which cannot, from a purist's point of view, be happily correlated. in determining how to use decorative and ornamental silks the effect of their patterns in colour and form is a main consideration. varieties in texture are perhaps of less importance; though they certainly must be taken into account in any effectual study of silken fabrics. the methods of weaving and embroidery, which the expert can always trace in stuffs, introduction have often proclaimed the probable origin and date of manufacture, and a valuable guide in regard to silk weaving is the book entitled les industries de la soie, by monsieur pariset, published in . the late lady marian alford and the late mrs. bury palliser have also compiled highly interest- ing works upon embroidery. many large volumes of illustrations, printed in colours, and so skilfully produced as to look like actual bits of stuff, woven and embroidered, have been published during the last twenty years or so : such as fischbach's ornaments of textile fabrics and dupont auberville's ornement des tissus. by reason of their comparative costliness these works are not very generally consultable by the mass of persons who wear, make use of, and are interested in silks. for the purposes of the present work we have to content ourselves with black and white illustrations. as far as possible the effect of the original colours is described. the plates can but suggest gradations of tone. they give with considerable accuracy the contours of the ornamental shapes and their arrangement, and these after all are important data for forming a useful idea of the style or character of design in patterns of ornamental textiles whether woven or embroidered. briefly, then, the object aimed at in this book has been to give indications of distinctive types or styles of patterns in silken weavings and embroideries, noting the periods and places of their production. in con- nection with this some analysis of their features has been attempted, and some account has been given of modifications of styles in ornament, as kindred motives, forms and arrangements of them into patterns have been successively dealt with by designers in different countries and at different times. an abridged account of the development of silk cultivation and manufacture is given, and methods of weaving and embroidery are alluded to; and thus it is hoped that within the prescribed limits a general review of ornament in european silks is now presented, and is of such a nature as to indicate the far greater extent to which interesting and useful studies of this subject may be pursued. chapter ii the manufacture of silken stuffs in europe d ecords and other evidence of european taste and trade in silk n stuffs take one far back into the early days of the mediæval period. without proposing to make a selection from such records in order to present a view of european silk weaving from those remote times, i refer to one or two of them at the outset as samples merely of their suggestiveness in relation to any history of silk and its manufacture. for instance, the old chronicler, matthew of paris, mentions that, in the th century certain syrian silk merchants settled in paris to promote their particular commerce. this, at any rate, shows that syria was engaged in the silk industry at the beginning of the mediæval period, and that at that early date a taste for silken fabrics had penetrated as far north in europe as paris. again, skipping over a period of years or so, we come to a period in respect of which the history is more detailed; and from amongst many similar bills i may quote one for two pieces of silk of damascus, bought in – , by paul mélian, a merchant of lucca living at bruges, for the burial of two sons of the then duke of bur- gundy, and so expand my ideas. these two instances considered together at once convey a notion of the probable ramifications of european trade in silken fabrics, and certainly of its great age. the notion is succeeded by an inclination to go more intimately into the story of silk manufactures and their commerce throughout europe. to follow up this inclination, and at the same time to resist a temptation of dwelling too particularly upon what was being done at one period or in any one coun- try, is not quite so easy as it may seem to be. a study of countries and towns, one by one, which have been famous for silk manufacture, tends to narrow breadth of view and to raise unduly the estimation of the operations in one country or one town above those of another. the relation of all to one another, in a measure at least, must be realized to obtain a picture of the whole course of european silk manufactures, and how, linking themselves together, they originated in the east, whence they spread westwards, and were there fostered, weakly and strongly, according to conditions of various european countries at different times. european desire for precious silken fabrics is traceable to wealthy religious communities and courts of rulers, large and small, throughout the manufacture of silken stuffs the continent. those of northern england even, with those of southern italy, of western spain and of eastern turkey or byzantium, have yielded material and contemporaneous evidences that this widespread taste was very pronounced during the middle of the mediæval period. how this taste could be met depended, of course, upon the means of supply; and this last brings one to the point of having to take some note of the early development of sericulture, and silk manufactures in europe. amongst favourable conditions for sericulture, climate is perhaps chief, just as genius, ability and industrial energy, stimulated by patronage and direc- tion, are essential to ornamental and decorative productions and manu- factures. long before the particular period with which we are to be concerned with them in europe, sericulture and silk manufacture had spread to india, persia and syria, from china. greeks and early romans were not acquainted with silks. wools and linens were the materials with which they and still earlier egyptians made their costumes ; and it is not until somewhere about the beginning of the rd century a.d that silks can be said to have become fairly well known to the romans. it is said that heliogabalus was the first roman emperor who wore garments entirely of silk. these were doubtless of syrian or persian manufacture. not until some centuries later were the cultivation of silkworms and the weaving of silk brought into the southern parts of europe. meanwhile the east, china, persia, and adjoining countries westward, held a mono- poly in the cultivation, manufacture and export of the material. as regards persian silks of these times, i quote an interesting passage from the able paper on the “ history and development of pattern designs in textiles," by professor paul schultze, of crefeld, which he read before the society of arts on the rith april, :- “at the time when the romans were losing more and more of their independence owing to the enervating results of their social life, and the lassitude of their rulers; and when from these causes the roman government was hastening to its ruin, the persian empire in asia was building up a new civilization upon the ruins of a culture then long gone by. in the year b.c. artaxerxes i. took in hand the government of all central asia. he founded the family of the sassanides, who reigned in persia years. the greatest (sassanid) prince of persia was chosroes anurshirwan, - . during his reign commerce, industry, and weaving of a high character flourished. some original fabrics, kept till the present day as covering for relics, prove the great perfection of this persian textile industry." i shall describe a specimen or two of these silks in a later chapter. and in connection with them i quote, from one of my cantor lectures at the society of arts, in , a sentence which suggests the continuation of silk manufactures in syria from the sassanian to the mohammedan eras. “the saracens or moslems, at the beginning of mohammedanism, levied, from the towns of their early conquests in syria, tribute which in great measure consisted of fine textiles. damascus, famous for its silk weaving, was taken by the saracens. these conquerors allowed the supposed daughter of the roman emperor heraclius, who was married to thomas, a noble greek in damascus, to leave, taking with her three hundred boxes containing costly silks and cloths of gold.” ornament in european silks besides silk weaving places in syria, there were towns in northern egypt-alexandria for instance—which were engaged in the industry for some century or more, before they came under the dominion of the saracens in the th century. in the th century spain was also conquered by the saracens, and silk cultivation and manufacture began to develop there. from this point of view the immediate sources from which euro- pean countries may then have been able to draw some of their supplies of silken fabrics were those where saracens had settled, during the early centuries of the mediaval period. but, in saying this much, we may remember that something was known about silk as early as the days of aristotle, who describes the silkworm and its cocoon, and that from the time even of virgil and martial to that of justinian, various allusions in roman literature set forth the keenness with which luxurious romans appreciated the then novel and precious silks. in the th century, the emperor justinian imported looms for weaving silk, and had them set up in constantinople; shortly afterwards he obtained, at the hands of two persian monks, a supply of silkworm eggs, by means of which he effectu- ally started sericulture in constantinople. the two persian monks were entirely conversant with chinese methods of cultivating silk, its treatment for and manfacture into tissues, so that justinian was well equipped with the necessary information and means of gratifying his own taste and that of his wealthy court. his byzantine centre of silk supply therefore, be- came for a time what we can regard as the only european seat of silk cultivation and manufacture. for some five centuries, constantinople, and rather later on corinth, thebes and athens, monopolized the making of such silk stuffs as were best known to the byzantine empire. other parts of europe were able later on to get silken fabrics also from sicily and spain, when they came under saracenic influence. saracens from the date of their conquest of sicily in , and for centuries later, became an almost preponderating element in the mixed races inhabiting sicily. in the th century a norman expeditionary force under the renowned roger guiscard conquered the island. in the practice of the arts, in the ornamental use of silks, and so forth, saracens and certain christian greeks in sicily were apparently foremost; and, turning this favourable condition to account, roger guiscard organized a silk manufactory, commonly known as the hotel des tiraz, at palermo. on his return from a successful expedition into greece, he brought from corinth a great number of silk weavers with their implements and materials. yates gives a quotation from the byzantine historian, nicetas choniates, to the effect that “in his time those who went to sicily might see the sons of thebans and corinthians em- ployed in weaving velvet stoles interwoven with gold.” yates says, further, ornament in european silks the area of norman government. these pieces were made up into copes for use in the cathedral at st. evroul, and the incident is here mentioned as suggestive of the probable extension of silk trade and industry from sicily into the mainland of italy. many italian towns from the th century onwards took up with silk manufacture. first among them, in northern italy, was lucca, soon to be followed by florence, genoa, venice, bologna, and milan. wandering or captive saracenic, and even greek, weavers had also strayed or been taken to places in germany, france, and britain. according to monsieur michel, the dras de soie à or battu, known in france in the th century, were made there by such imported labour. a rhyming chronicler of the th century relates that the daughters of charlemagne (four centuries earlier) had been taught how to weave silks, en tauliettes, or small hand looms. and as early as the th century an order was issued to regulate the industry-almost entirely carried on by foreigners—in silk stuffs, etc., at paris. but such comparatively minor incidents have little direct value in attempting to trace the main flow of the silk industry, and its gradual spread from italy to other parts of europe. in the th century persian silk was a well-known material in the markets of lucca and florence, and was in use largely at lucca for manufacturing purposes. there seems to be but little precise information as to the actual conditions of the industry at lucca, and one can but infer that it was being actively pursued in the early years of the th century when, upon the siege and capture of that city by one uguccione della fagiuola, the lucchese weavers and other artificers are said to have been dispersed, taking refuge in various parts of italy, and so practically transferring their handicrafts in silk weaving, etc., to venice, florence, milan, and bologna. from monsieur daru's history of the venetian republic, we learn that, some thirty-one lucchese families set up their silk looms in venice about this time. genoa, like venice, was a great centre for italian trading with the east, and here lucchese weavers were as soon at work as at venice. a century later, benedetto dei, of florence, retorting upon certain venetians who had spoken disparagingly of florentine merchants, says, “ as for cloths of silk and gold and silver stuffs, we florentines make and have been making such things in far greater quantity than your city of venice, with genoa and lucca thrown in as well,” thus marking the claim which was advanced by florence to high rank as a silk weaving and trading city. although history shows us that lucchese families of weavers emigrated as far as france, germany, the netherlands, and england, silk weaving in those countries did not attain to what one may regard as the commencement of national significance until the th century. the great italian towns above mentioned were the chief ornament in european silks then the old conditions become changed. her trade is in these silks, and italy and the rest of europe become subject to her. tours, nismes, orleans, and other french towns that have been mentioned, gained their reputations in the main from the productions of the foreign weavers who settled in them. and subsequently these places, with the whole of france also, become subject to the influence of lyons. how this influence was carried into spain, england, holland, germany, and switzerland, is accounted for by the thousands of protestant silk weavers who fled from france, and split up into groups, settled in these countries respectively towards the end of the th century, when the edict of nantes, which had ordained the toleration of protestants in france was revoked. this de- portation of silk weavers did not materially affect the strength of lyons as european leader in silk manufactures, the development of which began to assume more important proportions in england than in the other countries benefited by the settlement of french weavers in them. silk weaving in england, by foreign workmen chiefly, had begun to acquire some little degree of celebrity about the commencement of the th century. at the end of that century, through the influx of french weavers, this was considerably enhanced, and the manufacture progressed steadily, so that by the middle of the th century there were in london alone, and chiefly in spitalfields, several thousands of silk-weaving looms at work. many factories were established shortly afterwards in cheshire, yorkshire, essex, derbyshire, lancashire and norfolk. at these, large quantities of chinese and indian silk were used. the united production of british silk fabrics at this time seriously competed with, and indeed almost surpassed, those of lyons and france. in some branches of silk weaving, england, according to monsieur pariset, seems to have been absolutely supreme as lately as . but since then british silk manu- facture in all its branches has perceptibly declined, although the demand for silk goods continues to be enormous. this is not the place for further discussing england's position in the history of european silk weaving. germany, who now supplies a vast foreign demand for silken fabrics at moderate and low prices, does not rival france with her confection of pure and beautiful silks ; neither does the german record indicate that she really rivalled england during the earlier centuries of the spread into europe of silk weaving. the course of the industry in germany is similar in general respects to that in england : for crefeld, elberfeld, barmen, weisen, rousdorf, and other german towns, seem to be indebted for the foundation of their silk weaving to the revocation of the edict of nantes. of spain, whose early enterprises in silk growing and weaving were, the manufacture of silken stuffs like those of italy, so rich in promise, there is really not much to say. italy eclipsed her in the th and th centuries, and she fell into relative insignificance during the th and th centuries, somewhat weakly reflecting the characteristics of italian and french silks. in the suc- ceeding centuries the reflection grows dimmer and dimmer. the nether- lands were noted for bruges satins in the th century, and the fame of flanders and holland in connection with silks is due in considerably greater degree to trading operations, especially in the th and th centuries, of antwerp and amsterdam, than to any pursuit of the industry in those countries. netherlands and flanders were most notable for their manufacture of tapestries; but these were scarcely ever made of silk only, and are accordingly not dealt with here. the turks in europe and in asia minor have for some centuries pursued their industry of silk weaving, and one noteworthy incident in connection with it occurred, when soliman ii. transferred from tauris into turkey several families of silk weavers, and settled them there in the th century. broussa, and diarbekir in asia minor, beyrout, aleppo, damascus in syria, so celebrated in the past, still maintain and follow traditions of their ancient silk industry. four hundred years ago cloths of gold and silk, velvets and satins, made in cyprus were famous, whereas now the means of manufacturing such stuffs there are virtually extinct, although the climatic conditions of the island are as favourable to seri- culture as ever they were. sovereigns and nobles of russia and poland in the th century, on occasions of ceremony, were clad in resplendent gold, silver, and silken costumes, the materials of which were largely imported from persia and central asia, but neither country during the two following centuries made any real effort to establish industries in these things. early in the present century russian silk weaving looms were started at moscow, as well as in the district of vladimir and st. petersburg. austrian silk weaving com- menced about a hundred years ago, when it is stated that upwards of , looms were put into operation at vienna by the imported labour of genoese, piedmontese, and workers from lyons. since then the special branch of weaving ribands has become established in illyria and the tyrol. a few silk weavers have practised their craft at stockholm during the present century, but neither sweden nor norway has held any position of importance in european silk manufacture. to recapitulate very briefly the significant stages of silk weaving developments in europe, we see that byzantium comes first with its initiative, having adopted oriental methods of the craft under justinian, followed by sicily and spain, with their settlements of saracens and ii ornament in european silks moors. then after a lapse of time comes italy, with her absorption and modification of what she gained from sicilian and levantine sources through lucca, genoa, venice, and florence. france next arises, with lyons as its chief centre of silk trade and manufacture, which gives to the remaining european countries a stimulus of which england takes the fuller advantage, running france very closely at times in the race for supremacy. chapter iii materials and processes in weaving silks, embroideries, and tapestries great number of names have been given to the textures and a ornamentation of silks and other woven fabrics in the course of the centuries during which they have been made. many problems as to the meaning of some of these names have arisen, and are not satisfac- torily solved at the present day. monsieur pariset, a well-known authority on textiles, writes : “silken fabrics fall into two classes, fabrics made entirely of silk, and fabrics made partly with silks and partly with other threads." he points out that the same kinds of weaving apparatus are used, whether the warp or weft of the material to be woven is to be silk or of other threads, such as flax, cotton, worsted, etc. the nature of the threads, does not, in fact, call for modifications in the construction of the mechanical parts of the loom, its shuttles, and gear generally. monsieur pariset's classification above mentioned follows that of the roman writers who make the earliest mention of silken fabrics, as being holosericum (entirely of silk) and subsericum (partly of silk). this, however, touches only the question of the materials with which silken fabrics have been and continue to be made, and does not help one much on the road to following out the classifications suggested by the many names that occur in any history of silken stuffs. several of these names apply to varieties of textures, and varieties of textures are the results of various ways of weav- ing. plain silk or sarcenet is as obviously different from satin as velvet is from both. there is, therefore, a particular kind of weaving for each different texture. i shall not attempt to go very closely into this topic, and can only offer a few remarks upon it, suggesting, rather than describing with technical correctness, the character of changes in process for changes in texture. from a loom fitted with a single set of warp threads and a single shuttle, a simple unfigured texture, like that, for instance, of a cambric handkerchief, is producible. in this case the shuttle with its weft thread is thrown so as to pass and repass in between alternate warp threads. but if, by a small change, the shuttle, with its weft thread, is directed to materials and processes in weaving textures. when, however, ornament is wrought in them, other names are used for most of them. the earliest figured silks known and produced in europe are thin in substance, resembling sarcenet and taffeta. com- paratively few modern silks having rich ornament in them are made in the simple form of weaving required for taffeta and sarcenet. damask satin is the name for a figured silken stuff which consists of a double satin weaving. both the ornamental forms and their ground are of the same texture and colour, but are distinguishable one from the other by the opposing directions of the woven threads, and the contrast in glisten that thereby ensues. a distinctive variant of damask satin is brocatelle, in which, according to monsieur pariset, the salient ornamentation is satin in texture. this is relieved by a ground of the same colour, but less sheeny in appearance, such as taffeta or sarcenet, and is produced by a different weaving of the threads in it. lampas is kindred to brocatelle, and, there- fore, belongs to the class of damask satins. the ground of lampas, how- ever, is different in colour from that of its figuring or ornament, and, as in brocatelle, is of the simple texture of taffeta or sarcenet. brocades are the most elaborated of figured silk weavings, and the richer of them usually have gold or silver strips or threads, or both, introduced into them. the texture in different portions of a brocade is often very varied, but the name brocade is also usually applied to the simplest of silk textures when the ornament in them is enriched with gold threads, as is the case with the sarcenets and satins of the th and th centuries, from looms worked in italy. velvets are made with a single and sometimes a double weft, and always with a double warp, disposed over a series of small metal rods, whereby one set of warp threads become looped into the base of the fabric. these looped threads are cut, and form the pile of the velvet. figured velvets are those in which the ornamentation is obtained through contrast between those portions of the pile which have been cut away, or pressed down by a stamp, and those left in the longer and upstanding pile. there are also figured velvets in which the ornament stands out in the pile, the ground being of satin or of gold or silver threads -cloth of gold or silver tissue. with some such notion as this of characteristics, by which one may distinguish between figured sarcenet or taffeta, damask satin—its sub- varieties brocatelle and lampas—and brocades, cloths of gold and figured velvets, it is not difficult to classify by textures almost all figured shuttle- loom weavings in silks, and to see progression from simple to complex methods of weaving, so far as texture only is concerned. but the same does not hold good for ornament: for many of the simple textures of the early shuttle-woven fabrics are, as we shall see, elaborate in ornamental ornament in european silks devices. from which it naturally follows that the most complex shuttle weavings for variety of textures do not necessarily present the richest effects of ornament. a number of other names will be met with by the student of textiles, especially in later roman, byzantine, and mediæval writings — and blatin, samit, ciclatoun, cendal, tiras, otabi, ishbani, syn- donus, camoca, baudekın, mosolin, tartarium, glisdum, dimity, frisado, etc., are examples of them, which i have taken at random from monsieur michel's work, from dr. rock's textile fabrics, from yates' textrinum antiquorum, and riaño's spanish arts. each author throws some light upon one or other of them, their probable meaning and origin, as to which latter, names of places at different periods certainly account for several. some of the names, however, do not apply to silks. those that do would almost invariably be found to be either sarcenets, damasks, broca- telles, lampas, or velvets. similar problems occur in respect of the ancient and modern nomen- clature of embroideries, as, for instance, in regard to the meaning of opus anglicum, opus pluinarium, opus pectineum, opus pulvinarium, opus con- sutum, etc. here, again, an appreciation of those characteristics which specialise work done with one form of stitch or another, helps to relieve one from much unnecessary and apparent difficulty in ascertaining that these old latin names possess little, if any, technical and descriptive value in their bearing upon embroidery. embroidery is a far freer and handier way of ornamenting stuffs than any weaving process. weaving implies and involves the use of a variety of mechanical contrivances such as frames, beams, rollers, heddles, shuttles, and what not. on the other hand embroidery requires little more than the stuff or foundation upon which threads and needles do the work. frames for stretching the stuffs tautly are frequently used, but much embroidery has been done without frames. the restrictions in weaving ornament, figures, and so forth, are unknown to the embroiderer. given the design and the requisite skill, the embroiderer's needle and thread can trace all sorts of intricate forms with relative facility. contrast in colour and its gradation, in form and its variety, are more readily arrived at by him than by the weaver. for once that a loom has been prepared and geared to produce a particular pattern, repetitions of it in lengths of the fabric are made. but the embroiderer is under no corresponding obligation to make repetitions of his designs in their colouring and ornamental devices. he can change them as he pleases. the two arts, then, although so to speak marching with kindred materials, are distinct. nevertheless, in the matter of design and effect they have acted and reacted upon each other, in that the weaver has derived frequent instigation to new effects in design from materials and processes in weaving those previously wrought by the embroiderer, and vice versa as regards the work of later periods. pre-eminence in weaving amongst a people does not imply an equal skill in embroidery. if the relationship of the two arts be investigated, it will probably be found as a general principle that where one has flourished so has the other; though, as regards the earlier periods in the history or development of the arts, ornamental needlework has usually been practised by a nation or some section of it before it succeeded in producing equally good decorative effects with the weaving shuttle. an instance of this is supplied by the famous english silk embroidery—the mediæval opus anglicum - which won european celebrity before the native industry of england, or even that of such nations as italy or france, who preceded england in weaving, produced shuttle-woven ornamental silks, so distinctively national as the english embroidery of the same period. to return now to the technical value of the latin names which have been accepted as applying particularly to different sorts of embroidery. opus anglicum, english work, tells us of no stitch ; neither does opus plumarium, feather work, or embroiderer's work. opus pectineum means comb work, and one knows of an early reference to the use of the comb in the confection of textiles. a comb-like instrument has always been indispensable both to a shuttle weaver as well as to a tapestry weaver, but not to the embroiderer. opus pectineum, although perhaps more technically suggestive than opus anglicum and opus plumarium, does not take one far towards determining what was its technical meaning in connection with embroidery. opus pulvinarium, or cushion work, suggests stuffs for covering cushions, but how these stuffs were worked technically is not to be ascertained from the name. then, again, opus consutum, or cut work, certainly implies something different from, say, opus pectineum. beyond this, however, what is there to say ? one conclusion, perhaps, follows from this manifest want of technical descriptive value in the old latin terms, and that is the necessity of acquiring some degree of familiarity with stitches employed in em- broideries. their close similarity, if not identity, from early to modern days can be traced, and i now propose to try and briefly show this. as with silk weavings, so with embroideries, some are almost alike on both sides of the work, others are not. weaving makes a textile ; but lucan's pharsalia, book x., verse . “ candida sidonio perlucent pectora filo quod nilotis acus compressum pectine serum solvit, et extenso laxavit stamina velo." ornament in european silks embroidery adds to an already existing stuff. these additions may go into the stuff in such a way that they present nearly the same effect on both surfaces, upper and under, of the stuff embroidered : or they may be wrought on to one face of a stuff only—the stitches at its back being of totally different effect from those worked for display only on the front. in the case of similar effects on back and front of a stuff, running, darning, tent or satin stitches would be used; whilst for effects on one face of a stuff the stitches would be either long and short stitches (feather stitches they are sometimes called), chain stitches and cross stitches. by changing the direction of the stitches and their sizes, varieties of effects, suitable to the forms to be embroidered, are secured, and the appropriateness in using such changes has given rise to names which, however, relate in truth to the effects and not to the stitches, the technical features of which are unchanged. this point is worth remembering in examining embroidery—for all of its technically different stitches do not number more than eight or nine. thus the analysis of embroidery, by its stitches, may be much simplified. besides embroidery, relying for its sole effect upon skilful needlework, there are methods of embellishing stuffs with ornament in form and colour, such as appliqué work, padded or relief work, which involve the sewing of pieces of material on to another material, so that they shall lie flatly on to it, or be raised over paddings on it. allied to these methods are those in which silk and gold threads and cords are held in orderly arrangement by small stitches on to the face of the material they have to decorate. another method, not yet mentioned, is patch- work, in which pieces of stuff, cut into shapes to fit into one another, are then sewn together. in respect of european embroideries it can hardly be said that any of the embroidery stitches and methods are of greater age than the others. some have predominated in certain countries and at certain times. for instance, much mediæval opus anglicum appears to have been wrought with fine chain and split short stitches. in much spanish and italian ornamental needlework of the th entury we find appliqué work enriched with silken and golden threads or cords, stitched along the contours of the appliqué forms. much venetian decorative work of rather later date consists of ranks of floss silk laid down and stitched over. but many proofs of the antiquity of identical stitchery have been preserved to the present day. a piece of chain-stitch work depicting graceful scrolling stems is preserved at the hermitage at st. petersburg, and is the work of greek embroiderers of the th century b.c. the texture of this chain-stitching is precisely similar to that of any well-worked chain-stitching now. a large patch- materials and processes in weaving work, very elaborate in design, of thousands of bits of coloured gazelle hide, was made as a funeral canopy to the body of an egyptian queen, b.c., and is in the egyptian museum in cairo. such patching, so far as patchwork goes, is the same, technically, as the patchwork quilt of the english cottager. long and short stitch embroideries of the th to th centuries have been found in egypto-roman and coptic cemeteries at akhmîm and elsewhere in upper and lower egypt, and specimens of them are in the south kensington museum. in these, again, the stitchery alone is the same as any other long and short stitch work of modern times. hence, however great the change in ornament may be, it does not thereby imply any change in the mere technique of stitchery. a few words may now be given to a process of ornamental and decorative work in textiles, that calls into play methods which relate it to both embroidery and shuttle weaving : firstly to embroidery, in that a darn- ing stitch particularly is concerned; and secondly to weaving, inasmuch as a fabric with warp threads (but without shuttle throwing) is made, whilst a comb is required to compress and compact the intertwisted or darned threads with the warps, just as a similar implement on a larger scale is required in shuttle weaving. this ornamental textile work is now com- monly known as tapestry weaving. although tapestry wall hangings are principally of coloured worsteds, silken threads are often freely inter- spersed amongst them, as well as gold and silver threads, though these are more rarely used. the peculiar method of tapestry weaving is not only of great age, but also of widespread employment, even by semi-civil- ized people, such as artificers in borneo, in remote turcoman and tartar districts, and in peru. in recently discovered textiles of great antiquity, such tapestry weaving is seen ; though in these, as in the kindred work of semi-civilized people, it is noticeable as having been used for ornament much smaller in scale and size than for that of the large wall hangings, or tapestries of castles in feudal times, or of palaces during the later renais- sance and more modern periods. this difference in the size or expanse of work produced by this tapestry-weaving method tends to strengthen the kinship which, as already mentioned, seems to exist between embroidery and tapestry weaving. it was employed in pre-christian and early chris- tian times for the textile adornment of costumes and clothes. although the main portions of these were shuttle-woven, wherever ornament was to come into them subsequently, spaces were left unwoven by the shuttle. into such spaces of bare warp threads, the ornamentation, in coloured worsteds or silks, was practically darned with short, straight, thin bits of wood, bone, or metal, which were the needles of the ancients. notwith- ornament in european silks standing the appearance of clumsiness which such needles have in the eyes of the modern embroiderer accustomed to fine steel needles, they could be used for purposes of very delicate needlework. the fineness in texture of the embroidery of , years ago was governed, as is much modern work, by the fineness of the threads used. in the pre-silk days of europe, embroidery was considerably done with linen threads—single fibres of flax very often—with a diameter as small on occasion as the ooo of an inch, which glistened almost as glassily as silk. specimens of egypto- roman embroidery produced under such conditions are to be met with in public and private collections, and i shall have to recur to one or two of them later on. darning, and its relation to tapestry weaving, is our present topic, however, and as i have said, a large proportion of the ornamentation in figured textiles of the ancients, was done by this method, which was simpler though slower than shuttle weaving, which came later. but even in the th century figured shuttle weaving in a highly developed condition could not rival the splendour of effects obtained by tapestry weaving of the same period. the employment of the method then had long passed from the earlier stage of being the principal means for adding ornament of comparatively small scale to costumes. it was now applied to the making of large wall hangings, the designs for which rivalled those of fresco painters, with multitudes of figures and scenic effects illustrating mythological episodes, as well as historical and religious incidents. in the reproduction of them there was none of that repetition of colour and pattern, which the most intricate brocade weaving cannot evade. the work of a tapestry weaver was almost as little fettered by mechanical contrivances as was that of the embroiderer, and the artistic possibilities of the performances of each were practically equal in out- stripping the obligatory conventionalities of the shuttle weaver. to sum up the peculiar conventions which the respective processes of shuttle-loom weaving, embroidery, and tapestry weaving exact in the rendering of ornamental forms, it may be said that shuttle-loom weaving involves : ( ) repetition of the pattern or design ; ( ) a variety of surface texture; ( ) a sharpness of definition in the details of the design; and ( ) a precision in marking contrasts of colour. as colour has so important a part in ornamental textiles, there has been a tendency towards overcoming demarcations of contrasts of colour by elaborating the contrivances for employing several shuttles, each one charged with a different-coloured thread, and so blending wefts together with an effect nearly equal to that of painting. but even the great degree up to which refinements of mechanism have been carried in weaving the daintiest of brocades, they have not succeeded in producing the subtler gradations of tones in materials and processes in weaving colour which the embroiderer and tapestry weaver can impart to their works. i have alluded to the relative freedom with which these two artificers can reproduce non-repeating and, in fact, any sort of ornament, in contradistinction to the repeated ornament of the shuttle weaver. still, there are certain forms of embroidery, cross-stitch and tent-stitch especi- ally, which, when used, give characteristics to the ornamental effect of the work done with them as strongly marked as those which arise from the limitations of shuttle-loom weaving. chapter iv principles which have been observed in the designing of ornament come forty-three years ago what was called a chamber of horrors- horrors in design-became one of the educational object lessons given at the museum of art manufactures—the infant south kensington museum-which then found a home in marlborough house. its aim was to show to all classes specimens of so-called artistic objects which were considered to be false in design. the formal record of the time is to the effect that “ the room appears to excite far greater interest than many objects, the high excellence of which is not generally appreciated. every one is led at once to investigate the ornamental principle upon which his own carpet and furniture may be decorated, and the greatest benefit to manufacturers may be looked for from the investigation.” a vivacious article, however, by dickens appeared in household words upon this room, and gave a description of the perturbations afflicting a mr. crump, of brixton, in consequence of his visit to it. although the chamber of horrors enjoyed a succès d'estime, it did not last long ; for, as public atten- tion was attracted to it, and grew, so too did public opinion. a repudia- tion was openly expressed of the attempt to shackle freedom in taste with canons of logic, and the suspicion of an insidious interference with trade, met with resentment. the rationalism of the object lesson may have been felt to be too much insisted upon, and in the spirit of pope's lines- “right too rigid was hardened into wrong, still for the strong too weak, for the weak too strong." the chamber was soon closed, nevertheless leaving behind it a lively germ that false principles in art manufactures could be popularly demon- strated. from this and other similar germs sprang a general inclination to understand principles of design, an inclination which was more seriously cultivated than had previously been the case, so far as this country was concerned. having, in the preceding chapter, hinted at the manner in which varied processes of shuttle weaving, of stitches in embroidery, and of principles observed in designing tapestry-weaving do affect the appearance of designs wrought in silk, i may briefly say something upon principles that seem to underlie the ornamental intentions of such designs. as i have said, the design of a pattern for a shuttle weaving to be wrought in lengths must repeat, but that for an embroidery or a tapestry weaving need not. repetition of ornamental forms in figured shuttle weavings is therefore a characteristic of their production. to catch the governing principle of this repetition one has to look for the unit of the pattern, and then to follow out the plan, order, or sequence in which the unit is repeated. it may occupy a large or a small part of the figuring over the whole of the shuttle-woven textile. in simple figurings or patterns the unit may be but a line, a straight band or stripe, or a spot. but even these can make a sumptuous effect when variegated and harmonious colours are discreetly used in repetitions. in other simple figurings the lines or stripes may be crossed by others, and, according to the inclination of the lines to one another, form either checks or trellis patterns. by changing the dimensions and colours of the lines and stripes, highly complex check and trellis patterns are devised, and the repeating unit of such is a combination of many different lines and stripes, as in the familiar scots tartans. lines, bands, and stripes are the first elements of primitive figure weaving. they grow naturally, as it were, from the recurrent throws of the shuttle with the same coloured thread for so many throws, and then with another colour for so many more, and so on. rectangular check patterns grow from the combination of warp threads arranged in an order of repeated colours. trellis patterns, in which the diagonal or sloping crossing of the stripes produces a regular succession of diamond shapes, involve a change of the order of warp threads in respect of the throw of the shuttle thread. the check and trellis patterns may be subjected to much variety through the fanciful treatment of their lines and stripes. but they possess the rudiments of pattern plans that have been followed for centuries by ornamentists. these plans are worth study, so that beneath whatever intricacies of form they may seem to be concealed, their recognition shall not escape detection. now, if you take the points only where the stripes would intersect one another in a check or trellis pattern, and on those points put spots or small devices—little squares, little circles, open or filled in, a blossom, an animal, or any object-you get a powdering or spotted pattern; the passage, therefore, from check and trellis patterns to powdered patterns is an easy one. the change in effect, however, is considerable, especially when the simplest of spots only is used for the powdering of the pattern. the basis of the powdered pattern arrange- ment is, however, obviously the same as for check and trellis patterns, ornament in european silks and is a geometrically-planned arrangement. some writers state that “we cannot have ornament without some geometrical arrangement.” this, at first sight, may seem to be going too far, since much ornamenta- tion, especially in embroidery and tapestry, has been produced without reference to a geometrical arrangement in its usually accepted sense. for instance, a couple of differently-shaped scrolls springing from a com- mon centre, and in general appearance of size balancing one another, may become an ornamental device without symmetry and not geometrically planned in the strict sense of the term. again, the distribution of various forms within a given space may be well effected to produce ornament or decoration, as in many japanese embroideries, without having recourse to strict geometrical and symmetrical arrangement. nevertheless, such instances usually imply the feeling of the ornamentist, that the boundaries or spaces within which he is to put his ornament influence its arrange- ment. and thus, in a broader sense of the term, geometry—or considera- tion of definite spaces or shapes—does govern the ornamentist, making him adopt some plan or method in arranging his design and in distributing, balancing and contrasting its several components. in some respects it seems that the composition of ornament may be likened to the writing of poetry. writing poetry means the set purpose of the writer to observe certain principles, and express the pictures of his imagination within certain limitations of metre and sound. to observe those limitations successfully, and at the same time to display art and skill in working within them, imply that the writer has so mastered the principles of them that he is not impeded by them, and they do not dominate his work; on the contrary, they are his tools, or the aids to his expression. his work shows his individuality in using such aids, and thus possesses style as distinct from mere manner. many principles are similarly involved in the composition of ornament. some, as, for instance, that of geometrical arrangement in its usual sense, are more readily recognised than others. but the obviousness of a principle is of little use unless practice in accordance with it is successful in leading to plea- sant design. to secure beauty in design, which may give pleasure to any one who looks at its results, is of course the aim of designers to whom it is an animating or stimulating impulse. when the designer starts upon carrying out his conception, he at once begins to employ the principles which he knows are necessary to the effect he has in view. whilst certain principles may seem to be conspicuous in the style or treatment of ornament by various so-called schools—greek, roman, byzantine, flemish, italian, or gothic, renaissance, louis xiv., queen anne, georgian, and such like—the employment of no one or two principles observed in designing principles solely is peculiar to any one of these schools. hence, through- out the work of such schools one can trace the recurrent use of commonly accepted principles, such as repetition, alternation, counter-change, bal- ance, symmetry, contrast, relation, etc., and these not merely in respect of various passages or portions of a design, but also in respect of the details in them. these details may be variously designed. combinations of straight lines, squares, circles, polygons, etc., designed without refer- ence to their being suggestive of actual objects, might be called abstract in character. distinct from such are details which distantly or closely sug- gest natural and artificial objects, human beings, animals, flowers, leaves, and articles of use, such as vases, arms, armour, musical instruments, ribands, etc. the close imitation of the actual appearance of things, with all the accidental effects of their position and lighting, is not ornament. it enters into the domain of picture making. the intention in close imitation is to attain a realism in effect, and this is foreign to the effect aimed at in ornament. ornament is designed according to principles, the adoption of which secures consonance with the purpose or use, the materials and the processes of manufacture, of the things in which it is to be presented. combinations of forms, suggestive of various natural and artificial things, occur in much ornament. such combinations and juxtaposings are ruled by contrast and congruity. congruity implies good relationship not only between the shapes of the suggested forms, but also between their sug- gested natures and characters. this latter relationship, however, is not so important as the former. for incongruities arising from combinations of forms suggestive of departures from natural and characteristic associa- tions are frequently humorous or grotesque, and these, when well designed and brought into good relationship ornamentally, are admirable and perfectly acceptable; as, for instance, in many of the early italian gold-thread and coloured-silk loom weavings. but incongruities such as are apparent in a suggestion of plant growth blossoming into abstract geometric rosettes are scarcely defensible. the suggestion of plant growth is clearly derived from the fact in nature; so that the sugges- tion, when ornamentally expressed, should not run absolutely counter to the fact and to its consistency. there is yet a further aspect of congruousness in ornamentation, which will probably have already sug- gested itself as furnishing an important governing principle, and this is, the agreement between the ornament in a stuff and the purpose or use for which the stuff is to be used. ornament composed of small details is obviously inappropriate to large extents of stuff—as in wall hangings- where the distance at which the ornament is to be seen becomes a leading principle or consideration. so, too, ornament composed of large ornament in european silks and massive details is usually inappropriate to small articles, and generally to costumes—though on that point it can hardly be denied that there is an appropriate stateliness in the large-scale cone or pomegranate patterns of italian th century robes of velvet and satin. in that case, the breaking up of these large patterns, by the folds into which the stuffs so decorated fell, counteracts what might otherwise have been felt to be a disproportion between the size of the ornamentation and its wearer. again, a hanging pattern, or one in which the arrangements of its details is conspicuously vertical, is generally more appropriate to the hang of a dress or of a curtain than are bands or horizontal arrangements of ornament. another aspect of congruity worth taking into account is the suitability of either the epical or the natural suggestiveness of the ornamentation and the charac- ter of the thing it is to adorn. vertical ornament is consonant with height as horizontal ornament is with length; and in the case of textiles either height or length becomes a leading consideration just as important as particular shapes—square, circular, polygonal, elliptical, and so on- which determine arrangement of ornament within them. i have perhaps said enough now to point out that, in seeking to appreciate ornament, one has to look out for the principles which seem to have been observed in its design. formality in design and the necessity of repetitions are, it will be remembered, much more apparent in patterns for shuttle weavings than they are in those for either embroidery or tapestry weaving. many phases of ornamental design for these two latter processes illustrate the adoption and use of such principles as those referred to, but are entirely distinct in effect from that of shuttle-woven ornamentation. in regard to embroidery, i allude particularly to those of its specimens in which suggestions of human figures are considerably brought forward. many of these—as in ecclesiastical embroideries- have been adopted from architectural sculptures and from paintings, and possess not only ornamental and decorative qualities, but also story-telling or epical qualities as well. this quality, which the late william morris so aptly called epic-ornamental, is particularly characteristic in th and th century tapestry weavings. but as time has gone on, the story-telling quality has become stronger and the ornamental quality weaker. realistic effects so successfully achieved by painters have been striven for by tapestry weavers. embroiderers, too, have been tempted in the same direction, and not only in respect of epical designs, but also in respect of mere realistic representations of sprays, flowers, fruits, and such like, laboriously stitched without ornamental feeling. a similar tendency towards realism as opposed to ornament is also apparent in most of the shuttle-woven patterns of the later th century and for a long time sub- principles observed in designing sequently. nowadays, figured shuttle weavings, embroideries, and tapes- try weavings are as often realistic and pictorial in their designs as they are strictly ornamental, and a sort of spurious sanction is claimed for their existence through the concession to that ceaseless craving for variety and contrast which burke, i think, found occasion to condemn as a moral defect. chapter v silk patterns of sassanian, egypto-persian and byzantine origin d assing from the general topics upon which i ventured to touch in connection with principles in designing ornaments, i come to an attempt to trace the course of pattern making for silk weavings in europe. the early and successive sources which furnished a basis for much of the ornament for silks manufactured in various parts of europe seem to have been (i.) schools of persian designers of the later sassanian dynasty or period ( th and th centuries); (ii.) byzantine designers work- ing in different places which were under the rule of the later roman or græco-roman emperors ( th to th century); and (iii.) saracenic de- signers in both spain and sicily (about oth to th century). in a book of the present dimensions, one cannot pretend to give any insight into the circumstances of these schools or work-rooms; nor to give any intimate account of the individual designers. indeed, very little in this direction is actually recorded or known. the greater part of such matters falls within the compass of pseudo-history and romance of the kind which is excellently treated by the late dr. george ebers. on the other hand, some solid information can be gleaned in respect of the relation that appears to exist between types of ornamental patterns that have prevailed in europe, if one classifies them according to their likenesses one to the other. from a selection of actual stuffs and a few authenticated records, an indication of pattern evolution may be sketched. this gives us an almost convincing proof of the perpetuation and modifica- tion of typical ornamental devices and plans of arrangement in the composition of designs for silk weaving and embroidery from the th century down to the present time. it demonstrates the long-sustained influence of oriental pattern making upon that of europe. a characteristic in the first stage of this pattern evolution is a simple formality of ornamental devices, which suggest, rather than realize, the actual appearance of the natural objects that served as the motives for sassanian, egypto-persian, byzantine pattern details or ornament, such as foliage, flowers, fruits, birds, animals, human beings, and the like. in a second stage, although for the most part a similar formality pervades the shaping of ornamental forms, there is also a tendency towards depicting many minor or subservient details with much fidelity to the actual appearance of the real objects from which these ornamental details are derived; in consequence of this, mere suggestiveness and comparative simplicity in ornamental forms are diminished, and, instead of them, realistic effect and elaboration of detail are more nearly approached. in a third and later stage imitation of realistic effect almost quite supersedes formality in expression, and the things represented are so like natural things in appearance that orna- mental value is nearly dissipated altogether. but all patterns, whether composed of purely formal shapes, or of less formal shapes, or distinctly realistic shapes, are disciplined in general effect through the observance by the pattern makers of a plan or scheme in arranging their variously rendered details; and thus order in arrangement makes for ornamental effect. this factor in pattern making is one which is more readily detected and appreciated than the difference between purely formal, less formal, and distinctly realistic renderings of pattern details. the use of each of these classes of pattern details cannot very well be said to have its particular date, although, broadly speaking, the use of purely formal details precede that of less formal, just as these last precede the distinctly realistic. in regard to european silk patterns, it might be said that those of the period from the th to the th century are more formal than those from the th to the th century, whilst in the th century there is a leaning towards realism, which develops in the th and th century into almost absolute realism. the th century is remarkable for a revival in respect of all three classes, sometimes in- discriminately intermixed, especially towards the middle of the century. however, these wide distinctions can, i think, be verified only as we proceed with the examination of the typical examples selected for the illustrations to this book; and in order to commence with some more definite feature in patterns generally, i set out with an attempt to give a few hints upon plans or frames accord- ing to which the earlier patterns here given have been arranged. a typical plan or framework upon which the sassanian and byzantine schools set out assanian and byzantine schools set out fig. .-circular bands or roundels. many of their patterns, which were to be woven in practically unlimited pieces, was one of circular bands or roundels ornament in european silks repeated at regular intervals as here (fig. ). the circular bands them- selves, and the spaces within and about them were usually filled in with ornamental devices. a remarkable identification of this type with the th century is furnished in the remains still standing near kermanchah, in persia, of an arch to the garden of the king's palace. the decorations of this sculptured monument are thick and heavy in form, suggestive of orientalized roman taste. they date from the time of the sassanian fig. .- bas-relief in archway to the garden of king's palace near kermanchah. persian. about the time of chosroes ii., a.d. . potentate, chosroes ii. (about a.d.). beneath the archway is a big bas-relief of three figures, placed above this king mounted on his horse, finely caparisoned (see fig. ). on the skirt of the king's robe, which hangs below his shirt of chain armour, is the type of pattern i have above mentioned. the ornamental detail within each of the roundels is a fantastic gryphon, and at the south kensington museum is a piece of figured silk woven with this type of pattern (see fig. ). it is a sort of thin damask or sarcenet weaving, done with green and yellow silks, and it evidently may be considered to represent this th century type ornament in european silks fig. .-two pieces of red silk woven in colours, with groups of two mounted horsemen placed back to back and shooting arrows behind them ; beneath each huntsman are a wounded lion and a hound. these groups are set within circular bands which are ornamented with floral devices, and in each of the corners is the fourth part of a rosette. perso-byzantine. th or gth century. each piece is in. square. fig. . -a piece of byzantine yellowish sarcenet from the vestment of st. bernard of clairvaux. the pattern consists of two birds facing one another on either side of a conventional tree, and surrounded by a circular band decorated with a repeating device. the vestment is preserved at branweiller, near cologne, and was used there, in , by st. bernard when celebrating mass on the day after the festival of st. paul. sassanian, egypto-persian, byzantine liber pontificalis. he was librarian of the vatican in the gth century, and writes of certain silk-weavings figured with men and horses,“ homines et caballos," and of patterns with wheels or circular panels and men, “vestein cum rotis et hominibus,” etc. whilst this plan of repeated circular framings was adhered to for some subsequent centuries, the ornamental details recurring within the plan were constantly changed. pairs of lions, pairs of birds, and so forth, were frequently used_each pair being either confronted or back to back. besides this, modifications of the framework were made, and by the introduction of smaller roundels between the larger ones (as in fig. ) the framework was more united or knit together. from this stage designers seem to have passed to varying the contours of the roundels, breaking the sim- plicity of the circular band into a circular succession of segments. and as the ingenuity in this direc- tion proceeded, so did ingenuity extend to the designing of enrich- ments of the bands composing the framework. examples of all this are to be seen in the relics of st. cuthbert's sumptuous shroud preserved at durham, as well as in other pieces of analo- gous silk-weaving at the lyons museum, at bamberg, and else fig. .- a piece of double silk-weaving (a sort of bro cade). the ornament is raised in red silk on a green ground. where, probably made during the it consists of two parrots regardant, separated by a tree toth to the th centuries. device with scrolling branches, and enclosed within a circular band, which is decorated with scrolling and leafy stems. fig. is a very beautiful four smaller circular bands, in which are cross or star specimen of the type of pattern devices, overlap this larger band and unite it to other similar bands. the interspaces thus formed are filled with sym- just alluded to. it is of more metrical leafy devices that spread out from a central rosette. the heads of the birds are woven in gold threads. bysan. complicated fabric than the dur- tine. th or th century. about in. by in. ham fabrics (the st. cuthbert's shroud) and, chiefly on that account, i think it is of rather later date. notwithstanding its obvious relationship in plan of pattern to the sas- sanian and early byzantine specimens, the treatment of its details also gives it a later date, and it therefore appears to belong probably to a late period of the th century or an early one of the th century. it seems ornament in european silks to be from workers more under byzantine influence than under oriental and saracenic influence. but it is difficult to discriminate precisely be- tween contemporary phases of byzantine and oriental ornament. another sort of framework or plan (fig. ) in setting out patterns, but one that does not recur in surviving fragments of byzantine stuffs so frequently as it does in patterns from saracenic sources, has to be noted. both byzantine and saracenic types of this framework give rise to an all- over effect in the arrangement and distribution of the pattern. but both depend upon the repetition of parallel and horizontal series of ornamental forms. the saracenic versions, which are much later than the byzantine example we have in fig. , will be examined presently, and it will be suffi- cient to say here that the particular characteristic in them is the repetition of straight horizontal series or bands of ornament. in the earlier type of the method of setting out patterns, as in this byzantine specimen, the ornamental and horizontal series of figures are separated from one another by narrow bands composed of a succession of segments of circles, as shown in the diagram (fig. ). in the specimen of byzantine stuff (fig. ), the pattern of which is set out upon this plan, each pair of corresponding segments contains a double device of men and lions, one-half of the doubled device being the reverse of the other – a favourite byzantine practice in composing ornament, which has been already alluded to. this specimen is of similar ma- byzantine pattern. terial and manufacture to that of fig. . its crimsons, greens and yellows are bright in the original, which is in the south kensington museum. the date of its manufacture is considered to be about the th or th century. whilst some have thought that it might be representative of gladiators fighting with lions, it seems to be more likely to represent samson strangling the lion. a third type of framework which i have selected is apparently rather later in date than the two previous ones. it consists of a geometrical arrangement of counter-changing circular forms making a connected framework for an all-over pattern of even distribution. it is frequently described as an “ogival” pattern, and often makes a later appearance dur- ing the gothic periods. instead of successive circular shapes or roundels, double-pointed oval shapes predominate in this type of framework, as in diagram fig. . within these spaces, in a repeated order, there were generally two different sets of ornamental devices. running one's eye fig. .-- plan of parallel band, perso. sassanian, egypto-persian, byzantine fig. .-a piece of silk (sarcenet) woven in colours on a crimson ground, with repeated and reversed figures of men wrestling with lions (perhaps meant for samson) in horizontal series, separated from each other by a succession of curved bands of ornament. perso-byzantine. th or th century. in. by } in. across or straight up and down such patterns one would find as a rule that identically similar sets of devices occupied the spaces vertically above one another, whilst other corresponding devices occupied the spaces horizon- tally next to one another. taking a glance obliquely across the spaces, their respective or- namentations repeat in alternation. fine ex- amples of this type of pattern are preserved in the museums at berlin and crefeld. they are portions of the dress in which the german em- peror otho the great ( th century) was buried. this type appears to have been used in the first place for creamy, ivory-coloured satins, and its fig. .-plan of ogival frame for effect on them was as though the pattern had patterns. sassanian, egypto-persian, byzantine broussa was a celebrated weaving centre in asia minor. but to these and cognate versions of patterns laid out on the ogival basis, i shall refer further on. the foregoing three types of plans for setting out patterns apply to silken weavings produced in large lengths. to a considerable extent they supply us with a key to the plans of many subsequent european pat- terns for woven silks. but besides the planning or setting out of patterns, we shall have to take note of the details in them and see how constant has been the re- currence of many of these details and how their influence has crept into the shaping of other details. in part illlustration of what i am now writ- fig. . cap of pieces of silk or sarcenet, sewn together. each alternate piece is woven with creamy-coloured silk on a dark blue ground. the cap is lined inside with linen. perso-egyptian or syrian. th to th century. about in. by in. cap of silk or sarcenet woven in whitish thread with star-shaped and floral devices in white within compartments on a dark blue ground. the cap is lined inside with linen. perso-egyptian or syrian. th to oth century. about in. by in. ing, i have chosen a few from a number of rare specimens which date from the th to the gth century. these appear in figs. ii to . all of them are of thin silk or sarcenet material, and were probably made at silk- weaving places in syria or in the north of egypt-as at alexandria-or, perhaps, even at byzantium. they were obtained from cemeteries at akhmîm (the ancient panopolis) in upper egypt. but they are distinctly different in ornamentation from such weavings as have been generally considered to be typical of byzantine silks. fig. ii gives us an all-over repeated pattern, composed of a vertical series of rectangular devices making a sort of counter-changing and in- ornament in european silks dented framework that separates the entire field of the pattern into cor- responding spaces. within the larger of these are ovals each containing a blossom or rosette device. the darker portions, as here shown, are in the original stuff of a fair red or pink colour, and the lighter ones are white. there are other simpler patterns consisting of sınall devices like little discs bearing variously-shaped crosses, and spotted at regular intervals over the length and width of the stuff. fig. gives two caps or head-dresses made of bits cut from larger pieces of silks having all-over pat- terns. the cap on the left is of light blue and cream colours ; and the pattern consists of repeated series of more or less hexagonal forms, some of which are made out of what are thought to be geometrically-treated animal forms. but the small portions which are fairly fig. .- portion of a band or clavus for a tunic of bluish silk (sarce- net) woven in buff-col- oured silk thread with a repeating pattern, con. sisting, in the upper part, of two men at the foot of a symmetrically-arranged tree. noticeable features in this are the large up- turned leaves with or- namental devices within them. below, in a separ- ate oblong compartment, is a reversed inscription- and below this comes a square compartment con- taining an almost nonde. script ornament, which, however, appears to be based upon a vase encir- cled by leafy devices. the narrow borders along the sides are composed of heart-shaped devices. perso-egyptian, th to th century. length, in. ; width, } in. fig, .-a medallion of silk or sarcenet, gold colour on green, and green on gold colour. in the centre is a tree device bearing ornamental leaves of exaggerated size ; the border consists of a formal expanded bud device, which counterchanges in its repeti. tion. the same bordering appears in figs. and . probably syrian or perso-egyptian work of the th or th century. from ancient tombs at akhmim (panopolis), upper egypt. diam., in. intact are scarcely sufficient for the pattern to represent successfully its entire effect. the other cap on the right is of dark blue and cream colour : and the pattern seems to have consisted of alternations of star sassanian, egypto-persian, byzantine shapes and rosettes set within an elaborated framing of circles and star forms fitted together. such a pattern reflects a persian or saracenic taste, which has been very fully developed in cairene inlaid woodwork. at the time that figured silks such as these were being made, possibly in alexandria, others exemplify- ing a different taste, and produced by a different school of designers, were manufactured in considerable quan- tities. all of those, shown here in figs. to , have a persian flavour, which finds its origin with earlier designers who were less restricted to special conditions in the composition of their ornament than the saracens were. their patterns reflect the style of ornamenta- tion associated with the period of the later sassanian rulers—a style which seems to have percolated through syria into egypt and byzantium-and developed (ac- fig. .--part of a band cording to present evidences) very largely in egypt or clavus (for a robe) of silk or sarcenet woven in between the th and th centuries. apart from the gold colour on a dark shade analysis of the patterns of these five specimens (figs. of purple. from ancient tombs at akhmim (panopo- to ) the shape of the pieces and the reasons for lis), upper egypt. prob- ably syrian or perso-egyp- their shapes demand some attention. tian work of the th to oth at the present time, and during the three or four century. in. by in., and in. by } in. centuries preceding it, the custom has been to cut out of a large piece of stuff the bits intended to fit into a particular part of the costume. this practice has resulted in breaking into the sequence of a pattern, so that it does not consistently adapt itself to the particular part of the costume. but in the earlier times, with which we are now concerned, the figured silk was often made in separate shapes, each shape containing a complete pattern ; and the reason for this was that each such piece was destined for the ornamentation of a special part of the robe to which it was sewn. four out of the specimens (figs. to ) are rectangular in shape, a fifth one is circular. each of them had its appointed fig. .-band for the cuff of a robe, of bluish silk or sarce- net woven in buff-coloured silk. a narrow nondescript ornament place in a robe or other dress. runs down the centre ; on either side is a horseman mounted ; bands, of which portions only beneath him is a tree, and another man holding a spear. the borders on the short sides are decorated with heart-shaped de. are given in figs. and , vices. perso-egyptian. th to gth century a.d. length, ? in.; width, in. were stitched across the shoul- ornament in european silks ders of a tunic-like garment, and were called clavi. circular pieces, as in fig. , were stitched on the lower parts of the tunic, back and front -a pair of circular panels on each. these were called orbiculi or tabula adjunctæ. the oblong panel, fig. , with the indistinct traces of double horseman device, was such a piece as was fastened to the cuff. the specimen, fig. , is probably half of a silk scarf. it has the horseman device, and a small spearman be- neath him, duly repeated. the greek lettering on the right hand half, just above the horseman, gives the name of zaccharias — which is re- versed in the corresponding half—as indeed is the orna- ment on one half of the whole piece. now, if you look at all these four specimens (figs. , , and ), and divide the ornament in each by an upright line down their cen- tres, you will see that each side is the reverse of the other. this method of con- structing an ornamental de- vice is one often adopted in many classes of patterns— whether they are composed, as here, of formal suggestions of natural things, or of more vice-beyond this are symmetrically arranged curved stems and large realistic indications. on the leaf devices. the lower part consists of two panels, each the re- other hand, the upper oblong verse of the other, separated by a narrow vertical band of inter- twisting stems with groups of small leaves in each space. in each of the band in fig. gives panel is a horseman mounted on a prancing steed and holding up a sceptre or mace. above his head is the name zacharion in greek us a single non-repeating letters, and near his face is the figure of a bird. below is a foot. ornamental device, suggestive soldier seemingly attacking the horse with a lance. on one side of this soldier is a tree, and on the other side a leafy branch, below which is a stork (?) with its long neck and head bent towards the ground. a border of counter-changing, spreading bud ornament bearing large leaf shapes. runs along each side of this piece of textile. probably syrian or the curved-pointed end of perso-egyptian work of the th to the gth century. obtained from ancient tombs of akhmim (panopolis), upper egypt. in. by in. the leaf on the left, and its fig. .- half of a scarf of silk or sarcenet, with a pattern woven in gold colour on a maroon ground. in the upper part is half of a circular device surrounding half of an ornamental cross or star de. sassanian, egypto-persian, byzantine rounded base where the stem meets it, are peculiarities in shape that will be seen to have survived in much later classes of patterns. again, the placing of ornament within the contour of the leaf (although in fig. this is exemplified in a simple way only) is another similar feature worth re- membering, when one comes to try and account for the kinship between varying and succeeding types of patterns. both these features, persian in origin, will be found under various guises in all these perso- and egypto-byzantine patterns here figured-and, as i have said, variants of such features recur throughout the sequence of silk patterns. chapter vi silk patterns of saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian origin the illustrations in the last chapter give some idea of the con- siderable variety of ornamental devices and patterns in silk fabrics which europeans were in the habit of using for some centuries prior to the th century. many, if not most, of those patterns are distinguished by the introduction into them of the circular, ogival, and other shaped bands forming frames, within which the then characteristically designed sug- gestions of birds, beasts, floral and other objects were placed. other equally distinctive kinds of pattern with and without framing now come under notice. some of them display saracenic or arabic features, some persian features, the like of which recur in persian and indian, or, more generally speaking, mohammedan ornament of the present day even; and others are evidently reflections or versions of the perso-byzantine patterns with their circular, ogival, and other geometrical framings. a general impression of their variety may be at once obtained by looking, for instance, at figs. , , , , , and ; the original specimens of which are considered to have been produced somewhere about the same periods, that is, between the later years of the th and the earlier ones of the th century. fig. is, by some authorities, ranked as of sicilian manufacture, of the time when the silk manufactory at palermo, the historic “ hotel de tiraz,” was being worked almost entirely by arabic or saracenic weavers. historical records give sufficient proof that this piece was part of a vestment or official robe of the emperors of the holy roman empire of the german nation-a vestment that was presented in the th century to the cathedral at ratisbon. there is clearly no doubt that the specimen in fig. is precisely similar to that in fig. , notwithstanding that an expert in textile history has accredited it to a spanish-moorish loom. a conflict of opinion like this is no doubt somewhat puzzling to any one who tries to trace the develop- ment of ornament in manufactures such as these by their local origin. but for the purpose of recognizing the character and tendency of ornament saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian in both pieces, figs. and , the collocation of them shows that they are identical in design and feeling. an arabic or saracenic artificer no doubt produced them, so that the ascription of two widely remote local origins to them is not a matter of much importance. the scheme in design of these pieces is obviously different from that of any of the speci- mens given in chapter v., and is therefore a new one to be noted. let us now turn to fig. (p. ), which represents another and quite different type of pattern, one from which there is also an entire absence of any sort of framework for the pattern. it is made up of pairs of animal and bird forms and pointed oval devices arranged closely together and repeated in a regular order. this stuff is a sort of rich silk damask, parts of which, such as the heads of the parrots and antelopes, are of gold thread. it is of a different fabric from that of fig. , although in that gold thread is also used. now the pattern of fig. is almost the same as that used amongst many others for printed cotton coverlets, or palampores, made nowadays in the north of india by mohammedans; this, then, is a reason for regarding the pattern in the silk of fig. as likely to have been also of mohammedan origin. nevertheless, the fabric is attributed to sicily. but if its pattern be compared with that on a so-called moorish vase, at the alhambra, figured at p. of riaño's spanish industrial art, there will be little room to question the probability that the designers of each of these two different things--the vase and the silk —had the same sort of inclinations in common, not only in the composition of their designs, but also in the drawing of them. señor riaño, in writing of the vase, says, that “animals combined with ornamentation are never met with in the immense number of moorish traceries of all kinds which may be studied at granada. this circumstance has induced me to consider these objects (such vases as the alhambra one) to have been brought from persia, for ben batutah tells us that several persians of importance had settled at granada ; and it is highly probable that a direct communica- tion existed between these two countries.” slight as these data may be for the conclusion, i think that such ornamental stuffs as those in both figs. and are more likely to be persian or syrian in origin than siculo- arabic, and date from the th or th century. here, again, doubt upon the local provenance of an ornamental design has little to do with the appreciation of its characteristics, although authenticated provenance may help in some cases to explain local or national inclinations to particular conventions in ornament. to illustrate a third type of a th or early th century textile orna- mentation or pattern, distinct from either of the two contemporary types just discussed, figs. , , and may be taken. in the patterns of ornament in european silks these, which are of stouter fabric than the sarcenet and thin silk perso- byzantine specimens, we have a revival and repetition on a smaller scale of familiar perso-byzantine pattern features, such as the strongly marked circular and ogival frames inclosing ornament, which often consist, as in figs. and , of bird forms repeated in pairs much as they are in fig. . the designing or delineation of such bird suggestions is less careful in many respects than in most of the corresponding figures of an earlier school shown in chapter v. but it is evident that an influ- ence of both early persian and byzantine ornament is traceable in these th or th century stuffs (figs. , , and ). at this point i may shortly sum up what i have been trying to indicate by saying, that in the th century new schemes of patterns for silken stuffs arise, and may be broadly described as-- ( ) of patterns composed of repeated parallel bands of ornamenta- tion (figs. and ): ( ) of patterns in which the distribution of the details is not divided or separated by bands or by framings (figs. and ) : and ( ) of patterns in which framings are used which are analogous to, or developments of, the byzantine circular and ogival framings (figs. , , and ). of these three types the first seems to be a marked departure from any schemes of patterns that had shown themselves in previously pro- duced european silken stuffs. it is a scheme that had a wide influence for a time on subsequent european silk patterns. recent discoveries of ornamental textiles in upper egypt seem to suggest stages towards an evolution of this scheme; an example or two of the saracenic fabrics from upper egypt are illustrated in figs. , , and . in both the specimens, figs. and , we find an orna- mentation arranged upon the plan of repeated parallel bands of devices. both are pieces of do@ @o linen with in-weavings of coloured silks, and imas series were made by saracens in egypt about the with century. amongst the remnants of such rezistenza mixed linen and silk stuffs are specimens made colx in the time of fatimy khalif, al mustansir ( th century). this khalif was one in the long succession of syrian and egyptian khalifs fig. .- a piece of fine linen woven who were noted patrons of the arts generally, with parallel bands of ornament in col. and nominated and appointed governors to oured silks, taken from a tomb at me- shaieh, near girgeh, upper egypt. carry on saracenic domination in both spain egypto - saracenic. nth century. } in. by in. and sicily. mohammedan customs were na- saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian turally therefore imported into those countries, lekerekekker and one of these customs, which appears to be germane to the particular point we are teeter now following up, was the outcome of an old law or edict of the prophet to the effect that the faithful were not to clothe themselves in silks and brocaded cloths. the only conces- sixar sion to their personal predilections in this way was that they might wear a band or bordering of silk to their robes. the prophet himself, fig. .-a piece of fine linen woven with two parallel bands of red, yellow, four hundred years before the time of al green, and black silk. egypto-saracenic. th century. in. by in. mustansir, set the example. but in the course of the four hundred years innovations crept in. the splendours of the courts and entourages of the khalifs multiplied, the single band became doubled and trebled, until it developed into consider- able widths composed of several horizontal and parallel bands of ornament. figs. and appear to me to illustrate the commencement of these in- novations. in fig. the complete ornament consists of a central band flanked by two narrower ones, which are made up of a repetition of small roundels, in most of which are tiny, rudely- depicted bird forms. the larger central band bukser is a combination of five bands of ornament. the inmost one is of the same design as that of the two outer independent bands; on each side of it, on a black ground, are inscriptions in white, and beyond these, on blue, in black outline and red spots, is a rather degraded version of a favourite grecian running pattern. the ornament in the bands on fig. is eur similar in character to that just described. besides little birds in the oval compartments, there are little animals as well. now com- fig. .-copy of portion of a siculo- pare these features with those of figs. and saracenic silk vestment of the th cen- , which, as i have said, are of siculo tury, preserved in the cathedral at ratisbon. the original fabric is woven saracenic th century manufacture, and you in coloured silks and gold thread, and was executed at the “hotel de tiraz "at find that a similarity exists between these palermo. henry vi., who had inherited patterns, all being planned in parallel bands. sicily through his wife constance, pre- sented this vestment, together with an- this coincidence alone is nearly sufficient to other (of which a portion is shown in establish their saracenic origin. but in ad- fig. ), to the cathedral at ratisbon. this vestment was one of the official dition to it there is further confirmation in robes of the emperors of the holy roman empire of the german nation. $ in. the saracenic or kufic lettering in them by , in. s: ornament in european silks unad u .we have the frame —the bolder and more prominent lettering being seen in figs. and . on turning to fig. (p. ) we have the frag- ment of a red and golden- coloured silk trellis pat- tern, whose kinship to the patterns in figs. and is indicated by the tiny and debased bird forms in the spaces of the trellis. ornament of the fig. .- part of a siculo-saracenic vestment. th century. . in. same description occurs by in. in conjunction with bands of relatively large kufic letters in a large piece of this class of linen and silken material, taken out of the same burying ground in upper egypt that figs. , , and came from. the inscription on this large piece, of which it is hardly worth while to give an illustration, is as follows: “ in the name of god, the merciful, the gracious, there is no god but god. mahomet is the apostle of god. ali is the favourite of god. a mustansir billah, prince of the faithful, the blessings of god be upon him and his fathers, the pure imams, and upon his sons.” by means such as these, then, we demonstrate a conclusion that parallel bands of ornament and arabic inscriptions are distinctive elements in saracenic silk patterns. how they con- siderably influenced european silk designs of a later date we may see, for instance, in figs. , , , and . these last-named fabrics are held to be of north italian manufacture, and contain pattern elements which are freer in concep- tion and designing than those of the more formal and peculiarly conventional orna- ments and traceries of the saracens. in much more pronounced indications of these latter, southern spain is far richer than fig. .- part of the robe of don felipe, northern or even southern italy. it will be brother of king alfonso x. (the wise), found in his tomb at villarcazar de sirga, province enough to mention the alhambra only, the of palencia. probably a hispano-saracenic weaving in silk and gold thread. th century. like of which, as a synopsis of saracenic length, in. ; width, in. ornament, does not exist in italy. no ornament in european silks woven with fine red and white threads. at silk damask seems to be more nearly like what would have been made in some hispano-saracenic centre of the th or even the th century. the pattern and texture of the bit shown in fig. differs from those of fig. . the designer of fig. , although using an angular framework for his pattern, certainly had in his mind a reminiscence of the byzantine roundels containing pairs of animal forms, and with such he has filled in the more im- fig. .- fragment of a silk damask portant of his elongated hexagonal spaces, the pattern with its trellis framework is bordering them with rectangular cheque analogous to that of fig. . siculo. patterns top and bottom, their sides being saracenic. th century. in. by in. marked by parts of narrow vertical bands containing repetitions of a leaf device. these narrow vertical bands run across the entire length of the pattern, so that in this piece we have a sort of double motive, the all- over hexagonal and diamond spacings, and the vertical stripes or bands. this appears to be the pattern of a designer less fettered by such conventions as those that apparently governed typical by- zantine or saracenic designers, and on this account it may be right to conclude that he was neither a byzantine nor a saracen. the weaving of the green silk and gold thread in this piece (no. ) is not equal to that of figs. , , and ; and although it is con- sidered to be work of fig. .-piece of brocade woven with gold thread and green silk on linen the th or th cen- warps. french or german. late th or early th century. length, in.; tury, it seems to be width, in. aud up ornament in european silks seems to be more nearly related to types of design of the th and th centuries, than it does to those of the th (see figs. to , pp. to ). figs. , , and , represent a th or th century survival of the earlier class of patterns in the spacing out of which framings were used. here we have the repeated roundels, the ogival framing, and a sort of billet or scale-shape framework. the rosette devices in fig. are of a simple type, and excepting for the nature of the woven threads forming the fabric, the specimen might be of later date. the same remark would not apply to figs. and , for in these the rather indifferent versions of fig. .- piece of stuff woven with red silk and gold thread, with an ogival framing filled in with alternate rows of the persian leaf- shaped fruit device and parrots regardant fig. .-piece of silk and linen weaving, possibly of addorsed. possibly of french or german french or german origin. th or th century. the origin. th or th century. length, in. ; rosettes are in brown silk, and the centre leaf device is of width, in. purple silk. height, } in. ; width, ) in. earlier and better-shaped persian ornamental devices, and of byzantine bird ornament, associate them with characteristic patterns of the th and th centuries—as was the case with figs. and . whether the stuffs of figs. , , , and were made by weavers in france or in the rhenish provinces, or not, does not affect the obvious air de famille, which they possess in common; and this conclusion is not disturbed because some authorities have classed figs. , , and as byzantine, and described the gold thread in fig. as cyprian gold thread. saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian the next series of silk patterns is that of figs. to . i have brought them together on account of the use in them of the same general scheme of design. this of course will be recognised as that of parallel bands of ornament, discussed particularly in con- nection with the saracenic specimens, figs. , , , and . fig. is from a brocade of silk and gold threads, kindred in many respects of its weaving with fig. . apart from the parallel bands of ornament which are common to each, the prominent details in fig. are more fantastic in effect than any in fig. : i allude especially to the birds or eagles with outstretched wings (their feathering being elaborately suggested) and to the leaf- shape forms which are filled in with arabic letters. this textile is probably of siculo- saracenic weaving of the th century. in fig. the narrow bands of ornament are of the heavier brocade weaving of siculo- saracenic work, and the broader ones are of thinner material, a sort of sarcenet or fig. .- piece of stuff woven with crimson taffeta. in this part will be found pairs of .consists of a billet framing within the spaces of which are alternately a bird and a per- eagles, pairs of leopards, and a forid leaf- sianesque leaf or fruit device. possibly of shaped and radiating ornament related, in french or german origin. th or th cen- tury. } in. by % in. its general contour as well as in other respects, to corresponding ornament in fig. . fig. is a reflex in its scheme of pattern of fig. , which is considered to be probably of persian origin. figs. and having some few like- nesses of drawing and treatment in common, as in the floriated details. but their style differs however from that of fig. ; and whilst fig. might be said to be a type of th century siculo-persian pattern, fig. , with the greater freedom of its treatment of detail in the wider portions of its scheme, may be held to be rather later in date — belonging therefore more to the close than to the beginning of the th century. fig. a.-billet or scale-shape frame an increasing freedom in elaborating the and yellow silk and gold thread. the pattern for patterns. ornament in european silks rendering of ornamental forms in patterns, which were nevertheless schemed according to the saracenic method of parallel bands, is displayed in figs. and . fig. represents a portion of a chasuble made of green and fawn-coloured silk damask. gold thread, the frequent use of which has been mentioned in connection with typical siculo-saracenic brocades of the th century, is absent from this piece ; and partly on this account it may be regarded as an italian late th century silk damask weaving. the peculiar freedom of design in the pattern of this fig. is exhibited in the relative naturalness of effect im- parted to certain of the objects in it. for instance, a perspective roundness is given to the drawing of the bowls upon which the pairs of spotted animals (? leopards) are seated: note further the naturalness of the small blossoms on stems springing from the radiating leaf devices: and note too the attitudes of the small dogs and birds in the squares of the narrower bands. all this seems to me to indicate the uprising of a new talent in pattern making—and a talent different from that of earlier date, which was distinctive of saracenic craftsmen and designers. similar conclusions may be drawn from the pattern of fig. , with its springing hounds, its leafy boughs, and its swans : and yet the scheme of the pattern is quite in the saracenic style. the broader bands contain the hounds: then come pairs of stripes with blossoms and leaf-shapes, and between each of these pairs is an fig. .- piece of a raised white silk damask, brocaded partly with gold. probably persian in alternation of blossoms and elongated oval origin. th or th century. length, } in. ; shapes. within these latter may be de- width, in. tected, with some difficulty, the forms of crouching harts. these with a few smaller details, such as the rays dart- ing from the blossoms, are of gold thread; the larger portions of the whole piece are of silk damask. such a piece as this may have been produced at the end of the th or the beginning of the th century; and the relative naturalness with which so many of its details are rendered suggests more strongly an italian than a saracenic designer. saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian the adoption of badges and devices by european sovereigns and nobles became a widespread fashion during the th and th centuries, though it may be traced to much earlier times in respect of moorish and byzantine rulers. it is however from their european adoption, in the th and th centuries, that a light is thrown upon the introduction of eagles, falcons, hounds, swans, lions, harts, boars, leopards, sun's rays, castles, and such like, into the patterns of the brocades and damasks made in italy at this time. evidence of the english demand, at least, for such stuffs is quoted in abun- dance by canon rock in his textile fabrics ; and frequent references to lucchese weavings, which are to be found in latin inventories of the period, point to the supremacy of the lucchese weavers, whether working at luc- ca, genoa, or even in lyons,' fig. .-silk damask, with gold-brocaded de- and perhaps in bruges, as being tails. the ground is of rose colouring, and the a matter beyond question. the pattern of blue, with de- extraordinary variety of forms, tails in gold; large grif- fins in pairs alternate which through the variable de- with persianesque leaf or mands of their patrons the fruit shapes (see similar objects on wing of dragon pattern designers were more in fig. ); the interven- ing spaces are occupied or less obliged to use, had an by small lions in pairs, influence upon the schemes of and small persianesque leaf or fruit ornament. their patterns. the earlier of sicilian. th century. the italian th century pat- length, in. ; width, in. terns were for the most part arranged, as we have seen, upon a saracenic basis of parallel bands, a basis which seems to have been given up about the th century in consequence of the new devices which the expanding school of italian designers were called upon to invent. survivals of the curved or angular frameworks for setting out saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian bilde scheming their all-over patterns is a reflex of a persian method in use in the th century. but the complete change in the rendering of the details designed by italians, as compared with those designed by persians, will be readily appreciated if we compare fig. with figs. to , in which last there is great variety of pattern detail. these last-quoted figures do not, of course, by any means exhaust the numerous varieties that abounded at that time, although probably they are sufficiently representative to convey a good idea of them. leaping harts, a rope curling across each, collared and chained dogs, seated, and trying to rear up, flying eagles, orientalized and other more na- turalistic renderings of leaf - shapes are repeated in orderly succession — all mingled together in fig. . the repe- tition of curved double-pointed wedge shapes, with a leafy lower edging and a blossom at the centre of each, re- latively simple in form, assists unity of effect in this pattern; they act as foils to * * the birds and animal forms. the actual fig. .- part of a chasuble of green and fawn-coloured silk damask. italian. stuff is of rose. late th or early th century. length, ft. in. ; width, ft. coloured silk (now much faded) brocaded with gold threads. this is probably a type of lucchese pattern and weaving. so too is fig. . the repeating unit of this all-over pattern is a boat containing at one end a seated dog looking up at an eagle with flapping wings perched at the other end on an oar; from the centre of the boat rises the curving trunk of a tree form with a branch to its right of disporportionate leaves and a pomegranate. the trunk at its top bears a still more disproportionate semi-botanical device, the main shape and contour of which recalls one of the prominent devices mundo rekken saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian unit of the pattern is a symmetrical arrangement of fantastic birds, vine leaves, and curving stems. the birds are somewhat similar to the sara- cenic ones in fig. ; and some authorities say that both are remotely related to a traditional device in chinese ornament representing the mystical bird “fonghoang.” the gold and blue brocade painted by orcagna as the background to his coro- nation of the virgin (fig. ) is clearly related in general effect to the actual fig. .—piece of brown and pale blue silk, bro- caded with gold thread (now much worn). north italian. th century. greatest width, in. fig. .-rose-coloured and green silk, brocaded in gold thread. north italian, th century. in. by } in. fabrics from which figs. and have been made. it consequently is collateral evidence, or at any rate suggestive, that such patterned fabric things were in vogue, and probably woven in italy in orcagna's time ( to ). but whether they shall be decidedly ascribed to looms at lucca or at florence, cannot be determined. the robes worn in orcagna's б ornament in european silks painting of christ and the virgin are patterned with such characteristic bird forms as those we have recently examined. intermixed with them are repetitions of a quatrefoil device, the upper and lower forms of it being more oriental than strictly italian in feeling. the pattern of the blue and gold brocade of fig. is based upon a recollection of the byzantine ogival framings; and the in- troduction of the lily blossoms on the lines of the framework goes some way towards cor- roborating other circumstances that point to an italian origin for the pattern. nevertheless a good deal of saracenic in- fig. .- part of a dalmatic of blue satin brocaded with gold thread. north italian. late th century. length of dalmatic, ft. . in.; width, ft. fluence seems to predominate in the treatment of the elaborated roundels, containing pairs of hares rampant, addorsed and re- gardant, recurring within the re- peated ogival framing. another version of italian patterns show- ing an inclination to the ogival framing is instanced by such de- signs as that of fig. , taken from a silk damask. an actual framing is not insisted upon, but is merely suggested by the se- quences of circular blossom forms. between them are two pairs of birds. one pair is perched, the other flying : the four birds are arranged about a new version (new so far as our fig. .- piece of blue satin brocaded with gold thread. north italian. th century. length, ft. in.; width, in. tro . i reus wa s & fig. .—the principal figures in orcagna's painting of the coronation of the virgin. now in the national gallery, london. th century. saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian illustrations are concerned) of the corresponding form edged with leafy suggestions, to be noticed in the upper part of fig. , as well as in the background of the coronation of the virgin, fig. . spinello aretino ( to ) has painted a similarly planned pattern in his picture of st. john the evangelist, st. john the baptist, and st. james the greater, in the national gallery ; but he uses birds, instead of blossoms as in fig. , to suggest the ogival plan. the widespread use of such italian figured silks during the th and th centuries receives fig. .- piece of blue satin brocaded with gold thread, with an ogival framing, within which are circles containing debased renderings of ramp- ant hounds or hares, addorsed and regardant. north italian, th century. length, } in. ; width, in. fig. .-silk damask. north italian. th century. in. by in. testimony from a vast number of monuments, tapestries and other works of art associated with different european places. in illustration of this fact i quote two, far removed from one another, in point of date at least. on the monumental brass to johan van zoest and his wife, at thorn in prussia, dated , the lady's jacket is patterned with a small ogival framework filled in with a triple vine-leaf ornament. on the brass of martin de visch, at bruges, dated , the design in the background to f saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian of the orphrey of an ecclesiastical vestment. the subject is the assump- tion of the virgin, woven in repetitions according to the required length fig. .-portions of two orphreys joined together, of crimson silk and gold thread damask, with repetitions of the assumption of the virgin. venetian. th century. in. by in. of the orphrey. the outline delineation of the figures, etc., is in the style ornament in european silks of fine italian woodcuts, the like of which may be seen in the earlier italian books printed at venice. and it is perhaps very much on account of this, that the design of the fabric of fig. is attributed to a venetian loom—no doubt quite a small hand-loom. weaving of a corresponding technique was probably wrought at cologne in the th century, which place is considered by dr. rock as a principal home for this class of subject weaving. but the feature in the woven material of fig. is the considerable use of gold thread. the fabric, indeed, practically comes into the group of “ cloths of gold” or “ draps d'or," for which cologne was not so celebrated as venice and florence. a technical difference between the cloths of gold and silks brocaded with gold is that in the one the gold threads virtually form the ground to the design, whereas in brocades the ground is of silk, and parts alone of the design are wrought in gold thread. cloths of gold, of velvet, and satin, become a special class of splendid stuffs which were plentifully used in the th and th centuries; they superseded to a great extent the brocaded silks of earlier date, although the latter fabrics continued in use. in the th and first half of the th century one style of patterns predominates for cloths of gold, for velvets, for cloth of gold mingled with velvet, for rich satins much heavier in material than the sarcenet-like damasks of the th century, for satins mingled with velvet, for cloth of gold and satin and velvet all mixed to- gether in a single weaving. of such patterns i shall give some specimens in the next chapter, and close my present remarks with a few general notes on the velvets and satins, and their gradual introduction into the european silken manufactures of the period. that for some time earlier, possibly two or three centuries, they had been made by orientals, is pretty certain. velvet is mentioned in english inventories of the th century, and as "veluiau” in french documents of the same time. the relative in- frequency of these indications of it as a foreign article of commerce point to its comparative rareness then. “ zetani raso ” and “ sericus rasus,” are terms that occur in spanish and italian writings of the th century, implying a satin and silk fabric scraped or cut to produce auffy surfaces as in velvets. it is not unlikely that “ zetani raso ” and “ sericus rasus ” may be the early terms given to early forms of velvet-like stuffs produced by europeans; but the invention, adaptation, or perfection of the particular appliances required for producing velvet in a shuttle loom, took time to develope. and it seems that general production of velvets can scarcely be considered to have been arrived at in europe until the th century. a writer in the early th century states, that for fifty years venice had derived an annual revenue of , écus, reggio one of saracenic, spanish, sicilian, and italian , , écus, and sicily still more, from the trade in italian-made satins, velvets, and cognate rich weavings. in a word, he says, “ the manufacture of these things is the nerve of commerce.” at his time cloths of silks such as damask satins, and velvets both plain and cut into patterns), were made « in a way totally unknown to the ancients." what then can be regarded as the european manufacture of these rich fabrics was at this period almost entirely confined to italy. later spasmodic and sporadic attempts to raise the manufacture elsewhere are often alluded to in its history, but except for the particular local interest attaching to them they are not of much value in a review of its character as a whole. for instance, an endeavour was made in london during the th century, by an enterprising italian named damico, to set up a weaver's workshop, to make satin damasks, velvets, and cloths of gold. but his venture was short-lived. the italian merchants in the city trading in their own country's goods leagued themselves together to put an end to his industry, and succeeded in this by strong protests addressed to the authorities that it was a source of danger to their business. satin manufacture appears to have been introduced into france in the first years of the th century by jehan de sellier, who applied for privi- leges from the king to set up works for the making of “satins of bruges." but, according to monsieur michel, such satins were probably unpatterned stuffs. so far then as we are now concerned, the ornamental satins and velvets of the th and th centuries are chiefly of oriental and italian origin. chapter vii th and early th century italian patterns defore examining new types of patterns which are special to the d italian and oriental fine velvets, damask satins, cloths of gold and silk, of the th and th centuries, a general reference may be made to some of the influences which seem to have affected the growing european talent for designing textile ornamentation during the th century, leading it to new expressions. historical records show that persian, syrian and such like velvets, and rich silken and golden stuffs, passed at this period in considerable quantities into europe. the output of italian stuffs was greatly stimulated, and they were widely distributed through the com- mercial relations between italian, german and flemish merchants, the extent and proportions of whose trading operations exceeded those of previous periods. during the th century, constantinople or byzantium had been almost the chief market for supplying oriental silks to principal italian centres of artistic manufacture. in the th century, marco polo, the venetian traveller, speaks in detail of many places in persia, asia minor, and syria, at which he noticed the profusion and excellence of sumptuous textile fabrics made in them. the connection between the east and europe for trade in these things became still larger upon the extinction of the moribund byzantine dynasty in the th century, when the ottomans conquered constantinople, and infused an orientalism into the customs, manufactures, and such arts as there were, throughout the large part of south-eastern europe which fell under their domination. from the point of view of ornament, this orientalism might be characterized as being quasi-perso-mohammedan: a flavour which enters into the patterned silken stuffs manufactured then at broussa, and in many ottoman towns, in armenia, and anatolia. many of such materials went into the markets of venice, florence, and genoa, and thence on to france, spain, burgundy, and flanders. i mentioned in chapter ii. that in the middle of the th century, the ottoman ruler, soliman ii., brought from the district of tauris a body of high-skilled weavers, and planted them in turkey. the perso-mahommedan or ottoman taste accordingly percolated th and early th century patterns into the designs of european weavers much in the same manner as had saracenic taste of centuries earlier. but apparently it was not until the latter years of the th century that this ottoman taste began to exert a clearly distinguishable influence. it then developed, and, as we shall have occasion to note, became stronger in the succeeding period. trade in oriental goods and spread of ottoman influences are not, however, all that have to be taken into account. progress in technical methods of making fabrics with different surface textures such as velvets, cloths of gold, satin damasks, and ribbed silks--give rise to another influ- ence. the new variety of textures seems to have invited particular treatment for decorative purposes at the hands of designers, whose ap- preciation of its effects gave special impulse to patterns invented with a fig. .-conventional leat panels, designed chiefly with a reverse curve line. particular aim at displaying and contrasting the surface textures. the variety of texture surfaces was clearly greater than that which had been afforded by the immediately earlier taffetas, the sarcenets, and the some- what heavy semi-silken brocades. a class of pattern arose accordingly, and is distinctive as a type of italian design which is intermediate between patterns retaining saracenic flavour and those evincing ottoman flavour. this intermediate type is, i think, to be associated at first, in point of date, approximately with the first half of the th century. it came into being about the time when european nations may be said to have been more or less settling down, and when social conditions were becoming more propitious than they had been to the use and the amassing of wealth, and to the organization of trade and of manufactures. all these circumstances conduced to a patronage and fostering of the arts, and to the spread of ornament in european silks fashion and tastefulness in the production and employment of decorative textile fabrics on a scale more extensive and general than in preceding centuries. a special feature in the design and composition of the intermediate type of pattern now to be discussed is the recurrent use of a reversed curve line-a line more popularly known in later times as hogarth's line of beauty. two examples, showing characteristic use of this line, are given in fig. . each suggests a formal leaf shape, which was soon accepted as a conventionality that could be freely used. when such shapes were re- peated and interchanged, patterns, such as that shown in fig. , arose, and these constitute a class of the intermediate type. the more com- plete effect of this class of pattern may be realized by looking at the robe worn by the virgin in fig. , which is taken from the painting by carlo crivelli (about ) in the national gallery. the painter evidently used an actual fabric to paint from ; but it is dif- ficult to say what the fig. .-- diagram of a pattern composed of repeated and interchanging materials of this robe conventional leaf-shape panels-taken from an italian silk of the th cen. were. a well-developed example of a kindred class of pattern is to be found incised upon the pall upon which the effigy of carlo marsupini reclines (fig. ). this monument, of which but a portion appears in the illustration, is in the church of sta. croce, at florence, and was sculptured by desiderio du settignano, about ; it serves as an evidence of the date when such patterns were in vogue. tury. do la a fig. .–painting by carlo crivelli (about - ), in the national gallery. fig. .-recumbent figure of carlo marsupini, from his monument, designed by desiderio da settignano ( ), in the church of sta. croce, florence. the pall or covering is patterned with repeated conventional leaf panels and cone or fruit devices. th and early th century patterns fig. represents a portion of a green velvet, with the pattern wrought in gold threads. it is less elaborated in design than crivelli's ornamentation of his virgin's robe. but it has a feature to be noted, which is the junction of two bold curving stems leading up to the simple cone or fruit device at the centre of the large leaf-shape, or panel. this feature is more clearly indicated in fig. , a diagram taken from a gold brocaded velvet. the repetition of such bifurcating stems, surmounted by the cone device within formal leaf-shaped panels, makes a further class of pattern still belonging to the intermediate type. it and the first class of pattern, how- ever, are contemporary ; but the use in patterns of the bifurcating stems seems to have outlived that of the leaf-shaped panels by themselves. of still longer life in pat- terns is the cone or fruit device above mentioned. this particular detail, in its simplest aspect almost, is given in fig. . there it consists of a central fruit shape, terminated with a fan-shape or radiating efflorescence, whilst around it are little leaves; in other examples it is given without them. in figs. and we find varieties of the cone or fruit device, with radiations about it of leaves and small blossoms. more elaborate again is this device in the crivelli virgin's robe (fig. ). it becomes more intricately and ingeniously designed under the hands of succeeding designers, as we shall see. i must now turn to a third and rather more distinctive class of what i have called fig. .-specimen of green velvet, with the intermediate type of patterns. this third conventional leaf panels, bifurcating stems class also flourished at the same period, but and pomegranate or cone forms in gold thread. italian. th century. the designs of it are, as a rule, smaller in scale than those belonging to the other two classes. there is a more defined continuity of growth in this third class than in the two former. and this growth is suggested by the employment of well-marked serpentine or undulating trunks or stems, which are repeated and run in a vertical direction up and down the patterns. an interesting and early example of this occurs in the pattern of the robe of st. paul (fig. ) painted about on the rood screen of southwold church. although a small portion ornament in european silks fig. .-diagram of serpentine stem or branch pattern, with leaves and fruit, from an italian velvet of the th century fig. .-diagram of another type of the serpentine branch pattern, taken from an italian velvet of the th century. th and early th century patterns fig. , but the vertical waved trunk is absent, and the pattern therefore presents a repetition of large pointed leaf panels in accordance with the principle of the first class of the intermediate type. the richest examples of the waved-stem class of pattern are un- doubtedly those which were wrought in velvet raised upon cloths of gold. a very beautiful illustration of this is provided in a painting by gheraert david, of bruges ( to ), see fig. . the bishop's gold vestments are splendidly decorated with the waved stem or trunk, and cone devices fig. .-velvet of dark blue and green conventional leaf shapes and serpentine stems on a ground of crimson silk. the fruits and leaves on the large leaf forms are chiefly wrought in gold thread. italian. th century. raised in blue velvet. it is probable that this painting dates from about , to which period, if not rather later, may be ascribed the specimen of cloth of gold and crimson velvet shown in fig. . the renderings of the cone or fruit device in this piece are varied. amongst the subordinate details, in outlines of raised velvet, are devices at the top and bottom of the specimen resembling the tudor rose of henry viiith's period treated in a very simple manner; besides these, small semi-naturalistic and curling leaves indicate the italian designers' budding inclinations to become more ornament in european silks op sa z a idades explora v illum jag het a vaatmz free and fantastic in their patterns, but only so far as subordinate and small details are concerned, for the main effect of the pattern is derived from its more pronounced and conventional elements. such an inclination, however, is much more de- veloped in the ornamenta- tion of the robe of the judge on his white palfrey, taken from jean de maubeuge's (mabuse's) picture of “ les juges integres," painted be- tween and (fig. ). without doubt the judge's robe represents cloth of gold patterned in outline of raised crimson velvet. from what is displayed of the pattern we can see that were it possible to lay the robe flatly down we should find, at regular distances from one another, large cir- cular panels springing from a short bifurcating stem, and enclosing a well-ordered grouping of pomegranates and leaves about a large central pine device. be- tween these big circular panels come long and curv- ing festoons or garlands full of leaves and blossoms ar- ranged upon an ogival plan. this playful treatment by the artist betokens a fanci- fulness foreign to contem- porary italian convention- ality in similar ornament, fig. .- portion of a painting by romanino at padua (about ). reproduced by kind permission of messrs. a. braun & co. from their and may be accounted for photograph. when one remembers that jean de maubeuge did not enter what is called his italian period, and thus adopt italian conventions, until some time after he had painted this ve pu th and early th century patterns ft picture. here i may remark that when french, and even english, taste came to the front later on, as in the th century, and then affected de- signers for silks, patterns became more and more purely floral and natural- istic in representation. there is, however, a con- siderable lapse of time between such designs and those of jean de mau- beuge, who, with others of his time, may be re- garded to some degree as early masters of the realistic flowery patterns of designers intimately connected with lyons silks. fig. is from an italian velvet and silk fabric, probably of late th century manufacture. the darker portions in it, the familiar reverse-curve pointed leaves (see also fig. ), and the bifurcating stems (see also fig. ), are of purple velvet. the serrated bordering about the large leaf panels, con- taining various pome- granate, cone, and leafy devices, are of yellow and green silk; white silk is also introduced. the whole pattern may be put into the second class of the intermediate type, and it is much more formal than the jean de mau fig. .- painting of a canon of the church, by gheraert david, flemish school ( - ), in the national gallery. the robes of the beuge pattern. bishop are of cloth of gold and dark blue velvet. ornament in european silks do bar ci der marco marziale's painting of the circumcision in the national gallery dates from the end of the th century. the group of figures in the right hand half of the picture is given in fig. . the priest standing on the steps of the altar wears a cope, the corner of which is held back so that the whole of its pattern is not seen. but the part of it which is displayed consists of white satin damasked with the conventional leaf panels : within them radiating groups of leaves and blossoms, and nosegays of flowers are brocaded in black and red silks and gold thread. this mix- ture of damask and brocade is a combina- tion of weavings that was comparatively rare in the th cen- tury, but in later periods it is often em- ployed for the render- ing of intricate and much fuller aloral pat- terns. an actual specimen of a late th century version of it is illustrated in fig. . the repeated leaf panels in this are da- masked in white satin. within each is a ra- diating grouping of stems bearing wheat ears and cornflowers, and on each side of its base is a peacock with fig. .-two panels of cloth of gold and red velvet. the pattern consists of a broad serpentine branch or trunk enriched with a twisting leafy stem, bearing spreading tail. the at the middle, a golden pine cone and leaf device set in a conventional leaf panel of red velvet with radiating border of small blossoms and leaves. recurrent leaf panels the main ground is filled up with outline cone devices, twisting leaves, and small tudor and devices are set in a hexagonal frame- work composed of small leafy branches, birds and pomegranates, all of which, daintily drawn, are woven or brocaded in coloured silks and gold thread. a point to be noted in connection with the pattern, is that it is composed of two schemes or plans. the brocaded hexagonal framing is the more salient of the two, whilst the series of damasked leaf panels is subordinate to it. no similar instance of two practically distinct ss a ou t roses. th and early th century patterns schemes of pattern brought into combination in a silk weaving, the one imposed on the other, has i think previously come before us. for the purposes of our review it there- fore shows that designers and weavers at this time were enter- ing upon a new phase in con- structing patterns upon two or more schemes, a princi- ple that is to be traced occasion- ally in silk fabrics two centuries later. returning now to marco marziale's picture, we should take note of the man in the handsome- ly-patterned robe, standing on the right part of fig. . here we have a specimen of the first class of the intermediate type: repeated large leaf panels set about the cone or pome- granate device, surrounded by ra- diations of leafy fig. .-- group of figures from the painting of the "upright judges," by jean de and blossom maubeuge (mabuse). the cloak of the judge seated on the white horse is of cloth of gold, with a pattern picked out in outline of raised velvet. taken by kind permission forms. the fabric of messrs. a. braun & co. from their photograph of the painting. ornament in european silks which marziale seems to have had in his eye is a rich dull silk ground with the ornamentation raised on it in velvet. the design, however, is equally well adapted for damask. and as a sample of contemporary satin damask patterns, fig. has been made from an admirable specimen- originally of a delicate crimson colour, but now faded to a greyish pink. notwithstanding intricacy of pattern scheme, the alternation of light and dark tones of the same colour gives a unity of effect which is the case with all silken damasks. the scheme of the design of fig. is related in principle to that of fig. ; for in fig. we have a repeated series of leaf panels, each of which is fully filled in with the cone or pome- granate, sur- rounded by a ra- diation of leaves or sprigs of acorns and leaves; these devices are bound at their base with a crown. a strongly defined hexagonal fram- ing of ivy - leaf, stems or branches is placed about them. but, as will be seen, this framing is not de- fig. .-specimen of purple velvet with paltern wrought in yellow, green, and white. italian. th century. the scheme of the pattern is similar to that of the hanging on signed to form a left of the background in crivelli's painting (see fig. ). continuous hexa- gonal trellising all over the pattern. were it to be repeated lengthwise and breadthwise the whole design would resolve itself into alternating series of wide horizontal patterns. on the upmost angles of the hexagonal framing are small crowns—an ornamental detail the use of which seems to begin in the patterns of middle of the th century, and is continued more prominently in those of the th and th century. a crown will be seen on the shoulder of the man in the red robe in marziale's painting, fig. mono) fig. .- part of the painting of the circumcision by marco marziale ( - ) in the national gallery. the cope of the priest is of white satin damask, brocaded, with details in red and black silk and gold thread. the robe of the man on the right is of crimson silk, with pattern raised on it of crimson velvet. th and early th century patterns , and several small ones in the brocaded damask of fig. . p. veronese (about ) has robed his europa in a damasked satin of the same pattern as that of fig. ; whence it might be inferred that it is a type of pattern produced about the middle of the th century. but it is more formal in design and treatment than the majority of the pattern stuffs introduced by p. veronese in his paint- ings. again, in the painting, about , by bonvincino, in the strædel museum, at frankfort-on-the.main, this pattern is used for the damask satin hanging at the back of the virgin and child. there is therefore evi- dence that the pattern was in use from to at least--but in view of what has previously been said about it, it may be held to be a type of late th or early th century design for da- mask satin. technical differ- ences between da- masks “brocatelles," and “lampas,” were mentioned in the chap- ter upon materials and processes (page ). whereas damasks are fig. .-white satin, with damasked leaf-shape ornaments. about these a woven in one colour, hexagonal framing of leafy bars, small birds, crowns, and formal groupings of pomegranate fruit and leaves are brocaded in coloured silks. in the centres of the lampas, which much damasked leaf shapes are radiating stems bearing wheat ears, and beyond them resembles them in the cornflowers, with confronted peacocks at the base of them. italian. second half of th century. process of the weav- ing, is woven in two colours ; that is to say that the ground is of one colour, the ornament of another. generally speaking, brocatelles and lampas are of thinner and less sumptuous materials than satin damasks, ornament in european silks and as a class appear to date from about the th century. a good specimen of an early lampas is illustrated in fig. . the ground is of light blue silk and the pattern of yellow silk. its scheme is that of the repeated conventional leafy-shaped panels enclosing cone and fruit devices set in radiations of leaves and blossoms. other similar devices, however, are used in an isolated way, independently of any surrounding leafy-shaped panels, though to some ex- tent in connection with a continuous stem, bearing small blossoms and leaves. this stem flows in opposing and re- peated reverse- curves. hence the entire pattern of fig. may be said to be composed of two motives; and the treatment of its de- vices throughout in- clines to elaboration, and to a more broken or perhaps frittering effect than that of its prototypes. it is very much in this direction that de- signers worked dur- ing the th century. whilst maintaining fig. .- faded rose-colour damask satin. the scheme of pattern is similar to that of the daintier pattern in fig. . the hexagonal framing here is of stout old schemes for lay- branches edged with formal (?) ivy leaves. within the spaces of the framing are ing out patterns, they produced many that and oak leaves and acorns in the other. italian. late th century. present a marked contrast with the simpler and more dignified patterns of an earlier time. i have met with no actual specimens of woven stuff to correspond with the formal design depicted by bernardino fungai in his painting of conventional leaf shapes, some of which are closely filled in with a large cone form issuing from a crown, and around this device radiate fantastic leaves in one series, th and early th century patterns i think, therefore, that it is more likely to be a specimen of ottoman work of the th rather than of th century. the points which i have tried to bring forward in the foregoing may be summed up shortly as follows. succeeding the th century types of textile ornament is an intermediate type, of which broadly speaking there are three classes possessing kindred features in common, but each class contains some individual characteristic. the kinship in features rests upon the employment of the reversed curve line in shaping the conventional leaf forms, and upon the recurrence of cone or pomegranate devices variously treated. the first class of patterns is one in which the conven- tional leaf shape or panel is repeated over the whole surface of a stuff, and so presents an effect of ornamental reticulation. in the second class bifurcating bands or stems break up such reticulation and intervene between the repetitions of the leaf panels. both first and second class come into a family of patterns the elements or forms of which run into one another and suggest little specific horizontal or vertical direction to the pattern; though those of the second class do sometimes resolve them- selves, but not very distinctly, into horizontal series of large devices. the third class also belongs to a class of patterns the individuality of which is derived from a scheme of waved or serpentine stems running vertically or obliquely up and down the surface. these three classes are obviously quite distinguishable from the patterns made upon a scheme of repeated parallel bands of ornament, as with saracenic designers, or upon a scheme of scattering repetitions of the same independent and disconnected unit over a ground, as in so many of the th century italian patterns. chapter viii th century ottoman and italian patterns coon after the first quarter of the th century, the designers of d patterns for silk fabrics adopt a freer treatment in the rendering of their ornament. the large scale of pattern, formality, and dignity, which had been prevalent during the previous hundred years, gradually disappear; and patterns succeed one another in variety, both as regards plan or scheme and details. frequent comparison one with another has to be made in order to detect those likenesses which seem to link them together and at the same time demonstrate a diffusiveness and consequent waning in ornamental design, which seems to have set in. the sedateness of earlier styles is practically usurped by a license in later ones, and feebleness, due probably to demand for variety and rapid production, ensues. the consistency distinguishing simpler and yet more imaginative composition of ornament almost dies out, and vagaries are indulged in, which rather tickle one's momentary fancy than touch one's more lasting admiration. but with all this tendency to a lower level of expression, there is in the ornament of the th century clear evidence of the designers' intention to fit its parts and elements together for the strict purpose of composing patterns. in this respect it possesses a degree of style, the quality of which, though so different from that of the th century, does not exist in typical designs of the later th and th cen- turies. in these last, style in decorative merit and effect lies almost en- tirely in clever delineations or representations of foliage and flowers grouped into masses or trickling garlands, much in the way in which the natural things themselves are usually seen. it is only through the repetition of such groupings that any sort of approach is made to give these floral de- signs a conventionality, the much stricter adherence to which is noticeable in ornament of earlier european patterns, as it is in the ottoman patterns of silken fabrics that came into the markets of italy and elsewhere during the th century. many of these last are composed entirely of devices based upon leaves and flowers; and this resort to botanical objects is equally apparent in all sorts of ottoman decoration for vases, plates and th century patterns tiles, etc., of the period. underlying this ottoman style is persian influ- ence. but it would take us too far away from what we are now set upon to consider, were we here to discuss the relationship of this to the older persian influence of which we spoke in connection with th century stuffs. it is perhaps enough to say that, in respect of ornament-making, the west has for centuries drawn upon the east, and that the prevalence of flowers and leaves in th century european ornament owes much of its force to oriental taste in this direc- tion. but whilst this is so, it is rather interesting to find symptoms of what seems to be an oriental borrowing of european ornamental devices; and an example of this was suggested in the fig. of the previous chapter. a fur- ther example, still later in date by some forty or fifty years probably, is given in fig. . this is a specimen of elaborate ottoman (anatolian) workmanship and design. it is part of a hanging. the ground of the piece is of cloth of gold, and the pattern is raised in red and yellow velvet. it consists of a repetition of formal blossoms, shaped significantly with reverse curve lines, which occur so particularly in the italian intermediate class of patterns. these blossom shapes are united by counterchanging reverse curve bands or stems, sparsely edged with small ivy leaves, resembling those in the italian satin damask of fig. . at the alternate junctions of the reverse curve stems are pairs of subordinate fig. .- portion of a hanging of cloth of gold with pattern in red and yellow velvet. from stems, meeting and terminating in broussa (anatolia). ottoman manufacture. th century. length, ft. in. ; width, ft. i in. pointed and serrated oval or fruit de vices, which recall their much earlier prototypes shown in fig. . the outer parts or petals of the repeated blossom shapes contain, or are charged with, small rose or tulip buds and cone or pointed oval shapes. this inlaying or charging of a larger device with subsidiary forms is a char- acteristic which recurs in all the types of ottoman silk designs which are h ornament in european silks shown in figs. , , , and . fig. , is typical of ottoman patterns in which a framework is not forcibly insisted upon. fig. , however, is typical of ottoman patterns suitable for costume purposes in which a framework of the familiar ogival form is conspicuous and is the chief constructive base of the pattern. in this, again, is a reminiscence of the bifurcating stem device so often used by italian th century designers. it springs from the lower portion of the bands en- closing each ogival space, and bears a large circular object resembling a prickly fruit with a crest of radiat- ing leaflets. but on looking into this object it will be found to be composed of two outer curving and narrow leaves, down the centres of each of which runs a delicate small leaf spray. the centre of the fruit-form is charged with a balanced arrangement of stems, terminating in two rosebuds on each side, and a radiating carnation flower on the middle stem. little serpentine stem and blos- som forms enrich the ogival bands. the dark ground of this silk is of crimson satin ; the bands of the framework, and the large pseudo fruit forms are of fig. .–part of a crimson satin, with pattern woven chiefly.in gold gold picked out with blue, and picked out with details in crimson, blue, and white. this is a por- tion of a dress of a sultana, removed from a royal tomb at constanti. white and crimson. fig. nople or broussa. ottoman manufacture. th century. ft. in. is part of a th century by ft. } in. ottoman brocade, probably from broussa, in which we find, on a small scale, a version of the vertically repeated serpentine stems (as in figs. and ), bearing counter changing leaf-forms outlined in white, and charged with a golden radiating leaf or flower device. these golden serpentine stems run over a crimson silk th century patterns ground with a subordinate golden-leaf pattern. the last of the ottoman or broussa weavings selected for illustration is fig. , the scheme of its pattern being a repetition or powdering, at regular distances, of an expanded leaf device of silver thread and white silk, which is charged with a group of stems, with rosebuds and cornflowers radiating about a central pointed oval ornament. at the lower end of this white leaf is a pair of long, narrow, golden leaves, each charged with a tapering series of little blos- soms. the ground of the whole piece is of red velvet, and the subordinate details on the surface of the larger leaves are raised in crimson and green velvet. thus, these four figures present us with four fig. .--piece of crimson satin, with pattern woven in white and gold. otto- man manufacture. probably from broussa. th century. fig. .- piece of crimson velvet, with a powdered pat- tern of large leaves of cloth of silver charged with tulips and carnations, etc., in crimson and green velvet. otto- man manufacture, probably from broussa. th century. ft. in. by ft. i} in. different ottoman pattern schemes, each plainly defined, and not, as is more frequently the case with contemporary european versions of them, obscured by elaborated and intermingling details. comparative simplicity in forms and distinctness in their definition are features of almost all mo- ornament in european silks hammedan ornament, and constitute the chiet of its characteristics when contrasted with european ornament subsequent to the th century. with these types of ottoman velvets, satins and brocades before us, it is fig. .- portrait, painted by titian in , of catherine cornaro, queen of cyprus, wear- ing an ottoman green satin costume woven with gold thread in an oriental pattern. fairly apparent that the green satin and golden brocaded dress, in which titian robes his catherine cornaro, queen of cyprus, was probably of anatolian manufacture. this portrait (fig. ) was painted in . th century patterns according to brantome, the most beautiful specimen ever seen in france, “a chef dæuvre” of “ drap d'or frize” (that is velvet ornamen- tation raised on a gold ground), was the dress worn by marguerite de fig. .-- portrait, probably of the princess (afterwards queen) mary of england, painted by holbein, or one of his pupils, about . her costume is of cloth of gold material, with outline pattern in red silk or velvet. her underskirt is of cream-coloured silk, with raised ornament wrought in loopings of gold thread. valois on easter day, . the material was given by the grand turk to m. de grand champ, french ambassador, on his departure from con- stantinople; and the ambassador on his return to france presented it ioi ornament in european silks to the queen. its textile and ornamental features corresponded no doubt with one or other of those of the ottoman specimens we have considered. the incident is interesting, as showing how such stuffs cropped up during the th century in different parts of europe, and no doubt exerted an influence upon french and italian designers. reverting, however, to the earlier years of the century, let us look at a portrait, painted probably about , of the princess mary, by holbein, which is given in fig. . her costume is of two different kinds of material. the body and overskirt is of cloth of gold, with pattern raised in red velvet outlines—similar in fabric to that of fig. ; the design on the outer skirt is of bold interlacing stems and pomegranate and other large leafy devices. the pattern on the body is on a slightly smaller scale, and con- trived to fit into the shape of this part of the costume. the underskirt of the princess's dress is of white silk, and the ornament is raised upon it in tiny loops of gold thread; but it is difficult to make out the scheme of the design. the method of weaving with loops on the surface of a stuff seems to have arisen in the th century, and pro- duced new effects of texture. these were simulated both in silks and da- masks, as may be detected in the central devices and the knots on the curved stems of fig. , and again, in the bands forming the framework in fig. .- piece of crimson velvet, with the floral the green silk damask of fig. . both these two latter specimens are pro- bably a little later than holbein's time. crimson velvet. italian. first half of th century. more typical of it would be such a de- sign as that in fig. , where we have a portion of a crimson, green velvet, and looped gold thread fabric. its pattern consists of naturalistic branches bearing leaves and blossoms treated with much realism, and shaped to form an ogival framing enclosing a large concentric ornament, wrought in a texture of gold-thread loops picked out with lines of red stems in green and red velvet, and the large repeated pointed oval forms in cloth of gold, with concentric forms raised in looped gold threads picked out with th century patterns velvet; this circular device has a relationship to the large repeated blossoms noted in the ottoman specimen, fig. . the specimen in fig. is of cloth of silver with an ogival frame of crimson velvet intersected here and there with raised knots and semi- botanical forms, which are woven in closely pulled loopings of red silk. of similar weaving is the central device, about which radiate stems and leaves of a carnation character in red velvet ; the whole forming a group which recurs within the ogival frame. the ornamental intention of this group is derived from the cone of fruit with radiating blossoms and leaves, are none -------- fig. . – piece of cloth of silver or silver tissue, with the pattern partly wrought in crimson velvet and partly in loopings of crimson silk. italian. middle of th century. -- of the th century, which has been often referred to previously. the green satin damask of fig. is said to be of spanish manufacture of the middle of the th century; but whether it be spanish or not, its pattern has the same character of basis as that of fig. . its ogival framework, which is intersected by crowns and a knot combined with bud devices, en- closes recurrent versions of the cone or fruit shapes surrounded by conven- tional ornament. again, a further variety of pattern constructed according to the ogival frame scheme, but with leaves more realistic than any in the last figure, , is displayed in fig. . this is from a specimen of red and fair yellow silk damask, or perhaps it should be called “ lampas," ornament in european silks woven probably towards the latter half of the th century. in it are to be noted overlapping stems, and the curled ends of the leaves with fibres carefully marked. these denote a departure from the usual manner in which corresponding details are treated in patterns earlier than , about which time the picture of the virgin and child, of which the central por- tion only is given in fig. , was painted by paul veronese. the hanging of the background here is crimson silk and gold thread. its pattern retains a suggestiveness of earlier types, especially in regard to the big pointed cone or fruit devices. on the other hand, the wreaths are fig. .- piece of red and yellowish silk damask satin or lampas. italian. middle of the th century. fig. .— piece of green silk brocatelle, with ogival frame pattern and crowns. although considered to be of spanish, it is as likely to be of italian manufacture. middle of th century. freer in form, and the leaves of which they are composed are almost realistic in shape. such patterns stand midway between the formal and conventional ones produced at the beginning of the th century and those with more numerous inclinations to realism produced at the end of it. to the same class of semi-realistic patterns--if one may call them so— belongs the leafy and flower-red satin damask of the skirt worn by the th century patterns one golden-haired lady (fig. ), painted by paris bordone, probably some twenty years earlier than paul veronese's mother and child. whilst these and several other specimens supply the evidence of a tendency amongst designers at this time to depict with some appearance of realism the objects brought into the compo- sition of their patterns, there are a good many contemporary patterns which are composed with almost nothing but con- ventional and abstract ornament, and of these a few specimens have been selected for illus- tration. fig. is from a portrait, painted by bronzino about , of eleonore of toledo, duchess of florence, with her son. the pattern on her dress is of curling scrolls or arabesques, wholly conventional in style, intermingling with reminiscences of the cone or pointed fruit device, also of a very conventional type. the original stuff of the duchess's dress seems to have been either cloth of silver or white creamy silk, with the ornament raised on it in dark velvet. of the same class of conventional pat- fig. .- mother and child, from a painting by paul veronese, (?) about tern is that in fig. , . the hanging at the back is of crimson silk, with pattern in gold thread. it may be worth while to notice in connection with this class of arabesque and scroll designs, that amongst pattern books published in the th century, one of the earliest is la fleur de la science de portraiture et patrons de broderie façon arabicque et italique. the license for its publication was granted by francis i. to“ messir francisque pelegrin de florence.” th century patterns simpler ogival frame. a more fantastic example of this type is given in fig. , taken from a gold colour and dark brown brocatelle. another version of this class of conventional ornament with semi-naturalistic garlands of flowers, represented in an ottoman manner, will be seen in fig. , also from an italian crimson brocatelle weaving. a large strip of cloth of gold, with the ornamentation raised partly in fig. .- portrait by bronzino of eleonore of toledo, duchess of florence, with her son (ferdinand i.), wearing a dress of cloth of silver or white silk, with dark-coloured pattern raised on velvet. about . plain crimson velvet and crimson velvet alecked with loops of gold thread, is the example from which fig. was made. the original piece is one of several that were used both for the panels of pilasters and, when joined together, as curtains or wall hangings. the width of the fabric, which coincides with the shape of the long and narrow pilaster panel, regulated ornament in european silks the design of the pattern, of which one complete “ repeat” is given ; it is a vertical arrangement of symmetrical large leaf and entirely artificial flower forms, somewhat of a tulip type. it is not, perhaps, strong in invention and contrast. the frequency of the small leaflets, running along the main ribs of the big leaf devices, is rather a poor device that becomes monotonous; and the prevailing roundness of the principal shapes is also su fig. .–brocatelle of red and gold coloured silk. italian-perhaps of milanese make. about . tedious. then, again, the disproportion between the large length of the leaves and scrolls and the narrow width of the stuff, seems to militate against gracefulness in effect. certain elementary principles which may be deduced from older ornament are not observed here, so that the pattern lacks the style and interest of many earlier designs we have seen. nevertheless, the stuff was evidently intended to be sumptuous, for the materials of which the original is made are as rich as those in fig. , and th century patterns necessitated as much ingenuity in the weaving of them. but a compari- son of the two designs shows where a refinement of style distinguishes the one and is relatively absent from the other. the gradual loss of such style seems, as i have said, to take its start from about the middle of the fig. .— brocatelle of brown and gold coloured silk. italian-perhaps of milanese make. about . th century, to which period the manufacture of the piece shown in fig. probably belongs. this loss of style coincides in point of time with that of the growing public demand for all sorts of ornamental stuffs, and the consequent decline of that description of individual interest in producing them for particular people and particular occasions, which a ornament in european silks hundred years earlier was so influential in conducing to style in the ornamental fabrics then made. in many of the lighter silken fabrics of the latter part of the th, and early part of th, century, which are rather of the nature of fine twilled silks or taffetas, the definition of the ornamentation is brought out by freely used white outlining, as in figs. , , and . the general construction and certain of their details of patterns of the figs. and are similar to one another. the construction of that in fig. is more intricate and elaborate than that of fig. . in both, however, there is on fig. .- brocatelle of crimson silk. italian. about - . suggestion of a more or less connected framework formed with fanciful stems, which intertwist, and terminate in abstract and semi-realistic de- tails. in fig. birds and lions are introduced together, with much play of scrolling and winding forms. the use of the white outline in the textile itself, and the regular interchange of the red and yellow between the ground and the ornament blend the rather busy pattern into a unity, which is less successfully obtained in fig. , where the colours are red, yellow, and black, and in masses, yielding strong contrast and making a rather spotty effect; the ornament, too, is less well drawn in this. both iio fig. .- a piece of red and yellow silk taffeta, with ornament outlined in white. italian. latter half of th century. csjon go f . .-a piece of taffeta material woven with red, green, and yellow silks, the ornament outlined in white. though considered to be of spanish, it is likely to be of italian manufacture. latter half of th century. ii th century patterns sign. in the stuft itself these are rendered in coloured silks, the more frequent colour being green, in which the framework and most of the leaves are woven; the ground to the ornament is of silver tissue. another pattern with an ogival frame of slender bands, knit together by crowns, would be displayed were the portion given in fig. to be repeated. this is a weaving with less costly materials than those of fig. , and is the kind of crimson and yellow brocatelle which represents a good class of stuff for regular trade purposes in the late th or early th century. the collared leopards almost take one back to the th century; but the ga- drooned vase, which is a reflex of italian pottery fashionable at the time, brings one back to the middle of the th century. we find a kindred ogival framework pattern, but more subdued fig. .–piece of crimson satin. the orna- ment in coloured silks is woven with a sort of taf- feta texture. the ornament is outlined in white for the most part. probably of ottoman manu- facture. latter part of the th century. fig. .- portion of a cloth of silver material woven with coloured silks, for costume purposes. italian. late th century. in effect, in the crimson silk damask from which fig. was taken. the leaves here are possibly too large, and out of scale with other details. still there is a pleasing flow of line through the design, which has a modest, harmonious effect both in the distribution of its forms and in its colour. ornament in european silks fig. is from a brocatelle or lampas, having a purple ground with the ornament in green. the pattern has no framework; it consists of repetitions of three sets of devices—one is a vertical stem bearing a tudor rose and oak leaves passing through a crown; the secord is a sort of scroll coming from the lower end of the vertical stem up towards the crown on each side of it; and the third is a balanced arrange- ment of leaf forms with large and deep serrations between the repeated tudor roses. the prin- ciple of this pattern is the repetition or powdering of such units as above de- scribed, and is similar to that which appears to have governed the arrangement of such patterns as those of the th century (figs. , , , and ). its revival towards the end of the th century and in the earlier years of the th century is possibly traceable to ottoman influence ; and we find it used in such patterns as figs. and . it is possible that, whilst the immediate progenitors of the mode of planning patterns as given in fig. were italian designers, the specimen itself may be of french or flemish origin, and if so, then probably rather later in date--say fig. . - piece of a hanging of brocatelle, with pattern woven in crimson on a yellow ground. italian. late th century. ft. in. about the first years of the by . in. th century. looked at from an english point of view, it would, i think, be considered more jacobean than elizabethan. silk weaving and dyeing in london are stated by monsieur michel to have been commenced by some italian manufacturers during the reign of james i.; and it is possible, though scarcely likely, that the original of fig. might be of london make. the drift of the foregoing remarks upon the patterns of the latter chapter ix th and th century patterns m a ny features in fig. , from a gold-coloured brocatelle, with details i picked out for the most part in red outline, serve to explain a striv- ing on the part of designers, late in the th century, after effects in patterns which tended to lessen such unity as we have had the opportunity of noting in earlier patterned stuff, between ornamentation and its surface and material. but this striving is still more pronounced in typical designs for silks of the late th century and subsequently; and the expression “unity,” which i have employed, may be better understood if a comparison be made between a type of late th and late th century patterned stuffs. for this purpose let us take figs. and . now the design of fig. possesses a characteristic order and formality, the like of which is absent from the design of a hundred years later, given in fig. . this is relatively without such order and coherency in composition as are shown in fig. : for in spite of the sparkle and wealth of its gold and silver brocade and the admirable touches of bright-coloured silks, considerations of ornamental relevancy, of pattern to its surface and material, cannot surely have prevailed with the designer of fig. . his mingling of the pattern elements, which we see here overlapping one another, gives one the impression that he has ignored the fact that the actual textile has but a single plane for its surface, and consequently for its consistent ornamenta- tion. the designer's idea was foreign to such a limited consideration, and seems to have been to produce a mazy confusion of floral and other forms of many shapes and sizes, falling above and under one another, and to leave the weaver to overcome a number of interesting technical difficulties, in his production of a many-coloured and glittering brocade. such weaving unquestionably found favour with popular taste, which, therefore, at this period, may be said to have shown preference for tours de force in weaving, rather than for order, formality, and fitness in ornamental design; and, although this marked preference is singularly apparent from the end of the th, and through the th and th centuries, the incipiency of a similar tendency at an earlier date may also be detected if one com- th th and th century patterns pares such a design as that of a late th century stuff, say fig. (where we find a curl given to certain leaf forms), with that of fig. . fig. .- a piece of golden-coloured silk weaving of the brocatelle class, with the pattern chiefly outlined in red silk. made towards the latter half of the th century. italian. but let us pass from making this particular comparison, and ex- amine the pattern scheme of fig. . we find it to consist of an elabo- ornament in european silks rated framework enclosing, alternately, groups of leafy radiations and vases with bouquets of formal flowers. one portion of the * framework is composed of griffins that prance along the upper stems, the lower reverse curve stems being overlaid by overlapping leafy devices. all of these are rendered in outline, and thus an evenness or unity of ap- pearance is imparted to this part of the pattern. in its other portion, however, there are suggestions of bulk and relief, as in the masks and their drapery, which are slightly shaded, and in the garlands and hanging branches of leaves fig. .-a piece of dark-green cut silk velvet, on a yellow silk and fruits, which seem to ground. italian. late th century. stand out solidly. a sense of unity between the ornament and its surface may consequently be said to be as fairly satisfied in the one portion as it is dis- turbed in the other. again, the heterogeneous objects of which the whole pattern is composed convey no such sense of harmony in selec- tion as that to which earlier patterns (e.g. figs. , or ) have accustomed us. allied in scheme and in mixture of details to the pattern of fig. is the green velvet pattern on a gold yellow silk ground, fig. . here again an elaborately-shaped framing fig. .-a piece of silk lampas (a sort of damask) with a purple is the principal construc- ground, the pattern woven in green. italian. late th century. th th and th century patterns tive basis ; and it is filled in with winged boys or cupids supporting a crown, birds, masks, lions, and escutcheons, bearing an m and a crown, and serrated leafy forms. but by being rendered in the same colour and texture they are brought on to a single plane, and to this extent their ornamental unity with the stuff is secured. both patterns, nos. and , although so different in effect, come from the same school of de- signers which produced work typical of the taste of the late th century. fig. .-piece of silk lampas (a sort of damask) with a fawn-coloured ground, the pattern woven in yellow and blue. italian. late th century. less important in effort, but equally typical of the late th and early th century taste in damasks or lampas, are the specimens illustrated in figs. and . in the first there is rather less suggestion of a frame- work enclosing separated groups of ornament than there is in the second. the vase with two masks on it has a radiating bouquet of carnation, tulips, and irises, and is kindred to the vase and flowers in fig. ; and both are also kindred to corresponding devices in fig. , where the ΙΙ ornament in european silks well-known device we have so often noted—an ogival frame—is formed with somewhat burly foliations. tudoresque roses are noticeable in this piece, which is of the same sort of manu- facture as the specimen illustrated in fig. . patterns such as these possess a lumpiness in their forms which, as i have elsewhere hinted, may be characteristic of an english or flemish taste, notwithstanding that by many collectors they are classed as italian. however, they are certainly not marked fig. .-piece of yellow satin, with pattern in silver thread. italian. by the lightness and early th century. relative gracefulness of such italian patterns of the late th or early th century as those given in figs. and . fig. is typical of another class of pattern be- longing to the same period. the material is yellow satin, and the ornament is woven in silver thread. the scheme of the pattern consists of small and separate details, spotted about in two definite orders of arrangement : one of these arrangements suggests re- peated sets of serpentine meanderings up and down, and the other suggests a trel- lis plan. in this, therefore, whilst the separation of details is characteristic of this type of fig. .- a piece of silk lampas (a sort of damask) woven in pattern, a further character- yellow on a brown satin ground. italian. early th century. i th and th century patterns istic lies in the combination of two distinct plans in arranging or grouping the details together. a transition to still more openly - spaced-out be th fig. .- a piece of silk velvet woven with a purple pile on a salmon-coloured ground. italian. early th century. patterns, in which two or three varieties of separated sprays and small devices were spotted or powdered over the ground at regular distances, occurred, and a class of spotted pattern arose, which is identified with the change in the fashion of costumes, when trunk hose, short cloaks, soy fig. . - painting, by cornelius de vos (about ), of his two daughters. reproduced from a large photograph by kind permission of messrs. a. braun & co., paris. i ornament in european silks and jackets had superseded fuller and more flowing draperies. it belongs to the period of henri iv., louis xiii. and philip iv. of spain. in fig. five different blossoms and fanciful sprays are used. the stuff itself, from which the illustration is taken, is a damask or lampas, the pattern being of yellow silk, and the ground of brown satin. the pattern of fig. , which is from a silk velvet woven in purple pile on a salmon-coloured ground, is made with one leaf and label device, repeated and counter- changed. it is very similar to the pattern on the dress of the fore- most little girl represented in fig. , from the painting (about ) by cornelius de vos of his two children, and may therefore be ascribed to such a period. another variety of this class, of powdered pattern, is given in fig. , which has close repetitions of two devices, a formal carnation, and an s entwined about a nail wrought in silver thread, on red satin ; this specimen was used as the cover to a case for the ecclesiastical linen known as a “ corporal.” as examples of a comparatively simpler class of coloured silk weaving, often employed for altar cloths, church vestments, as well as for ladies' cos- tume, i have chosen two specimens, from which figs. and have been made. the weaving of the silk threads in varied directions, especially in fig. , simulates the varied directions of stitching which is usually seen in leaf fig. .-a piece of red satin, woven in silver. gilt threads. italian. th century. and flower patterns of needlework at this period. the repetition of scrolling slender stems bearing large and fantastical blossoms is an obvious charac- teristic of this type of design. the flowers, birds and hounds introduced into fig. are rather more naturalistic in effect than the composite semi- fruit and blossom forms in fig. ; but the kinship of the two designs to one another is quite apparent. the bordering to fig. , with its alternations of a vase holding a conventional triple spray of floral devices, and the single blossom surmounting a double broken scroll base, is quite in the style of many of the ornamental borders published in late th and early th century pattern books. according to engravings of the time, silks such as figs. and were worn by french ladies in ; but they appear to have been manufactured principally in italy. similar in intention of detail—with the repetition of scrolling leafy th and th century patterns in contrast to such patterns of fantastic botanical forms, on a com- paratively large scale in size, there were, during the th century, especially the earlier part of it, formal and intricate designs on a small scale, consist- ing of purely ornamental details, the shapes of which bear no relationship to those based upon the study of flowers, sprays, leaves, or animals and birds. a good instance of such non- floral patterns is presented in the portrait of a young woman by franz hals, who painted it about (see fig. ). the same type of design occurs in a painting of mary stuart, by vandyke, in , as well as in paintings by van der helst, ; and in engravings of costume by abraham bosse, and by hollar. an actual specimen of this type occurs in the brown silk figured in cream-coloured silk, from which fig. is made. the details here are entirely of varieties of scroll forms—some bigger than others—the larger ones being enriched by little spots and curls within them and along their edges. it would appear that the designer for this woven fabric had set himself to imitate the effect of much of the gimp and finely knotted trimmings which were half of th century. fig. .- piece of cream-coloured silk damask, woven with a made in embroidery during the repeating pattern of scrolling floral stems linked together in verti- cally arranged bands. period of louis xiii. french. first middle of the th century. in this type of abstract ornamentation is a survival, to some extent, of the th century patterns “ moresque ” or “ arabicque" (see note on p. ). during the first part of that century books of patterns were issued at lyons, where many of the silken fabrics we are now beginning to review were made ; and amongst early designers at lyons of ornament suit- able for weaving and embroidery in , it is interesting to note the names of " messire ornament in european silks some respects, too, there is a suggestiveness of designs, of the period, for venetian point lace. but the principal characteristic of this type of pattern may be traced to ornament of even earlier date in chiselled and fig. .-portrait by franz hals, painted about . reproduced by kind permission of messrs. a. braun & co., paris, from their large photograph of the original painting. enamelled gold work. and in this connection we may pass to fig. , which shows again how pattern makers for silks borrowed forms from anthoine belyn, recluz de sainct marcial de lyons,” and a brother monk, “ frere jehan mayol. carme" (a carmelite), whose patterns are amongst the first known of those published at lyons. th and th century patterns ornament which had, so to speak, grown out of other very different materials. the design of this crimson damask satin with its salient forms wrought in gold thread cannot be taken as one which is exclusively appropriate to weaving. for it, or its counterpart, has often been rendered in wrought iron work, and in those inlayings of brass and tortoiseshell which boule and his followers produced. whether it be expressed in textiles or metal, it is a style of symmetrical composition, with fantastic shapes, in which the french designer, berain, excelled. skilfully woven, this crimson damask and gold brocade conveys a sense of an ingenious and elaborate ormolu or wrought metal device, set off by a crimson background, and thus it is a con- tribution to the story of the license in which the designers of ornamental textiles indulged during the th and th centuries. the pattern of the rich crimson velvet and cloth of silver hangings displayed in the painting (about ) by velasquez, of donna maria of austria, wife of philip iv., at prayers, fig. , shows the survival a hundred years later of a type of th century design. the original hangings were probably of italian manufacture. their materials alone would be similar to those used for a set of hangings of venetian early th century make, of which a specimen is figured in no. . but in this the design is of pronounced realistic character, without regard for unity between ornament and its surface. the thin serpentine stems, with a pattern in drab. french. early th century. bearing enormous leaves and blossoms of a peony description, wind in and out of a countertwisting braid or ribbon. the realistic curves of the leaves, and the foreshortening and relief effects of the flowers, are admirably emphasized by white lines, either as veinings, or to define and detach the several petals of the massive blossoms. a richer-looking example of this type of pattern is given in fig. . it has a stronger constructive effect, and the foliations are more sharply pointed than in fig. . this piece is of cut and uncut velvet weaving; no silver or gold brocading is introduced into it. about the middle of the th century the combination of brocaded and damasked satins ranks amongst the lively efforts of silk weavers and de- signers. the heavier and darker forms in fig. are of gold brocade, the lighter ones being of damasked white satin. here and there are touches fig. .-piece of brown silk, woven ornament in european silks of coloured silk, but they are sparingly used. the effect of the design is slightly tangled. a more involved entanglement of forms is seen in fig. . the wide-open mouths of strange dolphin-like shapes resolve them- . fig. .- portrait of donna maria of austria, wife of philip iv. of spain, painted by velasquez about . reproduced by kind permission of messrs. a. braun & co., paris, from their large photograph of the original painting. selves into odd leaves, and much of the subordinate damasked ornament falls into shapes something like heavy cumulus clouds; elsewhere there are angular details and stiff hanging draperies suggestive of a chinese th and th century patterns origin. such devices as these occur in the decoration of porcelain from china, which was freely imported into europe at this time, and had, no doubt, been observed by silk pattern makers. fig. is more orderly in the arrangement of its forms, though for the most part they are grotesque rather than graceful. the designer seems to have been intent upon the creation of a new order of fruit and leaf forms, but where his invention fig. .–piece of damask drab-coloured satin, brocaded with coloured silk and gold. italian. th century. fig. . - piece of blue damask satin, brocaded with coloured silk and gold thread. italian (venetian). th century. failed him he adopts realistic leaves and berries. this, again, is a sample of damasked satin, with superweaving of gold thread and coloured silks. somewhat similar pattern elements may be seen in the dress of elizabeth charlotte d'orleans, painted about by hyacinthe rigaud ornament in european silks (fig. ), which therefore supplies us with a clue to the period when this medley of semi-realistic and realistic forms was favoured by designers, and became typical as a basis of patterns. the plan of the design in fig. is a repetition of boldly and irregularly scalloped spaces, filled with a inc fig. . -piece of crimson silk damask, woven and brocaded in yellow and other coloured silks and silver-gilt thread. italian. th century. small rectangular trellis and spot pattern, which shows up well against the dark crimson satin ground. these scalloped spaces form serpentine series up and down the stuff: along the centres of them are meandering stems with acorns or nuts, leaves and blossoms sprouting from them. across the dark crimson ground are nondescript masses of foliation and little sprays. the original stuff is a crimson damask satin woven over th and th century patterns with gold thread and yellowish silk, probably of lyons manufacture, late th century. not so definite in its ar- rangement is the thickly massed pattern displayed in the gold and silver brocade from which fig. is made. if the illustration were re- peated, the pattern would be found to consist of variously shaped spaces or panels, re- peated and separated one from another by a broad band or scalloped riband. placed in these panels are radiating groups of big leaves, the tips of some projecting into the framework. at the centre of the lower group of leaves in the illustration is a sort of vase-shape, or ornamental device, often met with in lace flounce patterns of the late th and early th century. the extravagant elaborations, the restlessness of opposing lines, and awkward shape of the panels seem to indicate late italian rather than french taste. but it is evident from illustrations of costumes, especially the soutanes worn at the numerous functions and ceremonies of the french court, coronations at rheims, entertainments at versailles, and such like, during the later fig. .-- piece of a hanging of cloth of silver, with raised pattern years of louis xiv's reign. partly in crimson velvet and partly in textures of looped or ribbed silk. italian (probably venetian). late th century, and still more frequently during the period of louis xv., that metallic and gleaming brocades and embroideries of this style of design were on these occasions worn by the ornament in european silks higher dignitaries. indeed, the wearing of sumptuous brocades of gold fig. .—piece of coloured velvet (cut and uncut) on a creamy-white silk ground. italian (venetian). late th or early th century. and silver was by order of louis xiv. declared to be reserved for himself and princes of the royal family and a select few of his privileged sub- th and th century patterns jects. volumes entitled chalcographie du musee imperial of the louvre supply means of verifying patterns of this type of brocades, of which mama f . .-piece of crimson silk damask, brocaded with flowers, scrolls, and birds, in gold thread. italian (florentine ?). late th century. madame de sévigné was possibly giving a playful description in that of the present made by m. de langlée to madame de montespan of a “dress of gold upon gold, wrought over with gold, with hems of gold, and then ornament in european silks over it a curling additional work of one gold mixed with another certain gold, making altogether the most divine fabric that i could possibly have imagined ! fairies certainly made all this in secret." fig. .- portrait of elizabeth charlotte d'orleans, painted about by hyacinthe rigaud. reproduced by kind permission of messrs. a. braun & co., paris, from their large photograph of the original painting. it is frequently claimed that the floral designs for lyons silks have a grace and lightness or buoyancy superior to italian weaving designs of the same period. for some length of time french designers had peculiar th and th century patterns encouragement to draw and paint from plant forms of great variety, which were cultivated in public gardens. going back to more than a hundred years before the time of the golden brocades of the early th century, it may be noted that henry iv. purchased one of the earliest of these particular horticultural establishments in france. under the name of jardin du roi, it became crown property, and was studied as much by doc do poco fig. .–piece of crimson silk damask, woven with gold thread and yellowish silk. ? french. late th century. artists as by scientists. but the european predilection for floral ornament, especially as manifested as far back as the th century, appears in a con- siderable degree to have been due to the influence of ottoman designs. now traces of ottoman influence, although distinguishable in both, are stronger in italian than in french patterns of the th century. in french patterns, however, it is almost quite subordinated to effects de- rived from a close adherence to natural forms the expression of which th and th century patterns not successful in surpassing them in this phase of pattern design. for italian realism in floral patterns in the th and th centuries appears w usa as sa yen gera perno rs fig. .-piece of silver and gold brocaded pink satin, the leaves, flowers, and fruits of which are picked out with green and pink lines in silh. milanese. late th century. to be only a reflection of that in french designs, and therefore lacks the freshness and vivacity of the originals. let us now turn to the series of french silk patterns-probably all ornament in european silks from specimens woven at lyons—which i have selected with the view of showing some of the leading types of realistic floral patterns prevalent at the end of the th century and through the th century. fig. is a satin and coloured silk brocade. the arrangement of its leading forms conveys a distinct recollection of the ogival framework of fig. .- a piece of gold and silver brocade, with cloth of silver and gold. a few of the leaves and stems are here and there picked out in green and brown silks. the pattern is a rather clumsy and cumbersome version of a late th century french or italian original. heavy brocades of this description have been used by magnates of bokhara and yarkand for their gala costumes, and are said to be of polish manufacture. which we have seen varieties dating from the th century onwards. the ogees in this are of two sizes. the bands forming them are broad, and elaborated with small trellisings and spots, which lace fanciers will recog- nize as being very similar to the fillings, or à jours, so frequently introduced into the larger pieces of point de france, point d'alençon, and point th th and th century patterns bunches of smaller flowers in fig. . the canopies and scroll devices on each side of them are peculiarly in the style of french louis xiv. ornament, whilst the speckled ground of the whole fabric appears to be a device derived from some lace à jours. the downward spread from the upper canopy of the forms, and their contraction towards the lower canopy, indicate a setting out of the design upon the lines of an ogival frame; though any definite indication of it does not appear in the pattern. fig. .- piece of coloured silk brocade. french. th century. a much lighter pattern is given in fig. . it is composed of repeti- tions of irregularly-shaped compartments, bounded by undulating stems bearing short sprouts or stalks, and at regular intervals nosegays of flowers and leaves, the larger ones of which surmount the upper and lower junc- tions of the framework stems. the ground of the pattern is enlivened with speckled and lightly indicated bands or ribands, which meander in counter curves to those of the stem framework. the whole of this design ornament in european silks has a much freer character than that, for instance, of either figs. or , and is therefore of a later date-probably about - or so. a still later taste seems to be reflected in such patterns as that of fig. . this is rather less fantastic, in its details and their arrangement, than patterns figs. and , and so by its comparative simplicity presents a clearer f . . - coloured silk brocade. french. th century. order in effect. but the leading characteristic of realistic appearance pervades the rendering of the bunches of flowers, the counter-winding ribands, and chains of flowers. some thirty or forty years later, patterns were still more simplified than this last specimen; and variations with alternating straight stripes and bands running vertically up and down the pattern, mingled with small bunches of flowers sometimes, and sometimes with tiny detached sprays and spots, mark another change in fancy and th and th century patterns taste. it is interesting to note that the output of examples of this type coincides in point of time with the period when the finances of france were suffering immediately from the extravagances both of the govern- ment and of individuals during the reigns of louis xiv. and xv. stripes, combined with spots of small flowers or sprays, in figured silks, may therefore be said to mark the ruined period of louis xvi. fig. fig. . — piece of pink silk, brocaded in silver and white and coloured silks. french. th century. is another version of the louis xv. wavy riband and floral garland class of pattern. in this the riband element appears to be compounded of feathers and snake skins, and these alternate with undulating floral gar- lands. but it is useful to remember that the scheme of such patterns as those in these two last figures is of old date. we trace it back to the th century in a simple form, as in fig. , with its series of undulating stems, and again still earlier in a richer and more ornamental form, as ornament in european silks shown in fig. . thus the use of traditional schemes for laying out patterns pronounces itself, notwithstanding the considerable change in rendering the objects themselves in the patterns; and th century french designers were possibly hardly conscious that between their realistic fantaisies and the more sedate ornament of pattern-makers, many hundred years earlier, any relationship would be found to reveal itself. fig. .- piece of ribbed silk brocade, woven in colours, on a light brownish ground. parts of the design are in chenille. period of louis xv. french. middle of th century. in van loo's portrait of queen maria leczinska, painted about the middle of the th century (fig. ), her majesty's dress is brocaded with light floral branches and delicate sprays, scattered about without any ap- parent or well-marked order. the larger details occur towards the lower part of the dress and the lighter and smaller ones above. more formal in arrangement are the repeated garlands and bouquets in fig. , which is th and th century patterns a type of pattern that was in vogue about , as is shown in a plate by cochin, in the chalcographie du musee imperial of the marriage of louis, dauphin of france, with the infanta marie therese of spain. the fig. .- portrait of queen maria leczinska, painted by van loo. reproduced by kind permission of messrs. a. braun & co., paris, from their large photograph of the original painting. design in fig. is from a lyons silk of about . instead of repeated wavy stems or ribands, we have here an arrangement in zig-zags of thin stems, bearing large and small blossoms and leaves. these are brocaded ornament in european silks upon a damask satin ground, in which faintly indicated riband ovals and small leaves appear as a subordinate patterning. i have not thought that much additional information upon the de- velopment of ornament in silk could be usefully derived from illustrations of designs for spitalfields silks, which, about or so, and for many years later, were dangerous rivals of lyons silks. there are a number of original designs for spitalfields silks in the national art library of the fig. .-piece of pale blue and white silk brocade. french. th century. south kensington museum. many of them bear names apparently of customers for whom they were produced. a large number of the designs are by anna maria garthwaite. these were made between the years and . others again are marked as french in the manuscript descriptive of the series. the stuffs made from them bore particular trade names, such as “ brocade lutstring, brocade tabby, brocade tissue, brocade damask, tobine, flowered tabby, figured tobine, four-comber damask, double tissue, gold stuff, double tabby, brocade satin, venetian ornament in european silks ay . sa ns ken dias nost son vo os see ar jo in long and short stitches with brown wool, and is possibly some fifteen hundred years old; and yet the mere stitchery is the same as modern long and short stitch work. again, this small round ornament (fig. ), consisting of a rather clumsy wreath enclosing the representation of a jewelled greek cross, with a pair of doves between the lower limbs of the cross, is wrought in long, short, and twisted stem stitch with bright- coloured wools, and is perhaps thir- teen or fourteen hundred years old. the fragment shown in fig. is a silk embroidery on linen, in long, short, and chain stitches. it is part of a round ornament for a linen tunic. its figures are probably adapted fig. .-medallion or circular panel worked in long, from a greek or byzantine painting short, and twisted stem stitches, with red, yellow, green and blue worsteds, on a linen tunic. the device is a or mosaic of the th or gth cen- wreath enclosing a jewelled cross, with chain and pen- tury. these three examples give us dent jewels; on either side of the lower limb of the cross is a dove. (?) egypto-byzantine. (?) th to th grounds for saying that the stitches of old time have not been changed from then up to the present day. the real changes in the effects of embroidery between those of then and now are seen in the variations of the ornament and the different manners in which it is variously expressed. figs. to show that the early needleworkers in close touch with europe, adapted forms from pottery, plant growth, jewellery, figure painting, etc., and drew and depicted such forms without apparent influence from any such conventionalities as must have been obvious in the ornamented fabrics that were - then issuing from shuttle looms. and this independence of in fig. :-square panel worked in long and short stitches in brown wool on linen; part of a child's tunic. the ornament fuence from woven designs has, consists of an amphora-shape vase, from the handles of which for the most part, been main depend vine stems and leaves, on each side of the vase. (?) egypto-roman. rd and th century. from tombs at akh. tained in ornamental embroidery century. re mim in upper egypt. ornament in embroidery as in fig. , with formal scrolls and birds, is akin in character and in point of time with the formal scrolls and animals of the silk weaving, fig. . such rough and ready instances of the likeness between periodic peculiarities or mannerisms cannot of course meet the more recondite requirements of antiquaries and connoisseurs who go deeply into the analysis of appearances and qualities of ornamental work, and from them deduce interesting historical points, or propound ingenious argumenta- tions upon the identity of the individuals who made the works of art, that may be under discussion: where, when, and why they were made. as i do not pretend to make any contributions to such detailed studies, i am obliged to deal in generalities regarding only types of ornament and to make the best i can of them. it will be seen that most of the earlier of my embroidery illustrations are from church vestments and hangings, and the ornamentation of them is distinctly religious in motive-pointing to preponderance of religious influence in embroidery. much of it was made in monasteries and convents, as well as by guilds of embroiderers and individual workers, members of families, or, as they might be called, devoted amateurs. the religious influence lasts, according to our illustrations, from the gth to the th century. but in this century there is a tendency to secularism in ornament even in that used for ecclesiastical purposes. this is apparent in fig. , which is of two portions of a th century church vestment—a dalmatic. the scrolls and bird forms in this decora- tion have no peculiar religious significance. fig. gives us similar th century non-religious ornament for bands or orphreys from priests' copes or chasubles. the only indication of religious intention in the ornament of the th century chalice veil of fig. , is the sacred monogram in the centre of it; whilst the decoration of the th century altar frontal (fig. ) is entirely devoid of any ecclesiastical device or symbolism. the illustrations after fig. are of various articles for secular use, and each is more or less typical of some phase of ornamental embroidery in the th and th centuries. in saying this much i do not suggest that no em- broidery was produced for church purposes at these periods. a good deal certainly was, but then it was from ornament having no specific ecclesiastical significance, and merely reflected the style of designs worked in the greater quantity of embroideries which was produced at this time for secular usage. hence one may loosely divide the range of embroidery from the gth to th century into two periods, the one, say from th to th century, particularly ecclesiastical, and the other, from the th to th century, chiefly secular. throughout the earlier centuries of the first of these two periods there is practically no sign of fig. .--cope of canvas entirely covered with embroidery in coloured silks and gold and silver threads. this fine specimen of english ecclesiastical work of the th century is known as the syon cope. it is ft. in. long by ft. in. wide. ornament in embroidery do not depreciate such “dodges,” since many admirable results have attended their use—as, for instance, in th century gold-thread tracery or outline patterns, which holbein and bronzino have often depicted in their portraits of european rulers, nobles, and other distinguished persons. i will now take my embroidery illustrations one by one, and endeavour to discuss a few of their technical and ornamental features. fig. is from a th century altar frontal or hanging, worked chiefly in chain stiches with coloured worsteds, which are now much faded. strictly regarded, it should not find a place here, as it is not a silk embroidery. but it is of appropriate value as a sample of the figure drawing more or less peculiar to this period. the two saints represented-each standing under a round arch supported by slender columns—are st. bartholomew and st. paul. a corresponding figure of st. john is in the cluny museum at paris, and was evidently part of the original hanging or altar frontal which probably contained representations of the twelve apostles, and was, no doubt, about nine feet long by two feet eight inches wide. embroidered work of much the same character, but different in decorative disposition, is to be met with in the cathedrals at halberstadt, ratisbon, and elsewhere. the peculiar treatment and drawing of the figures, with their large eyes, odd-shaped heads, hands, and feet, in all these specimens are typical of an average standard of th century figure design displayed not only in ecclesiastical but also in secular embroidery, of which latter the famous bayeux tapestry is the most important specimen in existence. this is a long, narrow linen hanging covered with figures and groups. its object is to tell by such needlework pictures as could then be made the story of the norman conquest. its designer adopted no formal arrangements of shapes for the attainment of an ornamental purpose, excepting here and there in the bordering. having no peculiar genius to depart from the then typical rendering of figures, his treatment of them is in accord- ance with the style, which, if anything, is to our eyes more curious than that of an even earlier type of figure drawing, such as we have seen in the fragment of fig. . however, the grotesqueness i am alluding to diminished as time went on; and it is interesting to notice this by comparing the illustrations of figure design in embroidery from figs. to inclusive. order in decorative intention in the formal arrangements of figures and their surroundings, architectural and other- wise, is as strongly indicated in the portion of an altar frontal given in fig. as it is in the copes of figs. and , which are respectively about one hundred and thirty years and two hundred years later in date. the scheme of the design in fig. , which is from the well-known syon cope, is regulated by a framework of repeated large and small panels, ornament in european silks and, as i have previously pointed out, this framework is analogous to such as occur frequently in patterns of th and th century woven silks. in a weaving of the same kind of design we should find that figures or de- vices filling the panels would be less varied and repeated than they are in this embroidery. some panels contain groups of figures, others single figures; with the exception of the repeated single winged cherubims or angels, no two sets of figures or single figures are precisely alike ; all of which illustrates that freedom of treatment which is so special to em- broidery. the designer's appreciation of the position into which the vestment would fall when worn, hanging over the shoulders of the officiating priest, and how it properly affects the pose of each figure in its appointed space, is exhibited in the radiation of the figures, some being placed vertically and some in slanting directions. the foundation of the cope is canvas, and this is entirely concealed by the coloured silk and gold-thread embroidery, which is of different stitches. the framework containing the figures is bordered with gold threads worked in close-lying short stitches, between which are three rows of green or red and yellow and white silks in chain stitch. the grounding within the framing is alternately of green and faded crimson silks, so worked in short stiches as to form a chevron or diaper pattern. the figures are wrought with fine and differently coloured silks in small chain stitches, and this latter sort of stitch has been considered by some to be the peculiarity of english embroidery so famous, under the name of opus anglicum, in the th century. “opus anglicum,” however, was evidently a generic term for english embroidery which held an unique position amongst the european embroideries of the time. even now, many relics of this famous english work are extant and are preserved with due veneration in several places on the continent, as at bamberg where there is a splendid cope, at salzburg where there is an altar frontal, and at anagni where there are fragmen- tary and complete specimens of embroideries that belonged, according to contemporary inventories, to pope boniface viii. the famous daroca cope at madrid is also of english embroidery of the th century. the design of it is a good deal more ornate than that of fig. , which is, as i have said, known as the syon cope. the late dr. rock has given a detailed description of it. its main portion has been cut into by the border or orphrey and hem which encloses it. - in its original state the cope was probably figured with twelve apostles, as the imperfect pieces on the right-hand side afford us parts of three of the missing heads, while another imperfect portion to the left shows us the hand, with a book, belonging to a fourth apostle. the lower part of this vestment has been reshaped with shreds from itself; and perhaps at such a time were added ornament in european silks almost all the armorial bearings. he considers that the cope may have been worked by nuns of some convent which was situated in or near coventry, and brings his description to a close with an account of how the cope seems to have been presented by a master thomas graunt, in the fifteenth century, to the nuns of st. bridget's order, for whom henry v. built a monastery, called “syon,” at isleworth. after the dissolution of monasteries, and in the beginning of queen elizabeth's reign, the cope was taken by the nuns as they wandered through flanders, france, and portugal, where they halted. in the earlier years of the present century it passed through the hands of dealers and others from lisbon to eng- land, and was bought in for the art collections of the south kensing- ton museum, where it is exhibited. to suggest something of the variety of designs wrought in english ecclesiastical needlework of the late th or early th century, i have chosen another example—also exhibited in the south kensington museum. the original cope figured in fig. has been much cut up. but its frag- ments are sufficiently numerous to enable a skilful lady, miss blanche hunter, to make, with the aid of photographs, an admirable restoration, and our fig. is taken from that restoration. the needlework of this piece is of stitches identical with many of those used for the syon cope. the style of the rendering of the figures is closely similar to that of those in the syon cope, but the motive of the whole design is altogether different. instead of a rigid, geometrically-constructed framework, the spaces in which the figures appear are encircled by scrolling vine stems worked in gold thread, which spread over the ground of the cope, shooting off on each side from two interlacing stems that spring from the lower centre of the composition, where lies a recumbent figure (half of it has been cut away in the shaping of the cope) of jesse. above, in their respective spaces, are the figures of david, solomon, and the virgin and child, this last group being in the style of th century types of this favourite subject. in the left hand side of the cope are the figures of jacob, eliachim, thares, abraham, and abias; in the right hand side are isaye (isaiah), moyses (moses), roboas (jeroboam ?), zorobabel, and jeremias. another special difference between the syon cope and this jesse tree cope is that this latter cope is of crimson silk, the employment of which as a ground of colour got rid of the necessity of any so large an amount of embroidery as that wrought on the syon cope, the foundation material of which, it will be remembered, is canvas. it is evident that as embroiderers took to thus adorning silks, satins, and later on velvets, so they were able to dispense with a vast amount of stitchery. a later instance of this will be seen in the velvet th century altar frontal (fig. ); and, passing on to more fig. .- a cope of red satin, embroidered in coloured silks and gold and silver threads with a design of the “ tree of jesse.” english work of the late th or early th century. ornament in european silks have pointed out previously, the raised gold-thread ornamentation is managed by using small paddings of threads underneath. the stiffness of form in the drawing of figures and drapery which is so marked in fig. is less in figs. and , and still more diminished in fig. , whilst such mannerisms as occur in this last are not traceable in fig. . fig. is typical of an average early th century italian treatment, and fig. of an early th century italo-flemish or late gothic treatment. the change from one kind of conventionality to another is thus broadly and sugges- tively displayed in this series (figs. , , , and ), and from it may be inferred the influences which arose from the interaction of suc- cessive schools of designers upon one and another. the pattern of the red velvet altar frontal which is made up from pieces of a cope (fig. ) may be described as a “ fortuitous concurrence" of kindred ornamental devices. the outer series of them converge to- wards the centre as they should, suitably, in a semicircular cope, but not in a rectangular altar frontal. a well-drawn group, representing the as- sumption of the virgin amidst angels, occupies the lower centre of the frontal : the other ornaments are spotted at regular distances about it. their construction corresponds with that of the devices, composed of a central fruit with radiating leaf, which we noted in certain th century weavings (see figs. , , and , etc.), but their details in fig. differ from those of the original motives which were introduced from oriental sources into europe. instead of a distinguishable central fruit or cone we have an elongated device, and instead of distinct leaf shapes about it, there are quasi-leaf forms terminating in spirals. all these separate ornaments were embroidered on canvas, one by one, in long and short stitches with coloured silks, the intermingling gold thread being sewn on to the canvas. when completed they were stitched on to the red velvet ground. this character of ornament is associated with the later years of the th century, and appears to be english. fig. , the hood to a cope, shows the dependence of embroidery upon painting for the more sumptuous of the ecclesiastical needleworks of the early th century. the subject, the martyrdom of st. margaret, is depicted with as much fidelity to a painting of it as long and short stitch- ing with coloured silk threads will attain. the bordering of st. mar- garet's sumptuous robes is of small seed pearls: and the narrow border round the hood, together with the late gothic canopy resting on the two columns one on each side of the picture, is, as they are, of gold thread “ couching.” this example is typical of the most elaborated and finished picture embroidery which has been produced in europe. consider- able quantities of it were made for church purposes for orphreys and ms sa r fig. . -- altar frontal made from a cope of faded red velvet, ornamented with applied pieces of embroidery in coloured silks and gold thread. english work of the th century. length, ft. ; width, ft. in. ornament in european silks tutul ng costume and domestic purposes. the upper strip and the lower specimen, which is part of a table cloth or cover, resemble one another in the angu- larity given to their ornament. this arises from the patterns having been drawn on small squared paper and with the especial intention that they should be worked by the em- broiderer in cross and tent stitches, the widespread vogue for which is indicated in the number of italian, french, and german pattern books, published for many years during the th cen- tury and the early part of the th century. the band, with pairs of confronted fantastic quadrupeds with a vase between each pair, is worked in short stitches, though the larger amount of needlework is that of which the dark ground is composed. whilst the ornamental white forms are of the linen upon which the whole pattern was wrought, the ground, about and between these white forms, is a reticulation obtained by drawing out a number of threads from the linen, and then overstitching or whipping red silk round the linen threads which were fig. .— three bands or orphreys of appliqué embroidery. itaiian left. this kind of work was or spanish of the th century. each band is about feet long. the left-hand band is of green silk velvet, the appliqués being of red, white, extensively made in islands and golden satin, outlined with yellow and green silk cord or gimp. the centre band is of red silk velvet with yellow and cream-coloured of the levant as well as in appliqués. the left-hand band is of crimson satin, with appliqués of southern italy. the variety yellow, white, and blue silk. of its patterns exhibits much quaintness in effect, which is to be attributed to the embroiderers altering shapes and arrangements of the original designs, either through intentional ornament in embroidery caprice, or through want of taste and ability to adhere to the forms as at first devised. the counting of stitches was also a method on which such needleworkers often relied to produce their versions of ornament, and when the count went wrong variants followed as a matter of course, and these in their turn, as repeated or adapted by other workers, would be equally subject to further modifications of the same kind, so that in course of time many render- ings of ornament more and more remote from the original were produced and reproduced. an interesting instance of the effects of the liberty taken by embroiderers in composing their own designs in this rule of thumb or untutored manner, is given in figs. and , where we find two views of a box with very elaborate em- broidery made in england dur- ing the th century. remark- able and regular as the stitching of the needlework is in itself, the forms it pourtrays lack drawing, proportion, and from an orna- mental point of view, consis- tency or congruity. it is the very absence of these qualities that determines this accepted but none the less barbaric style of design in english embroi- dery, which owes much of its fig. . - portrait of charles ix. of france, by françois clouet (about ), wearing a velvet costume richly embroidered development to the school- with conventional ornament or arabesques (see note on page ). girls' sampler work of the reproduced by kind permission of messrs. a. braun & co., from their photograph of the original painting in vienna. period. the absence of the qualities just mentioned may also be traced in fig. , a panel of jacobean work of the sampler class, in which the name of its producer (mary hulton) is wrought. ornament in european silks to return however to fig. , with its examples of italian peasant work, for the most part we find simpler and lighter work in borders b and c than in the other specimens a, d, and e. the design in border b is user sercereste tt cerere yt ei weber berec xx گے fig. .- specimens of italian th century embroideries in red silk upon linen. the folded table cloth, which is the lowest of the five specimens, is ſt. wide; the bands above are a little wider. based upon an undulating main stem along the centre, from each side of which spring small vine leaves and tendrils at regular distances one from the other. border c has a powdered pattern of blossom devices alterna- fig. .- coverlet of linen, embroidered with crimson and yellow silks in quilting stitches. in the centre is a coat of arms (? aragon and leon) surmounted by a helmet with acanthus scrolls about it. indo-portuguese work, probably from goa, of the late th or early th century. the length of the coverlet is ft. in., and its width & ft. in. fig. . – the upper specimen is a cap or hood of linen, worked with coloured silks over-looped upon gold threads (in the method of needle-point lace stitches), with chain-stitch work in gold and silver threads. it is english of the th century. its size is in. by in. the lower specimen is a tunic of white satin, embroidered with coloured silks, intermingled with fine gold and silver tinsels laid on and stitched to the satin surface. this is english work of the th century, and is a ft. in. long. ornament in embroidery field of the coverlet, is typical of a much-used ornamental device in mohammedan and perso-chinese decoration. amongst the scrolls occur blossoms and long-feathered birds of a chinese description. the central group of seats and a vase is also chinese. the inner corners contain double-headed eagles, and so suggest an indo-portuguese or an indo- dutch origin for this embroidery. direct traces of the taste for such imported articles are to be seen in a class of english silk tambour or chain- stitch embroidery, with coloured silks on cotton, which was made princi- pally for bed hangings and coverings during the later th and early th century. this english needlework was frequently of so good finish and design that on examining specimens of it it is sometimes difficult to decide whether they were not rather imported from the east than pro- duced at home. but some hundred years before the influx in considerable quantities of chinese and indian embroideries, porcelain, etc., into europe, english embroideresses were engaged in developing a style of ornament for secular purposes, of which the cap and the jacket in fig. are examples. the devices adopted by them were largely of a floral character. sometimes they were scattered and mingled together without any apparent order, at others, a defined scheme of pattern was followed. in the cap (fig. ), the medley of roses, lilies, sweet peas, pears, pomegranates, and straw- berries almost quite obscures the plan governing the arrangement of their repeated curving stems. the cap is of linen, and the embroidery is of coloured silks and gold threads wrought chiefly in chain-stitches. of similar work is much of the embroidery on the white satin jacket (fig. ), though the flowing lines which form the pointed, curved panellings of the whole pattern are of gold and silver tinsel stitched down to the white satin surface. the scheme of these panels will recall that of the framework in such patterns as those of the th century weavings (figs. , , and go), though these latter are more complicated in construction. as in figs. and , so in the framework of the jacket's pattern, crowns or coronets encircle the junctions of its double lines, between which spots or spangles will be noticed. the flower forms are rather more ornamentally rendered and arranged than those of the cap. the tudor rose is repeated at regular intervals ; and the central panels, together with those on the sleeves, are filled with a well-balanced group of formally spread-out honeysuckles, sur- mounted by a pair of ox-eye daisies, above the centre of which is an oak apple ; along the lines of the panels are strawberry and oak leaves ; else- where, and in well-ordered repetition, are pansies. the well-ordered and symmetrical design of the jacket pattern is not often met with in the general run of what appears to be typical english embroidery of the elizabethan ornament in embroidery corresponds with that of the better drawn scroll patterns in italian weav- ings of the th century (figs. and ). a favourite english treat- sws. fig. .- portrait of queen elizabeth in a dress embroidered over the body and sleeves with a design of scrolling and intertwisted stems bearing various flower and fruit shapes. this was exhibited in the tudor exhibition at the new gallery (no. ), and the illustration is reproduced by the kind permission of mr. caswall smith, from his photograph of the original painting. ment in embroidering such scroll stem patterns was that of working them in black silk and gold thread on linen. into some were introduced most ornament in european silks finely-stitched imitations of woodcuts fitted within fruit and flower shapes hanging from scrolling stems. an interesting specimen of this style belongs to lady falkland, and is exhibited in the south kensington museum, with examples of other varieties of this black silk and gold thread english embroidery. the woodcuts imitated in lady falkland's specimen are taken from geffery whitney's “ choice of emblemes," pub- ca fig. .- cushion cover of brown silk, embroidered with coloured silks. the design is of german origin, in the late th century. the size of the cushion cover is fl. by ft. in. lished at leyden in . this, therefore, identifies such needlework with the same period approximately. characteristic of a good deal of german late th century design in embroidery is a cushion cover (fig. ), with its armorial bearings en- circled by a leafy wreath, occupying the centre of the cover ; the parts beyond it being correspondingly ornamented with leaf and composite blossom forms, of which the curving and pointed extremities are peculi- arities quite distinctive when compared with the more realistic and soberly ornament in embroidery sku us rendered floral devices in italian work (figs. and ), or with the sturdy flower shapes in the english work (fig. ), all of them being nearly the same period. the german cushion cover is of brown silk, embroidered with coloured silks in short and chain stitches. part of a long wall-panel hanging, of italian late th or early th century design, is given in fig. . the orna- ment is cut out of pieces of green velvet and golden yellow silk, and sewn to- gether as in patchwork. the junctures of the two contrasting materials, which become alternately the ground and the ornament, are hidden by an outline of double yellow silk gimp stitched down. the design is constructed by reversing, for its right half, the forms of its left half, a method which, as will have been noticed, is very generally adopted in many of our embroidery illustrations, though it is more evident in those of a later than in those of an earlier time. its predominance, however, indicates how a sense of symmetrical effect has persisted and almost inevitably governed ornamentists of all schools and times. whilst in fig. the larger quantity of the ornament is composed of conven- tionalized leaf forms, the less frequent blossoms approach more nearly to real- ism in effect. the same remark applies to various parts of the designs in figs. and . that in fig. —the white satin chalice veil-has a radiating effect, its eight groups of leaf and floral shapes converging diagonally from the corners, and rectangularly from the middles of the sides of the square to its centre ; but each group is symmetrical rece fig. . - part of an italian th century wall or pilaster hanging of green velvet and golden yellow silk mounted on canvas, cut out, fitted together to form a repeating and counterchanging pattern of balanced bold scroll forms, with white satin flowers, etc. the various forms are outlined with double yellow silk gimp cords. the flowers are partly embroidered with coloured silks in long and stem stitches. the height of the original is ſt. ) in., and the width i ft. ) in. fig. .-an italian th century altar frontal, embroidered in coloured silks and silver-gilt thread on linen. the pattern consists of large leafy scrolls symmetrically arranged on either side of a central vertical stem. roses, tulips, and other flowers spring from the scrolls, and at the top are two birds. a narrow floral border runs round three sides. the whole pattern has been outlined with purple silk gimp, and the ground couched with silver tinsel threads. the original is ft. in. wide, and ft. in. high. ornament in embroidery jacobean embroidery (fig. ). it is a well-preserved specimen of work in tent and cross stitch with coloured silks upon small-meshed canvas. the royal arms of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland, with the letters i.r. (james rex), occupy the central position of the whole design, and the comparatively formal way in which they are depicted is in marked contrast with the german method shown in fig. , or with the later french method shown in fig. a, b, c, d. the views of the english box or casket of middle th century embroidery are displayed in figs. and . the design here is pre- fig. .- a panel of canvas, worked chiefly in small tent and cross stitches with coloured silk threads and fine gold thread. in the centre, surmounted by a rose and two buds, is a white shield shape, upon which, beneath a large crown, is a scrolled escutcheon bearing the royal arms of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland, with the letters i. r. (james rex). the gold embroidery here is in chain stitch. beneath the royal arins are two confronted white dogs rampant, on a mound filled in with gradated blue and yellow scale shapes. from the base of this pyramid on each side springs a triple stem, with offshoots of large conventional ornamental flowers and leaves and scrolling stems arranged in two corresponding groups. on the lower stems are birds and snails, and beneath the lowest scrolling stem on each side is a lion with mane worked with gold thread in chain stitch. in two compartments occupying the bottom corners is the worker's name, “mary hvlton," in gold thread chain stitch. a narrow border, with an angular, continuous wavy stem and formal flower and bud devices, in stouter wools than the threads in the main panel, runs round the whole panel, which is english work of the early th century. it is ft. in. long by in. wide. eminently typical of the half-trained taste of english amateurs : poor draughtsmen and weak ornamentists, but highly skilled in the use of needle and threads. much work of this kind was made during the later years of the th century in england. the casket (figs. and ) which is fitted with a mirror, three bottles, and writing materials, has an outer covering of ornament in european silks white satin, upon which the coloured silk embroidery is worked. in fig. we have a front view of it. along the lid will be seen quaint plant forms, a squirrel and a rabbit ; below are the two doors—one with a queen bearing a sceptre, the other with a lady in elaborate costume. both figures are in relief, and parts of their costume are of a needlepoint lace fabric. the top of the lid and the lower back panel are given in fig. . there is a definite ornamental intention in the decoration of the lid top, with its large oval frame and portrait, birds with outstretched wings in the upper corners, and snails and their shells in the lower ones. the panels of the sides of the box are decorated with naïve representations of narcissus, venus and adonis, apollo and daphne, in stuart costume, disproportionate fig. .-an embroidered casket or box of english work about the middle of the th century the front is here shown. the box is } in. high. trees and shrubs, houses, and so forth. a gimp lace trimming completes the adornment of the box. less amusing in design is the strictly arranged ornamentation of small forms upon the two ends of the scarf (fig. ), consisting of repeti- tions of composite pear-shape compartments containing trophies of flags, lances, swords, quivers of arrows, drums, trumpets, etc. in between the compartments are small floral and leaf devices, and below them are repeated, reversed, larger leaf scrolls of a conventional type. the scarf is of red silk, and the embroidery is done with coloured silks and gold and silver threads in satin and short stitches. scarves of this description were worn in the th and early th centuries. that before us is probably one тоб ornament in european silks arms of the city of paris occur on a ; those apparently of the cardinal, ویت fig. .— red silk scarf, as worn by a military officer in the th century. the design and embroidery are probably french. duke de matignon, on b ; those of the marquis de sessac on c; and those of some duke on d. the various treatments of these armorial fig. .- part of a set of white satin bed embroideries, embroidered with coloured silks and chenille. the set comprises trimmings for valances and curtains, with open fringe of coloured silk, and covers for seats. it is french work of the later part of th century. ornament in embroidery bearings very fairly expound, for the ornamentist, all that would be gleaned from a greater number of such things. the city of paris arms are set upon crossed aags; the cardinal de matignon's are flanked by the ban fig. .--a th century french pouch or alms bag of green velvet, embroidered in gold thread. the arms of the city of paris are worked in gold threads and coloured silks. fig. b.-a th century french pouch or alms bag of red velvet, embroidered on the base with the arms of cardinal the duke de matignon. fig. .-a th century french pouch or alms bag of green velvet, embroidered on the base with the arms of the marquis de sessac. fig. .-a th century french pouch or alms bag of crimson velvet, embroidered with two shields and armorial bearings beneath a ducal coronet. tassels of his cardinal's hat; those of the marquis de sessac are enclosed by stiff leafy scrolls; and the duke's are displayed upon a mantle. the small scale of the ornament, the petiteness of effect, with its fes- toons and trickling sprays of little floral and leaf forms, infuses an effeminacy gezondadors re chuss pan con to english emisideed can ofte il consenso fig. . – two english embroidered coats of the th century. a is a dress coat of brown striped silk; b is of brown cloth. index egypto-saracenic fine linen with parallel bands of ornament in coloured silks, , . fig. . egypto-saracenic silk weaving on linen warp threads, , . fig. ; p. . eleanor of castile, device adopted by, . fig. ; p. . eleonore of toledo, duchess of florence, portrait by bronzino; arabesques on dress, . fig. ; p. . embroidered canvas known as syon cope, ; scheme of design in, . fig. ; p. . (see syon cope.) embroidered coverlet of satin, oriental in- fluence on pattern, . fig. ; p. . embroidered work in cluny museum, and halberstadt and ratisbon cathedrals, . embroideries, ancient and modern nomen- clature, . embroideries from pre-christian greek colonies of crimea, . embroidery,- change of kinds of convention in, . figs. , , , . “ couching" in, . cross and tent-stitches in, , . drawn threads in, . ecclesiastical and secular periods of, . figure designs in, , . figs. – . for bed quilts, . has greater variety than woven patterns, . imitations of woodcuts, . independent of influence from woven designs, . methods proclaim origin and date, . ornament in, , seqq. realism in, . relief effects in, . religious influence in, . silk employed in, . stitches unchanged, . figs. - . stitches used in, , , . technical value of latin names, , , two classes of, . with linen threads, . works on, . embroidery and weaving, distinction between, . embroidery and weaving, relations between, , , . enamelled gold work, ornament in and de- signs for weaving, . england, silk weaving in, , . english altar frontal made from cope, ; “fortuitous concurrence" of devices, . fig. ; p. . english demand for brocades and damasks, . english ecclesiastical embroidery, variety of designs in, . english embroidered casket or box: lack of drawing and proportion, , . figs. , ; pp. , . english embroidered coats, . fig. ; p. . english embroidered panel, jacobean sampler work, , . fig. ; p. . english embroidered satin waistcoats, . fig. . english embroidery of th century, , . figs. , . english embroidery of th century, . fig. ; p. . english figured silks, french workmen and methods employed in, . english silk embroidery, . english silk tambour or chain-stitch em- broidery, . english taste influencing designs, . european adoption of badges and devices, . european designs, eastern influences on, , , , , passim. european influence on eastern designs, , . figs. , . european markets, silk materials in, . european ornamental silks, date of first pro- duction, . european silk patterns, periods of formal and realistic, . european silken stuffs, schemes of patterns in th century, . f falkland, lady, specimen of woodcut imitated in embroidery, . fatimy khalif, al mustansir, mixed linen and silk stuffs of the time of, . felipe, don, part of robe of, . fig. . figure design in embroidery, . figs. - . figure weaving, . figured silks of alexandria, designs for, . fischback's ornaments of textile fabrics, . flanders, silk materials in markets of, . flanders tapestries, . index hexagon framework, specimen of, . fig. - . hispano-saracenic silk damask, framework of hexagons, . fig. . hispano-saracenic silk woven in colours, . fig. ; p. . hispano-saracenic silk woven in parallel bands, . fig. . hogarth's line of beauty (reversed curve line), . holbein, outline patterns of, hollar, designs in engravings of costume, . honorius, silken robes of, . horticultural establishments in france studied by artists, . “ hotel de tiraz” worked by arabic or saracenic weavers, . human figures in embroidery, , . illyria, ribbons woven in, . indian cotton prints for quilts, designs for . indian embroideries, influx into europe, . indo-portuguese coverlet of linen, quilted, ; repeated scallop devices, . fig. ; p. . ishbani, . italian (north) blue satin brocaded with gold thread, fantastic bird, vine leaves, . fig. ; p. . italian brocade and damask patterns, devices introduced in th and th centuries, . italian brocaded damask satin, with touches of coloured silk, . fig. ; p. . italian brocaded silk damask, grotesque forms in, . fig. ; p. . italian brocaded silk damask, hounds, boughs and swans, . fig. ; p. . italian brocaded silk damask, pattern on, . fig. ; p. . italian brocatelle, conventional pattern, . fig. ; p. . italian brocatelle, with semi-naturalistic gar- lands of flowers, . fig. go; p. . italian (north) brown and pale blue silk, castle and lions, rays, ; kufic letters, . fig. ; p. . italian chasuble of patterned white silk, with formal floral sprays, . fig. ; p. . italian chasuble of silk damask, no gold thread, freedom of design, . fig. ; p. . italian cloth of silver; pattern, cone of fruit, . fig. . italian cloth of silver, with ogival frame united by crowns, ul. fig. ; p. . italian coloured velvet of realistic design, . fig. ; p. . italian crimson velvet, pattern of naturalistic branches, . fig. . italian designers, all-over patterns a reflex of persian methods, . italian designers, new devices, . italian th century robe patterns, . italian th century velvet, reverse-curve leaves, bifurcating stems, . fig. ; p. . italian figured silks widely used in th and th centuries, . italian (north) gold brocaded silk, curved double-pointed wedge shapes, probably lucchese, . fig. ; p. . italian green velvet, with conventional leaf pattern, cone or fruit device, . fig. . italian hanging of brocatelle : collared leopards and gadrooned vase in, . fig. ; p. . italian-made satins, velvets, etc., . italian ornamental needlework, . italian patterned silk hanging; flowers, birds and hounds in, . fig. ; p. . italian patterns of th and early th century, , sepa. italian patterns of th century, , segg. italian patterns of th century, ottoman in- fluence on, . italian realism in floral patterns, . italian red satin, with powdered pattern, . fig. . italian (north) rose and green silk, semi- greek and oriental ornament, . fig. ; p. . italian satin damask, intricacy of pattern scheme, . fig. ; p. go. italian satin damask, with ogival framework pattern, . fig. ; p. . italian (north) silk brocaded with gold thread; boat in pattern, probably lucchese, . fig. ; p. . italian silk damask or lampas: angular frame- work, star panels, . fig. . italian silk damask or lampas, with over- lapping stems, . fig. ; p. . index patchwork in egyptian museum, cairo, . persian silks, author's cantor lecture quoted pattern books of th century, , note. on, , note. pattern designers and demands of patrons, persian silks, history and development of . pattern designs in textiles quoted, , pattern evolution, characteristic of, . note. pattern making, rise of new talent in, . persian velvets, silken and golden stuffs in figs. , . europe, . pattern of italian silk of th century, inter- persians settled at granada, . mediate type, . fig. . perso-byzantine parallel band pattern, . patterns, - fig. . forms borrowed from ornament in dif- perso-byzantine pattern features, . ferent materials, , . perso-byzantine red silk pieces woven in th century types, characteristics of three colours, . fig. . classes, . perso-byzantine silk woven in colours, . frameworks of, , , passim. fig. . in silks, comparison of, . perso-chinese scrolling stem devices, . intermediate between saracenic and perso-egyptian silk or sarcenet, . fig. . ottoman flavours, . perso-mahommedan taste in european de- larger device with subsidiary forms signs, . characteristic of ottoman silk designs, peru, tapestry woven in, . . figs. - . pieces for different parts of costumes, . loss of style in, . poland, silken costumes imported, . of th and th centuries, , seqq. polo, marco, on textile fabrics of persia, asia on two or more schemes, . minor, and syria, . realism in, . pope, alexander, “right too rigid,” etc., repeated bands of ornamentation, , , quoted, . . figs. , . portrait by franz hals, non-floral pattern in, repetition or powdering, ; revived in . fig. iii; p. . th and th centuries, . portrait by paris bordone, semi-realistic serpentine or undulating trunks or stems pattern on skirt, . fig. ; p. . in, . figs. , , ; pp. , . portuguese sending satin to india to be em- spotted, rise of class of, . broidered, . striped and checked, . powdered patterns in shuttle-weaving, . th century, new schemes of, . purses, french, . figs. a b c d; p. vagaries in, . . with details not divided by bands or framings, . figs. , ; pp. , . with framings analogous to byzantine qualities of texture and particular periods, circular and ogival framings, . figs. . , , ; pp. , . queen elizabeth, portraits of, scrolling stem persian designers of sassanian period, . patterns in, . figs. , ; pp. , persian features in silk patterns, . . persian influence in ottoman style of patterns, . persian monks supply emperor justinian with silkworm eggs, . raised embroideries for caskets, . figs persian ornament in th or th century , ; pp. , . stuffs, traces of, . figs. , , ; ratisbon cathedral, embroidered work in, pp. , . . persian silk in markets of lucca and ratisbon cathedral, vestment presented to, florence, . b . persian silk or sarcenet in south kensington rays in patterns, , . figs. , ; pp. museum, . fig. . , . index weaving and embroidery; relations between, , , . west drawing ideas of patterns from east, , , , , passim. white outlining in ornamentation, . figs. - ; pp. , . woodcuts imitated in embroidery, . works of art, dating, . wrought iron work, inlayings of brass and tortoiseshell, . yates quotes nicetas choniates on palermo silk manufactory, , . yates, textrinum antiquorum, names taken from, . zoest, johan van and his wife, ogival frame- work on monumental brass, . butler & tanner, the selwood printing works, frome, and london, lord nelson bronze statuette by mr. j. h. m. furse. the statuette is a full length figure, and stands upon a base decorated with four panels, flags, and prows of ships. the height, including base, is inches, and the price thirty-five guineas. a illustrated prospectus and full particulars from the pub- lishers, debenham and freebody, at whose galleries of furniture and antiques, wigmore street, london, w., copies may be inspected. the chippendale period in english furniture by sek. warren k. warren clouston to, cloth gilt. price . net. pages, including illustrations drawn by the author. published by debenham and fenharot freebody. debenham & freebody, wigmore st., london, w. a beautiful volume. fcap. to, ios. d. in a beautiful half-vellum binding, printed on antique deckle edge paper, at the guild press, birmingham. impressions by pierre loti with an introduction by henry james. english contemporary art translated from the french of robert de la sizeranne by h. m. poynter with numerous illustrations after g. f. watts, prof. herkomer, sir. john millais, lord leighton, sir e. burne-jones, etc. demy svo, . leaves from the golden legend chosen by h. d. madge, ll.m. with numerous illustrations by h. m. watts. pott svo, half-linen, gilt top, . d. net. the “whitehall edition” of the works of william shakespeare in volumes, imperial mo. edited from the original texts by h. arthur doubleday, with the assistance of t. gregory foster and robert elson. the edition is issued in three forms- red buckram, price . per volume, or £ os. the set of vols. green clothy . , os. » » £ . half-parchment constable's edition of the waverley novels vols. fcap. vo. *.* this is an exact facsimile reprint of the author's favourite edition. each volume contains an engravedl frontispiece and vignette on the title page. it is issued in three different styles of biniling, price is. . net, . net, . d. net per volume. also in special half-vellum, price on application at the booksellers. messrs. archibald constable and co. have the pleasure to announce that they publish a library edition of the works of henry fielding in vols., demy vo. this edition is printed in a sumptuous form on hand-made paper, at the chiswick press, and the number is limited to copies for england and america. mr. edmund gosse has written a critical essay, which is included in the first volume. the text is based on the last edition revised by the author. the published price is s. d. net per volume, and sets only are sold. the volumes may be purchased if desired by subscription in instalments. each volume contains an etched frontispiece. adventures of joseph andrews. in vols. tom jones. in vols. amelia. in vols. jonathan wild. in i vol. miscellanies. in vols. westminster archibald constable & co whitehall gardens the borrower will be charged an overdue fee if this book is not returned to the library on or before the last date stamped below. non-receipt of overdue notices does not exempt the borrower from overdue fees. os i due may may,la, widene {"book ode jan su i dner / dnof sfine prts feb dec book our cancelled printed by marcus ward & c royal ulster works belfast plants: wntix natural iprosjttr aito ©rnam#ttal crcatmott. m introduction. "every rational creature has all nature for his dowry and estate; it is his if he will"—emerson. jhe application of vegetable forms to the creations of ornamental art has been in the past so universal, that we need scarcely dwell at length upon the value of a knowledge of such forms to. the ornamentist, in order that he may either study, with due appreciation, the labours of his predecessors, or himself follow in their footsteps. in almost all periods of art, nature has been largely drawn upon, the only marked ex- ceptions being in celtic ornament, where, though vegetable forms are met with in mss., the greater bulk of the ornament is zoomorphic, consisting of entwining monsters, or, at other times, composed of very curious and complicated arrangements of interlacing bands; or in those styles where a religious prohibition of the representation of any living thing deterred the designer. under this head we may include all art under mahomedan influence; for, though the persians to some extent disregard the law, the forms are generally very conventional, and in this respect, as in several others, they place themselves under the ban of those who deem themselves true followers of the prophet how far we may ourselves regard such use as opposed to religious obligations, may be readily tested by a consideration of the directions so carefully given to solomon for his guidance in building a house meet for the deity, where the lily, the pomegranate, the palm, and other plants, are frequently mentioned as parts of the general scheme of decoration; while, in our own beautiful cathedrals, we may study how little our forefathers felt such subjects unfit for highest use, since many of them have their capitals, stringcourses, spandrils, &c, masses of beautiful plant form—the sturdy oak, the graceful maple or bryony, the lowly buttercup, the still lowlier fungus, being introduced in their work : all creations of the one great father of all, and, as testifying to his all-wise care and protection, not unworthy, humble and common-place as some might think them, of honoured place in his house. ornamentists too commonly overlook the treasures that nature scatters around them, and, by a slavish adherence to a few set forms, deprive themselves of a valuable means of imparting enhanced interest to their work. no remedy for this can be so effectual as personal study and familiar acquaintance with rural scenes; but as, unfortunately, such opportunity of quiet study is frequently out of the power of the designer, either from press of work or other restraining cause, he must be content, at some loss of both pleasure and profit to himself, to derive his material from the labours of others. we have said at some loss of pleasure—for there is an enjoyment in the actual study of natural beauty— "in the sweet spring days, with whitening hedges and uncrumpling fern, and blue-bells trembling by the forest ways, and scent of hay new mown "— that no attention to its merely pictured charms can compensate; and we have said, also, at some loss of profit—for there is no comparison between referring merely to the work of another and actually handling the natural plant, and noting its characteristic features in all their living beauty. many are, no doubt, deterred from a study of plants irom an idea that botany is too technical a thing to be of any benefit to them. they exclaim, with wordsworth— "let nature be your teacher— sweet is the lore which nature brings; our meddling intellect mis-shapes the beauteous forms of things, we murder to dissect enough of science and of art: close up those barren leaves; come forth, and bring with you a heart that watches and receives "— as they recall some such passage as this—" leaves ovate-oblong, subserrate, pulverulento- tomentose." without for a moment undervaluing the technicalities of botanical science, for they plants: their natural growth are most valuable, i would yet say that, at a very slight expenditure of time and trouble, the designer might acquire a sufficient knowledge of the commoner botanical terms to enable him on finding any plant to consult with ease some standard work, if he desired full information respecting it the enjoyment and profit derived from direct study of nature would be greatly increased by this, and the sweetness of "the lore which nature brings" would be enhanced by the greater appreciation that would thus be brought to bear on it we had at first proposed, in writing the present work, to carefully eschew all technicalities of language, but on fuller consideration it has seemed desirable rather to use such terms, being careful, as we proceed, to explain their meaning, since the botanical term, merely one word, will often convey a significance that the substituted round-about description may, after all, not so effectually compass. the leading terms, once acquired, are easily retained, and it is better to master them once for all, as they are common to all writers on the subject (being found in all the books the designer may have occasion, or wish, to refer to for either naming a plant or gathering further information about it), than to forego numerous opportunities of acquiring useful knowledge for want of a little study to begin with. after the wonderful richness of natural form, perhaps the most striking feature is its infinite variety. there is no stint, no repetition. some leaves are long and tapering—some round—some triangular. some blossoms are so minute as to be almost or quite microscopic; others, like the rafflesia arnoldi, of sumatra, nine feet in circumference. in some plants the leaves are placed singly on the stem, as in the water-cress; in others in pairs, as we see in the privet or hop; in some cases in threes, as in the new american water-weed, that has now taken possession of so many of our streams; in other plants, as the crosswort, in fours; and in some cases in rings of eight or ten, all springing from the same level, as in the goose-grass. we need not, however, dwell at any further length on this point: the present illustrations will tend to indicate it, and a very slight study of nature will much more amply and effectually confirm it a very pleasing ornamental feature is found in the variation of form or colour often met with in individual plants: thus, the first leaves are frequently of a different form to all the others that succeed them. we see this very well exemplified in the sunflower (fig. ) and the radish (fig. ). many plants have their lower leaves richer in form than those that occur higher on the plant; the hedge mustard (see figs. , ) and the shepherd's purse (figs. , ) are illustrations of this—the richer form in each case being the lower one. other examples may be seen in the bulbous crowfoot (plate ), the water avens (plate ), the agrimony (plate ), and the columbine (plate ). in other plants this is reversed, the lower leaves being comparatively simple in form, the upper ones richly cut, as in the sowthistle, or marsh mallow (plate ). figs. , , , , on plate , are further good examples of this; the whole series being from one plant —the ivy-leaved speedwell, a not uncommon plant on arable land. these four examples show a very delicate gradation of form from fig. , one of the lower leaves, through figs. and , to fig. , one of the higher leaves. in some instances the only difference perceptible is in the larger size of "the lower leaves, all throughout the plant being of very similar form; the bush vetch (plate ) and the ground ivy (plate ) are examples of this. - in some plants a valuable orna- mental feature is seen in the forms of the opening bud. in the sycamore (figs. , ) the transition is abrupt and immediate, from the scaly external forms to the true leaves within; while in the lilac, the gradation from the smallest scale to the fully developed leaf is very delicate. figs. , , , , , are examples of this development of form in the lilac. variation of colour in a plant, though not so commonly to be noted as variation of form, may also be studied with advantage. thus we see what greatly increased richness it gives to the flower of the sweet william (fig. ), where the deeper band forms a ring of enhanced colour; or, again, in variegated ivy, and the leaves (fig. ) of many species of pelargonium. we might in the same way indicate many other points of study, but we refrain, preferring rather to appeal to our illustrations; and the more especially as we can, in our remarks upon each plate, better point out many little features than we are here, in a general introduction, able to do. without further preface, then, we pass to a consideration of the various points thus suggested, endeavouring to make our remarks as practical as possible, in the hope that thus our pleasant labours may prove of real utility to the follower of ornamental art and ornamental treatment. description of the plates. plate . "i shall be well pleased if i can say what is right, though it may not be of my own invention."—quintilian. n ornamental art, plants may be employed from various motives; thus, in some cases, their beauty has evidently been the sole consideration in their selection, while, in others, they have been chosen on account of an inner meaning involved. in the first case, the art is aesthetic—beauty, for its own sake, as the end and aim; in the second, it is symbolic—the outward and visible form conveying to the spectator a deeper meaning than it inherently possesses. the second is the nobler aim, as the pleasure to be derived from any work of art will be in direct proportion to the thought embodied in it many plants have thus in past art been used with this inner meaning; the egyptians, for instance, largely employed the lotus, the beautiful lily of their sacred nile, in their ornament, as a symbol of plenty, since it was one of the most striking plants of that river, whose annual overflow caused the fertility of the land, and made egypt the granary of the ancient world. the vine is very commonly used throughout christian art, and more especially during the byzantine period, in allusion to such passages as— "i am the true vine." the palm branch of victory, the lily, emblem of spodessness of life, are other examples ; and to those we may add the snow-drop (of which we have a drawing in fig. ), since, in roman catholic countries, it is, together with the white garden lily (liiium candidum), accepted as a symbol of the virgin mary, and hence is frequently found in ecclesiastical decora- tion. in some countries it is customary, on the day kept by that church as that of her ascension, to remove her images from their altars, and to strew the spot with this flower. apart from this religious significance, the plant is well worthy of the ornamentist's regard from its delicacy of form and colour; and as the first sign of the awakening of nature after the storms of winter, hence the name snow-drop, or, as the french term it, perceneige—both names testifying to its early appear- ance, while the generic name (galanthus) is derived from two greek words signifying milk flower. "earliest bud that decks the garden, fairest of the fragrant race, first-born child of vernal flora, seeking wild thy lowly place."—longthorne. double flowers are frequently met with, even in its wild state; the transition in these from the normal forms of the stamen to the petal, and then on to the sepal, is very interesting. a floral leaf, as large as a sepal, sometimes only shows its petaloid character by its notched apex, and by a slight line or two of green on it, while others, more heart-shaped, smaller in size, and more regularly striped with lines of green, approximate more nearly to the normal form of petal. in others again, the rudiments of an anther are seen—the form thus produced being transitional from stamen to petal, while more nearly in the centre of the flower the forms become truly staminoid. figs. , , , , , , show this gradation very well, the lower figure being the normal form of the stamen; the upper, the normal form of sepal; the others, the intermediate forms, merging from the one to the other. fig. is a detached sepal, fig. , a petal, while figs. and are the interior and exterior views of the natural single flower, as a whole. the sepals in the snow-drop are pure white; the petals white, having on the exterior a spot of brilliant green, and the interior striped with the same colour, while the anthers are brilliant orange. where the plant is met with at all it is generally abundant, growing in clumps, the roots of several plants all matted together, and requiring some little force to separate them. in most flowers the calyx is green, and of smaller size than the corolla, as in the rose, buttercup, borage; but there are numerous exceptions, thus in the present plant it is white, and the segments longer than those of the inner ring; in the anemone pulsatilla, light purple; in the delphinium ajacis, intensely deep and pure blue; in the caltha palustris, brilliant yellow. where the petals and sepals are similar in colour and form, the term perianth is applied to them collectively, though, as there is generally some slight difference perceptible, the term is not always employed—one botanist describing the'parts as a perianth, another recognising corolla and calyx. the flower of the snow-drop is generally described as a perianth, but the tulip flower (fig. ) is a still better example. in some flowers, as for instance orchids, some one or more of the segments, though the same in colour, differ in form from the others; such form of perianth is, and ornamental treatment. them. bi-symmetrical arrangements will be found most appropriate in the decoration of upright surfaces, such as wall papers or curtains, which will always be seen one way, while multi- symmetrical star-like forms become more suitable for floorcloth and carpet patterns, because a star-like pattern on the floor looks equally well from all parts of the room, while a design, having only its halves alike, must, in such a position, to some of our visitors seem upside down, while others will see it sideways, or at various angles with its central line, and only in one position will it be viewed to proper advantage. we find our own views amply confirmed by the dicta of recognised authorities. thus ruskin, in his remarks on symmetry, in the second volume of "modern painters," says—" i only assert, respecting it, that it is necessary to the dignity of every form, and that by the removal of it, we shall render the other elements of beauty comparatively ineffectual; though, on the other hand, it is to be observed that it is rather a mode of arrangement of qualities than a quality itself; hence symmetry has little power over the mind, unless all the other constituents of beauty be found together with it a form may be symmetrical and ugly, as many elizabethan ornaments, yet not so ugly as it would have been if unsymmetrical, but better always by increasing degrees of symmetry." while wornum, in his "analysis of ornament," remarks—" it seems to be a law of nature that every individual thing shall be composed of similar parts in its outward appearance, and, as the internal arrangement is often different, as in the animal creation, this similarity of externals would appear an evidence of the design of beauty." it is curious to ob- serve, in nature, that not only are symmetrical units combined, as in the case of the potentilla anserina (fig. ), or the sambucus nigra (fig. ), to form one symmetrical whole; but that this general symmetry of effect may also be produced, as in the vinca major (fig. ), by the aggrega- tion of parts in themselves unsymmetrical. flowers having their disc (using the word in its ornamental, not botanical sense,) in a horizontal plane, and, therefore, those that, like the daisy, dandelion, celandine, and most others, we look directly down upon, are generally stellate or multi- symmetrical in character; while those which, like the pansy (fig. ), have their disc in a more or less vertical plane, are ordinarily bi-symmetrical. flowers that are multi-symmetrical in plan are, however, generally bi-symmetrical in the side views, as shown in the potato blossom (solatium tuberosum, fig. ). the student, on consulting plate , may see the two principles—fig. being a plan view of the plant selected, and fig. an elevational view. many other such examples will be found scattered throughout our illustrations, and more especially at the close. repetition, the aggregation of similar units, is very commonly met with in ornamental art, and it is no less common in nature, while a slight variation, produced by the continuous repeti- tion of two dis-similar units, in alternation with each other, is also very freely to be met with. we see it, for example, in most of the greek anthemion patterns, and in the almost equally character- istic so-called egg-and-tongue moulding of that people, where two very different forms are brought side by side, each by contrast and juxtaposition assisting the effect of the other. we see very good natural examples in the common avens, the geum urbanum of systematic botany (fig. ), where we have alternation both of form and colour, the rounded yellow petals contrasting well with the acutely-pointed green segments of the calyx; and, again, in fig. (the sambucus nigra, or elderflower) where the petaloid curves alternate with the more decided forms of the stamens: the colours, in this instance, being clear yellow or creamy white. for ornamental examples, plate may be consulted: in the upper band of fig. , alternation of forms is seen, and in the lower part, repetition; while, in the leading forms of fig. , we see continuous repetition, the variation being produced by alternation of colour alone . repetition commends itself, apart from the pleasing art effect often produced, on the ground of economy, both in the price paid in the first place by the manufacturer to the designer, and, in the second place, in the facility of reproduction afterwards; we see it, therefore, largely employed in paper-hangings, muslins, designs of all kinds produced by the agency of machinery in any form. the vinca major, or periwinkle, is not uncommonly met with in our hedgerows, where its long trailing stems, glossy leaves, and large lilac flowers render it a rather conspicuous plant it flowers throughout the summer. both the latin, vinca, and the english name, periwinkle, are derived from vincio, to bind, in allusion to its growth, as the thin straggling stems trail all over the other herbage of the bank, and mat it together by their pressure. by old writers it is termed pervinke; chaucer, for instance, thus terms it it is very doubtful, however, if the plant be a true native. in ornamental art it appears to have been very sparingly employed, the only instance we have met with is in a ms. of the th century, where, in accordance with the practice of that period, it is represented naturally, having cast shadows, &c., on a golden ground. a plant very similar to this, but smaller in all its parts, is known, botanically, as v. minor, the smaller peri- winkle; but it is not so ordinarily met with as the present species. b and ornamental treatment. their position on the stem. the hedge mustard is a very common plant on waste ground by the wayside; the flower is very small, and unsuited to designing purposes; but the leaves are very good in form, and might well be introduced into an ornamental composition. in the lower leaves the terminal lobe is very large. fig. is the stem section of the aspidospermum excelsum, a native of british guiana, as we shall have occasion, in plate , to refer to it again, we shall for the present defer further remark. the remaining illustrations are given as useful examples of flower forms. the daffodil (narcissus pseudo-narcissus, fig. ) is frequently to be met with in the early spring in moist woods and thickets, and when found at all is generally in great profusion; this, added to its brilliancy of colour, makes it, when thus seen, a very striking and beautiful plant wordsworth, with his usual fidelity to nature, and his delicate perception of her beauties, has, in these lines— "a host of golden daffodils beside the lake, beneath the trees, fluttering and dancing in the breeze"— very well indicated these salient points. though admirably adapted to the requirements of ornamental art, and a plant very characteristic of the spring, it has been but sparingly used. the only example we are able to quote is on a plate of wedgwood cream-coloured ware, in the ceramic collection at the south kensington museum, where the plant, though in shades of purple colour, is very naturalistic in form and general treatment the corn-cockle (agrostemma githago) affords the very striking looking rosette seen in fig. . it owes its beauty to the very elongated and decided forms of the calyx segments, alter- nating with the petals of the corolla though now frequently to be met with in corn fields it is not a true native. it is one of the enemies of the agriculturist; but it has become so thoroughly naturalised that its extirpation is now impossible. we have seen it introduced very effectively in a missal of the th century, one of the mss. of the valuable collection in our national museum. the treatment, in accordance with the spirit of that period, is very naturalistic, being pictorial rather than truly ornamental, the flower, with moths and dragon-flies, being painted in its natural colours, on a ground of gold, upon which it throws its shadow, a mode of treatment not altogether in harmony with the practice of the best periods of decorative art. the flowers of the various species of hypericum, or st john's wort, like the flower of the periwinkle, that we have already noticed, are good examples of a regular, symmetrical form, produced by units in themselves unsymmetrical. the flower of the h. hirsutum (fig. ) is an illustration of this. it will ordinarily be found that the various parts of a flower stand in a certain numerical relation to each other; thus we frequently meet with plants in which some of the parts are in threes, while others are in multiples of three; thus in the iridaceee, or iris family, the perianth is composed of six parts, while there are three stamens, either three stigmas or one stigma, with three divisions, and a three-celled ovary. in other plants the parts are in fours, or multiples of that number; thus, for example, the holly (ilex aquifolium) has four sepals, four petals, four stamens, and four stigmas, while the evening primrose (cenothera biennis) has the calyx four- cleft, the petals in fours, and the stamens eight in number. a very common arrangement is that based on the figure five; the dianthus armeria, for instance, has a five-toothed calyx, five petals, and ten stamens. arrangements in twos are not nearly so commonly met with as any of the fore- foing; still, as we occasionally meet with such, it will be well not quite to ignore them. the enchanter's nightshade (circoea lutetiana) is an example, as its calyx is two-cleft, the corolla has two petals, there are two stamens, a two-lobed stigma, and a two-celled ovary. the corn-cockle is an illustration of the observance of this law of numerical relationship, as it has a five-toothed calyx, a corolla of five petals, five styles, and ten stamens; while the st john's wort is an exception to it, as, though it has a calyx and corolla each composed of five parts, there are only three styles, you will notice, in the centre of the flower. some of the exceptions to this law are very curious, when contrasted with the strict adherence to it that may be traced in the vast majority of plants; thus the claytonia perfoliata, a native of northern america, though now getting so commonly distributed over england that it is claiming a place as of right in our flora, has a three-cleft style, five stamens, five petals, and a calyx of only two segments. so universal is the law, however, that exceptions as striking as this are rarely to be met with. many natural floral forms are very striking, and, while interesting as variations from what we ordinarily accept as the normal type of a flower, are also frequently of great beauty and ornamental value. such an one is shown in fig. —the flower of the dielytra spectabilis, or plants: their natural growth chinese-lantern plant; a plant which, whether we consider the general growth, or the beauty of the individual parts, is admirably adapted to art purposes. whatever the number or arrangement of the inner parts of a flower, the outer ring is always known, botanically, as the calyx; though, from the occasional brilliancy of its colouring, as in the fuchsia, it may be mistaken by beginners for the corolla. notwithstanding this, the large and pink part of the dielytra is the true corolla, hence care is necessary before a decision is arrived at as to the real nature of the floral parts. in some plants the calyx is what is termed caducous—a term derived from the latin word cado, i fall; when it falls away either before the expansion of the flower, or when it has received its full development the calyx of the dielytra is an illustration of this; and we see others in the scarlet poppy (papaver r/ueas), so commonly to be met with in our corn fields; and in the eschscholtzia californica, a garden flower of a brilliant golden yellow colour; where the scarlet or yellow parts respectively are, though ex- ternal, petaloid; the calyx, that in most flowers is more prominent than the corolla, having, in these cases, dropped off on the opening of the blossom. the corolla of the dielytra is termed gibbous (lat gibbus, a hump), on account of its distended appearance; in the columbine flower (fig. ) this is carried still further, and the flower becomes calcarate (lat calcar, a spur). many other names are given to various modifications of the form of the flower; thus the flower of the white dead nettle (lamium album, fig. ,) is termed bilabiate, literally two-lipped; others are termed campanulate, from their resemblance to a bell, as in fig. ; others, again, like the bindweed blossom, are called infundibuliform, from the latin word infundibulum, a funnel. we shall in passing through our illustrations find instances of many other such terms. plate . "ii me semble qu'un des plus grands charmes de la botanique est, apres celui de voir par soi-meme, celui de verifier ce qu'ont vu les autres : donner sur le temoignage de mes propres yeux mon assentiment aux observations fines et justes d'un auteur me paroit une veritable jouissance: au lieu que quand je ne trouve pas ce qu'il dit je suis toujours en inquietude si ce n'est pas moi qui voit mal"—rousseau. in many of the old illuminations great richness of effect is produced by having either the central portion of a leaf of a deeper colour than the rest, or sometimes by merely a band of colour, as, for instance, deep blue on light blue, crossing the leaf at about midway from the apex and the insertion of the stalk. natural illustrations of this are seen in the foliage of several of the cul- tivated species of pelargonium. fig. is a representation of one of these leaves, wherein a form, already rich in its contour, is still further enriched by the band of darker colour crossing it: the flower of the sweet william (dianthus barbatus, fig. j is another good example. all spotted, blotched, striped or otherwise variegated leaves, as those of the cuckoo pint (arum maculatum), or spotted persicaria (polygonum persicaria), are worthy of the study of the ornamentist, and will often be found to have a suggestive value that will bear its fruit in his work. the remaining figures are given as illustrative of the great variety of forms seen amongst leaves; other examples will be found on the various plates; even had we devoted the whole of our sheets to leaf forms alone, we could have given but faint idea of the enormous variety to be met with: some being long and narrow, like those of the firs, needle-shaped or acicular (lat acus, a needle); others, like the evening primrose (senothera biennis, fig. j, broader in proportion to their length, and termed lanceolate, from their resemblance to a lance-head. some, like the snow- berry (symphoricarpus vulgaris), are oval in outline; others, as the daisy (bellis perennis, fig. ,*, or the london pride (saxifraga umbrosa), are spatulate or battledore-shaped. such leaves as those of the corn convolvulus (convolvulus arvensis, fig. , , are termed hastate, from the re- semblance of the form to a dart (lat hasta). when the leaf is of the character shown in fig. , that of the black bryony (tamus communis), it is termed cordate or heart-like, and if resembling fig. , the leaf of the coltsfoot (tussilago farfara), it is angular. when the lobes that we see in fig. are considerably longer, and thrown more backward, the leaf becomes sagittate, or arrow- head-shaped—the leaf of the arrowhead (sagittaria sagittifolia) is an excellent example. when the leaf is broader than long, and with its basal lobes rounded, it becomes reniform or kidney- shaped. when the stem, as in the nasturtium or indian cress (tropcsolum majus), or in the marsh pennywort (hydrocotyle vulgaris), is attached to the leaf at some distance from the margin, a peltate or shield-like leaf is produced—(lat pelta, a shield). peltate leaves are ordi- narily very simple in form, but those of the castor oil plant (ricinus communis) are a marked exception, being very rich in character. though ordinarily the central line of the leaf terminates in a more or less distinctly-marked point, it has not always this feature, as there may even be in its stead a depression, more or less and ornamental treatment. ii marked; we see this in the box (buxus sempervirens), and notably in the leaf of the ginkgo (salisburia adiantifolia, fig. ), where the foliage has the appearance of being cleft down the centre—a form botanically known as bifid. you will see that, ornamentally, this gives quite a new character. there is, perhaps, no more beautiful kind of leaf form for designing purposes than such as the sycamore (acer pseudoplatanus, fig. ,) affords a type of, where we get a central prominent mass, and other similar forms given off laterally. the radiating character, and the subordination of the various masses to each other, are very valuable points (if the reader covers up the two apparently insignificant basal lobes, he will see at once how the whole form suffers), while the toothed edge imparts further pleasant variety to the outline. botanically and physiologically the leaf is full of interest; but the points of greatest practical value to the designer, and therefore those that alone now concern us, are the following :— —its position on the stem. —its general form as a mass. —the character of the outline. —the venation. —the texture. we propose, then, to take up briefly these points for con- sideration. a leaf may be either stalked, as that of the apple (pyrus malus); or stalkless, as in the pimpernel (anagallis arvensis). the leaf may entirely surround the stem, as in the perfoliate honeysuckle (lonicera caprifolium), or its basal lobes, instead of thus uniting, may be continued down the sides of the stem. in this case the leaf is decurrent; we see instances of it in the comfrey (symphytum officinale), and in several of the thistles. leaves may occur singly at intervals on the stalk, when they will ordinarily be found to grow in a spiral. in the oak (quercus robur), for instance, only one leaf is given off at one level; and if any one of these leaves be brought immediately opposite to the eye, the next one above it will be found to be at an angle with us, while the next still further recedes, and it is not until we get to the sixth leaf that we find it exactly over number one; we shall find that seven will be over two, eight over three, and so on—five leaves thus completing one cycle. we see this special arrange- ment also in the pear (pyrus communis). in some cases the spiral is much more elaborate ; while, on the contrary, in the meadow saffron (colchicum autumnale) three leaves suffice to complete one revolution—number four then coming over number one, number five coming over two, &c.; the simplest form of all is that termed alternate, as in the ivy (hedera helix), where the third leaf comes over the first, the fourth over the second, and so on. sometimes leaves grow in pairs, as in the ground ivy (nepeta glechoma, fig. ). in this case the pairs of leaves ordinarily alternate in their direction, the second pair being at right angles to the first, and number three returning to the direction taken by number one; a cross-like form is thus given to the foliage when seen in plan. in some plants, however, all the pairs are placed in the same direction, so that instead of being a cross form, when looking down on the growth, the top pair will conceal all those beneath it we see a good instance of this in the opposite-leaved pond-weed (potamogeton densus). in the gbbulea obvallata the successive pairs of opposite leaves are arranged in a spiral, the second pair not being in a parallel line with the first, nor at right angles with it, as we see it in the great majority of plants, but at a slight angle, so that it is not until we arrive at the seventh pair that we find any of its leaves coming directly over those from whence we started in our investigation. when leaves are not opposite or alternate, they are said to be verticillate or whorled, except in the pines and firs, where the leaves, being gathered together in small bundles, are said to be fascicled (lat fasciculus, a little bundle). the number of leaves in a whorl varies considerably, thus in the anacharis alsinastrum, or american water weed, now so rapidly spreading throughout our eng- lish water-courses, the leaves are in threes: in the cross-leaved heath (erica tetralix) in fours; while in the goose-grass (galium aparine) the whorl is composed of many more parts. it is a law of universal force in vegetable organography that the greater the number of parts the less regular they are; thus the opposite or two-leaved arrangements are most constant; but, when three leaves compose the ring, a variation from the normal number is occasionally met with, while the fluctuation is most marked when the normal number is greater. in one hundred whorls of the goose-grass that we counted to test this, thirteen were composed of six leaves, thirty-eight had seven, forty-one had eight, while the remaining eight had nine. in one hundred whorls of the great hedge hedstraw (galium mullugo) the variation was equally striking. fourteen examples had six leaves to the whorl, eighteen of the whorls had seven leaves, fifty had eight leaves, seventeen had rings of nine leaves, while one whorl had ten. the general form of the leaf, as it would tell as a mass in the design, is artistically a very important feature. we have already described some of the simpler forms. leaves are either simple (figs. , , , , ), or compound (figs. , , , ); simple, when the divisions do not pass down to the central line: compound, when they do. compound leaves are of two very marked types, either, in the first case, where the parts all radiate from one centre— the horse chestnut leaf (figs. , ) is a good example of this; or, secondly, where these c and ornamental treatment. round london at the time of its publication, it contains some hundreds of plates in the six volumes of which it consists. from its rarity and great costliness, it is one of those books that the designer will scarcely be able to secure for his own library: it is well, therefore, to know where it may be consulted. to this we may add the medical botany of woodville, and a book with a similar title, by stephenson and churchill; though, like the flora londinensis, books of a considerable age, they are not the less excellent the plants selected are such as have me- dicinal value, and include both british and foreign species the illustrations have clearly been drawn and coloured from nature. in these three works, the plants are arranged according to the linnsan system—a classification of plants now given up in favour of what is termed the natural system; but this in no way impairs the value of the illustrations to the art-student the third edition of sowerby's english botany, recently completed, is an invaluable work for consultation. it contains a carefully-drawn and coloured figure of every british plant; but, like the others we have mentioned, it is naturally a book rather for library reference than for individual possession, as a work so comprehensive and elaborate must, of necessity, be high in price. the student may also refer to owen jones's grammar of ornament, where he will find some few plates, towards the end of the book, devoted to natural forms; and to the large volumes of illustrations of the natural orders of plants, by elizabeth twining. figuier's vegetable world, and coleman's woodlands, heaths, and hedges, are valuable; and so, too, are the two volumes of the illustrated edition of bentham's british flora, wherein wood cuts of every british plant are given, though to a rather small scale. to these we may, perhaps, be pardoned, if we add a work on plant form, by the author of the present pages, in which numerous plants, adapted to ornamental purposes, are drawn to a large size, and analysed with a special view to art-treatment a few details, in conclusion, before passing to plate , concerning the plants partially illustrated on the present plate. the sycamore (acer pseudo platanus, fig. )—so called from a slight resemblance the tree bears to the true sycamore (ficus sycamorusj of the east—though not indigenous, is suffi- ciently common for most of our readers to have frequently seen it it is one of the very few trees in which the leaves are arranged in pairs—the ash, maple, and horse chestnut being the other examples. the leaves of the sycamore are often, during the autumnal months, found covered with purplish, black, irregular blotches: a feature that the ornamentist will make a note of as it comes under his observation. these stains are caused by xyloma acerinum, a fungoid growth. the flowers, green in colour, and in long, drooping clusters, appear in may; they are, however, too small, both in their details, and even in the aggregate, to be of practical service to the designer, though the winged fruit that succeeds them is a very suggestive and beautiful ornamental form. we are not aware of any existing instance of the use of the sycamore in decorative art, though the maple (acer campestre), an allied species, is, as we shall see in speaking of that plant, one of the greatest favourites of the carvers, during the decorated period of gothic. the pelargonium, or geranium leaf (fig. ), is one of the numerous forms produced by cultivation: a form so familiar to all, that we need not—having already referred to it—dwell further upon it fig. is the leaf of the corn convolvulus (convolvulus arvensis), a very beautiful and common plant, strewing the bank with its profusion of pink and white flowers, or twining in a graceful spiral up the stems of the growing corn. an exceedingly beautiful plant for any light class of design, as, for instance, muslins, damasks, or lace. an instance of its use in the art- work of the past may be seen at the end of one of the stalls in wells cathedral; the leaves, however, alone being represented. it is sometimes called the small bindweed, in contradistinction to an ally, the calystegia sepium, or great bindweed, the large, white convolvulus of our hedges. the sweet-william (dianthus barbalus, fig. ), a native of southern europe, is a very favourite flower in cottage gardens. the heads of blossoms show a very considerable variety of tint; but in almost, if not quite, all, the characteristic ring of colour, either darker or lighter than the ground, is present many of the pinks and carnations in cultivation also show this feature very clearly. the familiar name of the present plant does not, as one might suppose, commemorate some rustic hero, but is a good illustration of the curious modifications that plant names are sometimes found to undergo. its name in france is oeillet, a little eye, in allusion to the pupil-like central spot seen in many of the flowers, and, the original significance being lost in crossing the channel, the transition to willy, and thence to sweet-william, was easy; as the illiterate will always modify a word that is meaningless to them into something that, however wide of the. mark, seems more familiar; thus the word asparagus, originally derived from a greek word, signifying to tear (many of the species beine armed with sharp spines), being thus without * plants: their natural growth meaning to the costermonger, is perverted by him into sparrowgrass, a name that is in reality and entirely meaningless. the evening primrose, or evening star (cenothera biennis, fig. ), though really a north american plant, appears to be fully establishing itself in many parts of england. its only title to the name of primrose consists in the delicate yellow of the large and fragrant flowers: it is, in all other respects, very different to the true primrose (primula vulgaris). it flowers throughout the summer and autumn, the blossoms opening in the evening. it has long been cultivated in gardens, but it is not known at what period precisely it was introduced into eng- land. parkinson, in his garden of pleasant flowers, published in , is the first author who refers to it in that book it is called the tree primrose of virginia. it first reached europe in , plants in that year being sent from virginia to padua. the poet barton ( - ) thus alludes to it-~ "fair flower, that shunn'st the glare of day, yet lov'st to open, meekly bold, to evening's hues of sober grey thy cup of paly gold." it is a highly ornamental plant, and one well worthy the regard of the ornamentist the ginkgo (salisburia adiantifolia, fig. ) is a native of china; there is a great variety of form in the foliage, though all the forms agree in general character. it is sufficiently hardy to stand our climate—the flourishing tree from whence this leaf was taken being in the open border at kew. the leaf is very similar in form to that so characteristic of the adiantum ferns, of which the adiantum capillus- veneris, or maiden-hair, is a familiar species, hence the specific name adiantifolia. the coltsfoot (tussilago farfara, fig, ) is very conspicuous from its large leaves on most waste ground of a gravelly or clayey nature. the flowers, large and of a golden yellow, appear in early spring before the leaves are developed. it has many synonyms in rural districts, as, for instance, cough-wort, from its supposed medicinal qualities; foal's-foot, horse-hoof, bull's- foot, from the shape of the leaf. a plant admirably adapted for stone-carving, though we are unable to cite any instance of its application to decorative art. black bryony (tamus communis, fig. ). this striking plant is not uncommon in our hedge-rows and thickets, though it does not occur in either scotland or ireland. it is a doubtful native. the flowers are greenish white: the berries that succeed them, a brilliant red. its long trailing stems and masses of large glossy leaves make it one of the most ornamental plants of the hedge-row, and one every way worthy of the ornamentist's regard. it must not be confused, from similarity of name, with the white bryony (bryonia dioica, fig. ), another equally beautiful hedge-climber, but of very different form in all ifs parts to the black bryony, our present plant plate . "the lord is good to all; and his tender mercies are over all his works."—psalm cxlv . "consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin : and yet i say unto you, that even solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these."—matt, vi , . the opening buds of spring frequently present very beautiful and 'suggestive forms: of these the sycamore is a very good example. two views of the same bud are shown in figs. and . the imbricated arrangement (lat imbrex, a tile, overlapping like the tiles of a roof) of the scales, and their gradual increase in size, are note-worthy points, as also the abrupt transition from scaly to true foliate form. the horse chestnut bud (sesculus hippocastanum) affords another very beautiful study of form and development of growth. the arrangements of young leaves within their buds, or as it is technically termed, vernation, are often very curious. several very distinct varieties of arrangement are to be found; thus in the sycamore, our present plant, the vernation is plicate—from the lat plica, a fold—the parts being folded together, like a closed fan. the vine is another instance of this plicate arrangement in ferns, the vernation is a very characteristic feature: it is termed circinate (lat circinatus, rounded), the whole leaf, from apex to base, being tightly rolled into a spiral and rounded mass. many other such distinctive forms of growth are recognised; but a due consideration of the space at our disposal compels us to abstain from any further comment, lest haply, in endeavouring to exhaust our subject, we may still more effectually succeed in exhausting our readers. scales are rudimentary leaves: we may, therefore, in the sycamore, as in most other plants, meet with transitional forms. the function pf the scales is to protect the tender bud during the cold of winter, hence the plants of cold and ornamental treatment. regions are generally thus provided for, while in tropical plants the development of scales is altogether exceptional. upon the evolution of the bud, the protective work of the scale is at an end; it is, therefore, thrown off, leaving a scar upon the stem, a memorial of its former existence. in the lilac (syringa vulgaris) the transition from rudimentary scale to normal leaf form is more gradually marked: fig. is the natural growth of a young lilac shoot: figs. , , , , , showing the forms detached, as the gradation is thus more readily traced. we have already, in referring to plate , pointed out the difference in form that may frequently be traced between the earliest leaves of a seedling, and all those that succeed them. of this the sunflower (fig. ) afforded an example; while, in the present plate, we see the same ornamental feature again illustrated in the radish (raphanus sativus). we also, in our remarks on that plate, pointed out the great variety of form that in some plants is seen in their normal leaves, according to their position on the plant, illustrating our observations by a reference to the forms seen in the hedge mustard. the shepherd's purse, an equally common plant (figs. , ), is an equally good example, the larger and more richly-cut leaf being one of the lower leaves, while the form of simpler character is one of the higher leaves of the flowering stem. throughout the whole range of ornamental art the use of geometry is a principle of con- tinuous recurrence. in many periods of art, as in the english and italian gothic of the th century, its use is eminently characteristic. one of our great authorities on matters connected with design has laid down this law,—"all ornament should be based on a geometrical construc- tion ;" and, though at first sight we feel inclined to doubt whether all should be thus bound by so rigid a law, we shall, nevertheless, on consideration and investigation of various examples of ornamental art, be quite prepared to admit the charm that a geometric basis is able to impart to an even otherwise poor design, and to recognise the enhanced beauty that it gives in all cases. nature affords us many examples of geometrical forms, more especially in the open blossoms of most plants, and perhaps no less so—though it is not at first sight so obvious—in the sections of stems. the circle, the simplest geometrical form, is that most commonly found; we see it in the stems of grasses, the elder (sambucus nigra), the ash (xraxinus excelsior), and many others. the triangle is the typical sectional form of the stems of water plants, as, one angle being presented to the direct action of the flowing stream, it is the form most suited to ensure the necessary stability, acting, as it does, like the prow of a boat, or the triangular pier of a bridge, in diverting the direct force of the current we see the triangular section very well shown in the sedges (carex vulpina, fig. ), for example: plants that, growing in the bed of the stream, are exposed to the full power of the water; and again in the alisma plantago, or water plantain (fig. ), where the forms are much rounder, as this plant does not grow in the open stream, but fringes its banks, and has not, therefore, so great a pressure to sustain. the contrast between the two triangular forms, each so admirably adapted to the special circumstances of the plant's existence, is, we think, a very striking illustration of that great law of adaptation so frequently to be traced in the works of nature. the form of the cross section of the stem of the papyrus (papyrus antiquoram) is identical with that of the alisma. several of the labiate family have stems based on a square: such a form is seen in the lamium album—the white archangel, or white dead-nettle—fig. . we see another modification of it in the stem of the stinging nettle (urtica dioica), and of the square-stalked st john's wort (hypericum quadrangulum); while more complex polygonal forms are met with in the pentagonal stems of the meadow sweet (spirosa ulmaria, fig. ), or the stapelia hystrix (fig. ), and in the hexagonal stems of the balsam (impatiens noli-me-tangere, fig. ), or the hop (humulus lupulus). a still greater rich- ness of form is seen on cutting across the deeply-furrowed and fluted stems of many of the umbelliferce, as the wild carrot (daucus carota), or the fool's parsley (aithusa cynapium). a very curious stem section is figured on plate —that of the aspidospermum excelsum, a native of british guiana. several very remarkable sections of this may be seen in the botanical collection of the british museum. though so extraordinary in form, a parallel on a smaller scale might almost be found in the stem of the common maple (acer campestre), the bark being exceedingly rough, and full of deep and irregular fissures. fig. , and the remaining illustrations on plate , are geometric shaft sections of varying degrees of richness, from the cathedrals or other buildings named beneath each example. n i plants: their natural growth plate . "the great business of study is to form a mind adapted, and adequate, to all times and all occasions ; to which all nature is then laid open, and which may be said to possess the key to her inexhaustible riches."—sir joshua reynolds, discourse xi. the first figure on this plate is the highly ornamental leaf of the greater knapweed (centaurea scabiosa). as the plant is represented in its natural growth at fig. , we shall defer further comment until then; the leaf is merely detached from want of space for it on plate , as it is one of the large lower leaves of that plant fig. , the leaf of the corn marigold (chrysanthemum segetum), is very ornamental in character; the whole plant is well worthy of the ornamentist's consideration. its large yellow flowers render it a conspicuous object; it is found, together with the blue cornflower (centaurea cyanus) and the scarlet poppy (papaver rhceas), in the ripening wheat, and is, like those, one of the characteristic plants of autumn. figs. , , , , the leaves of the ivy-leaved speedwell (veronica hederifolia), have been already referred to in our remarks on the variation of form often seen in the leaves of the same plant though the great majority of leaves are bi-symmetrical in form, we occasionally meet with examples wanting in this symmetrical character; the leaf of the elm ( ulmus campestris) is a familiar example of this. we see it still more clearly in the various species of begonia—as in fig. , the leaf of the b. suffruticosa, and in fig. , that of b. wetoniensis. in this family the difference of size between the portions on either side of the main rib is very marked indeed. in speaking botanically of leaves being bi-symmetrical, we disregard any minor variations, or slight deviation in the dimensions, the word being used in a general sense, and not as implying geometrical accuracy: since, in almost every leaf, though practically it may be said to be bi- symmetrical, small differences of form will be easily detected in comparing one half with the other. where leaves are unsymmetrical, it will always be found that they are arranged alternately on the stem: no instance is know of inequilateral leaves being arranged in an opposite manner on the stem; hence this would seem to prove, in the words of de candolle, " that this inequality ought to be referred to the position of the leaf upon the plant favouring the development of one of its sides more than the other, and in this case it is always the lowest which is developed most" this law is still more evident in the leaflets of pinnate leaves; when they are unequal, as is ordinarily the case, the lower part is always that most developed. we see this in the leaflets of the knap- weed, on the present plate. figs. , , , are also good examples. in palmate leaves, leaves of a radiate character, like those of the horse chestnut, when the lateral leaflets, though forming part of a symmetrical whole, are not, in themselves, symmetrical, the larger portion will always be on the external side—that part furthest removed from the general central line of the leaf. not only do leaves, when viewed individually, present ordinarily a general symmetry of form, but also a due symmetry in regard to their position on the stem in connection with other leaves; thus, with scarcely an exception, all leaves that spring from the same level are of equal size: they are, at least, normally so, though accidents of growth may have disturbed this natural symmetry. we see this very clearly in the ground ivy (nepeta glechoma, fig. ), or the meadow crane's-bill (geranium pratense, fig. ). a very curious instance of this law of symmetry and the due balance of parts is seen in the rucllia anisophylla, where the leaves, though growing in pairs, are not equal, one being very small and narrow as compared with the other; yet, on comparing successive pairs, the small leaf of the pair is found to occur alternately, first on the left side, then on the right in the deadly nightshade or dwale (atropa belladona) the leaves, though in pairs, are of very unequal size, one of each two being always much larger than the other, as may be seen by reference to fig. . in fig. we have a design based on this curious and abnormal growth. when leaves are in whorls, or verticillate in arrangement, all the leaves composing a whorl are ordinarily of the same size: occasionally, however, they vary from large to small, placed alternately. the leaf of the daisy (bellis perennis, fig. ) has already been referred to in speaking of the various foliate forms, as an example of the spatulate type; while the harebell leaf (campanula rotundifolia, fig. ) is a type of the rounded leaf. we may also cite it as a further instance of the variety of leaf form to be sometimes found on one plant, as the lower leaves alone are of this character, the upper ones being thin and strap-shaped. the plant as a whole is admirably adapted for employment in design, its delicate growth and graceful bell-shaped flowers being features of great beauty and adaptability to art-work. the leaves of the various species of sarracenia are curious examples of the very abnormal forms sometimes assumed. the variation of colour in these is very striking in the drum- mondii the lower portion is light green, gradually merging into pure white, and on this, as a ground, i plants: their natural growth , given a plan view of the expanded flower of the malva sylvestris, an allied species, and one more commonly met with; the flowers are of a reddish purple, and the leaves very similar to the lower ones (fig. ) of the musk mallow: it has not, however, as a whole, the richness of form and ornamental detail that we find in our present plant the musk mallow is not unfrequently met with on hedge-banks, in pastures, and by road-sides, and more especially where the soil is of gravel or chalk; it will be found in flower during july, august, and september. it derives its name of musk in allusion to a slight musky odour that is perceptible when the plant is drawn through the hand. the various species of mallow have long been held in repute for their medicinal qualities, being emollient in their nature, a feature not peculiar to our english species alone, but to the whole family, some six hundred in number. the malvacece form a considerable proportion in tropical vegetation, and all the species are thus mucilaginous in their nature, and entirely without deleterious properties. they have also valuable economic use, the various species of gossypium (the cotton plants) being members, amongst many others of less conspicuous com- mercial utility, of this family. the holyhock (althea rosea) a familiar garden plant, is also a mallow. the ring of bracts, three in number, beneath the true calyx, is characteristic of the whole of our british species of malva. it is clearly shown in fig. . the musk mallow yields an excellent fibre after maceration, and several attempts have been made to introduce it in the manufacture of paper, cordage, &c. good as it is however, other plants, as the hemp and flax, are still better, and it has consequently never come into practical use. the technical name, malva, like the familiar english name, mallow, refers to the soothing nature of the plant, being derived from a greek word signifying to make soft we are unable to give any instances of the use of the plant in the ornament of the past; possibly the fact of its not being so very common as many other plants may, in part at least, account for this, as it seems to us that, its beauties once perceived, it should be gladly hailed by the follower of ornamental art we have, in fig. , a patera form, based on a flower of five petals; but the resemblance to our mallow is not sufficiently close to justify us in claiming it as an art- adaptation of that flower. fig. , though more like it, has the unit six times repeated, instead of five times, as we see it in the petals of the natural flower. though unable to cite either of these ornamental forms as being actually derived from the mallow, they are at least suggestive, and on this ground we feel justified in introducing them. both examples are from tiles dug up in the ruins of chertsey abbey, surrey: the originals may be seen in the south kensington museum. many of the chertsey tiles are very interesting, and give very excellent renderings of our native plants, as in fig. ; the maple, ground ivy, and other plants being shown with sufficient truth to render them pleasing, and yet in due subordination to ornamental requirements. besides the collection at south kensington, other examples may be seen at the british museum. plate . "do not depreciate any pursuit which leads men to contemplate the works of their creator! the linnean traveller who, when you look over the pages of his journal, seems to you a mere botanist, has in his pursuit an object that occupies his time, and fills his mind, and satisfies his heart nor is the pleasure which he partakes in investigating the structure of a plant less pure, or less worthy, than what you derive from perusing the noblest productions of human genius."—southey. the white bryony, or white hedge-vine (bryonia dioica), is one of our commoner english plants, though it is but sparingly met with in the northern counties and in wales, and not at all in scotland or ireland. it must be sought in the hedge-row or copse, where it may be found covering large expanses of hedge and bush with its long trailing stems and masses of large leaves. the flowers, from their small size and green colour, are not conspicuous features; but the bright berries that succeed them—first orange, then of deep scarlet—attract the eye more readily, as the plant hangs in graceful festoons from point to point the generic name, bryonia, is derived from a greek word signifying to shoot or grow rapidly, in allusion to the rapid growth of the plant; while the specific name, dioica, refers to its dioecious nature. in most plants we find the male, or staminoid parts, and the female, or pistilloid parts, placed together in each blossom; but in some cases some of the flowers on a plant are wholly pistilliferous, while others are exclusively staminiferous; while a further modification is seen in such plants as the present, where all the blossoms of , one plant are pistil-bearing, and all the blossoms of another plant stamen- bearing. these plants are called dioecious. it is only on the plants bearing fertile or pistillate flowers that the fruit is formed. the leaves, ordinarily with five lobes but occasionally with seven, are very rough in texture. the whole plant possesses dangerous properties, and, though long classed amongst medicinal herbs, is, from the violence and uncertainty of its action, now discarded. and ornamental treatment. the plant is, from the freedom of its growth, its large and handsome leaves, and long waving tendrils, one eminently adapted to art purposes. in fig. we have a conventional treatment of it from an early th century ms., in the british museum—" le live de la chasse," by gaston phebus, comte de foix. the berries, tendrils, and leaves are all well introduced in a carving, filling a hollow moulding, rouen cathedral. we find it again in the carving beneath a bracket ( th century period) in hawton church, nottinghamshire: this is an especially beautiful example; also round a small capital in the same church. a very good treatment of it again in a capital (decorated period) at guisborough abbey, yorkshire. holbein has introduced the plant in two of his pictures—one a portrait of sir henry dudley; the other, of john res- kinner: both pictures are in the royal collection at windsor. we have ourselves endeavoured to embody something of the spirit of the plant in the two designs marked and respectively— the first being for flat decoration, the second for work in relief; while, in the lower figure on plate (%. ), we have a very beautiful mediaeval rendering of it from southwell minster. it will be understood that figs. , , and , are enlarged views of the parts represented; their natural size is shown in fig. . the inflorescence of plants is a feature not to be neglected by the ornamentist inflorescence is a term used to express the arrangement of the flowers (from the lat infloresco, i begin to blossom), and is equivalent in meaning to the term modus jlorendi, or manner of flowering, used by the earlier botanists. if we examine such flowers as the dwale (atropa belladonna, fig. ), the trailing periwinkle (vinca major), the large hedge convolvulus (calystegia septum), or the broom (sarothamnus scoparius, fig. ), we find single flowers given off at more or less regular intervals from the axils of the leaves, and the shoot continuing its length indefinitely. plants having this growth are said to have their flowers solitary or axillary. single flowers are said to be terminal when at the summit of a stem, as in fig. , the snowdrop (galanthus nivalis), or the coltsfoot (tussilago farfara). in some plants, especially in those having erect stems, the central axis terminates with the inflorescence; the intervals between the flowers are small, and the floral leaves (bracts), by their rapid diminution in size, give to the whole a tapering form. if the individual blossoms have no stalks (pedicels), but are attached at once to the central stem, this form of flowering is called a spike; but if the blossoms thrown off from the central axis have stalks, it is called a raceme. the flowers of the spike may be very close together, as in the plantain (plantago major), or at some considerable interval, as in the agrimonia eupatorium, or herb agrimony (fig. ), or again in the plantago sparsifolia; very frequently the lower ones are much further apart than the upper, as in the yellow rattle (rhinanthus crista-galli, fig. ). the flowers composing the spike may be in pairs: or whorls, as in myridphyllum verticillatum, the whorled water milfoil; singly, in a line, one over the other, all being thus on one side only of the floral axis, as in spartina stricta; or singly, with a spiral arrangement, as in the vervain ( verbena officinalis). all these features, though found in one form of inflorescence, the spicate, are worthy of consideration, as, ornamentally, these modifications each give a different character and effect a raceme, as we have seen, resembles a spike, except that the flowers are on pedicels, and these pedicels, to make the inflorescence truly racemose, must be all of nearly equal length; vicia sepium, the bush vetch (fig. ), the mignonette (reseda odorata), or the red currant (rides rubrum) are examples. if, instead of being of nearly equal length, the lower pedicels are very much longer than the others, so as to bring the flowers approximately to one level, thus forming a more or less flat-topped mass of blossoms, the resulting form is called a corymb; the inflorescence of the bryony (fig. ) is corymbose. we see it also in the goldilocks (linosyris vulgaris), the ploughman's spikenard (inula conyza), the groundsel (senecio vulgaris), and many other plants. another modification of racemose flowering is seen in what is termed the panicle—it is practically a compound raceme—where the pedicels are themselves again branched, instead of each support- ing but one blossom. the paniculate form is very characteristic of grasses: the oat (avena sativa), is a good and easily accessible example of it we see it, too, in the yellow bedstraw (galium verum), the sycamore (acer pseudo-platanus), the butterbur (tussilago petasites), and numerous other plants. when this paniculate form presents a very dense head of flowers, it is sometimes called a thyrsus, as in the privet (ligustrum vulgare), or horse' chestnut (aisulus hippocastanum ). the umbel is a very characteristic form of inflorescence: it is produced by all the pedicels springing from one point, whence they radiate like a fan, or the ribs of an umbrella umbellate inflorescence is seen in the cherry (cerasus communis), the celandine (chelidonium majus, fig. ), or the flowering rush (butomus umbellatus). the umbel is called compound when each ray of the primary umbel itself terminates in an umbel, as in the fennel (fozniculum vulgare), the hemlock (conium maculatum), and many other plants. e plants: their natural growth in some cases the upright growth of the central axis is suddenly terminated, when a flat (marigold, chrysanthemum segetum), concave (fig, ficus carica), or convex (teasel, dipsacus sylvestris), cushion-like head is formed, and on this a number of sessile flowers are congregated, as in the plants just mentioned; or, as in the leopard's bane (doronicum pardalianches, fig. ), the aster alpinum (fig. ), the daisy (bellis perennis), or the dandelion (taraxacum dens- leonis). it will be noticed, therefore, that what we should, as ornamentists, term the flower of the daisy, is really an aggregation of very many flowers into one head. this form of inflorescence is termed the capitulum. there are several other forms, as the cyme, amentum, spadix, and fascicle, and also modifications of those already described; thus it is not uncommon to find a floral axis racemose at the base, and spicate above: or, in other cases, spicate in the early part of its existence, and becoming racemose as it becomes more developed; but however interesting physiologically, we need not now, for our present purpose, dwell upon them, since the type forms of inflorescence mentioned are those that will most readily lend themselves to the requirements of ornamental art any of our readers desirous of further information on these points can at once acquire it by turning to any manual of descriptive botany. the tendrils of the bryony are a beautiful feature, though, from their lightness of form, they become features of greater beauty in surface decoration (see fig. ) than it is possible to make them in relief work. tendrils (lat teneo, to hold) are, botanically, and with a view to ornamental treatment, of various kinds; thus the bryony and the passion flower throw them out from the stem, while in the everlasting pea (fig. ) they spring from the end of the leaf petiole: they are sometimes single, at other times branched. the upper leaflets of a pinnate leaf are sometimes converted into tendrils : we see this very well exemplified in the pea already referred to. in the strophan- thus hispidus, of sierra leone, each lobe of the five divisions of the corolla is prolonged into a filament of some seven inches in length, serving all the purposes of a true tendril. tendrils are only met with in a fully-developed form in plants of a soft and flexible nature; thus those plants —belonging to the viciece, passiflorece, and many other groups—that have weak stems have well- developed tendrils: while in other and stronger plants in the same orders, we find that they are rudimentary or altogether absent tendril-bearing plants, being dependent upon others for their support, are naturally found either in forests, as in many fine tropical examples; or amongst thickets and hedges, as in the case of the meadow vetchling (lathyrus pratensis); or the bush vetch ( vicia sepium, fig. ). the twisting of tendrils or twining stems is based on a rigid law, and always has the same direction in the same species. in the french bean (phaseolus vulgaris), or large garden con- volvulus (ipomcea purpurea), for example, the spiral always ascends to the left; while in the hop ( humulus lupulus) it is always from left to right it may, at first sight, seem difficult to verify this, but if the reader will imagine the plant in question to be turning round his own body he will at once be able to determine whether the plant, in ascending, would cross in front of him from right to left, or the reverse. the bryony presents a peculiarity which, so far as we are aware, is exclusively its own; the tendrils suddenly, in the middle of their course, change their direction, the upper half twining in a contrary direction to the lower. the means of support employed by climbing plants are very varied. in many cases the main stem twines and gives the needed support—the corn convolvulus (convolvulus arvensis) is an illustration of this mode of growth; at other times, as in the ivy (hedera helix), root-like processes are thrown out from the stems, and by their grasp and powers of penetration into the hollows of brick or storte-work, or the rugged tree-bark, amply suffice to sustain the plant the goose-grass (galium aparine) clings by means of the small hook-like appendages with which the stems and undersides of the leaves are furnished. in the plectocomia elongata, one of the tallest species of palms, the stem is so slender that it needs the support of others stronger than itself; to obtain this, the long pinnate leaves terminate in a series of recurved hooks or spines, of complex form and immense strength ; and by these the plant, thrusting its leaves upwards (each leaf being some thirty feet long) amongst the branches of the surrounding trees, secures itself perfectly. in some plants the leaf-stems twine round any suitable object—the garden canariensis (tropceolum peregrinum) is a very beautiful illustration of this; while in other instances, as in the dodder (cuscuta europcea), little tubercles are developed, which, becoming hollow underneath, act as suckers by the vacuum produced. so great then is the diversity of means for attaining the same end, so marked the variety of operation in working out the same problem—a good illustration of the wealth of resource to be seen in the works of nature, and a lesson not without value to those who would endeavour to base their art on natural beauty. and ornamental treatment. triacantnos), where not only does the central spine throw out lateral points, but these in turn have smaller spines on them. in some foreign plants the petioles, on the fall of the leaves, harden and become true spines: they are, from their original nature and function, always of simple form. in some few cases leaflets are entirely or partially abortive, and a spine with lateral branches takes their place. the leaf may be spinescent by the hardening of the central nerve, as in the yucca gloriosa; or by the prolongation into spines of the nerves of the lateral lobes, as in the thistles. the sharp points of the holly (i lax aquifolium) are also good examples of these foliary spines. the rudimentary leaf-forms, botanically termed bracts or scales, may, as we see in fig. , present similar features. in the alyssum spinosum the flower stems, on the fall of the blossoms, become hardened into veritable spines: while even the parts of the flower themselves, fugacious as they ordinarily are, are in some examples found to present spinous forms; thus in some species of stachys the calyx is spiny: while in cuviera the petals develop a thorn-like point as all the organs of plants, with the exception of the root and seed, are thus capable of being transformed into spinous processes, these spines must be considered rather as a particular development of vegetable growth, than as true organs themselves. though the terms thorn, spine, or prickle are frequently used synonymously, it is more correct to limit the use of the first two to the developments above mentioned, reserving the term prickle for those forms which do not result from the induration of any of the organs of the plant, but are rather of the nature of hairs, differing from them only in being stronger, harder, and of modified form; prickles, therefore, are usually found upon stems or leaves. a prickle being, as we have seen, but a modified hair, is superficial, and can easily be removed, leaving but a surface scar, as in the dog rose (rosa canina); while a thorn, being a modification of some organic body, is intimately connected with the internal structure, and can only be removed by actual force and rupture of the parts. plate , "god made the flowers to beautify the earth, and cheer man's careful mood, and he is happier who has power to gather wisdom from a flower, and wake his heart in every hour to pleasant gratitude."—wordsworth. the brilliant crocus luteus is one of our favourite cultivated species of crocus, its brilliant perianth rendering it a very valuable acquisition at a time when there are but few flowers, and those of but pale tint—the delicate white of the snowdrop—the sulphur yellow of the primrose. either the present flower, or an allied and very similar species, was introduced into our gardens during the reign of elizabeth; for we find in the description of a crocus, in the writings of gerarde, a famous herbalist of that period, that he says—" that pleasant plant, that bringeth forth yellow flowers, was sent unto me from robinus of paris." gerarde was a great lover of rare plants, and had exceptionally good opportunity of acquiring them, as he was the curator of the very fine botanical garden of lord burlegh. he wrote a "catalogue of trees, fruits, and plants," dedicating the first edition (a.d. ) to his patron burlegh, and a second, in , to sir walter raleigh. his prefatory remarks, though quaint in expression, are also so full of genuine appreciation of nature, that we make no apology for making a quotation from them. he com- mences as follows :—" any the manifold creatures of god (right honourable, and my singular good lord) that have all in all ages diuersly entertained many excellent wits, and drawn them to the contemplation of the diuine wisdome, none have prouoked men's studies more, or satisfied their desires so much as plants haue done, and that upon just and worthy causes; for, if delight may prouoke men's labour, what greater delight is there than to behold the earth apparelled with plants as with a robe of embroidered worke, set with orient pearles, and garnished with great diuersitie of rare and costly jewels? if this varietie and perfection of colours may effect the eie, it is such in herbes and flowers, that no apelles, no zeuxis ever could, by any art, expresse the like; if odours or if taste may worke satisfaction, they are both so soueraigne in plants, and so com- fortable, that no confection of the apothecaries can equall their excellent vertue. but these delights are in the outward senses : the principal delight is in the mind, singularly enriched with the knowledge of these uisible things, setting forth to vs the inuisible wisdome and admirable workmanship of almighty god. the delight is great, but the vse greater, and ioyned often with necessitie. in the first ages of the world they were the ordinary meate of men, and have con- tinued euer since of necessary vse, both for meates to maintaine life, and for medicine to recover health." f plants: their natural growth the generic name crocus was bestowed upon these plants by linnaeus. its significance seems not quite clear, as by one writer it is derived from the greek word for filament or thread, an allusion to the appearance of the stigmas of one of the species (c. sativus), when dried to form the saffron of commerce; another finds in mythical story an explanation of the name in the ardent passion of crocus for the fair smilax, an ardency that consumed him, and led to his metamorphosis into the plant that still bears his name; while a third derives it from coriscus, a mountain of cilicia. this suggestion bears a certain amount of probability, from the facts that, in the first place, the crocus really is a native of the south-eastern medi- terranean region: and, secondly, that pliny, in his writings, expressly informs us that the best saffron was the cilician. of the three suggested derivations, however—the commercial, the mythological, and the geographical—the first seems most probable, as the crocus has, from the earliest times, been cultivated for its commercial value. saffron is mentioned by the earliest greek writers; while in the east it has been held in great esteem from time immemorial for its supposed medicinal virtues. its arabic name zaha/eran, is the parent of our english name saffron, of the french, danish, and swedish saffran, the italian safferano, the spanish azafran, the german safran-planze, the russian shajrann, the dutch saffraan, the hindostanee zaifran, and the malay safaron. this remarkable similarity of name clearly points to its importation into europe from the east: while the arabic name itself is derived from the adjective ssafra, yellow. the bulbs were introduced into england in the reign of edward iii. throughout the middle ages, saffron was held in great favour as a cordial; the old writers, to mark their sense of its value, called it aurum philosophorum, sanguis herculis, aurum vegetabile, rex vegetabilium, and panacea vegetabilis; but its use in more modern times has been very limited, and it is now but little employed, except for its aromatic qualities and power of imparting a rich colouring— properties that render it useful sometimes for disguising unpalatable medicinal preparations. in the preparation of saffron the stigmas and a small portion of the style are the parts employed. after being carefully gathered, they are dried by artificial heat, and then form narrow shreds of about an inch in length, and of a reddish brown colour: this is technically called hay saffron. the space and labour required to produce even a small quantity render it very costly, as the stigmata of about seventy thousand flowers must be carefully picked by hand for each pound weight of saffron produced. besides the very numerous garden crocuses, we have two or three english species. the purple spring crocus (c. vernus), though not truly indigenous, has so completely naturalised itself in various localities in england and ireland that it now occupies a recognised place in our flora. the naked crocus (c. nudijlorus), though a native of southern europe, has naturalised itself in the neighbourhood of nottingham, derby, warwick, and halifax, and, like the spring crocus, may justly claim a place amongst our british plants. the purple flowers appear in the autumn, after its leaves have withered away: a curious feature that the ornamentist may at some time find of value; other such examples may be seen in the coltsfoot ( tussilago farfara) and the almond (amygdalus communis); but in these instances matters are reversed, the flowers preceding, not succeeding, the leaves. in addition to these, the following are occasionally met with, though, as in every case they have been outcasts from gardens, they have as yet failed to make good their claim to recognition as truly wild plants. the c. mitiimus: this species, cultivated in gardens under the name of the scotch crocus, has, for more than half a century, sprung up in barton park, near bury st edmunds. the c. aureus, a rich golden-yellow flowered species, and a very similar plant to that of our plate, may at times be found; it was at one time cultivated for saffron, hence its occasional occurrence. it is dedicated by the roman catholic church to st valentine, a saint whose name at least is better known than those of many of his comrades of the calendar. homer, in the fourth book of the iliad—struck by the brilliancy of its tint, as it spread over the hills one mass of colour, like the beautiful expanse of purple heath clothing our own mountains and moors—thus refers to it in his description of the couch of jove and his consort juno :— "and sudden hyacinths the turf bestrew, while flowering crocus made the mountain glow." the true saffron crocus is still cultivated in the neighbourhood of saffron walden, in essex ; but it has no claim to be considered a british plant it is, we feel, superfluous to point out the beauty of the plant we have selected as a representative crocus, its strikingly ornamental forms are too apparent to need any eulogy of ours: it is itself ^its own ample commendation. we may, however, mention, by way of bare elucidation, that, while in fig. we have the natural growth of the plant as a whole, the remain- ing detached figures give us details of what are ornamentally the more important parts. these and ornamental treatment. details are as follows:—figs. , , side views of the flower: in the first case the sepaloid segment of the perianth being the central mass: in the second, the petaloid. it will be noticed that the outer or sepaloid segments have a conspicuous series of striped markings upon them, the inner segments being nearly, but not quite, free from them : this is seen more clearly in fig. , fig. is the graceful form of the bud. fig. , the bulb. the remaining views are plans, fig. , showing the opening bud; fig. , the form taken by the flower when incipient decay causes the curling over of the parts; while in fig. we have an exterior or underneath view of the flower at its fullest expansion. plate . "the rough burr-thistle, spreading wide among the bearded bear, i turn'd the weeder-chips aside, and spared the symbol dear."—burns. "then cullet she all flowers that on field, discerning all their fashions and effeirs; upon the awful thistle she beheld and saw him kippit with a bush of spears; considering him so able with the weirs, a radius crown of rubies she him gave, and said,-^-'in field go forth, and fend the lave.'" —dunbar: the " thrissill and the rois.n the spear plum thistle (carduus lanceolatus) is one of our most ornamental species. it grows abundantly in britain, and may be met with ordinarily by our hedge-sides, where its height and numerous heads of large purple flowers render it a very conspicuous plant the stem is winged, as it is botanically termed, by the prolongation of the leaf forms down the stem; and the leaves have numerous lobes, each being terminated by a sharp prickle. the bracts surrounding the flower-head are simple in form, not branched, as in the c. marianus, with a lateral fringing of points. the plant is found in flower throughout the whole summer. the thistle has been largely employed in ornamental art: in some cases clearly for its own inherent beauty: in others as clearly from its historic and heraldic associations. a very beautiful example of it may be seen in a square panel in the cathedral of bruges, and again in a moulding on the tomb of don juan ii., in that building; a good crocket at evreux; a bracket at sens; an especially beautiful running moulding at miraflores; numerous wooden panels (gothic carving) in the south kensing- ton museum; on the monument of mary queen of scots, in westminster abbey; examples at stirling castle, linlithgow, and holyrood. the thistle, we need scarcely say, has been adopted as the badge of scotland; but great uncertainty seems to exist, both as to what species may be considered the true heraldic thistle, or on what ground it was originally chosen as the national emblem. the thistles found sculptured on monuments are too conventional in character to afford any clue to the natural species from which we may assume they were originally derived; hence a wide field has been opened for antiquarian speculation. some authorities are prepared to accept the present species as most deserving of the honour; others prefer to advocate the claims of the milk thistle, or of the onopordum acanthium. neither of these latter, it appears to us, can however be accepted, as there is so much doubt of their being indigenous species; while they share with the present plant the disadvantage of being much too large, as, if any value can be attached to the legendary history of the subject, it must be some low-growing species like the c. acaulis that has most claim. in one chronicle we are told that queen scota, a mythical sovereign, whose name is not to be found in any chronological record, after a grand review of her troops, while resting on the turf was pricked by a thistle, and from this circumstance she adopted it, with the motto, "nemo me impune lacessif '—no one with impunity injures me—as the badge of her country. another historian says that during a night attack of the danes, one of the enemy treading on a thistle cried out, and thus gave timely warning to the scots of their near approach, and that, in gratitude for this, the thistle was chosen as the national emblem. if either of these legends be accepted, it is clear that the c. acaulis has most right to our recognition; but sir harris nicholas, in his " history of the orders of knighthood," shows that so far from the thistle being assumed as a badge at any such early period as either of these legends would infer, it is not alluded to in any way as an emblematic object until the reign of james iii., when we find it referred to in an inventory of the property of that monarch at his death, in —" a covering of variand purpir tarter browdin, with thrissils and a unicorn," the unicorn being another emblem of scotland. it was, beyond doubt, a national badge in , as in that year dunbar wrote a poetic plants: their natural growth allegory, entitled the "thrissill and the rois," on the union of james iv. and the princess margaret of england. the expressive motto was not added until ; it first appears on the coinage of james vi., where it surrounds the thistle that occupies the centre of the coin. it was not, however, altogether an original idea, though the application of it was so admirable, as francis sforza, at an earlier date, on taking possession, amidst considerable contention, of the state of milan, assumed as his bearing a greyhound, and the motto, "quietum nemo impune lacessit." the thistle gives its name to an order of knighthood. enthusiastic antiquarians ascribe a fabulous antiquity to the order of the thistle; but its real institution, or, as some would say, revival, took place in the year , during the reign of james ii. of great britain. james i. of england, but vi. of scotland, on his accession to the throne of the united kingdom, took as a badge a compound form, half rose half thistle, a central upright line dividing them. the stalk supporting this curious flower has on the one side a rose leaf, on the other that of a thistle. this impalement, as it would be termed heraldically, of the rose and thistle is borne on the arms of the earls of kinnoull. the thistle occurs too in the arms of the aberdeens; while, in the reign of henry viii., sir william finch bore as a badge a greenfinch standing on a thistle flower. the stuarts adopted as a badge the cotton thistle (onopordum acanthium); it is a scarce plant in scotland, and, though sometimes cultivated as the veritable scottish thistle, can have but little claim on our recognition as the badge of the nation. plate . "that which proves strong poison unto me, another loves, and eats, and lives: thus hemlock juice prevails, and kills a man, but fattens goats and quails."—creech's lucretius. the plant we have chosen for representation, the henbane (hyoscyamus niger), though not often to be met with, and therefore of unfamiliar appearance, is one that we are persuaded will prove a valuable addition to the designer's store, the leaves, blossoms, and fruit being alike striking in form, and of that due proportion to each other that is so important an element for the considera- tion of the ornamentist the plant must be sought for on rubbish heaps and waste land about villages and ruins. it is distributed sparingly over the whole of england and ireland and the south of scotland, and may be found in flower during most of the summer months. the flowers are in one-sided and leafy spikes, rolled up in a circinate manner during the early stages of flowering, but which gradually elongate until they present a line of some ten to twenty blossoms. the early stage is that which, owing to our limited space, we have here represented. the calyx during the flowering is small and foliaceous (fig. ) in texture and appearance; but becomes larger as the fruit ripens (fig. ), and is much more solid and rigid to the touch, the five terminal points becoming prickly. the whole plant is very hairy and viscid, and has an extremely nauseous smell. the henbane is one of our most powerful narcotic plants: it is a dangerous poison, but, under certain circumstances, and with due caution, becomes a valuable remedial agent from its sedative properties. the natural supply not being sufficient for the requirements of the pharma- copoeia, it is raised in considerable quantities, as a field crop, in the neighbourhood of mitcham, in surrey, a place long famous for its herb gardens. cases of accidental poisoning are not common, as the plant is at once too scarce and too unpleasant when found to afford much temptation to children, while it does not at all resemble any culinary vegetable; these are the two ordinary causes of such mistakes—either a plant (like the deadly nightshade, with its cherry-like fruit) tempts little fingers to gather it, from its resemblance to some fruit they know, or from its own tempting appearance; or it is taken in mistake by older persons (as in the case of the aithusa cynapium, having leaves somewhat like those of the garden parsley) for some esculent children have, however, with serious consequences, eaten the fruit in mistake for filberts. sir hans sloane relates a case where a child, after such a mistake, though it ultimately recovered, remained for fifty hours in a profound sleep. the roots have been eaten in error with the most terrible results. woodville mentions an instance where the leaves were boiled in a soup; all who partook of it became delirious, catching wildly at things about them, and in all ways exhibiting the symptoms of acute mania; while gerarde, in his quaint english, says—" the leaves, seed, and juice taken inwardly, cause an unquiet sleepe, like unto the sleepe of drunkennesse, which con- tinueth long, and is deadly to the party." the henbane belongs to the same order of plants as the deadly nightshade (fig. ) and the dangerous thorn-apple (fig. ): an order containing many other acrid and narcotic species. linnaeus called the plants comprising this order luridce, plantsi their natural growth an analysis of this one tribe of plants, but we must now leave all further consideration of them, and, in conclusion, briefly refer to the colours of the various flowers. the great majority are deep yellow, as in the broom or furze; or white, as in the trifolium repens, the dutch clover; but in some species—ex. lathyrus latifolius (fig. )—they are pink; in others crimson—ex. l. tuberosus, the tuberous bitter vetch; in some lilac—ex. medicago sativa, the lucerne; or purple—ex, astralagus hypoglottis, the purple mountain milk vetch. in vicia lutea the flowers are of a pale yellow. all the pea flowers belong to the natural order leguminosce, an order that, with the exception of the composites, contains more british plants than any other. all the british genera are papilionaceous, a term applied to the form of their flowers, as seen in figs. , , , , from a supposed resemblance to a butterfly (lat papilio), with expanded wings, a resemblance more fanciful perhaps than obvious. plate . god first planted a garden and indeed it is the purest of human pleasures.—bacon : essay on gardens. the ranunculus bulbosus, or bulbous crowfoot, is one of our commonest species of crowfoots, or buttercups, as they are often termed, and from being the plant that ordinarily in the spring covers the meadows with its brilliant flowers, and transforms them for a time into a mass of golden yellow, must be familiar to even those who commonly are but little observant the individual plant is no less beautiful, and amply repays a closer attention. the designer will find in it rich store of material, the flowers being large and good in form, the leaves having great richness and variety of contour, and the general growth of the plant free and flowing in its lines, while the swelling expansion at the base of the stem, and the radiating fibrous roots beneath it, form an admirable terminal form. in rich soils the flowers are occasionally double; it will be seen that one of the flowers in fig. is of this character, the others on the same plant being of normal form. front and back veins of the normal arrangement of parts—i.e., five petals and five sepals, are shown in figs. and : while, in figs. , , the plan and side views are given of a flower having a greater number of petals, the sepals being generally, even when the petals are very numerous, only five in number. the r. bulbosus is one of the favourite plants of the carvers of the th century gothic, and examples of its introduction into their ornament are very numerous—so numerous that we need scarcely pause to enumerate any special instances, as any of our finer remains of that period, such as lincoln or southwell, will afford illustrations. the species of ranunculus are somewhat numerous, and many of them possess features that render them of value to the art student; thus the r. aquatilis, or water crowfoot, a plant very commonly to be met with in ponds and streams, has large white flowers, and two very distinct forms of leaves—the upper ones rich in form, and floating on the surface: the lower ones submerged, and deeply cut into fine linear segments, a feature of the greatest value ornamentally. the r. lingua, or spearwort, is another plant of great utility to the designer, its stems being erect, and two to three feet high: the leaves long and simple in outline: the flowers very large. we need not further particularise the remaining species; but the designer will do well to consult any good illustrated work for r. ficaria (see fig. , in present work), r. acris, r. repens, and r. parviflorus—as all these possess valuable features at the service of the designer. the r. arvensis, or corn crowfoot, another good species, forms the subject of plate xxv. the brilliant garden ranunculus is a species from the levant; it is known botanically as the r. asiaticus. the name buttercup clearly arises from a belief very prevalent in country districts that the rich yellow of the spring butter is caused by the presence of these plants in the herbage; so far is this, however, from being the case, that cattle scrupulously avoid them on account of their acrid nature. the name crowfoot can as clearly be traced to the fancied resemblance between the leaves—see figs. , —and the feet of a bird. from the extreme commonness of the present plant it naturally bears many names in various parts of the country, as, for instance, frog's- foot, gold-knobs, gold-cup, baffiner, bassinet, troil-flower, butter-flower, and polt some of these names have a significance too obvious to need any attempt at explanation, while others, we con- fess, are too recondite to permit us to render it goldknob is a not inexpressive name when we see the opening buds, while goldcup is no less expressive when the flowers are* fully expanded. baffiner, inexplicable in itself, is possibly a corruption of bassinet, as such names undergo strange mutations amongst those who do not comprehend their import bassinet is derived from the french word bassinet, a small basin or skull cap, in allusion to the shape of the fully open blossom. troil-flower is derived from the old german word trol, a globe or ball. and ornamental treatment. the specific name, bulbosus, alludes to the bulb-like expansion of the base of the stem, the part that is ordinarily called the root; the term is, however, scarcely correct, as the true root is seen in the mass of little fibres beneath the bulbous mass. it is not a true bulb. as the roots of plants are, under skilful treatment, capable of being made characteristic and beautiful features in a design, we will just glance at a few points concerning the modifi- cations they undergo for the benefit of the more inexperienced of our readers. the root may be defined briefly as the descending portion of a plant—-it is ordinarily that portion of a plant that develops beneath the soil; some plants, however, have their roots developed in the open air. these are termed epiphytes: they grow upon other plants, but merely derive support from them; they do not, like the parasite, penetrate their substance or draw any nourishment from the plants they cling to. a true root does not develop leaf buds on its surface, nor scales, the rudimentary leaf form; hence any body, as, for example, the bulb of the white garden lily (lilium candidum), that has a clothing of scales, is not a root: the root proper will be found springing from beneath it where the root is not simply a mass of fibres, as in grasses, it ordinarily develops a central portion, a prolongation of the line of the stem: this is termed a tap root; from this central body lateral portions may be given off", while these in turn may branch again. the root derives from the soil those chemical constituents that are necessary for the well- being of the plant, and stores them away for future service, as well as for immediate need; it also gives the needful mechanical support to the plant, and ensures its stability. the simplest form of root is the conical—the common carrot is a familiar example of this; at times, the greatest diameter of such a root may, instead of being near the top, be some little distance down. this modification renders it fusiform, or spindle-shaped, and of this the radish affords a good illus- tration; while, at other times, the form becomes more globular, when it is termed napiform, from napus, a turnip—a. plant that very well exemplifies this mode of growth. a great richness of form is seen in the fasciculate root, where, as in the asphodel, a series of conical roots all spring from the base of the stem. a very similar form of root is seen in the dahlia; but in this case the component parts are not conical, they are rather elliptical, as the greatest bulk of the stored-up matter is deposited near the centre of each of the lateral members. other characteristic forms are the nodose, testiculate, moniliform, and annulated; but having now called the attention of the designer to the point by the few examples mentioned, we do not propose to go at any greater length into descriptive details, as these may be found in any work on structural botany. roots are not always thus regularly developed: abnormal requirements produce adventitous or abnormal results, and, under these circumstances, roots are given off from various parts of plants, as when a cutting is "struck." in the ivy the root-like members thrown out from the stems assist to support the plant by inserting themselves in the crevices of the brickwork or bark, and in sea- weeds what appears to be the root is but a collection of suckers or fibres, and merely gives mechanical attachment in the banyan tree these members develop from the branches; on enter- ing the soil they become true roots, and aid in the support, the nourishment, and the extension of the tree. in the same way the aerial roots thrown out by the mangrove and screw-pine become ultimately rooted in the soil beneath. these filaments may attain to great dimensions— the aerial roots of some species of clusia are from eighty to a hundred feet long. occasionally, even while in mid-air, ramifications are produced and lateral bodies developed : this may be well seen in the rhus radicans. in some plants, as in many grasses, underground stems are developed; but, from their scaly nature, they can be easily distinguished from the true roots. on a piece of roman earthenware, a rude form of vase, in the museum of economic geology, london, the only decoration is a series of forms in black, so identical in character with root forms, that there can be but little doubt that some natural root afforded the suggestion. john, duke of bedford, brother of henry v., bore as one of his badges a golden root plate . "he prayeth best who loveth best all things both great and small; for the dear god who loveth us, he made and loveth all."—coleridge. out of the seven species of campanula found wild in britain, six have their blossoms on long footstalks, the seventh only, the c. glomerata, the subject of the plate, having them sessile; this, therefore, affords an easy means of identification of the present species, and it is well that such a means exists, as there are few plants more changeable in appearance than this. in one o plants: their natural growth situation it may be found attaining a height of eighteen inches or so, generally when in rather damp meadows: while, on our open, breezy downs, it rarely reaches a height the third of that, and is dwarfed in every way, the flowers being at once individually smaller and collectively less numerous. like many other purple flowers its blossoms are occasionally of a pure white; but a greater peculiarity, and one almost its own, is that on the same plant both purple and white bells may at times be found. the plant represented in our plate is an exceptionally fine specimen, the blossoms are ordinarily about three quarters of an inch long, in a fairly good example the upper leaves are sessile, the lower ones stalked. all the species of campanula are well adapted to art work, and will repay attention. the hairbell, or harebell, known botanically as the c. rotundifolia, from the roundness of its lower leaves, is a very graceful plant it is in catholic countries dedicated to st dominic; it is also claimed as the " blue-bell" of scotland, though its claims to this poetic distinction have been disputed, apparently without much justice, in favour of the wild hyacinth. it is a plant eminently adapted for light and delicate work. of the other species, the c. rapunculoides, c. rapunculus, and c. hederacea are especially worthy of the ornamentist's regard. the generic name, campanula, is derived from the latin, and signifies a little bell; it has, therefore, the same force of meaning as the familiar english name, while the specific name, glomerata, signifies rolled together in a mass like a ball, and is applied botanically to this plant from the dense terminal head of flowers so distinctive of this species; the common name of the plant, the clustered bell-flower, is, therefore, almost a literal translation of the botanical appel- lation. the two designs, figs, , , are attempts on our part to emphasise this clustering together of the bells of this beautiful wild-flower. the significance of plant names will be found a matter not altogether without interest, as there is often a very considerable depth of meaning, on analysis, in a word that from constant use has grown too familiar to us to lead to any thought on the matter. into the many sections into which this subject may be divided—names given from poetical association, ex. pansy; names given from the locality the plant is found in, ex. cheddar pink; names given in allusion to the situation in which the plant is found) ex. stonecrop; names given from season of flowering, ex. lent lily; names derived from religious or legendary association, ex. st john's wort; names based on economic uses, ex. broom; names given from the medicinal service, ex. wormwood— it is not here desirable to enter upon at any length; but the class of names given to plants in recognition of their resemblance to some other objects is suggested to us by the example afforded by the subject of our plate . this class, appealing, as it does, both to the faculty of observation and the influence of the superstitious, no less than to the love of the marvellous and strange, is in every country largely developed; and the same turn of mind which, in the middle ages, found so many objects of nature to justify the doctrine of signatures, was no less alive to these accidental resemblances. many, therefore, are obvious enough to justify their names, while others do not so fully bear out the somewhat forced analysis which has been sought out in these cases, as in the other examples derived from the various sources that we have indicated above, many of the names yet preserve their meaning intact, and are as clearly to be understood now as at any past time : while others, from change of dialect or custom, do not so readily commend themselves to our understanding. in this latter subdivision we would merely instance the oak, hazel, columbine, and garlic; for, though a list ten times as long might easily be added to these, our desire is rather to make the subject suggestive than exhaustive. the oak was by the anglo- saxon called ac, by the sweeds ek, and by the danes eg; all these names are etymologically iden- tical with egg, and refer to the egg-shaped acorns. the oak, like many other objects, derived its name from its product of greatest value, and though now we should certainly point to the timber as being the most commercially valuable, we must bear in mind that the oak, being a common indigenous tree, received a name when wealth lay rather in the possession of numerous herds of swine, and when the fruit of the oak, rather than the wood, rendered the greater service. the hazel-nut derives its name from the anglo-saxon word hasel, a cap, and knutu, a nut: the re- ference being to the large scales of the involucre, the green and somewhat leaf-like cap within which we see the nut itself. columbine is derived from the latin word columba, a dove: another english word for the plant being culver-wort, from the anglo-saxon culfre, a pigeon; and both these names indicating the strong resemblance of the ring of spurred petals to a group of little pigeons—(see fig. ). garlic, from the anglo-saxon words gar, a spear, and leac, a plant, is so called from its acute and spear-like leaves; though it is only right to mention that another deriva- tion, which has been suggested, is based on the gaelic word garg, pungent, and luigh, a plant more familiar examples may be seen in the lantern plant (fig. ), the buttercup (fig. ), the tulip tree (fig. ), the rattle (fig. ), the foxglove (fig. ), and in the scientific names of the aster, from its star-like form (fig. ), and the violet cornuta, from its spur resembling a plants: their na tural growth man may read even in legible characters the use of them." as examples of this we may mention the herb robert (geranium robertianum), and the foxglove (digitalis purpurea). the first was held, from the brilliant crimson of its leaves during the autumn, to be in an especial degree ser- viceable as a vulnerary to arrest the flow of blood; the second, from the form and colour of the interior of the flower, was termed throat-wort, and was held in great repute for its remedial efficacy in all relaxation or soreness of the throat in mediaeval times there were few plants that were not held to possess healing powers— some, no doubt, justly; though foreign drugs of greater potency, as quinine or ipecacuanha have in these later days supplanted them; while others—we may, with little lack of charity say—were of no more value than the faith or imagination of the patient were able to impart amongst the manifold uses of plants, as detected by gerarde, the following are but a few :—" to comfort the cold, weake, and feeble brains—to keep dogs from growing greate—to refresh a wearied horse, and make him travell the better—to waken one out of a deep sleepe—to cause a traveller to feel no wearisomnesse." every old herbal abounds with recipes—the same plant having often the most contradictory appplications. plate . "our artists are so generally convinced of the truth of the darwinian theory, that they do not always think it necessary to show any difference between the foliage of an elm or an oak; and the gift books of christmas have every page surrounded with laboriously engraved garlands of rose, shamrock, thistle, and forget-me-not, without its being thought proper by the draughts- men, or desirable by the public, even in the case of these uncommon flowers, to observe the real shape of the petals of any one of them."—ruskin. amongst the less conspicuous flowers of the hedge-side, few are more worthy of the ornamentist's regard than the ground ivy (nepeta glachoma), the subject of our plate. it is so commonly to be found that any lengthened description of it seems useless. the leaves, it will be noticed, grow in pairs, each succeeding pair being at right angles with the last, so that, on looking down on the plant, as in fig. , a cross-like form is observed. this is very well shown in the ornamental adaptation (fig. ) taken from one of the tiles from chertsey abbey. the excel- lence of the design shown in these tiles, we have already had opportunity of dwelling upon in our remarks on the musk mallow. when the plant is trailing on the ground, the leaves, in their desire to come towards the light, do not adhere to this cruciform arrangement, but are all in one direction; though, on tracing them down to the stem, it will be found that the successive pairs are given off at right angles to each other, as in the upright shoots. we have endeavoured in our design (fig. ) to give a conventional treatment of this turning upwards of the leaves to the light; while in our sketch (fig. ) we have selected as the basis of our design the upright growth. the flowers, it will be observed, grow in whorls from the axils of the leaves. these whorls, it will be noticed too, are unilateral (fig. , ); they grow on one or other side of the stem, but do not, as in the white dead nettle (lamium album), surround it by a ring of blossoms. the central stem is square—a feature delicately suggested in fig. : while fig. gives the true, natural form. the ground ivy is so called from its trailing habit: it has no botanical relationship whatever to the true ivy, and we cannot but think that the name, though sanctioned by long usage, is an unfortunate one. the plant was held in high favour as a medicinal herb, and is still employed in country districts, being slightly tonic and stimulating. during the middle ages, its virtues were considered far greater than later investigations have appeared to justify, and one fanciful belief—its supposed power to heal the sting made by a scorpion—gives it its generic name, nepeta, that being derived from nepa, a scorpion. besides the name given, it has many others, though they are generally of more local application; while ground ivy is the name by which it may be found, by all who desire to learn more regarding it, in all botanical works. other names are cat's-foot—a not inappropriate name, its soft leaves, clothed with silk-like hairs, being in tex- ture and shape not unlike the foot of the cat—gill-go-by-ground, turn-hoof, hay-maids, and ale- hoof. the name gill-go-by-ground is obscure, owing to change both of language and custom. it arose from the old practice of gilling, or, as we now term it, fermenting during brewing, by the addition of a few of these leaves. it was supposed to improve the flavour too, and to render the liquor clearer; for we read in an old herbal that—" it is good to turn up with new drink, for it will clarify it in a night; or, if any be thick with removing, or any other accident, it will do the like in a few hours." the country name, ale-hoof, is, no doubt, also derived from this old economic use of the plant the ground ivy has not been so freely used in decorative art as its abundance would lead one to suppose probable. the only other good example with which we are familiar, in addition to the one given on the chertsey tile, is in a small spandril in one of the doorways of the cathedral at rheims. and ornamental treatment. plate . "nature never did betray the heart that loved her: 'tis her privilege, through all the years of this our life, to lead from joy to joy; for she can so inform the mind that is within us, so impress with quietness and beauty, and so feed with lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues, rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men, nor greetings where no kindness is, nor all the dreary intercourse of daily life shall e'er prevail against us or disturb our cheerful faith, that all that we behold is full of blessings."—wordsworth. the broad-leaved everlasting pea, the lathyrus latifolius of botanists, the subject of the present plate, is, strictly speaking, a garden flower; for though it is occasionally found in what may be considered a wild state, it is in all cases only as an escape from cultivation. it is very rarely to be met with in this semi-wild state, though it has been found in woods in cumberland, bedfordshire, gloucestershire, and one or two other english counties, and on the salisbury craigs, edinburgh; as a cultivated plant it is by no means uncommon; its hardiness, climbing pro- perties, perennial nature, and profusion of beautiful bloom, rendering it a general favourite. it will be found in flower during july and august the plant is a native of southern europe, though some botanists are unwilling to admit its claim to be considered a species, regarding it only as a variety of the l. sylvestris, or narrow-leaved everlasting pea, a somewhat common plant the main points of distinction are—that in l. latifolius the flowers are larger, and richer in colour, and the leaves are much broader in proportion to their length. the winging of the stem is a very conspicuous and striking feature in both species. the semi-sagittate stipulate forms of the present plant are a very ornamental characteristic. in introducing the plant with any ornamental composition, a great variety of form is possible without violation of natural truth, as, at the same time, the bud, the opening and fully expanded flower, and the ripened pod, may be found on one plant all these stages of the plant's history are represented on the plate. as we have already had occasion to refer to the stipules of plants, and shall, doubtless, still further require to do so, the present seems a convenient opportunity to make some few and brief observations concerning them. stipules are scaly or foliaceous appendages, occurring at the base of the leaf-stalk in some plants. they are generally two in number, one on either side of the stem. they are exceedingly varied in form and size—in some cases being very similar in form to the true leaves; while, at other times, the modification of structure is so great that they become tendrils—ex. simlax, or thorns—ex. pictatia. the young student must, therefore, regard their position more than their appearance : the one being fixed, the other exceedingly variable. stipulary forms are sometimes found to embrace the stem in a sheath-like form; this modification of the type form is called an ochrea, and may be very well seen in the garden rhubarb; a very similar form is seen in many grasses. it is very curious that while, in many families of plants, as the rosacec e and leguminosce, the species are stipulate, in others, as the caryophyllece, they are in every case wanting—the plants being what is botanically termed exstipulate. stipules, as we have said, are extremely variable in size, and in the proportion they bear to the true leaves; in some cases they are actually larger, and very notably so in an allied species of the everlasting pea, the l. aphaca, where the real leaves are almost abortive, and the large stipules found in their place perform the physiological functions that normally fall to the office of the leaf. stipules are very variable in their duration; in some cases they fall with the leaves at the approach of autumn; in others, as in the oak, they fall very early, the leaf then appearing exstipulate; while in some cases they outlive the foliage, remaining in situ, when the true leaves have disappeared. occasionally the two stipules unite on the side of the stem opposite to the leaf, and thus present the appearance of one large stem- encircling stipule; but the union is rarely ever complete, and, on close investigation, the line of junction is perceptible. in opposite stipulate leaves it frequently happens that those of each side of the leaf are united with those of the opposite leaf, and in this case it appears as though there were but two stipules, one on each side, common to the two leaves. the leaflets of compound leaves at times present, at their bases, little organs, bearing the same relationship to the leaflet that the stipule does to a leaf. these are termed stipels; they may be very well seen in the scarlet runner. turning now to our plates for illustrations, we find examples of exstipulate plants in the atropa belladonna (fig. ), and the mistletoe (viscum album, fig. ); while in the musk plants: their natural growth mallow (malva moschata, fig. )—a stipulate plant—-the stipules are very small and linear, altogether unlike the leaves of the plant in the water avens (geum rivale, fig. ), the stipules are small, but of very similar character to the foliage; while in the viola cornuta, the stipules are very large and foliaceous. in the red-berried or white bryony (fig. ) the tendrils are considered to be stipulary in character. other very good examples of stipulate leaves, though not herein illustrated, will be seen in those of the hawthorn or wild-rose, the former especially being particularly rich in form. stipules, though but features of secondary value to the orna- mentist, will often be found of service, as, by their judicious introduction, the point where a leaf is thrown off from the stalk can be considerably enriched: a very desirable result very frequently, the mere divergence of two lines if the point of departure be unclothed, having often a bald and poor effect; thus, in our design based on the thistle (fig. ), it will be noticed that we have been careful to clothe the various junctions with foliage. this principle will be observed in the best greek and mediaeval work; but it must not be carried to excess, the eye must feel that the continuity of the lines is duly provided for, and the main curves must receive due emphasis: overloading them is as much an error of judgment as the exhibition of meagreness, plate . "no tree in all the grove but has its charms, though each its hue peculiar: paler some and of a warmish grey; the willow such, and poplar, that with silver lines his leaf, and ash, far-stretching his umbrageous arm; of deeper green the elm; and deeper still, lord of the woods, the long-surviving oak, some glossy-leaved and shining in the sun, now green, now tawny, and ere autumn yet has changed the woods, in scarlet honours bright"—cowper. in the introduction of any plant into a design, care must be taken, not only that it is a plant appropriate in scale to the space to be filled, but also that the parts of the plant that are intro- duced bear a due proportion to each other, so as to ensure a due balance of colour and form. hence many plants, while presenting numerous features of interest, cannot, as a whole, be introduced into any decorative scheme with just ornamental effect; some, like the comfrey (symphytum officinale), having the flowers too small for the large masses of foliage: while in others the reverse is seen. at other times, owing to the studied simplicity of a design, the leaf forms, or those of the flowers, are alone introduced; while, again, the same result may follow from a desire to lessen expense by the introduction of as few colours as possible. it is in all these cases quite legitimate to avail ourselves to the full of any portions of a plant that thus seem best fitted for our purpose, or to discard those that, for some sufficient reason, are not suited to our require- ments. examples of designs based on leaf forms alone will be seen in figs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; while other examples, based on floral forms alone, will be found in figs. , , , , , , and the centre of . the patera-form, so characteristic of classic art, in most cases is evidently suggested by a fully opened flower, though in some few cases it appears to be rather a rosette of leaves. a delicate powdering of stellate forms will often produce a very rich effect very suggestive star-like forms will be found scattered throughout the plates—figs. , , , , , i , , , , , , and , being especially good; in many cases it is the only way that a beautiful natural form can be employed: an isolated flower of the elder, for example (fig. ), would be admirably adapted as the unit of repetition in such a design, while it would be impossible to produce any satisfactory result if an attempt were made to express any idea of the dense head of blossom produced naturally by the plant in the present plate we have collected a number of leaves, the parts that, in all the plants from whence they are taken, are of most value to the ornamentist the leaf of the common fig (ficus carica) shown in our th illustration, is of a very bold and suggestive form. figs. and , based on somewhat similar forms, indicate how it might be advantageously employed. the fig, though originally a native of asia, now flourishes in southern europe, and even at times ripens its fruit in the open air in england. it was first introduced into this country by cardinal pole, in the year , and the two trees which he had brought over from italy are still to be seen, or at least were very recently, in the archiepiscopal garden at lambeth, one having a stem of twenty-one inches, and the second of twenty-eight inches circumference. figs have been employed as food and medicine from the earliest time. and ornamental treatment. the wife of nabal appeased the wrath of the fugitive david, we read, by a present that included some cakes of figs; while we also read of its use medicinally in the old testament history, by king hezekiah, some , years ago. the athenians attached such value to it that the export of its fruit was forbidden; while at rome, in the bacchic rites, it was carried next to the vine as a symbol of plenty and joy. the stems of the fig exude, when broken, a milky, tenacious, and very strong-smelling juice. about tons of the dried fruit are annually imported into britain, chiefly from greece and turkey; those from the neighbourhood of smyrna are considered the best botanically, the fruit of the fig is very curious and interesting; but space presses, and we must refer our readers for full information to any good work on structural botany. other in- teresting species are the f. indica, f. elastica, f. religiosa, and f. sycomorus. the first of these is the celebrated banyan tree of india—its singular aerial roots have becn already referred to; by means of these the tree spreads to an almost incredible extent, many of the trees being more than five hundred yards round the circumference of the branches: the tenacious juice that exudes from the tree is used as bird-lime. though many of the trunks are nine to ten feet in diameter, the wood is soft and porous, and of no economic value. the viscid milky fluid that flows from excisions made in the wood of f, elastica furnishes one of the commercial varieties of caoutchouc, though it is inferior to that produced from the brazilian siplwnia elastica. the f. religiosa, or peepul tree, is one of the common trees of india, being very extensively planted near houses, for the sake of the welcome shade thrown by its huge mass of foliage. it derives its specific name, religiosa, from the veneration in which it is held by the hindoos, one of their great deities, vishnu, having, according to their mythological teaching, been born beneath its branches. the f. sycomorus is an egyptian species, and, like the last, is extensively planted for its grateful shade. it is the sycamore or sycamore-fig, of the biblical narrative. fig. is the form, and a very curious one, of the leaf of the tulip tree (liriodendron tulipifera), a native of north america. it was introduced into england in . it flowers here freely during june and july, but in this country rarely ripens its seeds; though, in other respects, the climate seems to suit it, as it grows freely in the open air, often attaining a height of upwards of one hundred feet its english name tulip tree, and the botanical tulipifera, are both given from the resemblance of its yellow and orange flowers, both in size and colour, to the flowers of the tulip. many of the leaves are larger than the one here shown; but all alike are of the curiously four-lobed and truncated form of the present example. figs. and are the leaves of the sida hastata, and of the phelloderma cwteato-ovata, respectively. the plants have no english names: the first is a native of mexico, the second, of chili. the kolreuteria paniculata, a chinese tree, affords us the very graceful leaf shown in fig. . the plant has been introduced into england since ; specimens of it may be seen growing in the open air in kensington gardens, near london. the delicate gradation and variation of form in the different members comprising the leaf are very beautiful features: points well deserving attentive study. the leaf of the jute (corchorus capsularis) is the subject of our next illustration (fig. ). though similar in general form to many leaves that we are familiar with, the two elongated forms at the base of the leaf give it a quaint individuality of its own. the plant has, within the last few years, been very largely grown in india for the fibre it produces—a fibre a good deal used in the manufacture of bales and sacks for the export of rice, sugar, cotton, &c., and less legitimately as a means of lowering the quality of silk, as the fibre is very fine, and of a satiny lustre, so that the fraud is not easily detected. jute is an annual, attaining a height of from four to fourteen feet the flowers are small, and have five rather finely-cut yellow petals. it is estimated that about , tons of fibre are manufactured in india, while about , tons of the raw material are each year exported to great britain. almost the whole of the jute that reaches our shores finds its way to dundee. the cost of the fibre, on its arrival at the factory, is about £ per ton, though, owing to scarcity at a given time, or the quality of the sample, this price is sometimes considerably exceeded. many thousands of persons are now employed in the various processes of manufacture; though, in , a mr. neish, a merchant of dundee, having received a small quantity of jute, was glad, after keeping it some years, to sell it off at a nominal price to get it out of the way. at the present date it is estimated that capital amounting to over five millions sterling is invested in the jute factories of dundee and its vicinity. the leaf of the maple (acer campestre) is that chosen for the last illustration on the plate. the maple is a common hedge-row tree throughout england, though it is somewhat scarcer both in scotland and ireland. the leaves and fruit were largely employed, during the th century, in the wood and stone carving of our cathedrals, and also in the stained glass and illuminated mss. of that period. it is, in fact, like the oak or buttercup, one of the most characteristic forms seen in the ornament of that time. very good examples of it may be seen at southwell, lincoln, and x and ornamental treatment. plate . "what we specially need at present for educational purposes is to know, not the anatomy of plants, but their biography- how and where they live and die, their tempers, benevolences, malignities, distresses, and virtues. we want them drawn from their youth to their age—from bud to fruit we ought to see the various forms of their diminished but hardy growth in cold climates or poor soils: and their rank or wild luxuriances when full fed and warmly nursed ; and all this we ought to have drawn so accurately that we might at once compare any given part of a plant with the same part of any other drawn on the like conditions."—ruskin. the crane's-bills, or wild geraniums, are all plants well adapted to art work. bentham, in his british flora, recognises twelve species; other writers twelve to fourteen, the discrepancy arising from the fact, that some of the species are doubtful natives, and each writer at his discretion excludes or includes these as he sees best, according to the evidence accessible to him there is a strong family likeness seen in the midst of the distinct individuality of each species, so that any one who was familiar with some four or five species would have little difficulty in identifying the others as belonging to the same genus. one marked feature is, that the flowers all grow on long peduncles, each of these, except in one species, forking off into two pedicels bearing a single blossom. this may be seen in the upper part of fig. , where the flower, seen in side view, is evidently one of the two that will ultimately surmount the peduncle when the bud on the companion pedicel has opened. it is very clearly seen in fig. . the only exception to this growth is seen in the geranium sanguineum; in this the flowers are always found singly on the peduncle . as we have had occasion, once or twice, to use the very similar terms, peduncle and pedicel, it will be well just to give a few words to them before passing on. the peduncle is the stalk supporting the flowers that are given off from it laterally or terminally. the little stalks that branch off from the peduncle, and each support one blossom, are the pedicels. another very curious feature, and one confined to the geranicece, is seen in the arrangement for the dispersion of the ripened seeds; but as this is a matter of interest to the botanist rather than to the designer, we need not here dwell upon it the geranium pratense, of blue meadow crane's-bill (the subject of our plate), is one of the largest of the genus, being frequently over two feet high. it grows, as the specific and familiar english names imply, on pasture land, though it may also be found in moist thickets and country lanes. though local, it is generally distributed throughout england, while it is scarce in scotland, and not known at all in ireland. the plant is found in flower from may to august, the size of its blossoms rendering it very conspicuous. the colour of the blossoms is sufficient in itself to distin- guish it from all our other species, most of which have flowers more or less tinged with pink, though in the dusky crane's-bill (c. phoeum) the flowers are of a dark brownish-purple—a very unusual colour, and one that attracts attention from its singularity rather than from its beauty. the leaves of the present species are very large, and are more deeply cut than in any other members of the genus. from their slight resemblance to the lower leaves of the ranunculus acris, the plant is sometimes known as the crowfoot crane's-bill. on the approach of autumn the leaves of several of the geraniums turn a vivid crimson, as, for example, those of the herb robert, or g. robertianum, the shining crane's-bill (g. lucidum, fig. ), and the present species, and, under these circum- stances, have a beautiful effect in the midst of other vegetation. the twisting and overlapping of the petals in the bud is a point ornamentally valuable: indications of it are seen in the opening flower (fig. ). other species of our wild crane's-bill, that the designer will do well to fami- liarise himself with, are the herb robert (g. robertianum), a plant beautiful both in foliage and flower, and one of our commonest kinds; the g. sanguineum, a plant with very large flowers and richly-cut leaves; the wood-geranium (g. sylvaticum); the shining crane's-bill (g. lucidum), figured on plate ; the dove's-foot geranium (g. molle), a particularly ornamental plant, and one espe- cially suited to the decoration of light fabrics, where delicacy and refinement are desired ; the cut- leaved geranium (g. disseclum), a species with small purple flowers, but having very richly-cut leaves, and the long-stalked geranium (g. columbinum). it scarcely seems desirable, having due regard to our space, to enter at any great length into the special peculiarities of each of these plants. our readers will, however, have no difficulty in finding them out by referring, by the names given, to any good illustrated work. plant-colour may often prove as suggestive to the designer as plant-form. we do not here refer so particularly to the tints of flowers, so beautiful in themselves and so infinite in variety, since these we may naturally assume have received the loving attention of the true follower of decorative art; we are thinking now rather of the field for study open in the considera- tion of the tints of the foliage, and more especially when the autumnal influences have begun to make themselves felt the elm, before losing its leaves, shows us a mass of rich yellow brown; in the maple, the leaves are one mass of tawny yellow; in the guelder rose, the whole tree becomes brilliant crimson; while in the brambles, unlike the other examples, a whole host of plants: their natural growth lovely contrasts and harmonies are found—crimson, deep yellow, pale green, clear brown, varying shades of purple and grey. seaweeds too, as materials for design, have never received a tithe of the attention they deserve— "the deep's untrampled floor, with green and purple seaweeds strewn," seems a veritable terra incognita to our designers, yet every beach is strewn with forms of surpassing beauty, in form and colour alike excellent about species are found on the british coasts. fungi, or toadstools, though repellent to many persons, are often very beautiful in colour, sometimes, as in the scarlet fly agaric (agaricus muscarius), of an intense red, or, as in the clavaria fusiformis, a. deep orange yellow; lilac in the agaricus personatus; brown in the boletus edulis; white as snow in clavaria rugosa; lemon yellow in c. amethystina; or black, as in the tuber cibarium. as it has been necessary, in speaking of the various crane's-bills, to repeatedly use the generic term geranium, adding to it some distinctive term, as robertianum, molle, or pratense, to indicate the particular plant in question, the present seems a convenient opportunity of giving some explanation, in passing, as regards these purely scientific names. botanical study subdivides itself into several very distinct sections : thus we get the physiology of plants, a study that concerns itself with the vital functions and organisms; economic botany, or a study of plants in their application to the service of man, medicinally, commercially, &c.; and the study, again, of plants with a view to their identification and classification. this is known as systematic botany. as upwards of , plants are now known, the necessity of some means of classifying them will be at once apparent, since, while each plant must have a distinctive title belonging to itself alone, it is evident that no memory, however cultivated, could retain , distinct names bearing no sort of association with each other; hence a second name that is common to several plants on account of some peculiarity they possess in common. thus, for example, there are many plants which, from their similarity, we call roses: rose, then, is a name we give to a genus or collection of similar plants, while, to mark the slighter differences, we call one a red rose,-another a white rose, a third a sweet- scented rose. the substantive is the generic name, and indicates those points in which a certain number of plants agree; the adjective is the specific name, and points out some characteristic in which that particular plant differs from all others allied with it in ordinary conversation we put the specific before the generic name—as, for instance, white rose, while botanically the generic name precedes the other, as lathyrus hirsutus, lathyrus sylvestris, lathyrus tuberosus, lathyrus maritimus, one lathyrus being hairy, another a dweller in woods, the third tuberous, the last a sea-side plant the genera of plants being still too numerous for study without some further scheme of classification (as there are over , genera), those which, in some degree, resemble each other are aggregated into groups, called families or orders, while these natural orders (some in number) are again collected into classes. the number of plants comprised in any one of these divisions is very variable—thus, in some cases, one or two species, though somewhat similar in themselves, may differ so entirely from others as to constitute the entire genus, while in others a hundred or more plants may all be included under one generic head. plate . "happy is he who lives to understand, not human nature only, but explores all natures—to the end that he may find the law that governs each; and where begins the union, the partition where, that makes kind and degree among all visible beings: the constitutions, powers, and faculties which they inherit—cannot step beyond— and cannot fall beneath; that do assign to every class its station and its office, through all the mighty commonwealth of things; up from the creeping plant to sovereign man."—wordsworth. the leopard's-bane (doronicum pardalianclies), though not truly a native of britain, has been largely cultivated in cottage gardens, and has readily spread from thence, so that in many parts of the country the plant has become so completely naturalised as to thoroughly justify its insertion in our flora. it is found in flower during the spring and the earlier months of the summer. there is a considerable variation of form in the leaves, the upper, as seen in the plate, being sessile and clasping the stem, the intermediate ones, on a short petiole with two broad lobes half surrounding the stem, while the lowermost are on long and naked petioles as shown in and ornamental treatment fig. . the plant is from one to three feet high, of a rather brilliant green, and soft in texture. it possesses rather dangerous qualities, hence the familiar name; while the derivation of the word doronicum, given to the genus by linnaeus, though not quite clear, is supposed to be derived from two greek words, doron, a gift, and nike, victory, as the plant was formerly used in some countries to destroy wild beasts, though, according to other writers, it is the arabic name for the leopard's-bane (durungi), latinized by the earlier botanists. the leopard's-bane belongs to the natural order composites, the most extensive of all the orders, the most widely spreading, and the most easily recognised. it contains more than genera and almost , species. according to humboldt, a sixth of the flowering plants of north america, one half of those of tropical america, a sixteenth of the flora of new holland, one-eighth of that of germany, one-seventh of that of france, belong to this important order. though, as ornamentists, we should speak of fig. as the flower in the same way that we should refer to the flower of the buttercup, yet botanically it represents a whole bunch or head of flowers; the composite flower, or flower-head being made up of an aggregation of florets, unisexual or hermaphrodite, forming a dense head of blossom on a common receptacle, the part that we should as ornamentists term the calyx, being a ring of bracts. each little floret is in most cases very minute, still, any careful observer will easily verify the existence of them for himself. in some of the plants all the florets are perfect, i.e. have both stamens and pistil, and have a ligulate or strap- like form of corolla, this may be very well seen by pulling a dandelion flower carefully to pieces. in another large division all the florets are tubular, and alike in the same head, as in the thistles, or these tubular florets, themselves regular in form, may have an outer ring of irregular and neuter ones, as in the knapweeds (fig. ). in some cases these outer florets form by far the most con- spicuous part of the flower-head, as in the corn blue-bottle (centaurea cyanus), where the florets of the disk are small and purple, and those of the outer ray few, but bright blue, and of large size. it would be foreign to our present purpose to enlarge on the various characteristics that have aided the scientific botanist in his task of classification—a task of no small difficulty in deal- ing with so many species; but all who care to peruse the subject at any length will derive all the information they need on consulting any good work on systematic botany, aided by personal ob- servation wherever it is at all possible, theoretical knowledge alone being of little value. our readers will find examples of the composite type of flower in figs. , , , ; . other very good natural and familiar illustrations will be met with in the dandelion (taraxacum dens-leonis), the daisy (bellis perennis), corn marigold (chrysanthemum segetum), chamomile (anthemis nobilis), yarrow (achillea millefolium), groundsel (senecio vulgaris), ragwort (senecio squalidus), elecampane (inula helenium), colt's-foot (tussilago farfara), chicory (cichorium intybus). nipple-wort (lapsana communis), sowthistle (sonchus oleraceus). amongst garden flowers, the sun-flower, dahlia, aster, and chrysanthemum belong to this order. amongst the british species, white or yellow, singly or combined, are the general colours. in turning over a british flora to test this, we found that ninety-seven of the species figured were of various shades of yellow, and fourteen had the central part yellow, and the outer rays white; twenty-seven of different tints of pink and purple, one with a yellow centre, surrounded by rays of blue, while three were of blue alone. many of the composite flowers are well adapted to art purposes, the flower-heads being often large and bold in character, and the leaves very frequently richly cut up into good artistic forms. the stellate character of the flowers adapts them well for either vertical or horizontal treatment designs, embodying the stellate form characteristic of many of the species, will be seen in figs. , , , in all these cases adaptation for an upright surface being the treatment chosen. plate . "where order in variety we see, and where, though all things differ, all agree."—pope. "similitude in dissimilitude."—wordsworth. the hepatica flower, the hepatica triloba of botanists, so called from the three distinct lobes of the leaf, is one of those favoured plants that, like the primrose or the crocus, form the ever-welcome advance-guard of the floral host, coming as it does in the early spring, in the bleak days of march, while yet the trees are leafless, and the stern grip of winter seems scarcely relaxed, and decking the border with its' little lilac star-like blossoms. the hepatica, like most of the flowers of the opening year, does not attain to any height, but shelters itself as best it k plants: their natural growth may from the boisterous winds that sweep over it, by its lowly growth, the plant being found in little clumps, and rearing its delicate blossoms some four or five inches only above the surface of the ground, each flower-stalk, as in the daisy, springs directly from the root and bears but a single blossom on its summit; the growth of the leaves is similar, they are not thrown off from branches, as in the buttercup, but, primrose or dandelion-like, radiate from the root throughout our descriptions it will, we trust, be understood that our desire is to give, as far as possible, the effect of the plant as it would strike an ornamentist, the minutia; of a more rigid botanical analysis being foreign to our present aim; thus, though in the primrose, for example, the leaves and flower do really spring from a very short central stem, yet as this stem is hidden by the bases of the leaves, and is only apparent on close observation, we speak here rather of the effect of the plant as it strikes an ornamentist, and, while inaccurate in a strictly scientific sense, best convey to a designer an idea of the plant by speaking of the leaves as radiating from the root the hepatica is subject to a considerable variation of form, thus, though fig. gives us the normal form of the foliage, it is not uncommon to find some leaves with five lobes, as shewn in fig. , in the same way that the ivy, in the midst of a mass of five-lobed leaves, occasionally develops a few with seven. a similar variation is frequently seen in the petals, for, though by far the greater number of the flowers have six of these, it is not unusual to come across examples, as in fig. , where those parts are eight in number. in many plants an increase of the parts is only a blemish, as the additional members are frequently distorted or dwarfed, and thus the symmetry of the whole is destroyed; but this seems rarely to be the case in the hepatica, and the abnormal eight- petaled flower is as beautiful in itself as the ordinary form of blossom, as suitable, therefore, for introduction in any design; though, if nature be but slightly conventionalised, it must be borne in mind that such forms must be exceptional, and only introduced for the sake of that variation that is as valuable a quality in ornamental art as in nature. the curious form of the leaves before their full expansion, as shewn in fig. , is a point not without suggestiveness to the designer; while the fruit form, fig. , that succeeds the blossoms, is an equally ornamental feature. variation in the details of a design is a very legitimate means of imparting enhanced interest to any work. it is much more characteristic, however, of some periods of art than others; thus, in a greek temple every corinthian capital is an exact fac-simile of every other throughout the building; and the triglyphs that may be seen running round a classic building are, be they many or few in number, an exact repetition of one form. in some styles of ornament (as, for instance, chinese) the opposite is seen; and while there is great risk of monotony in constant repetition, the other extreme is equally to be deprecated, all harmony and -unity of design being destroyed by a too persistent variation. the ancient egyptians, with that fine instinct that charac- terises so much of their work, avoided either extreme, and preserved similitude in dissimilitude, preserving unity as an effect in the whole mass, yet with constant variety in the details; the columns of a temple for instance, not being all alike, though similar in general proportion: thus, the two columns immediately flanking the entrance are found to be similar, the next to these on either hand being of a different design to the first, but similar in themselves; number three on each side being like each other, but unlike numbers one or two; and so on throughout the series. the same thing is noticeable in a great deal of the best gothic work, both english and conti- nental; a due balance and symmetry of the masses of the composition, with continuous variation of the details when examined more closely. though the quotations with which we have headed our remarks on each plate have ordinarily been selected for their own inherent interest, rather than from any especial appropriateness to the subject-matter with which they chance to be associated, the present extracts from pope and wordsworth have an especial fitness for their place, expressing so clearly, as they do, the limit which may be safely reached in the use of this art-principle of variation, and the ideal attained, "where order in variety we see, and where, though all things differ, all agree." in the three designs we have based on the hepatica, the first (fig. ) is bi-symmetrical, and is intended as a suggestion for relief work, the remaining two being for surface decoration. in fig. we have continuous repetition in the form, with variation in the colour, while in the last example (fig. ) the alternation is seen both in form and in colour. and ornamental treatment. ingly small, while the general growth is often ill-adapted for the specific requirements of ornamental art; in some cases the leaves are very large and coarse, while in others, again, they are so minutely divided that they are equally non-available. the remaining sketches call for but slight comment; our readers will, no doubt, perceive that the design, fig. , is intended to be si-symmetrical, and that only the exigencies of the space at our disposal have necessitated our giving it in its present unilateral and somewhat maimed form. fig. is a simple repeat, at regularly recurring intervals, of a single leaf. our designs are necessarily, as we have already pointed out, somewhat simple in character, but the student reader must not imagine that the simple treatments we here, and from time to time, introduce, by any means express all that the plant is capable of affording to the designer. we content ourselves here with slight suggestions; the practical designer should find no difficulty in adapting much that is herein given to the requirements of specific work, whether calico-printing, lace, iron-work, or whatever other medium may present itself for treatment. plate . "yet mark'd i where the bolt of cupid fell— it fell upon a little western flower, before milk-white, now purple with love's wound, and maidens call it love-in-idleness.'"—shakespeare. violets and pansies have, from the associations connected with them, been favourite flowers with all our poets. owing to these associations, poetical and legendary, no less than from the inherent beauty of the flowers, considerable use has been made of them in past art, and the designer will, therefore, do well to acquaint himself with their structure; and, to assist him in this end, we have represented two varieties, selecting them as being not so immediately accessible to him as the common hedge-row violets or the garden heart's-ease. the allusions to this genus amongst the poets are too numerous to quote at any length; yet some few examples of the affection in which it has been held may not be without interest thus sir henry wotton writes— "ye violets that first appear, by your pure purple mantles known, like the proud virgins of the year, as if the spring were all your own." a reference will also be found in chaucer's "assemblie of ladies." the following lines many of our readers will, no doubt recall, as occurring in the "comus" of milton— "the shepherds at their festivals carol her good deeds loud in rustic lays, and throw sweet garland wreaths into the stream of pancies, pinks, and gaudy daffodils." milton also mentions it in his "lycidas" and "paradise lost;" while, not to weary our readers, we will content ourselves, in conclusion, by quoting the following passage from spencer— "strew me the ground with daffe-down-dillies, and cowslips, and kingcups, and loved lillies. the pretty paunce and the chevisaunce shall watch with the fair fleur-de-luce." the name pansy is evidently a corruption from the french pensse; and shakespeare alludes to this in the passage where ophelia says, "there's pansies—that's for thoughts." the viola tricolor, so commonly to be met with in cultivated fields, has many expressive provincial names, as "three-coloured violet," "three faces under a hood," "herb trinity," &c. the latter name we may explain by a quotation from one of the old monkish herbals—"this flower is but one, in which be three sundrye colours, and yet but one sweete savour. so god is three distinct persons in one undivided trinitye, united together in one eternal glory and divine majestic it is called herba trinitatis because it has three colours." the welsh name, llys y drindod, has the same significance. it is also called the mam yn gyfraith, or mother-in- law; the danish name, stifmoder blomst (the step-mother) having a very similar meaning, the fancy in each case being that the two large, plain-coloured petals are the new connexions, the others, more gaily attired, being her own daughters. the sweet-scented purple violet (viola odorata) may be seen as a bordering in a th century ms. in the collection of the british museum: it is, like most of the work of that period, painted in a somewhat too naturalistic manner. it may, also, be found very tastefully embroidered l plants: their natural growth t (temp. henry vi.) on the hangings in the state bed-room at haddon hall; and, again, on a white tea-cup of wedgwood-ware in the ceramic gallery of the south kensington museum. the field pansy (viola tricolor) forms one of the borders of the "hours of henry vii." in the british museum. the v. cornuta, or horned violet (represented at fig. ), is a native of spain and northern africa, though, from its hardy and perennial nature, and the great ease with which it may be propagated, it is not uncommonly met with in our gardens, being often used as a bordering, as it flowers very profusely and remains in blossom during the greater part of the summer. the distinctive term (cornuta, or horned) is applied to it on account of the curiously elongated spur; this member may be very well seen in the side view of the flower, fig, , and again in the bud represented in fig. . fig. is the natural growth of one of the numerous species of garden pansies, the geometric elevation of the flower being seen in fig. . we have introduced it here as affording a pleasant variation of form. the points of difference, judging as an ornamentist, are, when com- paring it with the v. cornuta, mainly these :—the flowers, different in colour, are also decidedly more rounded in character, and having the segments of the calyx much less conspicuously entering into the general effect of the blossom. the leaves are much larger, so that in this species the stem appears more clothed with foliage, while the stipules at the base of the leaf-stalks are very much more conspicuous than such members ordinarily are, and, from their deeply-cut segments, their size, and the general quaintness of their effect, appear admirably adapted to art treatment the whole plant would appear to be in an especial degree suggestive to the designer. plate . "let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth; and it was so. and the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind: and god saw that it was good."—genesis i. , . the aconitum napellus (monk's-hood or wolf's-bane), though apparently really naturalised in some few localities, is ordinarily to be met with only as a cultivated flower in britain. it is a true native of the wooded and mountainous parts of western europe, but appears not to have been known in england until about the reign of queen elizabeth. as a garden plant, it possesses, in addition to its striking character, one great recommendation, as it will grow under the drip of trees, and in shady spots where most other plants refuse to thrive. the whole plant is exceedingly poisonous in its nature; every part of it possesses very virulent properties, though in the root these properties are intensified. the ancients had so great a dread of it that many superstitious cautions were observed in gathering the herb, that the gatherer might escape scot-free from the peril involved in the undertaking. the greeks ascribed its discovery to hecate, and its first origin to the foam dropping from the jaws of cerberus, the janitor of hades—points in its mythical history that at least serve to prove their recognition of its deadly power. the monk's-hood is still retained in use as a medicinal plant, though, from its strength, great care is needed in its employment: it is occasionally used externally as a sedative in neuralgia and diseases of the heart it is cultivated, together with its allies, a. paniculatum and a. decorum, in the botanical gardens at mitcham, in surrey, for use in medicine. fatal accidents have from time to time arisen from the roots having been eaten in mistake for horse-radish. turner, one of the old herbalists, cites a case as a warning at the time of its introduction into england, and as it still remains no less a warning to all those who at the present day cultivate the plant in their gardens, we will quote his remarks. "about twenty yeare ago," he writes, "certeyne frenchmen at antwerp, willing to make a sallet, gathered the rotes of blew wolt's-bayne and eat them, but as many as eat of them, died all within two dayes, wherefore if they had been better learned in the knowledge of herbes, they mighte have avoyded the hasty death that they come to. let oure londiners, which of late have receyved this blew wolfs-bayne, otherwise called monke's-coule, take hede that the poyson of the rote of this herbe one daye do not more harme, than the freshnesse of the flower have done pleasure in seven years; let them not saye but they are warned." when once established in the ground it is very difficult to eradicate it the most potent form of the drug is found in the alkaloid, aconitina, that by skilful preparation is procured from the roots; in the case of a man who had eaten some monk's- hood root, it was found on analysis that the amount of this alkaloid contained in the bulk he had with fatal results taken, could not have exceeded five one-hundreths of a grain in weight; the and ornamental treatment. active principle of this plant is the most deadly known, not even excepting hydrocyanic acid. all chance of accidental poisoning can be at once removed if the roots of supposed horse-radish are, after scraping, allowed to have free exposure to the air for a short time; if they are really horse- radish, little or no change of colour is seen, while, if monk's-hood, they will speedily turn of a pinkish-brown colour. during our indian wars, the wells and tanks have been repeatedly poisoned on the advance of our army, by throwing bruised aconite root into them; the natives of india also use a prepara- tion of the plant to poison arrows with, when hunting the tiger and other wild beasts;—an application of its powers that has been in vogue since very ancient times, hence the name wolfs- bane, and the generic term aconitum, derived from the greek word for a dart, in allusion to its use in rendering still more deadly the weapons of war or of the chase. the monk's-hood has a firm and erect stem, from eighteen inches to three feet high; the leaves are stalked, though those on the upper part of the plant are so slightly so as to appear almost sessile; all the leaves are of a dark bluish-green, and very glossy in appearance, divided into three, five, or seven deeply-cut segments, the upper ones being of much simpler outline than the lower. the inflorescence is racemose, the flowers being large, and of a dark and sombre purple hue. the calyx, by far the most conspicuous part of the blossom, is composed of five petaloid sepals; the upper one is semicircular, and from its form, and the way it closes over the others, resembles a helmet or a monk's cowl; the petals are two to five in number—two, of very abnormal petaloid form, being contained beneath the hood of the upper sepal, the remaining petals, when present (which is not always the case), being very small and narrow. the fruit (fig. ), composed of three to five carpels, is a quaint and not unornamental feature. the calyx, though in most cases resembling a little green cup (as in figs. , , , , , , , , and many other examples), is at times considerably altered both in form and colour, and may thus prove more difficult of recognition, especially to the beginner. the sepals, as we have seen already in some earlier remarks, sometimes fall away at the commencement of flowering, the corn poppy is a good example of this; sometimes at the conclusion, as in the buttercup, while at other times they are what is botanically termed persistent, and do not drop off. in this case they either wither up after flowering, as in the broom (fig. ), become fleshy, or, remaining foliaceous, grow larger, and are then said to be accrescent—ex. winter cherry (physalis alkekengi). when the calyx is not green it is said to be coloured, since, botanically, green in such a relationship is not held to be a colour. in all plants in which the calyx and the corolla are so similar as to be unitedly termed the perianth, the sepaloid parts are generally as brilliant in colour as the petaloid—ex. crocus (fig. ), the white and orange lilies, the tulip, crown-imperial, daffodil, snowdrop, and many others. in the wolf's-bane, the calyx, it may be seen, is purple, while in other plants it is white, crimson, yellow, orange, or blue. the forms assumed by the calyx are at times as varied as the colours, and as great a deviation from the typical character; thus, in the wolf s-bane, the irregular form of the calyx is surmounted by a very large and cap-like sepal; this form, from its resemblance to a helmet, is called galeate: in the primrose or fuchsia, the calyx is tubular; in the chickweed, stellate; and numerous other examples might be added. in some plants the calyx is obviously composed of an aggregation of distinct parts; in others, from the growing together of these parts, the whole form seems composed of one piece, as in the soapwort (saponaria officinalis). plate . * the soul and nature are attuned together. something within answers to all we witness without "when i look on the ocean in its might and tumult, my spirit is stirred, swelled. when it spreads out in peaceful blue waves, under a bright sky, it is dilated, yet composed. i enter into the spirit of the earth, and this is always good. nature breathes nothing unkind. it expands, or calms, or softens us. let us open our souls to its influences."—channino. the yellow rattle (rhinanthus crista-galli) is one of our common plants, being found, at times, in such abundance in pasture-land as to be really a nuisancc to the farmer. it attains to a height of one to two feet, the stem being sometimes simple, as in fig. , but more generally branched (fig. ); it is sometimes spotted with purple. the leaves are in pairs on the stem, lanceolate in form, and coarsely toothed. the blossoms are arranged in a loosely spicate manner, springing from the axils of the floral leaves, calyx inflated and four-toothed, as shown in figs. , , enlarged views of the flower as seen from the side and from above. after the flower has fallen, and during the ripening of the seeds, the calyx continues to increase in size; the lower forms, as will be seen in our plate, being much larger than the upper and more recently developed plants: their natural growth when the fruit is ripe, the seeds rattle within their husky capsule; hence the familiar english name. it is in some districts known as cock's-crest; in france, creste du cog. the rattle is a very variable plant, both in the form of the leaves and the size and number of the blossoms; on these accounts, the earlier botanists distinguished three or four supposed species; but further observation of these variations of form does not confirm the ideas of our predecessors, as these peculiarities are neither constant in themselves nor sufficiently marked to justify the creation of additional species; and, as the plant is parasitic, adhering to the living roots of the grasses, and other plants of the meadow, by means of little suckers, there is but little doubt that these trifling variations arise from greater or less nourishment, and what we may here term accidental or external circumstances, and do not point to any specific differences in the various plants observed. the plant flowers during may, june, and july. the red rattle (pedicular is palustris), an allied species, is another plant well deserving of the ornamentist's regard, its crimson flowers and very richly cut pinnate leaves rendering it a very handsome plant it will be found figured in curtis and several of the other books we ventured in our opening remarks to direct the attention of the student to (see pp. , ); or better still, in all its natural beauty, in marshy land and watery ditches from may to september. both the plants named are to be met with over a very large area of country, being found throughout russian asia and europe, from the mediterranean sea to the arctic regions. in sweden, the farmer judges that the fit time for gathering in his hay has arrived when the seeds of the yellow rattle are heard in their capsules. in looking through a flora of iceland for another purpose, we found the rhinanthus mentioned, and being at the same time struck with the great number of other familiar english plants, that enter into the nosegays of the little icelanders in their chilly northern home, we make but slight apology for mentioning a few of those that will be familiar to our readers, viz.—dog-violet, marsh-marigold, shepherd's purse, four kinds of buttercups, water-cress, blue meadow crane's-bill, bird's-foot trefoil, silverweed, tormentil, wild strawberry, water-avens, stone-crop, ivy, goose-grass, yellow bed-straw, daisy, dandelion, milfoil, groundsel, harebell, forget-me-not, foxglove, white dead-nettle, purple dead-nettle, stinging-nettle; to these, did our space seem to justify it, we might add many others. in figs. , , , , , we have suggestions of the use of the plant in design. the ornamental treatments that we have from time to time introduced are not by any means the best of which the plants are capable, as we are here of necessity placed under limitations of space and simplicity of colour that narrow the scope afforded; still, in the hope that these simple treat- ments may at least prove suggestive to the designer, we insert them. no. , for instance, would produce a richer effect, if, while preserving the two greens, the ground were made a deep maroon, the outlines and veins of the leaves being given in gold. figs. , , are intended as simple forms for stencilling; the reader will easily perceive that, in the first of these, the limited space has prevented our making it bi-symmetrical. stencilling affords a simple and effective means of decorating surfaces where great delicacy is not imperative, and where the forms are removed at some little distance from the eye. the modus operandi is as follows: the design selected is cut out in a sheet of thin metal, the parts cut away being those that enter into the ornamental form, so that, on placing the plate on the surface to be decorated, the perforations are brushed over with a stiff brush, primed with the required colour, and the design is thus transferred at once to the wall or other flat surface. copper is the metal ordinarily employed, as it lies more flatly than brass (which being cheaper is sometimes used), as closeness of contact is an essential point, or the hairs of the brush will get beneath the edges of the plate, and destroy the sharpness that is so indispensable in this kind of work. the design is either cut out by the graver, or etched with acid; very frequently both processes are employed, as the pressure necessarily used with the graver has a tendency to warp and stretch the plate, while, on the other hand, the acid leaves a ragged edge: by first etching the forms, however, and afterwards sharpening them by the graver, the maximum of advantage is gained. in the designs figured , , the natural arrangement of the leaves in pairs is the feature introduced. in fig. , the cross-like arrangement of the foliage, as seen in plan, each pair of leaves being at right angles to the pair above it, is the point utilised, while, in fig. , single pairs are worked up into a diaper, the central spots representing the section of the stem, and the sessile leaves being seen thrown off on either side. in works on ornament a certain amount of confusion seems to exist as to what constitutes a diaper, that term and powdering being often used as synonyms. it appears to us, however, that there is a marked distinction between typical examples of these two treatments, though undoubtedly there are debatable instances that, partaking of some of the characteristics of both, are hard to assign rigidly to either: thus, pugin says that the term "diaper" signifies a continuous pattern of varied colour, in contradistinction to a detached or and ornamental treatment. scattered pattern; yet some of the examples he gives as diapers are composed of an aggregation of detached forms; while parker defines it as an ornament of flowers applied to a plain surface, whether carved or painted; if carved, the flowers are entirely sunk into the work below the general surface—and adds that diapers are usually square and placed close to each other. the true solution of such a question may often be found by a little study of the etymology of the word under considera- tion, but in the present case it is but little help to us, as there is a division of opinion, one deriva- tion being suggested by the small ornaments of this character so freely found on the fabrics made during the middle ages at yprss, in flanders, while another and more probable one is based on the old french word, diapr£, variegated, or diaspre, a jasper stone. chaucer speaks of a meadow diapered with flowers. a diaper, as it appears to us, is the repetition at regular intervals of a form, such form, though generally floral or foliated, having a geometric basis; the forms may be either in contact, as in fig. , united into one composition by bands or lines of colour, as in figs. , , , , , or detached, as in figs. , , so long as the geometric arrangement is felt it does not appear to us necessary that the pattern should be of varied colour, nor that it should be of necessity composed of floral forms; grotesque animal forms, monograms, and arbitrary conven- tionalisms, have all from time to time been employed in forming what we think are entitled to be considered true diaperings. it is by no means needful that the general bordering lines should throw the composition into squares, as in fig. ; hexagons, fig. ; the rhombus, or diamond, figs. , , , , ; the equilateral triangle; the semicircle, fig. ; the vesica, figs, i, ; the* circle, figs. , , or curved forms of a compound character, figs. , , , are as legitimate in employment, and frequently more beautiful in effect a powdering we conceive to be the repetition of a given form at irregular intervals; thus, the grounds of figs. , , are illustrations of it, one being powdered in white, the other in blue and gold. golden stars in a ceiling are often seen powdered on a ground of blue. the forms employed in diapering and powdering may be varied, they are not of necessity fac-similes of each other throughout a given composition; thus, in the stellate powdering we have alluded to, some of the star-like forms may be larger than others; some may have four points, others five, six, or eight, while, in the more rigid composition of the diaper, though it is essential that the masses harmonise, the details may be varied. a diaper, for instance, may be composed of the heraldic rose, thistle, and shamrock, or the symbolic monogram, chalice, and thorny crown. where so vast a field is open to the designer, no rigid line can be drawn—no definition so carefully worded as to satisfy every case. hence, while we have given our ideas on the subject, we feel bound to confess that the student will, no doubt, from time to time, come across examples that can with difficulty be assigned to either class. we have, however, in the foregoing remarks, defined what we think to be the true meaning of the terms diapering and powdering, when used most legitimately in the description of art-work of an ornamental character. plate . "and as for me, though that i konne but lyte, on bokes for to rede i me delyte, and to hem give i feyth and ful credence, and in myn herte have hem in reverence so hertely that there is game noon, that fro my bokes maketh me to goon, but yt be seldom on the holy day, save, certynly, when that the monethe of may is comen, and that i here the foules synge, and that the flowres gynnen for to sprynge."— chaucer—" legende of goode women." the genus centaurea includes several plants of highly ornamental form, and rich in sug- gestiveness to the designer. we have in the present plate represented two of these (the c. nigra and the c. scabiosa), while the others more especially worthy of attention are the c. cyanus, the brilliant blue flower found so commonly in the growing corn, and introduced very beautifully in a th century ms. in the british museum, the c. cakitrapa and the c. solstitialis. the black knapweed (c. nigra) is very abundantly met with throughout britain in meadows, pasture-lands, and by the roadsides, and as it flowers throughout the summer, it can easily be procured at almost any time by any one desirous of studying its natural growth, not from illustrations, but by the far preferable way—direct appeal to nature. it presents two very distinctly marked typical forms, varieties, however, of the same species, as so many intermediate forms are found between these two that, though the differences are marked enough m plants: their natural growth in the two extremes, one passes by these gradations of form so imperceptibly into the other as to forbid the idea of any specific difference. the following are the leading characteristics, such features as would strike the ordinarily careful observer, ignoring as foreign to our present aim more refined differences of structure :—in the c. nigra, var. genuina, the branches are short and much thickened beneath the flower heads, the florets all equal and in a compact head; in the c. nigra, var. decipiens, the branches are slender and thicken but very slightly beneath the flower heads, and are less clothed with leaves than in the preceding, while the most marked difference is seen in the flower heads, the latter variety having an outer row of large and radiant florets. the first form is found throughout britain, and becomes the typical plant in the north, the second variety, though as abundant in many localities as the other, being confined almost entirely to the more southern counties. the upper leaves in both varieties are of very simple form, linear or lanceolate in outline, the lower ones being often (figs. , ) slightly lobed, though in other cases (fig. ) the leaves merely broaden, and do not throw out any lateral lobes. the centaiirea genus derives its name from a belief in its medicinal effects that was firmly held throughout the middle ages, it being fabled that the centaur chiron cured himself, by means of one of these plants, of a wound inflicted by hercules. country people give them many expressive names, as in some places they are called hurt-sickles, from their tough and wiry nature, while in other localities they are known as hard-heads or iron-weeds, in allusion to the very solid mass on which the florets are set the c. scabiosa, or greater knapweed (fig. ), though more local than the black knapweed, is not unfrequently found in pastures, hedgerows, and waste ground, though it is rare in scotland. it is one of the numerous plants that appear to thrive best on the chalk, and in such a district it is generally very commonly to be met with. the whole planf is stouter than the preceding; the stems attain to a height of some three feet, and are considerably branched. the leaves are firm in texture, and deeply pinnatifid, giving a very rich effect to the plant the lower leaves are very large, so large that press of space has necessitated our representing one of them away from the present plate; it will be found on plate vi., fig. , though even there we have been obliged to considerably reduce it from the natural size. the involucral bracts (fig. ) are very large, and with a sharply defined black fringe, that gives a markedly ornamental character to the flower-head. it will be noticed that in this species the stem does not thicken beneath the flower-head, nor has it the agroupment of small leaves characteristic of that part in the c. nigra. the overlapping or imbrication (lat imbrex, a roofing tile) of the bracts of the involucre, bears a strong likeness to what, from its resemblance to fish scales, is known ornamentally as the scale-form. the scale-form is composed of a series of semi-circles, arranged as shewn in figs. , ; the decorative effect being produced, either, as in those examples, by the filling in of foliate forms, or by variation of colour in the scales themselves. it is one of the earliest ornamental forms and one of the most universal, being found abundantly in every style of decorative design, in the egyptian paintings some three thousand years old, throughout the ninevite or assyrian, persian, and chinese styles in eastern art, and in the norman, gothic, and renaissance periods of western art, the natural fish scale being doubtless the proto-type. plate . "for many years it has been one of my constant regrets that no schoolmaster of mine had a knowledge of natural history, so far, at least, as to have taught me the grasses that grow by the wayside, and the little winged and wingless neighbours that are continually meeting me with a salutation which i cannot answer, as things are. why didn't somebody teach ine the constellations too, and make me at home in the starry heavens that are always overhead, and which don't half know to this day? i love to pro- phesy that there will come a time when, not in edinburgh only, but in all scottish and european towns and villages, the schoolmaster will be strictly required to possess these two capabilities (neither greek noi latin more strict), and that no ingenuous little denizen of this universe be thenceforward debarred from his right of liberty in those two departments, and doomed to look on them as if across grated fences all his life."—carlyle. the agrimony (agrimonia eupatoria), the subject of the present plate, is very commonly distributed throughout england and ireland, and more sparingly met with in scotland. it flowers throughout the summer months. from the smallness of the blossoms, it is a plant that may easily be overlooked in the masses of undergrowth found in the hedgerows, its favourite habitat though subject to much variation, both in size and form, it is ordinarily from eighteen inches to two feet high. the plants vary in the hairiness of the foliage and stem, in the form of the calyx and the size of the flowers, hence some botanists have been prepared to divide the present into one or more sub-species, or even to give to some a distinct specific claim, but the differences do not appear sufficiently marked nor constant enough to justify their being considered more than accidental variations from the typical form. the yellow and ornamental treatment. blossoms are loosely and spirally arranged in long, terminal spikes. the petals, five in number, alternating very pleasingly in form (fig. ), with the sepaloid masses of the calyx. the spikes, unlike those of many other plants, are not clothed at all with leaves, but each flower springs from the axil of a small bract, three or five-cleft, and flanked by two smaller bracteoles; these bracts may be seen indistinctly in fig. , and much more clearly in the enlarged views, figs. , , . the lower leaves of the plant (fig. ) are large, and have on each side from seven to nine large lateral leaflets, intermixed with numerous smaller ones, these and the large terminal leaflet being very coarsely serrated, while the upper leaves, though similar in general character, have a smaller number of leaflets (fig. ), and the leaf as a whole is not so large. the calyx during flowering points upwards, but on the death of the blossom turns downwards, as shewn in our illustration, rapidly enlarges, and becomes covered at its summit (fig. ) with a number of hooked bristles. "chaucer speaks of the plant as the "agremoine," but many old writers term it philan- thropos, on account, as some say, of its beneficent medicinal properties, or, according to others, from its calyces clinging to the clothes of the wayfarer, as if desirous of being his companions in travel. the generic name, agrimonia, is a corruption of argemone, a name given by greek writers to a plant supposed to cure cataract the agrimony is one of the most favourite remedies of the old herb doctors, being used not only in cases where its tonic and febrifugal qualities would really be of service, but also, on the principle of a good thing never being out of place, in many remedies where its benefits could only spring from a strong faith in its power: thus, for the relief of haemorrhage a sovereign cure was compounded of human blood, pounded frogs, and agrimony—a remedy that, were such diseases at all under the influence of the will, would certainly, from its nastiness, effectually cure any one, and prevent a repetition of the attack. another writer, in spreading its fame, explains to what causes its potency must be attributed; for he tells us that "it is an herb under jupiter and the sign cancer, and strengthens those parts under the planet and sign, and removes diseases in them by sympathy; and those under saturn, mercury, and mars by antipathy, if they happen in any part of the body governed by jupiter, or under the signs cancer, sagittary, or pisces." in some astrological way, of which the secret would appear to be now lost, he finds it a vermifuge, a remedy for gout, liver complaints, inward wounds, the biting of serpents, colic, cough, ague, cancer, deafness, and many other of the ills of mortality, extracting thorns, strengthening the joints, cleansing, opening, and binding; in fact, it would appear, so varied are its healing powers, to be as potent as some, at least, of the patent medicines of the present day, and a possession as valuable to the th century as those are to the th. as we have had occasion to refer at some little length to the bracts of the agrimony, we will take the opportunity of explaining the nature of bracteal forms, since, under various modifi- cations, they are frequently met with, and are frequently features of sufficient importance to become an element in the treatment of a plant in design. some little knowledge of their nature will, therefore, be an advantage to the student the term bract is applied to the leaves of the floral stem when they differ from the other leaves in size, shape, colour, or arrangement: they are ordinarily much smaller than the leaves (as in present example) and sessile. bracts, though generally green, are not invariably so; thus, in the astrantia major, they are white, or tinged with pink; when coloured they ordinarily partake of the colour of the blossom. the one or two last forms beneath the flower, when differing in some marked degree in size, or form, or colour from the other bracts, are sometimes termed bracteoles. bracteal forms often insensibly merge into the ordinary foliate forms of the plant; the intermediate forms that, from their position, may be either lower bracts or upper leaves, and can scarcely be satisfactorily assigned to either class, are often termed leafy bracts or floral leaves. bracts are true leaves modified by their position: this may be easily known, not only by a study of the scarcely perceptible gradation between the two noted above, but also from the fact, that in many plants the bracts develop into true leaf forms. in some foreign species the floral leaf, in its transformation into a bract, instead of retaining its foliaceous character, becomes a spine, a tubercle, or a tendril. when the floral stems, as in the umbel of the carrot (dancus carota), and the capitulum or flower head of the daisy (bellis perennis), rise from nearly the same point, the ring of bracts thus formed is called an involucre or involucrum; where, as in many of the umbellate plants, the umbel is compound—that is to say, where each ray, instead of bearing one flower, has at its summit a smaller umbel of flowers—the bracts of the lesser umbel form an involucel. in capitulate growth, as in the daisy, dandelion, and other composite flowers, the bracts of the involucrum form an envelope of several imbricating rows, so that many beginners, thinking of the dandelion as one flower, instead of an aggregation of flowers into one head, mistake the involucral bracts and ornamental treatment. plate . "i have been plucking (plants among) hemlock, henbane, adder's-tongue, nightshade, moonwort, libbard's-bane." —jqnson"s masque of queenes, the deadly nightshade (atropa belladonna), is one of our most striking plants, and possesses so distinct a character of its own that it cannot by any possibility, when once seen, be mistaken for any other plant it is not at all a common plant however, and its familiar name is often erroneously applied to another plant, the solanum dulcamara, or bitter-sweet; though, as our readers will see on comparing the leaf, flower, and fruit of this last (figs. , , ) with those of the deadly nightshade, there is no shadow of resemblance. the deadly night- shade is found on waste land, and more especially amongst ruins; it attains to a height of from three to four feet the stem is thickly clothed with leaves, these being in pairs, and one always very much larger than the other. the flowers are solitary, tubular in form, of a lurid purple colour, and spring from the axils of the leaves. the blossoms are succeeded by berries that are at first green, but ultimately turn black, and are not unlike a cherry in size and colour; hence many fatal accidents, as, while the whole plant is poisonous, the berries are especially dele- terious. the generic name, atropa, is derived from atropos, one of the evil destinies or fates in classic mythology. the nightshade is also often called dwale, and especially by the older writers,* being derived from the anglo-saxon dwal (foolish), in allusion to its stupifying properties, or, as some say, from the french, deuil, mourning. the danes call the plant dwale-bcer, literally, torpor-berry; in germany, it is the tollkraut—the toll, frantic or raving, kraut, herb; while the specific name, belladonna, is derived from the italian language, the meaning being "beautiful woman." the name originated in the practice of using the plant as a cosmetic, though we should have imagined that any added beauty thus derived would have been dearly bought in spain the plant is known as the bella dama. the dwale is used medicinally. it is narcotico-acrid, and when applied externally to the eyes, causes great dilation of the pupil—a curious property that has rendered it valuable to oculists in treating various diseases of the eye: the effect follows in a few minutes after the application, and remains for some little time. it is a very dangerous plant where it grows within reach of young children, as the blossoms are somewhat tempting in appearance, and, being sweet to the taste, have frequently proved the source of much mischief; hence, no doubt, its scarcity, as, when found, it is often destroyed as a dangerous plant, and the advice of the old herbalist, gerarde, is scrupulously followed—" if you will follow my counsell, deale not with the same in any case, and banish it from your gardens, being a plant so furious and deadly. banish, there- fore these pernitious plants out of your gardens, and all places neere to your houses, where children do resort, which do oftentimes long and lust after things most vile and filthie, and, much more, a berry of a bright shining black coloure, and of such great beautie." the scottish historian, buchanan, states that the danes were defeated, or rather destroyed, by the scottish troops, under macbeth, through an act of treachery, ale and bread poisoned by the juice of the dwale being sent as a present, during a truce, to the danish army under sweno. the whole story, however, is too dubious in itself, and relates to too mythical a period in scottish history to possess much value. the woody nightshade, or bitter-sweet (solanum dulcamara) is a very common hedge- row plant, its size and trailing habit, the brilliant purple of the blossoms, and the bright crimson of the mature fruit, rendering it very conspicuous. the stalks, when tasted, have a slightly bitter flavour, followed by a curious sweetness—a peculiarity pointed out in the specific name dulcamara and the familiar english name bitter-sweet, the french douce-amere, the spanish amaradulcis, the italian dulcamara, the german bittersusstangel. though a poisonous plant, it is far less so than the true deadly nightshade. the trailing habit, the clustering flowers, the stellate form of the individual blossoms, the smallness and brilliant colour of the fruit, and the lobed and halberd- shaped leaves, are all features that distinguish it very completely from the atropa belladonna. * " there needeth him no dwale"—chaucer; i.e., no need of any narcotic to provoke sleep. n and ornamental treatment. crowned panther. fig. is a representation of the columbine; it is taken from sherbourne, dorsetshire : a piece of th century work, and an admirable illustration of the due conventionalism required by reason of the nature of the material in which the design is worked, all the characteristic effect of the flower being produced without that painful elaboration and sense of labour lost that must have ensued had a more literal rendering of nature been attempted . the design, fig. , is a simple repeat, based on the leaf-form represented in fig. . the generic name, aquilegia, is bestowed upon this plant from a fancied resemblance of the spur-like member to the claws of an eagle, lat aquila, while the familiar english name, columbine, is derived from columba, a dove, the petals clustering together, and presenting very much the appear- ance of a group of doves or pigeons, as may be very well seen in the flower shown at fig. , or in the enlarged buds marked , . an old name, now fallen into disuse, is the culverwort, which, though very different in sound to columbine, is very similar in sense, being derived from the anglo-saxon cul/re, a pigeon. plates , , , , , , . "surely these are points not wholly uninteresting or uninstructive; they are historical details which many persons may rationally desire to know, and such as no man ever needs to feel himself ashamed of knowing. if i do not here give him the most full and satisfactory intelligence on each particular, let it be remembered that at least i neither cut off nor obstruct his way to more copious sources; on the contrary, i studiously direct the enquirer to further information, wheresoever the opportunity is afforded me."—cotton's typographical gazetteer, isjf. the remaining plates are more especially devoted to the application of plants to the purposes of design, and from the general sameness of purpose that runs through them, may very conveniently be treated as a whole, dealing with them in the order to which our title refers, first giving some slight description of the natural growth, and secondly, of the ornamental treatment to which it most readily lends itself, adding to these any subordinate points that nevertheless it would be well to take the opportunity of mentioning, if they can in any way be shewn to be helpful to the practical designer. in fig. , the plant selected is the cratcegus oxycantha, known familiarly as the hawthorn, whitethorn, or may, a tree that at almost all periods has been regarded with affection and interest by the ancient greeks and romans it was adopted as the emblem of hope. in france it is called l'spine noble, from a legendary belief that it supplied the thorny crown of our saviour; hence it is affirmed that sounds of sighing are heard proceeding from it on the eve of each good friday. another legend relates that on the coming to england of st joseph of arimathea as a missionary, he planted his hawthorn staff in the earth one christmas day, when it immediately budded and blossomed; a manifest and miraculous proof to the doubting heathen of his sacred mission. it has also heraldic and antiquarian interest, for after the defeat and death of richard iii. at bosworth, the royal crown was hidden by one of his adherents in a hawthorn bush; it was however soon found, and being carried to lord stanley, he placed it on the brow of his son-in-law, crowning him amidst the exultation of the victorious army, henry vii., hence the house of tudor bore as a badge, a crown and hawthorn bush. it is also one of the earliest plants of summer, and cowley, pope, dryden, chaucer, milton, shakespeare, kirke white, thomson, and moore, amongst other poets, sing its praises. in scotland it is the badge of clan ogilvie. the plant is subject to considerable variation, both in the form of the leaves and the colours of the blossoms and fruit the hawthorn is one of the favourite plants of the carvers of the decorated period; good examples of it may be seen at southwell, exeter, winchester, ely, and hereford . the present example, fig. , is a spandrel from lincoln cathedral; though so simple in composition the effect is decidedly good, and the overlapping arrangement herein introduced may prove a suggestive feature capable of pleasing introduction in work of more ambitious character. the ivy (hedera helix), figs. , , is so familiar a plant that any attempt at describing it is palpably superfluous; we prefer rather, therefore, to dwell on other features connected with it it is, like the preceding plant, a great favourite with the mediaeval carvers, and examples of its introduction into wood and stone carving of decorated work are very numerous. fig. is a design of our own, while fig. is, like fig. , a spandrel from lincoln. the ivy is in classic art dedicated to bacchus, and an ivy crown was the reward of the successful poet, while the priests at marriage festivals presented the newly-wedded pair with a wreath of ivy, as a symbol of the closeness of the tie that should bind them to each other. the characteristic features distinguishing the ivy at various periods of its growth can scarcely be legitimately ignored, if anything approaching a naturalistic treatment is attempted . ivy, when climbing, throws up numerous long stems, furnished with more or less acutely five-pointed leaves, but when it has arrived at the o plants: their natural growth failed in; we shall, therefore, here only describe two processes that have stood the test of repeated experience, and by which we have obtained perfectly satisfactory impressions. for the first of these the reader must procure a solution of nitrate of silver in the proportion of one part of nitrate to fifteen parts of distilled water. with this solution, by artificial light, a piece of smooth paper must be covered, to be, as soon as dry, carefully put away from the influence of day- light when a botanical specimen has been procured of which a record is desirable, it must be placed upon the prepared paper, and, over all, a large sheet of glass, free from spottiness, and heavily weighted at the corners, as to ensure close contact of the plant and prepared paper; the whole must then be placed at the window; if the sun's rays fall on it the paper will rapidly turn a rich chocolate brown; if the sun be not shining the same result will follow, but not so speedily. on this result being attained, the glass must be lifted off and the plant shaken aside, when its image will be seen in delicate fac-simile in a pale creamy white on the ground of deep brown, the sun's ray or the daylight not having been able to more than very slightly influence that part of the paper protected by the plant as, however, that part where the specimen is impressed is as sensitive to the light as the rest of the sheet it will rapidly darken unless preserved from its influence; this may be readily achieved by putting the paper within a large book. on the approach of evening and gas-light, the impression may be freely examined, as any artificial light will not affect it, but as a specimen that can only be referred to by lamp-light would prove of but little practical value, it must be what is technically termed fixed. to effect this, it is only necessary to dip it in a strong solution of hyposulphate of soda; when a chemical action takes place that at once and for ever after preserves it from being further affected by daylight, and it can be as freely consulted as any ordinary drawing. by this process, the richest and most beautiful results may be obtained. it is especially suited to light and delicate forms, such as ferns and grasses, or finely-cut leaves of any kind. it is very important to ensure close contact, as if the specimen be in any place raised above the general surface of the paper, the rays of light will there penetrate beneath it, and at that point produce an unpleasant blurring that will effectually destroy the sharpness and clearness of the impression, and thus far render it useless. the more richly cut the leaves are the better, as this process only gives the general effect of the mass; it does not give the veining of the leaflets; to secure this, our next process, as follows, must be employed. having procured a tube of oil-colour, such as artists use, black, brown, or dark green being the best, a certain amount of the colour must be squeezed (this quantity can be only determined by practice) over a sheet of smooth paper, so as, by means of a dabber made of cotton wool enclosed in fine muslin, to cover the surface with a light and even layer. on this the leaf of which an impression is desired must be placed and, having loaded the dabber with colour, the surface of the leaf is then gone over until all the prominent veins have received a light covering of the pigment the leaf should now be carefully lifted off and placed between two surfaces of clean and smooth white paper, and a gentle pressure of the hand will suffice to imprint the leaf, one of the papers having an impression of the front, and the other of the back. when the colour is dry a wash of green may be laid over it in water-colour, the result being an absolute transcript of nature, the veining, texture, and even minute hairs of the surface being given with the most beautiful fidelity. leaves with prominent veins, as the hop, nasturtium, plane, horse-chestnut, or foxglove, are most suitable. in fig. , we have a design based on the smaller celandine, ranunculus ficaria. the treatment is conventional, the points worked out being the multiplicity of blossoms starring the ground, and the carpeting of leaves so characteristic of the natural plant, the details of leaf and flower form being much more freely rendered than in fig. , a design also based on the same plant the white trefoil or dutch clover, trifolium repens, is the plant employed in our design, fig. , for a diaper for wall decoration. the leaf alone is employed, as the head of flowers, though pleasing in itself, scarcely, from the minuteness of the parts, lends itself happily to art treatment the plant is so commonly met with in pasture land, being sown for its excellent qualities as fodder, that it must be familiar to all those who, from love of plants or appreciation of beautiful form, will be induced to turn over these pages. in ireland, it is of comparatively recent introduction, though now it is often accepted as the national emblem, in place of the wood-sorrel (oxalis acetosella), the original seamrog or shamrock. the design, fig. , is based on the foliage of the oriental plane, platanus orientalis. the plane, though now commonly to be met with, is not an indigenous tree, being, as its name implies, a native of the east. it may be easily identified, not only by the size and characteristic shape of its foliage, but by a curious shedding of its ashy grey bark in long thin flakes, exposing large masses of the yellow wood beneath, a feature that at all times renders it conspicuous. it is one of the few trees that seem unaffected by a smoky atmosphere, hence it is often planted in the o plants: their natural growth in the garden of one of our friends in dean's yard, beneath the shadow of westminster abbey, a remarkably fine plant of it has been growing for a long time, and as healthy, apparently, in spite of its curious habitat, as if it grew in the midst of the purest country air. it is quite unknown how it originally got there, but having made good its footing, it is now scrupulously preserved. herefordshire and worcestershire supply the greater amount, between and tons weight being transported thence annually to london and other large towns. the supply would appear to be almost inexhaustible, as in the cider districts it is calculated that from thirty to ninety per cent of the apple trees yield it its presence in an orchard is an indication of approaching decay, and also the not remote cause of a rapid acceleration of it, as it speedily exhausts the branch from which it springs, and the tree ultimately perishes, overcome in the unequal struggle, and becomes, to quote shakespeare— "forlorn and lean, o'ercome with moss and baleful mistletoe." besides being found on its favourite tree, the apple, it occasionally is met with on the white and black poplars, willow, hawthorn, lime, aspen, alder, crab, maple, mountain ash, hazel, common ash, and some few other trees; never on the holly, cherry, walnut, or beech, and so rarely on the oak, only some six or seven authentic cases being recorded, that that no doubt greatly increased the reverence the ancient britons felt for it, great rejoicings and sacrifices taking place when the sacred oak bore this symbolic plant growing in mystical vigour, without taint or contact of the earth. from this early association with the solemn druidic rites, the plant has been excluded from church decoration; to compensate however for this, it is one of the most welcome plants that deck the dwelling at christmas, having a wealth of meaning that its compeers, the ruddy holly, the ivy, and gloomy yew, cannot emulate. in some parts of the country it is customary for the people, who have sufficient faith in it, to go out on new year's eve, and gather a bough to be hung up at the midnight hour, to ensure good fortune in the opening year. fortunately the commonest, that found on the apple, is held to be most efficacious, though that from the poplar is almost equal to it in virtue . the remaining designs, based on various foliate and floral forms, call for but little comment figs. , , are repeating diapers founded on the square, and filled with trefoil and ivy-like leaves; the design between them, fig. , complete in itself, is suggested by the maple leaf and fruit fig. is founded on the alternate growth seen in many leaves, ex. water cress (nasturtium officinale); hedge mustard (sisymbrium officinale); mignonette (reseda lutea); wood vetch (vicia sylvatica). fig. is suggested by the form of leaf-growth termed verticillate, as in the goose-grass (galium aparine), or the woodruff (asperula odorala); while the remaining illustrations on plate xliii. are derived from various treatments of opposite leaf growth. fig. , with its variation in the size of the segments, has its natural type in such leaves as the agrimony (agrimonia eupatorium); the meadow-sweet (spiraea ulmaria); or the silverweed (potentilla anserina). the feature seen in fig. , the pairing of leaves of different sizes, is seen naturally in the dwale (atropa belladonna); while the opposite growth of leaves alike in each pair,as shown in figs. , , is the commonest form of all in nature; the pimpernel (anagallis arvensis); red dead-nettle (lamium purpureum); the ragged robin (lychnis fios-cuculi); the privet (ligustrum vulgare); moneywort (lysimachia nummularia); and germander speedwell (veronica chamcedrys), are but a few examples. the illustrative designs on plate xllv. are based on various forms of leaves, lobed, as in figs. , ; radiate, as in figs. , ; sagittate, as in fig. ; palmate, as in figs. , ; cordate, as in fig. . in the introduction of any vegetable form into ornament, the leading lines should (fig. ) be clearly represented. it is often a good feature to let the ornament spring from the bounding form, as in figs. , , hence early english stonecarving is superior in effect to decorated; as, in the first, all the forms introduced can be traced to their origin, and spring from one of the enclosing mouldings, while, in the second period, the foliage is wreathed around the capitals in a way that suggests accidental adhesion, rather than vigorous offshoots of growth. all good treatment of natural forms is to a certain extent conventional, and influenced by the position the design is to occupy. nature must not be merely applied. in all good periods of ornamental art it will be found that certain modifications have become necessary to fit the natural forms for their new purpose, the nearer the approach to the pictorial the less are they fitted to enter into a decorative scheme. the distinction drawn between fine and decorative art is a very just one, though we are not prepared to admit the necessary inferiority of the latter, a point too commonly assumed as proved. each has its legitimate function and its independent sphere. we need not here dwell at any length on the principles of ornamental art, as we have already done so in other works, and it does not seem advisable to repeat here matters already dwelt upon; besides, the and ornamental treatment. student will find in such authors as owen jones, dresser, and others, these matters very fully handled; we have, therefore, in the present work, striven rather to occupy ground not so fully pre-occupied. such a work as this should, however, if rightly viewed, be regarded only as a means to an end, and that end the individual study of nature itself. it has been our desire to produce a book that should prove sufficiently suggestive to the reader to lead him to study farther for himself, and certainly not to rest wholly on our labours. it is too much the custom with many manufacturers to recklessly appropriate the ideas of others; too much the fashion with many designers to tread closely in the footsteps of those who, by a successful idea, have diverted thought in that direction. it has not been our aim to produce a series of designs that might be, at slight expenditure of thought or labour, adapted to various commercial purposes, but rather to refer manufacturers and designers alike to that wealth of fancy that may be so readily developed and utilised by a consideration of the beauty and wealth of nature, and by an adaptation to ornamental purposes of those general principles of plant growth, and those varied details that repay a closer study, that would render the work produced at once more novel in conception and more beautiful in effect than would probably be the result of a merely modified treatment of some idea that, once novel and possibly good, has long since got too well-worn to be able to claim any credit on the first score, while even its recurring goodness, assuming that it possesses it, is, after all, not wholly desirable, since it usurps the place that some other equally beautiful and fresher form might have taken, and imposes a narrowness of scope that the abundant wealth of floral beauty does not justify. in presenting to our readers a series of drawings of natural plants, and endeavouring to aid them by suggestions of their use in design, we have, we trust, in some measure supplied a want, since, though there are many excellent standard works on botanical science, many equally excellent standard works on ornamental art, there are but few, so far as we are aware, that endea- vour to show the relationship existing between them. should our work, by its utility, prove that we have in some measure reached our ideal, our labours, pleasant as they have been in themselves, will have that pleasure greatly enhanced by the knowledge that others besides ourselves have found them of interest and profit; that we have thus been in some small way instrumental both in inculcating a greater taste for natural beauty, and in aiding incidentally the spread of the beautiful in art with all its failings—and in no mock modesty do we exaggerate them—our work has been throughout a labour of love, and with a feeling of real regret do we find it drawing to its close. if we have failed in causing this feeling to be shared at all by our readers, it will, we trust, be considered no disparagement to our subject, it will only shew that fair nature has been unfortunate in her self-appointed spokesman, in that we have failed to convey to others the sense of delight that her study is nevertheless able so richly to afford. list of illustrations. the drawings here marked (*) have been designed by the author as illustrations of ornamental treatment of the respective plants. decorative treatments that are not so marked are from mediceval and other sources. plate i. i. stapelia hystrix: section of the stem—enlarged. , ) , s, , . transition from sepaloid to staminoid forms in the snowdrop. . section of ovary— vellozia elegans—enlarged. . galanthus nivalis, snowdrop: natural growth of the plant . snowdrop: plan of interior of flower. . snowdrop: plan of exterior of flower. . snowdrop: normal sepaloid form. . snowdrop: normal petaloid form. . perianth of tulip. . section of ovary of the primrose—primula vulgaris— enlarged. . section of shaft: dorchester, oxon. . section of ovary of the snowdrop, g. nivalis—enlarged. plate. ii. . flower of the periwinkle— vinca major. . flower of pelargonium tomeniosum—enlarged. . flower of the lily of the valley—convallaria majalis —enlarged. . side view flower of the potato—solanum tuberosum— enlarged. . natural growth of the mullein—verbascum thapsus. . flower of the common avens—geum urbanum— enlarged. . flower of silverweed—potentilla anserina—enlarged. . flower of the viola tricolor. . flower of the elder—sambucus nigra—enlarged. plate iii. . plan of young plant of the sunflower—helianthus annuus. . flower of the daffodil—narcissus pseudo-narcissus. . flower of the corn-cockle—agrostemma githago— enlarged. . flower of the chinese lantern plant—dielytra spectabilis —enlarged. . flower of the hairy st john's wort—hypericum hirsutum—enlarged. . section of stem of aspidospermum excelsum. . . leaves of the hedge mustard—sisymbrium officinale. . flower of white dead-nettle—lamium album— enlarged. plate iv. . leaf of the sycamore—acer pseudo-platanus. . leaf of the pelargonium zonale. . leaf of the corn convolvulus—convolvulus arvensis. . flower of the sweet william—dianthus barbatus— enlarged. . leaf of the evening primrose—(enothera biennis. . leaf of the ginkgo—salisburia adiantifolia. . leaf of the coltsfoot—tussilago farfara. . leaf of the black bryony—tamus communis. plate v. . section of shaft: rochester cathedral. . section of shaft: oxford cathedral. . . shafts sections: rochester cathedral. . opening bud of sycamore—acer pseudo-platanus. . section of shaft: canterbury cathedral. . young shoot of lilac—syringa vulgaris. s , , s , s , - gradation from scale to leaf form in lilac. . section of stem of the sedge—carex vulpina. . section of stem of the water plantain—alismaplantago. . section of stem of the meadow-sweet—spircea ulmaria. . opening bud of sycamore—acer pseudo-platanus. . section of stem of the elder—sambucus nigra. . section of stem of the white dead-nettie—lamium album. . . leaves of the shepherd's purse—capsella bursa- pastoris. . plan of young plant of the radish—raphanus sativus. . section of shaft: roche abbey. plate vi. . leaf of the greater knapweed—centaurea scabiosa. . leaf of corn marigold—chrysanthemum segetum. . leaf of begonia suffruticosa. . , , . leaves of the ivy-leaved speedwell— veronica hederifolia. . leaves of the sarracenia jlava. . leaf of the daisy—bellis perennis. . leaf of the harebell—campanula rotundifolia. . leaf of begonia wetoniensis. . leaf of maranta pardina. plate vii. . musk mallow—malva moschata—natural growth of plant . flower of musk mallow—back view. . floral form from gothic, tile: chertsey abbey. . bud of the musk mallow. . upper leaf of musk mallow. . flower of the common mallow—malva sylvestris. . floral form from gothic tile: chertsey abbey. . lower leaves of musk mallow. . flower of musk mallow: front view. q list of illustrations. , . plan views—front and back—of the expanded flower. . * design based on the blue meadow crane's-bill. . lower leaf of the meadow crane's-bill. . flowering head—natural growth. plate xxiii. . leopard's-bane—doronicum pardalianches—natural growth. . lower leaf of the leopard's-bane. . , . front, side, and back views of flower-head: leopard's-bane. plate xxiv. . front view of flower of hepatica triloba. . normal form of leaf—hepatica triloba. . . side views of the flower. . leaf of hepatica—abnormal. . back view of hepatica flower. . unfolding leaf—hepatica. . front view—abnormal—of hepatica flower. . fruit of the hepatica. . * ,* .* designs based on the hepatica triloba. plate xxv. . corn crowfoot—ranunculus arvensis—natural growth. . detached segment of the fruit . n. leaves, showing the variety of form in the plant ,* .* designs based on the corn crowfoot . one of the lower leaves of the plant , . front and back views of the corn crowfoot flower. plate xxvi. . erodium manescavi—natural growth of plant , * ,* .* designs based on the e. manescavi. plate xxvii. . natural growth of the viola cornuta. . garden pansy—natural growth. . front view of flower: garden pansy. . detached leaf and stipules of the v. cornuta. . side view: bud of v. cornuta. . . front and side views of flower—v. cornuta. plate xxviii. . monk's-hood—aconitum napellus—natural growth. . leaf of the monk's-hood. . form of fruit of the monk's-hood. . one of the upper leaves of the monk's-hood. *. design based on the leaf of the monk's-hood. plate xxix , . common rattle—rhinanthus crista-galli—natural growth. . * design, for stencilling, based on the rattle. . front view of rattle flower. . . side and plan views of rattle flower—enlarged. . * design, for stencilling, based on the rattle. , * ,* .* designs suggested by the rattle. plate xxx . natural growth of the centaurea nigra. , , . detached leaves of c. nigra. . greater knapweed—centaurea scabiosa—natural growth. . involucre of the greater knapweed. plate xxxi. . herb agrimony — agrimonia eupatorium — natural growth. . plan of flower—enlarged—front view. . one of the upper leaves of the plant . plan of flower—enlarged—back view. . ripening fruit of agrimony. . , . forms of bractea at base of flowers. . * design based on the agrimony. . one of the lower leaves of the plant plate xxxii. . . natural growth of the lamium tnaculatum. , . upper and lower leaves of the plant . section of the stem. . * design based upon the leaves of the l. tnaculatum. . . the flower—side view—enlarged. . front view of the flower. . side view of bud. . * design based on plan view of inflorescence. . * design based on elevation view of plant plate xxxiii. . deadly nightshade—atropa belladonna — natural growth. . fruit of the deadly nightshade. . back view of fruit : shewing calyx. . deadly nightshade in flower. . opening flower of the deadly nightshade. . , . flower, fruit, and leaf of the woody night- shade—solanum dulcamara. plate xxxiv. . linum flavum—natural growth of the plant s , . side views of bud and expanded flower. . shining crane's-bill — geranium lucidum — natural growth. , * .* designs based on the shining crane's-bill . * design based on the linum jlavum. plate xxxv. . foxglove—digitalis purpurea—natural growth. . front view of flower. . back view of opening bud. . back view of flower. . side view of flower. . front view of bud. . one of the lower leaves of the plant . , . back, side, and front views of the calyx. plate xxxvi. . aster alpinus—natural growth of plant / ,* .* designs based on the aster alpinus. list of illustrations. plate xxxvii. . columbine—aquilegia vulgaris—natural growth. . fruit of the columbine. a. one of the upper leaves of the columbine. . mediaeval carving of columbine: sherbourne, dorset . * design based on the leaves of the columbine. . plan view of interior of flower—enlarged. . one of the lower leaves of the plant . . side views—enlarged—of the bud. plate xxxviii. . mediaeval carving of hawthorn—cratatgus oxycantha —lincoln. . * design based on the ivy—hedera helix. . * design based on the horse chestnut — sfsculus hippocastanum. . stone crop—sedum acre—natural growth of plant . * .* designs based on the stone crop. . * design based on the lesser celandine—ranunculus ficaria. . mediaeval carving of ivy—hedera helix—lincoln. . mediaeval embroidery: haddon hall; the stone crop—sedum acre. plate xxxix. . mediaeval carving: chichester. . mediaeval carving: southwell; the white bryony— bryonia dioica. plate xl. . * design based on the cinquefoil—potentilla reptans. . * design based on the thorn apple—datura stra- monium. . * design based on the common poppy—papaver rhaeas. . * design based on the lesser celandine—ranunculus ficaria. plate xli. . * design based on the white clover—trifolium repens. . * design based on the oriental plane — platanus orientalis. . * design based on the horse chestnut—sesculus hippocastanum. plate xli i. . mediaeval conventionalism of vegetable form. . * design based on the cuckow-pint—arum maculatum. . * „ „ corn poppy—papaver rhceas. . * ,, „ dog rose—rosa canina. . * ,, mistletoe—viscum album. s * - * - * - * - » * * -* o* plate xliii. design based on the white clover—trifolium repens. „ „ maple—acer campestre. „ „ ivy—hedera helix. design based on alternate growth of leaves. design based on verticillate growth of leaves. design based on interruptedly-pinnate growth of leaves. design based on opposite growth of leaves. design based on irregular growth of opposite leaves. design based on opposite growth of leaves. plate xliv. . * alternation of form as a principle in ornament . * radiation as a principle in ornament . * the ornamental use of the spiral line. . * the patera form in ornament . * the ornamental use of the waved line. . * ,* .* repetition of forms as an ornamental principle. ,* .* the ornamental use of the spiral line. general index. "so essential did i consider an index to be to every book, that i proposed to bring a bill into parliament to deprive an author who publishes a book without an index of the privilege of copyright, and, moreover, to subject him to a pecuniary penalty."— campbell's lives of the chief justices of england. abnormal root forms, . acanthus, . acer campestre, , , . acer pseudo-platanus, , , . acicular form of leaf, . accrescent form of calyx, . achillea millefolium, . aconitum decorum, . aconitum jvapellus, . aconitum paniculatum, . acorn, a kind of nut, . adherence of ornamentatists to a few set forms, . adiantum capillus-veneris, . sesculus hifpocastanum, , , . esthetic art, . sethusa cynapium, , , . agaricus muscarius, . agaricus personatus, . "agremoine" of chaucer, . agrimonia eupatorium, , , . agrimony, , , , , . agrostemma githago, . alder, . alehoof, . alisma plant ago, . almond, . alpine daisy, , . alpine milk-vetch, . alternate arrangement of leaves, . althea rosea, . alyssum spinosum, . amentum form of inflorescence, . american water-weed, . amygdalus communis, . amygdalus persica, . arucharis alsinastrum, . anagallis arvensis, , . anemone pulsatilla, . angular form of leaf, . annulate type of root, . anthemis nobilis, . aphelandria leopoldii, . apple, , , . aquilegia vulgaris, , . arrangement of leaves, . arrowhead, . artemesia campestris, . art library, south kensington museum, . arum maculatum, , , . ash, , , , , . asparagus, . aspen, . asperula odorata, . asphodel, . aspidospermum excelsum, , . aster alpinus, , , . aster alwartensis, . astragalus alpinus, . astragalus hypoglottis, . astrantia major, . atropa belladonna, , , , , . attachment of certain plants to particu- lar geological formations, . autumn plants, characteristic, . autumnal foliage, suggestive in colour, i , , - avena sativa, . avens, common, . avens, water, , , , . axillary inflorescence, . bacon, essay on gardens, . badge of clan forbes, . badge of scotland, . badges, heraldic, , . baffiner, . balsam, . baneberry, . banyan tree, , . barton, on evening primrose, . barton, on floral seasons, . bassinet, . beech, . begonia suffruticosa, . begonia wetoniensis, . bellisperennis, , , , , , . ben jonson, quotation from, . bentham, "british flora," . berry or bacca, form of fruit, . bifid form of leaf, . bifurcated form of leaf venation, a. bilabiate form of corolla, . bird's-foot trefoil, . bittersweet . bi-symmetrical arrangements in nature and art, . bi-symmetrical character of leaves, . blackberry, , . black bryony, , . black knapweed, . black medick, . black poplar, . blackthorn, , . bladder senna, . blotched leaves of the sycamore, . blotched or spotted leaves of orna- mental value, . "blue-bell" of scotland, . bog pimpernel, . boletus edulis, . book illustrations not always reliable, - books to consult on plants, . borage, . botanical terms, knowledge of, . box, . bracteal forms, . bramble, , . bristly-flowered stapelia, . "british flora," bentham, . british museum, tiles at, . broad-leaved everlasting pea, . broom, , , , , , , . bryonia dioica, , . buds, suggestive ornamental forms, . bulbous crowfoot, , , , . bull's-foot, . burns, the thistle, . bush vetch, , , , , . butterbur, . buttercup, , , , , , , . butomus umbellatus, , . jinx us sempervirens, . cacti, stems of, . caducous type of calyx, . calathea zebrina, . calcarate form of corolla, . caltha palustris, . catystegia sepium, , . calyx, its colours, form, and use, , . campanulate form of corolla, . campanula glomerata, . campanula hederacea, . campanula rapunculoides, . campanula rapunculus, . campanula rotundifolia, , . caoutchouc, whence derived, . capsule form of fruit, . carduus acaulis, . cat dims la mail at us, . carduus marianus, , . car ex vulpina, . carpels, example of, . carrot, , , . castor-oil plant, . cat's-foot, . celandine, , . celandine, lesser, , , . celtic art zoomorphic, . centaurea cakitrapa, . centaurea cyanus, , , . centaurea nigra, . centaurea scabiosa, , . centaurea solstitialis, . central line of leaf terminating in point, . cephalotus, pitcher plants, . cerasus communis, . charophyllum temulentum, . chamomile, . characteristic autumn plants, . chaucer, love of nature, , . chaucer, the pansy, . cheddar pink, . cheiranthus cheiri, . chelidonium majus, , . chemical nature-printing, . cherry, , , . chertsey abbey tiles, , . chickweed, . chicory, . chinese lanter n plant, . christmas rose, . r general index. christ's-thorn, . chrysanthemum, garden, . chrysanthemum segetum, , , . cichorium intybus, . cinquefoil, . ciraza lutetiana, . circinate growth, henbane, . circinate vernation of ferns, . circular stem-sections, . clan ogilvie, badge of, . classification of plants, . clavaria amethystina, . clavaria fusi/ormis, . clavaria rugosa, . claytonia perfoliata, . clusia, ffirial roots of, . clustered bell-flower, . cock's-crest, . colour of autumn foliage, . colchicum autumnale, , . coleman's "woodlands, heaths, and hedges," . coleridge on love of nature, . colour of calyx, . colt's-foot, , , , , , . columbine, , , , , , . columbine in ornamental art, . coma rum palustre, . comfrey, , . common vetch, . composite type of flower, . compound form of umbel, . compound leaves, n. cone form of fruit, . conical form of root, . conium macuiatum, , , . convallaria majalis, . convolvulus arvensis, , , . corchorus capsularis, . cordate form of leaf, . corn blue-bottle, . corn cockle, . corn convolvulus, io, , . corn crowfoot, , . corn marigold, , . corn poppy, . corn rose, "comocopio" of pollinius, . corylus avellana, . coronet form of inflorescence, . cotton plant, . cotton thistle, . coughwort, . cowper, god in nature, . cowper, characters of trees, . crane's-bills, , . crataegus oxycantha, . crenate form of leaf outline, . crenulate form of leaf outline, . crimson clover, . crimson grass-vetch, . crocus aureus, , . crocus luteus, , , , . crocus minimus, , . crocus nudiflorus, , . crocus vermis, , . cross-leaved heath, u. crowfoot, , . crown imperial, . cuckow-pint,. , , . culverwort, , . currant, . curtis, " flora londinensis," , _| . cuscuta europiza, . cuviera, thorny petals of, . cyme form of inflorescence, . dandelion, , , , , , . daffodil, , . dahlia, , . daisy, , , , , , , , , , s - danish name for viola tricolor, . date, . datura stramonium, , . daucus carota, , . deadly nightshade, , , . de candolle on the causes of unsym- metrical leaves, . decompound form of leaf, . decorated period of gothic, . decurrent type of leaf, . definition of diaper, , . dehiscent form of fruit, . delphinium ajacis, . dentate form of leaf outline, . dentulate form of leaf outline, . dianthus armeria, . dianthus barbatus, , . diapers and powderings, their nature, , - dielytra spectabilis, , . digitalis purpurea, , , . disecious plants. . dipsacus sylvestris, . distinction between fine and decorative art, . distribution of species, . doctrine of signatures, , , . dodder, . dog-rose, , . dog-violet, . doronicum pardalianchcs, , . dove's-foot crane's-bill, . drupe form of fruit, . drying plants for reference, . dunbar, "thrissill and the rois," , . dusky crane's-bill, . dutch clover, , . dwale, , , s , . dyer's green-weed, . economic botany, its scope, . elder, , , . elecampane, . elm, , . enchanter's nightshade, . "english botany," sowerby, . enjoyment to be derived from study of nature, . entire form of leaf outline, . epiphytes, . erica tetralix, . erodium manescavi, . erose form of leaf outline, . eschscholtzia californica, . etserio form of fruit, . evening primrose, , , . evening star, . everlasting pea, , , . exstipulate plants, . fairy's petticoat, . fairy's thimble, . fairy-cap, . fasciculate form of inflorescence, . fasciculate form of root, . fasciculate growth of leaves, . fennel, . ferns, venation of, . ferns, vernation of, . fibrous form of root, . eicus carica, , . eicus elastica, . eicus indica, . eicus religiosa, . eicus sycamorus, , . field artemesia, . field pansy, . fig, , , . figuier, " vegetable world," . filbert, . fine and decorative art, . finger flower, . fir, , . fitness of natural forms for art adapta- tion, . five, as a basis of floral parts, . flax, , . "flora londinensis," of curtis, , . floral organs occasionally spinescent, flowering rush, , . fluted or grooved stems, . fluted stem sections, . foal's-foot, . eoeniculum vulgare, . follicular form of fruit, . fool's-parsley, , . forget-me-not, . four, as a basis of floral parts, . foxglove, , , , , , , , . eragaria vesca, . eraxinus excelsior, , . french bean, . frog's-foot, . fruit forms, . fruits, multiple forms of, . fruits, simple forms of, . function of scales, . functions of the root, . eungi, as studies of colour, . fungoid growth on leaves, . furze, , , . fuschia, calyx of, . fusiform type of root, . galanthus nivalis, . galeate form of calyx, . galium aparine, , , . galium mullugo, . galium verum, . "garden of pleasant flowers," parkin- son, . garden parsley, . garden ranunculus, . garlic, . genista tinctoria, . geometry in ornamental art, , . geranium wlumbinum, . geranium dissectum, . geranium lucidum, , . geranium molle, . geranium ph&itm, . geranium pratmse, , , . geranium robertianum, , , . geranium sanguineum, . geranium sylvaticum, . gerarde's " catalogue of trees, fruits, and plants," . germander speedwell, . geum intermedium, . geum rivale, , . geum urbanum, , , . ghiberti gates of florence, . giant's nosegay, . gibbous form of corolla, . gill-go-by-ground, . general index. ginkgo, , . guditschia triacanthos, , globulca ohvallata, . gold-cup, . golden moss, . goldilocks, . gold-knob, . goose grass, , , , . grahame, quotation from, . "grammar of ornament," owen jones, ' - great bindweed, . great knapweed, . greater the number of parts the less constant, . great mullein, . greek myth respecting the monk's- hood, . ground ivy, , , , , , . groundsel, , , . guelder-rose, , . habitat of plants, . hard-head, . harebell, , , . hare's-foot trefoil, . hastate form of leaf, . hawthorn, , , . hay-maids, . hazel, , , . heart's ease, . hedera helix, , , . hedge bedstraw, . hedge convolvulus, . hedge mustard, , , , . hemlock, , , , . hemp, . henbane, . hepatica, , . heraldic floral badges, , , . herb agrimony, . herb bennet, . herb-gardens, mitcham, , , . herb robert, , . herb trinity, . hexagonal stem sections, . hippocrepis comosa, . historic associations of the broom, . "history of orders of knighthood," nicholas, . holbein, picture by, bryony introduced, . holly, , , . holyhock, . holy thistle, . homer, reference to hyacinth and crocus, . hop, , , , , . horned-violet, . horse-chestnut, , , , , , , s , , - horse-hoof, . horse-shoe vetch, . houseleek, . humulus lupulus, , . hurt-sickle, . hyacinth, ovary of, . hyacinth, sometimes called "blue bell," . hydrocotyle vulgaris, . hyoscyamus niger, . hypericum, genus, , . ilex aquifolium, , . illuminated mss., , , . imbricated arrangements of leaves, . imbrication of bracts, . impatiens-noli-me-tangere, . indehiscent form of fruit, . indian cress, . induration of organs into spines, . infinite variety of natural forms, . inflated form of calyx, . inflorescence of plants, . influence of light on plants, . influence of nature on the mind, . infundibuliform corolla, . introduction of crocus into england, . involucel, its nature, . involucre of bracts, . inula conyza, . inula hetenium, . ipecacuanha, . ipomoea purpurea, . iris, . iron-weed, . irregular perianth, . iris pseudacorus, . ivy, ", . . . , °' , . o- ivy-leaved speedwell, , . jute, - knapweed, . knowledge of botanical terms, . knowledge that should be possessed by designers, . kolreuteria paniculata, . labiate stem-sections. . lamium album, , , . lamium maculatum, . lamium purpureum, . lanceolate form of leaf, . lantern plant, . lapsana communis, . large garden convolvulus, . lathyrus aphaca, , . lathyrus hirsutus, . lathyrus latifolius, , , . lathyrus maritimus, . lathyrus nissolia, . lathyrus pratensis, . lathyrus sylvestris, , . lathyrus tuberosus, , . leaves ordinarily bi-symmetrical, . leaf arrangements, , . leaves, simple or compound, . leaves springing from one level are of equal size, . leaves, spinescent, . "legende of good women," chaucer, - legume form of fruit, . "le live de la chasse," gaston phe"bus, . lent lily, . leopard's-bane, , , . lesser celandine, , , . library, art, south kensington museum, . ligulate form of corolla, . ligustrum vulgare, , . lilac, , , . lilium candidum, , . lily of the valley, , . lime, . limitation of ill effects of poisonous plants, . linaria candollei, . linosyris vulgaris, . linum arboreum, . linum augustifolium, . linum catharticum, . linum ftavum, , . linum perenne, . linum usitatissimum, . lonicera caprifolium, . london-pride, . lords and ladies, , . lotus diffusus, . lotus hispidus, . lotus in egyptian art, , . love-in-idleness, . lucerne, . lucretius, quotation from, . lupin, . lupin tree, . luridas, the, of linnaeus, . lychnis flos-cuculi, . lychnis viscaria, . lysimachia nummularia, . maiden-hair fern, . malva moschata, . malva sylvestris, . mangrove, . maple, , , , , , , , , , . marantapardina, , . marsh mallow, , . marsh marigold, . marsh pennywort, . marigold, . may, . may-lily, . meadow crane's bill, , , , . meadow saffron, , . meadow-sweet, . meadow vetchling, . meanings of plant names, , . medicago lupulina, . medicago tnaculata, . medicago sativa, . "medical botany," stephenson and churchill, . "medical botany," woodville, . medicinal value of plants, , , , s - melilot, . melilotus alba, . melilot us officinalis, . mignonette, , . milfoil, . milk thistle, , , . milton, quotations from, , . mistletoe, , , . mitcham herb-gardens, , . modification of growth according to position, . "modus florendi" of the older botanists, . moneywort, . moniliform type of root, . monk's-hood, , , . mountain ash, . mullein, great, . multiple form of fruit, . musk mallow, , , , . mustard, hedge, . myriophyllum verticillatum, . naked crocus, . napiform type of root, . narcissus pseudo-narcissus, . narcotic plants, . narrow-leaved everlasting pea, . nasturtium officinale, . general index. siliqua form of fruit, . silverweed, , , . simple forms of fruit, . simple leaves, . siphonia elastica, . sir joshua reynolds on the object of study, . sisymbrium officinale, . sketching plants as ornamental mate- rial, . smaller periwinkle, . small bindweed, . smilax, stipules of, . snapdragon, . snowberry, . snowdrop, , , , , . soapwort, . solanum dulcamara, ; . tuberosum, . solitary infloresence, . sonchus oleraceus, . southey, on the study of nature, . south kensington museum, tiles in, . sowerby, "english botany," . sow-thistle, , . spadix, form of inflorescence, . spatulate form of leaf, , . spartina stricta, . spear-plume thistle, . spearwort, . special localities for various plants, . speedwell, ivy-leaved, . spenser, quotation from, . spergularia marina, . spike form of inflorescence, . spines, thorns, and prickles, . spiny forms of fruit, . spircea ulmaria, . spiral arrangements of leaves, . spotted and striped leaves, . spotted medick, ; nettle, . square-stalked st john's wort, . square stem-sections, . st dominic, hare-bell dedicated to, . st john's wort, , . st valentine, crocus dedicated to, . stachys, spiny calyx of, . stapelia hystrix, . stellate character of composite, . stellate form of calyx, . stem-sections, , . stem surrounded by leaf, . stem, varieties of, . stencilling in design, . stephenson and churchill, "medical botany," . stinging nettle, , . stipels, . stipulary organs, their nature, . stone-crop, , , , . strawberry, . strophanthus hispidus, . stuart badge, . study of nature, . subfoliaceous scales, example of, . sunflower, , , , . supradecompound forms of leaf, . sweet william, , , . sycamore, , , n, , , , . symbolic use of plants in art, . symmetry as a principle in ornament, . symphorocarpus vulgaris, . symphytum officinale, , . syringa vulgaris, , . tamus communis, , . taproot, . s taraxacum dens-leonis, , . teasel, . tendrils, their nature and office, . terminal floral growth, . testiculate form of root, . teucrium scorodonia, . texture of leaves, n, . textures and surfaces of fruits, . thistle, . thistle in ornamental art and heraldry, , - thorn-apple, , , , . thorns, spines, and prickles, . three-coloured violet, . three faces under a hood, . "thrissill and the rois," , . throat-wort, , . thyrsus, form of inflorescence, . tiles, chertsey abbey, , . tormentil, , . transitional form from petal to sepal, . transitional forms from scale to leaf, . tree-primrose of virginia, . trees having their leaves in pairs, . trefoil in ornament, . triangular stem-sections, . trifolium arvense, ; t. incarnatum, ; t.pratense, ; t. repens, , ; t. resupinatum, . troil-flower, . tropoelum majus, ; t.peregrinum, . tuber cibarium, . tuberous bitter-vetch, . tubular form of calyx, ; of flower, . tufted vetch, . tulip, perianth of, , . tulip tree, , . turner, on poison in monk's-hood, . turn-hoof, . tussilago farfara, , , , . tussilago petasites, . twining, " natural orders of plants," . two, as a basis of floral parts, . ulex europjeus, , . ulnus campestris, . umbel, form of inflorescence, , , . umbelliferce, remarks on, . unilateral whorl of ground-ivy, . unsymmetrical leaf forms, . urtica dioica, . urtica lactea of old botanists, . variation from type in the parts of flowers, , , . variation from typical form of flower, . variation of form or colour in plants, . . . o, , s°- . varieties of centaurea nigra, . varieties of leaf forms, . varieties of spicate inflorescence, . various forms of fruits, . various motives influencing use of plants in art, . vegetable physiology, . "vegetable world," figuier, . vellozia elegans, . venation of leaves, . verbascum thapsus, . verbena officinalis, . vernation of leaves, . veronica chamoedrys, ; v. hederifolia, . verticellate arrangement of leaves, , . vervain, . vicia cracca, ; v. lutea, , ; v. sativa, ; v. sepium, , , ; v. sylvatica, . vinca major, , ; v. minor, . vine, , , , . vine in byzantine art, . viola comuta, , , ; v. tricolor, ; v. odorata, . violet, , , , - virginian tree primrose, . viscum album, , . vitis vinifera, . wallflower, . walnut, . wall pepper, . water avens, , , . water buttercup, , . water cress, , . water plantain, . waved margin of leaves, , . weld, . white archangel, . white bryony, , , . white dead nettle, , , , , . white garden lily, , , . white hedge-vine, . white of selborne on study of botany, ; on system, . white poplar, . whitethorn, . white trefoil, . whorled arrangement of leaves, . whorled water milfoil, . wild carrot, . wild strawberry, . willow, . winged nut or samara, . winged stem, types of, , . winter cherry, . witch's fingers, . wolf s-bane, , . wonderful richness of natural form, . wood geranium, . woodruff, . woodsage, . wood sorrel, . wood vetch, . woodville's " medical botany," . woody nightshade, . wordsworth on the broom plant, ; on the teachings of nature, , , , ; love for the lesser celandine, , . wormwood, . yvornum on symmetry in ornament, . wotton, sir henry, the violet, . wol/enia carinthiaca, . wrinkled surface of leaves, . xyloma acerinum, . yarrow, . yellow bedstraw, , . yellow flax, . yellow iris, , . yellow melilot, . yellow, prevalent colour in composite, - yellow rattle, , , °- yellow vetchling, . yew, . yucca gloriosa, . zoomorphic character of celtic orna- ment, . 'tn wivhyi vim wvnmo qnv h momq vx utvfv] hi h stnvld s i a e.wluh daawdj f as lsalfag .» moono'i t oram snowy plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme. fls plate ii marcus ward s co, london & belfast. s i a e.mulh darmae f aa iii elv p plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, br f edward hulme. fls plate v marcus ward i co, london* belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by [-edward hulme, fls plate v i marcus ward t co, london * belfast f plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, e l.s plate vii marcus ward & co. london & belfast. 'tn wtv yj. "ivin wvnyo qnv htmoyqlvyutvn yi ht stnvld v livid si a 'hwtuh dardwe f aa isalfag snoqnoi qram usrcma plants their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, f.' l s plate vll marcus ward i co london & belkast plants, their natural growth and ornamental treatment, i y f edward hulme, fls plate viii marcus ward t co., london & belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fl.s. plate x marcus ward & co, london & belfast plants, their natural growth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fl s. plate xii marcus ward & co, london & belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fl.s. ( marcus ward & co., london & belfast. plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fls plate xvii marcus ward & co, london & belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fls. plate xviii nepeta clechoma marcus ward i co, london & belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fl s plate xix marcus ward & co, london & belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme. fl s plate xxi marcus ward co, london & belfast ' m wiv m v n wvnmq qnv himo^ q vm fuvn m h 'stnvld vxx tevld plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme. f l s. plate xxvi marcus ward & co, london & belfast plants, their natural growth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fls plate xxvmi plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fls. plate xxx centaurea scab'osa marcus 'aard s co, london* pflfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fls plate xxxi agri/aonia eupatoriuw. h e r b - agri wo n y. marcus ward * co, london & belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fls plat xxxiv marcus ward & co, london s. belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, f l s. plate xxxvi marcus ward t co, london & belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fls. platexxxvii warcus ward * co, london * belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme. fl.s plate xxxviii crat/egus oxyacantha sedufa acre stonecrop stonecrop ranunculus ficaria /j lesser celandine f sedu,^ acre stonecrop marcus ward co, london t belfast plants, their naturalgrowth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme. fls marcus ward * co , london t belfast plants, their natural growth and ornamental treatment, by f edward hulme, fls. plate xliii marcus ward & co, london & belfast the library wilson library [ ,.“ lych rqmatic one hundred plates in gold, silver, and colours, comprising upwards of two thousand specimens of the various styles of ancient, oriental, and medixeval art, and including the renaissance and the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. the subjects selected and arranged, in historical order and in a form suitable for practical use, by a. racinet' with explanatory text, and a general introduction, translated from the original french. london: henry sotheran and co., , strand; , piccadilly; and , tower st., city. . chiswick press z—printed by whittingiiam and wilkins, tooks court, chancery lane. :i * ii. iii. iv. table of contents. list of the plates in the order in which they are arranged. general introduction. one hundred plates, and descriptions. classified index of subjects. list of plates in the order in which they are arranged, with the names of the symbols by which they are distinguished. numbers. titles. signs. numbers. titles. i. primitive . a hive. lii. renaissance . ii. egyptian . a ball. liii. ,, iii. ,, . a squirrel. liv. ,, iv. assyrian . a globe. lv. ,, v. greek . a fly. lvi. ,, vi. ,, . a palette. lvii. ,, vii. etruscan . a frying-pan. lviii. ,, viii. greco-roman a dog-kennel. lix. ,, ix. ,, a helmet. lx. ,. x. chinese . a battledore. lxi. ,, . . . . . xi. chinese and japanese . an anchor. lxii. xvi. and xvii. centuries xii. japanese . . . . a butterfly. lxiii. renaissance . . . xiii. chinese and japanes a crab. lxiv. ,, xiv. chinese . . . . . the sun. lxv. ,, xv. chinese and japanese . an ear. lxvi. ,, xvi. indian . . a magician. lxvii. ,, xvii. ,, the moon. lxviii. ,, . . . . . xviii ,, a pear. lxix. xvi. and xvii. centuries xix. ,, a watering-pot. lxx. xvi. century xx. persian a negro’s head. lxxi. ,, . . . . xxi. ,, a hammer. lxxii. xvi. and xvii. centuries xxii. ,, a parrot. lxxiii. ,, xxiii ,, a cat. lxxiv. xvii. century . . . . xxiv. ,, a trumpet. lxxv. xvii. century ( st part.) . xxv. ,, an elephant. lxxvi. xvii. century . . . . xxvi. arabian a well. lxxvii. ,, . . . . xxvii. ,, scales. lxxviii. xvii. century ( st part) . xxviii. ,, a fish. lxxix. xvii. century . . . . xxix. moorish a serpent. lxxx. xvii. century ( nd part). xxx. ,, a boat. lxxxi. xvii. century . . . .- . xxxi byzantine a hand. lxxxii. xvii. and xviii. centuries . xxxii ,, a tower. lxxxiii. xvii. century ( nd part) xxxiii ,, . a shield. lxxxiv. xvii. and xviii. centuries . xxxiv ,, a vase. lxxxv. xvii. century . . . . . xxxv. ,, . . a foot. lxxxvi. xvii. and xviii. centuries xxxvi middle ages . . a star. (ist part) . . . xxxvii ,, . . a barrel. lxxxvii. xviii. century xxxviii celtic . a pink. lxxxviii. ,, xxxix. ,, . . . a camlelabmm. lxxxix. ,, xl. middle ages . . . . a square. xc. ' ,, xli. ,, . . . . . . an ear of com. xci. ,, xlii. ,, . . . . . . a horse’s head. xcii. ,, xliii. ,, an extinguisher. xciii. ,, . . . . xliv. ,. compasses. xciv. xvii. and xviii. centuries . xlv. ,, an arrow. xcv. xviii. century xlvi ,, a snail. xcvi. ,, xlvii ,, a windmill. xcvii. ,, xlviii. ,, a tree. xcviii. ,, xlix. ,, a sgren. xcix. ,, l. ,, . a book. c. ,, li renaissance . a saw. . a halberd. a cornucopia. a torch. a peacoclr. a shell. a dagger. abaslretoff lowers. an easel. an awe. scissors. a telescope. an i nlcstanll. a basket. keys. a cup and ball. a ladder. a mask. a bunch ofgrapes. a violin. a fool’s bauble. a cage. a boot. a ring. a sheaf. a stool. an eye. a bow. a cannon. an angel. a lantern. a bell. a crown. a cock. a cloclc. a fan. a harp. a pistol. flags. a kite. a chest. a shuttlecoclt'. a rake. a sabot. a medal. a bow. a candlestick. a pine apple. a comb. a bottle. _.. i i _-_- mm . > . #: > i n t r o du c t io n. : his book is meant to be chiefly practical, being less a treatise than a collection, and teach- ing more by example than by precept. by the adoption of this method we have avoided the discussion of dangerous theories, which, however correct they may be, remain too vague and general when presented in an abstract manner. nothing can be more eloquent than the sight of the master-pieces themselves; and to point out by analysis the lessons they contain is a proceeding much more conclusive than to pretend to demonstrate them by an à priori synthesis, frequently too absolute to be adapted to the many unavoidable exceptions, or the necessities of peculiar cases. the latter method would be especially dangerous if applied to that branch of art which is least capable of adapting itself to inflexible laws, and in which the greatest liberty has to be left to the instinct, the imagination, or even to the caprice of the artist. most assuredly, however, we would not say that the productions of this art can dispense with obedience to certain principles and superior laws, to which every artistic conception must conform. thus, an ornamental composition can only be perfectly beautiful when it produces in the spectator that sentiment of repose and satisfaction which results from the equilibrium and perfect harmony of the elements of which it is composed. the laws of proportion, the laws of balancing and symmetry, the subor- dination of details to the whole, variety in unity, all these rules, dictated by instinct and proclaimed by science, are binding on the art of ornamentation as on all others. but yet, whilst painting and sculpture are more or less fettered by sense and logic, or by the necessity of the imitation and exact rendering of natural objects; whilst architecture must comply with various conditions—solidity, the purpose of the building, and the correlation of exterior aspect with interior use; ornament, and especially that kind which now occupies us—the decoration of coloured surfaces—has a sphere of action, doubtless more modest, but yet enjoying much greater liberty. many means exist by which this end may be attained, many ways of arriving at this combination of proportion and harmony which gives birth to the sentiment of the beautiful. if ornament may borrow from other arts their various characteristics—from architecture its general forms and the interest attaching to repetitions and variations of the same motive; from sculpture its real or imitated reliefs; from painting the charms of episodic subjects and of natural colouring—it may, without diverging from its proper sphere, find inexhaustible resources. from the simplest geometric figure—a square, a lozenge, or a triangle, the repetition and intermingling of which frequently suffice to form an interesting whole—to the most ingeniously complicated interlacings, the most capricious arabesques, and those chimerical compositions in which the line, the flower, the animal and the human figure are mixed and blended together, what a vast domain for the orna- mentalist, who thus finds himself master of that fantastic and charming world, which depends not on nature but on the imagination! what captivating and even seductive liberty, if such freely-ranging caprice were not to be regulated by taste and judged by the effect produced, which must be, whatever the means employed, harmony in form as well as in colour! b polychromatic' ornament. thus, the place which ornament occupies in the artistic scale is, though a secondary yet an important one. if it is less ambitious than other forms of art, if it does not attempt like them to raise our souls and make them vibrate with the deepest feelings, it responds to one of the most instinctive needs of our nature, that of embellishing the objects around us. sometimes united to the creations of the higher arts in order to complete them, sometimes applied to the commonest objects, which it relieves and ennobles, it is the natural link between industry and art, of which it represents one of the most familiar, practical, and varied forms. thus the general characteristics of ornamentation are a multiplicity of applications, and an almost unlimited variety and liberty in the employment of means. but from this very character there arises, as we said just now, a great difliculty in determining its rules otherwise than by example, and in forming a priori the code of ornament. this, then, we have not attempted, and it is solely by analysis and by considering in their historical order the various styles from which the subjects of our plates are taken, that we shall endeavour, in this short introduction, to explain their sources and mechanism, and to furnish those who will make use of it with the means of enlightened appreciation and imitation, or what is better, of profitable appro- priation. with this view before us, we shall only preface this historical sketch by a few brief preliminary observations calculated to lighten the way and provide the elements for a conclusion which the reader can draw for himself. there are three processes in the production of ornament—the drawing or design, colouring, and relief. by the help of these means, the two first of which are especially to occupy our attention, the artist may obtain the most varied results, all coming, however, within the three following categories: lst. the invention of subjects purely imaginary, foreign to the productions of nature. ndly. the conventional representation of natural objects, expressed merely in their essential characters, and under generalized types. rdly. the imitative representation of objects, in which nature is followed both as regards design and colouring. the first, which borrows nothing from the imitative arts, appears to a certain degree in every style and in every period. the lineal and geometric combinations (interlacings, meanders, and roses), which are its primitive basis, respond to the faculties of order and measure which are to be found in evcry human brain; being the direct productions of pure imagination, they create that which had no existence. although this style occupies a more important place in the art of certain nations, such as the arabs or anglo- saxons, yet in none is it wholly wanting. whether apparent or not, this geometric process forms the basis of the greater number of ornamental compositions. the second, the conventional representation, which is a link between the two others and is frequently mixed with the first, resembles this first style to some degree in the domain of creative invention, by its faculty of idealizing, that is, of generalizing under the form of archetypes, and of appropriating the models taken from nature. it is by this idealized imitation, that the artist, according to the happy expression of m. charles blane, “enters into the grandeur of universal life;” and it is from this style that we may expect the highest type of ornament; since, as the author of the “ gram- maire des arts du dessin” says again, “ this style is the impress of the human mind on nature.” as to the purely imitative representation of objects, it is when approaching modern times that we most frequently meet with this individualizing style, the especial aim of which is to give the most exact rendering of the object represented, to express it with all its accidental modifications, reliefs, and shades of colour; in short, with all its distinctive qualities and complete physiognomy. this style, the results of which are less severe and more delicate than those of the two others, arose from the increased use of painting in the domestic arts, and the improvement in the manual skill of the artist, and was thus well suited to the refined and elegant tastes of an advanced civilization. this frequent use of purely imitative painting suggested charming decorations to the skilful artists who adorned modern art, especially that of france, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; not, however, altogether without abuse as well as injury to certain industrial arts (such as keramics, painting on glass, the manufacture of carpets, &c.), which would have gained by keeping to, and would even now gain by returning to, simpler and more truly decorative processes. we will only say in conclusion that the application of colour to ornament (the principal object of this work) is bound up in the closest manner with the use of one or other of the modes of proceeding we primitive style. have just explained. where the representation of objects is ideal or conventional, the colour is likewise conventional, and the ornamentalist remains master of his palette. the severity of the design is thus redeemed by liberty in chromatics, that is to say, by the advantage of being able to choose and arrange the colours at will, without any necessity for resemblance or even for probability, but merely observing the laws of harmony. this road, always open to creative originality, was never abandoned by the orientals, and in following it they acquired unequalled experience. we will now trace, through the history of the different periods of art, the application of the various styles, the substance of which we have endeavoured to define. primitive decoration. plate i. #|mong the examples contained in plate , the term primitive, that is to say anterior to any | conception of rules of art, belongs in reality only to those examples (nos. to ), which re- present the almost instinctive conceptions of the tribes of oceania or central africa, applied to the decoration of objects in common use. we have thought it advisable to add to this succinct glance at instinctive ornamentation, a few monochromatic fragments, carved or sculptured, which serve to complete its simple characteristics. i':i:eu: z$%.s$z' s:// £%'. |az. £% | % s % % %@' 'we £ £ . % $/q'//q £%q'v//w/cŞ *///// $ % (w . sn: ss Ž ~ s: $: "a s * . żs: s: |way s' :// | % Š */ %'. fragments of carving (louvre museum). except in nos. , , and of our plate, in which some outlines of flowers are to be found, all these instinctive designs are pure creations. the extremely moderate use of colour, the abuse of which is so easy, is no less remarkable than the manner of the design. considered as primitive, this stage of art is not without its value, since, in the absence of a knowledge of higher rules, the workman would feel strongly at the very outset the need of order, symmetry, and harmony, his combinations being limited, it is true, but already characterized by appropriate colouring. nowhere shall we find a more vigorous use of black than may be seen in nos. and , and especially in no. , where, on a bright red ground, the isolating principle of the white outline gives that powerful aid to effect so frequently obtained by the subtle colourists of asia. to these productions, presenting every characteristic of primitive art, we have added several examples of peruvian or mexican ornamentation belonging to a more advanced stage of civilization. we have done this because, in the first place, the limits of our collection do not allow us to give a separate place to those little-known arts, and also because it seemed to us interesting to place together, so as to mark the difference between, the purely individual efforts, such as those of wild tribes, and those in which the influence of architecture, in procuring unity of character, may already be felt. certainly the mexican paintings given under nos. to are not of an agreeable colouring, but beneath the barbarism of colour the intentions are not without value, and flow from the high prin- ciples, whence flow the different styles; principles to which architecture alone gave birth, and of which polychromatic or nament. the ancient monuments of yucatan and mexico, reminding us of those of egypt, india, japan, and especially of assyria, furnish prototypes. decoration of a pirogue. (louvre.) club. between the primitive state, and the establishment of architectural rules, it may easily be seen that a period of gestation must have elapsed, which we have no means of measuring or of following. authentic history does not even commence for us with the oldest monuments of architecture; we know |- '. | - £ - - braided leather. (modern mexican decoration. louvre.) nothing of the civilizations which erected them, and what may remain of preceding ages is still of no utility to us. “in the state of intermixture in which the great human families are now found spreading over the a ncient. eg yptian, and assyrian art. surface of the globe,” says m. viollet-le-duc (“cités et ruines américaines”), “it is difficult to distinguish the particular aptitudes which originally belonged to each of them.” this is unfortunately evident, but yet we may, with ziegler, and without entering into the pre-historic study of particular aptitudes, consider £- - | - iii. | kill ill | | | - - " | #: 'm' 't''': fffe-l == - |####! lit. j. ** pieces of the monuments of uxmal (yucatan). taken from “monuments anciens et modernes” by gailhabaud; paris, firmin didot. keramics as the element which inspired the formula of architectural design. the analogy between the principles is the same, and man handled the potter's clay before the wood or stone of monuments. it is to keramics then that we must attribute the fertile principles of the idealization and generalization of the forms of nature from which architecture and ornamentation were to derive such great advantages. ancient art. #|n classing under this denomination egyptian, assyrian, greek, etruscan, roman, and greco- | roman art, we are influenced less by a question of priority (since asiatic art co-existed with that of later times, while some of its forms may claim the highest imaginable antiquity,) than i by deference for the time-honoured phraseology which reserves this term ancient for those states of civilization which were made known to us by greek and latin literature, and the study of which, brought into honour at the time of the renaissance, forms the principal basis of our classical education. this group has besides a well-defined physiognomy which favours its study by itself, and its tradition may be easily followed through the various historical phases which these nations have passed through. egyptian and assyrian. plates ii., iii. egyptian. £he history of ancient art commences in egypt. - whether the arts of ancient egypt be considered as a point of junction of the semitic, ethiopian, and berber races, as a summing up of the attempts of earlier civilizations which have remained almost unknown to us, or be looked at as the origin of the greek, etruscan and greco-roman arts, that is to say, as the source of classical traditions, they have a two-fold claim to our respect in their antiquity and superior merits. polychromatic ornament. the art of the egyptians was essentially lofty, spiritualistic and symbolic, and this character is to be found in the highest degree in their ornamental compositions. the elements of the real world, combined under generalized forms, compose the basis of their decoration. the sober outlines within which it is contained are of unequalled amplitude; their only object is the expression of the species, not of the individual, and they represent, under ideal forms, types, which, though few, are very varied in their application. the colouring consists of flat tints, without shading, employed in a conventional manner like the forms themselves. in the notice on plate ii. there will be found an enumeration of the colours used on the egyptian’s palette. nearly all the objects which compose this ornamentation are plainly symbols. m. j acquemart, in his “ memeilles de la céramique,” thus explains the greater part of the images represented in our two plates :— “ it is easy to show the important part played by a plant which is to be found in all oriental theories. the deified lotus represents the homage rendered to the beneficent action of water and sun on the sleeping earth; it is the symbolism of the annual evolutions of the seasons, causing generation to succeed generation, and bringing back life where every thing seemed like the immobility of death. the sun itself was the object of direct worship, the forms of which were varied by the priests to make it penetrate more deeply among the masses. everyone is familiar with the winged disc, under which the two serpents urazus raise their heads, the royal symbols of upper and lower egypt; it is the sun in his material form as he figures on the threshold of the temples, on the funereal and votive monuments, and even on the clothing of the priests and kings; ardent and poetic prayers were addressed to it, such as the following :—-‘ glory to thee, ra, in thy morning radiance, tmon, in thy setting. . . . . thou dost illumine, thou dost shine, appearing as the sovereign of the gods.” but there is another solar image which demands an explanation. in the country, in our own land, we find an insect generally looked at with disgust, the beetle . . . now, if the egyptians chose out for deification such a small and repulsive being, it was because they had discovered wonderful details in its habits. and, indeed, when we observe the actions of this insect on sandy slopes, we see it penetrate into animal excrements, chooae a suitable mass which it kneads into a ball, after having placed its egg within, and which it afterwards drags along by its hind legs, until the heat has hardened the surface ; it then buries the ball, in the interior of which the birth and transformation of the larva are to take place, and from which will afterwards emerge the perfect insect, to accomplish in its turn all the various processes of generation. the scarabzeus appeared then to the egyptians to be imitating, on a small scale, the work of the creator. the stercoraceous ball, containing an egg, is the ground animated with the vital germ and undergoing, under the influence of solar heat, its natural evolution. here there is some resemblance between the creator and the work produced, and this resemblance sufficed to raise the humble insect to the rank of the greatest of gods.” no. in plate ii. represents the black scarabaeus holding in its upper claws the sun’s disc, and in the lower ones the stercoraceous ball. it is the complete symbol. to these symbolic representations, the egyptians frequently added hieroglyphic signs. writing thus became to them a means of ornament, a process which the greeks appear to have neglected, but from which the persians, arabs and moors obtained the happiest efi'ects. balustrade. egyptian feather. the following passage from m. champollion-figeac will give an idea of the extent of the application of ornament amongst the egyptians :— “ furniture of common or of rare and exotic woods, of metals either engraved or decorated with gilding ; plain and figured stuffs, em- broidered, dyed and painted, of linen, cotton and silk, all contributed to the adornment of egyptian houses, and to the convenience of home life . . . . the same care was given to the fabrication of steps, bedsteads with head-boards and bolsters, divans, sofas, wardrobes with two doors, sideboards, small tables, caskets and chests, and everything of that kind necessary for the use of a family. the footstool matched in material and ornaments with the arm-chair for which it was intended. there were folding-seats in wood, the legs having the form of the head and neck of a swan. other arm-chairs were made of cedar-wood incrusted with ivory and ebony, and the seats of cane firmly interwoven. stands, round tables, gaming-tables, boxes of all sizes corresponded in material and workmanship with the remainder of the furniture. mats and carpets of brilliant and varied colours and sometimes adorned with pictures illustrating stories, covered the floor of the apartment or those portions of it that were most used: in the rooms there were also vases of gold, of costly materials, of gilded metals, relieved with enamels and precious stones, of an elegance and variety of form, of which we should have had no idea but for the paintings of them which remain.” greek, etr us can and greco-roman art. the firmness, justness and fulness of the egyptian drawing have never been surpassed. the lines of their hieroglyphics covering the papyrus and the stela, and executed in running hand, surpass sometimes in representations of animals even the finest works of the greeks. the fact of these good draughtsmen restraining motion in their pictures into what appears to us extreme rigidity, showed a purpose that cannot be attributed to their religious laws alone. in resisting the pliability of their skilful and learned hand, they were obeying principles of art, of which they proved the fertility and which deserve on that account all our attention. the study of egyptian productions is full of instruction, first as to what they are in themselves, and secondly, as to what they did not wish to be. their sober outlines, whether simple lineaments or metallic envelopes, constantly remain before us as models for those ornamentalists who wish to retain the conditions of idealism and grandeur of style. assyrian.—assyrian ornamentation, fragments of which are given in plate iv., belongs to a secondary period, and might be called, as we remarked in our notice, the scytho-assyrian; it is indeed posterior to the conquest of primitive babylon, whose arts must have come from that indo-bactrian source, still represented in iran by monuments of which we possess no detailed drawings. the egyptian influence is seen clearly in some parts of the buildings of persepolis: the winged globe, the head-dress of the egyptian divinity socharis, uraeus and balusters surmounted by the globe, prove that these buildings, enriched with borrowed ornaments, are posterior to the conquest of egypt by cambyses. no rule, no prescription of any school, seems to oppose the variety of forms, in which there is greater caprice than just proportion. we feel that the egyptian artists summoned by the successors of cambyses lost some of their worth when leaving the place of their education, which was already itself in a relative state of decay, and that they succeeded but imperfectly in transplanting their art to another land. having to apply itself on a new soil to the decoration of palaces and no longer of temples, egyptian symbolism no longer possesses the same hieratic meaning; brought face to face with a foreign civilization, there remain but feeble vestiges of it. no. in our plate is a painted bas-relief representing the sacred tree, one of the most frequently repeated figures in assyrian symbolism. the winged figures surrounding the sun, no. , seem to be the symbol of the soul, &c. assyrian ornamentation, including the bas-reliefs, was entirely painted, or gilded and silvered. “i have ascertained,” says m. texier, when speaking of persepolis, “that there is not a corner of the palace in which there is not the most delicate and careful painting; it was the same at khorsabad, at nimroud, and also at ecbatana, the capital of media, where, according to polybius, in his description of the palace of the kings of persia, the porticoes, the peristyles, the walls were covered with plates of gold and silver, which were pillaged by the soldiers of alexander.” the enamelled bricks of regular design and overlapping, of which we give two fine specimens, must be, from their manufacture, a chinese importation (texier, asie-mineure); at any rate, they are the earliest models of the bricks for facings, of which the modern persians make so large and ingenious a use. greek, etruscan, and greco-roman. plates w., wi. greek. £|reek art in its commencement is thought to have been merely a continuation of the egyptian tradition, modified by assyrian and more especially by phoenician influences. the world knows what, in the hands of a composite race, endowed with the highest artistic faculties that have ever been found among men, these various traditions have called forth in hellas. after a certain time of incubation, a style was produced bearing but a distant relation to that of preceding civiliza- tions, and the creation of an ideal which has retained its superiority in high plastic work. under the influence of these arts, ornamentation likewise underwent a remarkable change. greek ornament, less hieratic than the egyptian, less restricted to the narrow use of the symbol, less spiritualistic and more living, possesses greater liberty, pliancy and grace, which were never abused, but always kept within bounds by the good taste of the greeks. always pure, noble and elevated, ingenious and varied, but never luxuriant or excessive, greek poly chromatic or na ment. ornament bore the stamp of those superior qualities which raised architecture, sculpture, and the other plastic arts to such an elevation, but at the same time, and as a natural consequence of the development of the other forms of art, a secondary rank was assigned to ornament, almost always subordinated to the interest of the figures of men or animals, which wind round the vases, and people the metopes and friezes. if we seek now, from the point of view announced in the commencement of this study, the principal character in greek ornament, we shall find it to be clearly conventional (when it is not purely ideal) and though inspired by the general forms found in nature, free from a servile imitation of details. a rapid enumeration of its favourite motives will enable us to recognize this ruling character of greek ornament. thus the graceful palmette of which the antifixae are formed, which play so important a part on-the friezes of the temples, as well as on the bowls and necks of vases, is taken from the pods of the carob tree, variously united and twisted into branches, plumes, etc.; but the variation from nature is so great that it may be considered as a real creation, almost as much so as the meanders, cable mouldings, etc. some other palmettes, taken from different plants, such as the aloe and the convolvulus, designs composed with leaves of water plants, ivy, laurel, or vine complete the ordinary flora of greek ornament, the most celebrated type of which is that acanthus leaf which decorates the corinthian capital, fragment of a stela, from asia minor, with palmette and acanthus leaves. (taken from the “expédition scientifique en morée,” by blouet. volumes, folio; paris, firmin didot.) concerning which vasari has handed down to us the charming fable. “that acanthus stem, oh callimachus, the sculptor! that acanthus stem,” cries ziegler, “which you found richly growing in a place of sepulture, and with which you decorated the capital, the glory of the corinthian name, that irre- pressible acanthus has passed through twenty-two centuries, without losing one of its leaves, and has covered with its branches the whole monumental world.” symmetry and regularity are the general principles of greek decoration; everything was made to yield to these rules —“even the white crests of the waves of the sea,” says m. jacquemart, in speaking of the vitruvian scrolls, “so often frayed by the winds, seemingly essentially variable and capricious, are brought under the yoke of ornamental regularity; painters have transformed them into the elegant vitruvian scrolls which the ancients had the sense to place always at the base of goblets, whilst among us, through ignorance of their signification, they are frequently placed where they are perfectly meaningless.” (examples of these may be seen in plate v. nos. , , and , and in plate vi. no. .) th: ment greek, etrus can and greco-roman art. the other principal elements of greek ornament, a part of which is especially suited to archi- tecture, are: meanders or frets, interlacings of straight lines broken and cut at right angles, many examples of which may be seen in plates w. and vi., and the use of which was so frequent in hellenic art that they are frequently called greek frets. cable mouldings, combinations of curved lines, penetrating regularly into each other (plate vi. nos. , , , , ). they are sometimes simple and sometimes double. (nos. and .) trellised mouldings or plaits, an imitation of a plait of hair. chaplets or astragals are composed of a number of round and oval bodies seemingly strung together, and which probably represent the necklaces worn by women. ogees, showing flowers and leaves of water plants (see plate v. nos. , , , and plate vi. no. ). channellings, short flutings, the ground of which is filled with pointed leaves (see plate vi. no. ). #. ź& ź 'x greek trellised mouldings. greco-roman frieze. (acanthus leaves, egg-mouldings and chaplets of pearls.) (taken from the “description de l'asie mineure,” by ch. texier; paris, firmin didot.) egg-mouldings, ornaments cut in the shape of an egg, which frequently take the form of such fruit as the chestnut, the shell being left open. bucranes, ornaments designed from the ox's skull. leathern bands or thongs, horns decorated with flowers or jewels, or else garlands and wreaths of flowers nearly always accompany them. these bands '' tutul |- # '...}: # & *- ! ! # (q) # zz s- \ /q.' ££ bucranes, egg-mouldings and astragals. (subject taken from the “description de l'asie mineure,” by ch. texier.) and adornments remained fastened to the horns of a victim, and, after the sacrifice, were suspended with his head from the walls of temples, tombs or altars. the artificial reminder of these offerings becomes a chief feature of noble decoration on the friezes of temples, and like all that the greeks touched, turned in their hands into a fresh source of beauty. modern art has not abandoned these charming and fertile inventions, some of which are common to c polychroma tic ornajient. greek and other arts (such, for instance, as the meander, which is to be found everywhere, and the taste for which seems innate in man), whilst others belong more especially to hellenic art. without speaking of architecture, the decorative arts still derive most useful instruction from these productions of ancient greece. the colouring in greek ornament, as well as the form, is always conventional. it was used very frequently, for the greeks applied polychromatic decoration to numerous branches of art. architecture may be mentioned as the first of these. it is now beyond question that this art was frequently polychromatic. the skilful restorations by our artists, and especially by the holders of our art scholarships at rome, have assisted largely in demonstrating this fact, which receives frequent confirmation in the fresh researches and discoveries of scholars and artists. plate vi. presents some interesting examples of architectural colouring. lifosaz'c, the very nature of which is based on the employment of materials of various colours, is likewise essentially polychromatic. incrustation of metals also derives its principal effect from the opposition and blending of tints, and was much admired by the greeks. and lastly, colour is the principal ornament of keramz'cs, the importance of which has induced us to give up to it an entire plate of the two that we were able to devote to pure greek ornament. this manufacture spread over the rest of greece and even italy, from corinth, the city of potters; and indeed many of the vases found in apulia and etruria were of greek fabrication. some of these vases were already in existence in the time of homer. in the most ancient known, the style resembles the egyptian, and these would date from ten or twelve centuries before the christian era; the designs are usually black on a light ground, and the details of the models seem to have been taken from embroideries. nos. , , , , and of plate v. belong to this style and period. the employment of black ground is of a later date; it was in use at the time when greek art was at its highest development. nos. , , and of the, same plate belong to this manner; they come from apulia, and show by their variety and freedom of treatment all the resources of the style. etruscan (plate vii.) .—before examining what greek art became on an italian soil, we mus speak of an art contemporary with that of the greeks, and which was, in some degree, merged into it to form the greco-roman style. the art of the etruscans, who inhabited the centre of italy, dated from the most remote antiquity. their race is supposed to have been formed from indigenous as well as from pelasgic and phoenician elements, and, in this mingling vvinkelmann discerns the hardy race from whom the tuscans have sprung. they became the artists of the romans, and built their ancient edifices. independently of their keramics, always cele- brated, but now usually considered as belonging to the egyptian or greek style, either through imita- tion or importation, the etruscans had made great advances in goldsmith’s work, and it is to this national product that plate vii. has been devoted. the skill of the etruscan goldsmiths was cele- brated in ancient times. their jewels in embossed or chased gold were appreciated and much sought after, even at athens. they knew and practised every resource of this art and carried it to perfection ; under their skilful hand everything was made to lend its assistance: flowers, fruits, real or fantastic animals, human, heroic, or deified figures, alternating with vases of all forms, with acorns, discs, cornucopiae, intermixed with rose work, crescents, flattened or lentil-shaped balls, with chains of every sort of work‘and of all sizes, intermingled with emeralds, to etruscan funeral jewels. (taken from “ etrurie et les etrusques,” by m. noel des vergers. ) those of our readers who wish to know more of the etruscan style may advantageously consult this very interesting work. greek, etrus can and greco-roman art. which medicinal virtues were attributed, and the peculiar green of which harmonizes so well with the yellow of gold, pearls, glass-paste, enamels, cameos, intaglios: a union effected with such good taste in so great a variety, that many of these jewels are still considered masterpieces of their kind. they consist of diadems and crowns, hair-pins, ear-drops, necklaces, fibulae, bracelets, rings, objects of worship, and funeral jewels. scarabaei are frequently introduced in necklaces, bracelets and rings; they usually unite the work of the intaglio and the cameo; their under surface, flat and hollowed out, contains either hieroglyphics or various figures. the upper part, on the contrary, always convex, is sculptured in relief and represents in a more or less complete manner the egyptian scarabaeus, from the use of which not merely on jewels but also on clothing, necklaces, utensils and sword hilts we may probably infer, if not a direct worship as amongst the egyptians, at all events some superstitious ideas. the intaglios or deepening, for which the greeks at the finest periods of their art had a marked predilection, and of which the etruscans also made great use, were usually transparent and of a single colour. amongst precious stones, properly so called, the amethyst, hyacinth, and sometimes the opaque emerald were especially chosen; from the others the cornelian, the chalcedony, and more rarely the jasper and lapis-lazuli. under the roman dominion and the ever-increasing invasion of greek art, the productions of etruria lose their peculiar character, and the indigenous works yield completely to the foreign influence. *st will '' % £%: £ £ '''i''' ". (, sq * *|| acanthus leaf. (roman scroll.) we turn then naturally to the development of greco-roman art, which terminates the cycle of ancient art properly so called. greco-roman. (plates viii., ix.)—the ancient romans possessed nothing of their own worthy the name of art. after the first period of that art which they were indebted for to their etruscan builders, a period characterized especially in architecture by the use of the vault and arcades, and the modifi- cations it entailed in the use of ornament, we have just seen that the workmen of etruria, losing their primitive originality by contact with the greek colonies, assumed by degrees all the traditions of the latter. there was then no longer any art in italy but the greek, after the arrival of the objects of art brought by marcellus from syracuse, by mummius from corinth, and by all the roman generals after them. conquered greece had become through her arts in her turn the conqueror. those master-pieces which rendered rome an enormous museum determined the direction of roman taste. the paintings of pompeii and herculaneum are, according to our most learned archaeologists and artists, of the same kind as the paintings that adorned the houses in athens. (see hittorff, “l’architecture polychrome chez les grecs,” chapter ix. entitled “lettres d'un antiquaire à un artiste,” by letronne.) “in decorative painting applied to dwelling-houses, the competent archaeologist accepts as a fact that the romans took everything from the hellenes, both in taste and the means of satisfying it; that the greek artists carried on their art at rome and in all italy as they had practised it in their own country; in short, that the romans accepted their inheritance, and that, as a consequence, the decoration of the ancient roman dwellings, and the houses of pompeii and herculaneum, the paintings in which are exclusively greek in manner and execution, must give an exact idea of the similar decoration which adorned the houses of greece, not only at a contemporaneous epoch, but also at an anterior time.” po l ychromatic or na ment. these paintings are not all of the same value. a certain number appear to have been executed by inferior artists; but the beauty of some makes us think that they were copies and repetitions of greek works of great celebrity. - besides decorative painting, we find at pompeii, in some degree of perfection, another application of polychromatic colouring in mosaic. but this latter branch of art underwent in the hands of the romans, from the times of the empire, some modifications which have been explained with great truth by m. jeanron in his book entitled “origines et progrès de l'art,” in a passage which we think it better to quote, notwithstanding its length, because in this particular art it allows us to follow the history of the decay of greek art in the last period of roman civilization. “the romans,” says this eminent critic, “who possessed a knowledge of mosaic in a rudimentary state, received it, like every other process in art, from the hands of the greeks, in a more advanced state. soon their love of luxury, their contempt of expense, caused it to spread widely among them and to arrive at real progress, as the monuments that have been discovered amply prove . . . the romans were not long, however, in perverting the nature of what the greeks had transmitted to them. the exquisite taste of the latter, their understanding of the distribution of ornament, their advanced imitative science, could not but have enabled them to realize charming conceptions in mosaic. but assuredly the good file: the fil|e # e||e||e|iieriet: mitmmatamhmatamhmmt-itiatiii s " h iiiiii pompeian mosaic. (white and black marble.) (taken from the “expédition scientifique en morée,” by blouet.) sense of the greeks could never have brought mosaic into contention with the highest prerogatives of painting. the greeks, it is supposed, had made the compartment of their paved floors represent ornaments, branches, scrolls, festoons, interlacings; and passing onward from these capricious forms, somewhat of the nature of arabesques, to symbols and attributes more significant, they had adopted griffins, chimeras, tragic or comic masks, the signs of the zodiac, vine branches, birds pecking fruits and all the well-known motives of their ornamentation. it may even be admitted that the idea must frequently have occurred to them to set in the centre of the formal arrangements of some rich pavement a scene of the kind that they treated with so much grace and simplicity: nymphs asleep or giving water to some fantastic animal, dancers, actors, players on the flute or castanets. it is thus that the finest antique mosaics are arranged: the one that was found at otricoli during the last century, and which is the finest ornament in the circular hall of the pio-clementino museum; that of italica, and the famous praenestine, which paved the splendid temple of fortune at praeneste under sylla. “but, as is well known, when the romans liked anything they carried it to an excess. caesar, before this time, by his own order was followed into the heart of gaul by workers in marble; and, all through his expeditions, the compartments of the opus tesselatum et sectile (varieties of mosaic) were laid hastily in his tent. and at a later time, heliogabalus, thinking that, on the day when rome, or rather his praetorians, should be tired of him, he might have to dash his brains out upon the pavement of his courtyard, caused it to be inlaid with precious stones. “but long before the time of heliogabalus, the romans, who loved mosaics and wished to have them everywhere, were no longer satisfied with adorning the floors of their courts and lower rooms with them; they also decorated the walls, the arches and the ceilings. from what pliny says we might even imagine that this last plan was more followed than the other, that the mosaics were thought too beautiful to be trampled under . foot any longer, and that they wished to enjoy them as pictures.” here m. jeanron shows that pebbles, stones, natural or coloured marbles, paste and terra-cotta, shells and fragments of pots, being no longer able to contend with the colours of painting—especially during a time when painters, impelled by a mad love of brilliancy and richness, borrowed from red lead, purple, azure, gold and silver, their deceptive glitter and striking oppositions—mosaic demanded fresh resources in greek, etrus can and greco-roman art. various precious stones, such as agate, jasper, cornelian, sardonyx, emerald, turquoise, lapis-lazuli, in short, from all the colours of enamels, to imitate every fancy of the painter with his seven or eight principal colours. “this idea was false,” continues m. jeanron, “for had the worker in mosaic had more shades at his service, and the painter fewer colours, it would even then have been an unequal strife. but the centuries of political decay which witnessed the greatest triumphs of mosaic, well explain pretensions and triumphs. in the later times of the empire the requirements of luxury daily narrowed the domain of art, and the pursuit of a false brilliancy gave to artists a merely feverish activity. painting had come to be nothing but an ambitious collection of colours, in which the mosaic. (taken from “herculanum et pompéi,” by roux and barré; paris, firmin didot.) rawest tints were united to the poorest forms. mosaic being more costly, more glittering to the eye and smoother to the touch, could not but dethrone its rival; thus this deplorable revolution was actuated by no idea at all approaching to a higher character. mosaic, restricted by its very nature, submitted to the most ungrateful handiwork, unable to carry out its idea immediately, but obliged to go through the wearisome and lengthy process of calking and cutting, soon forgot all that painting had succeeded in teaching it and became a mere manufacture. the workers t |'' - '' - *** = s *::: *\/gs. ny * ": "*: n " "im...i.: greco-roman frieze. in mosaic soon left off drawing for themselves the subjects they intended to execute with their enamels; they passed about from one to another, as a stock-in-trade, the cartoons and pounced drawings that were needed. now, when it is remembered that, notwithstanding the deplorable degeneracy of its only artistic parts, mosaic had none the less taken from painting its finest and noblest undertakings, it will be clearly seen how rapid the decay must have been in all the arts of design.” at last, with the reign of the syrian princes, and the invasion of eastern religions, there came an influx of magic and sensualism absorbing everything before them, and science and observation vanished under a love of the supernatural and unbridled luxury. cameos became amulets, medals talismans, and under these circumstances, the clear, measured art of the greeks, on a foreign soil and with the ideas of another race, was doomed to completely disappear. the last and faintest expression of this art is to be found in the paintings in the catacombs of rome, the symbolic ornamentation of which is an hieroglyphic language framed to meet new wants. appendix o n c h r o matics. “let r be the red point, b the blue point a little nearer; both form their image at an equal distance from the crystalline lens, and, if this distance coincide with that of the retina, we shall see the two coloured points with the same clearness, by one and the same arrangement. the peculiar state of the eye is now no longer capable of telling us that the two points r and b are not at equal distances from it. we will now take the point d, which we will suppose blue. to receive a clear image on the retina of this point, the eye has to undergo a slight modifi- cation, and be accommodated to a greater distance. if the blue point b seems to us as distant as the red point r, it is clear that the blue point d will appear more distant. “when looking from a certain distance at coloured windows, formed by red and blue squares, surrounded by a black grating, it seems as if the red were more prominent than the blue, and were actually standing out; the black spaces formed by the grating give the effect of oblique planes leading to the background of blue glass. the inverse result is never seen. “the advancing colours are, red, orange and yellow. the retreating colours belong to the various categories of blue; blue and violet are intermediate; green is advancing in relation to blue, and especially to ultramarine; it is retreating in comparison with red, orange and yellow. - “. . . . . . if we bring forward the advancing colour, and place in the background the retreating colour, we increase the effect of the illusion; in the contrary case, we diminish it . . . . “certain designs can awaken in us impressions as of their being in relief, though vague, and as if seen dimly in a dream; the charm exercised by these designs is produced precisely by this effect. it may easily be seen that the retreating or advancing properties of a colour must have a marked influence on the production of such phenomena, and that an exact knowledge of these characters is well calculated to render important services in the composition of colours.” we will not insist any longer on this subject, it is easy to make an application of this complete theory in the example given: the brilliant red, the orange, and yellow, and then the retreating blue colour calculated to give a greater distance; green is the intermediate part, and, lastly, in the upper part and approaching the blue ground, the absence of orange and the red softening down into pink, and losing its advancing intensity. what completes the value of this mural painting, is that theory further demonstrates that an artificial light of wax or oil, far from weakening this effect, only renders it the more powerful. it is, indeed, the completion of the theory on this subject, that the yellow of artificial lights, by adding to the intensity of the red, orange and yellow, increases their brilliancy, whilst the yellow produces a contrary effect on the blue, which, as it repels it, becomes only the more retreating. asiatic art. nder this title of asiatic art, as the second of the two fertile sources from which modern art has derived its models, we include all the decorative arts of what is usually called the east, as well as of the extreme east. this arrangement comprises in the same class the productions of very different periods, the most ancient of which may even surpass in antiquity the work of the egyptians themselves, whilst the most recent are almost contemporary with ourselves. considered however in its general features this vast subject is less complicated than would appear at first sight. the traditional immobility of the east, where the processes of fabrication and the practices of art are transmitted faithfully from generation to generation, frequently renders it extremely difficult to assign a precise date to any one production. and, indeed, unless it be as a matter of curiosity, or as affecting the real value of the object, there attaches usually but little interest to such an investigation, at least with regard to the general characters of the ornamentation which modern decorators have taken with more or less sincerity from ancient models, frequently producing the most complete illusion. freed in this way from the necessity of a minute chronological examination, our short treatise may d £ : poly chromatic or na ment. confine itself to broad divisions describing the primary and original styles which predominate over the lesser divisions and personal modifications. from our special point of view, without entering into the examination of very interesting ethno- graphical questions, beyond the scope of our book as well as of our ability, we recognize three principal groups or families: the chinese family, the indian family, and the arabian family. (see anquetil duperron and champollion figeac, “histoire de la perse.”) - the group comprising china and japan, will be treated first and alone, as befits its genius and history. then returning to the east, properly so called, we will examine separately the two great indian and arabian traditions, going over their distinctive characteristics, and also their points of meeting. the principal point of union in these is to be found in persian art, which came originally from india, but was much modified by the mahomedan style on the triumph of islam and the arab conquest. chinese and japanese. plates x. to xv. chinese. # urning to the chinese, a nation of the highest antiquity, we find that, during its long existence, # this people, or rather this world, seems to have neither given nor received anything from other civilizations from time immemorial; it has always sufficed for itself, and in this immobility and isolation, which form its originality, it has created a style for itself, without any relation to the productions of other nations, if, however, we except certain geometric combinations which instinct has given to every known race. the extreme fancifulness of their ornamental compositions, and the want of order and method usually seen in them, may be understood if we consider that the chinese have no architectural art in our sense of the word, no archetype of idealization, giving rise to ornaments in which even the most insignificant designs are invested with a character of grandeur, as is amply exemplified in egyptian ornamentation. “this absence of architecture,” says m. de chavannes de la giraudière, “is in the genius of the chinese nation. this people seems bound to occupy itself exclusively with details, and this too in everything. the conception of a monumental building is above its comprehension.” we will complete this observation by saying that the light and graceful dwellings of the chinese are all derived from the idea of the tent, the instability and size of which exclude the grander characters of architecture. this circumstance has certainly contributed largely amongst the chinese to leaving the arts of design in a simple and rudimentary state, and it likewise explains why we so rarely meet with simplicity and amplitude in their ornamentations. amongst the chinese, moreover, variety constitutes the first element of beauty. in their ornamental screens, leaves following each other bear no resemblance; by the side of a compartment repre- senting a landscape there will be another of brilliant colours, and covered with metallic arabesques. they take the greatest pains to avoid the straight line and right angle, or, to disguise them when they do make use of them, they torture the imagination, or rather give free play to their disordered imagination, in their curiously shaped furniture, the real intention of which they endeavour to conceal by a pretence of a totally different destination. to such conceptions, so different from our own, and so completely destitute of the conditions of true grandeur that any change of proportion is at once fatal to the design, and in which, except for a screen or a blind, the interest it may excite is with difficulty maintained, we must add that the chinese pay no attention to the laws of perspective, and do not understand the play of shadows or of chiaroscuro. and yet, notwithstanding so many conditions of fundamental inferiority, their ornament is * pagodas and triumphal arches, excessively numerous in china, are the only exceptions to this rule. the pagodas, nearly all constructed on the same model, only differ from each other in height, richness of ornament and beauty of materials. they alone are of a really monumental character. , (“les chinois,” by h. de chavannes de la giraudière.) chinese palaces, notwithstanding the dimensions and rich decorations of some of them, have scarcely any other character. chines e and japa nese art. treated with so much imagination, their colouring is so rich, and they make such a varied and charming use of it, that in certain particular applications, such as keramics, incrustations, and woven materials, their productions are models of harmony and effect, which have remained in many points superior to the works of other nations. their defects are the source of good qualities which correspond to them, and one effect of their capricious mobility is that they are full of resources, making an ornament out of everything, from the cloud and the wave, the shell and the rock, from the animated world of reality as well as that of fancy, from flowers in every variety and wrought woods, the flaming thunderbolt and the sparkling insect, from vases of every shape and objects of every form, crystals, scrolls, writing, &c. to these ornamental resources, at once so rich and so varied, may be added a certain number of time-honoured figures, having in general a symbolical signification. amongst these may be mentioned the dragons, monsters armed with powerful claws and having a frightful head with e. # #|| #. e: | # }|| # - * | st.- * * 'n 'é £n [. £ * w *nsx £ - £ * |- ". formidable-looking teeth, so many varieties of which are to be met with in chinese compositions: dragons with scales, winged, horned, without horns, rolling over themselves before taking their flight into higher regions. another of these symbols is the dog of fo, whose claws, sharp teeth and curly mane constitute a lion, modified by fancy; also the sacred horse; the fong-hoang, a singular bird, with its head adorned with caruncles, a silky neck, and a tail between that of an argus and a peacock, whose presence is of happy augury; then the white stag, the axis, the crane, the mandarin duck, all figures which have their own proper interpretation in chinese decoration. it is a singular circumstance that this art, which appears so capricious and chimerical in its conceptions, is characterized in its execution by such an immutability of proceeding and faithfulness of transmission in the representation of things, that it frequently requires the lapse of hundreds of years before even the slightest modification can be perceived. this phenomenon may be merely the effect of the essentially imitative and traditional instinct of this isolated civilization, so advanced in some points, so barbarous in others, but always consistent to itself. perhaps, also, this fidelity in the observance of the same proceeding in the employment of forms and colours comes from some mysterious rules, some sort of ritual, perpetuated through so many ages. this last explanation may find its confirmation in a sort of symbol of forms and fundamental d poly chromatic or nament, colours, an analysis of which we borrow from the learned work of m. jacquemart, “les merveilles de la céramique.” “the colours are fixed at five in the “memorial of rites,” years b. c. they are to be found in the tcheou-li (rites dating from the twelfth to the eighth century before the christian era). “the work of embroiderers in colours consists in combining these five colours. “the side on the east is blue. the side on the south is red. the side on the west is white. the side on the north is black. the side towards the sky is blackish blue. the side of the earth is yellow. the blue combines with the white. the red combines with the black. the blackish blue combines with the yellow. “the earth is represented by the yellow colour; its special figure is the square. the sky varies according to the seasons. “fire is represented by the figure of a circle. water is represented by the figure of a dragon. mountains are represented by a deer. y “birds, quadrupeds, reptiles are represented according to nature.” the imperial livery has changed according to the dynasties; it has been white, then green, it is now yellow for the tai-tsing dynasty, still reigning in china. if we now examine chinese art relatively to the principal categories placed at the head of this historical sketch, we find in it a mixture of the ideal and imitative elements; but the latter used in a conventional manner. the colouring is also conventional, not in the least subject to any imitation of natural colours, and in this respect the chromatics of the chinese (which possibly obey laws of another kind) possess complete liberty. chines e and japanes e a rt. the applications of ornament in chinese art are most varied. - all movable light objects, such as blinds, screens, boxes, fans, &c., are especially adapted for chinese decoration. the manufacture of woven fabrics also finds in it many very effective subjects. the lineal element of the meanders is employed with such marked superiority in the incrusted bronzes and the cloisonné enamels as would alone suffice to raise the art of the chinese to a high rank, even if their keramics did not place them first in that branch of art. in the decorations of the kaolinic pottery, the genius of the chinese has soared to its greatest height. they excel in throwing in cartouches of every shape, being sometimes of unequal dimensions, at others regular, round, oval, polygonal, imitating the outline of a fruit or leaf, or very frequently of a fan, snsns:vq, se - - ==s Šss $#s ' =# bă's' >%>''< £:# # & s >s'-c-q- -c. r. 'ss— < *%: *#&@ s->/ / ->uqqccqqqqq :qss &#### %/ > £%%:#&g Żm £:#s ol q- *~ - $ . % =# sse *>~~~ ===< the dragon. . ~ cp) fó's dog. the sacred horse. and they dispose them as if by chance on grounds of geometrical construction. they people these enclosed spaces with landscapes, containing manufacturing buildings, mountains, rocks, groups of flowers, and fantastic or real animals. this art is considered to have reached its greatest height between and , a period when the most curious combinations were to be seen. in our days china is in a state of decay, the causes of which are complex, the principal being, certainly, the excessive division of labour, as it is now practised. father d'entrecolles tells us that in one manufactory, “the occupation of one man, is merely to form the first coloured circle near the edge of the porcelain; another sketches flowers which a third paints; one is for water and mountains, another for birds, another for animals, and so on.” with such methods, all individuality disappears. thus, the chinese themselves attach a far higher value to the old works, especially in bronzes, enamels, and vases, than to the new, which are little more than imitations. japanese.—japanese art is an offspring from the chinese, but is distinguished by a greater indivi- duality, as they seem to have escaped the danger of the excessive division of artistic labour as it is practised in modern china. the japanese have developed the study of nature, especially in birds, with more truthfulness and power of observation than their ancestors or rivals, which renders their imitative polychromatic or nament. style less conventional. however, it must be confessed that if their delicate productions have added fresh charms to the old chinese keramics, they frequently lose much of the vigour of the finest periods. decoration sometimes requires a voluntary roughness, and a soberness in the use of means, of which they have not always felt the excellence. to the chinese colours the japanese have added their own, and it is this which serves principally to distinguish the productions of the two countries. the art of the japanese is at present tending towards fresh developments; their ornamentation, better regulated than it was, is in the hands of skilful draughtsmen, who observe nature, know how to round off their forms, and understand the laws of perspective. one of the principal causes of the general progress is to be found in the fact of the incredible profusion with which models of all sorts, conceived by really good artists, and carved in wood, are distributed among the public. there lies an element of progress from a certain point of view, but which can perhaps scarcely be continued without some detriment to the originality, until now so distinct, of chinese and japanese productions. chinese cartouches. appendix on chromatics. #|e have given an extract from the “memorial of chinese rites,” which would possess - merely an archaeological interest if it were not for the fact that under this symbolism the soundest laws of chromatics are concealed. the symbolism of colours, enunciated by the “chinese rites,” is in reality nothing but a statement of the only primitive colours recognized by painters, which ziegler (in his “histoire de la céramique”) has brought out clearly from the spectral combinations, setting aside the blendings of the latter as misleading. these primitive colours are:— st, yellow; nd, red; rd, blue, undecomposable; th, black, which, unless absolutely negative, that is to say, arising from the absence of light, is acknowledged to be the maximum of intensity in every primitive colour (for there are blacks of all sorts), and which consequently becomes the most powerful generating principle; th, white, undecomposed light, which is the maximum of brilliancy in every colour. we may learn much by studying the different gradations of colours as these masters in harmony have understood them, as following each other in systematic order. this study must be accompanied by ja pa nes e a r t. observation of the means employed, either for isolating the colours or for uniting them, means applied some- times in an absolute manner and sometimes according to the need and nature of the colouring, by using simultaneously every method of isolation and of uniting of colour at the same time. in the cloisonné enamels, plates xi. and xii., the gilded outline is a medium both of separa- tion and of union. in plate xiii. and the lower part of plate xiv, the white outline is a medium of isolation (the most powerful for this purpose) and is quite indispensable; it is only the intense blue of the one and the dark green of the other which can do without it. in the upper part of plate xiv. the outlines are reddish brown or black, sometimes weak or entirely wanting; this is just what was required for procuring lightness of ground with proportioned intensities, without injuring the delicacy of the objects represented. it may be seen that this ap- propriation of outlines deserves special study; for supposing them altered or suppressed, the subjects would be entirely spoiled, and the combination of the colours employed rendered quite impossible. the application of the same principle may be seen in the running patterns forming plate xv., which closes this series. indian – arabian and moorish-persia.n. plates xvi. to xxx. indian. #|lthough less isolated than the chinese, and coming more into contact with the rest of | the world, indian civilization, notwithstanding its extreme antiquity, has not experienced those changes which mark the history of so many other nations. the social and religious organizations, priests, temples, castes, sacred books, poetry, manners, doctrines and superstitions still remain much as they were amongst the hindoos, whom even the conquest of their country, has been unable to deprive of their own distinctive character and institutions. art must naturally have shared to a great degree in this characteristic immobility, and notwith- standing some unimportant modifications, which a glance at arabian and persian art will enable us better to understand, the substance of indian decoration may still be defined by certain salient features which have undergone no fundamental alteration. the most striking of these characteristics are perhaps the continuity and plenitude of decoration which usually entirely fills up the surface to be decorated with a profusion of ornaments either exactly alike or of similar nature; the design being in general a simple repetition of the same subject. the colour of the ground, always warm and harmonious, occasionally light though more frequently dark, serves to unite the designs, besides being the principal agent in the general effect. this method of distribution, applied with an admirable feeling for colour, procures in indian decoration a richness and calm which give an indefinable sensation of repose, and the only fault in which would be monotony, if this powerful unity could leave room for a desire or a need for greater variety. the designs themselves are nearly all taken from the floral world treated in a conventional manner, in which, however, although the generalized type predominates over the varieties of the species, the polychromatic' ornament. imitation bears a closer resemblance to nature than in most of the styles we have studied until now, without any servile imitation, the model is generally easily recognized, and although the floral ornament is sometimes seen under the pure, hard form of the egyptian style, it is more frequently treated with a pliancy of execution and picturesqueness which makes it bear a closer resemblance to the modern style.i this execution however never attains to rounding off of forms, a process in general foreign to the decoration of surfaces amongst the orientals, it is usually confined to silhouette draw- ings in which the outline is usually shown off by a darker tint on light grounds, and by a lighter colour on dark grounds. we believe that we are not mistaken in giving these characteristics as typical of the primary and original form of indian decoration, a form still predominant, notwithstanding the more frequent intervention of the constructive element, borrowed fi'om the arabs, and modified by the persians, whose style, as we shall see presently, may be considered as the point of meeting and of union of the two great arabian and indian streams. in recapitulating the points which unite these three arts we shall have to add a few words on the colouring of indian ornament. arabian—after the indian style we come to that of the arabs, which would appear to be posterior to the indian, according to the general rule which causes the human mind to proceed from the simple to the complex. endowed with great genius, but forced to set aside any direct contact with nature from the prescription of the koran, “thou shalt make no images,” the arabs have substituted for the almost exclusively floral decoration of the indians, the _ constructed ornament, the framing of which was an amusement to indian palm ' their geometrical minds, and the principal of which is that star of solomon, so much varied and enriched with secondary motives. the continuity of the ornament entirely filling the surface is to be seen here as amongst the indians, and in both styles nothing can be taken away without occasioning an unseemly void; the means employed, however, are difi'erent, and, whilst the mere repetition of subjects frequently suflices in r"? an) - z w . '"! 'r.~i'i'.\~ .a.’ er ‘ \ . x indian sandal. indian decoration, the arabian ornament on the contrary is built up and bound together in all its parts; everything is connected, and in rose-work, for example, from the circumference to the centre all the interlacings take a common root in the ornament itself. this imaginative construction is frequently double, that is to say, formed by two complete systems the indian palm comes, more than any other element of floral decoration employed by the indians, into the conventional style, as may be seen by the above figure. it is of very frequent recurrence in modern decoration, whether as an ornament symmetrically repeated in the borders, or as a sort of cartouche thrown into the midst of a floral design. it. appears to belong to the lndo-arabian style. arabian art. which follow each other to an end without confusion, but in which the meetings and overlappings produce incidental figures, intersections, and alternations relieved by colour from the ground, amidst the interlacings of foliage. notwithstanding this learned complication, arabian decoration remains clear and distinct, thanks to the purity and fineness of the lines, and the general rule excluding all superfluity; and thanks, also, to the principle observed in the construction of the roses, which consists in reserving the wider star of solomon. ornaments of arabian construction. (designs taken from the “architecture arabe,” by p. coste. paris, firmin didot.) expansions for the extremities of the circumference, leaving to the radiating centre from which they diverge the fine work which throws out boldly, and fixes the eye on the key to the whole composition, as the central point of the circle. we must add that the arabians appear to have been the inventors of the ingenious design producing a double effect, the silhouette of which has two exteriors, tracing with a single line two opposite figures, as may be seen in no. of plate xvi. of indian manufacture, though in the arabian or persian style, and also in nos. and of plate xxi. (persian manufacture). arabian rose-work. but with a style thus conceived, what became of the floral element so valuable in decorative art? in the primitive arabian style, unmixed with persian, the flower properly so called is not to be found, but in its place come other forms resembling it, and appearing directly inspired by nature. this sort of subject, half-way between imaginary conceptions and the representation of flowers properly so called, does not merely come in to terminate scrolls, as amongst the greeks; they form an integral part of the decoration, and (as owen jones justly remarks in his “grammar of ornament”), they do not break the lineal net-work, they continue by constantly enlarging it. pol ychroma tic ornament. thus conceived and employed, the ornamental forms of the arabs, in the original state and without persian intermixture, being still more conventional than those of the greeks, are of purely decorative conception, and are beyond and above nature. to complete this rapid sketch of arab ornament, we must add that it is completely free from a symbolism which was forbidden by their law. the arabs consequently replaced symbolical writing by the use of real writing. nothing is more common than to find running inscriptions in cufic characters or running hand, forming a part of the decoration and producing the happiest effect; sometimes, indeed, they are introduced with such profusion that there is in existence one monument faced with glazed bricks in which the whole koran runs through the arabesques. such are the principal features of this severe yet beautiful art, so strongly impressed with the arabian genius that the term arabesque still applies to the whole style of ornament which other nations have appropriated whilst recognizing its origin. when speaking of persian and byzantine art we shall have occasion to say a few words on the contact of arabian art with the asiatic, and also with greek and greco-roman art. asia minor, so frequently traversed by the conquerors of persia, india, egypt, and syria, would offer many models well fitted to inspire them. but whatever may have been the effect of this contact, and without entering into the question of what the arabs received and what they imparted, we believe that we see in their decorative system an original creation which belongs to themselves alone, and which furnished the primitive types before those fusions and meetings which may have modified it and given it intermediate styles. illoorish.—before altogether leaving arabian art, we must speak of what it became in the hands of the spanish moors. it is merely a continuation of our subject; for the moorish style, with a few distinguishing peculiarities of its own, belongs to the arabian family. the mode of construction, the forms of ornament (especially the elegant arabian feather), and the frequent use of inscriptions, ‘ are so many points in common between the moorish genre and the “inmflln w x» i " pure arabian style, which is seen to most advantage in the buildings www-w" i h , it of cairo. i\ .- as a peculiar characteristic, we may mention in moorish decora- tion, the more frequent use of a third ground placed over the two others and serving as a frame-work and link between them. it is slightly projecting, and is a real element of construction, sufficing without further change, to produce the open-work of which the moors make such frequent use. from a polychromatic point of view, the moorish decoration is distinguished by a very generally adopted system, based on the prin- cipal employment of the three primary undecomposable colours, blue, red, and yellow represented by gold. in the facings and pavements, which assisted so well in developing the geometrical inventions of the moors the colours are more numerous, and green plays often an important part. it would be superfluous from our point of view and in the restricted limits of our work to dilate more fully on this moorish art, the admirable monuments of which, constantly studied by the architect as well as by the decorator, have been so frequently described and analyzed. persian.—the recent labours of philology authorize us in supposing, that, in some unknown time of antiquity the whole of iran belonged to the indian family (persia was the name of one of the provinces of iran, and the temporary dominion of the persians caused the name to be afterwards given to the whole) and that the origin of the civilization of iran can be recognized only through that of india and its conquering dynasties. (see champollion-figeac, “histoire de la perse.”) m. batissier also remarks: “persia has almost always formed a province of the vast empires founded by the different conquerors of asia. its history is thus intermingled with that of other nations.” what is true and historical with regard to the arab, seljookian turk, ottoman and mongol invaders of persia, is probably true also with regard to earlier invaders. but, beyond these historical conjectures on which we need give no opinion, a view of the productions of the two civilizations is a surer guide to us in ascribing an indian origin to persian ornament, which element became in time a firm tradition, and was afterwards blended with arabian art. arabian feather. persia. n. a. r.t. - from before the conquest which, next to the circumstance of the vicinity of the two races, brought about this latter period, the persians were celebrated by their love of pomp and the perfection of their decorative arts. thus, when after the defeat of the last of the chosroes, the victorious arabs took possession of madayn, then the capital of persia, these inhabitants of tents were much struck by the magnificent buildings, the luxury of the apartments and the ornaments of every kind which fell into their hands. in the seventh century of our era, the persians were living in splendour which seems to equal the most marvellous descriptions in the rāmāyana of ancient india (fifteenth century before the christian era), accounts which are confirmed by strabo, arrianus and megasthenes. in the state in which we best know persian art, at the period of its greatest splendour, the outlines are in general taken from the conceptions of arabian architecture, modified both by indian tradition and the peculiar genius of the persian race, which tended towards a less compressed and austere style with more freedom and elegance than the arabs possessed, and obtaining by its double derivation the elements of a greater variety. persian inscription. the floral element is employed in both its aspects, sometimes scattered through the decoration with apparent freedom, at others inserted in the lineal network, and usually placed at the intersection of lines; but, even in the latter case it is always treated in a manner which is a medium between the high arab conventionality and the indian quasi-naturalism. we must likewise add, that, unlike the arabs, who belonged to the sect of omar, the persian schismatics, drinkers of wine, belonging to the sect of ali, and accustomed to attribute to flowers a symbolical language in the bouquets called salams, do not exclude the representation of flowers in their decoration, which is also animated by real and fantastic animals, and sometimes, though more rarely, by the human figure. - if, owing to these peculiarities, we usually succeed in distinguishing the productions of arabian * we read in costa (“architecture arabe”): “when after the battle of kadesia (in the year of the hegira, a.d.), the arabs went towards madayn, crowns, bracelets, golden necklaces . . . . fell into the hands of their commander, who divided the whole amongst his soldiers in conformity with the dispositions of the koran. amongst these objects was a carpet of sixty ells in length, of magnificent texture, representing a garden in which the flowers were precious stones woven into the fabric. the general-in-chief being doubtful as to the value of the booty, sent it to omar, expressing a wish that it should be sold to the highest bidder, and the value distributed according to the law. omar paid no attention to this request, and caused the rich carpet to be divided into pieces and distributed in equal portions. one portion, which fell to ali, was sold by him for the sum of , drachmas.” comp. gibbon, “decline and fall,” chap. . * the persians are so fond of flowers that with them general rejoicings take place at the season for the flowering of tulips, a flower so frequently represented on their earthenware and enamelled bricks. e polychromatic ornament. art (not, however, without some difliculty, and we may cite our plates xxvii. and xxviii. taken from the same copy of the koran, as being strongly intermixed with persian and arabic), there is, in some cases, far more difliculty in deciding on the indian or persian origin of certain fabrics and manuscripts. many miniature paintings in particular come from india, where they were painted by persians, who being sectaries of zoroaster, and emigrating before the invasion of islam, settled in india under the name of parsees. as an example of a fabric persian in manufacture and indian in style, we may call attention to the chintz represented in plate xx. which gives us an almost complete idea of the indo-persian flora in a state of semi-liberty. large radiating flowers expand on twisted stalks, ananas, pinks, nuts, pomegranates, honeysuckles, poppies, daisies, flowerets of every sort, a whole botanical world, in short, peoples this composition, which is also animated by birds of all sizes, and even quadrupeds running along slight trailwork. according to m. jacquemart, the representation of the peacock and fern fronds would show the origin to be exclusively indian, which is not disproved by the hooked nose, the almond-shaped eyes, and arched eyebrows of the flying genii bearing the stamp of the indian race. to the resources resulting from this mixed style, the persians added those of great manual skill and a most remarkable fertility. damasceners, bookbinders, potters, embroiderers, miniature painters, emulated each other in taste and skill. persian carpets are still considered the finest in the world, dishes, vases and enamelled bricks from that country are still such models in taste, that european art seeks them out, and our manufacturers endeavour to equal them by imitation. the persian damascenings determined the type of that style of decoration during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries of our era, a period corresponding to the reign of shah abbas the great, which terminated in , and is considered to be the apogee of persian art. the various indian, arabian and persian styles which have just passed in review before us, and which have already so many points in common, in respect to composition and forms, resemble each other particularly in the use they make of polychromatic decoration. thus the remark that we have already made on the subject of indian productions, where no attempt at rounding-off the figures is to be found, is equally applicable to all oriental productions. the rule is a silhouette drawing with geometrical outlines relieved by conventional colouring on a dominant and generating ground. i attention to this ruie produces brilliancy and repose, when the design is well combined and the colours happily, chosen. the varied scales rise from the colour of the ground, either black, white slightly tinted, blue, red, yellow and flesh-colour, with mediums of isolation or union, varied according to the nature of the production, but always aided by flat tints, and with striking outlines of every shade from black to white, according to circumstances. the persians are especially skilful in this manner of treating and varying these ornamental resources, and from them the best lessons in decorative colouring may be obtained. (see the two carpets, plates xxiii. and xxv. and the earthenware, plate xxii. in which the prevailing colour is green, the favourite colour of mahomed.) persia.n. a. r.t. the use of gold takes an important place in the bas-relief ornamentation of the moors, in which the three primary colours, fused together by the judicious play of light on the paler parts, form the basis. (see plate xxx.) this use of gold is also interesting in the paintings of plates xxiv. xxvii. and xxviii, but its effect becomes altogether charming, as we see it in a constellated and studded state, scattered over the productions of the modern indians. (see plate xix.) in the parti-coloured grounds, passing from black to white, from red to green, peculiarly hindoo in style, changing colours with the design, which undergoes in its details a similar reversing of colour, the indians succeed in neu- tralizing the most glaring intensities into a general harmony, by means of gold which, thrown over the rawness of the colours, seems to unite and warm and, as it were, blend them into one, like a transparent veil interwoven with gold. by zant ine. plates xxi. to xxxvii. #|e treat this important style apart, as not entering completely into any of our three great #| divisions, ancient, asiatic, and western art, but serving as a sort of link between the two former, on the one hand, to a union of which it owes its origin, and the third, on the other hand, which it has long continued to inspire. byzantine art may, indeed, be considered as a product of the degenerate art of the greeks, combined with that of the asiatics. this union must have been occasioned by the conquest of a part of asia by the romans, who, becoming more and more curious in decorative magnificence, found in the east fresh elements to satisfy their sumptuous tastes. the exact nature of these elements, their character and importance, however, still remain very doubtful. before the time of islam, which seems to have developed their genius as well as their power, the arabs must have possessed an original art; but of this only a few traces remain in legends, in which grand buildings are spoken of which go back to remote antiquity. in consequence of some catastrophe, perhaps an inunda- tion, they are said to have come up into africa and asia, and to have founded several kingdoms in syria, amongst others that of hira, the architectural luxury and riches of which town form the object of marvellous recitals in these legends. (see coste, “architecture arabe.”). it is moreover known that the wandering and stationary tribes called each other by the name of felt people and clay people, |''| which indicates with respect to the latter the existence of keramics, ' % #==== *in the decoration of which is unknown, as well as that of their arms, # $# *nz-tv'ng): ' their fabrics and fixed dwellings. we may conclude from these £ '> | traditions that an arab art of african origin was transplanted into dai" in the chard of m* asia in consequence of some emigration of unknown date; that (byzantine style.) this art must have undergone modifications, of the importance of which we cannot judge, on their contact with the greeks as on that with the indians and persians, and must have formed an important part in the compromise called by the name byzantine. subsequently, at a period posterior to the greatest time of byzantine art, and under the influence of islam, when arabian art took the form under which we now know it, there may well have been, in some applications and in various points of contact, a certain byzantine influence exercised on arab practice; but it would be an exaggeration to refer to byzantine art, as is sometimes done, the very origin and formation of the arab style, which has too much character and unity, not to be essentially, and in its principal lines, an original conception. the truth appears to be that there was a mutual * Ż * see notices of plates xxxiv. and xxxvi. polychromatic ornament. influence exercised, as inevitably happens in this sort of contact; but that if the arabs received anything in this exchange, it may be said that they were partly taking back their own from an art which had drawn so largely from oriental sources, both in its first formation and also in the period of its greatest development.‘ however this may be, an important place in the history of ornament belongs to the byzantine art, which, after having united the two great greco-latin and asiatic currents, spread on one side over the north-east, where it even now determines the style of russian ornaments, and in the other dimmuuuuuiumnummammuu -- i-i .» . r lellllullmfllll-ul[(iiinil-illllllllllllllmlllllm miqiiiiiii] in v“- ~ i" an “ff. ‘ .‘ 'm - li'liip- " ' :~ e \ .. u, i, i\ l ‘ . 'l if“); i l , .p _ m. l ' " |. . g .i . lilan . r . immmmnmlmlllmmmlllllmmnr ' mi ..-. . -.....|..\....,,.. byzantine ornaments. (theotokos church, at constantinople.) (after gailhabaud.) into our west, where, combined with the peculiar aptitudes of nations of celtic, latin, and lombard origin, it furnished the elements of the romanesque style; and lastly, by a fresh contact with eastern art, at the period of the crusades, took its part in the formation of the gothic style. the construction of ornament is less complicated with the byzantines than with 'the arabs. the logic in it is the same, but less carried to its full consequences; overlapping is far more rare, and in accordance with greek principles it is generally satisfied with a single ground. the palmate flowers spreading out from the stems, the generic form of which is immediately derived from the greek vases, are precisely similar in their outline to those of the arabian ones ; but their indented design has not the fulness of that of the latter, and they have likewise fewer resources; but although the beauty of design in the details is not so great, the decorative effects are broadly conceived; and still show with advantage the influence of the greek principles. in coloured byzantine ornament, with simple well-ordered silhouettes, where the area of a generating ground is much more unembarrassed than with the asiatics, there is always some repose for the eye. the foliage is refined, and the floral developments conform to the laws of nature. a flora in rich and ample forms sometimes assumes the highest decorative importance. see plate xxxi. nos. , ; plate xxxiii. nos. , , , , , ; and plate xxxv. no. . border taken from a book of the gospels, of the eighth century. (taken from “arts au moym dgc,” by p. lacroix. paris, firmin didot.) in this style, however, the variety is extreme, and under the union of two original arts we can perceive all the resources of individual effort and a knowledge of every style. we sometimes find a decorated ground, borders composed in the style of the indians, and with only the floral ornaments employed by them: in these the richest effect is produced by a repetition of a single design by mere juxtaposition (see plate xxxiv. nos. , , , , , ). sometimes, besides the regular repetition which forms the rule, the byzantines practise symmetry as understood by the greeks, that is to say, produced by the equivalence of forces, and not by the mere repetition of the whole subject placed side by side or reversed (see plate xxxi. nos. , ; plate xxxv. no. ). on the founding of byzantium, constantine had summoned asiatic artists, and at a later time a great number (during the reign of justinian) worked under the greek artists, anthemius of tralles and isidore the milesian, at the construction of st. sophie's, and the other monuments of the justinian period, which in consequence bear traces of their influence. byzantine a. r. t. the geometric arrangements of the byzantines are most ingenious and especially remarkable in mo- saics, the monotony of which they combat by well-conceived, complicated constructions. they depend usually on a play of the straight line and the right angle. for these constructions see plate xxxiii. nos. , , ; plate xxxvi. nos. , , , , &c.; and plate xxxvii. nos. and . the byzantine geometric mosaics are distinguished from the latin mosaics by this construction forming an integral part of the design. amongst the latins, construction is in general exterior, that is to say, produced by means of architectural lines formed by mosaic work, which is nothing more than a filling up, executed with the simple square or triangle of rudimentary marquetry. we here give a few examples which will assist in explaining the differences. these fragments come from the church of st. lawrence beyond the walls, at rome; we take them from “monuments anciens et modernes,” by m. gailhabaud. m. lenoir speaks of them in the following terms: “these fine x | k : | <& :.” x t| #.s |- } o p * n x . | x d : :| || ; * x x | x x & p p # . |d, & > c d \ z. # f -i. # | # & . } p . fr * . |a s | * | : : x x #. : ; . r > > & x x £ & . : |# > l. z n # & -* . al f § |- x la £ al mosaics of the bishop's throne, at st. lawrence beyond the walls. (after gailhabaud.) mosaics, hardly to be met with elsewhere than in italy, presented great difficulties in execution, as much because they are laboriously incrusted in marble, as because, on account of the geometrical designs which they form and their small dimensions, they required extreme precision in the adjustment. this sort of work had great success during the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, especially in all the roman states; and certain churches, such, for example, as that of orvieto, have some on a part of their façades; the great cloisters of the churches of st. paul beyond the walls, and of st. john of lateran at rome are covered with the richest designs executed in this manner . . . . . oriental pavements, which ancient authors called opus alexandrinum, and which were in use in the churches of the east and of the west from the earliest ages of christianity down to the middle ages." the byzantine design and, consequently, its colouring, are entirely conventional. a very feeble polychromatig ornament. attempt at rounding off the figures may be noticed in the so-called greek manuscripts and in the mosaics in sicily, which are a direct imitation of the former. everywhere else the artist proceeds by even tones simply opposed to one another on a generating ground, as everywhere in the east. amongst the byzantines, ornament, properly so called, has no symbolic character, with the exception of the cross, which is multiplied under various figures, more or less differing from the historic type. however, we frequently find apocalyptic animals, and human or celestial figures bearing religious meaning. ‘ western art. ".n considering western art we must be guided by a chronological order instead of the " ethnological one, which we have so far followed. we distinguish three great principal periods :— st, the middle ages, nd, the renaissance, rd, the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and particularly the history of french art during the latter period._ middle ages. cel'ric— rommsour. —gothic. plates xxxviii 'ro li. celtic. e have already said that byzantine art, when spreading over the east, must have found amongst the nations of celtic race, an indigenous art arising from the peculiar aptitudes of that race. it appears, indeed, difficult not to perceive this character of originality in what is termed celtic ornamentation, to which we have devoted two plates, xxxviii. and xxxix. (see the notices on those plates), and of which the most remarkable monuments have been given in the interesting work of mr. westwood (“miniatures and ornaments of anglo-saxon and irish manuscripts ”). this celtic interlacings. (after the “ monument: anciens ct modernes,” by gailhabaud.) author sets aside both the supposition of a roman origin—contradicted by the difference between the regularly alternating interlacings of latin mosaics with the knots of celtic scrolls—and also that of a byzantine origin, which would be disproved by the want of similarity between the early celtic design and the ornamentation of st. sophia’s, as published by salzenberg; he draws a conclusion, then, in favour polychroma tic ornament. became more striking from the more frequent addition of heads of quadrupeds and birds, serving as terminals to the principal lines, which thus are made to represent bodies elongated out of all just (tenth century.) border taken from the bible of st. martin, of limoges. (taken, as are the two other borders, from the “ arts au mayan dye,” of p. lacroix.) (munich library.) pels, of the eleventh century. border taken from a bookfof the gos proportion or probability, from which emerge feet or claws corresponding with the head. such as they are, these fantastic and grotesque images constitute a separate art, which interlacings alone could never have done (see plate xxxix. nos. , , ). precisely similar ones are found on the sculptured stones of great britain and scandi- navia, which fact imparts to the old charters and missals, whence our polychromatic examples are taken, the interest of representing, under every aspect, an original and com- plete style. in plate xxxix. we have inserted examples taken from the second and more fertile celtic manner. the orna— mental clasps and roses, nos. , , are combined with the greatest force. the initials on an open space, nos. , , , equal the best works in iron. the initials on a coloured ground, nos. , , , , in their rich and well-ordered fulness, in which the two elements, celtic and byzantine, are happily balanced, are the most complete expression of this ornamentation of the tenth century. vigour of design, skill in division, a constant logic, exfolia- tions and expansions in conformance with the general rules, are to be especially noticed in these compositions, as also the results of light procured by the delicate colouring which sets them off. as in the east and amongst the byzantines, the design and colouring are entirely conventional; only a very weak modelling can be noticed, which is merely meant to show the roundness of the stems or calices from which emerge heads or fresh branches, nos. , , . no symbolic meaning appears to have been attached to the celtic orna- ments, except, perhaps, in the designs, so frequently found, without beginning or end, and which appear to be a symbol of eternity. (see plate xxxviii. nos. , , , , .) this union of the celtic and byzantine styles did not entirely give way to the gothic style, with which it long co-existed. it furnished the types for the finest ornamentation of glass and manuscripts, which, at this period—during the eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, the most brilliant period of the middle ages— resembled stained glass on a greatly reduced scale. even in the fifteenth century, direct traces may be found in italy of the celtic style in the marginal vignettes then in fashion (see plate xliii. nos. , , , ), and used concurrently with margins in the latin style of the renaissance. ‘\ c i » "cirrus: rim-i ~ ‘i‘\y““\“-‘\ '_- u-.v'r~,. ' ' ' ' r ' , . ’djifniil* ."-q i . .“ ' ". . a% t". y .- ‘ ' ’l , ) “‘ . in' . . .. . a . .i‘j.:.; .~:~ ‘ i in v “......~,nm i border of a lectionary f metz cathedral. (ninth century.) in the greater part of our plates which belong to the middle ages, we can trace the combined or isolated use of the two elements in this mixed style (plates xl. to xlvi.) western a r t. those examples which are of latin or lombard origin proceed more directly from the byzantine. the romanesque style draws more impartially from both sources. thus, no. in plate xl. is derived from both styles: the two corners on a purple ground are celtic, as well as the parts of initials on a purple ground, nos. , , , ; the remainder are 's '> | # ": : - £a-> * byzantine. the scandinavian paintings in plate xli. as well as the enamels and fabrics, are of byzantine conception. in the glass represented in plates xliv. and xlv. the union or isolation of the two styles is also easily to be recognized; in nos. , , of the first, and nos. , , and of the second, their union may be easily perceived. '%'n' in plates xlii. and xliii. taken from manu- : ' £ p-. scripts from italy, where it is known that byzantine * art retained its sway longer than in the north of " " ". europe, although the former is plainly byzantine, the second contains examples of the change that was taking place on the very eve of the great epoch of the renaissance. pointed.—this style, long called gothic, is now more frequently termed the pointed style, on account of the pointed arch in architecture producing its principal characteristics, even when applied to ornament. the term pointed arch is applied to one “formed by two arcs of a circle of equal radius, which meet at their summit and form a curvilinear angle.” (batissier, “histoire de l'art monumental.”) re- | | se - w. - l - =- - *c b. - - "----- - " t. # |- - - - * * * * * . . . ." enamels on the front of the altar of the church of comburg, in germany. (twelfth century.) (taken from “monuments anciens et modernes,” by gailhabaud.) we shall merely remind our readers of the claims of which the invention of the pointed style has been the object. interesting examples of the intersection of the semi-circle may be found at mycene, in the pelasgic tombs, and in some of the roman monuments—amongst others, the aqueduct of tusculum; and, applied more broadly, we find it at cairo in the mosque of ebn touloun, built f western art. decoration. the celtic forms are here found side by side with the latin manner, in the same way as architecture was already making use of the semi-circle and of the pointed arch. thus nos. , , , , , , , are celtic. the introduction of the new element is seen in the decoration of the columns, the whole of the shafts of which are ornamented with branches, scrolls f f to f f | || | f |- . & |" :- : se-e: : | || || • - . - - details of the ogee mentioned at page . details of the ogee mentioned at page . * £ f d as * i £f £ & to plate xl. and foliage (nos. , , , ), and the capitals of which (nos. , , , ), relieved by foliage, sometimes bend down their crockets from the top of the corbel, at others lean over from top to bottom, now alone, now united to the human figure, of which at other times (no. ) an original use is made as a support of the column itself. on the other hand, in the friezes and borders we find the greek fret-work (nos. and ), reversed zig-zags (no. ), heads of nails hollowed out (no. ), the teeth of a saw enriched with an alternating vegetable ornament (nos. , ), and in all the other examples designs more or less recalling the antique; heart-shaped leaves, ova, aquatic leaves, and rich plants, filling up the grounds with- out leaving any interval. in this plate then, with the subjects (nos. and ) occupying the corners and nos. to , which are byzantine or celto-byzantine from a contemporary manuscript, we find once more all the imaginary and exotic types of ancient conventional flora in their latest forms, which were soon to be replaced, in the gothic period, by an indigenous flora. in the stained glass represented in plate xliv. notwithstanding the fact that the outlines are still byzantine, an abandonment of ancient principles in ornamental details is clearly manifest. what the isolated celtic art, so firmly knit by the logic of its developments, gave promise of in the tenth century, has now attained its full maturity. the types of the known conventional flora are elaborated in a less restricted area, and its elegantly divided and widely-blossoming petals combine gracefully with the constructive scroll foliage frequently utilized to limit alternating grounds. sometimes this con- structive element is a bare twisted branch (nos. , ); sometimes the windings are double and the two branches cross each other (nos. , , ); there are some imbricated constructions (no. ) and some forming a quincunx (nos. , , , ); combinations in which the floral element alone comes into play (nos. , , ), and braids (nos. , ) beaded or striped, and sometimes twisted like celtic knots. the constructive elements intermingling with the floral ones, which frequently issue from it (nos. , , , ), divide or direct all their expansions. the strict arrangement, the brilliancy and richness of the subjects chosen, the wisdom and variety shown in the divisions, the force of the deductions and the vigour of the design, indicate that these noble productions are the work of that hardy race which decided the superiority of western art. from the close of the thirteenth century the ancient styles, some traces of which had lingered until then in the details of ornaments, entirely disappeared from architecture, where the pointed style ruled supreme, with some ingenious modifications which it would be beyond our limits to describe. we will not then enumerate the various sorts of arches, sharply pointed, lancet-headed, stilted, wide, trefoiled, concave, with a cyma recta, or a cyma reversa, and elliptical, which have been so clearly analyzed in the cahiers d'instructions published by the “comité historique des arts et polychromatic or nament. monuments,” in , and which since that time have figured in every treatise on architecture. we mention these although we have no time to dwell on them, because their outline is the generating principle of all the ornaments depending on it. a study of the stained glass, plate xlv. proves this fully. the curvilinear forms arranged on the inflexible square form the basis of these fourteenth century designs, nos. , , , , , , , , , , , , . in these examples the quatrefoils, trefoils and roses are obtained from these outlines, constructed as in architecture; the second ground details of cologne cathedral. (from “monuments anciens et modernes,” by gailhabaud.) of great fulness, on which these constructions impress a coloured silhouette, is taken from geometric combinations, from celtic interlaced designs and, as yet timidly, from the indigenous flora, to the exclusion of all antique remembrances. this style of ornament is quite original, not only in its forms but in its principles. nowhere § - n - - o v | : v || || | o j. s. i- |- |- | - __-__ - - - - |: - | | o |b-> | Ž | - Ż l - sculptured gates of st. alban's abbey. (from gailhabaud.) | | || ||eee * × '%'. do the decorations of details flow so directly from the lines of architecture. the constructive element of the ornament in western hands is no longer a mere fiction, as in those of the arabs, for example; it imitates the real building and adopts its forms; all its details follow naturally from the principles of the great architectural lines, so that the trefoil of a simple balustrade, or of the smallest panel may enable us to determine the age and style of a whole building. the details of these ornaments, which vary from the most rudimentary to the most luxuriant caprices of the flowery or flamboyant style, assist in giving this idea of construction, without changing the nature of the ornament, by following the architectural line. wester n a r t. by the side of this monumental art, so severe in its logic whilst capricious in its smaller details, and of which stained glass, facings, enamels, tiled flooring, and sculpture in relief, on stones, wood or iron, were during the middle ages the principal and almost exclusive manifestations, there arose a beautiful branch of art, induced by observation and the sentiment of the real, and obtained by naive imitation of nature, in those numerous manuscripts to which such value is now attached, and which take so important a part in the history of national arts. italy, the low countries and france possess the most curious specimens of this new art, which, by opening a wider and more varied field to painting in the domain of ornament, prepared the way for the great revival of the sixteenth century. manuscript miniatures which at first resembled stained glass transferred to parchment, or as didron says, cartons à vitraux, afterwards produced a poetic work contemporary with the stone poetry of the cathedrals. inde- pendence and simplicity form the charm of this commencement of picturesque ornamentation. in the fifteenth century the principal elements were obtained from flowers in which the indigenous species take a larger place than they had yet occupied. the ivy, ivy grape, vine, cinque-foil, water-lily, buttercup, oak, strawberry, reed, mallow, cabbage, thistle, holly, endive, daisy, rose, pink, heartsease enamel the border of the manuscripts. (see plates xlviii. and li.) “by the side of digitate, palmate or ternate leaves, there twine around incised, lobed, sinuate and feathery forms” (see “instructions du comité des arts et monuments”) intermingling with simple branches or with fruits some- times easily to be recognized, sometimes difficult to name. now and then the butterfly and other insects are introduced to animate the floral world with their many-coloured tints, and ingenious combinations occur of ribbons in large folds (remains of the celtic style) on which inscriptions are written. a charming and inventive spirit animates this half fantastic, half real world, which pervades the foliage of the decoration, in which during the later periods, taste forms the only guide, as may be seen in plates xlix. l. and li. which terminate this series of the middle ages. border of a latin book of the gospels of the thirteenth century. (taken from “arts au moyen àge.”) polyc’hromatic' ornament. renaissance. plates lii. t lxxiii. italy, even during the middle ages, never entirely lost the traces of ancient tradition towards which her very origin and her genius ever led her, although at certain periods she r i had only recognized this tradition through a byzantine medium. the italians had only to * ' search among their ruins in order to bring the works of their ancestors once more to light. so, when literary enthusiasm impelled every mind so irresistibly towards the study of antiquity, italy became the focus and active centre of the great artistic movement, usually called the renaissance, which, by extending its influence over other nations, was to change the face of art. this complex and fruitful movement we shall not undertake to describe: it belongs to the general history of the fine arts, and has been frequently related. we shall confine ourselves therefore to observe its influence from our special point of view and with reference to our subject. pendant after benvenuto cellini. (cabinet of antiques, national library of paris.) (taken from “ arts au moyen dge.”) here we shall find in all that relates to ornament, though with some inventions of fresh types, the impress of the highest genius in the use and application of the types borrowed from the antique, from the east and from the national arts of western europe. the immortal phalanx of great italian artists of the sixteenth century, who determined the definitive direction of western taste towards a rejuvcneseent ideal still more varied and full of life than the ancient art from whence it emanated, raised the decorative arts to the utmost, carrying into them that breadth of ideas and extent of knowledge on every subject which these masters owed to their thorough artistic education. each of them being at once a painter, architect, sculptor, fi'equently an engineer, mechanician, engraver or musician, and always well read in general literature, found all his resources and means of execution in himself. in such hands, ornament necessarily assumed a new character and extended its domain. it could not but abandon by degrees the more or less uniform types and formulas imposed on it by the renaissance. almost exclusive ascendancy of architecture, or handed down by the practical tradition of crafts, and thus lead decorative art into the way of a relative liberty already thrown open to it by the fancy which had characterized the close of the gothic period, especially in the illumination of manuscripts. at the same time the science of design, perfected by contact with the finest models and freed from the simplicity and inexperience of the middle ages, favoured in the compositions of this period a large introduction of the human figure, which by its presence determined the proportions of the surrounding objects. ornament from this time was frequently united whilst remaining subordinate, to the plastic arts, which had now reached their greatest perfection, and by which it was carried forward in the path of progress. the italians, then, during their golden age rendered decoration a superior and universal art. before the complete formation and definitive development of the style of the renaissance, a certain number of italian ornamentalists of the fifteenth century preluded this revolution in art by compositions, which may be considered as a transition stage between the style of the middle ages, and that of the sixteenth century. £ t a w * * --~~ ~ * * "s . h" s % v. " (#) | $ ) | | --- © . | ":s - % \ £ 's £ & * *l | ) s. fift s. | | | | | (|) as - x *- n x-- *rv- s-> / := - Š ~ -: % | \ % |\ # s' s_ \ \ leaf scroll, of the fifteenth century. plate lii. represents in this style some of the work of girolamo da cremona. its strongly conceived ornaments are evidently inspired by the rich forms of roman sculpture. a massive flora and colouring and design tinged with something of wildness, are its peculiar marks. the combinations exceed the ordinary domains of manuscript illumination of the fifteenth century. the books from which our illustrations are taken are indeed of a size which brings them nearer to fresco decorations. the anti- phonals and graduals, some containing anthems, others masses with notes, are choir books, and in the cathedrals of sienna and florence, and the carthusian church of pavia, there are some which are upwards of four feet in height. the principal subjects in plate lvii. (nos. to ), have also been taken from manuscripts painted by gherardo and attavante, celebrated florentines. the style is more finished than that of the paintings in plate lii. the ornamentation is everywhere of a well-sustained richness and ele- gance; it consists of finely drawn branches, tastefully winding, usually taking the forms of the acanthus, and frequently terminated by an expansion of rose-work resembling in some degree the botanical o polyohromatio' ornament. type. figures of children, pearls or cameos frequently relieve these decorations; a style which is seen in nos. , , , of plate lv. in paintings attributed to giulio clovio. raphael gives us the highest expression of renaissance ornament. many others preceded him; but as m. dumesnil says (“art italien”) “he arranged, harmonized, transfigured all that came before him.” it was with the assistance of polydore da caravaggio, a skilful ornamentalist and painter in grey, and of giovanni da udine, who excelled in the painting of fruit, flowers and animals, that raphael covered the walls of the vatican with the decoration from which we have taken the subjects represented in plates liii. and liv. and nos. and of plate lvii. as well as the engraved ivories (nos. , , , , , of plate lvi.) treated after the same designs. this ornamentation was imitated from that of the ancients, a specimen of which had just been brought to light by the discovery of the baths of titus, and which was afterwards confirmed by the excavations of pompeii and herculaneum, of which the genius of raphael seems almost to have had a presentiment. the master’s hand is particularly noticeable in the panels representing the four seasons and the three fates; the judicious and sure taste of the divine young man is to be found everywhere. such decoration gives a high idea of the domain of ornamental art, and shows how extensive should be the knowledge of those who aim at such a noble ideal. besides this fine restoration of antique modes, brought about by raphael and his school, there also ensued a distinct and important fact which it is necessary to mention. the artists of the sixteenth century, after having reconstructed the ornament of the ancients, experienced the need of adding to it resources of greater variety in the details, and of providing fresh elements suited for larger decorative effects. the greatest glory of the italian renaissance is perhaps the invention of these additional ornaments. the volute scroll, substituted for the leaf scroll, or combined with it, was the novelty “ if" w h \liih "i; m “mn ‘ . -' ass-aw - volute scroll. (period of francis .) of the period; cartouches, of which a far more important use was beginning to be made, soon appro- priated the double volute in relief, and this style, thus enriched by a fresh element, took an entirely original voluie scroll. (period of henry ii.) development. moreover, this new element was so logical that it was adopted by the greatest masters in architecture, and since that time has passed through every modification of taste, never ceasing to take a part in the greater number of modern decorations, whilst the fashion spread even into the most minute ornaments. the history of the cartouche still remains to be written. by grouping in separate plates those that we have been able to collect, according to their chronological order and the successive modifi- cations they have been subjected to, without counting the considerable number of minor examples rena issa nce. which are to be found in other plates, we have endeavoured to render some real service, by giving the landmarks of a study necessary to all ornamentalists. (see for the sixteenth century the special plates lviii. lxxi. lxxii. and the general plates lix. lx. lxi. lxiii. lxvii. and lxix. which contain some examples.) |||| r. n-n |-|| , -* | | = \{ | : %. **'. |a| \' . | | lı y a e. h. e * \ * '' £re the first cartouches of the sixteenth century belong to what may be called the age of wood; they have the appearance of carved wood; the natural rolls of fine shavings made with the plane are perhaps its true origin. the foliated volute scrolls were made into elements of ornamental construction similar in their aim to those of which the arabs had felt the necessity, but endowed, like the stems of plants with which they were combined, with the curve and grace of the classic foliated scroll. h | | | * limi' | £ ||| £= £% * him! volute scrolls, with examples of volute in relief. (period of charles ix.) | * | volute scrolls. (period of henry ii.) in this style the bareness of the outline of the constructive foliated scrolls is agreeably inter- mingled with the indented vegetation of the scrolls of the acanthus family, which was brought into g polychroma tic ornament. honour again by the renaissance. in this intermixture the breadth is atoned for by the lightness of the outlines of the foliage, and also by the open work which facilitates overlapping. the use of plat- bands in these foliated volute scrolls, variable in their length, renders the presence of figures of all sorts reposing in them or apparently passing through, more probable. masks, ribbons, flowers, or fruit, correct too great a severity by offering some points of repose in the general distribution. either alone or combined, these elements of ornamental construction, corresponding in so many respects with the ancient traditions of western logic which we have stated, have been perhaps the principal agents in bringing about the most valuable manifestations of modern european art. with them, the broad and ever-recurring acanthus stem of the romans, or the ornamental vase from which hung down or ascended doubly twisted branches along the frieze and panels, no longer pre- vailed exclusively. great numbers of free or imitated cartouches form the basis of fresh develop- ments, and the use of engraving in the hands of the best artists occurring at the same time as these new modes, caused the rapid spread of the style, and propagated examples of it everywhere. in the netherlands, germany, france, italy, england, and spain, arose similar conceptions, the local origi- nality of which constantly increased its domain. the further we advance into the sixteenth century the more do we see that the antique element, the restoration of which had been the first effort of the artists of the renais- sance, however weakened by the dispersal of the roman school after the death of raphael, became mixed with other elements drawn from different sources and combined by modern genius in conformance with its own instincts. already lvgdvni~ _ “pad clemenéam- ‘, . \balsl'ryfilgm \ ,: the name arabesques, given to the decorations around the ') aw...» = i \ paintings in the loggie of the vatican, had attested a certain cartouche with volutesiu relief, _ (prinkm mark) consideration for eastern fashions, which the commercial (taken from the “ am ( ,, how, age» ,- ). lacmix.) activity of the italian republics afforded means of knowing and applying. the arabian outlines exercised a certain influence on the design of the new scrolls, and the purity with which, during the sixteenth century, the venetians employed the persian manner (see plate lxviii.), leaves no doubt as to their perfect acquaintance with the oriental style and their appropriation of it. we have already reminded our readers that the artistic movement of the renaissance was not confined to the frontiers of the country which had given it birth. from italy it speedily spread amongst other nations, and every art of native growth, of local or original nature, was more or less modified through this invasion of italian art, the effects of which were long and durable. in the north, after the death of albert diirer, the style of which he was the most remarkable representative was not continued after his immediate pupils, and the netherlands, which had been, during the fifteenth century, an artistic focus rivalling that of italy, lost in a great degree during the sixteenth, the powerful originality which had distinguished it. in france the italian style exerted no less influence, and the french artists were drawn along like the others by this irresistible current. the results of this revolution, which undoubtedly raised the standard of art, have been variously judged. if we remember, that the french nation was already in possession, especially in regard to decoration, of a simple and original art, which was tending towards further development, and also that at the time when the excess of italian artists spread themselves over europe, and especially into france, where they were invited by the kings, they brought with them a facile taste, and a practice already far removed from the finest times of the raphaelesque renaissance, and representing a period which, notwithstanding their personal merit, was already to some extent a period of decay, we can under- stand why modern criticism, more just than that of an earlier time towards the centuries preceding the age of leo x., which are now more studied and better understood, should have expressed some regret at this sort of confiscation of french national genius, thus arrested in its natural course. but was not this in- evitable? could the art of our ancestors have existed without modifications whilst it possessed so powerful a neighbour, and not seek to profit by the progress made in the science of design and the search after a renaissance. higher ideal? the simplicity and close resemblance to nature which form its special attraction, but which in part were owing to real inexperience, would have lost their charm by becoming less unconscious and a i, design taken from the charterhouse decorative design attributed to j ean cousin. design taken from the charterhouse of pavia, after gailhabaud. (french renaissance.) of pavia, after gailhabaud. (italian renaissance.) (communicated by m. a. f. didot.) (italian renaissance.) cl, c. i decorative design by jean cousin, taken from nis “ livrc dc perspective.” (french renaissance.) more voluntary. almost every progress in art, however real it may be, is obtained at the detriment of a certain native vigour, which we cannot see lessened without regret; but the human mind cannot turn seventeenth and eighteenth century. and glass stainers, having schools in every provincial town, and practising their arts in the whole of france, with local varieties: a marvellous preparation for the restoration of antique tradition which the italians were coming there to install. the fact is now acknowledged that in all those active centres known by the name of parisian, picard, lorraine, tourangel, norman, breton, burgundian, gascon, and southern schools, in which vigorous artists were developed, italian art was quickly understood and applied, soon becoming absorbed and transformed by the french mind with a success which the schools of bruges and cologne, frequently successful rivals of french art during the pointed period, were not destined to equal. then, when in italy the magnificent blooming time at the first half of the sixteenth century was already passing away, even before the close of the century, through the excessive facilities indulged in by the artist, france, introduced to fresh elegances, which she had entirely appropriated to herself by bringing to bear on them her own native qualities, regained for herself a place which her experienced genius had previously occupied. jean goujon, with the elongation of his beautiful figures of nymphs, came nearer to the greeks than any of his contemporaries, and jean cousin, skilful in all the arts, adorned with his innumerable compositions glass, canvas, the vellum of manuscripts, the pages of printing, goldsmith’s work and pottery, with a science and sureness of taste which have caused him to be looked on as the true founder of the french school. details of the church of saint etienne du mont at paris. (seventeenth century.) (taken from the “ monuments anciens at modernes” of gailhabaud.) the old schools of the north transformed, by which we mean those of flanders, the rhenish provinces, with that of france at their head, maintained then, better than even italy herself, what fra giocondo, leonardo da vinci, il rosso, primaticcio, andrea del sarto, benvenuto cellini, serlio, and paul ponce trebati, had taught them. those schools, already so rich in architects such as jean bullant, philibert delorme, pierre lescot, and afterwards ducerceau, whose vigorous ornaments come entirely within our subject, mark by their own genius the masterpieces of engraving of those who were called the little masters, such as etienne delaune, théodore de bry, virgile solis, aldegrave, \voeriot, &c., who in the seventeenth century were represented by jacques mestre, etienne de la belle, michel blondus, h. janssen, &c. &c. as far as their works are engravings, they are beyond our subject, but their goldsmith’s work, which for the most part has not escaped destruction, bears witness to a genius too original to allow us to pass it by in silence. historically the productions of these artist-engravers and goldsmiths, as those of potters, locksmiths, cabinet-makers (some in the middle of the sixteenth century, others at its close and at the commencement of the seventeenth), prove that the level of ornament was maintained in po l y chromatic ornament. the north at a height to which it no longer attained in italy, then filled with the mannerism, which inferior imitators of the sublime but contorted style of michael angelo had brought into vogue, and the sight of which, it is said, troubled the end of that great man. it thus prepared the way for those twisted decorations, the convenient and lax principles of which were in the next century to produce in france the louis xv. style. the glorious memory of its golden age, however, still gave it influence, and caused a superiority to be attributed to it which was only justified in its past. pendant of gilles l'egaré. (eighteenth century.) design after janssen. embossed gold cassolette. (french work of the seventeenth century.) (taken from “arts au moyen äge.”) this was seen clearly when, at a later time, under louis xiv. bernini, who was then enjoying a european reputation, came into france, whither he had been summoned by the king to finish the louvre. his arrival was hailed with delight, but he was soon sent away overwhelmed, it is true, with gifts and caresses; after having seen him at work and in conflict with the equally stately but substantial genius of the french artists, the public were undeceived. about the close of the sixteenth century and the commencement of the seventeenth, the independent character, which energetic and original artists had preserved in the application of the principles brought into honour at the time of the renaissance, went on decreasing to make way for a closer but more timid imitation of the direct models of antiquity, which were becoming more abundant, and exciting general admiration. thence ensued, assisted by the troubles of the time, a relative sterility; for, according to the expression of a modern critic (guilmard, “histoire générale de l'ornement”), “antiquity was ill studied at that time; artists had rather the wish to imitate it than the ability, and they were far from comprehending its true power and exquisite purity.” we must add that, after the errors of the italian artists employed under the later valois, it was to a certain degree a happy re-action, which caused the return of art to the common source. after seventeenth and eighteenth century. these attempts, beginning with such stilted elegance though not devoid of delicacy, we perceive in it a sincere love of the antique, and also that it was contemporary with the elevated and thoroughly french style of nicholas poussin. nos. , , , , , , of plate lxxiv. ; the ceiling of the louvre and the fragment of a panel from fontainebleau (plate lxxvi.) are the results of a return to the principles of roman antiquity; for that was almost the only antiquity then thought of. yet, in the arabesque decorations of the apartment of marie de medici in the luxem- bourg, plate lxxvi. the freedom of the renais- sance time is once more felt; it is a last ray from the italian influence of the favourite concini. conjointly with this more or less frank return to the mode of the antique, there took place in the decorative arts a movement which was at first favoured by the victories and reign of henri iv., and which also took an important part in the formation of the style predominant during the reign of louis xiii. and the first part of that of louis xiv. the fashion then turned towards flemish productions. the varia- tions these productions passed through may be studied with advantage in the collection of orna- ments engraved between and , and their peculiar character may be recognized in the series of our plates. whilst preserving some remembrance of the italian renaissance, the new foliated scrolls (see plate lxxvi.) of manuscript and enamelled ornaments, and also the cartouches, piers and escutcheons (plate lxxvii.), make up, with plate lxxv. sufficiently varied examples of the new style, whose tendency to heaviness could not fail before long to become somewhat excessive. the style of the first part of the seven- teenth century finds its most complete and happiest expression in the compromise of nos. and , in plate lxxvii. we shall not dwell on the strangeness of the forms of the cartouches with which the rest of the plate is filled. the chinese productions, of which holland was at this period the principal entrepôt, must have greatly contributed to arouse, or, at all events, to keep up a taste for the representation of objects of this nature, the principal merit in which is their elasticity; for they will adapt themselves to every need and will form any combination. the italians, although they made use of them, did not dare to carry them so far. pendentive taken from the frescoes of annibal caracci in the farnese palace. the success of these inventions is principally owing to the master cabinet-makers, who, like the flemings wriese and christopher feinlin, or frederic unteutsch, of frankfort, executed or engraved so much furniture of a heavy magnificence, which has again been copied in our days. cabinet-making, so much developed by the manufacture of these magnificent cabinets and chests, in fashion during the renaissance, and specimens of which have come down to us, shows that the germans, poly chro matic or na ment. french and italians were equally skilful and ingenious in this manufacture, and cabinet-making seems indeed to have been the special ground on which the transformation and union of styles took place. neither goldsmith's work nor painting had indeed any occasion for the sometimes exaggerated amplitude to which recourse was had by the workers in wood, at that time well-educated men. when, after the summons of richelieu and the “discomfiture of the famous and unique monsieur frieze after lepautre. le poussin, the honour of the french in his profession, and the raphael of our age,” as a contemporary says (see n. destailleur, “notices sur quelques artistes français"), jean lepautre was called upon to a certain degree to direct the taste of the period, he came from the workshop of a cabinet-maker, where - - - włów wye £ s's designs for cartouches after lepautre. he had been early placed as an apprentice. it is true that this workshop was no other than that of adam philippon, who styled himself “cabinet-maker and engineer in ordinary to the king” (towards the close of the reign of louis xiii.), and who had been sent through the whole of italy to seek “the most celebrated men in the arts of painting, sculpture and other professions necessary for the decorations of royal palaces, and had brought into france great numbers of workmen and of the finest bas-reliefs and antique figures.” this may show the importance of such cabinet-makers, and the knowledge concealed under so modest a title. it was from this journey in italy, in which philippon must have been accompanied by his pupil that lepautre returned, with his taste formed, and in a position to produce those numerous and s eventeenth a nd eighteenth century. varied works, with such gorgeous decorations, which represent the most brilliant period of the louis xiv. style. the lessons which he brought from italy were no longer those of the pure and elegant school of raphael. long before this time giulio romano, at mantua, and the other pupils of raphael in the rest of italy, had exhausted in some degree the arabesque style, the tendencies of which, more and more tinged with the picturesque, had rapidly degenerated. when lepautre was in italy, and numerous workmen were induced to leave that country for france, bernini was reigning at rome; but what was of greater importance was that it was im- mediately after the glorious time which the school of the carracci, founded at bologna at the close of the sixteenth century, had restored to italian art. when all the other schools were in a state of decay, this bolognese school returned to the best traditions of decorative art (see p. ), and it was principally from it that the pomp-loving and fertile lepautre was to receive his inspirations. nothing, indeed, could have been better suited to his taste than the grand and vigorous style, occasionally verging on inflation and excess, of the italian decorators of this school. the nature of the decorative ornaments of the school of lepautre does not allow us to bring them into the subjects that we have treated in colour. conceived with a view to broad effects, and somewhat of the nature of stage-painting, they are too unlike what is required of modern arts and frieze after lepautre. manufactures for an ordinary use to be made of them in anything but architecture, for which they were intended. notwithstanding the passionate admiration which then prevailed for the antique, artists could not touch it without altering and overloading it, for it was considered too grave and bare. they wished to give it greater richness, and in trying to perfect it changed all relations of proportions with an exaggeration, a furia, of which the accompanying friezes will give some idea. the desire to make everything grand was the stumbling block of that time. its best result was a powerful effect of unity, owing principally to the great designers, the architect mansard and the painter lebrun, the latter of whom did indeed possess the necessary authority to direct the decorative arts of every kind. an artist in every branch of art like the great italians, but an absolute despot, he presided over everything that was to be done : “sculptures, ornaments for the interior of apartments, tapestries, goldsmith's work, iron-work, mosaics, tables, vases, lustres, candelabra, all passed through his hands, and nothing appeared at the court that was not invented by him and executed under his directions.” (louis and rené ménard, “tableau historique des beaux-arts.”) the incredible quantity of public and private buildings, which seemed to arise almost spontaneously, at this time, gave to the france of louis xiv. a general character very different from that of the preceding times. in the north and south, east and west, we find everywhere the well-known type of that architecture, not without grandeur, but which, by sacrificing everything to magnificence of appearance, frequently accords but ill with the object proposed. the necessity of decorating buildings promptly and simultaneously in so many places, while stimulating the whole industrial world and forming an incalculable number of workmen, could not but cause a great laxity in the choice and execution of details of every description. h o polychromatic ornament. the peculiar originality of each of the provincial schools disappeared in this general movement, in which each individual could only make use of types promulgated by the central academies. unhappily the forms employed, being of too easy choice and design, sometimes weak, singular, twisted and heavy, disfigure this ornamentation, which, although sustained by the greatest energy, fatigues the eye by an overcrowding of detail. what distinguished france in the use of these over—decorated styles, at a period in which the italians were doing still worse, and the rest of europe was endeavouring to follow in their steps, resulted from the old habits of correctness and discretion which form a national characteristic. the level of the teaching was maintained by the great institutions commenced by richelieu, encouraged by mazarin and supported by colbert. the direction of the artists of the louvre, who produced works of superior excellence in every branch of art, and the power of education possessed by every master in his guild, contributed to give an exceptional value to the whole, notwithstanding a certain defect in the principles. ~‘ ~ ;_'.-.' if“ \v‘ll/v l‘iv. qullfll-i jr! running ornamentation. (seventeenth century.) the fault that we have indicated in the architecture of the time, was to be seen in everything; the sentiment which should inspire the use of decorative art according to the particular purpose of each object, was entirely wanting. there was now only one character of ornament for all objects, manufactured without sufficient thought of the special character required by their different destinations. however, we must not forget that the acquired knowledge was great, and, although they some- times changed the nature of what they borrowed, yet they knew how to turn it to account. oriental processes, amongst others, were not without influence on the ornamentation of which we are speaking. they were used judiciously according to the forms in fashion ; to the influence of the oriental earthenware must be attributed the geometrical conventional designs, with free colouring, the scallop decorations, with light foliage, or with a full surface, which form the ground of the earthenware, plate lxxxii. the ideas for the tapestries of plate lxxxiii. are also taken from the same principles; and whilst speaking of these tapestries, in which brilliant colours arranged with doubtful taste produce such confusion, we must call attention to the fact that nos. and contain a remarkable example of design that is rich in instruction. it is a composition formed almost entirely of elements, whose combinations are infinitely seventeenth and eighteenth century. varied without changing their nature; the crossings in relief of the roses, canopies, cartouches, vases and bouquets, foliated constructive ornaments from which springs the acanthus, either covering them or striving away from them, clasps formed by neighbouring branches, finally the curves produced by different bits of branch-work having a common termination and resulting in an incidental figure, are all represented in these decorations of such characteristic make. again, the applications of boulle work, plate lxxxiv. are executed according to the sound data running ornamentation. (seventeenth century.) furnished by the orientals as to design for surfaces. the examples on plate lxxxv. emanate directly from them; the foliated volute scroll, no , plate lxxxi. and the leathers on plate lxxxvi. belong to the same series. the divided and richly ornamented palm-leaves which appear several times in the last- tail-pieces. (bérain's style.) mentioned plate would alone suffice, if placed near the works of the ancient greeks, to give an exact idea of the process of enriching employed at that period. these palm-leaves, with the elements mentioned above, give the whole history of running ornaments of the louis xiv. style, in its usual applications. the most brilliant, or at least the best-known representatives of this phase of french art are jean bérain and daniel marot. the former was much in fashion and, although we may entertain some doubt as to the taste displayed in compositions where many grotesques occur, they at all events show much imagination. in the decorations of the salon d'apollon, plate lxxix. in which he drew his inspiration from the pyramidal combinations of raphael, making use at the same time of every resource of learning, we cannot fail to perceive that he has all the suppleness of a real talent, and that these works possess high merit. daniel marot, whose imagination was not less rich than bérain's, while his design was more elegant, and who was well fitted for the highest employments, was not, like bérain, made designer in ordinary to the king of france. this artist was a protestant, and, being obliged in consequence to leave his native country after the revocation of the edict of nantes, he went to holland, and afterwards to england with the prince of orange, where he was named architect to that prince when he became william iii. the polychromatic ornament. collection of plates published by him in bears witness to his remarkable talent and fertility- his versatile power applied itself to everything : beds, chairs, armchairs, tables, mirrors, candelabra, large clocks, designs for tapestries and housings, patterns for fabrics, in short, says m. destailleurs, “all the thousand objects of everyday life from the kettle to the hand of a watch ;” without counting the fact that, like bérain in france, he was the arranger of festivals and organizer of the grand funereal pomps which he has engraved. the productions of robert de cotte, gillot, etc., represent the latest formula of the louis xiv. style. in the tapestries on plates lxxxvii. and lxxxviii., fresh elegancies may be felt. in the border nos. , , of plate lxxxix., a more careful execution, better detached details, a more sober treatment of the background, mark an improvement in taste, a little disfigured, however, by grotesque cartouches with barbarous figures, intended to serve as points of repose. emblematic cartouche. (seventeenth century.) under equally transitory forms, this style is also seen in the rich decoration with a gold ground in plate xci. as well as in the fine paintings in half camaieu of the well-arranged ceiling of plate xc. as we advance we see the tendency becoming more marked towards a light colouring for the ground of decorations, which becomes at last quite general. louis xv. style.—the first change which ornament underwent, about the twentieth year of the eighteenth century, and which constitutes what is called the louis xv. style, was commenced principally by the architects gilles-marie oppenord and juste-aurele meissonnier, while the most complete expression of it is to be found in the works of babel and baléchou. the origin of this transformation may be seen both in the excessive adornment which had prevailed under louis xiv., and also in the example and success of francesco borromini, architect and sculptor, who worked at the cathedral of st. peter’s under the direction of bernini, and died in , after having excited great admiration by his broken lines, executed with remarkable facility and power of invention. if, notwithstanding the glory of such a precedent and its chiefly italian origin, france has had the honour of giving to this new style the name of one of her kings, which name has since been adopted everywhere, even in italy, it is because the french school in adopting processes which tended to the overthrow of all the principles of order known until then, succeeded in giving to the liberty of form which she sevent ee nth and eighteenth century. took up a stamp of lightness, grace and wit which are frequently wanting in the italian and german productions of the same period. it was not without difficulty that the new principles, or rather the overturning of all principles believed in until then, succeeded in finding acceptance. the vigour of the struggle caused in france by this invasion of new modes impelled their advocates to fresh efforts. never were more address, ingenuity and real learning brought into the service of more doubtful doctrines. after having abandoned all the old methods for which, says cochin ironically “they had a superstitious respect,” there remained no guide but personal taste, of which everyone had to give proof. now, if notwithstanding the dangers of such a liberty, the honours of the century remained with the innovators of the time, it was because the artists who were protesting in favour of wiser principles were far from being equal to those who were pleased to fall in with the mannered style which soon became prevalent. the mistakes caused by these vagaries, when they were tried by inferior hands, soon became excessive and before long such a state of decay was reached, that it was indeed time for the greek antique to re-appear with her immortal youth through the shroud of lava which had preserved her. however dangerous, when looked at in the light of general principles, may have been the independent and bold action of the school which produced the real brilliancy of the decorations of the eighteenth century, we cannot fail to acknowledge that it endowed france with some charming works of art; that under the apparent frivolity of this art, and through its thousand caprices, we may discover a perfect understanding of the re- quirements of private decoration, which plays so large a part in modern life; an under- standing which, by the force of example has not been without healthy influence on the decorative arts in our days. besides this we must not forget that this art succeeded that of the first days of the eighteenth century, the time when gillot, and after him his pupils—amongst whom was watteau—had recourse to light decorations of capricious improbability in their details. from this point of view, the types of the new school, contorted though they were, yet at all events possessed the advantage of being more in conformance with the traditional and national habits of logic. it may then easily be understood how it was that with such good qualities, the new manner, notwithstanding its defects, should have triumphed over the numerous criticisms it provoked; of which criticisms the engraver cochin constituted himself the passionate exponent in the “mercure de france,” but some of which would now appear exaggerated. time indeed, although condemning certain abuses, has not ratified all the prejudices of the criticism of that period, of those, for example, who declared that “a candlestick should always be straight and per- pendicular, to bear a light, and not twisted as if it had been forced.” the skilful artists of the best period of the eighteenth century have long ago been joined by eminent connoisseurs in refuting what there was too uncompromising in such criticism. to sum up, this century, with its boldness and skill is one of the most curious in the history of ornament. its success besides was quite exceptional. the superior arts, brought down to the same level of simple decoration, rendered it active assistance. after the fairy-like scenes of watteau, so delicately drawn and warmly coloured, came the pearly-grey running mouldings. (eighteenth century.) pol y chromatic or na ment. empyreans, and the pastoral pieces with a blueish landscape, of the erotic boucher. these were objects of great value to ornaments intended for the mounting of pier-glasses. thus ornamentalists, whose art came in a manner to occupy a preponderating position, taught with an authority which their art, when secondary, had denied them. after oppenord, who, having studied ancient architecture, and worked at the church of st. sulpice, only joined with some reserve in the new movement, meissonnier, who styles himself painter, sculptor, architect, designer of the bedchamber and cabinet of the king, gives us under the title of “architecture universelle,” a collection of ornaments of his own invention, the object of which was to urge forward the impulse given to decorative art by lepautre and marot. this is what the sarcastic and somewhat unjust cochin styles, “a gay architecture, independent of all the rules of what was formerly called good taste.” (see on this subject the very interesting documents published by m. destailleur, in his “notices” on some french artists.) p. e. babel, designer of ornaments and goldsmith at paris, who understood the rock-work style, better than any one else, also prided himself on furnishing models for architecture. we should have been astonished at such an encroachment on the territory of the architect, if the liberal education of these ornamentalists did not explain, though without always excusing some of their pretensions. the celebrated goldsmith, thomas germain, made at the same time plans for buildings and moulding. (eighteenth century.) for pieces of plate; it was he who furnished designs for the new church of st. louis of the louvre, built in , on the site of the ancient collegiate church of st. thomas. an analysis of the productions of that time in which every artist set his own stamp of originality on his works, forming differences which modern publications have endeavoured to point out, does not appear to us to come necessarily within the limits of our subject. all the ornaments of that period, whether they be by meissonnier, babel, baléchou, jean daniel de preissler, la joue, isaie nilson, cuvilies, jean- andré thélot, jérémie wachsmuth, françois xavier haberman, jean léonard wuest, jean léonard eysler, jean hauer, charles roettiers or a. masson, are all treated in a picturesque style, frequently agreeing but indifferently with the laws imposed by the decoration of surfaces. thus the principal result of the ever-increasing part performed by painting in decoration was to substitute for the conventional representation of objects, the imitative representation of which we spoke at the commencement of our essay as an eminently modern proceeding. as a general characteristic of this style in form, we may notice an almost complete absence of straight lines, which are replaced by the curves of the letter s, and a contempt for every form precisely square, round or oval; and yet the style is treated with some grandeur, of which meissonnier was the happiest representative. - the rock-work style which was to make its way into all the decorative arts, appears to have arisen from the art of creating artificial gardens, which were much in fashion even in the sixteenth century. we do not know who invented them, nor to what origin they may justly be attributed. the chinese very frequently make use of rock-work in their gardens as well as in their decorations, and it was probably to those enemies of symmetry that the eighteenth century owed its large use of this decorative element, which stamps with so peculiar a mark the productions of the louis xv. style. however this may be, the french artists were the principal authors of the models in this style, which the immense collections of hertel and engelbrecht contained, and which delighted all europe. plate xciii. contains in the double character of its cartouches, the latest ornaments in the louis xiv. style, by artists who persisted in ancient errors, and also others in the extravagant seventeenth and eighteenth century. fancy of those belonging to the fashionable school. nos. , , , , are by bernard picard; who was working at antwerp between and . no. was painted in paris in . nos. and , which still possess some symmetry, though without a straight line, pre- sent combinations and foliated scrolls of the intermediate time. no. , by isaie nilson, and and by la joue, belong to the best times of the rock-work. in these latter figures, as in that of no. , in the same plate, and in the mounting of the fan, plate xcvi. we find use made of shells and endive, so fashionable at that time that the acanthus had almost disappeared. the danger of these mannered compositions, retained in fashion after cuvilies. during a certain time owing to their being executed with extreme skill, which made use of every material with unequalled dexterity, could not be long concealed when the execu- tion fell into less skilful hands. after having created numbers of charm- ing vignette painters such as hubert gravelot, eisen, laurent cars, j. ch. lebas, cl. duflos, choffart and aug. de saint-aubin, the louis xv. style was destined to disappear before the revival of antique studies, although it found representatives until , and passed through all cartouche after babel. the excesses of a bad taste, some idea of which may be formed by the subject represented above. after cuvilies. after cuvilies. louis xvi. style.—even before the reign of louis xvi. the return to a simpler taste had numerous pol ychromatic or na ment. partizans. the discovery of herculaneum in , occupied people's minds even before the excava- rockwork cartouche. tions presented results of any extent or real utility, which only happened about ; the re-action, then commenced in architecture by servandoni and his pupil de vailly, was not long in producing some effect in the modes of decorative art, and it was this same re-action which only attained a definitive formula under louis xvi. whose name it still bears. the works of reisner, gouthière demon- treuil; “les lambris d'appartements, tant en pein- ture que sculpture,” by de neufforges; “les sculptures, menuiseries, orfèvreries et fontes,” by de lafosse; “les décorations en peintures de fleurs et d'ornements,” by ransom; “la joaillerie et la bijouterie” by the younger pouget; “les chandeliers et lustres,” by forty, as well as the compositions of la londe and the charming foliated scrolls of salembier, represent the varied expressions of the louis xvi. style, interesting examples of which may be found in plates xcvi. xcvii. xcviii. xcix. and c.; (see the notices accompanying these plates) and which have lately been deservedly admired by amateurs. although here we bring to a close our short sketch, as well as our collection of illustrations, on the threshold of the revolution of , it is not because we set no value on the efforts made in our own age, the fecundity of which is amply proved by the results obtained in the various branches of decorative art during late years, and which will, we hope, be still more firmly established. but the time has not yet arrived either to judge impartially the work of the nineteenth century, or, still more, to recognize its definitive character through the successive infatuations which at first prevailed, or the wide eclecticism which has succeeded in our own day. the first steps were especially difficult and obstructed in france. there the political agitations and long wars destroyed at once both the aristocracy of enlightened amateurs, and, what was still more serious, the workmen and artists formed by the good old french traditions, who were led by enthusiasm and want of work to the battle- fields of , from which few returned. the century had thus a two-fold task before it: to create public taste anew, and to re-establish centres of study; neither of which could be the affair of a day. knowing this, it is no longer surprising that france should have spent much time in groping her way towards the light; seeking it first under the empire in a return to the antique, then in the pointed style during the restoration and the literary movement of , at a later time in a partial return to the decorative styles of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and still more recently in a fruitful study of the productions of oriental art. but, out of these various attempts and the lively discussions they occasioned, there has arisen in our time a wider, more en- lightened, and more judicious appreciation of past ages. | after salembier. se venteenth and e i g h teenth century. numerous publications have brought before us the history of art, and this archaeological erudition has enabled us to re-link the chain of broken traditions. modern art, thus freed from all exclusiveness, may, with a full knowledge of the facts, examine the works of the past, and make a choice from amongst the riches accumulated by our predecessors. mm f : [in after salembier. without neglecting the resources and variety of modern art, such as the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries have bequeathed to us, furnishing as they do such excellent models of decoration, and as a whole, perfectly suited to our manners, modern decorators are able to find elements of strength and originality in that study of free and vigorous proceeding, of that high con- ventional decoration, which give so much character to the works of antiquity, to oriental and asiatic products, to the stained glass of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, to the enamels of limoges, and to the earthenware and majolica wares of the renaissance. in these they will find that power of effects which arises from freedom of colouring and a field always open to invention or to idealization, which raises the character of the artist's work and allows one of the masters of modern art to give this true formula of decorative art: “ornament,” says m. guillaume, director of the school of fine arts (“idée générale d'un enseignement élémentaire"), “must not change the form of the surface it decorates; it is on this surface, and either forms a part of it or is applied to it; it must not appear either to penetrate into it, or to be capable of being easily detached from it. . . . . it is a very ideal form of art. the ornamentalist, still i polyc h r o matic or na ment. more than either the painter or the sculptor, looks upon the art of design as serving to represent not real beings, but objects of an organism at once superior and dependent.” we feel certain that the present school, brought up with such principles, will make fresh progress after salembier. in the road pointed out by the recent exhibitions, and will find in the study of the best times, not a temptation to servile imitation, or to a simple copying, but models fitted to inspire original productions which may serve as models in their turn, and provide materials for a future history of the decorative arts of the nineteenth century. prim itive ursprung lich | | #x . xixxxixhxhxhxhxhxhxhxhx # ###########################| p . x |x xhxhxixhxhxhxhxhxhxhxhxhxix d. . ---------- "i' o i holl ho lith par dufour & f durin imp lemercier 'paris firmin didot freres fils & c. editeurs #. primitive art. wowen fabrics, sculptures, and paintings. the examples in the accompanying plate, although derived from very different sources, are connected with civilisations which are in some respects analogous. musee de la marine, louvre. no . woven fabric. (oceania.) no . woven fabric. (central africa.) no . plaited vegetable fabric. (central africa). no . braided fabric. ( ceania.) no . braided leather. (central africa.) nos to . paintings in intaglio on wooden utensils. (central africa.) no . round fan made of coloured feathers. (oceania.) no . border of a utensil of painted wood. (central africa.) nos to . paintings, ornaments on canoes and utensils. (oceania.) nos to . painted decorations on peruvian utensils, taken from antiguedades peruanas por don mariano eduardo de rivero y dr. don juan diego de tschudi. — viena, . nos t . paintings on mexican manuscripts. (bibl. nat.) r. egyptian . egyptien aegyptis (h - - >~~~~ d " . \):<> '$'. iiitilititialiiii [. | | imp. lemercier et c" paris lith par pralon. firmindidot freres fils & c. editeurs -q -q egyptian art. decorative paintings. the principal objects employed in egyptian ornaments belong as a rule to the language of hieroglyphics. thus, for instance, the pink sphere with hawk's wings (n° ) represents the rising sun. — the water- flowers intertwined with reeds in the lower part of the plate (n" , ) are types of running water. — the sca- rabeus, the black colour of which is so striking (n° ), symbolizes immortality. — the running ornaments (n" , ) of which the greeks afterwards made vitruvian scrolls, signifying the rolling of the waves of the sea, is likewise a part of the language of egyptian artists. – red, blue, and yellow were the principal colours they used, with black and white to define the outlines; green was used more particularly as a local colour, for the stalk and part of the flower, though in the more ancient paintings blue is frequently substituted for it. no. , , . no. , . painted bouquets. painted sculptures. – little wooden columns. nos , . nos , . grounds, borders, and bases from thebes. undulating friezes. no . - - no . painted sculpture, from the memnonium at thebes. ceilings. - no . taken from the publication of the french commission on egypt and undulating friezes. egyptian art, by m. prisse d'avesnes. a cypmr sc - - | | | - - - - - - - - -- | - - - - | - - - - -- - - - & - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - | - - - | -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - & - | -- - - - - - - - - - - - - | | | | -------- iiiè - illil - - - -- - ---- - - - - t - - -- nnnnnnnnn ' 't ' - * i - _ | * | %,iiiiiiiiiiiii | -- *** % #: - | | - : * s % * -- * * - ------- - | | - - - * il -- t * - lith par candon & durin - c d. . firmin did t freres fils g ce editeurs lmp lemercier & c* paris *) %) egyptian art. jewellery. & tombs o, says m. auguste mariette, & sometimes become true historical monuments through the quantity of objects placed by the side of the dead. lections : in them are to be found the objects which form the basis of all col- amulets, statuettes of the gods, jewels, papyri, etc. it is from cemeteries that those perfect specimens of egyptian jewellery have been obtained which are so in- teresting to those engaged in ornamental work. the broad and inflexible character of egyptian design, which is so well expressed in metal, is especially suited to the work of the lapidary, and we ought to congratulate ourselves on the custom which required that every dead body should be adorned at least with its principal necklace. no . naos or breastplate of cloisonné enamel, with a tablet below the frieze bearing the name of rameses ii, xix dynasty. – louvre. no . frame-work of gold, filled in with glass. – louvre. both these jewels come from the serapeum of memphis. (the sera- peum is the mausoleum of apis. thus the god of the serapeum, that is to say serapis, is merely apis dead. – aug. mariette.) no . scarabaeus of lapis-lazuli with wings of glass beads. (the scara- baeus with the egyptians was the symbol of immortality.) no . necklace from the head of apis. nos , , . bracelets of cloisonné enamel. nos , . rings opened out. nos to . ear-rings, necklaces, and amulets. no . sphinx taken from a stela, composed of the androcephalic lion. (the symbolism of the sphinx has not yet been sufficiently elucidated. ac- cording to the greeks it symbolized strength both physical and in- tellectual.) nos to . jewellery from paintings at thebes. published by the french egyp- tian commission, and m. prisse d'avesnes. (monuments égyptiens, vols. folio; paris, didot.) f - assyrian assyrien assyrisch - \: - | - - ". | - - - - |- - - - - *~~~~~ | - ~€. s . .. . - * * * - - sl siz sp siz siz. | - |- - - - q- - - - - *s . ×s s q - ** - . - . - |- -- -- - - - # * : * : * : * : * : * : dufour lebreton lith limp lemercier c'paris firmindidot freres fils 'editeurs * q. assyrian art. examples of polychromatic decoration. two distinct periods may be remarked in assyrian art : the first, that of the foundation of babylon by the naba- teans, on an alluvial ground destitute of stone quarries — a period characterized by the exclusive use of brick, and when the architectonic system was consequently forcibly restricted; — afterwards a second period, that of nineveh, founded by the scythians, the conquerors of primitive babylon, in a region where basalt and numerous stone quarries rendered possible a monumental architecture which the babylonians had not known. it is in general to this ninivite period, which might be called the scytho-assyrian, that the remains collected in the museums of london and paris belong. the various specimens given in our plate belong to this period. nineveh. – palace of khorsabad. no . no bricks inlaid in colours, layard. nos to . painted sculptures, layard. enamelled bricks, victor place. nos , , . nos to . painted sculptures, victor place. various specimens, layard. nos , . persepolis. pantings, victor place. nos to , nos to . restorations, by m. c. texier (l'arménie, la perse et la mésopo- restorations, by botta. tamie. vols.folio; firmin didot). - _ - vrvrvrvr (, ri ech ish sm/ . a £ qa s 's o oo o o oo c. c. | n'- > * - - s <> greek art. conventional flora, fret-work or meanders. the conventional greek flora is very far from being a representation of any species of plants. it adopts merely their general characteristics; the types are varied but slightly, and the painted ornaments on architectural monu- ments are precisely of the same nature as those of smaller proportions on vases. several of these representations, how- ever, resemble nature; the laurel, ivy, vine, and aloe are easily recognized. we give examples both of the flora of magna graecia, and of the same flora treated with greater freedom on the vases of apulia. no i. nos , . painted antefixae. temple of jupiter panhellenius, at aegina. (blouet, paintings from vases, published by hittorff expédition scientifique en morée, vols. folio; firmin didot.) ~, nos , , . no . terra-cotta ornaments from athens. (le bas, voyage archéologique en grèce et en asie mineure; firmin didot.) paintings from vases. from the campana museum. n" . n to . paintings on vases, taken from the gewerbchallc. nos to . ova of ogee, with undulating friezes. paintings taken from figures of apuleian vases published by gerhard. n" to . fret-work or meanders. (the greeks made use of waves or meanders to distinguish water from land.) greek and greco-roman antiquities. specimiens of polychromatic decoration. the accompanying plate contains numerous specimens of polychromatic decoration taken from various periods of greek art, dating from the time of the monuments in aegina, or the parthenon, down to that which may be called the greco-roman. the colouring is taken from drawings by the most competent artists. the following is a list of the subjects in our plate, with references to the authorities on which our information is based. nos , , . frieze and corona ornaments, from the restoration of the parthenon, by m. paccard. (ecole des beaux-arts : roman section.) no . ornaments from the frieze of the temple of the wingless victory at athens. (lebas, voyage archéologique en grèce et en asie mineure, i, pl. , n° .) no . ancient fragment from a panel of a corona. (lebas, id., ii, pl. , no .) no . antefixae from the temple of the wingless victory. (lebas, id., i, pl. .) no. , , . ancient fragments from different monuments at athens. (lebas, id., i, pl. , n° ; ii, pl. , n* i and .) no . decorations over the entrance to the temple of minerva polias at athens, from the restoration of that monument by m. tetas. (ecole des beaux- arts : roman section.) no . frieze ornament on the temple at paestum, from the restoration by m. thomas. (ecole des beaux-arts : roman section.) no. , . ornaments on the temple of jupiter panhellenius, at aegina, from the restoration by m. garnier. exterior ( ); interior ( ). (ecole des beaux-arts : roman section.) no . star from the propylaea. (lebas, hittorff, etc.) no . cymatium, forming a gutter, found among the ruins of a temple at me- - tapontum. (métaponte, by m. le duc de luynes et f. s. debacq, pl. .) no . face and soffit of an ornament in earthenware, serving as a covering to the beams, found at metapontum. (id., pl. .) no . painted mouldings. (hittorff, architecture polychrome chez les grecs, pl. , fig. , p. .) nos , . vitruvian scrolls. nos , . meanders. no . painted ornaments on a sarcophagus found at girgenti. (hittorff, ar- chitecture polychrome, pl. , p. .) no . n° , , , . the coping of a wall and ceiling in the temple of nemesis at rhamnus. (hittorff, id., pl. , fig. , p. .) no . fragment of mosaic-work found in sicily. (hittorff, id., pl. , fig. , p. .) no. , , , . interlaced ornaments, (greco-roman style.) no . meanders. (greco-roman style.) ornaments in terra cotta found at pallazolle (hittorff, id., pl. , fig. , , , p. ), with the colouring given by the same author in his res- toration of the temple of empedocles. (pl. .) no . ornaments. (the same restoration, pl. .) no . palm leaves. # etru r (sch etrusque btruscan - - ct ("r de seine paris linn lemertie rs . fl ls & cie editeu res rl? firmin didot #" durin lith. q'% etrusgan art. jewels. all the objects represented in our plate belong to the museum of the louvre; the greater part are in the campana collection and some of the most interesting were found in a tomb discovered by mm. noel des vergers and francois at vulci. the most ancient among them do not appear to date further back than the later period of the roman re- public. in the specimens given here greek and egyptian influences are noticeable, the latter being especially visible in the frequent use of the scarabeus. the fibula formed of a hand with ring and bracelet, and terminating in the form of a serpent, is considered to be greek. the intaglio in the centre of the bezel of a ring (n° ), which is also capable of being used as a seal, appears to be of the same origin. ear-rings are considered to be the master-pieces of etruscan jewellery. the kind called d selle, a specimen of which may be seen in the subject representing a child suspended , in the upper part of the plate on the right hand, belongs to the best period. the necklace (n° ) is reduced to one half the size of the original. n°' and are rings opened out. n“ and , represent heads of hair-pins. n“ and , represent ear-rings reduced in size. the hand of venus hol- ding the apple of paris is probably greek. in some of the objects, of which the use is uncertain, the influence of the later byzantine and gothic periods may be recognized, and it is therefore doubtful whether they can be attributed to the etruscans. aqqa w-v- ‘ v \u oriechisch romisch gregg—roman greek'roman e?iliihsil‘iketiil [mists v ' lmp lcmercier c'? paris~ flrmln-didot freres,fii.s '? edlteu rs litli par sulpls ll f dunn fl greco-roman antiquity. pompeian style. decorative architecture. it is far less to the domains of reality than to those of fancy that this purely decorative architecture belongs, which we find in the inner walls of the apartments in herculaneum and pompeii. tradition attributes to the pain- ter lidius, in the time of augustus, the invention of these architectural compositions, so elegant though improbable, whic hare frequently intermingled with maritime scenes and landscapes, or animated by various figures. they were executed by greek artists, or by etruscans working under their influence, and gave great delight to the latins who did not seek in them the forms of their own architecture — characterized especially by the use of vaulted ceilings and arcades — but the elegance and poetry of the greek art, by which they were so much capti- wated. the principal subject of the plate is a painted wall from the casa delle suomatrici, taken from the great work of zahn : les plus beaux ornements et les tableaux les plus remarquables de pompéi, d'herculanum et de stabia; ber- lin, - . it is considered one of the finest of its kind. the two single figures have been added to the design, but they do not exist in the original. one of them, that of the dancing girl on the dark ground, was discovered in the torre dell' annunziata. it is the finest of the twelve figures which were found in the same apartement and is one of those which pliny calls libidines. – the little winged genius, with bacchic attributes, which occupies the upper medallion, was found at cività. these two figures are taken from the great work of mazois: les ruines de pompéi ( vols, folio; firmin didot). greek-roman greco-romain. griechisch-romisch. soccesses - *qq # : ( | | d *s - -- / *s. z-s & -> . il- s. lith par jetot. firmin-didot freres fils & c# editeurs. imptestu & massin paris. f greco-roman art. mosaics, painted bas-reliefs, and mural paintings. || | | the use of mosaic is very ancient; its name is derived from the greek word mojax, muse. a if an invention », says m. barré, a is attributed to the muses collectively, and not to some particular artist or spe- cial divinity of the second rank; if that invention has never become the theme of the narrations of poets and fabulists, we may be sure that it has been a common practice from time immemorial, and comprises nothing that might be called a discovery. ” (herculanum et pompéi, by h. roux and barré. – paris, firmin didot.) it is difficult to determine precisely the periods in which the greeks, and after them the romans, passed from the use of simply decorated pavements to mosaics with figures. . all that we know with any certainty is that the taste for mosaic pavements was only developed amongst the greeks under the asiatic influence of the successors of alexander. according to a passage in pliny, we may believe that mosaics of artificial crystals, used for the imitation of paint- ing, first appeared at rome about the time of vespasian. (see the passage quoted from m. jeanron in the intro- duction .) the specimens contained in our plate may be thus divided : n" l to , mosaics found at herculaneum and pompeii. n“ from the house of thc'faun, and n" from the house of polyhius, both at pompeii. n°' and represent painted has-reliefs at pompeii. n" to , are taken from panels, friezes, borders and mural paintings. all these specimens are reproduced from the great works of zahn and mazois. chinese. c h l n @l s. ' chihesisch. m fig legggneiegisiwe .- r" ' . j -‘ .u - » . , ~ ’ wk? . gjr -' [all a, ‘.. ;, . . ' ‘ 'f‘\§_y .\' i v ’ i; ' ‘ q ‘ ,- _ id if “ ’s! "" / . a. ) /'~~@..' r/é ‘ ‘ __ :? -\ . .-.v_"-_-_n--_ .--_-‘r~., ~____ __ _ ' ‘! fl_\_ i l * ‘ . ]/.a__ f ..-. .w’,. “m '.--_'n\ '- - ~ . a"; v t . ,m‘hv-in/ _ _ \.-/r‘ '. . l.\‘, , '\_  ' .\ .-- , r >l._/:. gal .' // . , r ' , " ‘ i‘ . ) . i ..‘. . . h ' .\'.. ' ‘ ' \~'/\‘\-fl... i - ’: vl’a o" '_'r‘-\fj‘. ' q» r s ‘ i; plng fl , ope" (egggrjwanfl . i @jé'fig '~ " , "jet-lv‘.‘v . figm/w * i, .‘ q ‘ w. _ afajmltl'ti'} a. i ‘t " ' l lithpar bauer firmindidot frerizsvpils a c‘eedu'furs. chinese art. meanders and scallops. the specimens contained in the accompanying plate are taken from vases in bronze incrusted with tin, silver, or gold, in the possession of the baroness de rothschild and messrs. burty, evans, laurens, and mentzer; some are me- dern, others of the highest antiquity. all were exhibited at the exposition orientalc, organised by the union renlrale des arts applique's d l’industrie in . the greater number are represented in the illustrated catalogue, in folio volumes (bibl. nat.), of all the vases formerly contained in the imperial museum of pekin, a great number of which were unfortunately destroyed at the sack of the summer palace. this loss is to be regretted from an historical as well as from an artistic point of view, as many of the vases were manufactured in commemoration of historical events, and thus served as memorials of facts and dates, as has been stated by m. stanislas julien. this great chinese scholar, when exhibiting a sketch of one of these vases, the inscription on which proved that it was offered to the emperor wen wang, years before our era, '. . about the time ofthe siege of troy, asser- ted that there were some even more ancient. from the ornamentalist’s point of view few studies are so interesting as that of these spirited meanders, so diffe- rent, notwithstanding their similarity of style, from the greek meanders with their lineal rigidity. these orna- mental constructions, the symmetry of which is so ingeniously varied , give a high idea of the decorative art of the ancient chinese, and are capable of numerous applications in modern decoration. chinese and japanese c h | n o s & japo na Š chinessch und japanesisch lmp lernercier &c'paris lith par durin firmin didot freres, fils & c" editfurs chinese and japanese art. cloisonne or partitioned enamel. we have ventured to unite under the title of chinese and japanese the various specimens of enamel collected in our plate. they do in fact belong to one and the same style, as the art of ornamentation in japan was formed under the influence of the chinese and presents no special characteristic to account for the esteem in which its productions of are held, other than perfection of workmanship and superiority of individual taste. if it is difficult to distinguish, in this genre, what comes from china, and what from japan, it is frequently still more difficult to decide whether any particular piece belongs to ancient or to modern times. a few connoisseurs may distinguish them by the method of their manufacture or the use of certain enamels; but the system of ornamentation has in general remained the same and has changed the less from the circumstance that the most recent productions are merely copies of ancient ones. m. jacquemart, in his merveilles de la céramique, speaks thus on the subject : & the chinese are most skilful forgers and they speculate on the taste of their fellowcountrymen for ancient and valuable works. it has happened in china, as with us, that the talent of imitators has succeeded in giving to their works a reputation and price equal to that of the originals. " chinese. nos , . collection of m. baur. nos to . exposition orientale of . collection of m. ed. andré. japanese. exposition orientale of . nos to . collection of m. coerli dugléré. exposition orientale of . nos to . manuscripts from the bibl. nat. cabinet des estampes. chinese. nos , . nos , . collection of m. dutuit. exposition orientale of . collection of m. monbel. nos , . id. of m. dutuit. manuscripts from the bibl. nat. exposition orientale of . in plate * the ornaments are on a green ground and consequently the effect of the whole is rather dull. here the frequent use of blue grounds and sometimes of yellow, black, white, and red ones tends to give the whole a more brilliant aspect. n° is an example of pierced cloisonné enamel. ". japanese cjapo na|s japonesisch * / - - ©. - "i - - - - firmin didot freres fils c. editeurs imp lemercier & c” paris * japanese art. cloisonne enamel. amongst the productions of this highly decorative eastern art, the japanese style occupies a position that for- bids us to pass it by in silence. we give an interesting specimen of it in the accompanying plate, which contains a number of examples all taken from the same object : a copper dish in cloisonné enamel decorated on both sides. the upper part of our illus- tration is occupied by a portion of the whole work, separate details of which are grouped in the lower part. japanese art, although very ingenious in the employment and combination of geometric lines, does not confine itself to that alone. the figures of flowers and animals are also treated with much purity, and it is to be noticed, that the interior divisions, which are unavoidable from the very nature of the work, always leave the outline of the object distinct. the colours are like those of the original in the relative value of the tones, but are rather less dark as a . whole; it was thought that a greater degree of freshness and brilliancy would, probably, better represent the original state of the model, and, at any rate, would make it a more useful object of imitation for modern art. (see ch. burty, emaux cloisonnés, anciens et modernes, paris, .) chinesisch llnd japanesisch . chinuis et japunais. chinese and japanese. mum-moor freres fils a cie éousuas. chinese and japanese art. silks and running patterns. the silk which forms the principal object in our plate is one of the finest examples of the decoration of woven fabrics that it would be possible to study. yellow — the colour which ziegler calls the eldest daughter of the light – forms the ground : it is the livery of the reigning dynasty of the tai-thsing in china. the dragons with fours claws, which ornament it, would at once indicate to the chinese the rank of the person for whom it was destined. a the emperor, says m. jacquemart (merveilles de la céramique), a his sons, and the princes of the first and second rank, bear as their attribute a dragon with five claws. the princes of the third and fourth rank bear the same dragon with four claws; whilst those of the fifth rank and the mandarins have for their emblem merely a serpent with four claws, called mang. ) it may be noticed in this fabric that the effect is obtained, not by gradations of tints, but by abrupt opposition of colours, and that the white separating outline enables the eye at once to grasp the design; these outlines are so nar- row as to be tinged by the neighbouring colours, with the exception of the white surrounding the dragons which is wider, and in consequence more intense and luminous, and, as it were, creates an atmosphere in which the monsters move. we have endeavoured, by graduating the tint of the ground, to imitate the play of the silky fabric under the action of light. this piece of silk covers a chinese book in the cabinet des estampes of the bibl. nat. the specimen on a black ground in the lower part of the plate is chinese; the small ones at the sides on a black ground and all the others are japanese. ( | | n () | cf ines sci [ lath par durin - le p, , , firmin-didot freres fils & cie editeurs lmp lenercier & c* paris chinese art. free decoration. on the green ground in the upper part of this plate is a specimen of the ornamentation in which asiatic taste re- vels in complete liberty, utterly regardless of the mutual relations of the objects represented. the combinations and oppositions of tones are extremely fine. the bold touches of intense red-brown, and the occasional use of black, suc- cessfully prevent all dulness, and give to the ground-work an appearance of aerial lightness. the pattern on the ground of yellow ochre is a fragment of embroidery in which the gradations of effect are more boldly given, and in which there is generally more vigour. it is a perfect model of the style, and we may no- tice in it that it is by the white outlines—an unexampled method of isolation — that the design conquers the over- whelming strength of the ground and stands out with the requisite firmness and relief. - Ś £ . £ . - - v. & t & £ * : - rs -- , ... # £ <>'' i' - - - - © - £ £ ū- - - - - - wkv- £% Ž% Ç//n & a%: # - £% £ ''' n - - . - n / - '. * " n. *(." - - /x -- --- *n- - - - e firmindidot freres fils & cie editeurs imp. lemercier & c* paris & chinese ani) japanese art. running ornamentation. n" , , , , , , . come from chinese sources. all the others are products of japanese skill. it is difficult to produce such powerful effects by means so simple, and europeans could scarcely do better than study how best to emulate that bold intermixture of intense colours which, directed by asiatic taste, produces such marvellous results. |noi - - - - | - × × --> * > * * * * * * * * * * * * - - - # | :q" '' lith par daumont firmindidot freres fils & c#editeurs indian art. engravings in niello and on metals. it would be difficult to assign a date to the greater part of the illustrations given in the accompanying plate. this difficulty is nearly always found in dealing with the productions of the extreme east; where the consequence, in an artistic point of view, of the fixity of the religious and political system, is a sort of immobility in perfection, which allows neither progress nor decay. to this cause may also be added that faculty of exact imitation, so characteristic of the orientals, which enables them to give modern manufactures the appearance of the ancient ones, which are more generally esteemed by amateurs. however this may be, all must admire the order, propriety, and appreciation of general effect, which distinguish these delicate decorations in metal. all the specimens given in our plate are taken from objects of daily lls . . nos to . no . ornaments on two narghiles, belonging to jacquelet bey. ornaments on a ewer, belonging to m. léonce mahon. no . nos to . ornaments on a dish, belonging to m. schefer. ornaments on a ewer, on the bowl of aewbr, and on a pierced cover, nos t . belonging to baroness rothschild. ornaments on a ewer, and on dishes, belonging to m. werdé-delisle. i in i) ian lith par l auer -- - *** - no n [ n [) i (, h » ,&, s% % - o - c -- co- - o && o,--o - ----- s******* -- xoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxox p| : | | | ** sè, - /\é\:é *** *** */\- n f)s/)\s\ f*/ \s - - - - _ - _ - - - - - - - iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii firmin dipot frÉres s c* Éditeurs ) &&& - - - - | | | - | * s\// -\*- ** - - * lnp .emercier & c * p,rs $) indian art. paintings, and engraving in niell . the various examples, here given, in which appear all the richness and harmony of the oriental style, have been taken from objects which were shown in the exhibition organized in , in the champs-Élysées, by the central union of fine arts applied to manufactures. the greater part, it will be observed, serve as decorations of weapons. nos to . ornaments taken from a bow belonging to m. jacquemart. nos and . sheath of a dagger, belonging to col. bro de conières. nos and . ornaments from the sheath of a sword belonging to m. jules michelin. no . ornament from a weapon belonging to m. jacquemart. nos to . ornaments from the neck of a bottle belonging to m. reiber. no . ornaments from a weapon belonging to the baroness salomon de rothschild. no . rim of a jug, from the same collection. [ni) (sch | n. o | en {{\| |an ########## zzzzzzzzzzzz * * |-> > <). imp lemercier "paris lith par durin firmin-didot freres fils &c'. editeurs ~~~~ indian art. flora, and running ornaments, embroidery, painting, and niello. . : | . : is - . _. ..., |_ : | epe no . nos to . borders and grounds from paintings in manuscripts. embroidered fabric, belonging to m. moulin. (exposition de l'union centrale de .) nos , . cloisonnés. nos , . nos t . embroideries. nos to . borders and grounds from paintings in manuscripts. (bibl. nat. ca- binet des estampes.) engravings in niello from the eaposition de l’union centrale de . q). q. - - --~~ ~~- - - - - - jno isch #editeurs | n. o j e n firmindidot freres fils & c indian ttttttt - indian art. modern decoration. we shall confine ourselves here to a simple enumeration of the subjects in our plate, without referring to the general characteristics of the style. no . a stand of painted wood, belonging to jacquelet bey. no . fragment of an indian slipper, in velvet, embroidered and spangled, belonging to m. j. jacquemart. no . fragment of an indian slipper, embroidered in gold and mother of pearl on a velvet ground, belonging to m. j. jacquemart. nos , . subjects taken from a dagger, onyx ground with gold enamel, be- longing to the baroness salomon de rothschild. nos. , . goblet on a small pedestal, belonging to the same. no. , . borders of miniatures; bibl. nat. nos , . palm-leaves, from miniatures; bibl. nat. no . tray, papier-mâché, belonging to m. bellenot. nos , , . goblets of the same material, belonging to the same. nos to . ornaments on papier-mâché objects, belonging to m. verdé-delisle. except n” , , , , all these objects were exhibited in the exposition de l'union centrale des arts appliqués a l'industrie, . | l - , - . - - « en c a , e rnp » ) , - , | | - - thogra pre par | | persian art printed linen. figures of flowers and animals. it is unnecessary to remind our readers of the popularity which chintzes have so long enjoyed, and of the part they still take in the ordinary furniture of houses. it was especially during the last century that the french manufactories for the imitation of these fabrics carried on so extensive a trade; but they are still so much in use that it cannot be superfluous to give examples of some of the best original models, in order to preserve the style, and prevent too great a deviation from it. in the examples given in our plate — fabrics of eastern manufacture, in which the persian style properly so called seems in some points to resemble the indian — we shall find in addition to the persian flora, figures of animals (es- pecially birds), and even the human figure ( ), treated in a manner which keeps a middle course between the imita- tion of nature and the employment of conventional forms, sometimes inserted arbitrarily and without reference to surrounding objects, and at others grouped in the form of a regular ornament, as in the fragment to the left of the plate, at the lower corner. ( ) notwithstanding the somewhat singular appearance of the figure in the centre of the composition we have thought it better not to mo- dify it in any way, as to do so would have caused a want of accuracy and have taken from the object the certificate of its origin.  si.ied...)? iotouguia.t. du] sang iiih ox stia's haria logici niwsia dolfineland ult | . . . . . £: - hosisyü gd - nws'''{d ny isssld .- a. persian art. engravings in niell . the black grounds of these ornaments are obtained by crossed lines filled in with black as may be seen in n° . the black of these grounds is therefore not absolute, as in the reduced scale of the plate it has necessarily been made to appear; hence the original has a still richer and more harmonious effect. || " . >- & no . no . design taken from a bowl. (comte de mornay.) borders from a bowl. (comte de mornay.) no . no . design taken from a bowl. (m. schefer.) borders from a bowl. (m. dick.) nos , . angular patterns from the necks of vases. (m. méchin.) no . no. , . borders from a snuffbox. (m. collinot.) running designs (m. schefer.) - n* , bis, (in conjunction). no. , . ders from a vase. (m. schefer. borders taken from a bowl. (m. reiber.) borders from a vase. (m. schefer.) no. , . no . borders taken from a bowl. (m. goupil.) cartouche from a bowl. (m. crampon.) all these objects were exhibited in the exposition de l'union centrale des arts industriels, . “,! !" . ... ', too tour, du srin i.i.i.i. al., s'll: s.h. . . . louiu niw . alfred a won as led itt | - ".. : n \ |s #| "je) persian art. earthenware. the various examples in our plate give an accurate idea of the patterns commonly employed in persian earthenware. these patterns usually consist of pure arabesques, frequently combined with ornamental flowers, the drawing of which more or less resembles natural types. among them it is easy to recognize the rose, the indian pink, the tulip, the hyacinth, etc.... sometimes too, the subject is animated by some chimerical figure, such as the bird occupying the centre of the magnificent dish belonging to the comte de nieuwerkerke. the following are the sources from whence we have taken our examples. a e a \ u i dishes. n" to . collection of m. scheffcr. n° . collection of the comte de nieuwerkerke, superintendent of mu- seums. collection of d' mandi. n" , . no . glazed tiles, collection of m. lequen. nos , . no . collection of m. parvillée. collection of m. p. saline. no . - no . collection of dr meymar. collection of baron de seneval. - no . collection of m. collinot. all the above objects were shown in the oriental exhibition of , organized by the central union of fine arts applied to manufactures. m y: . -- . -# (- | -> . o |) e. | -- --w-\ |-s- s.~ t-- |nz | a.| . - |*g: | -*- % | | | -- -.---| .u- - -- -- - | |-- |--|-s - - -|| --- |- |-- -: . - - . -- -| -d ||u-o |- . & – :- - - / | | | | * * £: i | * * & x % , × retoll firmn didot freres fils & c. editers & #: persis ch *- ~ -| s.&"/. - -t -. -- w .--wi - : - . --.| | | - - - .- -- |-| h | . . e- ) | | ) limp lemercier .c. paris @ persian art. tapestry, and running ornaments. the carpet represented in the accompanying plate belongs to the finest period of persian art, the sixteenth cen- tury of our era. the natural flower, in such frequent use amongst the persians, takes quite asecondary part therein while the conventional flora appears in all its splendour. this carpet contains the most important varieties of the oriental palm; the arrangement of the colours is extremely good and quite typical. it belongs to m. bouvier, painter. the nine specimens of running ornament come from two copies of the schah nameh, a work to which we have _ already referred (plate w), belonging to the bibl. nat. ( and , réserve, supplement persan). they con- tain very interesting elementary geometrical designs, although in the use of this kind of ornament the persians have not, on the whole, equalled the arabs or the moors. wwv rers | an * : * s a n p e rs isc h ----- -- - | - - - -- - f| - -- - - - - - - - - -** ------- | | | - | - >>> ga,s * / - * ---------- - ---------- ----- ---- : - ---- | -- - - - | | | || | | | | | | | -- | ---- - -- | -- | -- - - - - | - --/ | | -- | -- || | | - - -- | |c- - - - - - -- ** | | - ---- - | | | | ---- - | | - | | - - - | | - - | = - ii --tt - - | lithographie par picard firmin didot freres fils cediteurs implemercier & c*paris *g. persian art. decorations of manuscripts. the first of the two subjects composing the accompanying plate represents a page from the chāh nameh or schah-nameh, a manuscript in the national library, paris (persian supplement, n° , reserve); the second a page from another copy of the same work also in manuscript and belonging to the same library (supplement n° ). the schah-nameh is a history in verse of the ancient kings of persia by abul casim mansur firdusi, who spent thirty years in the composition of the poem, which consists of , distiches, and is dedicated to the celebrated mahmud the ghaznevide. firdusi died in the year of the hegira ( of our era). this poem, which is one of the most important works in the persian language, has been the subject of nume- rous philological studies. a very fine edition has lately been published at the imprimerie nationale, the translation of which, and the notes, as well as the revision of the text, are due to m. j. mohl, of the institute of france. the manuscript n° was bought at ispahan by otter, and appears to have come from the library of the sofis. the national library also possesses another copy of schah-nameh, of very great beauty, bearing the date of the hegira, and entered in the persian supplement, under n° of the reserve. persian pers an p£ r s is c[! % , z " | - | - , | | lith par f dunn firmin didot freres fils & c: editfurs hup leuercier &c"pans £). £ . persian art. carpets. the accompanying plate shows the ground and border of a kneeling-carpet of persian manufacture, in which the boldness and elegance of the scrolls are as remarkable as the perfect harmony of the colours. the cloth ground is ornamented with raised embroidery of the same material edged with silk ( ). the peculiar form of the flowers on the white and black grounds, and also on the corners of the black ground of the principal subject, shows the influence that indian and persian art have exercised on each other, and also the closeness of their resemblance. ( ) this beautiful carpet excited much attention in the exhibition of the union centrale des beaux-arts appliqués à l'industrie, where it formed a part of the oriental museum. it is to the kindness of m. léonce mahon, to whom it belongs, that we are indebted for its reproduction here. a ra | a \, . l.ith par bauer. limp testu & massin. paris firmin- idot freres fils cle editeurs. arabian art. binding. this plate represents the binding of the large koran belonging to m. ambroise firmin didot, roses and borders from which fill the two succeeding plates. this koran is of very large dimensions, measuring no less than ft. inches in length and ft. “ inches in breadth. although the manuscript ornamentation of the pages reproduced in the succeeding plates presents a mixture of the persian and arabian styles, in the binding pure arabian art, characterized by strict adherence to geometrical forms, is alone visible. the principal effect is produced by combinations of roses, in the use and arrangement of which the arabs have at all times displayed so much taste and ingenuity. in this class of composition interest attaches mainly to the incidental figure which arises from the meeting of two roses of unequal size. this incidental figure is worthy of interest in the present example, for the geometric clasp is in itself valuable, its wide double heptagon destroying the monotony that might otherwise be found in the style. the design in the centre of the lower part of the plate is a border from a corner of the same binding. the other borders are taken from the interior and exterior edges. - | - -.. . -n. arabisc h . --#- -| - #.| -| | paris imp lemercier c" a r a b.e. editeurs firmin didot freres fils & cie lith pat f durin zltle arabian' art. illuminations of manuscripts. rose-work. the roses grouped in the accompanying plate are all taken from a richly adorned manuscript of the koran, of unusual size, which, at the present time, forms part of the library of m. ambroise firmin didot. arabian art is well represented in it, not merely by the complete absence of living figures, the representation of which was forbidden by the koran, but also by the excellence of the geometrical combinations. several of the characteristics mentioned by owen jones (grammar of ornament), as typical of arabian decoration, are to be found in it; such, for example, as the continual interlacing of curved lines attached to a common centre and ra- diating towards the circumference. this is especially to be noticed in the rose in the centre of the plate. the use of the flower combined with the lineal ornament of which it forms a part shows in some degree the influence of persian art upon arabian ornamentation. a r a b | a n _ arabe - - - - - - lith par dufour & f durin firmindidot freres fils & c"fditeurs imp. lemercier & c* paris ><> >šs arabian art. illuminations of manuscripts. ornamented inscriptions. the fragments of which this plate is composed, have been taken from the same sources as those of the rose-work, pl. a'. . they are from the large illuminated koran which forms a part of the library of m. ambroise firmin didot. what we there said of the general style of these paintings, is also applicable here. the subjects represented are taken from the borders of the ornamented inscriptions in cufic (old arabic) cha- racters which separate the hundred and fourteen principal divisions of the text. there are examples of these cha- racters in the two fragments on each side of the central rose. the nature of these ornaments renders them essentially suitable as models of great variety and beauty in the art of gold and silver enamelling. the influence of persian art in this style of decoration has already been shown, and here we find traces, as easily recognised, of the byzantine style. see for instance the angle that occupies the left, in the lower part of the plate. * - s m() res () || || mauresu e. mau # (, li < Ś->|->|->|->|->|->|< * - #n %n %'n % # £ #. £: | * # {} . £ % £ ## # $ :''''' £ . × £ £% (<>''<>). - £ '? a \ . £|| £ %. 'i'''i'''i'''i'''i'''i'''i'''i'''i''' : elżj.t.a.n.t.: 'x'x'. ############. £: > <- | - c - [. - e- - - * * - - -- - £ : :: : £ :::::::: n p o - © - ss::::::. & *i- -*- © Žs £ :#! *: * #: :* :*::: *** |-> p £ : ź vsops- {r_ sec: ips : bs': ::::::::: # : £zi d * - *-** - - * * * * * - £z - - £ # #i:" £ £ . % £: £ps: : :q £ £ c+\: * ec . zz nq. Ž £ps ei: [•=e : © - - *x ye- e: - *:*= d. no# # # # % < # *> £: &: * # > <- | d- - - "- x <> x® - d| - . '. # # * * x® m. * c: y. - - */ *: £ | sq. # *-*. (> - i - ". k - j. "a # -] t: ^: : : q § * < s . | firmin-lidot freres, fils &c. editeurs. ( - - c / , , , , , more soue moorish art. architectural decoration. the various specimens collected in the accompanying plate are all taken from the alhambra, that marvellous pa- lace of the moorish kings of granada, and the most complete expression of the style which borrowed its first elements from the byzantines, while developing them with greater richness and amplitude. what is most striking in this system (and it is a merit of the first order in architectural decoration) is, that the grand features of the ornamentation are in accordance with the true principles of building, which unite with them in harmonizing the details. it is for this reason that notwithstanding their low superadded reliefs, these ornaments appear, by an agreeable illusion, to add to the solidity of the building they decorate. i illll .‘ i ‘ ill. byzantine - - - - - - - - - - * q q - - - - - - - - - ied... lith par jetot. firmindidot freres,fils&c's editeurs implemercier "paris -- "n, qt byzantin e art. mural paintings, mosaics, and paintings from manuscripts. we class the subjects in the accompanying plate in historical order, commencing with the earliest. - i. " a a as s ea . is l f . *) ‘, ° , as] it in n“ i t . paintings in sl sophia, dating from the sixth century, after sal- zenberg. these paintings are almost exactly in the greek style. mosaics. no . church of st george at thessaloniea, after c. texier. (l’armém'e, la perse et la. mesopotamia, vols. folio, firmin didot.) n“ to . paintings collected at constantinople, seventh and eighth centuries , after salzenberg. n° . enamelled border. n'" to . marginal paintings, eighth and ninth centuries, ancient ornaments little altered. (bibl. nat., reserve. ms. ; greek section.) n“ , . paintings from a manuscript executed about for the emperor basil the macedonian. (bibl. nat., reserve, n , greek section.) n" , . manuscript. (bibl. nat, reserve, n ; greek section.) n" , . mosaics; the first from palermo, the second from monreale, tweltth century. n" to . details from the various manuscripts mentioned above. mioole ages m oy en a ge mittel. alter firmn didot freres fils c" editeurs #. middle ages. viii century. decorations of manuscripts. the thirty-eight examples given in our plate belong to a transition period of great interest, the interval between the greco-roman or pompeian style (the traces of which are specially noticeable in n” , , , , , , , , , , ), and the byzantine style properly so called. all are taken from illuminations of manuscripts, in which ornamental art seems to have sought refuge during a considerable part of the middle ages. they are copied from the following manuscripts. nos to . nos to . gospels of saint-sernin (toulouse). gospels of saint-medard (soissons). latin manuscript written by godescald for the emperor charlemagne. latin manuscript. library of the louvre. bibliothèque nationale. if any of our readers should wish to study this interesting style more fully, we refer them to the work of comte aug. de bastard, peintures et ornements des manuscrits. (paris, ; impl. folio.) - byzan pn byz ant in is ch byzantine |- r & c' paris imp lemercie firmin-didot freres fils & c: editeurs lith parfdurin. : middle ages. byzantine style. mosaic, inlaid-work, engraving in niell , and painting. the following is a plan of the contents of the plate, with details of the sources whence the examples have been obtained. nos to . no . the churches of st. george, st. demetrius, and st. sophia at thes- palatine chapel, at palermo. salonica. (from m. c. texier : description de l'asie mineure, vols. nos t . folio, firmin didot.) greek manuscript, bibliothèque nationale, n° . nos , . no . cathedral of ravello. another greek ms. n° . nos , . no . another greek ms. no . cathedral of monreale. . nos to . no. , . taken from the memorie spettanti alla calcografia del comm. conte ziza chapel, at palermo. leopoldo cicognara, . we are indebted to m. moyaux, architect, for the mosaics from palermo, copied by him from the originals, as - - • \s d;" well as for the other objects from the same source which figure in plate # - * © * © byzantine £ y wan'" | n byzantinisch < y- " - - * . - - || o - o - - - - o - o - o - - | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -o-o-o-o-o-o-o- or . - - - - | wqx}\@@@ *iv. -- | | - - | \, | - |-> j) ^(o( ) n. & - z ~ - - * © - - - - - - hmp lemercier & c” paris lith lar prair firmin didoi freres fils & c" editeurs w y middle ages. xi century. byzantine ornaments. these ornaments, which are interesting both from an historical and artistic point of view, are all — with the excep- tion of the flower occupying the centre of the upper part of the plate — taken from a very curious manuscript in the bibliothèque nationale (latin supplement, n° ), entitled evangéliaire ou apocalypse d’aquitaine ou d'espagne. the central flower is taken from another greek manuscript in the same library (b. n. réserve, n° .) independently of the original value of these fragments obtained from a source which is very little known, it is interesting to notice, from the examples they offer, the very manifest influence of byzantine on arabian art — a phe- nomenon which is not rare in the history of nations, where we frequently find the conquering power borrowing and adapting to itself the arts of the conquered. it is especially in the red and yellow leaves on the pink ground in n° , and also in n* , , , , , and to , that we find the outlines and general forms appropriated by arabian art, though with greater breadth and simplicity, and in compositions of greater power. byzan''inisc}} n | byzant byzantine --- |er --n - - = -| | - –-== .- ~m- = ~ :- -= =|===\-- m- m -==- * firmin didot freres, fils et cle editeu ill ‘ii-ll y- byzantine art. mosaics, filigree enamels, and embroideries. ** . | . - - | numbers to represent mosaics in the ziza chapel at palermo. the drawings were taken by m. hittorff, by whose son they have been kindly communicated to us. numbers to represent cloisonné and filigree enamels, designed as settings for precious stones, after a copy of the gospels in the louvre. the specimens numbered to are taken from frescoes in a monastery near trebizonde, collected by m. charles texier. they represent fragments of the embroidered materials, ornamented with pearls and precious stones, with which the byzantines clothed themselves from head to foot. it was this wide-spread taste for objects of costly workmanship, that caused st. chrysostom to say : & all our admiration is now reserved for goldsmiths and weawei's. ) & artists, says batissier, & were obliged to renounce their old traditions, in order to create new types, and they strove rather for richness of effect, than for beauty. ” ii .i‘ i elli ilul.v i iliil mittel-alter. moyen age midole ages. ill illll|l ll- illll'l! f ir||ll||l|||ll lilil ilili 'llzi iiiii. llll' * ? off" middle ages. xii century. decorations in mosaic. the sixteen specimens of mosaic work grouped in our plate are obtained from the following sources. nos to . palatine chapel at palermo. the probable date and style of this edifice are thus described by batissier (histoire de l'art monumental dans l'antiquité et au moyen-dge, p. ): “when the normans arrived in sicily, that province was rich in monuments. king roger could not help admiring them extremely, and in the buildings undertaken by him he employed byzantine architects, who had already adopted the innovations made in architecture by arabian taste. the churches built by the new conquerors present an evident combination of the greek and latin styles. “amongst the most beautiful and curious basilicas of that century that have come down to us, is the chapel royal of palermo, built about the year , by king roger, all the arcades of which are pointed, and the ceiling divided into compartments. " nos , , . no . palace of the zisa, at palermo. cathedral of salerno. m : ) . m ( , e., m () #| || " (, : m. : :"...!. a £ . - © ©. - £ . - || zn # * | * > || --> ā-ā-a-a. a - | e. | " . . . . . , > p > p > p p > > *- - -- | || - | | | - - - - # middle ages. xiw and xv centuries. marquetry. the first twenty numbers in the accompanying plate represent mosaics in ivory and wood on the poissy altar- screen, a magnificent work in ivory, in the finest style of the fourteenth century, and so much admired in the louvre. this altar-screen was presented in , by john of france, brother of charles v, and by jeanne, countess of auvergne and boulogne, his second wife, whom he had married in . n" to are taken from various ivory boxes of the same period in the sauvageot collection. n" to represent mosaics in wood of the fifteenth century taken from the pulpit of saint ambrose at milan. these various examples, although many of them belong to a period more or less approaching the renaissance, are in the byzantine style. an art like marquetry, which can only be worked by simple means, is little likely to follow the successive modifications of decorative art. . i || || |ss . s || e ( c ( e , que ------- ----------- -------------- ------------------ - ---------- --- ------------------- ---------- %à • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • » • « - (i \) kect isch -- yy -------- / -<- zzzzzzz --------------- ------ - - % n > s >- x x xxxxxx x && &)\& <&&&&& % %&s % scxs&&-\s xx &s= &s- n, % \ ) % | v n, \) v % / n ) n y | % s) | n \ / n \ \ zas - x-- sessn-scs fnss è &&&&\è [x> = --- s-- % ( à v | n \ e ( ) - |--- --- -|| \ -- | \ ( - | -| ----> \------> | | | é )%- -- - - % | |) s& as ||| && | | | (%\// | | s s %>y/ n/ \« | | | \ & - | |% && - -- lithographié par peinlevé . - | ( -/ | as ---- -\&é« - | | \ | (| firmin didot freres fils cie Éditeurs imp lemercher c" paris * middle ages. vii, viii and ix centuries. celtic ornaments. celtic is the name most frequently given to this style by those who have studied it most recently; it is, however, often called anglo-saxon. some critics consider it to be a mixture of the scandinavian and byzantine styles, but it is considered by others, especially by j. o. westwood, (see the grammar of ornament by owen jones,) as indi- genous and due entirely to the primitive inhabitants of the british isles. as essential characteristics of this style in its earliest period, the same writer mentions: " the absence of all imitations of foliage or plants; " the exclusive use of simple geometrical figures, interlacings of ribbons, diagonal or spiral lines, etc. it is to this style that the thirty-three examples given in the accompanying plate refer. they are taken from the following documents : wii century. n” , , , , , , , , , , , , . the gospels, on book of durrow. (trinity college, dublin.) symbols of the evangelists and ornamental pages. nos , . frontispiece of the gospels of saint mark and saint luke. no . the lindisfarne gospels. ornamental page. nos , . the gospels of saint luke. (british museum.) frontispiece. viii century. no . commentaries on the psalms by cassiodorus & manu bedae ». (library of durham cathedral.) david conquering. no. , . the royal psalmist. no. , . the gospel of saint matthew, with the symbols of the evangelists. (library of the convent of saint-gall.) ix century. no . latin gospel. (library of saint-gall.) ornamental page, and the transfiguration. no . manuscript in the same library. the crucifixion. no . psalter at st john's boll., cambridge. victory of david over goliath, and over the lion, and commence- ment of psalms and . the other, and less important subjects (n°' , , , , , , ‘ , ) are taken from manuscripts in the bodleian library at oxford, the library of the convent of saint-gall, and the library of trinity college, dublin. as regards the specimens the names of which have been given above, it may be noted, that the subjects of which they form a part are given in full by j. . westwood in his great work, fac-similes of the miniatures and orna- ments of anglo-saxon and irish manuscripti, to which we must refer those who desire to make a thorough study of this particular branch of art, as, in accordance with our plan we are limited to giving only some of the most striking examples, such as those comprised in our plate. kelt ) s ( h |, imp lemercier & c* a paris eto'teurs l' or fers fis & ( * | | | m | ith par bauen }: midi) le ages. vii, viii, ix, x and xi centuries. celtic ornaments. we have already explained the origin of this name, given by modern criticism to the productions of northern art during a certain portion of the middle ages. & the plate to which we allude w presented this style in its first phase, characterized by the exclusive use of purely lineal and geometrical combinations; and the most ancient of the documents collected in this plate belong to the same style (n" to ). but this style begins to change in n* , , and (eighth and ninth centuries), and we see the heads of chi- merical animals appearing in the midst of interlacings, which they terminate; and afterwards the further we advance into the ninth and tenth centuries, the more does the line lose its mathematical regularity, and the more free does the form become, assuming at last all the varieties and caprices of nature. it is to this period, called the time of exfoliation, that n” to (tenth and eleventh centuries) belong. lastly, in the four magnificent initial letters bearing the numbers to , we find perfectly united those two elements of fancy and symmetry, which should never be separated in well arranged decorations. the subjects in the plate may be thus grouped. " century. nos and . nos to . royal manuscripts m. s. i. e., vi. (british museum.) the gospels of durrow. (trin. coll., dublin. ( oll., dublin " and " centuries. s nos and . no . book of kells. (trin. coll., dublin.) codex aureus. (royal library, stockholm. " century. no . gospels of thomas, abbot of hohenaugia. (library of trêves.) no . commentaries on the psalms, by cassiodorus. (library of durham ca- thedral.) " and ." centuries. no . gospels of st chad. (lichfield cathedral.) * century. no . psalter. (st john's coll., cambridge.) - - nos , . gospels of mac durnan. (archiepiscopal library, lambeth.) th century. no . latin gospels. (trin. coll., cambridge.) nos to . codex vossianus. (bodleian library.) no . benedictionale of s' ethelwt lf. (duke of devonshire's library.) i "century. nos and . grand latin psalter. (public library at boulogne.) nos to . arundel psalter. (british museum.) nos to . initial letters from the abbey of s. germain des pres. (library of m. ambroise firmin didot.) middle ages q- firmindidot freres fils "fditeurs mit"i'el. alter &o £ . t z'n sy s. . . . %- % witness to the last of transformation of antique ornament, properly so called, still employed in architecture in the decoration of the semi-circle. it was scarcely before the thirteenth century that the imitation of indigenous flora, trefoils, quatre-foils and volute of crossettes changed the aspect of decoration to that style which is called gothic or pointed. in the accompanying plan given below, n" l to belong to the manuscript of beatus, the others to the ma- nuscript of luxeuil. m(oole ages n(ittej, alter, - - - a - firmindidot freres fils ac" editeurs *- middle ages. embroideries, paintings, and enamels. the specimens contained in this plate may be classified in the following way, according to the sources from which they are derived. . - . • b - i - * nos to . nos to . fabrics of silk and gold of the twelfth century, found in the tombs mural paintings from the churches of amencharads-rada and edshult, of the abbaye saint-germain des prés. (a. lenoir, statistique mo– in sweden, from the fine work of m. m. mandelgren. numentale de paris.) nos to . nos to . - - - - enamels from the great reliquary in the treasury of aix-la-chapelle. mural paintings of the thirteenth century from the chapel of notre- dame de la roche (seine-et-oise), and from the jacobin convent nos , . at agen. fragments of miniatures. : , , ' - - - - :: a - - ( * ( \ / _ o , ) \ ( ) ce ag o oo mc, v a - - |- | -- --- - imp lemercier c"° paris ils & cie editeurs . :) ndidot freres f - -- - rm lithographé par painlevé & middle ages. xiv century. illuminations of manuscripts. the various designs of which this plate is composed are all taken from a remarkable manuscript belonging to the bibliothèque nationale (book of st. thomas aquinas, in latin, folio, n° *; codex colbert, ). these interesting illuminations must be referred to italian art of the fourteenth century. they are in remarkable conformity with those of the manuscript of the statuts de l'ordre du saint-esprit au droit désir ou du naud, of which count horace de wielcastel, in the preface to his reproduction of the same (engelmann and graff, ), says: “the date of , which it bears, brings its pictures into the schools of cimabue and giotto (the former of whom was still living in , “ and the latter died in ); and, indeed, the style of these beautiful miniatures bears the character of the school of these celebrated artists, a especially that of simone memmi. " these ornaments, which for their precision and boldness are as applicable to metal work, especially in iron, as to the decoration of flat surfaces, occupy an important place in the art which serves as a sort of transition between the byzantine style modified by moorish art, and that of the renaissance. midole aces moye n a.c. e. mtte (, a lter d d d - - r - - n lith par daumont firmin didot freres fils & c. editeurs imp lemercier &c'paris di a middle ages. paintings on manuscripts. the sixteen unnumbered examples in our plate have been taken from an italian manuscript of the fourteenth century, attributed to simone memmi, of whom we have already spoken in plate. 'they form a continuation of the examples contained in that plate, the principal characteristics being the same in both, though in the accom- panying illustration there is greater variety in the shapes, and a more frequent use of the human figure and of the forms of animals. n“ , , and , are also italian, and may be regarded as types of the marginal decorations and initial letters of the manuscripts of the fifteenth century. they are taken from a suetonius and a justinian lent by m. bachelin-detlorenne. , middle ages : -- moyen ace - a a - a * s \&*% l - a* s - -- -- - - \ - , a* -- - | - %% * - -\ lith par dufour et lebreton firmindidoterÈres fils c* Éditeurs a mittel alter ( - v é) /\ n% *- g a \s - - * - - | | | | -) | | -- \- - --- | --\- | | ) | | / ---- \ - - | - lmplemercier et ce paris it is, as may easily be seen, from the best times of church window ornamentation that our examples have been taken, for, though it is impossible to render anything like their brilliancy and transparency, yet it is well to bring before the public designs and combinations of colours as models for an industry still in full activity. the specimens chosen present, for the most part, general forms, which might be utilized in many different com- binations. our readers may refer to the work of the abbés cahier and martin (monographie des vil-raum de la callw'drale de bourges; paris, poussiclgue-rusand, ), if they wish to knowinore of this interesting period of french na- tional art — a period of which an eminent critic has said : a painting on enamel and glass, sculpture and working in gold were sufficiently advanced to harmonize worthin with architectural science, which had recently expanded and drawn an inspiration from the magical aspects of oriental buildings. in (origine et progrcs dc l’art, études et re- cherches, par p. a. jeanron; .) midd le ages moye n age mittel. alter - - $ – ^ • - --~~~ >n/ \, - - "q © » ( > | * -\. - £ sé ): – * - ^ - © * #/><\;\}. * >/~~en~ \ |- Ż% y l- = n £ %\([[])^ lith par dufour et launa - - - - - implemercier & c“paris p y firmin-didot freres fils &c" editeups --- middle ages. xiii, xiv, and xv centuries. grisaili.e windows. (i — n" to . cologne cathedral. n" to . borders selected from the monograph of bourges cathedral. n“ to . strasbourg cathedral. painting on glass attained its highest excellence in the thirteenth century. n" to . chartres cathedral. . n‘" to . bourgcs cathedral. no“ , , , . tournai cathedral. the original simplicity and eleva- tion of style was maintained during the fourteenth century, but in the fifteenth century its special characteristics were lost through excess of ornamentation. tournai, the glass of which dates from to . this may be noticed in the fragments selected, from the cathedral of y e: n ~ e: ll'llllllnlvlqll aljlper ivilddlez ages. n q_ middle ages. xiii and xiv centuries. tiles and g lazed facings. until the twelfth century rich pavings and the facings of walls were made of mosaic work, or in compartments of coloured stones – such as jasper, porphyry, marble, etc., or of painted and enamelled stones. in the thir- teenth century glazed tiles were first used for this purpose. the following is a plan of the numbers for which there is not space on the plate itself. | . || | | | | – – | ! || || – h –| || xiiith century. nos , , . nos , , , , . cathedral of saint-omer. cathedral of laon. no. , , . fontenay (côte-d'or). n* , , , , , , , , , , , , , . no | museum of rouen. cluny museum; paris. no . no . abbey of saint-loup. reims; hôtel de ville. nos , . no . troyes. no . paris, museum of the louvre. no . troyes, archives de l'aube. rouen, palais de justice. xiiith and xivth centuries. nos to . taken from various manuscripts in the bibl. nat. n. b. the mean reduction is to the scale of one fourth. * - the combinations adopted to secure economy in the manufacture of these tiles are extremely interesting to any one engaged in decoration. our plate presents the varieties most in use. nos to . separate tile; complete design. nos to . tiles placed together horizontally, forming a border. nos to . tile varied in position four times four tiles together forming the whole pattern. no . hexagonal pavement, four pieces placed around a square, a new pattern. - no . section of large pattern, consisting of nine tiles, and formed of three varieties. no . section of still larger pattern, consisting of sixteen tiles, and for- med of four varieties. nos to . various single tiles. -—_ middle ages ni dye n a g e mi'p'i‘el- alter middle ages. xw century. embroidery and designs for inlaying. from paintings. this plate contains twenty-two examples of the decoration of hangings and stuffs, remarkable from their sim- plicity of design, which does not, however, exclude a striking effect. the designs consist of the union of gold with a single colour, either by placing the gold on a coloured ground, or, on the contrary, by stamping the pattern on a gold ground. these twenty-two subjects are, for the most part, borrowed from different manuscripts in the bibliothèque nationale at paris. the following is a list of them with the numbers given in the plate. n* , , , , , . no . manuscript, b. n. french supplements. (no. ). manuscript, b. n. (colbert collection, no .) no . manuscript, b. n. (no. .) no . sainte-chapelle de bourbon-l'archambault. nos , . no. , . manuscript, b. n. (no , .) window-glass from moulins. nos , . the golden legend, b. n. (no , .) no . manuscript, b. n. (no. , ). nos , . manuscript, b. n. (no , . a. f.) no i i. manuscript of monstrelet, b. n. (no , .) no . book of hours of the schoenborn family, manuscript belonging to hours of anne of brittany (louvre). m. de rothschild. no . ii. . n) ‘ )] midole ages - m| ()y n a (, mittel alter : - | -- ---- - -- - -- - - ---- - - ------- ---- -- ----- -- -- - -------- --------- a** -- , ( - - - - - - -- ---- r - / ( - -- -- v on'n'-- lith par durin firmidibor frÈres fils ace Éditeurs n lemercer & c* paris & ------ $ middle ages. xv century. conventional flora and flower - work. the details that fill the accompanying plate — too numerous for us to indicate the sources from which each is derived — have all been taken from manuscripts of the fifteenth century. the subjects are, in general, taken from the european flora, sometimes in the simplest form, sometimes in arbi- trary combinations of different plants with each other, or with figures of animals, and even with the human face. the middle ages excelled in this sort of fantastic caprice, which may be varied to any amount by that free- dom of imagination which characterises the style, but in which the principle of certain general forms stands out clearly. an example of this may be seen in the holly leaf — of such frequent use in manuscripts — and here pre- sented under so many different aspects, and capable, even apart from illumination, of several applications. amongst others we might suggest ornaments in iron-work. moore ages m()y \| ace mitte. a.t.e.r. erm. d'lot fk res f.i., & c. f. e.'s implemercie b ("par's * - * * middle ages. xv century. illuminations of manuscripts. flowers and jewels. the twenty-five subjects here represented are taken from various manuscripts, obtained from the following souli"ces. nos and . nos and . illuminated book of hours. (bibl. nat. ms. n° ; colbert coll. various manuscripts. (library of the arsenal.) no .) no “the latin text is dated ; the illuminations belong to a later time and may be attributed to israel van meckenen. ” book of hours of the shoenborn family, belonging to m. de roth- schild. nos and . - - nos to . - la legende doree (bibl. nat. ms. no ), manuscript attributed to examples of jewellery, taken from the margin of a seneca (bibl. nat. jean foucquet. ms. no ). although some details of the subjects given here are affected by the capricious and chimerical treatment so common in the middle ages, they have as a whole, a graceful and serious style, which allows of their being suc- cessfully imitated in modern times. from this point of view, we may especially notice the practical interest offered * by the jewellery, n” to . m oo l e a g e s - m. : " - l. a. l.t.c. r. imp lemiercier ' paris firmin didot freres fis c" editfurs ^\ middle ages. xw century (second period). illuminations of manuscripts. the illustrations contained in this plate may be taken as eminently original productions of the french and flemish schools before the invasion of italian art which characterized the time of the renaissance properly so called. na- tural objects such as branches, foliage, and flowers, are rendered in a decorative manner and with gracefulness, knowledge, and elegant variety. nos , . illuminated hours attributed to israel van meckenen, bibl. nat. nos to . book of hours of the marquis de paulmy. library of the arsenal. m. sorb. ; colbert collection, . nos to . nos and . warious manuscripts. manuscript belonging to the comte de bastard. library of the arsenal. r enaissange r£na ssance . - renaissance - --~~~ - --- an'`` |- - --~~~~ - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - |- - - - - - t" - - - - | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - r. r. r. r_*. - - - - - - - - - - - - - -> - - - - - - * - - - - - - lith par durin. - imp lemercier et c" paris firmin-didot freres flis r. c. editeurs *: ~ { ) renaissance. panels, friezes, and borders. all the specimens of which this plate is composed are taken from the famous book a heures d l’usage de rouen, imprime'es pour symon vostre, libraire demeurant d paris, d the first edition of which bears the date . the early monuments of the french renaissance generally exhibit traces of their double origin. on one side they bear the impress of the essentially northern art which prevailed in france in the middle ages, and on the other they show the influence of the italian style which was soon to carry all before it; here, however, the french style preponderates, and the italian influence can only be noticed in a few of the subjects, especially those in the lower part of the plate. many of these simple subjects remind us of the charming ornamentation on beams still so frequently to be seen in old buildings in normandy, picardy, and champagne. our ability to give our readers a representation in colour of this typographical work is only due to a trick which was frequently practised in the earlier times of printing, before the invention had been generally made known. the books of symon vostre, vérard, and others, were frequently printed on vellum, and then painted like manuscripts, so as to conceal their true origin, and make the purchaser believe that he was acquiring an original manuscript. the copy, thus metamorphosed, of which we have made use, and the printing of which is entirely covered by colouring, as represented in the plate, has on it the arms of jehan de clisson, and forms part of the library of m. ambroise firmin didot. renaissance . - renaissance renaissan ce Ś * * *& : & . % £& - - - "g * |:| §*: .- - -#-| -|-- - - % - bauer lilh imp. lemercier & c* paris renaissance. paintings on manuscripts. all the specimens of which this plate is composed are taken from the gradual of the cathedral of sienna, the ornamentation of which is by girolamo da cremona, one of the most fruitful artists of the close of the fifteenth cen- tury. vasari speaks of him in the following terms, at the end of his life of boccacino : & in his time there livedt at milan a miniature painter named girolamo, who produced works which are to be met with at milan and through- out lombardy . girolamo da cremona ranks among the best of miniature painters. his ornamentation is of a broad and powerful character, quite distinct from that of his contemporaries; it is a decided return towards the antique, but without detracting from the artist's originality. the ornamented ox's scull is interesting, and the monster with single head and double body is of the highest grecian antiquity; indeed the architect paccard has made use of this type in his restoration of the parthenon. –->qqqqq = - | | | - ||- £ c a \| ~ a-, . . . ) |a | y | | urs ! i.s & c" edite f*f. s. f. rena) s s ance imp lemercier & c” paris f y < di) t || |n f: m lithog par parnleve renaissance. xvi century. frescoes and arabesques of raphael. loggie of the watican. everything that it is possible to say has already been said of these marvels of decoration, which are at the same time marvels of ideal art. in giving a place in our collection to a few of these beautiful frescoes, executed, as is well known, under the direction of raphael, by his principal pupils, we do not exceed the limits of our subject, but merely extend those limits by giving an example of the highest expression of which it is capable. these great works are more than mere decorations, but yet they are decorations, sometimes connected by unity of subject, sometimes abando- ned, apparently, to the caprices of a charming fancy, but always subordinated to the general effect, and meeting in every respect the requirements of decorative art. in the plate two large subjects occupy the right and left. the former represents the four seasons, with their at- tributes expressed as clearly as poetically. the latter shows the three fates, grand figures spinning between them the thread of human life. the centre of the plate is filled with various examples from the same sources. renaissange rena issance q: n/.] ss an (; , lt. par durin firmn dinor frere" i.s & c. editeur: implemercier !" > xvi century. decorative paintings in the watican. * grotesques. & it is thought, says m. daussy, a that this expression was first applied to the imitations that were made of the figures of imaginary animals found in the fifteenth century in the subterraneous constructions, which the italians term grotte. grotesques result from the love of the marvellous, that imperious need of our nature to leave at times the human sphere and to soar away into the fairy land of imagination; this need is universal, it is born with man as much as poetry or thought, but it is developed most strongly in those nations in which the elements of civilisation are heterogeneous and produced by different causes. & rome naturally adopted the style which raphael allegorized. ” (histoire des beaux-arts, by jacques mérault-daussy, .) all the fragments in the accompanying plate are from paintings by raphael, except the trophy in the centre, which is by the hand of giulio clovio, and is taken from a manuscript in the library of the arsenal (h. f. n° , réserve), and the two cameos in gold on a blue ground to the right and left of the example on a black ground in the lower part of the plate, which are from the casa taverna at milan. sued...ox "suo i dul sh ligh ato sth shhhhä q niwälä – - gonssivnas onvs siv ngs @ renaissance. xvi century (first period). * miniatures taken from manuscripts. of the five fragments contained in this plate the two first (n" and ) decorate the frontispiece of a manu- script belonging to the library of the arsenal, paris, entitled : historia romana excerpta ex libris historicis pauli orosii (h. f. n° , reserve). these wonderful miniatures are by the italian giulio clovio, a pupil of raphael, whose great success is related by vasari. the characteristics of the italian style, and especially of the school of fontainebleau, may be seen in the other three fragments (n" , and ), which are taken from a manuscript of flavius josephus in the mazarin library (manuscripts, n° , h.). renaissance renaissance w a l , . i in;ng ‘ (hm/ ‘?“ / \-‘ n, | . 's ; "i l “a, . . r l‘lh'l’“ pram“ fikmin didot frerhs, rus a of lldl'i'eurs '"? l-""‘=“°‘" ‘ ' "“ _"i . "nce * * ss *_ n- | | | | | | | || renaissan ce . massin. paris imp testu & s s flis a c - fift. fur. !, didon frp ps firmi ioll - - th par p nos , . - - - - nos , , , , . miniatures from the missal of cardinal cornari, attributed to raphael. * ~ * > --> *-* * nos , , , . - - - - - ', ' ', , horarum preces cum kalendario, monasterii terinent dated , in lives of the dukes of urbino; (vatican library, at rome.) the possession of m. amb. firmin didot. || naissance r£ \| . sa ". e. renaissange - |- - - - | | - - | imp leimercier & c" paris . ". ... ty - - little oar kraatz et durin firmin didot fre, res fils & cie editeurs . xiv century. first period. cart ou ches. the cartouche is especially an ornament of sculpture. the numerous modifications it has undergone should en- gage the attention of every artist. adapting itself in its earlier stages to wood and leather work, cut and rolled in a thousand fashions, it afterwards appears in branches twisted like the letter s, and in the rock-work of the eighteenth century, resulting at last in the elegant forms of the louis xvi period. the shield of the middle ages, surmounted by the helmet, with the scallop in various forms, was certainly the origin of it; but it was not until the fifteenth century that the italians paid it the attention it deserved. this product of the architectural genius of european artists has nothing in common with the oriental or asiatic style; it settles the attention, and fixes in- terest by dividing it among the complicated patterns of which it is the principal motive, the other means of ornamentation being grouped around it in subordination. irrespective of numerous detached examples of cartouches, we give a sort of history of this style of composi- tion in six plates which are placed in chronological order. we believe that this is now done for the first time. no . xw century. example taken from a painting by cima da conegliano. (louvre.) nos to . xvi century, * per od. design by antonio razzi. (louvre.) no . manuscript. (library of the arsenal, n° .) nos to . enamelled terra-cotta in relief, italian style. (exterior decoration of the castle called the château de madrid, built by francis i.) nos , , , , , , , . paintings of primaticcio at fontainebleau. nos , , . fragments of the ornamental borders of portraits, taken from a mag- nificent manuscript executed for francis i, about . (bibl. nat. french section, réserve, n° .) no . taken from a window in the ossuary of saint-Étienne du mont; french renaissance, . this cartouche is one of the few relics of the parisian renais- sance. it contained the arms of the donors of the windows, which were broken at the time of the reformation; we have filled up the space they would have occupied by a contemporary arabesque. no . taken from a window with the arms of the corporation of goldsmiths of rouen, dated . nos , , , , , , to . ornaments on manuscripts, from geoffroy tory, cousin, etc.; time of henry ii. | ' | ' lith par jetot -- r, , r , , , - ' , c r, est & mass . l s he renaissance. ornamentation of limoges enamels, and of italian earthenware . painted enamel was brought into fashion by the old limousin school about , and attained its greatest perfection about . il rosso and primaticcio painted cartoons for the limousin enamellers, and thus assisted in the creation of this new species of jewellery. léonard, painter to francis i, was the first superintendent of the royal manufactory of enamel founded at limoges by that king, and, on that account is frequently called léonard limousin. after him came pierre raymond, whose productions date from to , the penicauds, pierre and jean courteys, martial raymond, mercier, and jean court, usually called vigier. (see m. labarte, histoire des arts industriels, and the annals of the studios given by m. alfred darcel in the notice des émaua; et de l’or/évrerie, série d, which is sold in the louvre, galerie d’apollon.) the fragments of ornamentation which we have collected are principally by androuet du cerceau, jean cousin, pierre woeiriot, and above all by etienne de laune, usually called stephanus, who, as m. paul lacroix remarks (histoirc de l'or/évrerie-joaillerie), a had introduced, even in the greatest height of the italian fever, a brilliant return to the schools of jean collaert of antwerp, and of theodore de bry of frankfort. » this class of manufacture, the productions of which are now so costly, became very much depreciated towards the close of the sixteenth century, as we may see from l'art de terre by bernard palissy. this eminent artist speaks of and deplores this decline of public taste; for, in his opinion, a no painting is so pleasing as these enamels well fused into the copper. " from this time forward enamellers began to make excessive use of spangles and gaudy colours, which were only employed in moderation by the founders of the school. the specimens taken from the enamel manufactory at limoges occupy n* to in our plate. no. , , . no . enamels, by martin limousin. border from the same. no. , , , . no. , , . - borders by pierre courteys. from the studio of léonard limousin. no . no border and deepened edge attributed to jean courteys. - - no . from the studio of pierre raymond. border by jehan court, called vigier. no . no . reverse of a tray, with the centre perforated, from the same. by the same. all these specimens are taken from the louvre. n" to represent fragments of italian earthenware. we cannot follow through all their varieties the productions of the manufactories at pesaro, gubbio, urbino, faenza, rimini, forli, bologna, ravenna, ferrara, civita-castellana, bassano, and venice, by which the entire collection of italian pottery was produced; the story of their competition with one another is extremely interest- ing. although we give a few specimens of maiolica ware, we have not attempted the perfectly vain task of ren- dering exactly their beautiful metallic tints streaked with all the colours of the rainbow. we think, however, that it may be useful to represent some specimens of these decorations, the composition of which is frequently inge- nious and always clear, whether they be derived from an oriental type or from greek antiquity. lanfranco, giorgio andreoli, francesco, xanto, orazio fontana, guido salvaggio, flaminio fontana, battista franco, and raphael dal colle are the principal authors of these works, although the first impulse was given to them by luca della robbia in the fifteenth century, and they were spread through europe by the three brothers giovanni, settled at corfu, and by guido of savino, who took up his residence at antwerp. some of these specimens are of such magnificence and beauty, that christina of sweden offered to exchange for them silver plate of the same size. nos to . nos to . dishes and borders of maiolica. camaieux. nos to . no. , . fragments in the grotesque style from the manufactories of urbino. enamelled borders. taken from the museum of the louvre and from private collections. - - - - s. \ wn w. # # | imp lemercier . u" paris firmn didot freres i ils & " li)||eurs Ży renaissance. enamelled tiles. . . / > */ - o Æ no . pentagonal tiles forming a pattern, from the collection of the comte d'yvon. nos , . pentagonal tiles; the border, which is not given, is like that of no ; from the same collection. nos to . tiles, the borders of all of which are the same as that of n° ; same collection. nos to . inlaid pavements, from the château de polisy (aube). nos to . single tiles: from the same. 'j era. xv'hy with c entury - xvi" wwii siecl: xv"xvi's jahrhundepp lith par "durin *rmin t freres fils & c*editf urs > imp lemercier & c#ars > xvi and xvii centuries. gold enamelling and jewellery. a benvenuto cellini, in his treatise on goldsmith's work, enters into minute technical and practical details on goldsmith's work in general, which he divides into eight distinct kinds : jewellery, niello, filigree work, chasing, intaglio, enamel, iron work, and the striking of medals and seals. in his opinion filigree, enamel, and iron work belong especially to the province of the french goldsmith. ” (histoire de l'orfévrerie-joaillerie, by paul lacroix.) the art of the goldsmith enameller is now lost; it began to decline from the time when louis xiv had his plate melted down into coin in ; the use of porcelain and glass hastened its end. henceforward it was only used for curiosities intended for presents, for which in the king still retained in the louvre four goldsmiths : mel- lin, rotier, delaunay, and montarsy, and an enameller named bain, & almost the only one in france at the present time, who has a thorough knowledge of transparent enamel, says germain brice in his description of paris. nos and . | no . chape of the scabbard of a sword, front and back. mounting of a cameo on an ebony box. no . nos , . ring of an oliphant, unfolded. fragments of the same box from the ancient treasury of the kings no of poland, belonging to the czartoryski family. fragment from an agate vase. museum of the louvre. nos , , , , . no . fragments from a golden goblet. base of a vase mounted on a tripod. no. , , . nos to . setting of a clasp. handles of vases and goblets. - no . nos and . ring. stands for goblets. no . nos to . end of a sword-hilt, from the treasury of the house of austria. various fragments. benaissance remaissance ##, nass anc £, lith par levie . # irmindidot freres fils cle editeurs imp. dufrenoy & bedeau.paris. > xyceru x / e sec | xv.jai riundeet t -- --------- | th par dun leminis fils & ce nrurs inr t dupuy. rue des pemrs hôtels pars - w renaissange. paintings on manuscripts. the two superimposed subjects occupying the centre of the plate are of italian origin and taken from the famous gradual of sienna. all the others belong to the french renaissance (school of tours); they are of importance from their own merits as well as from the name of their author, françois colomb. michel colomb or columb, who built the sumptuous tomb, consecrated by the filial piety of anne of brittany to the memory of francis ii, last duke of brittany, and his wife marguerite de foix, was one of the most fertile of french artists. he died at the commencement of the sixteenth century. we find in the old archives of flanders, that colomb was assisted by three nephews, & all perfect workmen, one in the carving of images, another in masonry, and the third in the art of illumination. the image carver was named guillaume regnault; the architect, bastyen françois; the illuminator, françois colomb. colomb himself prepared the models in terra cotta »; bastyen françois was entrusted with the architectural part of the monument; and afterwards françois colomb decorated the models with painting according as the colour of the material required, a flesh-tints for face and hands, inscriptions, and every thing else belonging thereto. (see nantes, by the baron de guillermy; annales archéologiques de didron, .) this account gives great interest to the adjoined specimens, which are taken from a manuscript in the bibliothèque nationale, latin section n° ; in them may be recognized all the features noticed in the above descrip- tion, and the peculiar taste and style of the colombs. * - # renaissance. ceiling with gilded compartments. the oak ceiling with carved and gilded compartments represented in the plate, is that of the large hall of the parliament of normandy (now the court of assizes), which is to be seen in the palais de justice at rouen. the special books written on this building tell us neither the designer of this beautiful ceiling, nor the precise date that may be assigned to it. we may however consider it as contemporaneous with the rest of the palace, since this building, commenced by louis xii and the cardinal d'amboise about , – the time at which the norman court of exchequer was rendered permanent, — was considered almost complete in . the general style of the decoration, also, would seem to belong to the same period, i. e. the beginning of the sixteenth century or the commencement of the renaissance. we do not think that this work of art, so well known and so generally admired, has ever before been re- produced in a complete manner, and especially with colouring; we are therefore happy to be able to present it to our readers. in the present state of the original, the oak wood which forms the ground, has become almost black; it was thought best to give it as far as possible its original colour. bibliography of the subject. ach. deville. précis analytique des travaux de l'académie de rouen; jolimont; les principaux édifices de la ville de rouen en ; rouen, . . floquet. histoire du parlement; frère, . de stabenrath. notice sur le palais de justice de rouen. edet, . san iii( , ias : nwälä usues aed ur } sited ..., loosaulo' dui *: - . . & . a& & ii ==== - .--- i. - - - * '')nwss|vn & gomwss [vn '- gon vss vn. s. # renaissance. xvi century. decorative painting and sculpture. from french monuments. if there is one period more interesting than another in the history of french national art, it is certainly that, in which french artists, under the foreign influence which was beginning to predominate, added the spirit of italian art to their own natural taste. in the present day justice is rendered to this national school, which had been wonderfully prepared by its solid studies and strong originality for the lessons of ancient art at that time so enthusiastically received. “from ,” says jeanron (recherches sur l'origine et les progrés de l'art), “our artists began to show at once an original style, peculiar taste, and ( deep appreciation of the models of antiquity. their personal inspiration and free interpretation assigned them a high rank in the movement ‘ called the renaissance.... we will not allow it to be said, on the faith of literary exaggerations, that the italian artists summoned to the court of “francis i, taught their art to low and ignorant french artists. the rapid way, in which our national school appropriated the italian manne a proves, on the contrary, its advancement and strength. ” the examples in our plate are derived from the following sources: nos , , . nos to . stone sculptures; château de blois, . wood carving; château de blois (oratory of catherine de médicis), . nos to . nos to . stone sculptures; château de châteaudun, . painting on manuscripts derived from : nos to . ° the bible of the arsenal; wood carving; château de blois, . book of hours of the schoenborn family. m. de rothschild. © = © nass ance. - -> # e | | | | ssance | -> r # enaissan ce . . - | |-- £ - | - -- - t - ---e. -| -- |- ---|- |- ---- --- | - | - | | -- | implestu & massin paris. firm r lith par durin min didoi frerestils clef diteurs - renaissange. rena| Š san £, - r},naissange. --~~~~~~~~~ - - -ie----- i. d ~~~~~~~< * , - - -- ---------> ---------- --d-. -----------|--|-- <-->~~~~~~~~~~~ lith par lemoine firmn didot freres fils #c'editeurs. lm: lemercier & c" fars q renaissance. bindings, and wenetian marquetry. no . specimen of binding, the centre of which is occupied by an oil painting, here merely sketched in outline. no . specimen of binding, with the inside border. these two fine specimens are from the library of m. ambroise firmin didot. no . three specimens of marquetry from a harpsichord of the sixteenth century (cluny museum). in all these specimens the designs are essentially persian, and they form a fitting sequel to our examples of oriental ornamentation. our object in placing them under the title renaissance has been to show the part that venice, through its constant relations with the levant, took in the introduction of the arabesque, which ornament, since the sixteenth century, has been so happily blended with the greco-roman tradition. xylhexylif ntry v| e et )xv| : * | ( l xvi**t xvii * jai rhundert | | - l - - -- - e lntl par pralou | rmn l)ldo l' freres fils ceters lmp lemercier à l'aris # xvi and xvii centuries. specimiens of inlaid bindings. one of the most interesting branches of ornamental art is undoubtedly that of the binder. the taste for hand- some bindings, a natural accompaniment to the passion for fine books and rare editions, has from the earliest time caused the production of masterpieces, which we think it well to bring before the notice of our readers. for this plate we have chosen models which, by the combined use of colours and gold, come especially within the limits of our subject. the following are the sources from which they have been obtained : no . a copy of procopius, de bello persico, ”, . this handsome italian binding was made for maioli the celebrated collector of books, and bears this inscription : th. maioli et amicorum. library of m. ambroise firmin didot. no . a copy of the edition of paul jovius, folio, florence, . this copy comes from the well-known library of grolier and bears the inscription : grollerii et amicorum. library of m. ambroise firmin didot. no . a copy of the bible of r. stephanus, folio, paris, . “the binding was executed for the president de thou and appears to have formed a part of his library. ” library of m. ambroise firmin didot. no . commentary on the pentateuch, ". bibliothèque nationale (saint-germain français, ). no . corner of the cover of a book with the arms of henry and the initials of diana of poltiers. mazarin library. no . another specimen with the arms of henry ii and the initials of diana of poitiers. this work bears as its title : fl. vegetii, renati viri, et..... mazarin library. no . biblia ea duplici versione altera vulgata, altera tigurina leonis de juda, cum annotationibus fr. vatabli. lutetiae, ea officina rob. ste- phani, , vols. ", red morocco, inlaid, gilt edges. this binding is thus described in the catalogue of the sale of m. bru- net's books, under number : “a rich and elegant binding of the sixteenth century with inlaid com- partments, as remarkable fro its good preservation as for its beauty. “this copy is the one offered by jean grolier to the president christophe de thou, and at his death it passed to his son jacques-auguste de thou, the well known historian. in , it formed part of the collection of the prince de soubise, to which, as is well known, that of j. a. de thou had been uni- ted. le roux de lincy alludes to it in p. of his work on grolier, but he did not know what had become of the book; i obtained it at the sale that took place after the death of renouard but without knowing its history, which the work of m. de lincy has recently revealed to me. this magnificent binding is still in the most perfect preservation, and very different in that respect from the hippocrates of the motteley collection, of which the back was restored in the eighteenth century and the sides only imperfectly repaired.” (note of m. brunet.) no . iieures de la wierge, ”. paris, guillaume merlin. . library of m. ambroise firmin didot. q no . back of a volume with the arms of henry ii. mazarin library. no . roman missal, folio, venetiis, ant. de zanchis, . the binding is italian and of a later period, having been executed at the beginning of the seventeenth century. collection of m. bachelin-deflorenne. no . grandes annales et chroniques d'angleterre, by jean besnard, for- merly secretary of the queen of england (completed march " , and dedicated to the king of france, charles ix, by the author). it is the fore-edge of the volume that is given in our plate. bibl. nat. (french manuscripts n° .) xvith century - yv". aiii: ht: (ocrt - z. (s.j. ×são-go- ". £ . * \ # £ nys...' * # ©: £| £% £ £ * se: * * > £& (#)( . % re- - ... ", — --- | lath par picard firmindii) t freres, fii., &c." fim eurs implemercier & u" faris *s \ xvi century. paintings on manuscripts, and damaskeenings. the first seven numbers represent paintings from a manuscript executed for henry ii (confirmation des priviléges des notaires et secrétaires par louis xi). it is one of the finest specimens of the ornamentation of that period. the resemblance of these paintings to undoubted works of jean cousin leaves us scarcely any room for doubt in at- tributing them to that artist. the volume forms part of the library of m. ambroise firmin didot. the specimens marked and are by androuet du cerceau and are of the same class as the old paintings at fontainebleau. n" to represent designs of damaskeening taken from the masterpieces of the lyons press. these also are in the library of m. ambroise firmin didot. xv's secue xv tes.jahrhundert r < *-*. -- - - - - - - - -- - - |- - - - - - - - - -- * . . . - - - - - - - - - - th par praion firmin didot freres fils & c-editeurs implemercier & c. paris - a& xvi century. cartouches on friezes, scrolls, and ornamental nails. this plate contains forty-four examples. that with a green ground, on which the initials of henry and ca- therine are to be seen, is taken from the decoration of the beams in the oratory of catherine de medici in the château de chenonceaux. the pendentive on a yellow ground, placed under the preceding subject at the lower part of the plate, is taken from a fresco painting in the chapel of the same castle. the forty two remaining subjects, which are likewise unnumbered, come from the historical gallery of thevet, entitled : les wrais portraits et vies des hommes illustres, grecs, latins et payens, recueillis de leurs portraits, livres, médalles, antiques et modernes, paris, . this valuable collection of full-length portraits, engraved on copper towards the close of the sixteenth century, is particularly rich in architectural decorations of a unique type, the details of which vary in every page. to accom- plish this immense work it was necessary to use almost every suitable specimen in existence. some idea of its extent may be formed from the rich collection contained in the accompanying plate, selected from a copy which was coloured at the time of its publication. xv"wii siecle ( imp lemercier & c". paris xvi ani) xvii centuries (first period). cartouches. it is interesting to follow the development of the cartouche through the various phases of french national art. the examples given here belong to the second part of sixteenth century and to the first part of the following one. numbers to are taken from a manuscript in the library of the arsenal, attributed to jean cousin. the rest are, for the most part, of flemish origin and come from different sources. they are mostly ornaments of maps, but are capable of different applications, especially in the common use of wood and leather as materials for ornamentation. xvlh xyith century xv * , xv * (, xy * xvites , : : , { ' - - - ' - - ) lath par dufou a du trin firmln did t |'ripes fils &, (e |[)teurs p linerccr c* paris . xvi and xvii centuries. embroidered hangings. the examples given in our plate have been obtained from two different sources. nos and . collection of m. bouvier, painter. in these two fragments, brought from genoa, the embroidery is of cloth on a ground of the same material, and the borders alone are of silk. no . collection of m. leclercq, dealer in curiosities, paris. in the third example, the ground is of silk figured with violet on violet (lyons style) and the embroideries are in yellow satin. it is from milan. the designs, which are of great firmness, are remarkable for their powerful relief, which would almost render them fit subjects for ornamental sculpture. they are worthy of the best masters of the time. xviith century xvii" secle xvi's jahrhundert |-\- £: - * ---> - |- * - \ - - - - - - - - t .. . - w. : *\': - - • - - q- .." - # § Ś. . £ - : : --> →…. e-z/z-f" - - l. | - - te firmin didot frepes, fils & c" editeurs implemercier "paris o o xvii century. paintings, carwings, and open work. the various fragments collected in this plate all belong to the same period, and to the style usually called after louis xiii, as is shown by the source from which n° is drawn. no . fragment of wood inlaid with carved ivory and mother of pearl, the size of the original, belonging to the comte d'yvon, and dated . this carving, of which it is not easy to guess the use, is extremely delicate and intricate, and was probably executed to procure admis- sion to a guild. nos , . silver frames, pierced and chased, of the size of the original, dating from the beginning of the century; communicated by m. mayor. no . a frieze from the pavilion of the two queen-mothers at fontainebleau. time of louis xiii. no . cipher of louis xiii and anne of austria. (from the same.) no . upper part of the left wing of the gilded door at fontainebleau, before restoration. no . casket of anne of austria, in chased gold, on a velvet ground. (louvre.) - xviith century xv e sec | . ( | parlie ) xvi tes. ahrhundert ' ' -- *|| £. - - * - - e-zs:ma: ams nzr' s- - '. \ }. . - . | - f - | . - "... - */ | #. - * --". - - - lithographie par sanler imp lernercier & c*paris firmindidot freres fils c. editeurs * a xvii century. first period (style louis xiii). panel of gilt leather \vith border. the accompanying plate represents one of the finest specimens of the manufacture of ornamental leather, (stamped with patterns in gold and silver,) which flourished in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. the name cordo- van iealher, frequently given to these productions, would seem to indicate a spanish origin, though it is far from being proved. it was from venice, where the idea originated in the imitation of the rich brocades from the east, and also from england, holland, and flanders (particularly illalines) that these rich hangings were brought. some manufactories of them also existed at lyons. these leathers, made from calf, goat or sheep skin, treated like ordinary sheep-skin after having been in the tan , and having drawings or paintings stamped upon them, were always silvered before gilding, which latter process was effected by a varnish imitating gold. these hangings justly enjoyed great favour as they were very durable, being impervious to damp and other causes of decay, and the effort made by modern trade to bring them once more into fashion is worthy of encou- ragement. the one represented in our plate is in the cluny museum (n’ in the catalogue). xviith century xvi. sieg, lf, xvii" jahrhundert lithographie par launay. firmin didot frerfs f % ("editeur: * ‘-""ii ii illlll iiiifio-- l l _- —- ‘d‘dqqfi—fl #! xvii century (first period). mural paintings, miniatures, enamels, and engravings in niell . ji || [ no . nos , . panel from the pavilion of the queen-mothers at fontainebleau. miniatures taken from a manuscript executed for anne of austria. mazarin library. no . nos to . panel of the painted ceiling in the apartment of anne of austria in decorative paintings of the architecture of saint-eustache, published the palace of the louvre. by a. lenoir. (statistique monumentale de paris.) no . - nos , . panel copied from the luxembourg palace. fragments of gold enamel and of engravings in niello. ––s-o-go- - -– xviith century - t • xvii" jahrhundert #. |- - - e lith part samer firmin-didot freres fils & cie editeurs lmp lemercier & c" paris £ £ xvii century (first part). cartouches, confined and free. n" , , , come from the panels and roof of the chapelle d’hinisdal of the bare-footed carmelites, after a. lenoir (statistique monumentale de paris). these fragments belong to the first half of the century. the separate cartouches are all taken from ornaments on maps, many of which date as far back as . they were engraved in flanders, and the colouring is merely tinsel. n" and are taken from bernardus castellus. the masks and intercalated branches are also of flemish origin, belong to the same period, and are taken from jean christophe feinlin. xvi tes.jahrhundert xviith century -- \ | - £|- ) t- -§-- --.-- . -!| - lemercier c" paris imp firmin-didot freres fils cle editeurs lith par dufour durin <> xvii century. first period. hangings, embroidery, and damaskeening. in this plate a certain number of subjects have been collected, derived from various sources and of different uses but to some extent similar in character. the examples have been obtained as follows. no . leather hangings, from the château de cheverny, near blois ( ). no . wooden frame, inlaid with metal, from touraine (same period). nos to . damaskeening of the flemish style, after jean christophe feinlin. all the other specimens are german embroideries, the designs on which have a sufficiently striking resemblance to those published by hans friedrich raidel at ulm (in ) to warrant us in attributing them to that artist. the necessity of greatly reducing these interesting specimens has compelled us, in order to preserve their clearness, to change the deep grounds on which the embroidery was often laid for lighter ones. the high relief of these or- naments is shown to great advantage on white silk, and on red, crimson, or dark green velvet, as may be seen in the cluny museum. (salle des tentures et étoffes, first case to the left on entering.) xvii" century xv|| s|ecle - xvii" jahrhundert -- - . '' * > -'-y' aft y- £ *z\ . . - z. , a. c. | # % £ * . . - */"- - > can' ! !, - - , | r - * ). - dufour et picart ht firmin-didot freres fils , cle editeurs implemercier & c* paris il xvi'' century xvii* sec le ( "partle) xvii*jahrhunoert - - - - | - - - | - - lithographie par pralon firmin-didot freres, fis cle editeurs imp lemercier etc"paris xvii century. mosaic, and paintings. no . fragment of a ceiling at versailles painted by mignard; now destroyed. no . fragment of grand staircase at versailles, by lebrun; destroyed. no . fragment of grand gallery at versailles, by lebrun. no . design for the top of a table in marble mosaic, attributed to robert de cotte (bibl. nat., cabinet des estampes). the four painted borders are from a house in the rue de beaune, and from the drawing-room, the ceiling of which is represented in plate *@* ; the decorations may be attributed to daniel marot. xvii"? xviii'century x | xviii s | ec le - xvi's & xviii's uahrhundert *a*@*# -×: - *- - *. wss- a's --&@ *|| zn - "a ·). # © * . " |- (- t ~ * - r * - - w #! \ * *> %: & | | | \ |- - |->| || fath par dufour jeanmışros firmin didot freres fils . c. editeurs imp lemeraer & c"paris * \ xvii and xviii centuries. earthenware. french manufacture. the accompanying plate contains a certain number of specimens of french earthenware. they may be thus classed : nos to . rouen earthenware. it was only about the middle of the sevententh century that the first manufactories of earthenware were established at rouen, under the protection of colbert. his patronage procured for them the privilege of working for the king, rom the designs of the best artists of the period. those of our readers who are curious to learn the history and vicissitudes of this remarkable art may consult with profit the interesting monograph entitled, histoire de la faience de rouen, a posthumous work of m. andré pottier, keeper of the public library and keramic museum at rouen, published under the care of the abbé collas, and of mess" gustave gouellain and raymond bordeaux, first part, rouen, . the specimens that we have chosen, as belonging to the best periods of the manufacture, are nearly all to be ound in the cluny museum. no . nos and . manufacture with the monogram of feburier borne, potter at lille in . (see faiences et porcelaines, by auguste demmin, .) moustiers earthenware. * * - - - - - - - - - * - * - s - - - * * * * * * * * * * - * xvii" cbntury lithographié par daumont xvii: sircle (?"patue) firmin-didot frerfs, fis c. editeurs *&” xvii tes. ahrhundert *- - ". - - - - implemercier et c* paris xvii century. second period. tapestries and borders. the principal subject in the accompanying plate, with its border (n°' and ), is taken from a most beauti- fully designed piece of tapestry in the ch-iteau de grignan. numbers and belong, to judge from the style and costumes, to a period nearer to the eighteenth century. the one which contains the two shepherdesses, designed after the fashion then prevalent, belongs to a series re- presenting the twelve months of the year, in which it takes the place of june, characterised by the sheep-shear- ing and the sign of cancer, the small size of which in the original does not allow of its being represented in the reduced proportions of our plate. between these last fragments and the tapestry of the chaiteau de grignan a difference of execution exists which is worthy of being noted. in the latter the colouring is flat; in the others the outline of the ornament is determine- by lighter tints on a dark background, and by darker ones on a light ground; the latter system being most fred quently adopted in the designs for prints and chintzes. ' *: xvii and xviii centuries. inlaid work — boulle. the genre boulle, one of those manufactures which have conferred the greatest honour on france, has now regained the favour it enjoyed at the close of the seventeenth and commencement of the eighteenth centuries. andré charles boulle (born in , died aged in ) applied to cabinet-work all the faculties of a true artist. appointed first cabinet-maker to the king by a patent which gave him the triple title of architect, sculptor, and engraver; he was lodged in the louvre, and made one of the richest collections then known, of drawings, en- gravings, and works of art, a part of which was unhappily destroyed by fire, and the rest sold at the instance of creditors. the possession of such valuable materials explains, in part, the perfection of the original works which came from the master's hand. boulle founded a school and gave his name to the genre, which was after- wards continued by caffieri and crescent, and is still successfully imitated. this kind of art, which is not merely distinguished by the beauty and richness of its designs, but also for the happy combination of woods of various colours or of different metals, belongs essentially to polychromatic de- coration. the specimens given in our plate come from four different sources. nos to . upright clock, with copper ground and tortoise-shell ornaments. in this piece the silvery effect shown the copper ground, as on in our plate, is obtained by means of a particular varnish, spread over the copper, which gives tints of silver and mother of pearl. mazarin library. nos to , cabinets in marquetry, tortoise-shell ground with ornaments of en- graved copper. mazarin library. nos to . general view and details of a very fine louis xiv piece of furni- ture, of great size, in ebony with copper ornaments representing as the principal subject, a hercules overthrowing the hydra of lerna ". this piece of furniture forms a part of the collection of m. mann- heim, to whose kindness we are indebted for our illustration. nos to . various specimens of ornamentation in marquetry. **** "sec c. * , , yy w . a n. xv; th century lmp th dupuy paris firmindidot frere's eils & cie editeurs. lith par leveil. xvii and xviii centuries. gilded leather and borders. we have already given some explanation as to the origin and manufacture of these stamped leathers, with orna- ments printed in gold and colours. (see pl. .) here the great variety of tints and the use of more delicate colours than those employed in the louis xiii style characterise the more coquettish and mannered, but at the same time intelligent period of art with which the eighteenth century opened. the beauty of the ornaments will astonish no one, if it be borne in mind that for this most costly luxury the designs were usually obtained from the best decorative artists of the time, such as oppenord, and the meisson- niers. n" i and . cluny museum. no, m . collection or m. racarrs. collection or m. lecuzuco, dealer in curiosities, paris. =&\ xviii century. tapestries. these six specimens of tapestry form a continuation to plate w and are selected from the work of robert de cotte (bibl. nat., cabinet des estampes). we have nothing in particular to notice concerning them, except that it seems to us that the four examples in the lower part of the plate cannot be attributed to the same hand as the other two, which are by the author of the mag- nificent tapestry represented in the plate we have just spoken of. with this reservation, they may all be attributed to the same school, which is characterised by a degree of archi- tectural arrangement and an imposing richness of ornamentation. xviii"jahrhunoert - sibcl'É ("partie) e xviii century th xviii - ". - - * - - -| - --- - imp j. cheret, r brunel paris. firmin-didot freres fils & cle editeurs |all, par dufour et pralon *-)- ---- xviii century. decorative painting. this plate is composed of fragments, the varied repetitions of which form nearly the entire decoration of a harpsichord manufactured in the first part of the eighteenth century. this magnificent piece of furniture is in the cluny museum. the ornaments are painted on gilded wood; and the fantastic design, which characterises it, is in the favourite style of gillot, and watteau. the two fragments in the upper part unite .at the green upright, where one finishes and the other commences the bower forms the centre of the design, and the other groups are repeated on each side, variations of the figures and of the garlands of flowers completing the frieze. the lower part of the plate represents the decoration of the front of the harpsichord. > xviii century. cartouches. this plate terminates the series representing the different phases of the cartouche, the general characteristics of which we have already defined. no i. is from a service-book painted at paris in for the church of st gervais; it forms the framework of a blue camaieu. (mazarin library. ms. t.) nos , . these specimens are by bernard picart and also serve as frames to camaieux. the above three specimens, as well as n* and , belong to the style of the close of the seventeenth century. nos to . these subjects belong to a more equivocal style, viz to that ex- cessive use of curves, which during a part of the century almost led to the abandonment of the straight line as an element of ornamentation. no . stand in enamelled and painted earthenware. no . book-plate painted in by elias nilson, director of the academy of augsburg, usually called the great nilson. nos , . emblematic cartouches, after de la joue. the four masks are by abraham bosse, and belong to the preceding century. nos , , . specimens of damaskeening from to . xviii century. goldsmiths work, and jewellery. some of the clasps, called châtelaines, with which this plate is filled, belong to the style which was in fashion from to ; a style encouraged by the oppenords and meissonier, and carried to such a length by babel, the cele- brated goldsmith; the others belong to a later time. in jewellery and the arts that depend on it, especially chasing, works were produced at this time which have not since been surpassed. the french school, by adopting the liberty of form which prevailed in the new italian style, succeeded in giving it a peculiar character of lightness and grace. nos , , , , , , , , , . nos t . chains by gilles l'Égaré. these belong to the style of decoration practised by the bérains and marots at the close of the seventeenth century and the commence- ment of the eighteenth. an almost complete set of ladies' ornaments of the time of louis xvi: principal clasp with watch and seals, clasps, pins and egrets of different dimensions for the dress and hair. o no . each of the other clasps represents the type of as many sets, composed seal by gilles l'egaré. (same style.) of similar pieces, either for gentlemen or ladies. - -|| -- | || |- - ~ * !| | j- > - - ier s cle paris imp | - * - - --s.- # g .*- -- . --> : . . * fill , | `m. love - "an unparaphic as: a cle it, no. , , . snuff box.e.s. to . collection of m. leclercq, dealer in curiosities, paris. these enamelled gold boxes are ornamented with paintings in camateu. i. nos , , , . borders after deneufforge. it is interesting to observe with the dates the changes in french taste during the latter half of the eighteenth century, changes which were in a great degree caused by the discovery of pompeii and herculaneum, so well suited to lead back to better principles the always ingenious but sometimes affected and involved manner of french artists. xes jan ) , / ( -- (tury ce - (yth * 'ar . o leercer c ln lith par launey firmin didot res fils & ce brus l xviii century. paintings on porcelain. it was only in , and after many failures, that the chemist macquer, of sèvres, was able to read to the academy a complete memoir on hard french porcelain, and to exhibit some perfect specimens of it. afterwards this manufac- ture was greatly developed under the management of brongniart. the rage for translucid paintings thus obtained caused the production of an incalculable number, the principal types of which are given in our plate. they were named after the great personages for whom they were designed, and are known as the porcelain of the queen, of the comte de provence, of the comte d'artois, of the duc d'orléans, etc. all these specimens are from the admirable collection of m. léopold double. no . plate forming part of a service, called the “birds of buffon, w which ornamental corners of trays. the illustrious author of the natural history called his sévres edition, - and which contains no fewer than pieces, representing all the birds described in the book. nos , i. nos , . nos to . ground-work of trays. n° has the initials of mme dubarry. nos to . nos to . specimens of different services. open-worked borders of trays. classified index of the subjects contained in the plates. wowen fabrics. stuffs, tapestries, embroideries, and printed cloth. £rimitive; plate i. chinese and japanese; plates xiii., xiv., and xv. indian; plates xviii. and - xix. persian; plates xx., xxiii., and xxv. byzantine; plate xxxv. middle ages; plates xli. and xlvii. renaissance; plate lxxiii. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; plates lxxviii., lxxxiii., lxxxv., lxxxvii., lxxxviii., lxxxix., xcii., xcv., and xcvii. leather and bindings. arabian; plate xxvi. renaissance; plates lxviii. and lxix. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; plates lxxv., lxxviii., lxxxv., lxxxvi., and xcii. keramics. terra-cotta, painted, glazed, and enamelled; earthenware and porcelain; decorations of utensils; pavements and wall-facings. assyrian; plate iv. greek; plates w. and vi. indian; plate xix. persian; plate xxii. moorish; plate xxix. middle ages; plate xlvi. renaissance; plates lix., lx., and lxvii. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; plates lxxxii. and xcviii. mosaics. greek; plate vi. greco-roman; plate ix. moorish; plate xxix. byzantine; plates xxxi, xxxiii., xxxv., xxxvi., and xxxvii. seventeenth century; plate lxxxi. incrustations and niellos. chinese; plate x. indian ; plates xvi, xvii., and xviii. persian; plate xxi. renaissance; plates lvi. and lxviii. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; plates lxxiv., lxxviii., and lxxxiv. goldsmith's work and jewellery. cloisonné and other enamels; gold enamel ; jewellery; chasing. egyptian; plate iii. assyrian; plate iv. etruscan; plate vii. chinese and japanese; plates xi. and xii. indian; plate xix. byzantine; plate xxxv. middle ages; plates xli. and xlix. renaissance; plates lix, lxii., and lxiv. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; plates lxxiv, lxxvi., xciv., and xcvi. wilson cl stacks l/jils cls folio l —— nl-( .r .‘ sec net lychromati c ornament | "- ,- n . .-.,._-~c.- -' .-_ '* -- q *. ' elgr library nf '-.''c principles of ornamental art; by r edward i vw@*~=. _*;e@.;§§;;; ;$-a author or “plants, their natural gr \:€ 'i itfi' ,§ cgi \;. =\ \ : =. -¢ -r{{.§t ii'.a‘rrv -:r~ 'r,” “free!-{and ornament,’z &<-:.- - - “content if hence th’ unlearn’d their wants may view, the eam'd reflect on what before they knew." pope, euay on cr-ilz':i.m§. casse-ll petter & galpin: london, paris l ” new york. ‘. ?‘*//y. . preface. he history of the practice of ornamental_ art, the principles that have guided its, pursuit, the modifications it has owed external conditions, its various ramifications, the subtle influences of race or religion that have affected it, present a theme so vast that no one writer could ever hope to achieve success, no one mind trace a path through such multitudinous avenues of thought, no one hand accomplish even the mechanical task involved in the drawing up of such a series of volumes—a library in themselves—-as the subject would demand. the reader, then, glancing at the title we have adopted, may at first seem inclined to doubt its fitness; but we would endeavour to reconcile him to our labours by the prompt confession that we have no hope of achieving more than contributing some few scattered ideas for his consideration, leaving him—our remarks being merely suggestive, by no means exhaustive—t supplement our labours by the consultation of the works of others who have at greater length- m-ac_le- the various points, upon which we can .only briefly dwell, their especial study, if -is' iéu -'d§jpib'_\'."§: f-orturi -a§e as to awaken by our remarks the desire to know still more of §~._ ;i;=g~-a;$: :j'whiie;-- therefore, it would be impossible to give anything but the briefest features of the general subject, a matter that, from the baldness of detail,- v'oi" idirb'ei'bui repellent, it has seemed not undesirable that, avoiding any formal profession of an attempt to write a history of the subject as a whole, we should nevertheless take up some few points—p ints that will, as we hope, be felt of. general interest and utility—and dwell at some little length upon them. there are many characteristic features that may thus be temporarily isolated for our consideration. we need here mention but a few, as, for instance, the influence of symbolism and religious belief on particular styles of .ornan ental art; the greater or less use of animal or vegetable forms, with its attendant question of the due amount of healthy naturalism or necessary conventionalism to be observed in their representation as elements of decorative design; the history. and modifications of the various forms, such as the fret, the anthemion, the patera, and the guilloche, which, though especially characteristic of classic .art, crop up more or less recognisably at almost all periods. another matter, not altogether without interest, we trust, will be found for our consideration in the use of caligraphy and the adornment of written characters, as in many of the eastern styles, as an element of design. a further suggestive subject will be found in the influence of symmetry, repetition, variation, gradation, and subordination on the work of th-e designer; i iv preface. while, not to weary our readers while yet on the threshold, we will only in conclusion mention, as a further subject of our regard, the influence that geometrical forms have at all times exercised in decorative art. a series of papers on ornamental art by the author, which appeared in the pages of the art yournal in i , form the foundation of the present volume, though in many cases they have been so amplified that the original matter forms but a very small part of the whole. the illustrations have also been largely increased in number, and many of a much richer character have been added, the larger space for illustrations in the present case permitting details of a far more complicated construction. some of these papers have furnished the subject matter for lectures at the nottingham, stoke-upon- trent, and other schools of art, or have been read before the archaeological section of one of our local natural history societies. to those to whom, on any of these accounts, our remarks may seem not altogether strange, our more fully-developed labours will, we hope, prove welcome. \-vhile tendering this volume to our fellow-students we would gladly take the opportunity of expressing our own great indebtedness to the labours of others. we have so far as possible been careful to acknowledge this wherever we have quoted from any other writer, but it has very possibly in some cases been involuntarily omitted, seeing that the materials from wh-e-r- -c-e these.page.s-.a;e -<;-ler.'g\/gegl have been gathering for some years, and any omission of the§'~se'>urce frérh' 'vher c'é the note was derived may now pass unnoticed, or regretfully be felt to npwgim :ci- *,§-ible to be supplied, owing to the lapse of time - .»- .‘ i. u since the original memora,n ;l§ r , -;f:iras-,‘:;made. \/ve are not aware that any such passages exist, but if they do we ihréé "t'li: 't.' hiései whose labours have thus assisted us in our own will hold us guiltless of any wilful holding back of the acknowledgment that is so justly their due. the works of sir digby \vyatt, mrs. twining, heideloff, viollet-le-duc, owen jones, wornum, ruskin, and layard are too well known, too highly valued, to need here any eulogium of ours. to these, however, as great text-books of the subject, it is but right that we shouldimore especially acknowledge our indebtedness, not merely for the loan of any quotations that may from time to time appear in our own pages, but from their sterling value, which, in our desire to render our work as distinctly utilitarian as possible, we feel not merely justified but almost compelled to notice for the benefit of others who may be seeking like help in their studies. *,_ contents. chapter i. influence of geometry on ornamental art—geometry as a science—its origin —designs, poor in them- selves, aided by geometry—good designs enhanced by geometric settings—universality of geometric basis—inherent beauty of geometric forms —love of mankind for complexity and mystery—celtic art—the book of kells—richness of effect produced by simple means— aptitude of geometric forms for combinations—counterchange—sense of flatness an essential quality in designs for floor coverings—good examples of this in the early italian churches— symbolic geometrical forrns—great facility with which patterns of a geometric character can be put together—apparent variation of identical designs by colour—geometric drawings from madras school of art—geometric kinder-garten plaitings—the simulation of relief in geometric patterns- geometry in classic art—frets, their origin and development—greek, chinese, mexican, celtic, and peruvian examples—geometry in mosaic w rk—egyptian glass-mosaic——opus tzssrlaium— opus fz};lz'num—o;>us grzeranicum— pus alexandrz'num—tarsiatura—marqueterie—buhl work— geometry in gothic art-window traceries—shaft sections-—pierced window openings in hot climates—examples of geometry in nature--the equilateral triangle—the right-angled triangle- the square—the oblong—the rhombus or lozenge—the pentagon, hexagon, and octagon— geometric character of kimmeridge coal-money—the circle—the semicircle—trefoil— quatrefoil—the scale form—the waved line—vesica——the guilloche, its origin and develop- ment—the spiral line—examples of the spiral line in nature—example of the spiral line in heraldry—majolica ware, its origin and history—the higher the character of the design the less should the merely mechanical geometric basis be obtrusive . . . . . chapter ii. /esthetic art—symbolic art—literal meaning of symbolism-—its use in religion and heraldry—the medieeval pictorial allegories—susceptibility to symbolic teaching in the early history of a people- u parables—fables—proverbs—-symbolism as a veiling of truth—symbolism as an aid to the illus- tration of truth—symbolism may be of action, of language, of colour, of form, and of number- symbolic actions amongst savage races—the rites of the levitical priesthood—the symbolic use of the fish in christian art—the early christian church in the catacombs of rome—the vesica piscis—the fish symbols of the egyptians—dagon of the philistines—the sphinx, classic and egyptian—the dolphin in classic and renaissance art—the serpent, tortoise, lizard, and crocodile—serpent worship of the jews, mexicans, and egyptians—insect forms, the scarabaens and butterfiy—the phoenix~—the dragon and hydra as symbolic of the evil principle—the dragon in chinese art—the ibis—nisroch of the assyrians—the ow —the cock—the dove—the dove orchid--—the raven—the magpie—the peacock—the pelican in christian art—the pelican in the old testament—the eagle in roman, christian, and heraldic art—the robin—the dog—,the stag in classic and christian art-the wolf—the egyptian apis—the sacred bull of brahma- the ]ackal—the cat—the hippopotamus—the pig-the as's—the lion as a symbol in a good and evil sense—the evangelistic symbols—th.e creatures seen in the visions of ezekiel and st. ]ohn—wyckliffe on the evangelistic 'symbols—the human form in gothic work—the repre- sentation of historic events, with an undercurrent of symbolic meaning—figures of the jewish and page w coivtezvts. christian churches—representations of the soul of man—the agnus dci—the hand and arm of the lord—the mosaics of st. mark, v enice—mosaic as a means of keeping permanent records of great but fading pictures—need of individual research and study . . . . , , chapter iii. too strained a meaning must not be attached to any symbolic form, colour, or number—examples from clement, cyril, and durandus, of forced inner meanings—symbolism of colour—gold and silver— the arms of ]erusalem—symbolic poetry of spenser—the rigidity of the laws binding the egyptian artists—-syrnbolism of numbers, three, four, six, eight, twelve‘—seven, the number of perfection- forty, the biblical number of trial or probation—the use of symbolic numbers amongst the chinese—the temples of heaven and earth at pekin—the yang and yin principles—symbolism - derived from vegetable forms—-scriptural use of plants as illustrations—the palm-—the coinage of the jewish nation—judea typified by female figure beneath palm tree—the vine-—a symbol of the israe ites—christ the vine—the vine in byzantine art—byzantium as the capital of the roman empire—the chair of st. maximinian—the vine in classic art—the white lily—the snowdrop—the almond--the pomegranate—the passion flower~—the lotus—confusion between the egyptian lotus and the indian water bean— symbolic plants amongst the assyrians—the tree of life—the idolatrous groves of israel—the tooba tree—the amaranth—the rose—classic and christian legends—the rose of sharon—the golden rose-—the rose of heaven—the heraldic use of the rose, thistle, and shamrock—the tudor rose—the broom of the plantagenets—the columbine—the daisy—badges of the scottish clans—fungi—representations of earth, air, fire, and water—the planets, symbols of the classic divinities—fire worship—passion symbols—the cross—the nimbus—cause of the similarity of all the portraits of our lord—the vesica form—- the anchor—the lamp—the crown or wreath%ymbols of the saints . . chapterivv the use of letters and inscriptions in ornamental art-—egyp'.ian hieroglyphic—assyrian arrow head—the formation of arbitrary writing characters—mexican picture language—the hebrew alphabet-— runic characters—early letters all straight lined-cursive writing—writing materia s—palimpsest mss.—the labours of angelo mai—palimpsest brasses—clay records—the rosetta stone—greek boustrephedon inscriptions—study of archaeology—moorish inscriptions—the alhambra—structure of monograms—abbreviations in old mss. a fertile source of error—structure of ciphers— barbarous character of early monograms—ciphers and monograms from pottery—the cross prefacing inscriptions--the cruz-ansata of thoth—the tau form of cross—the sacred monogram—the vision of constantine—the i.h.s.—monograms on coinage—inscriptions on coinage-the monograms of artists on their works—]ohn thorpe and his plan-palace of the escurial——merchants’ marks——branch letters——ribbon letters—mediaeval inscriptions on houses- posy rings-inscriptions on church bells—heraldic mottoes—use of inscriptions amongst the eastem nations—inscriptions as an element in modern omamental art—general features of assyrian art—absence of ornament-—the patera form in ornament-the anthemion fonn in ornament—absence of vegetable forms—the use of colour in assyrian art-assyrian art zoomorphic—the tri-lingual inscriptions of the persians—the method employed for reading the cuneiform character—sketch of the history of the ancient kingdom of assyria-discovery of site of nineveh-references of biblical and classic writers to the assyrian power . . chapter v. heraldry or blazonry—derivation of the word—mss., bmsses, seals, and glass painting as sources of study— rolls of arms-—pernicious character of much of the modern “ restoration ”—devices of the heroes of antiquity-—origin of heraldry-—coats of arms—arms of edward the confessor—armorial page contents rnnn bearings of david, samson, adam, and eve— heraldry, an incitement to deeds of heroism-seals on legal documents—canting heraldry—heraldic charges—the language of heraldry-tinctures— furs~—the varying terms applied by old writers to these in the arms of gentlemen, noblemen, and sovereigns——honourable ordinaries—early devices structural in character—naval signal code —subordinaries—forms of the cross—common charges—the lion and eagle——the cockatrice, dragon, wyvem, grillin, phoenix, triton, mermaid, sea horse, sea lion, harpy, sphinx, sagittarius, salamander, and unicorn-legends of the basilisk-—marshalling—dimidiation-impalement-— quartering-—agroupment of arms-—the shields of war and peace—crests—farnily badges-—the motto-—the supporters—'i'he lilies of france on the english arms—marks of cadency—marks of augmentation—marks of abatement—mantling—value of a knowledge of the laws of heraldry . chapter vi. certain forms characteristic of certain styles—the horizontal line in omament~—classic examples of it- ornament based on construction—the horizontal line in weaving and pottery—sketch of the potter’s art—symmetry, its meaning and scope—-bi-symmetry—multi-symmetry—symmetry in natural objects—the kaleidescope—the “last supper” of da vinci—repetition as an ornamental principle—alternation—radiation——interchange—counterchange-—variation——the influence of ma- chinery on art productions—styles of ornament: what are they ?—the blending and transition of art styles—english art descended from egyptian-military conquest as affecting the arts—the proto-doric—monolithic monuments—the modification of classic types in byzantine art—how far art rules may be considered binding—sir ]oshua reynolds on laws in art—conflicting opinions of authorities-—the use of architectural forms as an element of ornament——representations of armour, musical instruments, &c., as features of decorative a t—imitations of drapery——colour in oma- mental art—the primary, secondary, and tertiary colours—transparent and opaque colouring— effect of a compound colour producible by the juxtaposition of its elements—advancing and retiring colours—-harmony of colour by analogy-—harmony of tone—difi'erence between tones and lines, tints and shades-—the naturalistic colour argument—the influence of colours on each other-the influence of sunlight and artificial light on the appearance of colours—colour blindness, or daltonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chapter vii. naturalism and conventionalism—old work not necessarily good work—egyptian art based on natural forms of egypt-—the acanthus—conventional character of eastem art——moorish and persian art- the _fountain of lions, alhambra-—chinese and ]apanese art—-ruskin on naturalism and conven- tionalism-opinions of worman, hudson, wilkinson, and others—sir joshua reynolds on imitation of nature in art—chinese pottery often a fac-simile of some natural fruit form-the principle of fitness—--the distinction between the words designer and decorator—horseshoe breast pins-the demand for novelty--improvement in design since :—omament subordinate to utility- venetian glass—fitness of ornament to material employed——earthenware baskets and straw hats—— fitness of ornament to its scale and position—natural instances of fitness: the pine, dodder, ivy, water buttercup, &c.—the tiger, penguin, apteryx, humming birds, and swift--the principle of contrast——contrast of texture, surface, form, or colour-the value of analysis of ornamental forms—simplicity or complexity of treatment—complexity often a sign of decay-the doric order—natural examples of simplicity and complexity of form--the interlacing of lines—strap wo 'k—cord interlacing—old irish crosses and mss.—early italian art—heraldic knots——inter- section—interpenetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ro . . §name and title of amunothph ii. . . original design to illustrate nature of a monogram. ro. assyrian monarch and inscription. british museum. . original design to illustrate nature of a monogram. . ribbon letter, illuminated ms. british museum. . illustration of the character of arabic writing. . cipher from henri deux ware. south kensington museum. . monograms from early english charters. british . museum. . monogram from coin of william and mary. . illustration of the cufic character. . monogram used by albert durer. . design for plan of the house of ]ohn thorp. . monogram on papal bull. british museum. . monogram, maria regina, scottish coin. . coin, francis and mary of scotland. . greek boustrophedon inscription. . device of moneyer on saxon coin. . illustration of the assyrian cuneiform writing. . device on coin of charles ii. . .}ornamenta.l arrangements of the letters f.e.h. i list of illustrations. xi . . . early greek coin. . . . egyptian mummy-wrapping. british museum. . early greek coin. . assyrian representation of water. british museum. . sacred animals of the egyptians. . early christian fish symbol. . from early mexican manuscript. }passion symbols, mediaaval. }passion symbols, media“.-val. i '}nimbus fonns. national gallery. r . . wood carving. bishop’s lydiard church, somerset- shire. . . . the serpent, mexican mss. . . j . the hippopotamus of typho. museum of economic geology. . milanese, marble inlay, dolphin and trident of neptune. . symbol of the trinity in unity, old stained glass. . german church embroidery. south kensington museum. . }symbols of the triune deity. . _ . the serpent, egyptian papyrus. british museum. . greek chimera or grifiin. . the lotus, egyptian wall painting. . glass quarry, ockham church, surrey. . tudor rose. worcester cathedral. . dagon, the assyrian sculptures. british museum. . grotesque figure, english decorated period of gothic. . portion of egyptian altar. british museum. . portion of incised ornament, egyptian tablet. british museum. . from egyptian papyrus. british museum. . egyptian, serpent-worship. . heraldic eagle, swiss glass. south kensington museum. . foliated dolphin panel, renaissance. south ken- sington museum. . nisroch, the assyrian sculptures. british museum. . branch letter, illuminated ms. british museum. . greek inscription on pedestal of statue. vatican. . egyptian representation of rehoboam, king of ]udah. . mark on sevres pottery, reign of louis philippe. . illustration of the character of chinese writing. . mediaeval “ merchants’ marks." . . ornamental design to illustrate nature of cipher. . rude form of pottery, assyrian. . monogram of louis philippe on china. . assyrian painted decoration. british museum. . “ merchants’ mark" on medieval ring. . rude form of pottery, early british. . cipher of louis xvi. on china. . assyrian painted decoration. british museum. . floral form, assyrian slabs. british museum. . border to painted brick, assyrian. british museum. . anthemion, assyrian tile. british museum. . patera on bracelet of king, assyrian. museum. . border to painted brick, assyrian. british museum. . portion of assyrian pavement. british museum. . natural growth of the comfrey (syrup/zytum qfiizimzle). . scroll form, ancient peruvian pottery. british museum. . indian inlay work from agra. south kensington museum.' . charge known heraldically as the “gurge ” or whirlpool. . scroll form, greek vase. british museum. . shell of the common planorbis. . fossil scorpoid f orm. ammonite. . embroidery, early english or thirteenth century. . omament at base of handle, greek vase. british museum._ british list of ill ustra t ./vs. . natural growth; foliage of the vine. . roman marble mosaic. . ornament painted on african drinking-vessel. . string-course, french romanesque. . stone carving, italian renaissance. south ken- . sington museum. - . natural growth of the honeysuckle. .-. -j ' greek honeysuckle ornaments, vases. british ' museum. ' - . mediaeval embroidery, english, temp. elizabeth. '}natural growth of the violet. . conventional rosette form, gothic, french. - . . . - . - . - . - blackberry, early french. notre dame, paris. early english conventional foliage. early french. cathedral of amiens. anthemion stamped in silver on base of hindu idol. design to illustrate character of metal-work designs. original design based on the nut plant. anthemion form, spanish embroidery. kensington museum. anthemion form, french renaissance. kensington museum. original design based on the violet leaf, fig. . natural growth of the nut plant. ivory carving, byzantine carving. south ken- sington museum. sout.h south . original design based on the leaf of convolvulus. . norman. mildenhall church, wiltshire. . original design based on the convolvulus plant.. carving on weapon, swan river. british museum. . early french gothic. . spandril. hawton church, nottinghamshire. diaper, modern wall-paper. chinese pottery. south kensington museum. original design based on the ivy plant. wood carving, french, . south kensington museum. . chinese, n ankin porcelain. museum. . indian running border. exhibition. . ivory carving, thirteenth century chessman. british museum. rhenish glass, c. museum. . metal work, elizabethan. . heraldic glass, swiss. south kensington museum. . stone carving, italian renaissance. south ken- sington museum. . gothic spandril. tomb in hereford cathedral. l’ south kensington , south kensington . ° - xiii early fourteenth century gothic, french. o. diaper on heraldic glass, english, fifteenth century. south kensington museum. . marble inlay, milanese. south kensington museum. capital, decorated gothic. nottinghamshire. moorish, palace of the alhambra. bordering, greek vase, british museum. early english tile. british museum. bordering, greek vase. british museum. from doorway of chapter house, rochester cathedral. . bordering, greek vase. british museum. . metal work, german. st. mary, rottweil, black forest. heraldic glass, swiss. south kensington museum. mediaeval bookbinding. british museum. persian. on a plate in south kensington museum. . southwell minster, ses- - - - - . . . ° - ment. wood carving, perpendicular. oxford. modern italian wood carving. - a embroidery, tunisian. surface decoration, japanese. museum. border of majolica dish. museum. moulding, norman. st. ethelred, norwich. boss, early english gothic. natural seaweed forms. norman, conventional foliage. running border, greek vase. ° - balliol college, ° - . south kensington - south kensington ° - . . . - - . - - . i - . . british museum. }stem sections of water plants. the scarce swallow-tail butterfly. running border, greek vase. british museum. interlacing pattern, modern carpeting. gothic metal-work crocket. gothic stone carving, german. early form of acanthus capital. temple of the winds. drinking cup, ancient egyptian. british museum. interlacing pattern, stone carving, byzantine. interlacing designs, from celtic monuments. nature and construction of the semicircular arch. interlacing, celtic. interlacing, early italian. interlacing, byzantine. late german gothic. interlacing of dotted lines, celtic ms. embroidery in gold on velvet, tunisian. . - . - . - . - . . original design based on the cross form, pave- _ _ principles of ornamental art. chapter i. influence of geometry on ornamental art—geometry as a science-—its origin—designs, poor in themselves, aided by geometry—good designs enhanced by geometric settings—univeisality of geometric basis—inherent beauty of geometric forms—love of mankind for complexity and mystery—celtic art—the book of kells—richness of l".ftect produced by simple means- aptitude of geometric forms for combinations—counterchange—sense of flatness an essential quality in designs for floor coverings—good examples of this in the early italian churches—symholic geometrical forms—great facility with which pattems of a geometric character can be put together—apparent variation of identical designs by colour—geometric drawings from madras school of art—geometric kinder-garten plaitings—the simulation of relief in geometric patterns-——geometry in classic art—frets, their origin and devel pment—greek, chinese, mexican, celtic, and peruvian ex:unples—geoinetry in mosaic worl-t—egyptian glass.mosaic—o >us t:.r.rellatum—opus f ;glinmn—o,pu: gr¢ranr'rum—opu.r a exana'rz.num—tarsiatura—- marqueteri%buhl work—geometry in gothic art—window traceries——shai't sections—i’ierced window openings in hot climates—examples of geometry in nature—the equilateral triangl<%the right-angled triangle——the square—the oblong- the rhombus or lozenge—the pentagon, hexagon, and octagon__—geometric character of kimrneridge coal-m ney—the circle—the semicircle—trefoil—quatrefoil—the scale form—the waved line—vesica—the guilloche, its origin and development—the spiral line—examples of the spiral line in natnre—example of the spiral line in heraldry— majolica ware, its origin and history—the higher the character of the design the less should the merely mechanical geometric basis be obtrusive. he influence of geometric forms upon design has, in almost all periods of art, been very marked; in some styles, as in those of the thirteenth century known as the early english and early italian, much more so than in others, but in no period of art has it been altogether ignored. geometry, as a science, was one of the earliest studies of mankind; its origin cannot now be determined, though it is legendarily associated with the ancient egyptians. the annual overflow of the nile waters caused, by the destructions of land-marks, such frequent disputations as to rights of property, that it became essential to devise some means by which boundaries could be ascertained and recorded, and, if need be, restored in case of accident; hence, we are told, the origin of geometry, the word, in its derivation greek, literally meaning earth-measurement. the study, however, has no doubt, like many others, been the result of gradual but slow growth, many minds adding stores of fresh knowledge, many centuries still finding it a progressive science. in the british museum our readers may see, among the papyrus scrolls, one containing a treatise on geometry and arithmetic, “ written," according to the label affixed to the inclosing frame, “in the twenty-third year of the king ra-aa-usr, by the scribe aahmet, from an earlier work." we are unable to give definitely the date of this treatise; but we mention it here as an illustration that among this ancient people the science was -cluly cultivated in its theoretical or demonstrative form, no less than the architectural remains prove the possession of a knowledge of it practically and constructively. diodorus, in his writings, says, “the children b ii principles of ornaaiental art equilateral triangles, and squares respectively; the various forms of the guilloche, as in figs. , , and i , based on circles; fig. , a simple line of squares alternating in colour; fig. , a greek example, based, as is so commonly the case, on the spiral line. and figs. and , taken from the lead-lines in early gothic glass, may all be considered examples of the introduction of geometric forms from their pleasing character, with no afterthought or inner meaning. another motive has arisen in the universal love of mankind for the marvellous or the mysterious. hence the great complexity and baffling ingenuity of many involved geometric devices; hence, too, the great love of elaborate interlacing of bands and lines in celtic work, many of them of so minute a character that it seems scarcely possible that human eye and hand could have achieved so wonderful a result. thus mr. vvestwood, one of our great authorities in celtic art, mentions that in a space a quarter of an inch square (if our readers will draw a square of this size themselves, they will realise the matter the better), he counted in the book of kells, one of the most famous and beautiful of these early mss., by means of a powerful magnifying glass, one hundred and fifty-eight distinct interlacings of a white line on a black ground, all unfailingly correct in their alternately over and under interlacing, the whole faultlessly true in curve, the very perfection in this direction of human work. as examples of this love of intricate geometric designs the works of the moors stand pre-eminent; many wonderful illustrations may be seen in owen jones’ work on the alhambra. a good deal of the early italian gothic shows a very similar love for this complexity of geometric forms. fig. , though, as we shall hereafter see, faulty in principle, is at least a good example of the richness of effect producible with little trouble, the whole design being worked in triangles of white, green, and black. in fig. , a very characteristic piece of moorisli work from cairo; in fig. , an intricate example of fret work from a piece of mexican pottery in the museum of economic geology, london; in figs. , , representative types of the richer varieties of greek frets; in fig. , a very good specimen of a chinese fret; in fig. , a series of window piercings from the mosque of dustour khan at ahmedabad in gujerat; and in figs. , , examples of geometric interlacing from byzantine work, we have good and characteristic illustrations of the complexity and richness of character that often become a feature of designs on a geometric basis. -_- ''-~ . h . the aptitude of geometric forms for affording- good combinations is a further recom- mendation; thus circles placed with their diameters in contact, as in fig , leave four-sided intervening spaces bounded by concave curves, pleasing forms in themselves, and contrasting well with the circles. many geometric forms are thus capable of not only giving pleasure in themselves, but also of producing these satisfactory intervening forms. the design, fig. , from the inlaid cabinet already referred to, is a very good illustration of this development, and we see it again very clearly in fig. , where the eight-pointed star alternates with the cross-like form. fig. i , from the same source as fig. , and fig. , a piece of moorish tile-work, are other examples. it is often possible to produce great richness of effect by having the ground and the figure identical in form, the design being developed by a variation of colour. as the simplest possible illustration of what we mean we would point to the alternate black and white squares of a chess-board. the use of this simple design, the juxtaposition of similar squares relieved by change of colour, is very ancient; we meet with it on assyrian pottery, fig. , and on the mummy-wrappings of the ancient egyptians, fig. i . the geomeiric forms and their combinations. simplicity of the form is sometimes somewhat modified by making the forms oblong instead of square, as in fig. , a piece of wood inlay from a spanish cabinet in the south kensington museum; by putting some other form within the alternate squares, as in figs. and . as a still richer modification of this, each square may be thus treated. we see this very well in fig. , where the black squares have within them a grey cross, and the white squares a black one, the result being an amount of richness that conceals at first its near relationship to the simple black and white chequers from whence it sprang. at other times the relationship of the design to the original chequers is still less obvious, owing to each square, as in fig. , an egyptian example, being divided in half by one of its diagonals, and each resulting triangle being of a different colour_ in fig. , an early italian design, it will be noticed that every alternate square has both its diagonals dralwn, the resulting right-angled triangles being alternately wh_ite and black. identity of form fin the pattern and ground appears to have had an especial charm with the moors, arabrs, and hindoos, and it is among ~them that the richest examples are met with, the mosques of cairo, the courts of the alhambra, the bazaars of india, affording many curious and beautiful illustrations. ’ in some cases the process of manufacture tends to suggest this feature in the design, and aids_ its creation,.as in the alternately dark and light parallelograms produced, as in fig. , by weaving; ordinarily, -however, it is the result of free choice, unbiassed by any technical influence. figs. , , , , , , , , all moresque in their origin, are excellent examples of this classof form, known as “counterchange.” fig. , an early italian form; fig. , a piece of marquetry; fig. ; fig. , a specimen of inlaid work in.-ebony- and ivory; fig. , composed, like fig. , entirely of semicircles; fig. , a fragment of a painted tile from the assyrian remains preserved in the british museum; "and figs. , , rude, yet ingenious designs of the islanders of the pacific, are all further examples ofscounterchange arrangements. ' many other illustrations, and those, too, of a much more elaborate nature, might have been chosen, but we have selected those given, that from their comparative simplicity we may the more easily explain the manner in which they are constructed, in order that the designer, having a clue to the principle on which they are formed, may be enabled to create other examples for himself. a square, oblong, rhombus, triangle, or hexagon, being taken, forms that will by juxtaposition of units completely fill a given space, it is enriched by the addition‘ on half its sides of certain forms fixed upon, care being then taken that exactly similar forms are deducted from the remaining sides. in illustrating our remarks by a reference to our figures we may perhaps render our meaning clearer, as, though the idea is simple enough in itself, it is difficult to convey it by description alone. if, then, the student reader will, while referring to fig. , sketch out on a piece of paper some few lines equidistant and at right angles to each other, so as to form a series of squares, he has the basis of the design; if now, bisecting each side of a square and using the point of bisection as the centre, and the distance thence to the angle of the square as a radius, he constructs on each face of the square a semicircle, two of these semicircles being beyond the square, and the remaining and opposite two within it, he will find that he has thus created the unit of the design, the rest of the work being merely a repetition of this. fig. i is formed in exactly the same way, but in this case the radius taken being smaller, a portion of each side of the square enters into the design principles of ornamental art to each other without actually crossing. frets, from their slight resemblance at times to the wards of a key, are sometimes known as “key patterns." in the earlier greek vases in our national collection the gradual development of the fret may be very well seen. in some cases the band to be ornamented has but a series of upright lines, in other cases, as in fig. , we find these joined in pairs, or with a simple arrangement of lines at right angles to them, as 'in figs. , . these arrangements gradually grow more complicated till at length we reach arrangements like figs. , , . in archaic examples the lines are not always at right angles, as we may see in fig. ; nor is the design continuous as in the later examples. figs. , , are examples of this feature of the early frets. fig. may be regarded as a very typical specimen of what is ordinarily understood by the term fret; but in the works of all people we find a delight in patterns of a more or less fret-like form. in fig. , a norman example that has no doubt been suggested by a classic form; and in fig. , an example from new guinea; in figs. , , moresque examples; in fig. , a mexican design, we see instances of the introduction of oblique lines. many of the chinese frets are very curious. they are generally very disconnected in character. figs. , , , , illustrate this peculiarity very clearly. in some cases circular lines are admitted, and this, added to the numerous breaks of connection, renders their origin, as in fig. , scarcely recognisable. figs. , , , , , and , are frets within circles, a very characteristic chinese application of them. other examples calling for passing remark are seen in figs. , , mexican examples, where a simple fret arrangement is developed by a variation of colour; fig. , a very singular example from ancient peruvian pottery, compounded apparently of a fairly good greek type of form alternating with a strangely barbarous addition; figs. and , very rich and satisfactory chinese examples; figs. , , arabian frets, designed like the two preceding examples not as borderings, but for the decoration of large surfaces; and fig. , a celtic example from the old stone cross of kilklispeen, ireland. the mosaic work of classic and mediaeval times is frequently of a geometric character, though in some cases where figure subjects, heads, groups of flowers, and such-like are introduced the setting out /of the panels and the borderings of the pictorial treatments are alone geometric. mosaic in its most extended sense may be understood to be the combination of minute portions of any substance into geometric, foliated, pictorial, or other patterns, the pleasing result of the whole being produced by the aggregation of particles in themselves frequently of rough and irregular shapes; but the term, as generally employed, is taken in a more limited sense to imply the formation of such designs from the employment of various kinds of stone or marble, as porphyry, serpentine, and others, and, at a later period, the introduction of vitrified substances. mosaic has been employed from the remotest ages of which we have any knowledge. it is traceable to the most ancient periods of art, and seems to have arisen amongst the eastern nations, races which even to the present time show a wonderful facility for intricate design and a fine sense of colour. \/ve read incidentally in the book of esther (i. ), in the description of the palace of shushan, belonging to king ahasuerus (who reigned about b.c.), of a pavement of red, blue, white, and black marble, or, according to the reading in the margin, of porphyry, marble, alabaster, and stone of blue colour. the egyptians some three thousand years ago practised a curious kind of mosaic, wherein the pattern was produced by a number of very small rods of coloured opaque glass arranged perpendicularly to the surface of the design, so that if any number of sections q various kinds of mosaic were made horizontally through the glass each would be of exactly the same pattern. the skill required is shown not only in the design but in the minuteness of the workmanship, for some of the details can only be seen by the aid of a magnifying glass, which no doubt was also used in the manufacture, though no example of a lens, so far as we are aware, has been found in the egyptian remains. layard discovered one,_while excavating at nineveh, and there can be but little doubt that the egyptians also were acquainted with its use and properties. winckelman mentions two specimens of this minute egyptian mosaic work, one of which he says though not quite an inch in length and the third of an inch in breadth exhibits on a dark ground a definite design. from the condition of this it was. at first difficult to form any conception of the process of its manufacture, till a small fracture proved that it was composed of filaments passing right through from end to end. the other specimen, about eq-ual in size to the former, was also produced in the same way. it exhibits forms in green, yellow, and white, on a ground of blue. all the details are perfectly distinct, and though the keenest eyesight is needed to trace some of the lines, they yet all pass faultlessly throughout the thickness of the piece and re-appear in fac-simile upon the reverse side. mosaic pavements, not only of a geometric character but also of figure subjects, were, in the reign of the great alexander, common throughout greece. pliny in his writings refers to several eminent workers in mosaic. mosaic work was introduced into rome about b.c., examples being brought amongst other spoils of war from greece, and it was speedily adopted by the wealthier romans in the decoration of their villas. as time passed on various modifications of the working arose, but into some of these, as the opus /ermioulatum, the most elaborate development, limited to the direct representation of figures, animals, and pictorial subjects generally, we need not enter, as they are foreign to our present subject, the use of geometry in art. the opus tessellatum, the most ancient kind of mosaic, was composed of small cubes of marble varying from half an inch to an inch square, and formed into simple geometrical patterns, either curved, as in the scroll and guilloche forms, or straight-lined frets and bands of colour. many fine examples of this kind of mosaic are from time to time discovered in our own country, and may be seen in our leading metropolitan and provincial museums. the desirability, however, of greater variety of colour was speedily felt, and the opus figlizzum was developed to meet this requirement; in this the small portions, technically called tesserae, were formed of a combination of silex and alumina coloured by a metallic oxide. this soon became exclusively used, as from its greater variety of colour, the comparative ease in shaping the pieces required, and its cheapness, compared to that wherein marbles of more or less cost were required to produce the more elaborate effects of colour, the opus tessel/alum was unable to compete with it, though many of the earlier pavements were admirably wrought out, and more especially so, when we consider the very limited means that very often were at the disposal of the artist. thus, to give merely one example, a pavement found at cirencester, representing the sea with appropriate fishes, lobsters, crab, star-fish, spiral and bivalve shells, dragons, and other marine monsters, was composed of the following few and simple elements—the white given by chalk; a cream-colour of hard freestone, grey being produced by the same stone affected by heat; yellow, oolitic pebbles; chocolate, from the old red sandstone; slate-colour, limestone from the lower lias; while the light red, dark red, and black were derived from the clays of the neighbourhood. the opus greaznicum, a glass mosaic, was conventional in design, and frequently used as an inlay. the opus c i q ' p ?/yvciples of ornamental art a/exandrinum was a marble tessellation generally composed of porphyry, a reddish-purple stone, and serpentine, a dull green, arranged into geometric patterns that were cut into the white marble slabs that composed the groundwork of the pavement. sir digby wyatt's work on mosaic will supply numerous examples of all these modifications, and much additional information on the subject to those of our readers who care to go into the subject to a greater extent than we here feel justified in doing. tarsia work, or tarsiatura, was a kind of mosaic in wood, and we see at the present time a very humble imitation of it in the inlaid wood-work on fancy articles, known as tunbridge ware. tarsia, inlaid wood, either stained or of different natural shades, was at one time much used in decoration. it originated in florence, but soon spread throughout italy and france; in the latter country it was termed marqueterie. in the sixteenth century cologne was very famous for its inlaid tarsia-work furniture. in the international exhibition of , a table of spanish manufacture was exhibited, having a decoration upon it in this tarsia, or marqueterie, three million pieces of wood, it was stated, being employed in its formation. buhl-work is another modification of the principle of mosaic. buhl, an italian, who was born in the year , and died in , settled in paris during the reign of louis xiv. the work called after his name, and which at one time was in high repute, was usually produced by an inlay of brass, generally scroll-work, in a ground of tortoiseshell, while at the same time one reisner, a german, who bore the appointment and title of ebiniste du roi, introduced a kind of work owing its effect to the introduction of ebony upon a ground of tulip-tree wood. neither of these two last methods of working possess any great intrinsic beauty, and only owed—at least in a great part—their popularity to the patronage they received at the heads of the court, and of all those who desired to be thought fashionable; and we may add that they appear to have met with the same fate as the once popular but now well-nigh forgotten manias for dutch tulips, cochin-china fowls, potichomanie, and such-like. it will of course be obvious to our readers that many such modifications and combinations of substance might be formed, and we shall merely mention one other, the great use made throughout the middle ages, and more especially in italy, of a decoration upon chests and various articles of domestic furniture, musical instruments, &c., formed by small geometfic patterns of ivory on a ground of dark wood. examples of these are very numerous in the south kensington museum. geometry enters very largely into gothic architecture, and the ornamental details that spring from, and adorn, the construction. many of the most characteristic and typical forms are markedly geometric in character, as, for instance, the dog-tooth moulding of the early english period; the ball-flower of the second or decorated period, shown in the central form of fig. ; and the tudor rose, fig. , of the third or perpendicular period, no less than the ruder forms of the billet, nail-head, zig-zag, &c., in the norman work that preceded these. the window traceries of the various pointed styles are distinctly geometric in their main lines. in the early english gothic, though the lancets are generally simple in form, they at times have trifoliate heads, as in raunds church, northamptonshire ; while at other times two lancets in combination have a pierced circle over them, the first step towards the wonderful richness of form that was ultimately developed. the windows of the early decorated period are perhaps the finest examples to study, as later on a too great redundancy of detail makes itself felt. in the thirteenth century gothic the geometric panels so frequently found in the framework of the stained geometric forms v na ture. i i glass are generally very rich and beautiful in form. shaft sections are almost invariably geometric, in simple work circular or square; at other times a central circular mass, surrounded by smaller shafts of the same section; or quatrefoil, hexafoil, or octofoil; at times, as at canterbury, simple right-line regular hexagons, while in richer examples several geometric forms are combined together. gothic tiles, though frequently decorated with rude figure-subjects, grotesque animals, foliated and floral forms, have these designs generally inclosed within a geometric framework, while at other times the whole field of the tile is covered with a design of geometric character. in hot climates the windows are frequently richly carved. it is essential that, for the sake of air, the openings should be numerous, while, to prevent the penetration of the sun’s rays, they are very small; they are therefore admirably arranged according to some geometric pattern, and frequently one of great intricacy. very good examples may be seen in cairo and throughout india. fig. is a cairene window-piercing; fig. , one from gujerat. geometrical forms are not uncommon in nature. perhaps the most beautiful illustrations will be found in the crystals of falling snow. minute and evanescent as they are, the variety of design in them, and its charming delicacy, are something wonderful. they are all stellate forms with six rays, and of these, three are ordinarily much more fully developed than the three that alternate with them. if any of our readers who are interested in designing will take the trouble to refer to the works of glaisher, lardner, or other reliable authors who figure these crystals, or, better still, will, during a gentle fall of snow, allow a few to fall on black cloth, they will find themselves amply repaid. care must be taken not to breathe on the natural specimens while examining them, or they will at once melt, and all the sharp precision of form that is so beautiful a character in them will dissolve. in a heavy snow-storm the spiculae get broken in their descent, and the forms are often very imperfect. many kinds of star-fish, as, for example, the common “ five-fingers,” as it is often termed, the uraster ruéens of science, and the gibbous starlet, asterina giééosa, assume various modifications of the pentagon. the section of the stem of the stapelia h)/strzlx, a native of south-east africa, is a very beautiful pentagonal star. the stems of the bramble and meadow-sweet, when cut across, are seen to be five-sided, the angles being replaced by rounded lobes. many of our most common flowers are found to be pentagonal in plan, the london pride, avens, crowfoot, cockle, primrose, hawthorn, dog rose, elder, lime, columbine, bitter-sweet, stone-crop, and periwinkle are but a few examples; while the hexagonal arrangement is seen in the lily of the valley, tulip, crown imperial, snowdrop, crocus, and many others. the holly and tormentil, and the great order of plants known as the crucz'fera> or cross-bearers, have their parts based on a square. vve meet with the square again in the sections of the stems of many of the labiate plants, as the white dead nettle, the ground ivy, and numerous others. in the arrow-head, \vater-plantain, frog-bit, water-soldier, and some others, the parts of the plants are in threes. in most aquatic plants, as in the water-plantain, the flowering-rush, and the sedges, the stem is an equilateral triangle in transverse section. it is hardly necessary to pursue this part of the subject any further. we may, however, impress upon the reader the importance of studying from nature herself, if accessible, who will supply many other examples of the geometrical forms that are so common and so pleasing a feature in floral growth. the subject has also been discussed in a work on “ plants, their natural growth and ornamental treatment." prhvciples of ornamental ari'. the honeycomb will no doubt occur to many of our readers as a beautiful example of natural geometry. the cells being hexagonal there is no valuable space wasted, since hexagons in contact with each other completely fill up a given space. there is no intervening interval, as there would have been if circles or pentagons had been employed instead; and springing from this we may mention an example of the commercial advantage of the knowledge of a little geometry. the biscuits for navy use were originally made round, but there was found to be a twofold disadvantage in this. in the first place, in stamping them out of a sheet of prepared dough, all the material was not used up, and secondly, when packed for a voyage they did not fit closely, and as both dough and space were too valuable to be wasted the biscuits were made hexagonal in form, thus getting over both difficulties at once, for now no material is wasted in the stamping out, and no space lost in the stowage. the only simple forms that will thus fit together without intervening spaces are the square, oblong, lozenge, equilateral triangle, isosceles triangle, and hexagon. turning our attention briefly to the leading geometrical forms found in ornamental art, we commence with the triangle, and pass thence to the square, rhombus, and polygon, and the circle and other curved-line figures. the equilateral triangle, except when symbolically introduced, is seldom found alone. we have, however, examples of its use in fig. , a chinese example from the south kensington museum; fig. , a piece of byzantine work; fig. , from majolica ware, curious as having two of its sides curved; fig. , an italian example, and in figs. , , where it forms the bounding line of elizabethan carving. the symbolic use of the triangle is seen in figs. , , , . in two of the examples we have the triangle pure and simple; in the remaining two it is the basis of the curved forms seen in the illustrations. the equilateral triangle is more ordinarily met with in combination with the hexagon than alone. we see instances of this combination in figs. , , and . the right-angled triangle, formed by cutting a square in halves or quarters diagonally, is a much more common form, owing to its working so well with the square. in figs. and , the first a piece of mediaeval wood inlay, the second an ancient egyptian example, the whole design is exclusively composed of these triangles, while in figs. , i , we see them in combination with the square. the isosceles triangle is rarely met with, but we see it in figs. , , ornaments from early etruscan vases in the british museum; in fig. , an elizabethan example, and in fig. , the bordering of a plate of majolica ware in the south kensington collection. the square is a very early and common form, occurring abundantly in the oldest historic monuments and throughout the whole field of ornamental art. we see it in figs. and , early pavements; in fig. , a piece of byzantine carving; in fig. , where the complicated form of chinese fret is based on it; in fig. , a piece of byzantine interlacing from the capital of a column; in fig. , a celtic example; in fig. ; in fig. , a string-course from an italian church; in fig. , an ancient egyptian example, where a very considerable amount of richness of effect is produced by the combination of squares of different sizes; in fig. , a piece of painted assyrian tile; in fig. , a diapering having the square as a ground- work; in figs. and , the first from sevres porcelain, the second on chelsea china; in fig. , the pattern on the dress of an effigy in beverley minster, date fourteenth century; in fig. , another gothic diapering; in fig. , an indian example already referred to; in fig. , carving from a club, swan river, british museum, and in fig. , a piece of pavement. the oblong is by no means so commonly met with as the square, but we i . pri./vciples of ornamental art them. in only one of theitwelve specimens before us as we write does any opening pass right through; it therefore is the only one out of the dozen that accommodates itself to this theory. they can scarcely have been used as money, as they are met with in so limited an area, and of a material too fragile for such a use. they cannot be of british manufacture, as they are so extremely local. the two very different kinds of pottery found would appear to indicate an intercourse between a rude and a highly-civilised people. probably, therefore, the limited area over which they are found is the site of some ancient colony, a belief still further encouraged by the fact of its being on, or near, the coast. the remains cannot be roman, or similar remains would doubtless have been found elsewhere; nor would the romans, or any other warlike people, have established themselves in a position so unfit for a military station. it is conjectured that the remains are phoenician, the phoenicians, a great mercantile people, being known, on the authority of strabo and other writers, to have visited britain at a very early period for purposes of barter, supplying the natives with pottery and other articles in exchange for tin, and that, finding both clay and coal in the isle of purbeck, they established a colony there for the fabrication of the pottery thus required, instead of having the risk and burden of importing it. the circle is naturally the commonest of the curvilinear series of geometric forms, and the earliest applied to decorative art. the following examples will show both from their number how common a form it is, and from the diversity of the localities from whence they are derived, how universal has been its use :—figs. and we have already referred to. fig. , from a piece of early work at metz, shows a pleasing contrast between the circular and angular forms; fig. , a saxon brooch, british museum, owes any beauty it may possess to the ten circles engraved on it; fig. , a pattern engraved on ivory, byzantine workmanship, eleventh century, south kensington museum; fig. , painted on an egyptian mummy-wrapping, british museum; fig. , a simple example of the gothic tracery, that under the name of “wheel " or “ rose " is often of an exceedingly rich character, as may, in a more especial degree, be seen at york, though almost all our cathedrals afford fine specimens; fig. , central figure, that known as the ball-flower, a very characteristic form of the later gothic, generally occurring at slight intervals, as a detached form, in hollow mouldings, or more rarely united by a waving stem or conventional foliage: the two lateral figures are forms very similarly applied to the ball-flower, but both from french buildings. figs. and are from some roman pottery found on the site of a kiln in the new forest. the first of these ideas, the intersecting circles, is a very characteristic form in the decoration of the celebrated oiron, or henri-deux ware. it occurs nine times on a candlestick in the south kensington collection, and the guilloche, another very characteristic ornament based on the circle, seven times; fig. is from a piece f old furniture; figs. and are both ornamental forms based on the circle, and met with on the painted bricks from the palaces excavated at nineveh; figs. and are both circular forms of a patera character, the first from nineveh, the bracelet centre of one of the many jewels represented on the sculptures as worn by the kings, while the second is from an indian textile fabric. the whole of plate xvi. is devoted to forms based on the circle, the most noteworthy being figs. , *, and , all from tiles found on the site of chertsey abbey, and figs. and , examples from early greek pottery in the british museum. as derivatives from the circle, we have the semicircle, trefoil, quatrefoil, and multifoil figures, the scale form, waved line, vesica, and guilloche. it will be easily seen that the scale form and the waved line merely result from two arrangements of semicircles or arcs. principles of ornamental art of the renaissance, and very frequently enriched by a doubling of the lines and the presence of some central ornamental form. figs. and are two very fairly characteristic examples. the wave-line, a name expressive of its resemblance to the undulations of the ocean— a name, however, that would be more fitly applied to the scroll form, seeing that we ordinarily accept as our ideal of the wave the mass of water that with curling crest travels onwards till it rolls over and breaks into a mass of silver foam, rather than the mere heaving swell—is a form of very common occurrence in ornamental art. though occasionally formed of semicircles in juxtaposition, it is more ordinarily less pronounced in its curvature, being composed generally of smaller portions of circular curves, and those of a greater radius than would be possible if the entire semicircle had to be used. two very marked examples may be seen on plate xxii. in fig. the undulation of the line is very slight, while in fig. the amount of curvature is much more considerable: the first illustration is a painted mural decoration from an italian church; the second, a piece of ivory carving of byzantine workmanship. other instances of the use of the wave-line may be seen in fig. , a bordering from a slab of nankin porcelain in the south kensington museum; in fig. , an indian example; in fig. , where it forms the central stem of a simple foliate design from a greek vase; in fig. , taken from the moulding that runs round a doorway, chapter house, rochester cathedral; in fig. , a piece of very characteristic german metal work, from the church of st. mary, rottweil; and in figs. and , two other instances of the occurrence of the line, in designs taken from antique greek vases in the british museum collection. the guilloche, a form produced by the interlacing of circles, is capable of several modifications. fig. may be considered as the simplest and most common form. in fig. we see the same arrangement, but enriched by variation of colour. in fig. the plain central spot of the two preceding examples, both from nineveh, is replaced by a patera or rosette form, which, together with the little angular pieces at the junctions of the circles and the fictitious effect of relief, gives a wholly new character. this example is from a piece of spanish pottery in the south kensington museum. in fig. , a relief example from an old chest in our possession, we see these points still further developed, the angular points being still further enforced by being cut into facets, and the central rosettes all varied in character. in fig. i , a renaissance example from a doorway in rouen, we find a further character of enrichment produced by having the interlacing circles alternately large and small, and alternating again with a similar series, so that the small circle of the one is bounded and circumscribed by the larger one of the other. by having a variation of colour in the two series of circles, a very considerably greater enrichment of effect would readily be produced. in fig. a very rich arrangement is created by the combination into one ornamental composition of two similar guilloche forms parallel to each other. the guilloche, like the fret, the anthemion, and many other ornamental forms, though easily recognisable in its typical form, passes by almost insensible gradations into other developments. thus, in fig. , a speira or plait, our readers will, we think, readily detect the guilloche idea underlying the actual form. it is, in fact, a guilloche form pulled out, so to speak, thus throwing the intersections into angular forms instead of circular. if we could imagine a sufficient pressure exercised in the direction of the length all the forms would become circular, and the result would be a guilloche. in fig. , a simple band examples of the spiral line. i of ornament from a greek vase, we may see the archetype; but little wouldibe needed to form these rude markings into a true guilloche, while, on the other hand, the same rude forms, if placed somewhat more closely together, would suggest the beautiful form known as the “cable” moulding, a form more especially seen in romanesque and norman, though by no means exclusively confined to such work. a very little modification in figs. and would convert them into guilloche forms. in fig. , the placing of a smaller circle within and tangential to the larger would at once produce fig. i , while the placing of the detached circles of fig. in contact would result in a form like fig. : in either case a true guilloche. the guilloche and scroll forms, though more especially features of classic ornament, were known in egypt many ages before they were adopted by the greeks, and the most complicated form of guilloche covered a whole egyptian ceiling upwards of a thousand years before it was represented on the comparatively late objects found amidst the remains of assyrian art from nineveh. the scroll or spiral line has from its beauty been largely employed in decorative art. in many cases it forms the entire feature, as in fig. , a greek example; or in the ruder form, fig. , met with on a piece of ancient peruvian pottery in the british museum; though more ordinarily it merely forms the groundwork for a design of a more or less conventionally foliate character, as in fig. , a piece of indian inlay work; in fig. , an example of english thirteenth century embroidery; or in fig. , painted at the base of the handle of a greek vase. it is also seen in the ionic and other capitals. other examples of its use may be seen in fig. , from a roman mosaic; in fig. , a piece of thirteenth century carving in walrus ivory, the ornament on the back of one of the bishops’ chairs in a set of chessmen found at uig, isle of lewis, and now preserved in the british museum; in fig. , an example of marble inlay on a chimney-piece of milanese work, dating about the year , and now in the collection at south kensington; and in fig. , a moresque example from the palace of the alhambra. many beautiful examples of the spiral line may be met with in nature. amongst fossil remains the various species of ammonite,*‘ as in fig. , supply many interesting illustrations, while those of our readers to whom such remains are not easily accessible for reference will find other instances almost as beautiful in many existent species of mollusca. the planorbis, fig. , is a good and very easily procurable example. a net swept along the bottom of almost any pool will scarcely fail to bring to the surface several specimens of it. in plant life the same beautiful line is seen in the inflorescence of the comfrey, fig. , a plant very commonly to be met with on the banks of our streams; and again in the flower-heads of the forget~me-not, borage, and several other plants. the opening leaves of many of our ferns afford equally good examples, the fronds being rolled up in what is termed a circinate manner, the spiral gradually unwinding as the vigorous spring life asserts its power. the spiral, under the name of the gurge or whirlpool, is one of the forms of heraldic charges. whenever introduced in any arms it will always be found to be blazoned in azure and argent. we see it represented in fig. . it is a somewhat unusual form. the guilloche and spiral forms that as we have seen are in a special degree characteristic of classic work, are naturally very frequently found in the ornament of the period of great ' so called from its resemblance to the horns seen on the statues of jupiter ammon, a deity whose symbol was the ram. d about ma ] z c. ware. raphaelle to whom our thoughts at once turn when the name is mentioned. the figures are ordinarily outlined in blue or black, the draperies being coloured, and the creamy-white of the ground-colour of the ware left for the flesh. the glaze is either of a rich ruby colour, and metallic iridescent lustre, or a brilliant yellow, having all the splendour and sheen of gold. pesaro, urbino, and florence were all seats of the manufacture. the wares made at'gubbio are still more famous for their splendid lustre, while the ruby tints of pesaro are carried to a yet higher and unrivalled degree of intensity of colour. some examples are also noted for their golden and coppery lustres. faenza, whence the term fayence applied by french archaeologists and others to majolica ware, castel-durante, arezzo, perugia, bologna, ferara, ravenna, deruta, and other italian towns had also schools of ceramic art. many fine examples of faenza ware, generally known by its dark blue ground with arabesque forms in orange upon it, or alternate panels of those colours, may be seen in the south kensington museum. the death of duke guidobaldo was a heavy blow to the florentine manufacture, as, when his fostering patronage was withdrawn, there was not a sufficient public demand for the higher-class work to maintain the old standard of excellence. the importation also about this time of several fine examples of chinese pottery into europe, and the consequent diversion of public taste, may have tended still further to influence adversely the sinking manufacture. the secret of the ruby lustre was lost even in the sixteenth century, though it has recently been imitated with a fair amount of success by the potters of italy, france, and england. the various richly-coloured lustres were produced by preparations of lead, silver, copper, and gold, while a very brilliant white glaze, with the prized metallic lustre, was produced from tin. hitherto we have, in all our remarks, been dealing with the simpler forms of design; and though in these geometry is the life and often the only feature, we must still bear in mind that as we rise higher, employing treatments of animal or vegetable form, the geometry sinks into a subordinate place. it is still, however, very useful in setting out and defining leading lines and masses in a design; but beyond that, except in minor cases, it is powerless to please. it is valuable, for instance, in fourteenth century diaper, where the surface is cut up into squares or lozenges, both as boundary lines, and also on account of the contrast thus obtained; but the part we now admire is not the geometric basis of the design, but the delicate filling in of the spaces with oak, buttercup, or maple; and we unconsciously admire these the more on account of the inclosing straight lines that we should sorely miss if removed. the higher the character of the design the less should the merely mechanical geometric basis be obtrusive. its presence is necessary, and as we have seen, is an enhancement of the beauty of the composition, but its place is nevertheless a subordinate one. chapter ii. ./'esthetic art—symbolic art—literal meaning of symbolism—its use in religion and heraldry—the medizeval pictorial allegories— susceptibility to symbolic teaching in the early history of a people—parables—fables—proverbs—symbolism as a veiling of truth—symbolism as an aid to the illustration of truth-symbolism may be of action, of language, of colour, of form, and of number—symbolic actions amongst savage races—the rites of the levitical priesthood—the symbolic use of the fish in christian art—the early christian church in the catacombs of rome—the vesica piscis—the fish symbols of the egyptians—dagon of the philistines—the sphinx, classic and e;yytian__-the dolphin in classic and renaissance art- the serpent, tortoise, lizard, and crocodile—serpent \vorship of the jews, mexicans, and egyptians—insect forms, the scarabarus and butterfly-—the phienix—the dragon and hydra as symbolic of the evil principle—the dragon in chinese art—the ibis—nisroch of the assyrians—the owl—the cock—the dove—the dove orchid—the raven—the magpie-— the i’eac ck—the pelican in christian art—the pelican in the old testament—the eagle in roman, christian, and heraldic art—the robin—the dog—the stag in classic and christian art—the vvolf—the egyytian apis—the sacred bull of brahn a—the ]ackal—the cat—the hippopotamus—the pig—the ass—the lion as a symbol in a good and evil sense- the evangelistic symbols—the creatures seen in the visions of ezekiel and st. ]ohn—\vyckliffe on the evangelistic symbols— the human form in gothic work—the representation of historic events, with an undercurrent of symbolic meaning—figures of the jewish and christian churches—representations of the soul of man—'l'he agnus dei—the hand and arm of the lord- the mosaics of st. mark, veniee—mosaic as a means of keeping permanent records of great but fading pictures—need of individual research and study. n the present and following chapter it will be our endeavour to give our readers some insight into the nature of symbolic art. we shall only be able to touch upon a few of the salient points; nevertheless, we trust that even this necessarily brief treatment of the subject will not be found without interest and profit; that enough may at least be brought forward to testify to the interest and advantage to be derived from pursuing the matter, and that our remarks may thus form, at all events, a foundation for the after-labours of any who may care to pursue the inquiry into greater detail. in the present chapter we propose to deal with the symbols derived from the animal kingdom, the fishes of the sea, the birds of the air, the beasts of the field, some realistic, others in their representations grotesque in the highest degree, the use of the human and angelic forms, and lastly the suggestion of the deity; reserving for future consideration the great use made of forms derived from the vegetable kingdom, the influence of colour and number in art, and concluding with remarks on those forms that, like the cross and sacred monogram, forming a minor division, would appear to defy classification, having no relation to natural objects animate or inanimate. symbolic forms can never in the future attain to the importance they have done n the past, since, living as we do in a time when the opportunities both for imparting and acquiring knowledge are so great and widely spread, there does not exist the same necessity for this picture language. it nevertheless is interesting, and to the artist distinctly valuable, since we are by this means enabled to look through and beyond the rude forms and to grasp the inner meaning; for though in many cases the devices appear grotesque and almost barbarous in their quaintness, we must remember that they were but the outer shell, and often beneath a rugged exterior bore golden wealth of significance to those to whom they were intended to appeal. all art, though capable of being divided into many diverse classes, may be broadly pi ct oria l a lle g orje . . massed under two great heads: the art that is sensuous, appealing to the eye from its beauty; or, secondly, the art that is symbolic, that touches a deeper chord, appeals to the mind or heart, that besides the outward seeming has an inner and deeper significance. all the noblest art-work that ever existed, that ever can exist, must belong to this latter class. the thoughts evolved from one work of art may be intrinsically nobler than those derived from another; but our readers will, we trust, agree with us that all artistic work is good only so far as it affords food for reflection—so far as it enables us to see something of the mind of the man—so far as it appeals, not to the senses only—like the zeuxis grapes that the birds, if we may credit the old story (which personally we decline to do), came to peck at—but to the mind, the heart, the soul of man, those priceless gifts that lift him so immeasurably higher than the beasts that perish. the word symbolism is greek in its origin, and signifies literally a throwing or putting together of things, a positive and visible form implying a something else that is itself often incapable of representation, as, for instance, truth; a form" that may in itself be trivial in appearance, barbarous and archaic in its representation, that nevertheless, by education of thought and past association of ideas, is the sign or symbol of something higher than merely meets the eye. symbolism, therefore, has naturally been largely employed as a ready means of impressing truths, in themselves great, in a simple language. we accordingly, then, expect to find it largely used in the service of religion, as a method of expressing abstruse doctrines in a way that may appeal more readily to simple hearers, as, for instance, in the old legend of the preaching of st. patrick, wherein we are told that he illustrated the doctrine of the trinity in unity to his rude congregation by the familiar demonstration afforded by the trefoil growing at their feet, the three distinct leaflets combining, as we may see, fig. , into one perfect leaf. it also, for the same reason, enters largely into the forms used in heraldry, the lilies of the bourbons, the roses of the lancastrians and yorkists, the broom of the plantagenets, being all forms in themselves familiar and commonplace, that nevertheless, by association with dynasties and great historic events, derive a greatly added weight of significance. these are but a few examples; many others may be very readily added by our readers on very brief consideration. in the middle ages a great use was made of pictorial allegories as a feature in the pageants of the day. thus, on the entry of queen elizabeth into the cityof london at her coronation, there was on either side of the gateway a hill raised, the one on the north side rugged, barren, and stony. beneath a tree, “all withered and deadde," sat a man in mourning garb and posture, having over his head a tablet inscribed “ ruinosa respublica," other tablets about him bearing such sentences as those following :—“ blindnes of guides," “civill disagreement,” “flattring of princes." “ the other hylle on the south syde was made fayre, freshe, grene, and beautifull, the grounde thereof full of floures and beautie; and on the same was erected also one tree, very freshe and fayre, under the whiche stoode uprighte one freshe personage, well apparayled and appointed, whose name was written, ‘respublica bene instituta.’ and uppon the same tree also were fixed certayne tablets conteyning sentences, as, ‘feare of god ;' ‘ a wise prince ;’ ‘obedient subjectes.’” between these two hills was a cave from whence, on the queen's arrival at the spot, issued father time, and his daughter truth, who handed to the queen the word of truth, the bible in english. on the entry of charles i. into edinburgh, the city was personified by a fair lady, “attired in a sea-greene velvet mantle, her sleeves and under roabe of blew tissue, with blew buskins on her feete. about her necke shee wore a chaine of diamonds; the dressing of her head prhvciples of ornamental ari'. represented a castle with turrets." she was attended by religion, trampling beneath her feet superstition, while on the left side stood justice trampling upon oppression, “a person of fierce aspecte in armes, but broken all and scattered." in the early art-history of any people, as in the childhood of the individual, there is found to be a peculiar susceptibility to, and attraction in, this picture teaching. in the first period of art the rude form of the god or demi-god is either exceedingly vague in the significance implied, or is only saved from this by an accompanying inscription; but very soon, in literature, some distinctive epithet, the “cloud-compelling," or some such other picturesque title, if we may be allowed the term, is connected with the name; while in art some appropriate symbol is added, that serves to convey to the spectators the artist's aim, and stamps the person represented with the needful distinctness and individual character. hence the eagle of jove, the trident of neptune, the jackal of anubis, the crescent moon of diana in pagan art, or the keys of st. peter, the anchor of st. clement, the spiked wheel of st. catherine, the lion of st. jerome, the saw of st. simon, the gridiron of st. lawrence, in christian art. parables, fables, proverbs, whether sacred or secular, are all further manifestations of this love of the symbolic, and it is doubtless owing to such picturesqueness of treatment that the “ pilgrim’s progress," the “ holy vvar," and works of that character, have retained such hold upon their readers, as in all these cases a teaching by pictorial imagery is employed to a marked degree. the following examples of proverbial philosophy—“ a cat in mittens catches no mice;" “a rolling stone gathers no moss;” “there is a silver lining to every cloud ;" “ all is not gold that glitters "—will suffice as illustrations of our meaning. symbolism, though ordinarily a convenient and suggestive way of conveying instruction, has at times been employed in a precisely opposite direction, as a veiling of truths that it was not felt desirable on some account too distinctly to proclaim. thus, among the egyptians, the priesthood reserved to themselves an inner meaning in many of their rites—a meaning unknown to all but themselves or those specially initiated—and in the same way the early christians thus also employed forms that, though full of meaning to themselves, had no significance that was apparent to the heathens amongst whom they dwelt; while an illustration more familiar to some of our readers will be seen in those mysterious little cakes that passed from hand to hand throughout india, to the wonder of the europeans, until the outbreak of the great mutiny threw a sudden and lurid glow of light upon their meaning, and all that it involved. symbolism may make itself felt in several ways. there may be symbolism of action, of language, of colour, form, or number. it is in these three latter directions that symbolism is most ordinarily encountered in ornamental art; for though the moors, for example, delight greatly in religious, poetic, and sententious phrases, and introduce them largely in their ornament, the cufic letters entwining very ingeniously and happily with the conventional foliage employed, this must be considered an exceptional use, and one that we can better consider in our remarks on inscriptions and writing forms, as an element in design. symbolism of action may be seen in the solemn burying of the hatchet and the smoking of the pipe of peace, in the eating of bread and salt, or in the passing of the loving-cup at the banquets of the more civilised. it may be very beautifully seen in the touching custom of the seneca indians of north america, where, on the death of a young girl of the tribe, her companions each get, if possible, a young bird, and cherish it till it is strong early christian art enough to fly. it is then taken to the grave of the loved and lost, and with many a kiss ' and fond caress released, from a belief that it will not stay its flight until in the dim spirit land it has delivered to the departed its load of loving remembrance. \ve may see it, too, running throughout the rites of the levitical priesthood, abounding, as these do, in types and shadows, emblems and symbols. \/ve need here only refer to the incident of the scapegoat, a story so familiar that we dwell no longer on it, nor pause to deduce the inner meaning of the act. symbolism of language, in addition to its use, as already mentioned, by the moors, is largely met with amongst various semi-civilised races, and is more especially characteristic of that period in a people's history. the languages of the indians of north america, and of the new zealanders, for instance, are largely indebted to these allusions for their force. it is also a very conspicuous feature in the languages of the eastern races. biblical examples may very commonly be met -with; as in the blessing given to jacob, “with corn and wine have i sustained him," corn, the source of the staff of life, and wine to make glad the heart of man, being selected as symbolising the general material and temporal prosperity which the expression was meant to convey. or again, “there shall come forth a rod out of the tree of jesse, and a branch shall grow out of his roots." of the three art-applications, form, colour, and number, the first is decidedly the most important. we shall therefore apply ourselves in the first place to its consideration, reserving for awhile the other and less weighty points; and further at present limiting it, as we have already said, to a consideration of animal form alone. in christian art the fish is one of the earliest forms we meet with, being found, and very freely, in the catacombs of rome. rome, like many other cities, was built of the stone furnished on its site, the supply of material for many hundreds of years being derived from beneath the surface on which the city actually stood; hence the ground is largely honeycombed with vaults and passages stretching to now unknown distances. these quarries, on their disuse, became the asylum of the early church, a retreat during life, a quiet resting-place at death, for those who escaped the famished lion or the consuming flame. in the persecution under diocletian several hundreds took refuge here, and being closely pressed were all slain. stephen, xystus, and caius, bishops of the early church, suffered martyrdom here; and here, too, during the persecutions under nero, trajan, domitian, adrian, aurelius, diocletian, maximinian, and several others, thousands fell, and were buried by their companions on the withdrawal of the roman soldiers. in niches cut tier above tier in the rocky walls are found the remains of countless numbers of this noble army of martyrs, their resting-places being ordinarily covered with a slab of rock, and on this frequently an inscription or rude symbolic form. we cannot now presume to positively define the motives that led to the symbolic use of the fish in christian art. it is curious that the letters of the greek word for fish are also the initial letters of the words jesus christ, the son of god, the saviour, while tertullian, and several others of the early writers, suggest a new train of thought, since they frequently term their converts pisciculi, in allusion to their new life through the waters of baptism. in some instances the fish may have been rudely carved on the slab in token that the deceased was a fisherman or sailor, but as signs that clearly refer to the worldly occupations are few in number, while the fish-form is very abundant, we may, we think, in most cases at least, very reasonably assume that it was employed as a symbol, not in the lower, but in the higher, sense. the crossed fish, shown in fig. ' , is an principles of orna./iiental ari". early and good example of the treatment often adopted. in the works of the early illuminators many examples of the use of the fish will be found, in some cases as an accessory, while at other times the flexibility of the creature is taken advantage of in the: formation of entire letters : a letter c may be composed entirely of the fish-form, while two in combination are used to form the letter o. many examples of these grotesque letters may be seen in any good standard work on illumination, or, better still, on consultation of the original mss. in our national collections, and the rich libraries of our own and continental cathedrals. though the vesica form based on the fish-form is still used in ecclesiastical architecture, and throughout the english and continental styles of gothic, the natural representation of the fish disappeared about the fifteenth century, and the cross definitely took its place as the sole and universal symbol of the christian faith. the fish was a very favourite symbol of the egyptians, owing, like the lotus plant, its importance to its association with the sacred river nile, the source of the fertility and consequent prosperity of the land. in fig. i we have an example from an ancient egyptian source, a plate in the museum at berlin, of the use of both these symbols. apart from its symbolic import, the design is in itself quaint and pleasing. the reader will notice that though there are apparently three complete fish, one head and one eye are common to them all. certain species were accounted sacred, the la,-tidutus, martes, oxyr/zz'nc/ms, and p/zagrus, and these it was profanation to touch. the oxyr/zinc/zus is still very commonly met with in the nile, and .is easily recognisable from its long and sharply-pointed head, a feature that readily assists its identification in the bronzes, sculptures, and paintings of the egyptians. it was one of the symbols of the goddess athor, who held a parallel place in egyptian mythology to that of venus among the greeks, and several specimens of it have been found embalmed at thebes. the fish, in its various specific forms, was not only represented in the paintings, but, like the smmémus, was made into little charms or trinkets, and worn on the person; hence examples are not uncommon, for these little charms, having a religious significance, were frequently placed on the body of the deceased, and are therefore often found on the opening of a place of sepulture. the great god dagon of the philistines was, like the sphinx and many other symbols, of a composite nature, being partly human, partly fish-like." fig. will enable our readers to form an idea of its character. it is from the deeply interesting series of assyrian sculptures that we are so fortunate in possessing among the other treasures of our national museum. it will be remembered that it was during a great sacrifice to this idol that the captive samson was brought forth in mockery; for in the inspired word we read that “the lords of the philistines gathered them together for to offer a great sacrifice unto dagon their god, and to rejoice: for they said, our god hath delivered samson our enemy into our hand. and when the people saw him, they praised their god: for they said, our god hath delivered into our hands our enemy, and the destroyer of our country, who multiplied our slain. and it came to pass, when their hearts were merry, that they said, call for samson, that he may make us sport” (judges xvi. , , ). it was this dagon, too, that fell before the captive ark of god at ashdod, and was broken in pieces. “only the fishy part of dagon was left unto him." \-'e need not quote the story in full. any who care to follo out the narrative can do so on turning to i samuel, v. in the case of many composite figures we are able to detect the motive that influenced the combination, some noble attribute of an animal, as the strength and generosity of the lion, being united with the intellect of the man; but we confess ourselves quite unable to suggest what hidden early ciiristian art. meaning may have been symbolised to his worshippers by the figure of dagon, the com- bination being a most unusual one. the sphinx form is very commonly met with in ancient art, and more especially in egyptian and greek work. our student-readers must bear in mind the marked difference of treatment in the works of these two peoples. with the greeks the sphinx is always winged, always woman-headed; while with the egyptians, with one exception, it is never winged nor woman-headed, the head being sometimes that of a man, at others that of an animal; hence archaeologists speak of the androsphinx, criosphinx, hieracosphinx, to distinguish these various modifications of the form in egyptian art. the one exception to the otherwise universal law that regulated the egyptian form is seen in a woman-headed sphinx sculptured on the throne of horus, a king of the eighteenth dynasty, but the inscription on it shows that it is intended to represent his royal consort, and thus a very curious and unique deviation of the rule is accounted for. among the greeks and romans the dolphin, represented in a very conventional way, was accepted as one of the symbols of neptune, and therefore of maritime power. fig. , an illustration of its use, and of the suppression of natural fact to suit artistic require- ments, is from a shield painted on a greek vase; the original is in the british museum. fig. is from a piece of inlay work from a milanese chimney-piece, while fig. o , a still more conventional treatment, is from a piece of renaissance carving. the artists of the renaissance not only embodied the main principles of classic art in their compositions, but also freely introduced literal copies of ornamental and other details; hence the constant recurrence of forms essentially heathen in their associations. the dolphin frequently occurs on the various forms of majolica ware. the serpent, as a symbol of sin, is naturally, from the direct reference to it in the scriptures, a very early form. in many old illustrations representing the temptation in eden it is represented with a human head. in the coins of constantine, the first christian emperor, the sacred monogram surmounts a standard, the whole being placed on a serpent, to symbolise the final victory of christianity over paganism. it is very remarkable to notice that though the early christians were disciplined in so severe a school, and with the possibility of a violent death hanging over them continually, a possibly swift release on the spot through death, or the temptations, the taunts, the bribes, the scoffings of the judgment-hall, the lonely death in the darkness of the dungeon, or the passage from life temporal to life eternal, amidst the cries of the thousands who pitilessly thronged the amphitheatre to see the followers of this new religion torn to pieces in the arena by the lions, their lives seem to have been singularly child-like in their faith. they walked as seeing him who is invisible; spiritual strength triumphed over bodily weakness; to them death had no terror. one inscription commemorates “the sleeping-place of elpis," while from another we learn that “ porcella sleeps here in peace." we look in vain for any representation of the evil spirit or his kingdom, though in the middle ages we find both represented with every accuracy of morbid horror. hell is generally with the mediaevals the yawning mouth of a huge monster breathing smoke and flame, or a large cauldron set on flames, into either of which attendant spirits hurl their victims, and often with a grim touch ot humour, and bitterness of satire, we find some of these with kingly crowns, and monks’ cowls, and bishops’ mitres. it is curious to note that when the spaniards entered the city of mexico they found that the doorway of the temple of the god of the air was made like the mouth of a serpent or dragon, painted, to quote one of their chronicles, “with foule and devilish gestures, with great gums and teeth wrought, e principles of oriva/iiejvtal art -which was a thing to feare those that should enter in thereat, and especially the christians, unto whom it represented very hell, with that ugly face and those monstrous teeth." reptile forms seem to exercise a peculiar fascination. the tortoise, lizard, and crocodile are in some countries objects of worship as incarnations of deity. it is a tortoise, our readers will remember, that, according to hindu belief, sustains our world, though what sustains the tortoise has never we believe been satisfactorily settled; while the serpent in almost every country is an object of dread, a creature to be propitiated, and in the early period of most nations an object of worship. it is an especially common form in ancient mexican and egyptian art. in figs. , , i , , , we have a series of examples from old mexican mss. the first of these may possibly represent the expulsion of the evil principle from heaven, or the erratic course of a comet through the starry firmament into space and the outer darkness. both explanations have occurred to our own mind, and as, owing to our ignorance of the language in which the accompanying inscriptions are given, the whole matter is purely one of conjecture, we content ourselves with offering our readers both suggestions, leaving them to favour one or the other, or to develop fresh ones in explanation of the enigma. the asp, sacred to ranno and neph, and the horned snake, fig. , supposed to have been dedicated to amun, are both frequently represented in egyptian art, and embalmed specimens are deposited in the tombs of thebes. fig. i , .curiously like fig. , the mexican treatment, is from an egyptian papyrus in the british museum. we have in fig. an egyptian illustration not merely of the serpent but of its worship. the jews, ever prone to fall into idolatry, at one time made an image of a calf, a form that was no doubt suggested to them by the apis worship that had grown familiar to their eyes in egypt, and we afterwards find them worshipping the serpent. it will be remembered that the israelites, giving utterance to seditious murmurings at the place called afterwards zalmona, z'.e., the place of the image, were assailed by fiery serpents, and that jehovah, at the prayer of the people, instructed moses to make a serpent of brass for the deliverance of the people, as narrated in the book of numbers, chap.xxi. this memorial of their wonderful deliverance, at first preserved with religious care as a monument of god's goodness, became ultimately itself an object of adoration, until hezekiah, purifying the nation of the idolatry into which it had for a long time sank, “removed the high places, and brake the images, and cut down the groves, and brake in pieces the brazen serpent that moses had made: for unto those days the children of israel did burn incense to it; and he called it nehushtan," a contemptuous name, signifying a “piece of brass," in order to show that having fulfilled its providential purpose it possessed no inherent sanctity. insect forms appear but little in symbolic art. the most conspicuous instance is found in the constant recurrence of the scarabaeus, or sacred beetle, in egypt. it was dedicated to the sun and to pthah. numerous examples of it will be found in any good museum in the scope of which archaeology at all enters; as, besides being sculptured or painted in mural decoration or papyri, as in fig. , it was largely worn as a charm, little figures of it being made in metal or glazed earthenware, and these are found, like the small fish symbols, already referred to, in great abundance in the tombs. the scarabaeus is often placed on the breast of the mummy, or on the inclosing cartonage, an emblem of the protection of deity. the common watchman, or dor-beetle, the geotrupes stercorarius of naturalists, the “shard-borne” beetle of the poet, is very similar both in appearance and instincts to the sacred beetle of the ancient egyptians. bird-forms as symbols the butterfly is but rarely seen in early work, for though the greek word for the butterfly and the spirit of life is the same-—psyc/ze—yet, owing to the imperfect idea of all pre-christian races, except the jews, as to the immortality of the soul, much of the force of the symbol was in those early days lost; while in even later times, owing to a want of study of the lower forms of nature, the analogy between the spirit of life and the butterfly—first appearing as a creeping toiling caterpillar, its span of existence apparently over, burying itself in the earth a seemingly lifeless chrysalis, finally at the appointed season soaring above its tomb into the sunlight, the perfect insect—-was not perceived ; as throughout the middle ages little attention, worthy the name, was paid to the study of natural history, and the few grains of truth acquired were lost amidst the mass of error, “ travellers’ tales,” and old wives’ fables. in some few examples, however, of greek art, the butterfly is represented as hovering over the dead. the fabled phoenix rising from its ashes is another symbol of the resurrection of the dead, found from time to time throughout the whole range of mediaeval art. the dragon, another fabulous monster, like the hydra, represents the principle of evil; hence dragon-slaying is, in mythical story, the hero's task, a labour of hercules, the task of perseus, the chivalrous duty of st. george. in some old representations of the tempter he is shown as a winged serpent, or dragon, resting on the shoulder of a man, or hovering by him, and whispering suggestions of evil in his ear. in china the dragon is the symbol of the imperial power, and chinese art abounds with representations of dragon-forms, grotesquely, morbidly horrible. many examples may be seen in the ceramic ware and bronzes fabricated by the celestials, and preserved in the south kensington and other collections. passing now to bird-forms, we find among the egyptians several species held sacred. of these the ibis occupies the highest place, being dedicated to thoth. numerous embalmed specimens have been found at memphis, thebes, and hermopolis: some of these may now be seen in the british museum. it is often represented on the sculptures and paintings. the goose, fig. i , was sacred to seb. the hawk and vulture, fig. i , were sacred to re and other deities. the vulture (called by the arabs nissr) was also the symbol of nisroch, one of greater deities of the assyrians. our readers will remember that it was while worshipping before the altar of nisroch, his god, that sennacherib, one of the greatest of the assyrian monarchs, was slain by his sons. a representation of the figure is seen in our st illustration, derived from the nineveh slabs now preserved in the british museum. the owl, whose silence and solemnity of expression have been taken as tokens of the possession of a considerable depth of thought, has thus, like some other bipeds, cheaply gained great credit for wisdom, and as such is the symbol of minerva or pallas, the goddess of learning and culture. the greeks worshipped her under the name of athene, named their chief city in her honour, and erected the parthenon for her service. pan‘/leno: is the greek for maiden, hence the word parthenon literally means the temple of the virgin. we have in fig. a representation of the owl from a greek coin; the olive introduced is another symbol of the goddess. the treatment is decidedly archaic. in tartary, according to pennant, the owl is equally honoured, though for another reason. the mongols and natives almost pay it divine honours, because they attribute to this bird the preservation of the founder of their empire, genghis-khan. that prince, with his small army, happened to be surprised and put to flight by his enemies, ~ an!/iial-forms as symbols there is a very fine one at norwich, and in an old catalogue of the church furniture at durham another is mentioned. dante, in his “ paradise,” speaks of our saviour as “ nostro pellicano." fig. is an example of its use in art, taken from some mediaeval stained glass now in the south kensington museum. by the writers of the old testament the pelican is always regarded as a bird of solitude and ill-omen, a symbol of desolation and ruin; thus, in one of the psalms, david, in speaking of his troubles, says of himself, “i am like a pelican of the wilderness, i am like an owl of the desert,” and zephaniah says, speaking of the downfall of assyria and the destruction of the capital city, nineveh, that “both the pelican and the bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels of it; their voice shall sing in the windows; desolation shall be in the thresholds.” the pelican. was one of the unclean birds of the mosaic law. the eagle, the king of birds, has little, if any, connection with christian art, except, as we shall see presently, in one marked particular; but is frequently introduced in the various periods of art in which heraldic devices form any feature. as the bird of jove, it w_as chosen by the romans as a symbol of their power; it appears largely on their coinage, and was borne on their standards, or “ eagles," as they were on this account termed. the eagle, as in our illustration, fig. i , ordinarily bears the thunderbolt, another symbol of jove. the french, austrians, prussians, russians, and americans have all adopted the eagle as a national symbol, some treatments of it, as the french and american, being naturalistic; others so far conventionalised as to justify its being, like the russian bird, double-headed. fig. , .a fairly naturalistic example, is taken from one of the mosaics in the church of st. louis des invalides, in the crypt of which repose, according to his wish,* the ashes of the first napoleon. fig. i , a highly conventional treatment, is from some swiss glass, dating i , preserved in the magnificent art collections at south kensington. a familiar little bird symbol amongst ourselves is seen in the constant association of the robin with christmas; for as surely as the year draws to its close, the familiar emblem figures on cards, magazine covers, et /qoc genus omne, as a sign and a reminder that yule- tide is rapidly approaching. among the higher animals fewer examples of symbolic 'use occur than we should, judging by their diversity of disposition, have supposed: for while in popular estimation the pig not unworthily represents gluttony; the ass, stupidity; the fox, craft; the dog, fidelity; and the horse, strength; but little use is made in ornamental art of several of these; though many of our readers will no doubt be able to recall isolated examples, as in the case of the dog at the feet of the effigy of many a crusader in our cathedrals and old abbey- churches. mummies of the dog are frequently met with in upper egypt; it was one of the animals dedicated to anubis. we may mention in passing that the dog was one of the unclean animals of the jews; and though, owing to their great value as scavengers, they are tolerated in eastern towns, there is a strong prejudice against them, any contact with them being a defilement. the mohammedans have a similar feeling, based upon several passages of the koran—as, for instance, that whosoever keeps a dog, except for the protection of his cattle, for hunting, or for guarding his com-fields, will in the future life suffer diminution of his reward; while in another place the prophet affirms that angels will not enter a household wherein there is a dog. ' “je désire que mes cendres reposent sur les bords de la seine, au milieu de ce peuple francais que j"ai tant aimé.” the inscription over the entrance to the tomb. symbols common to early periods of ari! ; penalty that, according to the egyptian code, at all met the enormity of killing any of the animals; and during the occupation of egypt by the romans some hundreds of the conquerors were slain in a popular tumult, one of the legionaries having killed a cat. the hippopotamus, fig. , a little figure from the museum of economic geology, london, the pig, and ass, were symbolic of typho, the evil spirit. in christian art the lion is employed as an emblem of strength, majesty, and fortitude; or, in an evil sense, as referring to him who “walketh about as a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour.” it is sometimes used as a symbol of the second person of the trinity, in allusion to such passages as “the lion of the tribe of judah hath conquered." the great use, however, of the lion in religious art is as the symbol of st. mark; the angel, the lion, the ox, and the eagle being the four forms especially devoted to the four evangelists, and in the order mentioned: thus, st. matthew has the angel; st. luke, the ox ; st. ]ohn, the eagle. as some of our readers may, on commencing these studies, find a certain difficulty in remembering the appropriate symbol of each person, they will find the following mechanical aid to memory very useful :—if the word aloe be taken, it will be found to be composed of the initial letters of the four symbols, angel, lion, ox, eagle, and in their proper order for matthew, mark, luke, and john. this key-word will at once solve any further difficulty. these four figures, the man or angel, the lion, ox, and eagle, are in a marked degree common to almost all early periods of art. thus, in egypt, we find the sphinx human, and hawk or eagle-head, or l-eonine in character; while in the assyrian remains we are confronted by bulls or lions with human heads, or figures in human form, but with the wings and heads of eagles. the four creatures seen in the wonderful vision of the prophet ezekiel were of this nature, for he expressly says in his description that they were similar to\ those he‘ had seen while a captive by the river chebar—a river of assyria that runs into the euphrates about two hundred miles north of babylon—whither he and the great bulk of his nation were carried by the assyrian king shalmaneser, years before the christian era: the assyrian sculptures, therefore, must have been familiar in appearance to him and to those to whom he was sent to prophesy. in the apocalyptic vision, seen by st. john at patmos, of the mysterious creatures adoring ceaselessly before the throne, the first we read was like a calf, the second like a lion, the third creature had a face as a man, and the fourth was as a flying eagle. probably it was upon these two passages of scripture that the evangelistic symbols were based. st. jerome and st. ambrose assert in their writings that these four creatures represent, through the evangelists, our lord under four aspects. wyckliffe, in his translation of the new testament published in , refers to the beliefs of both these older writers. his english is almost too quaint for direct quotation, but the substance of it is that matthew is represented as a man or angel, inasmuch as he dwells chiefly, in his gospel, upon the manhood of christ; mark is represented as the lion, as he treats most fully of his rising again; luke is represented as the ox, writing' as he does more especially concerning the sacrifice and the priesthood; while john is the eagle, as he passes in his writings over many of the little details given by the other evangelists, and dwells most lovingly on the sacrament and holy mysteries. another theory on which he touches slightly differs from this, as it sees in the life of our saviour himself four great incidents which the forms symbolise—the man referring to his human birth, the sacrificial ox to his death on the cross, the lion to his resurrection, and the eagle to his ascension into heaven. principles of ornamental ari. in the cathedral of messina is a very large lectern, having a central stem surmounted by the pelican, and four lateral arms, each terminating in an evangelistic symbol, upon which the books rest, so that each gospel is read from its appropriate place. this lectern is well figured in sir digby wyatt's book on metal-work. we need give no other examples, as instances are so numerous that very slight research will suffice to discover numerous illustrations. in early work the animals stand alone, an inscribed book or scroll being occasionally added; in later times the evangelists are represented as men, each being accompanied by the appropriate symbol. the human form, under various grotesque modifications, is frequently introduced in gothic work. our th il ustration— “a hugye giaunt stiffe and starke, all foule of limbe and lere ; two goggling eyen like fardcn, a mouth from eare to eare—” is a very fair example of this middle age spirit. in some cases probably these figures are symbolic of evil passions: in others, satirical; in some, no doubt merely grotesque and quaint from play of fancy, and having no ulterior and hidden meaning. the human form was sometimes employed in a sense half symbolic, half historic; such as in rude sculpture, sometimes met with in early work, of such a subject as the finding of moses amidst the reeds of the nile, where the idea of baptism was intended to be brought out, as well as the historic fact; so, too, with the crossing of the red sea by the israelites—primarily, the historic fact; secondarily, the chosen people of god of all ages and peoples entering, through baptism, the land of promise. these subjects, and many others thus treated, are to be met with in the catacombs we have already so frequently had occasion to refer to. in the church at adijerat, in abyssinia, the painting of the crossing of the red sea is noticeable not only as an interesting link between the eastern and western churches, but also on account of its treatment, as the principal characters are made much larger in size than the subordinate actors in the scene—a very common feature in early art, and more especially noticeable in egyptian, assyrian, hindoo, and mexican work. the rank and file of pharaoh’s army are armed with muskets of the muzzle-loader or “ brown bess ” pattern. _ we occasionally, and more especially on the continent, meet with two curious figures representing the jewish and the christian churches. the jewish is represented as blinded, a veil being over her eyes: in one hand she bears the tables of the law, in the other a drooping banner on a broken staff. the other figure wears the crown, holding in one hand a chalice, the pledge of communion with her lord, and in the other the once despised cross, the symbol of her faith and power. good examples of these figures may be seen at strasburg cathedral. in mediaeval work the soul of man is represented either in human or angelic form; generally as a little naked child issuing from the mouth of the dying person—“naked came i into the world, and naked shall i return again ;" sometimes draped—“c othed upon with the robe and righteousness of god ;" sometimes issuing as a little black imp or fiend. in most cases good and bad angels stand by to receive it and to contest its possession. the second person of the trinity is frequently represented as a lamb, in allusion to such passages as “ he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter ;” or, “behold the lamb of god." the symbol is known as the agnus dei. the holy spirit, as we have seen, is byzantine art symbolised by the dove; while the first person of the trinity is rarely represented. in early mss., &c., the eye or the arm of the lord are sometimes shown amidst the clouds that veil the brightness of the divine majesty. many passages of scripture refer to these, and they are therefore often made use of as symbols. the frequent allusions in the old testament to the hand and the arm of the lord as the instrument of his sovereign power—such as, “his right hand and his holy arm have gotten him the victory ;” or of his might in creation, as, “thy hands have made me and fashioned me ;" of his goodness to the creatures he has made, “thou openest thy hands, they are filled with good ;" and of his justice, “the works of his hand are verity and judgment"—are sufficient to show the wideness of the scope in which such a symbol could be used, and thus clearly to account for its very frequent recurrence. during the first eleven centuries these were the only symbols employed; later, a head, or the entire figure, was shown, but with not nearly so grand and impressive an effect as that produced on the mind by the more reverential treatment of the subject. byzantine art, essentially symbolic in its nature, affords in its mosaics for mural decoration many excellent and instructive illustrations. numerous beautiful examples of mosaic may be seen in st. mark’s, venice, and other italian churches, and it is to this day employed in the adornment of the churches of the greek faith throughout russia; the semicircular apse at the end of the building, and the domes and pointed roofs so characteristic of byzantine architecture, being covered with figures of the deity, of angels and archangels, saints and prophets, confessors and martyrs. christ and his followers are never represented as militant and sorrowing; the former things have passed away—the eternal glory of christ and of his chosen ones is alone represented. he is no more the homeless wanderer, the reviled, the crucified, but the christ we read of in the grand language of the apocalypse, whose voice is as the sound of many waters, and his countenance as the sun shining in his strength. “ i am he that liveth and was dead, and behold i am alive for evermore.” the effect of these mosaics, their brilliancy partly subdued by the dim light and the dust and stain of time, is very grand. i-low far such, with their accompanying elaborate ritual, impressive architecture, and noble music, are in accordance with man's religious obligations-—whether the simple building, unadorned in any way, is best adapted to pure .worship, or that where men have freely given their noblest and best to adorn his sanctuary-—is a question which, weighty as it is, we do not here and now feel called upon to decide either for ourselves or our readers- wherever the byzantine influence has made itself felt, the figures are introduced with great rigidity of position, and frequently attenuated to a degree out of all due proportion. it is curious that, throughout the art of christian mosaic, the profile or side view of the face is, so far as we are aware, never shown : the subject of the mosaic is always represented as directly facing the spectator. in assyrian and egyptian art, with some few exceptions, the direct reverse is seen. for nearly a thousand years, from the fourth century after christ till the revival of tempera painting in the schools of cimabue and giotto, mosaic was almost exclusively employed for wall decorations, and during at least four centuries—namely, from the fifth to the ninth—entirely superseded all other methods. but for these mosaics, therefore, the course of pictorial art would have been broken; and though for their own inherent merits the loss would in many cases have been but small, as the execution was frequently coarse, and the subjects ill-drawn, yet, as links in the long chain of art, and as illustrations of the beliefs, doctrinal and legendary, of the early ages of the christian church, they possess an extreme value akin to that f jf principles of ornamental art of the touching memorials of the primitive christians which, as we have seen, cover the walls of the long subterranean galleries of ancient rome. in \vestern art the figures were generally on a white or blue ground; in eastern, on a ground of gold. in the thirteenth century many whose names are famous as those of great painters worked also in mosaic; thus, cimabue, primarily an artist in the more familiar sense of the word, directed the execution of a mosaic at pisa ; giotto also, and many other celebrated florentines, practised this branch of art. the workers in mosaic could not, however, compete with the great masters of fresco- painting, and having served its purpose well in the past, mosaic gave place to the new art; though it was still employed by the successive popes in the decoration of st. peter's, as we may in these latter days see its revival amongst ourselves in our own metropolitan cathedral. in the seventeenth century thin slips of enamel of various forms and sizes were introduced, and from the wonderful variety of colour then accessible to the artist, and the minuteness of the fragments employed, mosaic again rose into favour, and was brought to great excellence. it was then employed to render an important service to art, in the reproduction of the celebrated works of the great artists of the past, the finest pictures in the vatican—many of them fading from the effects of time—being- copied in mosaic for the cathedral of st. peter. such reproductions, though naturally inferior to the original works, since they fail to render the handling of the masters, give some fair idea of their colouring, and are valuable as giving the composition. in this way frescoes of raphaelle, da vinci, and other great masters, which were decaying through the dampness of the walls upon which they were painted, have been translated into a material which no length of time will have power to affect, and which may, so long as the fabric endures within which it is placed, be deemed imperishable ; but, as may easily be credited, the labour and expenditure of time and money have been tremendous, some of the more elaborate subjects thus reproduced having been in hand eighteen to twenty years. we would, in concluding this branch of our subject, warmly advise the student who reads our remarks not to rest satisfied with the little that we have here been able to set before him, but to carry his investigations very considerably further than the necessary limits imposed on our pleasant labours will here allow. many excellent books—as, for instance, those of jameson and twining—are published on the subject, and these the novice will do well to consult; but above all, let him by personal investigation and research, note-book in hand, find examples for himself; he will find a feeling of reality attaching to these that no book illustration will be able to afford. some good evangelistic symbols occur on stained glass in the south kensington museum. the national gallery is a valuable storehouse of examples; so, too, the magnificent collection of mss. in the british museum, while, for pursuing the subject amongst the remains of an earlier period, the egyptian, assyrian, and greek collections in the national collection afford equally ample facilities. principles of or./vaziiental a of cyril abound with illustrations of this subordination of the literal and historic reading to a desire to see mystic and allegorical significance. as one more example, and this time from the middle ages, we would quote a short passage from a book by bishop durandus, who died a.d. . the book is in great part devoted to an explanation of the subtle meanings that he avers are to be found running throughout the fabric of the church, using the term in its most literal sense. every little thing, even to the composition of the mortar, is here made of extreme importance. of this we need give but one instance, the .bell-rope, a useful but unobtrusive piece of church furniture which hitherto, we are persuaded, has been to our readers but a convenient means of ringing the bell that summons the congregation to the church service. the old monk, however, sitting in the twilight of the abbey belfry, sees much more in it than this. to him “the hanging rope by which the bell is pulled is humility, or the life of the preacher ; the same rope also showeth us the measure of our own life. besides this, since the rope hath its beginning from the word upon which the bell hangeth, by which is to be understood the cross (a point which, to his own satisfaction, at least, he had proved in a preceding chapter), it doth thus rightly typify holy scripture, which doth flow down from the word of the holy cross. as also the rope is composed of three strands, so doth the holy scripture consist of a trinity-—namely, of history, allegory, and morality. again, the rope reacheth unto the hands by which it is grasped, because scripture ought to proceed unto good works. also, the raising and lowering of the rope in ringing doth denote that holy scripture speaketh sometimes of high matters, sometimes of low; or that the preacher speaketh sometimes lofty things for the sake of some, and sometimes condescendeth for the sake of others. again, the priest draweth the rope downwards when he, from contemplation, descendeth into active life, but is himself drawn upwards when, under the teaching of scripture he is raised in contemplation." the works of durandus have been translated into english from the quaint monkish latin of the original ; they are therefore accessible to any of our readers who may care to see to what lengths a morbid and unhealthy state of imagination can travel. true symbol, in expressing great truths, must, while pleasantly stimulating the mind and the imaginative faculties, in achieving this aim speak a language not unreadily to be comprehended, or it misses its mark, and has no longer a reason for its existence. vi/'e turn now our attention to a brief investigation of the use of colour in a symbolic sense. a given colour, it must, however, be premised, may be used in either a good or a bad sense, according to the subject represented. i/ve cannot, therefore, assign any positive meaning to it unless we also take into consideration the circumstances under which we meet with it. in old gothic work, yellow signified love and wisdom. the moors by golden yellow understood wise and good counsel; by pale yellow, deceit and fraud. in france, during the reign of francis i., a.d. i , the doors of traitors and felons were daubed yellow. in spain the dresses of the state executioners were red and yellow—yellow to indicate the treason, and red its punishment. judas, thief and traitor, in old glass painting and illumination is generally known by his soiled yellow robes; and at the establishment of the inquisition under ferdinand and isabella, the victims were brought out to die clad in long, coarse woollen robes dyed yellow, and stamped over in red with crosses and waving flames. yellow and white, when represented by gold or silver, the precious metals, are always employed in a good and honourable sense. thus the jews, in making themselves a molten image in similitude of a calf—a thing in itself abominable—nevertheless, seeing that it was to be to them as a god, made it of solid gold; while the golden image of n ebuchadnezzar affords a very parallel case, since he probably erected it as a symbol of the glory and u s y/iibolisai of c olo ur. power of his kingdom, and in impious defiance of the vision wherein he saw a man having a head of gold, breast and arms of silver, thighs of brass, and legs of iron; the golden head being interpreted to mean the present glory of his kingdom, so soon to be followed by the sway of the medes—as typified by the silver breast and arms—while these, again, must in turn give way to the macedonians, and in the end the land would pass beneath the iron sway of rome. gold and silver are frequently mentioned in the bible in enhancement of honour: thus the first-fruits of the people of israel were offered at the temple in baskets of silver; while in another place we read that a word fitly spoken is like apples of gold. in a basket of silver. the psalmist, speaking of jerusalem, says: “yet shall ye be as the wings of a dove covered with silver, and her feathers with yellow gold." it is curious to notice that though in heraldry it is a fixed rule that metal shall never be blazoned on metal, nor colour on colour, an exception was made when, after the capture of jerusalem by the crusaders, it was thought necessary to assign arms to it, these arms being five golden crosses on a field of silver. the following passages, if studied with the context, will be found to be further illustrations; and the reader may easily increase them very largely in number for himself, if he cares to do so :—“ the words of the lord are pure words: as silver tried in a furnace of earth, purified seven times” (psalm xii. ). “we will make thee borders of gold with studs of silver ” (song of sol. i. ). “i counsel thee to buy of me gold tried in the fire, that thou mayest be rich " (rev. iii. i ). white has in every age been accepted as the symbol of purity, holiness, and innocence. in egypt the great divinity osiris, the judge of the living and the dead, wore a white coronet, and the priests, when engaged in his service, wore robes of white. in greece the priests of jupiter were robed in white; so, too, the vestal virgins, the brahmins of india, and the druids of our own early national history. in the bible we read many passages that confirm and carry forward the same idea: the sins that are as scarlet that shall be made white as the snow; and the great army that no man can number, of every people and tongue and nation, standing before the eternal throne, and clothed in spotless white. in the early ages of the christian church the rite of baptism was ordinarily administered either on easter day or vvhit sunday—the day on which the apostles commenced their public ministry by the baptism of three thousand converts to the faith. as symbolic of the spiritual purity involved in the rite, those who received it were clothed in white. it has hence been conjectured, and with great probability, that the term whit sunday is really only a modification of white sunday, though according to some writers the word is derived from the saxon witle, or wisdom—referring to the gifts of the holy spirit that descended on the apostles on the day of pentecost. in roman catholic countries, the little delicate snowdrop, as a symbol of purity, is often employed to deck the altars of the virgin-mother of christ. in the “ f aéry queene" of spenser faith is thus allegorically portrayed :-— “she was arrayed all in lily white, and in her right hand bore a cup of gold, \vith wine and water filled up to the height, in which a serpent did himself enfold, that horror made to all that did behold ; but she no whit did change her constant mood.” vve have given the passage at some little length as, in addition to the point we more especially desired to bring forward, a further symbolic meaning may be seen, in the introduc- tion of the serpent in the golden cup —an emblem of that dire perplexity and mystery of principles of ornamental art iniquity, the presence of sin in even the holiest duties—but which fails, as we may see in the last line. to be a terror, or to shake the constancy of faith. white, in a bad sense, is the symbol of a craven fear—arising, probably, from the blanched cheek that indicates in any peril the fainting spirit. \¢ve see this application of the idea in the familiar expression “ showing the white feather." ' red, as applied to spiritual virtues, signified an ardent love, a burning zeal for the faith; in mundane virtues, energy and courage ; in an evil sense, cruelty and blood-guiltiness— “ and lo ! the universal air seemed lit with ghastly flame- ten thousand thousand dreadful eyes vi/ere looking down in b ame.”— t /ze dream oflfugenz a ram. in china red is consecrated to the service of religion. is a further illustration of the symbolic use of the colour. green—the characteristic colour of the spring-time, when all nature appears to revive again, when the days of sunshine are growing more frequent, and in the bursting buds and blossoms we see the promise of the fruits of the earth in due season—is naturally associated with hope; while, in conclusion, black expresses the sense of sadness or sin— the crimson cross of the crusader “ oh, heaven ! to think of their white souls, and mine so black and grim !” in some old mss. our saviour, during the temptation in the wilderness, is clothed in a black robe. black is the natural expression of the material darkness and gloom that follows the withdrawal of the cheering light of day—the natural emblem of the spiritual darkness of the soul into which no day-star has yet dawned: we see, therefore, how appropriately the expression “prince of darkness" is applied to the arch-tempter—the great enemy of the vi/hite and black, when used together, signify purity of life and humiliation, and were in this sense adopted by the dominican and carmelite monkish orders. the caliphs of the house of abbas, when marching to exterminate the hated infidel, had borne before them two black standards, called allegorically the night and the shadow~symbols of the unpitying ferocity that fell on all those that would not join the ranks and religion of islam; and many of our readers will no doubt remember what an interest they felt in their younger days in the adventures of the pirates that, sailing under a sable banner embellished with skull and crossed bones, committed such devastation on the more prosaic merchantmen. in spain some of the visiting-cards used are black, with the name in white; these are the cards of the doctors, and perhaps rather ominously signify their calling. a good deal of the peculiar sameness which is so striking in looking through any large collection of egyptian antiquities (as that in the british museum) is caused by the fixed rules under which the artist or sculptor worked, each god having not merely a set form and series of attributes, with appropriate symbols, but even a fixed arrangement of colours employed in all representations of him. this gives egyptian work that marked individuality of .character as compared with all other styles of art; as the laws of the priesthood, once established, were immutable, and death was the swift penalty following any attempt at innovation. thus the human figure, or that of any divinity, was always represented in profile, never in front view; while perhaps a still more curious example of the rigidity of the rules in which the artist was fettered is seen in the fact that in the hundreds of thousands of souls of men. s y/iii? olism of number. figures sculptured or depicted in a standing or walking attitude, the left leg is invariably placed in advance of the right. no statue has ever been found where this rule is reversed. the line, it will be seen here, is a very thin one that divides orthodoxy from flat heresy. this remarkable conservatism was maintained even long after egypt, after many centuries of independent power, had sank into a roman province, and the same adherence to rule was to be seen that had been in force from the very earliest times. plato, in speaking of this peculiarity of egyptian art, says ;—“ the pictures and statues made ten thousand years ago are in no particular better or worse than those they now make.” examples of symbolism of numbers are not so frequently to be met with, or if so, do not so clearly convey their meaning. the figure three—such as a three-pointed window, a trefoil, or triangle, fig. , symbolised the trinity; four, the evangelists; six, the attributes of deity—power, majesty, love, wisdom, mercy, and justice—hence the common use of the hexagon in early work; eight, regeneration (the greater number of the old baptisteries and fonts are on this account octagonal); twelve, the apostles—hence applied, in a more extended meaning, to the church generally. in fig. i we have an ingenious arrangement of the circle—type of a never-beginning, never-ending eternity-—and two equilateral triangles, from a church at nuremburg; while in fig. the combination of arcs symbolises in one figure, by the actual blending of the curved and continuous line with a triangular character, the idea embodied in the equilateral triangle and circle— the trinity, the unity, the eternity of deity. a very ingenious treatment for giving expression to these articles of faith is often met with in old glass; the form is shown in fig. i . on investigation the reader will find that he has in it all the materials at hand to give utterance to several of the leading dogmas held throughout christendom. should he desire to realise the eternity of deity, he finds it expressed in the circles surrounding the divine names. should he wish to emphasise the individuality of the persons, he will read “pater non est filius, fz'lz'us mm est spz'rz'tus, spz'rz'tus mm est pater.” should he wish to grasp the idea of the equal divinity, he meets with it by reading not as before, from one outer circle to another, but from the outer to the central circle—“ pater est deus, filius est deus, s; z'rz'tus est deus." , seven has by old writers been called the number of perfection; and it is curious to notice how often this idea seems involved in its use. thus, to quote a few examples, balaam, as an effectual test of the will of god, built seven altars, and prepared seven oxen and seven rams; job, referring to the effectual protection of providence, says: “ in seven troubles there shall no evil touch thee ;" while jacob, as a sign of perfect submission, bowed himself seven times before his brother. the sevenfold circuit of jericho, prior to its complete overthrow, is another example. naaman was commanded to bathe seven times in the jordan; samson, for full security, was bound with seven bands; the jewish church has seven great holy-days in each year; the romish church has seven sacraments; the hindoos believe in seven mansions for all created spirits, the earth being the lowest of these, while the seventh and highest contains the seat of brahma; the moslem prilgrimage is consummated when seven circuits have been made round the sacred stone at mecca; amongst the romans, children who died before attaining the age of seven months were denied the ordinary rites; while we may just mention without comment, merely begging 'our readers to bear in mind this idea of perfection, completion, and full satisfaction, the vengeance that should be taken sevenfold on any who slew the wandering cain; the seven plant forms—the palm. furnish numerous illustrations for symbolic teaching: hence the allusions in the bible to the withering grass, the fading flower—fit emblems of the short estate of man and the transience of all his glory; the lilies of the field arrayed in a splendour outvying that of solomon himself, and teaching a lesson of trust in an all-providing care; the purging with hyssop; the divine root and living branches; the parable of the wheat and tares; and the illustration used by the apostle—the grain sown in the earth—to explain something of the mystery of the resurrection of the dead. there is, perhaps, no symbol more universally met with in christian art than the palm- branch. it is so essentially a feature in any great rejoicing to deck the place where the festivities are held with wreaths and garlands, that some symbol of this nature seems only natural; and the palm, being bold in character, and abundant in those countries that were the first centres of christianity, became thus selected as a type or symbol of rejoicing, of triumph over victory won; and it was doubtless the more readily adopted from the reference in the vision of st. john to the innumerable companies of the beatified spirits that, clothed in white robes, bear in their hands the palm-branch. the palm was originally assigned in art to martyrs alone, but after awhile it became appropriated to all those who had died in the christian faith. it is largely used in the catacombs of rome. fig. is an early example from this source; in this instance it surrounds what is known as the sacred monogram-'—a form to be dealt with at greater length in the succeeding chapter, wherein we shall proceed to consider the use of inscriptions, &c., in ornamental art. the palm is also met with in jewish art; thus, in the description of the building of solomon's temple, in the first book of kings vi. , we read that “he carved all the walls of the house round about with carved figures of cherubims and palm-trees and open flowers, within and without." these plants had doubtless a symbolic meaning. the palm-tree and vine, either as detached leaves or clusters of fruit, or ears or sheaves of corn, are found on the jewish coinage. we have no knowledge of the existence of any coined money amongst the jews prior to the captivity. during that period they, however, became familiarised with the use of that of the babylonians and persians, and afterwards with the coinage of the greeks and romans. their conquerors permitted them, b.c. i , when really semi- independent, the privilege of coining money—a privilege that several of the asmonean princes availed themselves of. the coinage issued has on one side its value marked; on the other the year—first, second, third, fourth, or fifth—of the freedom of jerusalem, and differs from that of most other nations in having no likeness of living being upon it. the pro- hibition of the law—“ thou shalt not make to thyself the likeness of any living thing that is in heaven above or the earth beneath "—seems scarcely to have been considered as extending to inanimate forms, as we find various emblematic figures like those we have already mentioned stamped thereon. we have in fig. i a representation of a palm-tree on a. copper shekel of simon. a very similar device occurs also on the silver rial, fig. i , of queen mary of scotland. , many of the ancient writers describe the holy land as abounding with date-palms: hence judaea, typified by a female figure, is on several of the coins of vespasian represented as seated beneath one of these trees, an idea repeated on almost all the medals struck to commemorate the capture of jerusalem and the subjugation of the land of judaea by the romans. coins of domitian, titus, and trajan have the same symbol on them. david. it will be remembered, says in one of his psalms that “the righteous shall flourish as the palm-tree." g principles of ornajiiezvtal art ' another symbolic plant, the vine, is of equally common occurrence with the last. it is frequently employed in the old testament as a figure or emblem of the israelites: thus, in isaiah, bishop louth's translation, we read- “ my beloved had a vineyard on a high and fruitful hill ; and he fenced it round, he cleared it from the stones ; he planted it with the vine of sorek.” in one of the psalms we find another good example of the same simile— “a vine thou clidst bring out of egypt ; thou castedst out the nations and plantedst it. thou preparedst the ground for it ; it spread its roots and filled the land. the mountains were covered with its shade, and with its tendrils the lofty cedars.” the allusions sometimes refer to such passages as, “i am the true vine;” or to the parable of the vineyard whose rightful owner was slain; or, again, as in a general sense expressive of temporal blessing, as in the benediction of jacob by isaac, “god give thee of the dew of heaven, the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine." christ in his teachings so clearly spoke of himself as the vine, that it naturally became intimately associated symbolically with him. examples of the vine are exceedingly abundant in byzantine art—an art essentially symbolic in all its features. many good examples may be seen on carved ivory caskets of this period in the south kensington museum. byzantium, we may- mention for the benefit of some of our readers, was the seat of government towards the close of the great roman empire, the capital being transferred from rome to byzantium, or what we now term constantinople. the word constantinople means “the city of constantine,” the change being made in the reign of that emperor, when the empire was verging to decay—when, overgrown and yielding to corruption within, and fierce assaults of hun and vandal from without, the whole fabric of the state was tottering to its fall. this change of the capital taking place during the reign of the first christian monarch will, it will be seen, explain how, in the first fervour of the new belief—which doubtless gained many an adherent when it passed from the dust and darkness of the blood-stained catacombs to the palace of the emperor—the old forms of architecture and ornament were looked upon as too suggestive of the bygone heathen state of things to be reproduced in the new city. the chair of st. maximinian at ravenna, of sixth century work, is entirely overlaid with panels of ivory. on these are various scriptural subjects, each being separated from those adjoining by lines of ornament of a symbolic character, chiefly the vine with its fruit, and having peacocks, lions, lambs, doves, and other animal forms introduced amidst it, the foliage being upo-n a scroll, with the animals interspersed. owing to the minuteness and rich profusion of the ornament, we are unable, we regret, to give an illustration of it, as it would, from the necessary size, encroach more upon our space than its importance justifies; but it has been figured in several works, and we would warmly advise any of our readers who have an opportunity of gaining an idea of it to do so, as the designs are good in themselves, and also interesting as examples of symbolic treatment. the bread and wine of the last supper are in early work sometimes represented by ears of corn and bunches of grapes. in classic art the vine is, with the ivy, associated with the service of bacchus. pr/ vciplj'\ s of ornamental art. are the five wounds. the plant, from its large and handsome flowers and fine palmate leaves, is one well worthy in itself, symbolic significance apart, of the ornamentist's regard. we need scarcely say, however, that it must either be used altogether and obviously without any symbolic afterthought or undercurrent of meaning, or else in the limited connection above detailed. though the passion-flower is now not uncommon, our readers will remember that it was introduced from abroad: hence, it does not occur in early english art, nor at any time so commonly as plants that are either indigenous, or of early introduction and more complete acclimatisation—plants, therefore, more familiar to the designer. in ancient art—egyptian, assyrian, indian—the lotus is a very conspicuous feature, in some cases considerably conventionalised in -treatment, but still, nevertheless, sufficiently testifying to the natural type-form. among the egyptians especially do we find it used; the capitals of their columns, their jewellery, drinking-vessels, surface ornament, &c., being all largely dependent for their effect upon the ornamental forms more or less obviously based on this plant. as illustrations of the great variety of designs thus developed, we have represented, in figs. , i , i , , , i , i , , and , a series of examples from various egyptian sources. the first four of these are from mummy-wrappings, the outer covering, or cartonage of the mummy being generally overlaid almost entirely, from head to foot, with continuous lines of such ornament, each band about an inch in width, and each being complete in itself, and having no connection with those above or below it, though placed in immediate contact with them. numerous examples of this feature may be seen in the british museum and other large national collections——as the louvre, or the berlin museum. in fig. the decorative effect is produced by the fruit alone; in fig. the designer has employed merely the flower, turning it alternately upwards and downwards; in fig. the fruit alternates with a series of detached petaloid forms; while in fig. the designer has removed the flowers that in fig. i were reversed, placing in their stead two fruit forms cut open so as to show the internal structure—a form very similar to that produced by cutting an orange transversely in half—and on these a third fruit form in its original integrity. in some cases the design is entirely composed of a series of these cross-sections, giving a simple but agreeable patera form. in fig. i we have another painted example, from a papyrus, introducing the flower and bud. fig. i is a peculiarly rich example from an altar of black basalt in the british museum, and illustrates very beautifully the great brilliancy of effect that, in the hands of a clever designer, even materials so simple in themselves as those used therein, are capable of producing. figs. and are further good and simple instances of the use of the plant. in the first of these the bud, flower, and leaf are employed, in the second the flower and bud alone. the leaf of the lotus, though a form sufficiently pleasing in itself, and a good contrasting form with the flower, is very rarely met with. the elaborate design for a pavement, fig. , owes some, at least, of its richness to the introduction in the central panel and outer border of lotus forms. the original, a pavement from kyonjik, may be seen in one of the assyrian rooms, british museum. a certain amount of confusion has arisen from the similarity of name of two really dissimilar plants, the name lotus being applied to the lily of the nile, the nymjfi/um lolu: of botanists, and also to the indian lotus or water-bean, the nelum z'um sjfieciosum of scientific nomenclature. the latter is not now known in the nile, though it is represented in the sculptures of the romano-egyptian period; it is never, however, met with in earlier art, and the true lotus of the monuments, the characteristic plant of real egyptian national pla vt f_ rims—lotus, tooba-tree. art, is always the former of the two. the lotus was sacred to isis, the egyptian goddess of fecundity; the flower was used, therefore, symbolically, to express the plenty that in that almost rainless climate was caused by the fertilising periodical overflow of their great river, the melting snows of the abyssinian highlands annually bringing rich store of wealth to the egyptian plains. amongst the hindoos and chinese the lotus has more ordinarily . the character of the indian plant. in a sanscrit poem a beautiful indian lake is described as being “fragrant with the lotus;” the water-bean is the plant here referred to. a form analogous to, and probably suggested by, the egyptian treatment of the nym;§/uea'lotus, is occasionally met with in assyrian and indian art, as in the sanchi tope gateway, a buddhistic structure, of which a cast may be seen in the architectural collections of the south kensington museum. both species of lotus may be studied in their natural growth at kew. l among the assyrians but few plants appear to have had any symbolic meaning, though many are represented pictorially in their sculptures, if we may here be allowed .to use the term pictorially in such a connection as implying a certain natural character and picturesque treatment in opposition to the necessary modification requisite in decorative work. there is, however, one form that is of continual occurrence; it is of a very conventional nature, but it has been supposed by some whose opinions have value to represent the tree of life, a sacred and mysterious symbol, entering into all the religious systems of the east, that we meet with in the earliest chapters of the bible, amidst the delights of the earthly eden, and in the last chapters amongst the joys of the paradise of god. the assyrian symbol is generally flanked by eagle-headed figures. it may probably have some reference to the groves so frequently found in various idolatrous systems, as in our early druidic rites, and which so repeatedly became the object of worship with the jewish people, and the cause of national humiliation and punishment. “ the lord shall smite israel as a reed is shaken in the water, and he shall root up israel out of this good land, and he shall scatter them, because they have made them groves." mahomet is described, in the fifty-third chapter of the koran, as having seen the angel gabriel by the lote-tree, which stands in the seventh heaven on the right hand of the eternal throne. it is also called the tree tooéa, a word signifying eternal beatitude. moore, in his “ paradise and the peri," it will be remembered, introduces it in the following lines :—- “ farewell, ye odours of earth, that die, passing away like a over’s sigh ; my feast is now of the tooba-tree, \vhose scent is the breath of eternity.” the amaranth of our poets appears to bear a very similar significance. the term is derived from two greek words signifying not withering. thus the passage in our new testament translated “ a crown of glory that fadeth not away," is in the original greek “ the amaranthine crown of glory." milton is frequently found to use the word; it occurs several times in the “paradise lost." the following fine passage from the third book will sufficiently well illustrate this application of it :—- “ the multitude of angels, with a shout loud as from numbers without number, sweet as from blest voices, uttering joy. heaven rang with jubilee, and loud hosannas filled the eternal regions. lowly reverent principles of ornamental art towards either throne they bow, and to the ground, \vith solemn adoration, down they cast their crowns inwove with amaranth and gold. immortal amaranth, a flower which once in paradise, fast by the tree of life began to bloom ; but soon for man’s offence to heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows and flowers aloft, shading the fount of life.” the rose is from time to time met with both in christian and pagan art. the plant mentioned by biblical writers as the rose of sharon has no relationship to the roses of our gardens and hedgerows. much has been written, and many opinions expressed, regarding the plant that is thus referred to, but it is probably either a kind of if;/pericum or the plant described by linnzeus under the name of cz'stus roseus, the rose-flowering cistus, a plant of the same botanical order as our common and beautiful rock-rose, and abundantly met with throughout judzea, and notably so, according to the testimony of travellers, in the vale of sharon. true roses, however, grow freely in the holy land, and the syrian origin of our beautiful damask rose is indicated in its name-—the rose of damascus. among some of the northern nations a rose was suspended in the place of deliberation where weighty matters requiring secrecy were discussed, hence the modern expression sub rosci. in classic fable we meet with this same idea again, as cupid is represented therein as giving a rose to harpocrates, the god of silence. it is a very favourite flower of the persians and other eastern races, and is freely introduced both into their poetry and religious belief. thus, when abraham was thrown i to the fire by heathen persecutors, the flames, according to persian tradition, became a bed of roses, whence the persian feast of roses is held each year with great rejoicings. into christian art the rose enters from time to time, owing to its association with several legends; thus we are told that a virgin named dorothea, after suffering martyrdom in czesarea, converted the scribe theophilus to christianity by sending him some roses from paradise. a golden rose is one of the greatest honours that a sovereign can receive at the hands of a pope. henry viii., in addition to his title of fidei defensor, received one from alexander vi. the roman emperors, in like manner, used it as a means of conferring distinction upon those they wished to honour. among the numerous titles given in medizeval times to the virgin mary we find rosa crzli and santa marzh del/a rosa, that flower being consecrated to her; hence it may often be seen represented in old pictures and frescoes, either in the hand of the virgin mother or of her son. dante, in allusion to this, writes :—- “here is the rose, wherein the \vo 'd divine was made incarnate.” vve need scarcely remind our readers of the heraldic use of the flower, the rose of england, like the thistle of scotland and the irish shamrock, being too familiar a symbol to need more than a passing mention. the rose was first borne as a royal badge by edward i. james i., under whose reign england and scotland became united, bore, as badge, a rose and thistle combined. fig. , a pattern coin struck during the reign of queen anne, is a very good example of such a combination. the thistle has been borne by scotland as a national emblem from the year . james iv. of that kingdom adopted it as his personal badge, but the expressive motto, “nemo me impzme laressit,” was not added until'some time afterwards. it is first seen on the coinage of james vi., in the year . plants as badges. the tudor rose, as it is termed heraldically, is largely used in the later mediaval decoration on the conclusion of that desolating strife, which, from the emblems chosen by the rival factions, is known in history as the war of the roses. the form may be seen on our coinage, as in the pennies of edward vi., where it is surrounded by the motto, rosa sine .§¢>z'na, a sentiment afterwards very freely bestowed in adulation of his kinswoman, queen elizabeth. the tudor rose may be met with again on the silver halfpennies of james i., charles i., and charles ii. a very good idea of the form may be derived from fig. , a piece of carving from the door of prince arthur’s chantry in worcester cathedral, and dating about the year i . in conjunction with the portcullis, the badge of the city of westminster, the rose of the tudors is lavishly employed within and without the chapel of henry vii. at westminster abbey. in any painted representations the petals either alternate in colour or the flower is divided down the centre by a line, the left-hand half of the outer ring and the right-hand half of the inner ring of petals being of the same colour, the other halves being of the alternating colour. it is always painted in red and white, the red rose being the badge of the lancastrians, as the white was that of the yorkists. many plants, in addition to those just referred to, have heraldic significance. thus, henry ii. bore a broom plant, the planta genista of old writers, whence arose the historic family title, plantagenet. henry iv. adopted a columbine flower, and katherine of arragon a pomegranate or sheaf of arrows. the daisy has in like manner been used at divers times as a badge. in french its name is marguerite, meaning a little pearl, expressive of its beauty; hence, to cite one instance, it was used by margaret, countess of richmond,' and it may still be seen carved in stone over the gateway of st. john's college, cambridge, founded by that lady. the scottish clans in the same way have each their appropriate badge. to quote a few examples, the camerons bear the oak; macgregor, the pine; maclachlan, the mountain ash; macdonald, the heath, known botanically as the erica tetralzlx, the allied species e. einerea being borne by the macalisters; chisholm, the alder; buchanan, the birch ; campbell, the myrtle ; macpherson, the box; and robertson, the brake. should any of our student-readers, to whom the subject is new, care to seek out examples for themselves, they will find, amongst other sources, the glass-quarries of our old church windows very often full of suggestive designs, sometimes purely decorative, but generally either heraldic symbols of earthly rank and glory or else of religious significance. we have, in fig. , illustrated a curious example from this source, a fungus springing from amidst the moss; the original is in ockham church, surrey, a building containing many interesting features, and amongst them an early english window of seven lancets, a very uncommon number. as this particular device, unlike many, is not met with elsewhere, its meaning must remain an open question. we may either consider that some medizeval fungologist admired it for its own sake, the various forms and the rich variety of colours seen in fungi being often strikingly beautiful, or, as we prefer to think, chose it as a fit emblem of the low estate of man, the fragility of his frame, the transience of all his mundane glory. we may here, perhaps, mention, though it is somewhat foreign to our present subject, that in the museum of economic geology may be seen a very curious vase of chinese manufacture, the body of the vase being shaped like a large, hollowed fungus, while at its base and surrounding its stem are other and smaller fungoid forms. this we have represented in fig. . many other plant forms may be met with, and more or less principles of ornaa/ie./vtal art glory that fadeth not away—are all at times met with. in christian art each saint has some distinguishing symbol—often something connected with his or her martyrdom; thus st. paul bears the sword, st. catherine a spiked wheel ; or it may be something associated with some event in the life; and thus st. peter bears the keys of the kingdom committed to him by the divine master. we see in the thunderbolt of jupiter, the trident of neptune, the caduceus of mercury, the helmet and spear of minerva, the thyrsus of bacchus, and many others, this same association of symbol with particular persons in classic art; while in egyptian art again each god has his appropriate and distinctive symbol. many other symbolic forms of less frequent recurrence may be met with, but on these it scarcely seems desirable to dwell, those already given being those that the student is far more likely to encounter in his studies, far more likely to find himself called on to understand or to introduce than such symbols of minor importance, as the sword of the scandinavian tyr, the god of battles, or those that mark and distinguish the ten incarnations of vishnu, the preserver of the world, according to hindu mythology. chapter iv. the use of letters and inscriptions in omamental art—egyptian hieroglyphic—assyrian arrow head—'i'he formation of arbitrary writing characters—mexican picture language-~the hebrew alphabet—runic characters—early letters all straight lined— cursive writing—'writing materials—palimpsest i\iss.—the labours of angelo mai—palimpsest bra.sses—clay records—the rosetta stone—greek boustrephedon inscriptions—study of archveology—moorish lnscriptions—the alhambra—structure of monograms—abbreviations in old mss. a. fertile source of error—structure of ciphers—barbarous character of early monograms—ciphers and monograms from pottery—the cross prefacing lnscriptions—the crux-ansata of thoth—the tau fonn of cross—the sacred monogram—the vision of constantine—the i.h.s.—monogr;uns on coinage—inscriptions on coinage—the monograms of artists on their works—john thorpe and his plan—pa ace of the escurial——merchants’ marks—- branch letters—ribbon letters—medi eva inscriptions on houses—posy rings—inscriptions on church bells—her. ldic mott es—use of inscriptions amongst the eastern nations—inscripti ns as an element in modern ornamental art—general features of assyrian art—absence of omament—the patera form in ornament—the anthemion form in ornament—absence of vegetable forms—the use of colour in assyrian art—assyrian art zo morphic—the tri-lingual inscriptions of the persians—the method employed for reading the cuneiform character—sketch of the history of the ancient kingdom of assyria—discovery of site of n ineveh—references of biblical and classic writers to the assyrian power. in every period of art a greater or less use of inscriptions as an element in ornamental design may be met with, though it is in some cases difficult to determine how far the inscriptions are of decorative character, or, on the contrary, are to be considered merely as statements of facts alone; since even in the richest examples an inscription would hardly be worked up into the general decoration, unless it bore some significance, and added value to the work in a higher degree than as a mere aggregation of forms graceful but meaningless. definitions, it is well known, are extremely difficult things to venture on; but in the present case we need trouble ourselves but little to draw a hard and fast line, since, while it is true that examples of doubtful character may be met with, there will ordinarily be no difficulty in assigning to such instances as we may encounter their proper sphere. if, for example we see “dent, london” legibly inscribed on a clock-face, we realise at once that the matter-of-fact statement has no other object than to afford knowledge of certain business details; but if surrounding the dial we have a band inscribed “time tryeth, time flyeth,” we comprehend that the designer, desiring to beautify his work, has chosen an inscription full of thought and suggestiveness, as well calculated to attain the end in view. a very good example may be seen in the motto surrounding an old clock in the north tower of exeter cathedral: it is placed round the circle of hours, and is as follows :— “ perezmt et z'mputam‘u ”’ (“they perish and are reckoned"). as we have already seen, in a previous paper, that the highest kind of art, decorative or otherwise, is that which contains the clearest impress of thought in the designer, our readers will, we trust, see that a consideration of the use of caligraphy in its varied modifications is a subject well worthy of our attention, since manner and matter in these cases may alike be good; thoughts of rich and poetic suggestiveness appealing to the mind, and clothed in forms that, from their grace, satisfy the eye. it will readily be seen, on slight reflection, that the decorative effect produced will be very greatly dependent upon the character employed; thus the roman characters at present in use—though, from their clearness and simplicity of form, of eminent work.a-day utility—present but little scope to the designer, while the various mediaeval alphabets, from prizvciples of or./va.-l/ezvtal a ". i their picturesque character and quaintness, are especially adapted to art purposes. it follows, therefore, that where a decorative effect is desired, as in texts for church-dressing, the gothic character is, even to the present day, employed. this practice, though at times presenting some evident anomalies, does not seriously, we think, violate any law of artistic propriety, and more especially as it is ordinarily in harmony with the architectural features of the buildings, so long as the text or other matter is clearly legible; though it at once fails of its primary object, when, owing to overcrowding of accessory ornamental features, or the use of a character unknown to all but a few antiquaries, it appeals merely to the eye, and leaves the mind unsatisfied. there is great need in the present day, when the practice of so-called illumination is so general with amateurs, who bring but little previous study to bear on their work, to emphasise the fact that the decoration—the outer clothing—is subordinate to the thought they thus seek to clothe. true illumination should aim at the clear and legible setting forth of some thought noble in itself. any amount of good decorative work may be added in enhancement of honour to this, but as soon as the decoration, instead of being the accessory, becomes the principal feature, the whole aim is perverted—the last becomes first and the first last, and the text or other passage that should at once strike the eye is lost in a labyrinth of forms, that, possibly beautiful enough if kept in due subordination, become an eyesore and an impertinence when they usurp the attention and thrust from its throne what should really be the centre on which the eye should without difficulty rest. hence, too, in defining the scope and aim of illumination, we have stipulated for the choice of some worthy subject—a something not so trivial and unworthy in itself as to make each hour spent on it an ever-increasing error of judgment, a sad misdirection of energy and patient toil. the characters employed by various nations differ very greatly: in some cases, as in the ancient egyptian, the forms are very pictorial in their character; in others, as in the cuneiform, or wedge-shaped characters, fig. , very arbitrary and rigid: in some cases, again, rectilineal, fig. ; in others, fig. , flowing, and susceptible of considerable freedom of treatment. where a nation has been isolated it will ordinarily be found that its written language has passed through most, or all, of these stages; the course generally gone through by any people in emerging from barbarism being as follows :—first, habits of observation and power of drawing that shall be sufficient to enable both writer and reader to agree that a given rough sketch is meant for a man, a beaver, or the sun; and secondly, the combination of such into pictures, generally, naturally, of a very rude character. the ancient mexicans excelled in this way of recording events; and though, owing to the unfortunate and precipitate zeal of the spanish priests, who, on the subjugation of the country, destroyed many valuable mss. and mural paintings, a great mass of interesting matter has been lost, enough still remains to illustrate their method of recording events. \vhat the loss really was, and how complete the destruction, may be seen by the following quotation from the writings of the abbé clavigero :—“ the mexican empire abounded with all those kinds of paintings, as their painters were innumerable, and there was hardly anything left unpainted. of all those which were to be found in tezcuco, where the chief school of painting was, they (the priests) collected such a mass in the square of the market, that it appeared like a little mountain; to this they set fire, and buried in the ashes the memory of many most interesting and curious events." the mexicans, in addition to this picture-teaching, used certain arbitrary marks to indicate things of too abstract a character to allow of their clear pictorial representation, and by the mexican s ymbols. combination of the two systems were able to record many things that at first sight would appear incapable of being preserved in such a way. they had also advanced as far as the recognition of certain symbols of a phonetic character, but the system, though in many respects resembling that of the egyptians, is very far removed from the perfection attained by the latter people. the mexicans, like many other semi-civilised people, had even in their proper names some reference to natural objects; so that the difficulty of representing them intelligibly was by no means so great as at first sight appears; thus, for instance. ilhuicamina, the name of one of their kings, signifies “ the arrow that pierces the sky ; ” while the names of the cities of macuilxochitl and quauhtinchan signify respectively “five flowers," and the “home of the eagle." of these curious records of this strange people our readers will find several examples in far-sz'mz'!e, giving both the quaint form and brilliancy of colour of the originals, ' in humboldt's “atlas pittoresque." some of the paintings refer to political events, others to domestic matters. one curious series is devoted to the education of children, each picture being divided in half; in one part the father instructs his son, in the other, the mother educates the daughter. at five years of age the boy carries loads, and the girl attends her mother in spinning; at six, the girl learns herself to spin, while her brother is instructed in the use of the fishing-net. in other pictures of the series, idleness or disobedience meet their very conspicuous reward—the rod falls, and tears flow. numbers are expressed by dots or other simple forms. it is soon found, however, by any people thus feeling their way to a written language, that though this pictorial treatment does very well for natural objects, it does not meet many cases that arise as the nation advances in intelligence. the first step towards overcoming this difficulty—as sharp, in his history of ancient egypt, has very clearly shown—is to use the picture, not for the object itself, but for its name; thus the means of writing a sound or syllable is gained. in egyptian, the word for head was pe; mouth, ro; an owl, mo. on the temple walls hundreds of these natural forms may be seen; no longer, however, to be read literally as heads or mouths or owls, but as the syllables, pe, ro, mo, in the formation of other words. the next great step was to u-se these characters for letters, not for syllables; the character for pe becomes p, the form for ro becomes r; a/zom, an eagle, becomes a; berée, a censer, becomes b; knzléz)'z', a basin, is k. this is, of course, the formation of an alphabet; and when it is once thus recognised by a people any record becomes possible. the final result is, that these heads, owls, &c., become less and less like the natural forms, owing to the great diversity of application in words having no suggestive relationship with the original living type; the characters are at length transformed into mere signs, requiring much less skill and trouble in their delineation than the natural objects, and hence of far greater practical value. the hebrew alphabet is very similar, every letter being also a word expressing some simple object: thus, jod, or j, signifies a hand; dale!/z, or d, a door; bet/ , or b, a house; gimel or g, a camel. the utility of the alphabet being at once obvious and complete, the knowledge speedily spread, the phoenicians, jews, and arabians rapidly adopting it, and in turn imparting it to the greeks and romans; while these two latter warlike and colonising people spread the invaluable discovery wherever their arms penetrated; and it was through the subjugation of britain by the roman power that the knowledge came to ourselves; in our case, no experimental stages being gone through, as our ancestors had but to adopt the completed labours of others. the ’chinese have ever rejected the knowledge, and in their pride and isolation decline to believe that the outer barbarians can teach them pri./vciples of orzva/iiezvtal art anything; hence he who would attain to even the rudiments of their language must first master the significance of some hundreds of characters. at first all inscriptions were in capital letters; the next improvement was the introduction of writing characters. long, however, before men wanted to make private memoranda, or cared for any such facilities of writing, they desired to put up triumphant records of victories won, to mark the resting-places of their heroes, or to inscribe their statues with their names. themistocles, about b.c., we read in herodotus, sent a letter on stone slabs to the ionians. the mosaic law, it will also be remembered, was inscribed on two tables of stone. solon is said to have published his laws by having them carved on large blocks of hard wood. the scandinavian nations ascribe to their great god odin the invention, and gift to them, of writing characters; these early characters are termed runic, from the old gothic word rune, to cut, or /n, a furrow, thus clearly pointing to their incised nature. our own capital letters have gradually undergone a change, but our readers will still see that their general characteristics render them very suitable, from the straightness of their lines and the clear boldness of the forms, for cutting on the hard surface of stone or the still denser granite. many of those whom we address have doubtless carved their names or initials on the tempting surface of some fine old beech-trunk. “not a beech but bears some cipher, tender word or amorous text.”—luz'.r de gongora. this carving was no doubt done in capital letters; and the advantage of straight-lined letters, like l, h, f, k, or t, was at once felt, as they were at once easier to do, and looked better when done, than curvilinear letters, like s, b, o, or p. in early work these latter characters were frequently made straight-lined; thus o was made of four straight lines, like a square standing on one of its angles. this may be seen in the saxon inscription, fig. i . a good example of the value of rectilineal forms for inscriptions may be seen in fig. , taken from the pedestal of an old classic statue. if our readers will take the trouble to write the same name, posszkiippus, in our ordinary english writing, they will at once see how suitable the one set of characters is for carving on stone, how appropriate the other for writing with a pen, and how very unfit either would be to take the place of the other. as a rule, where inscriptions have to be carved in stone or marble the forms are straight- lined and distinct; where modelled in softer material, like plaster or wax, a greater freedom is allowed, as in fig. , a cufic inscription from plaster-work; and where written on a smooth surface, like parchment or paper, the greatest freedom of all. this latter is known technically as cursive writing, from the latin verb eurro, i run; and we still in ordinary speaking call it a running hand. many substances have from time to time been used for writing on, and have more or less influenced the forms of the characters employed. brass, lead, wood, ivory, wax, the leaves of palm and other trees, the fibre of the papyrus and of many other plants, and the skins of animals, have all at various periods been employed. the value of the substances in some cases, 'the great risk of wilful or careless obliteration in others, has led to the destruction of many things that would now be of the greatest historic and literary value. this has been more especially the case with parchments, a great many mss. being what is technically termed palimpsest-—z'.e., written over some other obliterated work. attempts have been made to rescue some of these earlier writings from destruction. a cardinal, angelo pal] l{psests. . mai, who was born in , threw himself into this labour and research with especial zeal, and gave back to the world many writings that had hitherto been considered hopelessly lost. a very interesting account of his work may be found in \viseman's “recollections of the last four popes." the interest of the subject justifies us, we think, in giving an extract, as it will illustrate at once the difficulties to be overcome, the triumph achieved, and the great value of the result to literature. “the writer of the middle ages had taken down from the shelves a work which he considered of small value (perhaps there were some duplicates of it)——some letters, for instance, of a heathen emperor to his tutor—and had scrubbed, as he thought, the parchment clear both of its inky and moral denigration, and then had written over it the recent production of some favourite author. it is this under- writing that mai scanned with a sagacious eye; a wash of gallic acid revived the pallid reed-strokes of the earlier scribe; ingenuity, patience, learning, and immense perseverance were requisite for the process. often only unconnected passages were found——half a sentence in one page which the next did not continue, but the rest of which, perhaps, he found in another ms. sometimes portions of various works were jumbled together under one later production, upside down, back to back; while perhaps not one page contained the ‘]mz';>z'l,' or the ‘explzfiler _felz'cz'ter ziéer . de ,’ so as to give a clue to what these fragments contained. learning was then indeed necessary, for conjecture often gave the first intimation of what had been discovered, from the style, or from the sentence having been fortunately embalmed or petrified by quotation in some later author. in this way did mai labour on~— looking through the tangled mass of confused materials, catching up the ends of different threads, and pursuing them with patient diligence, till he had drawn each, broken or perfect, as it happened to exist. he began in , and continued till i , to pour out an unintermitting stream of volumes, containing works or portions of works lost, as it was supposed, irrecoverably. various orations of cicero; the lost writings of julius fronto; unpublished letters of marcus aurelius, antoninus pius, lucius verus, and appian; fragments of speeches by aurelius symmachus; the history of dionysius of halicarnassus from the twelfth to the twentieth book ; inedited fragments of philo; ancient commentaries on virgil; two books of eusebius; the itineraries of alexander and of constantius augustus, son of the emperor constantine ; three books of julius valerius on the actions of alexander the great; the sixth and fourteenth sybilline books; finally, the celebrated gothic versions by ulphilas, of st. paul, and other parts of scripture. such were the principal works recovered and published, with notes, prefaces, and translations, by this indefatigable scholar at the period just mentioned, six years. it was a work in which he could have little or no assistance from others; in fact, it was an art exclusively his own." in many of our old churches the ynonumental brasses are found to be palimpsest; the sheet of metal has been turned over bodily, and a fresh effigy engraved, in defiance of all earlier rights of property, on the fresh surface thus presented. the assyrian arrow-head character, figs. , , is an especially good illustration of the rectilinear type of letter. abundant examples of it may be seen on the sculptures from nineveh, preserved in our national museum. the assyrians had also a cursive style of writing, but of this, as may naturally be imagined, when we compare the durability of parchment with stone, there are very few examples known. a manuscript in cursive greek has been found in egypt, and by learned antiquaries ascribed to the third century before christ. from the great ease with which clay can before baking be stamped or scratched, and i prizvciples of or va l[e vta l ar ". the equal certainty that after it has passed through the fire any devices stamped or painted upon it remain an imperishable record, a considerable use has been made from the earliest times of these methods of transmitting the knowledge of any special matter, as for the conveying to posterity of the name of any monarch under whose rule any great structure was erected; thus the sunburnt bricks so extensively used by the egyptians were made at the government works, and stamped with the name of the pharaoh then reigning. the assyrian and babylonian sovereigns caused their names to be in like manner impressed upon the bricks before they were burnt. the assyrian government potter was also largely employed in the fabrication of cylinders, or hexagonal prisms of clay. these were stamped all over, in the curious wedge-shaped characters of assyria, with the government records. about ten thousand of these singular records were found in the palace at kyonjik, built by sennacherib about b.c. . some hundreds of these are now preserved in the british museum, the louvre, and other national collections; many have been translated by experts, and found to possess historic details of the highest interest and value: thus, to mention one example alone, we have the history of sennacherib’s campaign against judaea. his defeat is naturally not dwelt upon. the passage runs thus :—“ hezekiah, the king of judah, who had not submitted himself to my authority, forty-six of his principal cities and fortresses, and villages dependent on them of which i took no account, i captured, and carried away their spoil. i shut up himself within jerusalem, his capital city. the fortified towns and the rest of his towns which i spoiled, i severed from his country, and gave to the kings of ekron, ascalon, and gaza, so as to weaken his power. over and above the former tribute imposed upon these countries, i added a tribute the nature of which i fixed.” roman tiles frequently have the date of their manufacture stamped upon them in bas-relief, or the names of the consuls at the time in power. the roman soldiers were employed during times of peace in potting, road-making, or other useful labour. the bricks made by the military generally have the name and title of the legion or cohort or its commander stamped upon them in an abbreviated form; thus those that are found in the numerous excavations made for building purposes in the city of london are frequently stamped with the letters p. p. r. b. lon ., an abbreviated form of propmrlor brz'tamzz're londz'nz'z'. others have p. c. b. lon., prima co/mrs britanum londz'nz'z' (“the first cohort of the britons, stationed at london"). in more modern times this custom of placing upon some part of the object not exposed to view a distinctive mark has continued in force; thus the dresden porcelain of the royal factory at meissen has two crossed swords, while the ware produced at the celebrated chelsea works was marked with an anchor; that of derby had a d, surmounted by a crown; while the ware of swansea has a trident upon it. the egyptians recognised three kinds of writing—the hieroglyphic, demotic, and hieratic. into the nature of these last our space forbids our entering; but it is with the first alone that we, as ornamentists, have to do, since it is in that character the records on the temples, obelisks, and tombs are carved. it was the sacred writing, being devoted to the service of the priests, and its name derived from two greek words, signifying sacred, and to carve. \ve here present our readers with three illustrations of its character. figs. and are the name and title of amunothph ii., the pharaoh conjectured to be the monarch who perished, together with his army, in the red sea. he ruled over egypt , years before the christian era. vve may mention in passing that the word pharaoh, applied in the bible to the sovereigns of egypt, is simply a royal title, being derived from two egyptian words, pa-ouro, “the king,” and does not in itself suffice to indicate any particular ruler. fig. hierogl yphics is a still more interesting illustration of this use of hieroglyphic writing. it is represented on the walls of one of the magnificent palaces built in ancient thebes by the pharaoh shishak, and the ruins of which still exist. on one of the walls a grand triumphal ceremony is sculptured, the victorious king being represented as presenting before his gods the captive rulers of thirty conquered foreign states. amongst these prisoners of war the subject of our figure occurs. the inscription, it will be noticed, is surrounded by a turreted ring, implying a fortified city; while the hieroglyphics therein enclosed read louda/m ll/alek, “the king of judah." turning now to the twelfth chapter of the second book of chronicles, we may read a little more about this egyptian sculpture. \v e find as follows :—“ and it came to pass, when rehoboam had established the kingdom, and had strengthened himself, he forsook the law of the lord, and all israel with him. and it came to pass, that in the fifth year of king rehoboam shishak king of egypt came up against jerusalem, because they had transgressed against the lord. then came shemaiah the prophet to rehoboam, and to the princes of judah, that were gathered together at jerusalem because of shishak, and said unto them, thus saith the lord, ye have forsaken me, and therefore have i also left you in the hand of shishak." of this event no mention whatever appears to be made in profane history, and it seems to us a point of no little interest thus to find the biblical account confirmed by the sculptures of a ruined and long-buried temple in africa. as some of our readers may not know how men like champollion and dr. young have thus been able to reveal these ancient secrets, a few words of explanation may not be out of place. in the reign of ptolemy epiphanes, b.c. , the priests made a decree dwelling on his kingly virtues, his piety, and noble qualities, and ordered his statue to receive like homage with that given to the gods themselves; and to the intent that the edict might be more widely known, and therefore more generally obeyed, it concludes with the words, “it is decreed to set up a tablet of stone with letters for the priests, letters for writing, and letters for the greeks, which proclamations are to be set up in the temples of egypt on the first, second, and third sides of the pedestal of the statue of king ptolemy, living for ever, beloved by pthah, god epiphanes most gracious.” one of these tablets, known from the place of its discovery as the rosetta stone, may be seen in the british museum; and it is to this we owe our knowledge of hieroglyphic writing, the greek inscription being easily readable, and known to be identical with the others, thus affording a basis from which to work, a clue that patient industry and critical scholarship have not been slow to take advantage of. the inscription, as is usual in hebrew and other eastern writing, must be read from right to left, the reverse of our own custom. the assyrian arrow-head inscriptions also read from right to left, while their cursive writing, like our own, reads from left to right. some of the earliest greek monuments are curious on account of their éozeslrop/zedon inscriptions: the lines running alternately from right to left, and then from left to right, the eye moving, as the technical greek term implies, like an ox ploughing-—passing up one furrow and down the next. fig. is an illustration of this peculiar character. inscriptions on early coins are frequently wrong in direction, but this has arisen from want of foresight on the part of the moneyer, allowance not having been ma-de for the reversal that of necessity follows when the coins are struck, as in the case of the typos of the printing-office or the device on a seal, more familiar examples, possibly, to some of those under whose eyes these remarks may fall. the follower of ornamental art should not be content to be a mere blind copyist of other prizvciples of or./vajiiezvtal a ". men's labours, nor feel lack of interest in all that does not palpably bear upon his work; hence the true ornamentist should be also a botanist and lover of nature in all its forms, adding to these natural studies an intelligent interest in the works of his predecessors. archaeology, the study of the past, is a subject not unworthy of the attention which it has more especially in modern times received, for though at first sight a collection of broken pottery and apparently worthless fragments of stone or metal may seem but of little interest, and the accumulation of them a matter too trivial for any expenditure of time or labour, it has nevertheless a deeper interest attached to it than appears on a cursory glance; for as the zoologist or botanist, while studying the varied forms of nature, so beautiful in themselves, so admirable in their manifest design, feel impelled to look “from nature up to nature's god," and to join the glad paean, “the lord is good to all: and his tender mercies are over all his works. all thy works shall praise thee, o god: and thy saints shall bless thee. they shall speak of the glory of thy kingdom, and talk of thy power. to make known to the sons of men his mighty acts, and the glorious majesty of his kingdom. thy kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and thy dominion endureth throughout all generations "—so the archaeologist, musing over his fragmentary remains, may see no less the wonderful workings of an overruling influence in all the mighty changes that have taken place in the history of man's dominion on the earth; indeed, if it be true that “the proper study of mankind is man," little more need be said in justification of such a pursuit, since archaeology, in contradistinction to botany, astronomy, geology, and other natural sciences, dwells exclusively upon the footprints yet remaining of the bygone generations of humanity, recalling from the dust of centuries the pursuits of men of like passions with ourselves, awakening within our minds an essentially human sympathy, a recognition of the great brotherhood of man. inscriptions enter very largely into the ornament of the moors. the quaint forms of the cufic character, and the medium in which the designs were produced—a plaster easily manipulated either by cutting or modelling—led to great richness of detail and effect, and the strict commandment imposed on all mohammedan races by the koran, not to make the picture or image of any created thing, still further tended to render their decorations largely dependent on the ingenious interlacing of inscriptions. the mohammedans are divided into four orthodox sects, called sunnees, and others who, like the old spanish moors and the persians, do not so strictly in many ways regard the commands of the prophet. \/v e shall, however, confine our remarks to examples seen in the alhambra. the alhambra, deriving its name from the arabic kal-’at al /zamra, “the red castle," was the great fortress-palace of the moorish rulers of granada. the stern grandeur and massive simplicity of the exterior is in marked contrast to the delicate beauty of the palace within, where allthat luxury could suggest or the most refined art could effect ministered to the gratification of the conquerors. the buildings were commenced by ibnu’l ahmar in the year i , continued throughout the whole reign of abu abdillah his son, and completed in i . time and wanton destruction, combined with repeated whitewashing and so-called restorations, have now destroyed much of the original character, though enough still remains, even if of fragmentary character, to testify to the former beauty of this great bulwark of the moorish power in spain. vve have selected the alhambra in preference to any other building, as our readers will probably be more or less familiar with its character, owing to several elaborate accounts - that have been published respecting it, and also to the admirable reproduction of parts of m : ]; inscriptions. i it at sydenham; while its unorthodox character is not sufficiently marked to prevent its being, for our present purpose at least, a good example of mohammedan art. it would be impossible, without the aid of colour and large and elaborate drawings, to show clearly how completely the interlacing letters are incorporated and made part of the original effect. the following examples will, however, at least give some idea of the character of the sentences themselves :— “ praise be given to god : there is no power or strength but in god ;" “ o god, thine is the praise for ever, and thine are the thanks for ever ;” this, the devotional, is the largest and most important class. a second class consists of sentences, not from the koran, like the preceding, but of general moral tone. one example will suffice—“ be not one of the negligent." a third class consists either of general passages from the poets, or sentences in direct praise of the building they adorn, or of its occupant. they are written in that hyperbolic style so commonly to be found in eastern poetry; thus in one of the halls of the alhambra the following occurs :—“ every art has gifted me with its elegance, nay, has given n e all its splendour and perfection; indeed, when the spectator has attentively examined my beauty, he will find reality to exceed the most extravagant conceptions of his fancy. he will see the full moon beam forth from my light, and its halo leave me to enter the mansions of the sky. i was built by the iman lbn nasr. may god uphold his majesty as an honour to other kings, and perpetuate his glorious rank as long as, like the sun or the full moon, he continues to rise in the high region of the sky, mercifully to scatter the shadows of injustice and oppression. if the planets quiver in their orbs, it is through dread of thee; and if the branches of the oriental willow bow down, it is perpetually to be thanking thee." some of the inscriptions in the alhambra are in the cursive arabic character; an example of this is given in fig. . it is a good instance of the influence that materials exercise over writing-forms, the arabic characters, like those of most other eastern languages, being written with reeds. if any of our readers will endeavour to reproduce it, by the aid of an ordinary steel pen, they will realise at once the difficulty of obtaining those flowing lines and massive strokes that follow so naturally from the use of the reed. before the invention of the printing-press, when all books whatsoever were written or reproduced by the hand of the scribe, one book being often the patient labour of many years, the desire for abbreviation and saving of work led to the running together of letters by one stroke of the pen; the word or symbol thus formed being termed a monogram, from the greek words monos, one, and gramma, a letter. the word is not, however, now used in so exact and limited a sense, the term being applied to the ornamental grouping of two or more letters, as in the designs, figs. , , within the quatrefoils. other examples may be seen in figs. , , and in the three treatments of the letters f e h, seen in figs. , , and . monograms and abbreviated forms of words, though a great economy of time to the writer, are afterwards frequently a source of confusion. many instances of this occur in old mss. a notable example is seen in romans xii. , where the words rendered “the lord" are in three mss. read as “the time," the contraction used being such that it would do for either reading equally well. a great use of abbreviations is met with in mss. of the anglo- saxon period. in reading them the context often requires to be attentively studied, as the same letter or sign often has very different meanings; thus p. may mean pater, or perhaps pontifex; while the plural is often expressed by a doubling of the letter, as o. o. for omnes, or d. n. n. for a'omz'nz'. many other examples may be found in forsyth's very interesting “ history of ancient manuscripts," and other works of a like character. prlvciples of orzvajiiezvtal art early inscriptions are generally unpunctuated, or have each word separated from those that precede or follow it by a simple stop, as in fig. . occasionally the words are run together without any interval between them. these peculiarities, added to the great use of abbreviated forms, amply suffice to render the task of deciphering old writings a by no means easy one. as an illustration of the running together of words, we have in fig. a portion of an inscription from deerhurst church, gloucestershire. the inscription, which is in latin, is to the following effect :—“ earl odda ordered this royal building to be built and dedicated to the honour of the holy trinity for the soul of his cousin felfric, who died here. eaddred, bishop, dedicated it on the rd of april, in the th year of saint edward, king of england." our figure gives the beginning of the inscription—“ odda dux jussz't”—only the first letter of the last of these words being within the illustration. the stone, dug up on the site of the chancel, may now be seen amongst the arundel marbles, oxford. a cipher differs from a monogram in that the letters are repeated and reversed, so as to form a bi-symmetrical or multi-symmetrical composition. the large illustration, fig. , is an example of this. the three intersecting c’s in fig. form a good example of a multi-symmetrical cipher: it is taken from a éiéeron of oiron fizienee, or, as it is often termed, henri deux ware. a certain amount of doubt exists as to the meaning of the form, but it is generally-concluded that it is the initial letter of the queen, catherine de medicis; an undercurrent of meaning connecting the crescent form with the duchesse de valentinois, better known as diana of poitiers. fifty-five specimens only of the ware are known to exist, and almost all have this cipher upon them; of these, twenty-five pieces are in english collections, twenty- nine in france, and the remaining one in russia. the cipher, fig. , formed by the crossed l's, and the more curious than beautiful form, fig. , made by putting two l p’s back to back, are taken from examples to be met with on the back of sevres porcelain; the first being on china, made, as the cipher indicates, during the reign of louis xvi., the two c's standing for the date i , according to a method pursued for marking when the pieces were produced; and the second during the sovereignty of louis philippe. those who are curious in such matters, and willing to pursue the subject at greater length, may find many valuable examples of monogram and cipher forms on old deeds, buildings, stained glass, and coinage; we have here only space to indicate a few of these. many of the early monograms are very confused in arrangement, and barbarous in treatment. of these, fig. , from a bull of pope innocent iii., a.d. , is no bad example. the original is in the british museum. other grotesque examples may be seen in figs. , . in the first of these, taken from a gold coin of mary of scotland, the letters of the words “ l\/iaria regina” occur; the second, composed of the letters “f. m.," is from a testoon struck during her marriage with francis ii. of france. on early deeds and mural inscriptions we frequently find the subject-matter prefaced by a cross, as in figs. , i , the idea involved being dedicatory, the significance “in the name of god." amongst the hindoos the equilateral triangle is the symbol of siva the destroyer, and all detached hills of conical form are regarded with reverence as the natural symbols of that god. obelisks and pyramids were thus employed, with symbolic meaning, by the egyptians, and were shown in the paintings and sculptures by a form like the letter t upside down. this same t-like form, but not reversed, was the symbol of eternal life, and as such was borne by thoth. the greeks adopted it in a similar mozvoazeu/ . . . sense, and the early christians of egypt at first used it instead of the cross, which was afterwards substituted for it, placing it at the beginnings of inscriptions, as we have seen that the cross was at a later date used. sir gardiner wilkinson, in his book on egypt, speaks of numerous inscriptions headed by the “tau," as this form is called which are still preserved in early christian sepulchres throughout egypt and the great oasis; and it has been urged, with at least great probability, that this symbol of life was the form made by the children of israel in blood upon their door-posts when the angel of death passed through the land of egypt to smite the first-born of the nation. the tau form of cross is in like manner to be met with in the catacombs of rome, and the earliest christian churches were built of this shape in ground plan. old rings are occasionally to be seen marked with the tau, a mystical virtue being attached to it, as in company with the word anaizzlzapta, a chaldean word which, being translated, means, “ have mercy on us, o judge," it was thought to be a most powerful prophylactic against epilepsy. the tau, we have seen, was succeeded by the cross, and this in turn frequently gives place to a monogram, the significance remaining the same. we have, in figs. , , sketched two examples from charters in the british museum: one drawn up in the reign of edgar, a.d. , the other in the reign of canute, a.d. i . the monogram is composed of the first two letters of the greek word for christ. it is the form which is said to have appeared at noonday in the sky, outshining the sun in its splendour, before the heathen emperor, while a voice was heard to say, “by this sign shalt thou conquer." assigning any value we please to this legend, the fact, at least, remains that constantine did receive some sudden shock to his old superstitions, and that, joining the christian church, he henceforth removed the old roman eagle from the standard of the legions, placing in its stead the sacred monogram. it was also, until the fifth century, stamped upon the imperial coinage. it is found on the resting-places of martyrs of the reigns of adrian and antonine, as early as the second century after.christ. some of our readers may, perhaps, without knowing why, have been in the habit of writing christmas as xmas; they will now see the origin and meaning of the x, standing as an equivalent for christ. it is very curious that this form of monogram should have been in later times so completely supplanted by the i.h.s. with which we are so familiar. both refer to the same person, both are equally expressive, and the former one is the easier, in its simplest form, as in fig. , to carve or paint. the i.h.s. is formed by the first three letters of the greek word for jesus. it is often supposed that the letters stand for the initials of the latin words, yesus homz' zum salzzator, “jesus, the saviour of men," but this is not so; though, alike ingenious, appropriate, and beautiful, it is an afterthought, and not the original intention. monograms on coinage.—the earliest british example, with which we are familiar, is on a coin—a penny—of the mercian king, offa, a.d. . fig. , a saxon coin, though not of monogrammatic device, falls within the scope of our remarks, as the device is formed by letters, a series of four f’s, probably the initial of the moneyer who struck it. some of the farthings of queen elizabeth have her monogram upon them, surmounted by the regal crown. the result is not, however, very successful, as the designer has endeavoured to get in all the letters of her somewhat lengthy name, and thus clearness is lost. on a fourpenny-piece of charles ii. we met with a series of interlacing c's, identical in design with the figure seen at no. , though from each letter, instead of being principles of or./vajiie./vtal ari". . ! crescent-shaped, being of the same width throughout, the effect of the whole is somewhat different. on other coins of the same king, as in the twopenny-piece represented at fig. , two c’s back to back are met with. charles x., of france, employed a similar on the half-crown of william and mary we find the form represented in fig. . it is curious to notice that while, at first sight, the eye is satisfied of the presence of both the vv and the m, on closer scrutiny it will be perceived that neither letter is really complete. inscriptions on coinage.—in addition to such prosaic statements of fact as the value of the piece, or the reign and year in which it was struck, we frequently meet with examples of a higher order adorning the coin, not merely from the beauty of the characters, but from the grace of the idea conveyed, while others again have great historic interest. form as his monogram. the following are a few inscriptions out of many that might be brought forward: agmzs dei, qui tollis pecrala mzmdi, mzlrerere zoéz's, “lamb of god, thou that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us," is found on the golden lamb, or mouton a"or, of henry v., a coin so-called from the device it bore. of christ," is very appropriately found on the coins of charles i., a firm believer in the divine right of kings. decus et tulamen, “an ornament and a defence," placed round the rims of coins, is at once an embellishment and a protection against clipping and filing. hz' s dijért rege lyrannus, “ in these the tyrant differs from the king,” is a motto found on the coinage of james vi., of scotland, a d refers to the scales and sword of justice borne [ilene fer/zelperes, on a coin struck for perkin vi/arbeck, is an evident attempt to represent himself as playing the part of darius, henry vii., like belshazzar, having, it is implied, been weighed in the balances and found wanting. rosa sine .y§z'na, “the rose without a thorn," a motto found on the coins of the tudors, points to the alliance of the rival houses, and the happy termination of civil strife. religious cast are very numerous. omitting, for brevity’s sake, the original latin, the following are illustrations: “the lord is my strength and shield, my heart shall trust in him ;" “god is a just, patient, and powerful judge ;" “ let god arise and let his enemies be scattered ;" “ by thy cross, save us, o redeemer, christ ;" “ blessed be the name of the lord ;" “the fear of the lord is a fountain of life.” pictures are often marked by the artist with his monogram ; we must here only refer to one characteristic example, the “a. d." affixed by albert durer to. his work. \vhile possessing, fig. , one advantage-—clearness—it errs in another direction. if any letter in a combination is made larger than the rest it should be the most important initial that is thus distinguished. in durer's monogram the a of the christian name is far more conspicuous than the d of the surname; had he placed the a within the d, instead of about it, the result would have been better. john thorpe, an eminent architect of the time of elizabeth, left behind him some hundreds of drawings of the various buildings in which he had been concerned. these drawings are carefully preserved in the soane museum, and amongst them may be seen a plan in the form of fig. , and beneath it the following: “these two letters, i and t, joined together as you see, is meant for a john thorpe." no doubt the result, if carried out, would have been a mansion at once commodious and picturesque, though the motive guiding the planning is almost as grotesque as that of the escurial, which, being dedicated to st. lawrence, who suffered martyrdom by being roasted on a large gridiron, is built in the form of that useful aid to the culinary art, the bars being represented by lines of building, and the feet by christa auspice rqgno, “ i reign under the auspices on the centre of the piece. inscriptions of a distinctly dwelling-house for me. inscriptions. four little towers at the angles, the architect being of necessity obliged to turn his gridiron upside down. many of the “ merchants’ marks,” as they are termed, are monogrammatic in character. they were largely adopted in medimval times by those who, not being of gentle birth, were forbidden to bear arms. the two examples given in fig. are from stained glass in the south kensington museum, and are represented on shields like the more orthodox heraldic charges.. fig. ," a branch letter, and fig. , a ribbon letter, are given as two examples of the various modifications of letter-form indulged in by the later illuminators, while the earlier masters of the art frequently employed grotesque animal forms—the lizard, fish, or serpent—entwining them into the shape of the required letters. a great use was made of inscriptions during the middle ages as an element of decoration; thus, at templenewsam house, near leeds, the following is carved round the three sides formed by the front and wings: “all glory and praise be given to god, the father, the son, and the holy ghost on high; peace upon earth, goodwill towards men; honour and true allegiance to our gracious king; loving affections among his subjects; health and plenty within this house." vvedding-rings generally had a posy, as it was termed, engraved on their inner surface—“ in christ and thee, my comfort be.” “god alone made us two one;" “where hearts agree, there god will be;" “ seithe god hathe wrought this choice in thee, so frame thyselfe to comfourth me ;” “ careful i’le be to comfort thee ;" “as true to thee as death to me ;” “ as god decreed so we agreed ;" “ let us share in joy and care ;" “ a faithful wife preserveth life ;” “ united hearts only death parts.” several of these posy rings may be seen in the south kensington museum, and it is from these that most of the sentiments just quoted are taken. church-bells frequently have inscriptions upon them. many of these are very curious. a very few instances must, however, suffice as illustrations :—“when i do call come serve god all ;" “my roaring sounde doth warning give, that men cannot heere always lyve;" “i ring to sermon with a lusty boom, that all may come and none may stop at home;" “i sweetly tolling men do call to taste of meats that feed the soul;” “all people rejoice when they hear my voice ;” “ a better bell than i is not beneath the sky." many heraldic mottoes are exceedingly interesting, and in a brief and pithy way frequently- convey much historical information. as these, however, we shall consider in a subsequent chapter, when we proceed to deal with heraldry as a whole, it seems scarcely advisable in this place to further refer to them. the eastern nations delight greatly in the use of inscriptions as a feature in their ornament, their houses, weapons, utensils, and furniture being often very elaborately enriched by bands of interlacing conventional foliage or scroll-work, in the midst of which the letters of the inscription are entwined. a very characteristic example of this use of inscriptions is seen in the following one taken from a malay creese, the formidable double-edged knife, carried, and very freely used, by the people of the eastern seas :—“ no need of dispute or -words, for they are useless, this being the end of all disputes, and bringing peace to the mind this shall deliver me instantly from my trouble." though in all our examples we have dealt with the past rather than the present, the student must not, therefore, conclude too hastily that the subject is of historic rather than practical interest. a fine idea finely treated will be as welcome in the nineteenth century as in any of those that at longer or shorter intervals have preceded it, and the capabilities and possibilities of this interesting section of art are not by any means exhausted. j . prizvc./ples_ of ornamental art words of wisdom, in a graceful setting, can in but few circumstances be out of place. having, therefore, now scattered the seed we must be content to let it fructify in its own way, leaving others to reap or cast away as they see fit. as we have several times already had occasion to refer to assyrian art, and shall frequently require to do so again, the present opportunity seems a very convenient one to dwell at some little length upon its leading characteristics. on entering any of the rooms devoted to the assyrian remains in our national collection we are at once struck with the immense use made of sculpture. the walls are lined with large slabs that once occupied a similar position in the palaces of nineveh. these slabs, while decorative in character, are more especially devoted to a record of the great events of assyrian history. in them we see the warriors of assyria pursuing the flying foe, besieging him in his cities, or returning in triumph with the captives and spoils of war. others detail the greatness of their monarchs, showing them in the fore-front of the battle, pursuing the lion, or enthroned in the palace, surrounded by chamberlains and the great officers of the court. others, religious in character, represent the homage paid to the gods of assyria; to dagon, to baal, and n isroch sacrifices are being made, libations offered. unlike the mural paintings from thebes, that may be seen in an adjoining room, the assyrian records throw but little light upon the doings of the common people; for, whereas in the egyptian remains we see the operations of the vineyard being carried on; the dancing, music, and feasting of social gatherings; the butcher cutting up his joints; wrestlers and acrobats giving their performances; criminals and laggards being bastinadoed; poulterers plucking their geese ; the jeweller with his blow-pipe; the carpenter, glue-pot on fire, veneering a slab of wood; the potter at his wheel; women weaving; the baker; the shoemaker; the farmer; the fowler; all surrounded by the instruments of their callings, and engaged in their daily work, in the assyrian remains we get little or no insight into the national life. the assyrian sculptures deal exclusively with the national greatness, as shown in courts and foreign conquests, and record the deeds of monarchs and warriors alone. little of what we may strictly term ornament is visible in these remains. the sovereigns and great counsellers, cup-bearers, and other court functionaries, are clothed in richly embroidered and heavily-fringed robes, and frequently wear armlets, bracelets, and necklaces of beads. but- all these details, from the smallness of scale, the bold manner in which they are treated, and, above all, from the ravages of time, afford but little information. the bracelets almost invariably have a central patera, or rosette form. the term patera, in its primary signification (latin, palm, to lie open), is applied to an open vessel resembling a broad flat dish or saucer, used by the greeks and romans in their sacrifices, the blood of the victim being collected in it for the necessary libations. the term patera is hence, in a secondary sense, applied to any foliate or floral, flat or concave circular form, whether painted or carved. the patera form is most commonly met with in assyrian, classic, renaissance, and gothic ornament. in the three latter a very considerable variation of treatment is met with; while the former examples, though numerous, have a very strong family likeness to each other. many examples may be seen on paving-bricks in the british museum, as in figs. and , the former from the north-west palace of nimroud, the latter from baashickhah; others from the sculptures are shown in figs. and . the depression in the centre of each member in fig. is curious. it would appear to have been suggested by the similar effect so easily produced on clay vessels before baking, by the pressure of the finger. to illustrate our meaning characteristics of assyrian art ' better we have represented, in fig. , a little assyrian vase, where the depressions have clearly been thus produced while the material was plastic. the assyrian pottery furnishes numerous examples of this, patterns being produced on it either by these rounded depressions or by more sharply cut forms made by some instrument; characteristics by no means, howevet, confined to the pottery of this people, but seen almost universally in a certain stage of the ceramic art. fig. , a vase of early british manufacture, is an especially good illustration of this, as in it we get the union of both methods, the lower portion being decorated by soft and rounded depressions, and the upper cut in sharply defined lines. the anthemion is another exceedingly characteristic assyrian form. the term anthemion, derived from the greek am‘/zos, a flower, is applied ornamentally to a radiate form like that shown in fig. . the anthemion form is sometimes called the honeysuckle ornament, and in some few greek examples is not unlike a cluster of buds of that plant; but in the natural plant the largest buds form the outer rings, the forms gradually becoming smaller and smaller as we approach the centre. the anthemion form is directly the reverse of this. apart from this the form is seen in styles that draw little or no inspiration from floral beauty, as in the present, and in the ornament of far~off lands where the honeysuckle is unknown. like the patera, the anthemion form, no doubt, springs from the perception of the inherent beauty of radiate forms; in the first case star-like, and pleasing by simple repetition, like the forms seen in the kaleidoscope; and in the second case radiating like a fan, having its halves only alike, and pleasing to the eye in the gradation of the forms, and their due subordination to the central member, a feature very beautifully seen in nature in the leaves of the horse-chestnut. the great use made of the patera and anthemion forms in assyrian art is very well exemplified in fig. , a portion of a pavement, where the whole effect is produced by alternate rows of modifications of these two typical forms. a further curious example of their use is seen in the details of fig. , a branch borne by one of the priests represented on a mural slab. it will at once be seen that in this the stellate and fan-like forms are the chief elements. it is, we think, instructive also as showing how, without bare and mechanical repetition of its halves, the general effect satisfies the eye by its balance. examples of the patera form, in addition to the assyrian examples already referred to, will be seen in fig. , a piece of wood-carving from an old chest; in fig. , from an indian textile fabric; in figs. and , greek illustrations; in fig. , a piece of fourteenth century work, german, from coburg castle; in fig. , a piece of romanesque ironwork; in fig. , a rosette from henry vii.’s chapel; in fig. , norman work and in fig. , a piece of ornament from a greek vase. examples of the anthemion form will be found on plate xxiii. the central figure, , together with figs. , , are illustrations of the natural growth of the honeysuckle. fig. we find on an african calabash. the arrangement of the two dark lobes on the light ground, and of the light lobe on the darker portion, is a curious and suggestive feature. fig. is from a romanesque string-course. figs. , , are italian renaissance examples. the remaining three on the plate, figs. , , , are from greek vases in the national collection. fig. is an indian example stamped in silver on the base of an idol; fig. , a piece of spanish embroidery; fig. , a. carving on some french renaissance furniture in the south kensington museum. in fig. , a treatment of the pink, from a persian plate, a very anthemion-like character is given—a character, however, that the general growth of the natural flower is sufficient to justify. principles of oil’./va/iie./vtal ari the guilloche is a third characteristic assyrian form; we have already, however, in our opening chapter dwelt on its nature, and any further remarks are now needless. \/vith the exception of the lotus form, no doubt borrowed from egypt, and a cone or pine-apple form that frequently recurs, the ornamental details do not appear to have been based on any natural type; though on the sculptured slabs, where the treatment is picturesque rather than decorative, some few daisy and lily-like flowers are introduced in the foregrounds of hunting and such-like scenes, with considerable freedom and appreciation of natural growth and character; botanical features, like the alternation of leaf.growth, seen in most of our own plants, or the sheathing of the iris foliage, being evidently considered. the assyrians, like other eastern nations, made a great use of colour, and sufficient indications yet remain to convince us that even the large sculptured slabs were richly painted and gilt; the colours of which, from their mineral base, we now possess the knowledge, were blue, red, yellow, green, black, and white; and, as large quantities of gold-leaf are met with in the ruins, we may justifiably add gold to our list. many of the fragments of bricks yet retain very clearly both the form and colour of the simple designs painted upon them. a curious use of violently contrasting colours is often met with; thus in the large anthemion, fig. , the central form is cut sharply up into segments alternately black and white. the same treatment is seen in some of the lateral members; those alternating with them being of a dark, dull yellow. we see other examples of the same characteristic feature in figs. , . the character of assyrian art is distinctly zoomorphic: it deals almost exclusively with animal life; of phyllomorphic, or foliate form, there is little or none, such ornament as there is being arbitrary in character, and if suggested by natural forms at all, so remotely resembling them as to fail to appeal from any such associations to the eye. \ve have already, in our paper on the symbolic use of animal forms, referred to the eagle-winged and human-headed lions and bulls of assyrian art and mythology; we need not, therefore, here dwell further upon them than again to remind our readers how large a part these figures play in the palace-temples of nineveh. qne very singular feature in assyrian art consists of the immense use made of inscriptions. these inscriptions are not placed beneath the slabs to which they relate, but line after line right over the surface, quite irrespective of what they cross. the subject was evidently first sculptured, and then along the whole face of the work a broad band of descriptive matter was thrown; the effect where it crosses the mane of a horse, or, fig. , the embroidered robe of the monarch, being somewhat confusing. the story of the gradual translation of these inscriptions is one full of interest, not only as a triumph of zeal and learned acumen, but also on account of the extreme importance of the records thus brought to light. \ve have already given an example of these characters, and anything more mysterious it would be difficult to conceive. various terms are applied according to the fancy of the describer: thus in germany it is known as kez'/fivmrlg, french antiquaries call it té|le-ti-c/ou, while english writers use the terms cuneiform, wedge-shaped, or arrow- headed. though this cuneiform writing is now almost entirely associated in our minds with the records of the assyrian empire, it was at one time, under slight modifications, used throughout the greater part of \nestern asia—a most fortunate circumstance for our antiquaries, and one without which the signs must ever have remained a mystery. the clue was afforded, as in the case of the rosetta stone already referred to in speaking of the egyptian hieroglyphics, by finding tri-lingual inscriptions, records identical in matter, ass yr]/ ./v reaiahvs. but in three different characters. the kings of persia, until the final overthrow of the empire by alexander the great, ruled over three principal peoples—the persians proper, the tartars, and the people of babylonia and assyria; hence the government records were tabulated in the three national languages. the palaces of.darius and xerxes at persepolis, and the rock-tablets of behistun, furnish the most important polyglottic inscriptions yet discovered. the persian inscriptions, from the small number of signs and the analogy detected between the ancient dialect and the modern zend and sanscrit, were after thirty years’ patient labour and investigation mastered by grotefend and lassen. a young english officer attached to our diplomatic service in persia, ignorant of the labours of these " german sat/ans, but filled with antiquarian zeal, set to work to decipher similar inscriptions, and arrived at a like result. that col. rawlinson the englishman at bagdad, and professor lassen at bonn, should thus unknown to each other arrive at identical conclusions, is a strong argument in favour of the correctness of the principles of in- terpretation employed. the patient labour and careful analysis that had laid open the first column were now applied to the second, but in the face of tenfold difficulties, for while the persian signs were about forty in number, the assyrian presented some five hundred different characters. much light, however, has been already thrown upon these dark pages of history. the antiquity of the assyrian remains is very great, and it may not be altogether undesirable if we devote the remaining space at our disposal to some little account of the history of the assyrian empire. two sources of information are open to us, the writers of the bible and the greek and roman historians. in the former alone do we meet with distinct information, as the great historians of greece were not born at the time of assyria's final downfall; and though they record many traditions of its power and extent, they cannot speak with the authority of eye-witnesses of its glory, like jonah and other prophets. going back to a very early period in the world’s history, we find that noah had three sons, and that these again had a numerous progeny. of the sons of shem, with the exception of asshur, no record beyond their mere names is given, but of asshur it is said that he built several cities, and amongst them nineveh (gen. x. ii). various incidental allusions, as in the prophetic utterances of balaam, testify from time to time of the growing power of the state. it is spoken of by various writers as “the rejoicing city that dwelt carelessly, that said in her heart, i am, and there is none beside me," as the “fenced place," the “exceeding great city ;" and the might of the assyrians is repeatedly spoken of as the instrument of the wrath of god on the jews. the first record of strife between those two powerful and neighbouring nations was soon after the division, nearly b.c. i o , of the jewish nation into two peoples, the kingdoms of israel and judah, when the jews, weakened by their internal dissensions, offered a tempting prey to their powerful neighbours. pul is the first assyrian monarch mentioned in scripture; he made war upon menahem, king of israel, exacting heavy tribute, and reducing the state to vassalage. tiglath-pileser received feudal fealty in return for his aid on behalf of ahaz against the syrians, but seeing both the richness and the weakness of the jews, overran the country. shalmaneser destroyed samaria, leading into captivity the remnant of the ten tribes, and thus destroyed the kingdom of israel; while sennacherib, it will be remembered, made war upon hezekiah, took lachish and many of his principal cities, and exacted a tribute of thirty talents of gold and three hundred talents of silver. after centuries of power the glory of assyria began to decline, and six hundred years before the christian era it was invaded by cyaxares with a vast army of medes chapter v. heraldry or blazonry—derivation of the vvord—mss., brasses, seals, and glass painting as sources of study—rolls of arms—- pernicious character of much of the modem “restoration"——-devices of the heroes of antiquity—origin of heraldry— coats of anns—arms of edward the confessor-—arrnorial bearings of david, samson, adam, and eve—heraldry, an incitement to deeds of heroism—seals on legal d cuments—canting hera dry——heraldic charges—the language of heraldry-—tinctures—furs—the varying terms applied by old writers to these in the arms of gentlemen, noblemen, and sovereigns—honourable ordinaries—early devices structural in character—naval signal code-subordinaries-forms of the cross—common charges—the lion and eagle—the cockatrice, dragon, \vyvern, grifiin, phoenix, triton, mermaid, sea horse, sea lion, harpy, sphinx, sagittarius, salamander, and unicorn—legends of the basilisk—marshalling-dimidiation —impalement—quartering—aggroupment of arms—the shields of \var and peace—crests—family badges—the motto- the supporters—the lilies of france on the english arms—marks of cadency—marks of augmentation—marks of abate- ment—mantling—value of a knowledge of the laws of heraldry. eraldry or blazonry has played so conspicuous a part in many periods of art, and more especially throughout the whole series of the gothic styles, not only in england, but also in france, spain, germany, italy, &c., that a knowledge of at least its elements is an indispensable part of the training of the archaeologist or designer, or of any one interested in even a minor degree in ecclesiastical or baronial architecture, illumination, stained glass, monumental brasses, and other such-like features of the past. the herald, in the original and literal meaning of the term, was the shouter; the old french term, “herald," identical with the english, and the german “herold” being derived from the german verb “haren,” to shout. it was his duty to challenge to battle, to carry messages between hostile armies, to read the proclamations of the monarch, and finally to proclaim at the tournament the achievements and armorial bearings of the various competitors, while others would “blasen” or blow trumpets, to attract attention and to give additional pomp and grandeur to the ceremonial; hence blazonry or heraldry, in its original sense a public proclaiming, also became of necessity a description and registration of the armorial bearings of those permitted to assume them. it is impossible to do more than just dwell on a few of the leading points of our subject; we can, therefore, only indicate some few of the more marked features and principles, thus far clearing the way before our readers for their own personal study, pointing out matters of interest and examples to be studied, books to be consulted, making our remarks as far as possible useful and suggestive, but after all, of necessity, leaving much of the hard work to be done by themselves. to those who would desire to work out the present subject at greater length, we would recommend the study of boutell's “english heraldry,” and cussan’s “ manual," as handy text-books. there are many other books, but the two we have mentioned will suffice to give a very fair knowledge both of the history and practice. old mss., brasses, seals, and glass painting will afford many excellent examples for study. the “rolls of arms," as they were termed, that were drawn up by the heralds at any particular battle or siege, of those knights who were present, afford another and very good source of information. perhaps the most interesting and instructive of these rolls of arms that have been preserved to our day is that which, in a metrical form, records in norman- principles of orna l{e./vtal art french the siege and capture of the fortress of carlaverock, on the scottish frontier, by edward i., in the year i . the banners and shields of the princes, the nobles. and knights engaged are set forth and coloured with minute exactness. many of the shields are without any device whatever, their distinctive character being produced by some peculiarity in the bands of colour. such may be considered to be derived from the earliest times, and have generally been deemed of greater honour, as they certainly are of greater antiquity, than the majority of those that bear more complex devices. early glass, too, possesses a great recommendation—that we see the original colours still preserved. unlike painted decorations in panels, &c., there is no great risk of its having been touched up, or as it is termed, restored. restoration should never, it appears to us, be more than is honestly implied in the word—just so much as is alone necessary to preserve the fabric and to avert decay. instead of this it appears too ordinarily to be considered an opportunity of starting de zo /o; thus side by side in our cathedrals we may see portions, some white and spick- and-span new, elaborately pointed, and with crudely-coloured scroll-work or other ornament, while other portions, from the proximity of the restored work, gain at least additional interest by contrast, as in them every stone has a history, and there is a charm in seeing even the wreck of the earlier decoration that no nineteenth century thirteenth century work can for a moment impart. the iconoclast and the restorer have between them robbed us in many cases of what can never now be replaced. ancient glass may be, broadly speaking, divided into two great classes—the ecclesiastical, with scriptural or legendary subjects, to be met with in our cathedrals and abbeys; and the heraldic, emblazoned with coats of arms and other devices of chivalry, to be commonly found in old palaces and halls, both in england and abroad. many good and easily accessible illustrations of this latter class may be seen at the palace of hampton court. in all ages of the world, so far as we have any record, we see that there has been the desire on the part of nations, tribes, and individuals to distinguish themselves by certain recognised devices or badges or peculiarities of dress (as in the scottish clans), or by titles. in the book of numbers, for instance, we read that the israelites pitched by their standards, every one after their families, according to the house of their fathers. virgil and other classic writers refer to the special badges adopted by their heroes and chieftains; thus astur bears a silver swan, while other shields are distinguished by stars, serpents, or dolphins. in other cases special epithets are employed, which, though of course not in any way heraldic, serve further to illustrate the desire for personal distinction, which was one great motive in the origin of heraldry; such as, in our own history, edmund ironside, richard of the lion-heart, edward the confessor. it was not until the thirteenth century that heraldry as a science began to receive full attention. faint traces of it are perceptible in the closing years of the twelfth century. in the bayeux tapestry the shields of the saxons are simply charged with lines and crosses, while some of the normans bear extremely grotesque heraldic animals; but in the reign of henry iii., a.d. i to i , it became possessed of a system, a classification, and a technical language of its own, that have ever since been recognised and adopted; such records, therefore, as the roll of carlaverock already referred to, are as intelligible to a modern student of heraldry, and as definite in their meaning, as to those who caused them to be drawn up. about this time, too, the practice of embroidering the arms upon the surcoat worn over the armour was adopted; hence the expression “coat of arms" applied to armorial bearings. the arms of edward the confessor are sculptured on his tomb in use of heraldic insignia. \vestminster abbey, but they were placed there in the reign of edward ii. there is n shadow of proof that he ever bore them. in the days in which every prominent person b re heraldic arms, and when blazonry had attained to great renown, it became a custom t bestow such heraldic arms also upon the men of rank of former times, both to distinguish them, and also, as it was thought, to treat their memories with a becoming honour and respect. heraldry, like symbolism, has suffered ridicule and undue depreciation from the c nsequences of the writings of its too enthusiastic adherents, some such having gravely discussed and settled the armorial bearings of david and gideon, sampson and joshua, making a true coat of arms out of joseph's coat o'f many colours, and crowning the absurdity by declaring that on the marriage of adam and eve adam adopted on his own red shield eve's plain shield of silver, abel bearing the same arms, but with the addition of an apple. until the time of the crusades a knight was free to choose any device that he liked, without the express permission of the king or any reference to the heralds; but when so great a number of men of all nationalities were gathered together in the holy land, it became absolutely necessary, to prevent the confusion arising from so many leaders bearing very similar arms, and those in subordinate positions also bearing devices identical with those of the chiefs of the expeditions, to re-arrange the various devices in some recognised and positive order. towards the close of the reign of edward iii. heraldry had perhaps arrived at the summit of its fame, in the respect paid to it, and in its influence on men's minds, in inciting them to deeds of heroism, as in the case of the heart borne by the family of douglas, granted to them to commemorate the duty entrusted by robert bruce to sir james douglas-—that he should bear with him to the crusades the heart of his sovereign, and bury it in the holy land. the handing down from sire to son of such records of noble service would be in itself an incentive to subsequent wearers to tread in the same path of honour, that the discrepancy between the heroic ancestor and his degenerate successor might not be too patent to all beholders. to quote the words of ben jonson- “ boast not the titles of your ancestors, brave youths ; they're their possession, none of yours ; vt/hen your own virtues equalled have their names, ’twill be but fair to lean upon their fames, for they are strong supporters ; but till then the greatest are but groing gentlemen.” heraldry was soon found to possess other advantages besides those more intimately connected with its use in war or the tournament; thus, very soon after the norman conquest, in consequence of their presence being required to give validity to legal documents, seals became instruments of the greatest importance; and it would at once be obvious that heraldic insignia, from their simplicity, and also as the distinctive bearings of those who thus used them, were exactly suited to the purpose. and to the fortunate circumstances of the legal importance attached to such deeds and charters we are indebted for the careful preservation of these interesting relics, possessing historic and heraldic value of the highest order. many of the early arms bore obvious allusion to the bearer— a kind of symbolism easily remembered. by english authorities this is termed “canting" heraldry; in france, armes parlanles, arms that speak, or in other words, that explain themselves. a few illustrations will show this more clearly. the family of vvhalley bear three whales’ heads on their shield; yard, three yard-measures ; de vele and calverly k pieizvciples of ornamental ari? both have a calf; ramsey, a ram; lambert, a lamb; beeston, bees; shelley, snails; rossal, roses; falconer, a falcon; butler, cups. others, from the change of language, are not at first so obvious. the house of arundel bore swallows—in french, /u'ro za'elles,' martel, hammers, from the french word marleau. on the door of the ruined church of bivalle-le-martel, near rouen, we find curious nails, the heads in the form of a hammer, thus recalling the name and armorial bearings of the family of martel, the lords of this ancient domain. other examples are seen in the bear borne by fitz-urse, ours in french, or ursa in latin, being a bear; and the otter, zoutre, borne by the luttrels. others, again, allude to the occupations of the bearers, as the teazel-plant borne by the clothworkers’ company, and largely employed in the manufacture of cloth; or the horseshoes borne by the company of. farriers. all the various figures and devices represented on a shield, no matter what their characters, are termed charges, and the shield is said to be charged with them. as in the olden time the heraldic charges were borne by their owners on their surcoats and shields, so in the present day the conventional form of shield is still employed. there is no fixed rule for the form of shield used, except that unmarried ladies and widows always bear their armorial‘ devices on a lozenge. the vocabulary employed in heraldry is used with studious exactness, speaking a language that would be equally well understood in former times as in our modern revival, or on the continent as well as at home, so that if we write the description of a shield—say, for instance, “azure, a chevron dancetteé or, between three mullets argent”—and send it to five hundred students of heraldry in england, france, or germany, the drawings that we receive in return will be absolutely identical in form and colour. we cannot, however, now go into such detail as this exact use of technical terms implies, as a new language can hardly be acquired in one short chapter. the. various parts of a shield all have special names, in order that the position of any given charge may be accurately defined. the face of the shield may be divided by lines in various directions; thus we get per pale, when it is cut by a line vertically through the centre; per fess, when by a line horizontally through the centre; per cross, or quarterly, when two or more such lines cut the shield into rectangles; quarterly does not, however, mean in heraldry, as in ordinary conversation, a division into four parts; there may be many more. other modifications are: per bend, when a diagonal line is employed; per saltire, when two diagonal lines cross in the centre; and per chevron, when two such slanting lines, springing from the lower angles of the shield, stop at their meeting-place in the centre. these dividing-lines are not necessarily straight; they may be indented, or notched like the edge of a saw; embattled; rayonnée, when flame-like or rayed; wavy, and several other forms. shields are distinguished further by various colours, and owe to the brilliancy of such colouring much of the beauty of their effect when employed in art, the ruling motive, however, we need scarcely say, being the great value that such brilliancy and precision of colour gave to them as a means of identification in earlier times, in the dust and turmoil of the strife. the heraldic term for this brilliant enhancement is “tincture;" the term comprises metals, colours, and furs. the metals employed in blazonry are gold, heraldically known as “or," and silver, “argent.” the colours are red, or “gules," from an old norman-french word for the mouth and throat, in evident allusion to the deeply ruddy colour of those parts; blue or “azure;” black or “sable;” green, “ vert;" purple, “purpure." \/vhere metal or colour can be employed there is, of course, no further difficulty in representing any coat of arms, but as in engravings, coins, and principles of ornamental art uniform, and their features could not be distinguished through the bars of the helmet; hence the only means of identification left was in the sound of the voice or observation of the device borne on the shield and horse-trappings. \ve see the importance of this principle fully comprehended, for instance, in the signal-code of our war and merchant navy. any elaborate devices would be lost in the distance at which signalling is often carried on, and the messages attempted to be thus conveyed would often be completely misunderstood. to avoid this it will be observed that the colours employed are such as give clear and distinctive contrasts, and the forms adopted are of the most simple character—mere lines, spots, chequers, or bands. the cross form is capable of many varieties that ought, perhaps, to be rather regarded as common charges. edmonson, in his “complete body of heraldry,” names varieties. many of these no doubt originated in the crusades, when the cross form was so universally borne, and yet with a desire to as far as possible make recognisable differences in appearance, either by colour or by some more or less elaborate modificati n of the typical form. the crosses pommée, fleurie, cross/et, moiz'/ze (as in fig. i ), four:/zée, corn-/ée, palonre, &oto zée,c/ea/zée, pafée are most ordinarily met with. during the crusades, apart from any personal device, the english collectively, and as a badge of nationality, wore white crosses; the french, red; the italians and f lemings, green; the germans, black. the subordinaries are the quarter, canton, gyron, bordure, orle, tressure, inescutcheon, lozenge, fusil, rustre, fret, and pall. the tressure may be very well seen on our florin, where, like an ornamental fringing, it surrounds the rampant lion of scotland; while of the inescutcheon a very good example may be seen on a george shilling or half-crown, where the arms of hanover are borne on an inescutcheon, or smaller shield, in the centre of the english arms. the gyron, a triangular form, is never in english heraldry met with alone; it is always grouped. the pall is exclusively met with in ecclesiastical heraldry. it would be impossible to even name all the common charges, as there is no object, real or imaginary, that may not be thus borne; and examples are so numerous that we must all be familiar with at least many of the forms employed. amongst animals the lion seems to have ever held the highest place in men’s regard; and to render it distinctive many modifications of position have been adopted. vve have the lion rampant when in the position seen in the scottish arms; rampant regardant, when—the general position being the same as the last—the head is shown, as in the lion supporting the royal arms, in full view instead of in profile; statant, when standing on all four legs; passant, when the right fore-paw is raised as if in walking; salient, when both fore-paws are raised together as if in the act of springing. in other cases a portion only of the animal is represented— a demi-lion, or the head, or leg, or paw, or tail; thus the family of cork bears for arms three lion-tails. boars, wolves, foxes, stags, bulls, and many other beasts are also commonly to be met with. amongst birds the eagle holds the same pre-eminence that we have found the lion enjoying amongst beasts. its presence frequently betokens a german alliance. the germans adopted it in support of their claims to be considered the successors of the cxsars. the eagle has also been introduced by france, prussia, austria, russia, and america in their national insignia. amongst numerous other birds, we most commonly meet with the falcon, cock, pelican, heron, swallow, and raven. bats, fish, reptiles, and insects are occasionally used. the sun, moon, stars, trees, wheat-sheaves, arrows, crosses, mythical azvi./iials used. buckles, gauntlets, swords, keys, cups, spurs, various forms of knots, hearts, anchors, sceptres, are all examples of well-known charges. amongst mythical beings we ordinarily meet with the cockatrice, dragon, griffin, wyvern, phoenix, triton, mermaid, sea-horse, sea-lion, harpy, sphinx, sagittarius, salamander, and unicorn. the cockatrice or basilisk, the fabled progeny of the union of cock and serpent, was during the earlier ages of the world regarded as a dread reality, and as such is mentioned by pliny, galen, dioscorides, and many other writers. the glance of its eye was fatal, its breath a deadly poison. it will be remembered that shakespeare makes lady anne say to richard' ili., with reference to her eyes, “would that they were basilisks, to strike thee dead!" the mediaeval italians speak of a herb-basilisque that, handled gently, yielded a pleasant savour, but if trodden on engendered serpents. a certain amount of ambiguity as to the appearance of the cockatrice is met with. this is naturally excusable, since those who had seen it, and were therefore best able to describe it, died beneath its fatal glance. one old writer, aldrovandus, represents it as a huge lizard having a cock’s head and four pairs of legs; others call it the king of serpents (greek, éasz'!z'si:os, diminutive form of éasileus, “a king”), and represent it in true serpentine form, but having a diadem or crest on its head. in modern heraldry the cockatrice has the head and legs of a cock, duly wattled and spurred, a scaly, serpent-like body, and dragon wings. the phoenix is eagle-like in form, but always represented as issuing from the midst of fire. the phoenix, mentioned by pliny, herodotus, hesiod, and others, was believed to live five hundred years, and then, collecting its own funeral pyre, to perish in the flames created and fanned by the beating of its wings, and thence to rise again from its ashes to renewed life; hence it became in mediaeval times an emblem of immortality, or of the purifying effects of sorrow and pain, and is frequently referred to in this sense in old monastic legends. the phoenix is at times referred to by our poets, as in moore's “ lalla rookh : "— “ sleep on, in visions of odour rest, in balmier airs than ever yet stirred th’ enchanted pile of that lonely bird, \vho sings at the last his on death-lay, and in music and perfume dies away ! ” the dragon is a winged monster like the cockatrice, but having four legs and a different character of head. the griffin is an animal produced by the combination of the eagle and lion, as in fig. , the head, wings, and feet being like those of the eagle; and the general effect of the body leonine. the wyvern is a winged serpent; it is in general appearance very like the cockatrice, but the head is that of a dragon. the triton is a monster of which the upper half is the similitude of a man, while from the waist downwards the form is that of a fish; in the mermaid, the sea-horse, and sea-lion the underlying idea is very similar to that seen in the triton, except that in these latter cases the upper parts are those of a woman, a horse, and a lion, respectively. the harpy was a form having the body and wings of a vulture, and the head of a woman. they were, according to classic mythology, employed by the higher gods in the punishment of the sins of mortals. the other forms to which we have referred are sufficiently well known to need no further comment. it is a fundamental law in heraldry that colour shall not be placed upon colour, nor metal upon metal; thus, blue and red, or white and yellow employed together would be principles of ornajvental art false heraldry. the only exception to this is where any object is represented in its natural colour, in heraldry termed “ proper,” and marked “ p.p.r." in descriptions of blazonry. a tree might therefore be blazoned vert on an azure ground. in marshalling several arms together into one shield, each is treated as being complete in itself ; thus, in our national arms, the blue shield of ireland stands side by side with the red shield of england without being deemed a violation of the law; or we might suppose a case where two shields are combined together into one armorial bearing, each in itself correct in colouring, the one having a black eagle on a golden ground, the other a silver key on a red field. their combination into one shield is, so to speak, an accidental circumstance arising from an alliance; each is correct in itself, and the accident of the black eagle of the one coming in juxtaposition with the crimson ground of the other does not in any way prove an infringement of the rule. the method of showing two bearings upon one shield by the representation of half of each of them is termed dimidiation. it is not altogether satisfactory, as it mutilates both shields, and often cuts up the charges very awkwardly. impalement, where both are represented in their entirety, is far preferable. impalement is largely used in all official arms; bishops, for instance, impale the arms of the bishopric with their own family arms. quartering is another method of combining several bearings together into one armorial device; we see it, for instance, in the arms of great britain, as borne by our sovereign, where the english, scottish, and irish arms are thus treated. there may occasionally be mere agroupment, where each shield is complete in itself, and merely combined in some ornamental way with the others by ribbons, panelling, &c. the english, scottish, and irish arms thus grouped may be seen on our florin. a distinction was sometimes made between the shield of war and the shield of peace, the first being the heraldic arms of the bearer, the second an arbitrary device. an especially good example of this may be seen on the monument of edward the black prince, in canterbury cathedral, where the two shields are sculptured in alternate panels. old tombs in our cathedrals and churches often supply excellent and most reliable examples of heraldic devices, and the nature of the armour and costume worn at the time of their erection. “ the boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, and all that beauty, all that wealth ere gave, await alike the inevitable hour ; the paths of glory lead but to the grave.” crests were originally adopted and worn upon the helmet as further distinctive signs. badges were employed on the horse-trappings, or the breasts or sleeves of the common soldiers and retainers of the nobility; the badge of the percys, for instance, was the crescent moon; of the house of lancaster, a red rose, or columbine-flower; plantagenet, the broom-flower; the black prince, three ostrich-feathers, a device borne ever since by the princes of wales ; richard ii., a white hart, or the rays of the sun issuing from behind a cloud. the motto was originally the battle or rallying-cry of the knight who bore it; thus the motto of the percys was, esperance en dieu. those of our readers who are of shakespearian tastes will remember the exclamation of hotspur—“ now, esperance! percy, a motto, unlike the arms, can be changed at pleasure, or need not be possessed at all. it may be in any language. it is often chosen from a punning allusion to the bearer; the family of vernon, for instance, have vernon semfer /fret, which and set on." heraldic jiiottoes. may be read either as “ it is not always spring,” or “vernon ever flourishes.’ sometimes the mere ring of the words has apparently greatly influenced the choice, as in astra castra, numen lumen, “the stars my canopy, providence my light ;” or the old norman- french, un ray, une oy, une lay, “one king, one faith, one law ; " or again, pro rege, lege, grege, “for the king, the law, the people." mottoes are not the exclusive property of any one family or corporation, but may be borne by several. the last motto we have just given is that selected by three families, the bessboroughs, broughams, and ponsonbys all adopting it. a great proportion of the mottoes in use are chosen from conveying a religious feeling; thus, “without god there is nothing; with god, enough;” c/zrz'stz' crux est mea lax; spes tutissima azlis, recalling to mind cowper’s line— “ all hope, despair, that stands not on the cross.” another large class may be considered not so strictly religious, as appealing to morality in a somewhat lower sense. these, too, are very numerous: “do well, and doubt not;" “ dread shame ; ” or again, “ be just, and fear not,” sufficiently illustrate this section. some, again, are chosen to commemorate events in which the bearer of the motto, or his ancestors, took prominent and honourable part, as “ algiers," “vimiera,” “china,” or the “ready, aye, ready," more obscure in meaning, but well illustrated in one of scott's stirring stanzas : “ his ready lances thirlestane brave arrayed beneath a banner bright, the tressuredfleur-dz-[is he claims to wreath his shield, since royal james, encamped by i-‘ala’s mossy wave, the proud distinction grateful gave, for faith midst feudal jars ; what time, save thirlestane alone, of scotland’s stubborn barons none would march to southern wars ; and hence, in fair remembrance wom, yon sheaf of spears his crest has borne; hence his high motto shines revealed- ‘ready, aye, ready ’ for the field.” other mottoes startle us by their tone of arrogance. of the,se we may quote, honzo sum, “ beware ;" “follow me,” “never behind,” alte volo. the supporter of the arms is sometimes an angel, man, or animal, or at other times an imaginary creature, placed as if protecting and sustaining the arms; their use, except under special circumstances by direct license of the monarch, is confined to peers and knights of the bath. there are almost invariably two, in early heraldry alike, in later times very rarely so. our national lion and unicorn afford us a good and familiar example. elizabeth, mary, and henry viii. had a lion and a greyhound as supporters to their arms. richard iii. used either a golden lion and silver boar or two silver boars; edward iii. a lion and eagle; edward iv. a lion and bull; edward vi. a gold lion and red dragon; richard ii. two white stags; henry vii. a red dragon and white greyhound. the lion and unicorn were first employed at the union of england and scotland under james i., and have continued in use ever since. the lion. has been almost invariably employed as one of the supporters as a badge of england. the scottish arms have always been supported by two unicorns; hence, at the union of the two kingdoms, the lion and the unicorn were naturally chosen as the principles of orzvame./vtal art supporters of the armorial bearings of the realm. george ill. was the last king who carried the french lilies on his shield. his arms were, first quarter, england and scotland impaled; second, france; third, ireland; and fourth, hanover. the lilies of france were first assumed by edward iii., in the year , and continued in use until i , though, except in one reign during that long period, it was a mere pretence and shadow of sovereignty. the french lily, orfleur-a/e-!z's, is supposed by some to have derived its name from the river lys, on the borders of flanders, on the banks of which it is said to be particularly abundant; and no doubt many of our readers are familiar with it under the name of yellow iris or yellow flag, and have admired the brilliant and graceful yellow flowers as they rise up by the sides of our streams in the midst of their long, sword-like leaves. it was at one time considered as particularly sacred to the virgin mary. others deny that it is an iris-flower at all, thinking it a conventional form, derived perhaps from a triple leaf or the head of a halberd or spear, but of which nothing conclusive as to origin can now be known. \ve occasionally find, in addition to the inescutcheon, various little accessories to the shield known as marks of cadency, augmentations, or abatements. the first of these—the marks of cadency—though now to some extent fallen out of use, have been till lately strictly observed as a means of showing the seniority of the different members of a family. all the sons of a family having a right to bear the paternal arms, it became necessary to devise some small distinction that should at once give the necessary difference, and also show the status of each member of the house. to accomplish this, the eldest son bears a form known as a label (it may be very well seen in the arms of the prince of wales), the second son a crescent, the third a five-pointed star, the fourth a martlet (a bird very like a swallow), the fifth an annulet or ring, the sixth a fleur-de-/is, the seventh a rose, and so on. these signs are placed in the centre of the upper part of the shield. marks of augmentation are certain honourable additions granted by the sovereign for some special and extraordinary act of national service, and generally in some way allude to the service rendered; thus charles ll. granted to penderell, who saved his life at boscobel, an oak-tree, in allusion to the circumstances of his escape. sir cloudesley shovel bore as augmentation of honour two crescents and a fleur-dz-/is upon his own proper arms, for distinguished naval victories gained over the turks and french. as an additional mark of honour these marks of augmentation can be transmitted to one’s posterity; thus robert bruce, once closely pursued by english soldiers, only escaped through two men named torrance rowing him across an arm of the sea. the family still bear as arms two oars crossed, with the motto “i saved the king." the family of hicks-beach bear three golden flezu's-a'e-/z's,- they refer to three french standards .captured by sir elias hicks, who for his bravery was also created a knight by the black prince; and as a concluding example, an owl, the crest of the fowlers of staffordshire, originated in the vigilance of richard fowler, a crusader of the time of richard i., who saved the christian camp from a nocturnal surprise, and for this service was made a knight, and ordered by the king to assume as his crest the owl. marks of abatement are now never used; but in the olden time, when heraldry entered into the architecture, the daily costume, the seals of documents, and in a hundred other ways made itself felt, it must have been a crushing disgrace to be obliged, willing or unwilling, to bear everywhere, and openly, before every one, marks of infamy, to be forced to mix with other knights, and yet be shunned by them as one detected in treachery and cowardice-—a disgrace and reproach to his order. formerly there were nine different acts of dishonour, each the “ zvoaza science.” , bearing its distinctive mark to be affixed to the shield during- the king’s pleasure—a terrible disgrace, obvious to all and understood by all—such as withdrawing from a challenge made, deserting the banner of the king, vain-glorious boasting, killing a prisoner when not really needful for defence, uttering a lie to his sovereign, drunkenness and licentiousness of conduct, or acting as a traitor towards his king and companions; for this, the most' disgraceful offence, he was compelled for the rest of his days to bear his arms reversed. the monarch had thus, in marks of augmentation on the one hand, and marks of abatement on the other, a very complete and universally recognised system, ready made to his hand, for rewarding the loyal, patriotic, and devoted, and of bringing very speedy and complete punishment upon those who proved false to the vows of chivalry they had solemnly taken. \/ve might now proceed to give some little insight into the various forms of coronets and helmets, since their correct representation is an essential point, but we feel that we must, in a mere sketch of the subject, perforce leave much unsaid. in representing the arms of a lady a crest is never introduced. if its original intention be remembered—to distinguish the wearer in the turmoil of the fight—the inconsistency of adding it to the armorial bearings of a lady will, according to the authorities, at once be evident; though it seems to us that if this line of reasoning be carried but one step further the lady should also bear no shield of arms, for the shield in its primary use was as much an accessory in the strife of war as the crest, and any arguments that apply to the one seem to be equally binding on the other. on the same principle of consideration of the original use—as a mark to distinguish one leader from another—it is inconsistent to represent two or more crests over any armorial bearings, though in the case of matrimonial alliances between two families of rank it is often done, the arms of the wife being impaled or quartered with those of the husband, and the crest of the lady’s father being added to the joint arms. behind a shield, and issuing from the crest, we often see folds of drapery represented; this is known heraldically as the mantling. the royal mantling is of gold; that of peers, of crimson. both are lined with ermine. \/vhether heraldry deserves the consideration that it yet receives, now that its primary use has for ever passed away, may be an open question, but we trust that we have at least succeeded in showing that it is guided by positive rules of its own which cannot with impunity be violated. if, therefore, employed at all in church restoration or glass painting, illumination, &c., it can only be properly introduced after some little attention has been paid to rules which, though in themselves arbitrary in character, have received the sanction of centuries, and the ignorance of which cannot fail to be speedily detected. illustrations of the need of this special knowledge may from time to time be met with, and it is not a sufficient reason for the violation of the special rules of the subject to deride it as obsolete, arbitrary, or absurd. it may be all this, and yet, if the thing be introduced at all, it should be rightly done, according to those rules. if the verdict on heraldry be an unfavourable one, it should at least spring from knowledge, not from want of knowledge. vve are not, however, here called upon to decide upon the claims of heraldry itself on our attention, as to whether it is a “noble science," as one old book calls it, or, as another says of it, “the science of fools with long memories ;" we have merely to deal with it as a fact that we find prominently brought before us when we deal with much of the archaeological work of the past, and we must as such accept it, and endeavour to comprehend the laws by which it is governed. in drawing our remarks to a close we cannot do better than quote some few lines of excellent common sense that we met with once while studying l prhvciples of orzvajiiezvtal art intervals. good examples may be seen in the architecture of italy, arabia, india, and cairo. in some districts of england a similar effect is produced by alternate layers of flint and sandstone. construction, as we have already hinted, finds the horizontal line well adapted to its exigences; and hence we find it fulfilling, in string-courses, &c., its proper work, and taking its rightful place, an essential feature of construction made beautiful by art treatment. this principle, the decoration of construction, in opposition to the common but false lack of principle, the construction of decoration, is so essential a feature in all pure design that it will be found that where ornamental art is of a debased type it has also little or no regard to constructive features, while the best period in any style of art is that where constructive utility has been first appreciated. in the writings of john bell we find a passage that so exactly illustrates the relation of art to use that we gladly quote in preference to venturing on any definition of our own. “ornament," he says, “is, so to speak, the immediate parasite of architecture. it is the lichen that rises from it-—a natural growth; the ivy or honeysuckle that clings to its pillared trunk; the mistletoe which buds out amid its branches. decoration is not a substantive, but an adjective. it does not stand alone; it is not a thing of itself; it decorates something else: it is an adjective. on the other hand, a painting, a piece of sculpture, or an architectural structure, is a noun- substantive—a thing of itself. not so decoration. decoration clings: it needs support. it follows: it does not lead the way. it enhances : it does not originate. this is its restricted province.” the horizontal line, in the same way, is admirably adapted to fabrics produced by weaving; hence we find.in all periods of art a great use made of parallel bands in textile fabrics as a decorative feature, the effect being sometimes produced by the alternation of a dead and glossy surface, or more generally by variation of colour. it is also very largely met with in ceramic art; the process of manufacture in this case, too, being very favourable to its introduction. any of our readers who have had the opportunity of visiting the seat of such manufacture will doubtless remember with what ease the potter, by the instantaneous touch of a pointed instrument, or brush of colour, formed a perfect ring on the vessel as it was revolving, in a plastic state, with great rapidity on the horizontal wheel or disc, before him. the like manipulation has produced like results in the ceramic art in all ages. archaic in style as much of the early pottery is we cannot help feeling that even in this simple treatment of concentric rings and bands there is also considerable beauty; and indeed, in these examples the very rudeness of the work has its own special charm, as it testifies alike to the antiquity of the potter's art and to that inherent love of the beautiful which, not content with the utility alone of an object, seeks to make it pleasing also to the eye. of the extreme antiquity of the potter’s art there can be no question; it is so evidently coeval with the first dawn of civilisation that we look in vain for any account of its origin, as long before men had written records the potter’s productions were in constant demand. most early nations ascribe their knowledge of the art to the beneficent regard and direct instructions of their gods. the hebrew scriptures contain numerous allusions , to the creations of the potter, and the processes employed by him. thus, in the denunciations uttered by the prophet jeremiah, we find the following passage :—“ the lord said to jeremiah, arise and go down to the potter's house. then i went down, and behold he wrought a work on the wheels; and the vessel that he made of clay was marred in the hand of the potter, so he made it again another vessel, as it seemed good to the potter to make it. and the lord said, o house of israel, cannot i do with you as this potter? behold, as symovetry. in our work, “plants, their natural growth and ornamental treatment," illustrated these natural examples much more fully than here seems desirable, nor do we care to travel over the same ground twice; to that work, therefore, we would refer our readers, should they care to have a greater number of examples presented to them. ' symmetry is a principle of great value in decorative art; for however poor a form may be in itself, if it but form part of a symmetrical arrangement it at once becomes more pleasing. we may see this well illustrated in the kaleidoscope, where very rich and beautiful forms are produced by the reflection and symmetrical arrangement of rough, irregular pieces of glass that in themselves are worthless, destitute of all inherent beauty. even the schoolboy experiment of making a great ragged blot, and then folding the paper through its centre, is another illustration of the value of symmetry; for the bi-lateral form thus produced, though meaningless, is certainly far more pleasing to the eye than the original smear from which it was developed. burnet, in his essay on the “education of the eye,” is not insensible of the value of a symmetrical arrangement even in the freer domain of pictorial art, and to illustrate his remarks, employs a very similar means to that just referred to, as he says, “ if we take a pen and sketch in a row of buildings, trees, &c., running from one side to a point in the centre, blotting in shadows broad and dark on the near objects, and while the ink is wet fold the paper across, so as to take off an impression on the opposite side, the eye is not only gratified by a greater mixture of sharp and soft portions, but by a greater unity and balance of parts, one side with another, and a repetition of the sky line with the lines of the ground; or if we draw in a group of trees, and fold the paper across at the base of their stems, so as to take off a faint impression, as if reflected in water, the same agreeable sensation will be produced." symmetry, however, of the grand divisions of a design, whether architectural or ornamental, is the nobler form in which we meet with the principle; wherein a general harmony and balance appeal to the eye, while a constantly recurring variation in the details is no less grateful to the mind and taste when a closer scrutiny of the work is made. this naturally entails more thought, careful labour, and play of fancy in the designer than any mere repetition of parts, however pleasing in themselves. the higher the order of the work the less must the mechanical symmetry become obtrusive: for instance, in the mouldings of a church-window the cusps on one side will just agree in position and be identical in form with those on the other; but in the stained glass occupying the window itself the apostles and martyrs must, while maintaining a unity of grouping, show also a variety of position and action. a design composed of foliate and floral forms may be in exact symmetry, and the resulting effect will be good; but two human or angelic forms thus treated will be repulsive; the mechanical repetition will have degraded them. hence, in the noblest greek work-—such, for instance, as the parthenon, the shrine and dwelling-place of pallas athene, “the finest edifice on the finest site in the world," according to dr. vvordsworth, the grand result of the united labours of ictinus, callicrates, and phidias—the groups of figures in the pediments were symmetric as a whole, and were thus in just harmony with architectural requirements, and yet treated with the greatest freedom, balancing, but certainly not repeating, each other. the same remarks apply with equal force to the figures of the metopes and frieze. examples of these may be seen in the british museum. a copy of the panathenaic frieze may also be seen on the building devoted to the athenaeum club, in pall mall. any of our readers who care to consult zahn’s fine work on pompeii will not fail to be struck with the general balance and harmony principles of ornajmental art of the various groups or isolated figures so freely employed in the mural decoration; while the immense variety of attitude is a feature equally striking: there is a due balance, but no repetition, no sameness; for “beautiful forms must necessarily be composed both of uniformity and variety,""' and this “variety is one of the chief sources of beauty."'|' having given examples sculptural and decorative, we may be allowed to cite one other notable instance of the principle for which we are contending; this time a pictorial example. there is, perhaps, no picture more markedly symmetrical in treatment than the “ last supper" of leonardo. da vinci. a long table, parallel to the plane of the picture, stretches almost from end to end of the composition. the three-light window on the back wall of the room is so exactly in the middle that the lateral jambs on each side are of identical width; while the lines of the ceiling-rafters, wall-panels, floor-lines, even the folds on the horizontal surface of the table-cloth, in accordance with the requirements of perspective, all converge to a point in the centre of the window. in the centre of the composition sits our saviour, the central light of the window being immediately behind him, and all the lines, therefore, of the walls, ceiling, and floor converge to a point immediately over his head, and carry the eye most unmistakably to him. on either side of this noble and isolated figure we find six apostles, each six in two groups, so that we get four groups, each containing three figures, and two of these groups on each side of the central figure of our lord; nevertheless, so varied are the positions, some of the figures being seated, others springing to their feet—some advancing with eagerness to repel the idea of treachery, while others shrink, in one case in conscious guilt, in others at the bare idea of betraying their lord—that the mind rests with wonder and delight on the skill that has produced so grand a result out of materials apparently so difficult thus to treat, while the eye is equally satisfied with the grand simplicity and balance - of the composition. should any of our readers feel inclined to think somewhat lightly of this, we would strongly advise them, a horizontal line being given as the edge of a table, to attempt the grouping of thirteen figures behind it, and we are persuaded that they will rise from the problem with a greatly increased respect for the genius of leonardo da vinci. if we turn to the writings of those who are entitled, by their experience, to speak with more or less authority, we find a marked unanimity in their opinions, and our own dicta very fully confirmed; thus ruskin, for instance, speaking of symmetry, in the second volume of “modern painters,” says, “i only assert respecting it, that it is necessary to the dignity of every form, and that by the removal of it we shall render the other elements of beauty comparatively ineffectual; though, on the other hand, it is to be observed that it is rather a mode of arrangement of qualities than a quality itself; hence symmetry has little power over the mind unless all the other constituents of beauty be found together with it. a form may be symmetrical and ugly, as many elizabethan ornaments, yet not so ugly as it would have been if unsymmetrical, but betters always by increasing degrees of symmetry." wornum, in his “analysis of ornament,” says, “it seems to be a law nature that every individual thing shall be ’composed of similar parts in its outward appearance; and as the internal arrangement is often different, as in the animal creation, this similarity of externals would appear an evidence of the design of beauty ;” while hudson says, “symmetry of form in leading lines is almost essential." ' alison. ' m ontesquieu. prlvciples of ornaaiental art reproduction. \/ve see the principle very largely introduced in designs for paper-hangings, muslins, and all kinds of work that are produced by the agency of machinery in any form, stencilling, block-printing, and such-like. alternation of form springs out of this, and is but a richer development of the same principle; we see it, for instance, in the greek egg and tongue moulding, where two very dissimilar forms are brought into juxtaposition, each by contrast mutually assisting the effect of the other. an illustration of the principle may be seen in the small bordering shown in fig. . if the student will draw the larger forms alone, he will at once see how decided a gain the insignificant spot alternating between them really is, and how out of all proportion to its apparent importance is the real loss in omitting it. in fig. , from a greek vase, the variety of effect is produced by alternation of the direction of the unit, while in many instances the variety is produced not merely by reversing the unit, but is still further intensified by change of its colour. in fabrics and wall-papers this modification is often met with, as it prevents the monotony that mere repetition may result in; a large pattern spread at intervals over a ground, frequently having a smaller form occurring at regular intervals equidistant from the larger units. there may naturally also be alternation of colour as well as of form merely; hence a very considerable variety may result from but few elements, as we may have repetition of form in one colour, the simplest possible treatment; repetition of form varied by alternation of colour; repetition of colour enlivened by alter- nation of form; or the most complex development herein possible, alternation both of form and colour. other offshoots of the principle of repetition are radiation, counterchange, and interchange. radiation is the repetition of a form so arranged as that all the units should spring from one point, either spreading out like a fan, as in the anthemion, or arranged in a stellate manner, as in figs. , , , . the term counter- change is applied to a pattern so arranged that the unit of repetition, the repeat as it is in technical language perhaps more generally called, and the ground on which it occurs, shall be of the same form. instances of this modification of the principle, some of them of an extremely rich character, occur very frequently in moresque, persian, arabian, and turkish ornament. the term interchange, though very similar to the last, is used in an arbitrary manner, and with a certain limitation of meaning, as it refers to colour only and not to form. its use is almost exclusively confined to heraldic technicalities. if, for instance, a shield has an eagle or other device displayed it, the colours of the ground and charge are sometimes interchanged; that is to say, the shield is divided perpendicularly down the centre, and if on the dexter side the portion of the eagle that falls within the half is golden on a black ground, on the sinister side it will be black on a golden ground; in more complex arrangements the interchange may be quarterly, so that if we, for example, have a cross in the centre of a shield, it and the shield, as a whole, will be bisected horizontally and vertically, and the colours of the resulting quarters will then interchange; if, therefore, in the first quarter the part of the cross that is included in it be silver on a ground of azure, in the second the cross will be azure and the field silver, and the same alternation will be carried out in the two lower quarters. there is undoubtedly a certain charm in the continuous repetition of a pleasing form; hence the abundant use of it in the decorative art of all periods. in the greek and roman temples all the capitals in a given structure were alike in character, and in the same way the mouldings and other enrichments, as dentels, &c., were repetitions of the same form throughout. in egyptian ornament, though commonly found, as in the rows variation and repetitiom - of sphinx-forms leading up to the temple, it was not so marked a feature as in the classic styles. the satisfaction to be derived by the eye in the repetition of a given form is at the bottom of the abundant use of forms so diverse as the assyrian guilloche, the greek vase-necking, fig. , and the diaper in colour and relief so characteristic of medimval work. \/ve are struck again by a parallel feature in literary art; the ballads of “oriana” and the “may queen,” by tennyson, and the “ raven " of edgar allan poe, with its dirge-like refrain of “ never more," owe some of their charm at least to the regular reiteration of a certain name or phrase. variation as a principle in ornamental art is, we need scarcely say, the opposite to the various forms of repetition we have just been considering. as symmetry in the lower sense of the word implies the likeness of part to part, and consequently is based on a repetition more or less obvious, so symmetry in the higher sense deals with the general harmony and balance of the mass, but admits due variation of the subordinate details; we say due variation, because where it is carried to excess the work, no matter how pleasing in itself when examined in sections, violates decorative requirements. the true end of variety is to relieve the eye, not to perplex it. variety of character without a certain distinctness of plan, without certain marked and uniform features on which the eye can dwell, may very readily be felt to be a blemish instead of a charm. the gothic cathedrals, where the tracery of each window, the carving in each capital, differs from all the rest, testify to greater mental power, even though imperfectly expressed, than is found in the rigid symmetry and repetition of forms of a classic building; while the chinese, neglecting symmetry, and overriding it in a morbid desire in much of their work for variation, show still more grievously in the other direction the error of exceeding the golden mean; hence, comparing these, and in doing so we are aware that opinions on the point differ, we should place them in the following order :—chinese art, symmetry of the whole subordinated to variations of details, low type; classic art, symmetry of the masses, repetition in the details, good type; gothic art, symmetry of the masses, variation in the details, highest type. i . amongst the marked features of egyptian art, one of the most conspicuous is the studied avoidance of anything approaching to uniformity. this variation, both of the masses and of the details, is sometimes so evident as to be at once perceptible, at other times so subtle that though it tells in the general effect unconsciously to the eye, it can only by careful investigation be detected and analysed. in the great hall of the temple of karnac the capitals are of different heights, and so distinctly so, that the intentioncan only have been in such an arrangement to avoid a tedious sameness. the outer area of medeenet haboo has capitals of fully expanded papyrus on one side, and on the other pillars of osiride type. these osiride pillars are so called from each consisting of a square pillar having a figure of osiris carved in full relief on its face. the figure of the god did not support any part of the fabric. in this respect it differed from the caryatides of greece, as these latter figures took the place of columns, and bore on their heads the superincumbent weight. some of the renaissance architects, carrying a disagreeable idea still further, made these figures crouching and bending as if in pain beneath their burden. machinery, as we have already seen, favours repetition, while on the other hand, where . liberty of choice is afforded, variation will naturally result in the work of the human mind and hand. the latter is, however, unfortunately a principle in direct opposition to these days of hurry and contract-making, and it also requires a greater amount of thought. the q pr i /v c iple s of or./v. jie /vt a l ar if architecture and ornament of the early english and decorated periods of gothic afford many fine examples of it, while in the perpendicular the opposite principle has full sway, so that if we have a small fragment of a building of that late period we have the key to the whole, all the rest, panelling, tudor roses, &c., being but repeats. henry vii.’s chapel and the houses of parliament afford conveniently accessible illustrations of this. in conclusion, several of the modifications of renaissance art, as the cingue-cem‘o and louis quinze work, owe a large portion of their characteristic effect to the variation that, with more or less of good taste, is dominant as a principle in their ornamental forms. turning now to our illustrations for further examples, we find instances of repetition as a dominant feature in fig. , a chinese fret; fig. , a greek fret; fig. , an egyptian example; fig. , a design on a chinese vase in the south kensington museum; fig. , greek in its origin; fig. , a chinese diaper; fig. , a piece of gothic stone- carving; fig. , byzantine ivory work; fig. , a design for wood-carving; figs. , , bands of ornament from greek vases; fig. , german gothic metal-work; and fig. , a portion of a norman string-course. these are selected as fairly characteristic examples. many others will be found on turning over the plates. repetition, modified by alternation of form, direction, and colour, may be seen in figs. , , , , , . repetition of form, modified by alternation of colour alone, is seen in figs. , , , , , , , and . repetition of form modified by alternation of direction will be found in figs. , , , , , , , and ; while repetition modified by the alternation of size alone is exemplified in figs. and . alternation, as a principle in the construction of the design, may be noticed in fig. ; in figs. , ; in fig. , a very good egyptian example; in figs. , ; in fig. , a greek border, wherein the alternation is both of form and colour, as it also is in fig. , a very rich piece of indian embroidery; in figs. , , indian examples, where the alternation is that of flower and leaf; fig. , a design for a flooring tile, wherein the alternation consists of a simple form of leaf with a richer type; as may be seen, too, in fig. , a portion of a byzantine string-course; fig. , a greek treatment, the alternation of leaf and fruit; fig. , the alternation of flower and bud; fig. , part of the border of a plate of hispano-moorish manufacture, where forms of purely arbitrary character mutually enrich each other by their alternate arrangement; fig. , an early form of greek anthemion pattern; fig. , a design based on the nut, wherein the foliage and fruit alternate; fig. , a piece of modern wall-paper; and figs. , , , greek borderings from vases in the british museum. ' counterchange we have already in a previous chapter dwelt upon; examples of it may be found at figs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . the principle of variation is illustrated in fig. , a chinese fret-like pattern, and a very characteristic way amongst the celestials of filling up any required space; figs. , , , norman examples; in fig. , a piece of indian window-piercing; in figs. , , italian examples; in fig. , a piece of perpendicular wood-carving, wherein it will be noticed that, in spite of the stiffness of treatment so characteristic of the period, the principle of variation has been worked out in the diversified treatment of the leaf-lobes. fig. on the same plate is a natural example, a piece of the large scabious; the variation both of form and size in the foliage will be easily recognisable. many plants show this very well. \ e must not, however, linger on this point; but our readers will find both interest and profit in trying to find out for themselves natural objects wherein the leading principles " styles.” of ornamental art may be seen duly developed. examples of symmetry, repetition, alternation, simplicity, complexity, contrast, fitness, and many other art features may, at very little expenditure of trouble, be readily found. resuming the analysis of our illustrations, we find a very good example again of variation on plate xxvi., fig. , a portion of a norman capital, from mildenhall church, w/iltshire; and we see it again in figs. , , both being taken from stained glass in the south kensington collection. fig. is rhenish; fig. english, of the fifteenth century. \ve have repeatedly in our remarks to bring forward examples of the various “styles," as they are termed, of ornament. it is no part of our present plan to define the general nature of these styles, nor to indicate their special and characteristic features; nor, indeed, is such a course at all necessary, since there are several works of high order that already do this, in some cases dealing with all the leading styles; in others, as the works of heideloff or zahn, dealing with some special period. a few words, however, as to the use and abuse of the word itself may not, to our student readers, be altogether out of place, since, while in most works on the subject much is made of the differences, but little often is said of the unity that nevertheless may be found underlying the surface distinctions, nor is it indicated how clearly all these isolated styles are links in one long chain, binding together the present and the past. the field covered by the follower of ornamental art is so large that there is but little need to run any risk of finding the subject tiresome, since so many avenues of thought are open for our consideration, so many and varied phases of the subject strike us according to the view we take; thus, while one student may give his attention to the various principles that underlie the practice of art, and that crop up with curious persistency and unanimity in styles of ornament apparently most diverse from each other, another follower of the decorative arts may find greater interest in tracing the development and history of the various manual processes by which the mind of the designer becomes translated into a language that all who run may read. to such, the study of the different medz'a, the arts of fresco, mosaic, enamelling, engraving, modelling, and many others, become matters of concern. other minds, according to their bent, will find yet other sources of interest; while one will diligently seek examples of the influence of religious belief on the modifications of artistic treatment to be encountered in various countries and at various chronological eras, another finds pleasure in tracking the influence of civilisation, and contrasting the rude forms of an earlier era with the latest manifestations of art power of the same people when time and greater experience have produced a digest of art formula that at length produce what we term a style, a certain mannerism of treatment that enables us at a glance to declare an isolated fragment greek, gothic, or whatever else it may be. \ve can thus pronounce decisively that a given ornament is egyptian, even if, perfectly unable to account for its existence there, we were to plough it up in some fair english shire, in just the same way and by the same experience that archaiologists, excavating among egyptian remains, are at once able to say that certain small vases found there are chinese, though it is by no means easy to say how such things could have found their way to the banks of the nile. in using the term style we must be careful not to fall into the error of considering the various epochs of ornamental art as so many distinct periods having no connection with those that have preceded or followed them; allowing nothing for the continuous change, the old giving place to the new, and the external influence brought about by contact with other men and other ideas. \’e may rather, perhaps, compare ornamental art, as a whole, pjelvc iple s of orzvai/llli zvt a l a r t. to some great river ever advancing on its course, receiving on each side tributary streams, and incorporating them into its own volume of waters, influenced by various circumstances, here expanding into broad quiet pools, there confined by rocks and sandbanks, causing tortuous deviations. the view that many gather from mere book reading, unaccompanied by personal study, is rather, if we may be allowed to continue our figure, that of a series of lakes, some large, others small and insignificant, some abounding in features of beauty, others having but little charm, dotted about in no perceptible order or plan, and having no connection one with another. it is convenient, for the purposes of classification, to take the central period of any ~ aggregation of characteristic features, and to call that the development of a given style; but in reality there is no pause, style is always changing and cannot be so exactly mapped out and rigidly dated. if we take, for example, our early english gothic style, or, as some writers term it, the early pointed, we find that some of its most characteristic features are seen in the grouping of shafts, the bold conventional foliage, the deep hollow mouldings, and the dog-tooth ornament ;‘ but all these may be traced gradually issuing and changing from the preceding style, the norman, and in their turn pass in various modifications into a period fitly termed transitional, and duly emerge from it to form what is known as decorated or middle pointed gothic. no matter how debased a people, how remote from civilisation, and isolated from all other examples of art, we always find the instinctive desire and love for ornament. the results may appear to us exceedingly rude, quaint, barbarous, even outrageous in their ugliness, but nevertheless we cannot refuse to see in them the evidence of a desire to beautify the forms that their requirements had developed. hence, we find clubs, spears, paddles, all carved in low relief with geometric designs or grotesque animal figures; the rude pottery, as we have seen in fig. , while still soft, is dented into simple patterns, or slashed by a knife or tusk into concentric or zig-zag furrows; the reed mats, which would have been quite as serviceable for all practical purposes if of one uniform colour, are nevertheless chequered over in many-colour devices, in obedience to this great fact—the instinctive desire for the added grace; not content merely, brute-like, with the meat that perishes, but in some dim way feeling something of the divine, of that spirit that paints the little wayside flower with loveliness, while scattering it broadcast over the earth; that, while enthroned in a majesty no eye can see, no heart conceive, tints with effulgent beauty the little earth-born beetle that glitters in the sunlight. the influences that have resulted in our modern english decorative art may, strange as it may appear to some of our readers, be traced back for thousands of years, and only cease when we at last reach the land of the pharaohs. egypt has been the first parent of almost all european art, and of a great deal of that of africa and asia. the egyptians greatly influenced all those who came in contact with them either in commerce or in war, and more especially, perhaps, the jews, the greeks, the assyrians, and the persians. we are unable positively to say what the architecture of solomon's temple was like, but its description in the bible tallies remarkably with many of the features that are characteristic of egyptian art. on the occasion of the plunder of thebes, egypt's greatest city, by cambyses, the conqueror carried away with him into persia a large number of egyptian artists, and their influence is everywhere yet seen in the valley of the tigris and euphrates, at nineveh, babylon, and persepolis; hence it is we find a great similarity in the elements of ornament and an almost identical mode of treatment in the forms of assyria, persia, and pedigree of orivajieivtal art egypt. the egyptian ornament and figure-sculpture, in its quiet dignity and simple repose, possesses a great charm, and if it had not been so rigidly bound down by the decrees of the priesthood, might have developed to an even greater extent. the assyrians, not so much fettered by restrictions, introduced more spirit, variety, and action into their work, but lost the grand simplicity of the egyptian sculptures in petty details and trivial ornaments, elaborately curled beards, heavily-fringed drapery, bracelets, and such-like subordinate matters. in the asiatic colonies of greece, and more especially in ionia, owing to its greater proximity to persia and assyria, a similar art-feeling was manifested, but the greeks of the mother-country derived, together with their commercial intercourse, their ideas on art, sculptural, pictorial, and ornamental, from the purer source of egypt. the etruscans, a people of the north of italy, had originally migrated from asia minor, where they had been under the influence of assyrian ideas, so that many of the remains, such as bronzes and other things, dug up in the north of italy, bear what, except for the knowledge of this fact in the early history of the people, would be an inexplicable resemblance to similar works found in south-west asia. the capture of sardis by the allied persians and medes, in the year .c. , opened up another important avenue for the spreading of eastern influence upon the western nations. the greeks borrowed, but speedily improved on their originals, and (though at first, as in the early doric, the forms are almost identical with those of egypt) the two styles rapidly became divergent. at the tombs of beni- hassan, executed some two thousand years before the christian era, are open porticoes supported by fluted columns so similar in every respect to the early greek doric that champollion and other writers refer to them under the title of ‘ proto-doric.’ these tombs, like the caves of elephanta, and many other rock-cut remains, are, though carved out of the solid rock, and therefore really monolithic, made to imitate in their details the pillars and ceiling-beams of ordinary building construction. the romans borrowed the idea of the arch from the etruscans, who had themselves brought it with them from asia minor, where it was largely used by the builders of nineveh, babylon, and persepolis. in the year b.c. a roman army under paulus /emilius overthrew perseus, king of macedonia, and pillaged his territories. on the return to rome of the conquering army with their spoils, a public entry was made into the city. in addition, according to plutarch, to all the armour and weapons, cups, vases, and general “loot,” the pictures and statues alone filled chariots. in the year b.c. the conquest of greece was completed, and most of the finest works of art were carried off to rome. the conquest of greece was consummated in the same year that saw carthage razed to the ground. the carthaginians and greeks had always themselves regarded works of art as fair spoil; they but reaped in turn, at the hands of the all-conquering roman, the fruit of what they had sown, and supplied the victor with a precedent he was not loth to avail himself of. napoleon i., in recent times, was a notable offender in this direction, the choicest statues of italy and other lands that came under his sway being transported to paris. in ancient rome the sight of these art- treasures created a body of connoisseurs desirous themselves of possessing such things, and greek artists were at first employed to supply the demand, and even, when in after years the romans had themselves acquired sufficient skill to undertake such work for themselves, we yet see the hellenic influence very strongly marked, so that, either in sculpture, ornament, or architecture, we perceive a great similarity to the greek types, though almost invariably with the unfortunate drawback of being inferior in point of merit to the forms that had suggested them. \ve might in the same way indicate many other instances vie ivs of re ynolds. in the first of these he describes the pretensions of ignorant and presuming would-be connoisseurs, who, trusting to narrow rules, are often guided by false principles, and even though these should be correct, are still totally unqualified to form a just estimation of the ' higher beauties in works of genius; and in this same essay he states as an axiom, that whatever part of an art can be executed or criticised by rules, that part is no longer the work of genius, which implies an excellence that mere rules will not impart; so that, he adds, if a man has not correct perceptions it will be in vain for him to endeavour to supply their places by rules, which, though they may certainly enable him to' talk more learnedly, will never teach him to distinguish more acutely. in laying down these positions he does not, however, assert that rules are absolutely injurious to a just perception of works of taste and genius, or to their execution, but merely censures that servile attention to minute exactness that is sometimes inconsistent with higher excellence. in his second essay, in dealing with the question of the direct imitation of nature, he shows that a mere literal adherence would balk every flight of fancy in the painter, such imitation being a species of drudgery to which the painter of genius will not, cannotstoop; one in which even the understanding has no part, being merely a mechanical effort. these remarks were written by him in reference to pictorial art, but they bear with equal force on our present subject. rules are the product of past experience, and are herein of great value, since we are thus able to profit by the labours of others, and by this means to carry forward our art to a higher excellence; for not to know what has been done in former times is, as cicero remarks, to continue always a child; while dr. johnson, no less explicit, affirms that “ if no use be made of the labours of past ages, the world must remain always in the infancy of knowledge. the discoveries of every man must terminate in his own advantage, and the studies of every age be employed on questions which the past generation had discussed and determined. v\'e may, with as little reproach, borrow science as manufactures from our ancestors; and it is as rational to live in caves till our own hands have erected a palace as to reject all knowledge of architecture which our understandings will not supply." throughout the whole course of our remarks we have been careful, while laying down our own opinions, to give extracts from the writings of others, whether those extracts told for or against our own ideas; and we would earnestly advise all who are really desirous of attaining a good knowledge of the subject to read carefully and diligently sift the opinions of others, and then, but not till then, exercise their own right of judgment, following only the laws of a guide because they feel him to be right, not merely because they are the utterances of one deemed an authority. the man who has thus thought out the matter has a great advantage over the student who trusts merely, with an indifferent assent, to the dicta of others, since, while the one has settled convictions, the other drifts helplessly amidst the turmoil of conflicting opinions. as an example of these disturbing influences, and a further illustration of the proverbial disagreement of authorities, we may mention that while dresser advocates the use and juxtaposition of green and purple in a design, these colours thus employed are, according to sir gardiner \vilkinson, the worst kind of discord. ruskin says that blue and green form the most beautiful harmony of all, instancing the tints seen in the plumage of the peacock, and the beauty of the fresh green spring foilage when seen against the azure of the sky. \vilkinson, on the other hand, holds in his writings that these colours, when combined together, are deficient in harmony. dyce, in his report on foreign art schools, says, in speaking of one of them, that “the only questionable point is the regulation which obliges all the pupils to undergo a course of study of the n principles of or./vaiiientaz- art illustrating the purpose of any building or monument; thus, for example, amongst the mosaics adorning the tomb of napoleon i. we find the sceptre wreathed with oak, the sword, and imperial crown, and we recognise an especial appropriateness in their introduction under such circumstances. drapery is occasionally used, not as an accessory to the human figure, but as a principal; its use under such circumstances cannot well be defended. a very favourite design in some old houses of perpendicular period is known as the “linen pattern,” or “ napkin" ornament. the whole of the lower portion of a room is frequently divided into small panels, each being filled by a design of this character. the false use of armour, instruments of music, and drapery, for decoration, is mainly confined to roman and renaissance work, but the false use of architecture itself, as an ornament and element of decoration, is conspicuous at times even in some of the noblest examples of mediaeval art. in all bas-relief work architecture may be legitimately introduced as an explanation of the scene in which the figures are actors, though the details require to be kept in a subordinate place, as in the accessories to some of the groups of roman warriors figured on trajan's column, or, again, in the panels of the celebrated gates of ghiberti. all representation of human work as an ornament is, as ruskin has clearly illustrated in his “stones of venice," conditional on its being necessary to the representation of a scene, or as being explanatory of some action or event. on no terms whatever, it appears to us, can any such subject be independently admissible. the porches of bourges, amiens, dijon, and notre dame may be noted as supplying illustrations of this error, as in all of them small models of towns with diminutive battlements, doorways, and windows, cathedral spires and towers, are introduced as independent elements of decorative effect. all ornament may be classed under one of two great heads—surface ornament, or relief ornament; that is to say, fiat, like a wall-paper for example, or rounded, like stone-carving; in the one case the work of the painter, in the other the work of the sculptor. occasionally fictitious effects of relief are produced in surface decoration, while we often find that relief ornament has its effect legitimately enhanced by the application of colour, as in egyptian, moresque, and gothic work. in view of this we need scarcely say how important a principle the use of colour in orniamental art becomes, while it is perhaps of all others the most difficult to settle and control by fixed laws, for, as the shades and modifications of tone in colour may be varied infinitely, it is evident that a very slight deviation from the letter of the law will result in quite different conditions of effect. if, for instance, a law of the colourists requires scarlet in a given place, and a scarlet inclining to orange is used, it will have quite a different effect in itself, and upon all the other colours with which it is in juxtaposition, to that produced by a scarlet inclining towards crimson. if, for instance, again, we desired our readers to colour us any given design yellow and purple, it is extremely probable that though all came within the required conditions, no two would be alike in colour. rules of colouring it will therefore be seen, are necessarily vague, since, while they are valuable in defining general principles, in the application of them a great deal must of necessity be left in the details to the more or less educated eye and taste of the designer. '\/ve do not propose to go at any length into the theory of colour as influenced by light and optical laws, but for our present purpose dwell rather on the general principles that may prove of value to the practical designer in the management of his pigments, there are three colours incapable of being produced by any mixture of other colours—red, blue, and yellow; these, therefore, are termed the three primaries. from the combination of any two of these the secondary colours are produced, and they, too, are three in number—green, pr ./vciples of ra ame vtal art ~- _.*_u~-~ _._--.- produces positive discord; thus slate colour and green, drab and lilac, blue, black, and green, blue, pink, and green are not suitable, if used alone, for ordinary decorative purposes. the naturalistic argument, if we may so term it, is occasionally brought forward in defence of certain colour arrangements; it certainly, however, does not follow that combinations of colour found in nature will always bear transferring to art. if we are prepared to go to the length of asserting that all we find in nature is beautiful and suitable for reproduction, we shall speedily find that our theory requires us to receive, as equally good, the most opposite combinations of colour, the most diverse forms; to admire equally the livid purple of the nightshade, the pure gold of the buttercup, the rich crimson of the pheasant's eye, to see equal grace in the antelope and the pig. vv e derive, to take an instance, a great deal of pleasure from the pure turquoise blue of the forget-me-not flower, as it springs from the midst of its verdant surrounding foliage. this, doubtless, is to some extent caused by the associations connected with the flower, and the enjoyment we have felt in its contemplation while wandering in the sunshine by the banks of the river—an enjoyment insensibly heightened by all the collateral rural influences; but, whatever the influence, it is one of those examples of perfect natural beauty that will scarcely serve as suggestions in colour, since light blue and bright green alone can rarely be quite satisfactorily brought into juxtaposition in a design. a similar difficulty would occur in adopting the beautiful warm and cold purples of the blossom of the annual garden pea, for beautiful as they appear to us in the natural flower, it would be scarcely possible to bring the two colours pleasingly together in an ornamental composition. the contrast of blue and green is satisfactory in the corn- flower, where the green is subdued in tone and in somewhat small quantity, the deep pure blue of the flower being dominant. it is not a common combination in plants. if our readers have never thought of it before, they will be surprised to find how few the blue flowers are in nature when compared with those of other colours. \-ve see and admire the com- bination in the deep blue of the sky, seen through the rich green masses of the early summer foliage,- but it is one thing to enjoy that with all the pleasant thoughts derivable from the scene and season, and quite another to introduce dead masses of blue and green paint in an ornamental scheme of colour, in the hope that as the one was so enjoyable, so, too, the other must of necessity be. \ve trust that we shall not be misunderstood in these remarks, for while we desire to caution the student against the erroneous idea that every form and combination of colour found in nature must necessarily be suited to the purposes of ornamental art, we desire also most fully at the same time, and that, too, very warmly, to advocate the closest study of natural growth, being very fully persuaded in our own mind that he who studies nature most thoroughly in all her varied phases will be of necessity a better designer-—granting equal amount of technical knowledge and skill—than the man who contents himself with a few abstract types and forms, beyond which he never suffers himself to stray into the profusion of natural beauty around him. in colouring a design it is necessary to consider the effect that juxtaposed colours will have on each other, a matter that necessitates more thought than is at first sight apparent. if, for instance, we take a band of orange and place it between two bands of yellow, it will, by force of contrast, look almost scarlet; if, however, we place that same band of orange between scarlet bands, it will, by the same force of contrast, appear yellow. it will be seen, therefore, that we cannot depend upon a colour even looking what we intended it to look, as it may thus act upon others, and in turn be so re-acted upon as to completely alter its tone, unless we first carefully think over our general scheme of colour, and in so doing make allowance for this disturbing influence. \ve might easily multiply c -ol o ur bl]./vd./vess. ' instances, but one more example will suffice. red and blue bands of colour side by side will, as we have seen, borrow from each other and give a purple effect; if, however, a thin band of white be interposed, each will then have its own proper quality of colour. there are several other general considerations that a designer will soon feel the necessity of bearing in mind, such as the different effect of a coloured decoration by daylight or artificial light; the desirability of a reasonably even distribution of colours, so as to avoid having large masses of a colour in one part, and little or none of it elsewhere; and the influence of symbolism in controlling the -choice of colours under certain circumstances. we need not, however, dwell upon these. in conclusion, we would desire to bring before our readers some notice of a peculiarity that may possibly, we may charitably hope, account for some of the examples of bad colouring that occasionally meet our eyes—the inability of some persons to truly see colour—a peculiarity generally termed colour-blindness. vv e have, from time to time, in our own experience, met with such cases, and we need scarcely say that this defect at once very seriously unfits a man either to follow the arts pictorial or decorative, or to sit in judgment on the works of others, while a signalman on the railway, to whom green and red lights looked alike, would speedily be the cause of disaster. \ve see the importance of the consideration again in the case of sailors, lighthouse-men, coastguards, and all concerned in coloured signals, the draper with his goods, or the chemist or doctor’s assistant, who, in all good faith, might serve out the poisonous green crystals of the sulphates of iron or copper for the harmless white crystals of alum, or the yellow ones of sulphur. colour-blindness seems to be a modern affection of the eye; it is, at least, nowhere referred to by ancient or it €(lléev .l writers. the most remarkable cases are those where people are blind to all colours, and see everything in black, white, and varying shades of grey. when we consider how much pleasure and beauty are utterly shut out from such, we are glad to know that such cases are extremely rare. somewhat more common cases occur in which the person is unable to distinguish such colours as browns and greys, while, perhaps, the most common of all is the inability to distinguish between red, blue, and yellow, and their complementary secondaries, green, orange, and purple. instances have been known where blue and yellow were the only colours visible, everything appearing of one or other of those colours. we met recently with a case where a gentleman, to whom we were showing the sketch of a plant, confessed himself unable to distinguish the yellow flowers from the green leaves, either in nature or the sketch. inability to distinguish pink from pale blue is a common failing. a dr. \vilson in the course of his practice met with so many cases that he wrote a bulky volume on the subject, and it is his opinion that about one person in every fifty mistakes red for green, brown for red, brown for green, purple for green, or red for black; and including all kinds and greater or less degrees of this colour-blindness, he goes so far as to say that one in every twenty is to some extent colour-blind. \ve cannot but think, however, that this estimate is too high. the doctor’s opportunities of judging would probably be chiefly amongst those who were in delicate health, and though this colour-blindness is a permanent defect, and not a thing that comes and goes according to the general state of health, still such persons, in consulting their medical adviser, would probably speak also of their inability to see colours as others saw them, either as a thing in itself, or in the belief that it might be one of the symptoms of the ailment for the cure of which the doctor’s aid was desired. ¥ve must bear in mind the obvious truth that those only who suffered would speak of it. he would hear nothing of it from the thousands who were exempt; and with, all respect, therefore, o principles f ornament/il art to his far superior opportunities for coming to a right judgment, we yet, as we recall the hundreds of artists, designers, art-students, and others we have met with, cannot but think the average too high. it is a curious fact that many persons have been colour-blind for years before at all suspecting it. where colour-blindness does occur, it is generally a family and hereditary failing. in one family, for instance, that came under dr. v\/ilson's observation, were three brothers; one could only see anything black and white, while the other two confused orange and green. in another instance a man saw always pink and blue, red and green, and could, therefore, for example, only tell cherries from the leaves by the difference of form; his father, one of his sisters, and her two sons, all had the same defect. in another case six sons in one family were all colour-blind. according to prevost, it occurs in one person out of twenty. leebeck found five cases amongst forty men indiscriminately chosen in berlin ; while a professor kelland, of the university of edinburgh, found only three cases amongst one hundred and fifty students. on the continent this peculiarity is called daltonism, from a professor dalton, who was only himself conscious of yellow and blue, and quite unable to distinguish any difference in colour between the green grass and his scarlet oxford doctoral gown. in the city in which dr. wilson resided, and wherein he made the greater number of his inquiries, he found amongst others, four artists, three surgeons, two dyers, two stationers, a manufacturer of shawls, and a clothier, all decidedly colour-blind. vve mention these instances more particularly because one would imagine that in such cases detection of the failing must of necessity speedily have taken place; in fact, that its existence would at once have debarred the subject of it from carrying on their callings. it is a very curious fact that out of the hundreds of cases that have been brought forward by the various writers on the subject only six are on record in which women have suffered in any way from this daltonism or colour-blindness. chapter vii. - naturalism and conventionalism—old work not necessarily good \vork—egyptian art based on natural forms of egypt—the acanthus—conventional character of eastem art—moorish and persian art—the fountain of lions, alhambra—chinese and japanese art-—ruskin on naturalism and conventionalism—opinions of worman, hudson, vvilkinson, and others—sir joshua reynolds on imitation of nature in art-—chinese pottery often a fac-simile of some natural fruit form—the principle of fitness—the distinction between the words designer and decorator—horse-shoe breast pins—the demand for novelty— improvement in design since —omament subordinate to utility——venetian glass—fitness of omament to material employed—earthenware baskets and straw hats—fitness of omament to its scale and position—natural instances of fitness : the pine, dodder, ivy, water-buttercup, &c.—the tiger, penguin, apteryx, humming birds, and swift—the principle of contrast-contrast of texture, surface, form, or colour—the value of analysis of omarnental for ns—simplicity or complexity of treatment—complexity often a sign of decay—the doric order—na.tural examples of simplicity and complexity of form-—the interlacing of lines—strap \vork—cord interlacing—old irish crosses and mss.—early italian art—heralclic kn ts-intersection—interpenetration. e now propose to enter at some little length into the /exam guzstzb of the naturalistic or non-naturalistic treatment of the various organic forms, animal or vegetable, that enter so commonly into the details of our ornamental treatment; to endeavour to throw some light on this moot point; and to indicate to the student not our own ideas alone, but also more especially to bring forward the opinions of some of the numerous writers who, from their position and experience, we feel justified in citing as authorities. the student, on turning over the pages of one writer after another, will probably on this point, as on many others, find himself growing somewhat bewildered by the varying advice he receives from his authors, finding precepts that are, if not directly antagonistic, at least so arbitrary in their differences, that he derives little or no help from their perusal; the question of the due amount of healthy naturalism or decorative conventionalism being, like the fights of the guelphs and ghibellines, or the more modern contests of the classic and gothic factions in architecture, a question that is apparently repeatedly being settled, and yet as persistently breaking out afresh; hence, while we have fixed ideas_of our own on the point, it is only just to say that there is considerabledifference of opinion, since the whole question is one of degree, and one will more stringently than another, in such a case, draw the line. as the trumpet on the eve of battle should give forth no uncertain sound, we will at once, as clearly as possible, indicate our own feeling in the matter, and naturally, holding this opinion, we think it the true one, the solution of the difficulty. the forms of nature, so varied in character, so rich in detail, are full of suggestive material for the designer, and will ever be found a storehouse filled with graceful and appropriate motzfs to aid him in his work. as the best reproduction, however, of these would be but imperfect, and could only fail in its endeavour to convey to the mind a dim suggestion of the pristine gratification afforded by the real plants in all their natural loveliness, and as such attempt, even if successful, would be out of place, being pictorial, not decorative, adaptations of these natural forms, suggestions of their natural beauty under such measure of conventionalism as would render them pleasing ornamental features, while at the same time reminding us of the natural floral form, so far as the principles of or./vai/iie./vtal art circumstances of the case render desirable, are far preferable to any attempt at realism. nature should not be merely copied and applied, her beauties should be rather adapted; the rose that in the sun-lighted garden is loveliness itself is monstrous when, with full attempt at relief, we see it attempted in its delicate tints and gradations of colour in the square stitches of wool-work in a chair-cover. the more perfect the imitation of nature, moreover, the greater the mistake. our objection to the rose on the carpet or chair-back does not, therefore, arise from its being a distortion and libel of nature merely, but from the fact that in any case its presence is undesirable, its place being inappropriate. the greater respect we have for the loveliness of nature, the less should we care to crush its counterfeit presentment beneath our feet; while in addition to this, the wealth and variety of nature is singularly ill-represented when a naturalistic group of flowers is by the exigencies of manufacture rigidly repeated in fac-simile at regular intervals. while, however, it appears to us totally wrong to merely reproduce nature imitatively as nearly as our imperfect means will allow, it is, we think, almost as great an error persistently to ignore her. \-vhile, on the one hand, the naturalistic treatment of oak spray in fig. , from a decorated gothic example, errs on the first ground, the elizabethan carving, fig. , is as objectionable on the other account, since in it the designer, while professing to give ornament of a foliate character, has persistently ignored the first principles of vegetable growth. in the decorated example, the spray of oak is strictly naturalistic in treatment; beyond a general balance of masses, there is nothing done to in any way adapt it to its new function; nor has it any connection, as in the purer style that preceded the decorated, with the surrounding mouldings; for while in the early english or early pointed style the conventional foliate ornament always sprang from the mouldings, was thus incorporated with the work, as in fig. , and became part and parcel of it, in the decorated the forms are not merely more naturalistic, but cease to show this principle of growth, and instead of springing from the constructive lines, appear only as wreaths encircling the columns, or as detached sprays in some way adhesive to the face of the work, a feature by no means so pleasing to the eye nor so satisfactory to the mind. in the best ornament it will always be found that the point of attachment is clearly to be traced, that there is always somewhere a definite growing point from whence all the lines spring, fig. , and to which they can again be traced. the egyptian remains, so valuable in many directions as guides, do not fail us here; we feel at once, on looking at fig. , the great and additional beauty that the definite and rigid line gives as a base to all the forms that spring from it. this very beautiful example may be seen on a kind of tablet before one of the large figures in the british museum. the figure is of a black basaltic stone, and stands amidst the effigies of gods and goddesses that fringe the central walk in the large egyptian saloon. only a portion of the ornament is here shown, for above this other lines of equally characteristic forms are introduced, and only the necessity of gaining as great a variety as possible in our illustrations has prevented our giving more of these. the early decorated is perhaps the art period best fitted to furnish us with exemplars of the true treatment of vegetable forms; for while the early english or thirteenth century gothic, though often exceedingly fine, errs perhaps somewhat in presenting little variety of form, and the fourteenth century work, avoiding monotony, is too literal in its treatment of the profusion of natural forms therein represented, the intermediate and transitional period neither errs in ignoring natural beauty nor in too servile a treatment of it. fig. , a portion of a running moulding, from the doorway of the chapter house at i pr ./vciples of or 'va l[e vtal art work, however captivating in some respects, it is wholly wanting in the real, deep, and intense qualities of ornamental work.” it appears to us that the following remarks by the same writer exactly express the requirements of the case:——“ ornamentation should be natural, that is to say, should, in some degree, express or adopt the beauty of natural objects; it does not hence follow that it should be an exact imitation of or endeavour to supersede god's work. it may consist only in a partial adoption and compliance with the usual forms of natural things, without at all going to the point of imitation; and it is possible that the point of imitation may be closely reached by ornaments, which nevertheless are entirely unfit for their place, and are the signs only of a degraded ambition and an ignorant dexterity. bad decorators err as easily on the side of imitating nature as of forgetting her, and the question of the exact degree in which imitation should be attempted under given circumstances is one of the most subtle and difficult in the whole range of criticism." there may be conventionalism of colour; conventionalism by cause of inferiority, where a subordinate part requires subordinate treatment; conventionalism on account of imperfect means, or the restraints of production, as in stencilling, weaving, or braid-work, where, as in figs. i , i , the ornament must run in continuous lines, so as to prevent the necessity of frequently cutting the braid, and many other such-like processes where the tools or the materials at the designer's command will not permit much freedom; conventionalism as a religious requirement; or finally, the conventionalism of free choice. \vornum thus defines the difference between naturalism and conventionalism:—"a natural treatment implies natural imitation and arrangement, but an ornamental treatment does not necessarily exclude imitation in the parts; as, for instance, a scroll may be composed of strictly natural parts, but as no plant would grow in an exactly spiral direction, the scroll form constitutes the ornamental or conventional arrangement (as in fig. ). \ve may, however, have conventionalism of details as well as conventionalism of arrangement. there can be no question," he goes on to say, “that the motive of ornament is not the presentation of natural images to the mind, but the rendering the object ornamented as agreeable as possible to it, and therefore the details of decoration should have no independent character of their own, but he kept purely subservient to beauty of effect. this can hardly be done, or rather cannot be thoroughly done, but by the adoption of conventional ornament, whether flowers, foliage, or other natural forms; because, as a conventional or merely geometrical form can really have no individual associations, and yet at the same time may present an extremely beautiful effect, the whole of that effect is simply auxiliary to the general effect of the object decorated; the ornamentation is purely accessory." again in another place he says: “you frustrate the very principle of nature, upon which you found your theory, when you represent a natural form in a natural manner, and yet apply it to uses with which in nature it has no affinity whatever." hudson is equally explicit: “there is a great difference between the terms applied and adapted ; they in fact express the wrong and the right use of vegetable forms. all natural forms require certain modifications to adapt them for other than their own natural situations, and it is the neglect of this, and the simple application of these forms without adapting them, which constitutes a false principle." dresser says: “mere imitation is not ornamentation, and is no more art in the higher sense of the term than writing is itself literature, for in order to the production of ornament there must at least be adaptation. our so-called natural wall-papers will illustrate the first or most elementary step taken towards the production of ornament, for adaptation has here been considered so far as is absolutely necessary, in order that the design may repeat in the mechanical use of natural for/iis. manner necessary to its production, and no further. if mere imitation is ornamentation, then the ornamentist must at once give place to the photographer, who by his art repeats natural objects with far more accuracy than the most careful draughtsman; but photography cannot invent, as it is devoid of the mental or imaginative faculty, for the working of the mind is essential to the production of decoration. vegetable nature, treated conventionally, will not be found to be far removed from truth, but will be merely a natural form, or a series of natural forms, neither marred by blights nor disturbed by winds, adapted to the fulfilment of a special purpose, and suited to a particular position; for the most perfect examples of what is usually termed conventionalised nature are those which express the intention of nature, if we may thus speak, or are manifestations of natural objects as undisturbed by surrounding influences and unmarred by casualties.” sir gardiner \vilkinson says: “the imitation of natural objects for mere ornamental purposes usually disagrees both with the materials used and the place where they are introduced ; it is also an indication of poverty of invention and a deficiency of taste for design. to obtain ideas for ornamental art, nature should be carefully studied, and the beauties she presents should be fully understood, but she should not be directly copied in any unsuitable material; however good the copy, it has the fault of being an imperfect representation of what it vainly attempts to imitate, while it should have been satisfied with its proper and humbler office of merely ornamenting." owen jones is, in his “grammar of ornament," equally clear on the point: “flowers or other natural objects should not be used in ornament, but conventional representations of them, sufficiently suggestive to convey the intended image to the mind without destroying the unity of the subject they are employed to decorate." and in another passage he thus repeats the idea: “in all the best periods of art, all ornament was rather based upon an observation of the principles which regulate the arrangements of form in nature, than on any attempt to imitate the absolute form of those works; whenever this limit was exceeded in any art, it was one of the strongest symptoms of decline, true art consisting in idealising, and not copying, the forms of nature. sir joshua reynolds, in his “discourses on painting," is equally explicit. he says that “amongst the painters and the writers on painting, there is one maxim universally and continually inculcated: ‘imitate nature’ is the invariable rule; but i have known none who have explained in what manner this rule is to be understood: the consequence of which is, that every one takes it in the most obvious sense, that objects are represented naturally when they have such relief that they seem real. it may appear strange, perhaps, to hear this sense of the rule disputed; but it must be considered that, if the excellence of a painter consisted only in this kind of imitation, painting must lose its rank, and be no longer considered as a liberal art, and sister to poetry, this imitation being merely mechanical, in which the slowest intellect is always sure to succeed best; for the painter of genius cannot stoop to drudgery in which the understanding has no part; and what pretence has the art to claim kindred with poetry, but its powers over the imagination? to this power the painter of genius directs his aim; in this sense he studies nature, and often arrives at his end, even by being unnatural in the confined sense of the world. the grand style of painting requires this minute attention to be carefully avoided, and must be kept as separate from it as the style of poetry from that of history. poetical ornaments destroy that air of truth and plainness which ought to characterise history; but the very being of poetry consists in departing from this plain narrative, and adopting every ornament that will warm the imagination.” if safety be found in the multitude of counsellors, our readers will, we trust, not think p principles of ornajiiental art. our preceding quotations superfluous or monotonous, since even the very repetition of the same principle by writer after writer will tend the more to impress the recurring truth on the mind of the reader. in modern decorative art we find'a great use of naturalism; into this we shall, however, go at greater length when we deal with the principle of fitness in design. renaissance art, often very beautiful. both in general effect and in its details, is characterised as a whole by a great use of natural forms, though these are ordinarily conventional in their arrangement, and at other times unnaturally combined. as in fig. , where a stem surmounted by a poppy capsule has lateral leaves of the oak, an arrangement that can scarcely be considered justifiable. the great use of grotesque animal forms in combination with plant forms is another very characteristic feature; the tail of a griffin, as in fig. , often terminating in elaborately foliated spirals, or at other times, as in fig. , these may spring from a human head, and supply the place of the more usual hirsute appendages. the consideration of the various styles or periods of the revival would require far more space than we here feel justified in devoting to it, but many excellent works are open to the student; many excellent examples well worthy of study may be seen in the south kensington museum, in some respects supplying illustrations of what should be avoided, but containing very much, too, that is well worthy of the consideration of our designers. i we now proceed to point out such other illustrations on our plates that bear on the subject as we have not yet had occasion to refer to, making any comments on them that the peculiaraties of the treatment appear to call for and justify. fig. , a stained glass example, though sufficiently naturalistic in the form of its foliage to enable us to pronounce it based on the maple, is, in its general arrangement, decidedly conventional. fig. , chinese in its origin, is naturalistic. many of the earthenware vessels of the chinese are of this character, being not merely suggested by some natural form but a fac-simile of it; thus a gourd, for instance, will form the body of a teapot, while over it a spray of the plant wanders, and being in one place raised from the general level, becomes the handle. we remember, in the international exhibition of i , to have noticed a very similariidea in many of the javanese exhibits, these being, in several instances, direct imitations of thefruits of the country. fig. , an indian example, is, like almost all indian art, thoroughly conventional in character, in colour, in form, and in arrangement. figs. , , , are good idealised suggestions of the general principles of floral form, the central convex boss, and the radiating, equal, and more or less concave members surrounding it, though it would be impossible to assign any particular natural flower to any of them as the type. figs. , , , are all rigidly conventional. fig. , a gothic floral form of cruciform character, is very pleasing, containing a pleasant suggestion of nature, while it yet thoroughly satisfies the eye as an ornament, and the same may be said of the medizeval diaper, fig. . fig. , , designs of our own -to fill the little vacant space on the plate, appear to us fair examples of what we believe to be correct treatment, since in them the natural beauty of the ivy and mallow foliage respectively has been studied, while the natural character has been kept in subordination to the special decorative use. fig. , on the same plate, appears to be a conventionalised cactus; the original is from an old mexican ms. figs. , , , , are all very arbitrary in character. fig. , a piece of english embroidery, is a very free rendering of the violet, the actual natural forms of the leaf and flower being shown in figs. , . fig. is probably based on the similar radiate form that is seen crowning the capsule of the poppy. treatment of natural for./vs. i i it forms a very good and rich decoration. fig. is a piece of early french gothic, a very quaint treatment of the blackberry. fig. , also early french, appears at first sight to be suggested by the fig-leaf,' but the sheathing of the main stem by the petiole of the leaf is not a character of growth in that plant, such a form being more especially characteristic of the umbel-bearing plants. fig. is given as an instance of the conventionality that often results from a special method of work, the swollen masses on the leaves being an especial feature in much of the metal-work, both of the past and of the present day; since the effect is very easily produced by the workman, and is very effective when done, as the polished surface of the metal is rendered much more beautiful and telling by the strong lights and shades thus produced than if the whole design were in one plane. in much of the later and poorer decorated stone-carving this idea is carried to. excess. fig. is an example from work of that date. possibly the forms of one or two of our commoner sea-weeds may have originally suggested this globose swelling in the midst of the leaves; they are, at least, very similar in character. in figs. , , we have treatments of the common hedge nut, the natural growth, for comparison, being given at fig. . . figs. , , , , , , though dimly suggestive of natural forms and laws of growth, are all rigidly arbitrary. fig. , one of several heraldic devices from some swiss glass, a.d. , in the south kensington museum, is clearly suggested by the bulrush. fig. , an early english tile in the collection of the british museum, is exceedingly interesting, as it represents the talbot, an old english hunting-dog now extinct. the holly behind it is effectively treated, the spiny character of the leaves being very suggestively indicated. fig. , the design made up of interlacing boughs, is of a character often seen in the later german work, many of the designs, really geometric in character, being rendered by these gnarled and knotted arboreal forms. fig. , a rich piece of tunisian embroidery, is, like other mohammedan work, conventional from religious obligation. it is a very fine and suggestive example, and well worthy of attentive study. having entered at some little length into the question of naturalism and conventionalism in ornamental art, and having, as we would fain hope, led the student into the right path, and furnished him with reasons and examples for his guidance, we found that these remarks of ours naturally led to the consideration of the principle of fitness as one of the guiding principles of the designer, and by no means one of the least important, since it opens out the whole question of the relation of art to daily use. were it more studied, we should find the benefit in even the commonest things. at present the housewife buys a great tub-like jug without the slightest pretensions to beauty, in lieu of those that have certain claims to ornament; since, putting aside the question of enhanced price, the one is a thing at least of utility, while the other, if beautiful at all, has frequently in the attainment of it sacrificed all consideration of use. the first, with its broad base and swelling neck, will stand where it is put, and can always be kept clean and serviceable; the other, with its flowing curves, graceful foot, and narrow neck, appears ready at any slight jarring to lose its balance ; while its constricted opening effectually prevents the hand entering the vessel: hence it is beautiful in exterior and unclean within. to be a designer, it cannot be too clearly understood, is to occupy a position higher than we associate with the word decorator, though the two terms are often used as if synonymous. decoration is the clothing with beautiful form or colour of some object we desire thus to adorn, while design refers to the construction of any work both for use and beauty. the true designer will, therefore, consider the utility in the first place, and having priivciples of or va.ve vtal art. realised the limitations thus imposed upon his fancy, will embody his idea as gracefully as these limitations will permit. our readers will gather from our previous remarks in discussing the amount of naturalism permissible in a design, -that direct transcripts of natural forms form a marked instance of a violation of the law of fitness. one of the most selling things for a long time, though it has now given place to some extent to other extravagances of fancy, was a fae-simile of a horseshoe; a horseshoe for an inkstand, surrounding the glass bottle for the ink; a horseshoe of gold, and duly furnished with turquoise nail-heads, as a locket or a breast-pin; a horseshoe as a muslin pattern; in fact, for everything and everywhere, since, as it was everywhere alike meaningless and absurd, it could be used with the greatest freedom, no article or fabric being less appropriate for its display than another. this is a good though lamentable instance of that morbid craving for something startling that all must have known who have had anything to do with manufacturers. the question very naturally is, what will sell? the designer finds that racking his brains for such ideas is far more profitable than the thinking out of graceful forms, since the manu- facturer does not care to invest largely in what he fears may be unsaleable, while the public, in turn, defends its purchases as being really the only things procurable. this state of things must of necessity remain until a more general appreciation of correct taste has spread amongst us, that is to say, until the majority, who will always be catered for because they are the majority, demand good taste. at present, those who would desire to surround themselves with graceful forms and objects correct in design and feeling, are in a minority, and consequently meet with considerable difficulty in gratifying their wish. some little time ago we were asked our opinion by a lady of a purchase. \/ve could only truthfully say that it was quite wanting in taste and fitness for its use, when the matter was at once clenched by the statement that it was quite the fashion. so long as this is the best argument, there can be no good art. sometimes things may be better than at others, but as all alike rest on caprice, so the good will in itself be no better, nor the bad worse, in the eyes of the purchaser. vvall-papers will still show us endless perspectives of chinese pagodas, and race- horses at full speed on the tops of pins will continue to be stuck into shirt-fronts, printed over with terriers’ heads; or the terrier himself, fac-similed in earthenware, may have his head lifted off, in order that the proud possessor of the brilliant idea may get at the internal store of tobacco. another great difficulty arises from the constant demand for novelties, since a man can hardly with much spirit throw his heart into the creation of things that, no matter how beautiful, will so shortly be under the heavy ban of being old-fashioned; and fashion here again holds sway, as it is far less culpable to have six dresses in a season, all equally outrageous in taste, than to keep to one or two that happen to be becoming. it is only just to say that within the last few years rapid strides have been made in many directions, and while much is still capable of improvement, we can look back on the past and feel that the teachings of the various international exhibitions have borne valuable fruit; a result that has also undoubtedly been still more furthered by the excellent schools of art that are now established in all our great towns. the following extract from redgrave's “report on design," as illustrated by the articles shown by british exhibitors in the first great gathering, that of , will show that while much remains yet to be done, still solid progress has been made :-—“ stems, bearing flowers for various uses, arise from groups of metal leaves, standing tip-toe on their points, and every constructive truth and just adaptation to use is disregarded for a senseless imitative naturalism. in the same way, and doubtless supported by great authority past and present, enormous wreaths of flowers, fish, game, /\-\_____ ziiisuse of jvatural for./vs. i fruit, &c., imitated ti mew/ez'zle, dangle round sideboards, beds, and picture-frames. glass is tortured out of its true quality to make it into the cup of a lily or an anemone; not that we may be supposed to drink nectar from the flower, but that novelty may catch those for whom good taste is not piquant enough, and chaste forms not sufficiently showy. in fabrics where flatness would seem most essential, this imitative treatment is often carried to the greatest excess, and carpets are ornamented with water-lilies floating on their natural bed, with fruits and flowers poured forth in overwhelming abundance in all the glory of their shades and hues; or we may be startled by a lion at our hearth, or a leopard on our rug, his spotted coat imitated even to its relief as well as to its colour, while palm-trees and landscapes are used as the ornaments of muslin curtains." the theory of the disciples of the naturalistic school appears to be that, as natural forms are in themselves beautiful, they cannot but be pleasing when reproduced in art. that this is a fallacy, however, our readers will, we trust, see, if they consider that in nature the animal or plant is fulfilling its proper functions, while in its reproduction in art work altogether foreign to its associations is required of it; hence, however graceful the head and antlers of a stag may be when seen beneath the spreading beeches or amidst the bracken, it is a grave error of judgment to decapitate the animal and place its head between the bottles on an inkstand, using its spreading antlers as convenient pen-rests. however beautiful the chalice of the lily may be in nature, it is but degraded when from its counterfeit present- ment a gas jet is made to issue. all ornament is but accessory; it adorns utility, and should not itself be the principal feature in the work ; hence it is wrong, in place of a gas-jet with its appropriate ornaments, to substitute one of nature's loveliest flowers, the very type of purity, that in place of its delicate odour, and all the charming associations of its life, it may breathe out fire and smoke. the eternal fitness of things is disregarded, and the result to all thinking minds is not unpleasant merely, but absolutely repulsive. fig. , an ancient egyptian drinking-cup, based on the favourite lotus flower, is perhaps as near an approach to the natural floral form as the designer is justified in attempting. the original may be seen in the british museum; it is about five inches high, of a dark blue green, the lines that define the forms being black and somewhat coarse in execution. we need not devote any of our illustrations to modern examples of want of fitness, as a little observation on the part of our readers will, we fear, soon enable them to detect examples for themselves. the murano glass is a good instance of perverted taste in the. manufacture, as the forms it assumes are often such that the vessels could have been of little or no practical use, and though on many accounts interesting, yet, since they . fail in the most important feature, we must perforce consider them artistically as examples of a perverted ingenuity. fitness is not only to be studied in a consideration and just conception of the use of the required object, but also as to how far the adaptability of the material at command will influence the form, since some materials may be woven, others cast, blown, hammered, or modelled as they revolve, while plastic, on a wheel. it is an error of judgment painfully to imitate in some antagonistic material the effect that might very naturally be produced in some more pliable medium. all sense of fitness is set at nought when forms are worked out in one material that belong properly to another; as, for instance, an elaborate attempt, faulty at best, but apparently very popular, to imitate basket-work in earthenware. we have seen a butter-dish made exactly like a straw hat, the plaiting of the straw, the band of blue ribbon, being horribly real—the junction of the dish and lid being concealed by , principles of oriva,iiental art. the ribbon. these things err in good taste and common sense no less than in the painful imitation of processes of weaving and plaiting in an inappropriate material, since no one would really have the milk brought up to table in wicker-work, nor the butter put under a hat; hence the more realistic the effect the more objectionable every way the result. the square stitches of wool-work, and their imitation in wall-papers and printed stuffs, are a parallel case; in the former the manipulation requires them, but to place the design in the latter cases under such a limitation of effect, thus imitating a process far less elastic than the case would permit, is a grievous error of judgment. we may see the same degradation of the material in the fictitious examples of mosaic, where the work produced in one piece is afterwards marked over with lines to represent the junctions of tessere. the design should have immediate reference to the material in which it is to be produced, that thus the capabilities of that material may be considered, and the maximum of good result obtained. not only should iron and earthenware, for instance, have their special adaptabilities considered, but the design that would be suitable for cast-iron must differ from that intended to be worked in wrought-iron; while oak and mahogany have each special characteristics of grain and surface that would make the character of design that worked out well in one not so good for the other. the fitness of ornament to its scale and position must also be considered, fine and delicate work and colouring being best seen when near the eye, and a larger and bolder class of forms being required when farther removed. fitness of position, too, must be considered in what we may be allowed to call its moral sense, as the same ornaments could scarcely be used for a cathedral and a music-hall. a running band of hops and barley, that we remember to have seen carved round the door of a tavern, had more of this quality of fitness in it there than it could have had in any other position. fitness is considered when, in a fabric of a delicate nature, the ornament also is delicate; hence plants like the crane’s-bill, gerzuziunz roéertianum, the hare-bell, cam/mnzala rolundzfolzkz, and many species of ferns are especially suitable for muslins and such-like fabrics. plants grouped together in a design should be of one season with each other; the only exception to this rule would be in the design for a calendar border, wherein all the seasons of the year might furnish their contributions, as the inner meaning would give a unity to the whole, and render it not justifiable merely, but especially appropriate. nature has ever been the great storehouse filled with boundless wealth of suggestions for the designer’s service, and we see, as we proceed, that all the great principles of ornamental art finds their counterpart in her works. if we seek for justifications of the use of symmetry, we find them amply in the crystals of the falling snow, the rays of the sea-anemone, the painted wings of the butterfly, as shown in fig. , the corolla of the flower, the varied forms of the leaf. repetition is seen in the whorl of leaves that surrounds the stem of the goose-grass, or the ring of petals in the primrose, anemone, or buttercup. variation is no less clearly illustrated in the gradual transition of form in the leaves of many plants, the lower ones, as in the columbine, being full and rich in character, the upper small and~simple in form; while in other plants the reverse is seen, the first leaves being simple in character, thence gradually merging into others deeply cut and full of beautiful suggestiveness of form. contrast is seen no less distinctly both in form and colour. vve see it in the smooth round scarlet berries and glossy green leaves of the holly, in the yellow and purple of the pansy flower; while not further to multiply such examples, we may, in conclusion, point out that the principle of fitness is equally well illustrated in natural _ ...__._._._ fi_— fitzvess. examples. fitness is the perfect adaptation of the form to the circumstances of the plant's existence: thus the slender pea, too delicate to support itself unaided, is furnished with numerous tendrils, by means of which it climbs and rears its head amongst its sturdier neighbours; while the field-bean, an allied plant, being strong enough to sustain itself without any such adventitious aid, is witho-ut these appendages. the ivy climbing a wall is furnished with little root-like members, which, inserted in the crevices of the face of the stone-work, amply suffice to support it. while it is yet trailing on the ground, or when it has reached the summit of the wall, the rootlets being unnecessary, are not developed. the dodder, a slender parasitic plant, supports itself by suckers. we see the same principle again in the growth of the pine-tree, which, from the bleak localities, the bare mountain sides on which it flourishes, requires special modification of the more ordinary charac- teristics of tree-growth. this is seen in the tall, slender stem, the absence of any heavy lateral ramification. the leaves are thin and needle-shaped, thus offering individually and in the aggregate but little resistance to the force of the gale; while the roots, instead of striking far down, like those of most trees do in softer ground, stretch horizontally for a considerable distance just below the surface, making up by their large area for their comparatively slight hold of the rocky soil. in the case, too, of the water-buttercup —ranuncuzus aguatz'lzs—a common plant in most country streams, the upper leaves float on the water; these, therefore, are flat, and but slightly cut up into lobes, while the leaves that are submerged are cut into very fine, thread-like strips, thus offering no resistance to the water, their length merely turning in the direction of the current, no large surface, as in the case of the floating leaves, being offered to the action of the stream, as if so, the leaves would., by their constant resistance, tend to loosen the plant, and would themselves speedily be torn to shreds. \/ve see the same characteristic filiform growth in the sea-weeds that, exposed to the dashing and turmoil of the waves, have an equal need of special modification of growth. in fig. i the algals—known botanically as the (a) sp/zacc/arm plumosa, (z ) c/zomirus crzkpus, and (c) the sargassum éacczfizrum—are fair illustrations of this, though many other species are still more thread-like. the stems and leaves of water-plants being either flattened in the direction of the stream, or else triangular in section (see figs. , ), furnish us with another illustration, both forms offering but slight resistance to the action of the water. this grand law of fitness not only holds sway in the vegetable kingdom, but is equally discernible throughout the whole extent of nature; thus the tiger's striped and brilliant-looking coat is really very similar in effect to the tall grass in which he lurks, and only really becomes conspicuous when isolated from the natural circumstances of the animal's life. in the case of the penguin and apteryx, birds incapable of flight, all the bones of the skeleton are solid. in proportion as other birds enjoy the power of flying, so their bones vary in this respect, until, in the skeletons of the humming- birds and our english swift, birds almost constantly on the wing, every bone, down to the last joints of the toe, is hollow and permeated by air. throughout the whole realm of nature the external form and the internal structure will alike be found to possess this great principle, for which we equally contend in all artistic work worthy of the name—fitness to the requirements of each particular case. another valuable feature in ornamental art will be found in the due use of the principle of contrast. contrast may make itself felt in many ways; we may, for instance, have contrast of texture and surface, a feature that may often be seen in perpendicular carving, where the foliage, so twisted spirally as to show alternately its upper and lower principles or ojbnaziiental ari'. surfaces, has these still more emphasised by the one being tooled over, or drilled, with an exaggerated effect of the pores, while the other is left plain. there may be contrast of general form, a principle very fully carried out in classic and mediazval mouldings, where rectilinear and curvilinear forms each gain by juxtaposition, and where, too, we may frequently find a richly-carved moulding the richer in effect from being placed amongst simple mouldings and lines. there may be contrast of colour, as in a pavement of black and white marble, or the squares of a chessboard. a still richer effect is produced when both forms and colours are varied. this is a very valuable principle in designing, as it gives a greatly increased charm to any ornamentation. the first idea of a beginner desirous of richly decorating any surface—we will say, for instance, the side .of a room— is to cover it all over with brilliant ornament, unlimited crimson and gold; but he soon finds that that will not do, but that by enriching some surfaces and keeping others back, by the use of strong colour in some parts and delicate or subdued colours in others, in the use of bold and decided forms in one place, of delicate curves in another—in fact, in the use of that principle of contrast and due subordination that we are now advocating, he has got a far richer effect than before. hogarth, in his “analysis of beauty,” writes as follows :—“\/vhen the eye is glutted with succession of variety it finds relief in a certain degree of sameness, and even plain surface becomes agreeable; and properly introduced and contrasted with variety, adds to it more variety.” l/vhile sir gardiner \/vilkinson says, “a whole wall, ceiling, or open space should not be entirely covered over with rich ornament; and so also in~ a coloured piece of drapery, or any ornamental work, it is better to leave some parts of it much less rich and of less complicated pattern than the rest. it is apt to fatigue the eye when over- loaded with equal richness of detail throughout. this is still more important in a coloured building, where, if the whole walls, columns, and other parts are covered with elaborate and coloured patterns, the eye feels a want of repose; and the same when a building is covered entirely with sculptured ornament; the richly-carved part not only requires an unsculptured portion in order that it shall not fatigue the eye, but is improved and set off by the contrast. contrast is as necessary for effect in form, quantity of detail, and the position of lines, as it is in colour.’ the cornice of the corinthian order is a good example of the matter in hand, plain mouldings and dentals being combined with the forms of the egg and tongue, and other enriched mouldings and lines of ornament. many of the most famous temples of india positively lose in effect by the excessive richness of the ornamentation; the eye seeks in vain to relieve itself by dwelling amidst the redundancy of carving upon some plainer portion, as all alike is covered with decorative details, and the designers have thus defeated their own object. the same objection, in a less degree, makes itself felt in moorish work; in a less degree because, though the mural diapers themselves, when examined, frequently exhibit this excess of richness, and cause us to feel a want of repose, the effect, as a whole, is not so decided, as running round each room we have a mosaic dado of a much simpler design, and thus obtain the needful variety and subordination. i the value of contrast has been appreciated at all periods of art ; amongst the egyptians, for example, we see it exemplified in the placing together of the slender and aspiring obelisk and the massive temple, with its long horizontal sky-line; while in the assyrian remains we see it most clearly developed. our , , , and th figures are good illustrations of this. they are all derived from flooring-bricks in the british museum, the 'colours employed contrast being buff or green as a ground-work, with the forms sharply defined upon the ground in black and white. the greeks were equally alive to its value, as we may see on observing the numerous anthemion forms met with on their pottery, almost all being based on the alternation of two dissimilar forms. we have in figs. and two other examples from the same source, one a simple chequer of sharply contrasting colours, red and black, the other a patera, or floral device. contrast of form alone, and its value, may be readily seen in fig. , a capital from the temple of the winds. fig. , a norman example; fig. , from a sculptured effigy of gothic work; and fig. , a piece of modern inter- lacing, are three good examples of contrast of form; in the first the rectilinear and curvilinear lines, the flat surface, and the raised; in the second, the central form, composed entirely of curved lines in its enclosure of straight lines; and in the third, the combination of straight lines, horizontal and oblique, with others strongly curved, being all contrasting features of distinct decorative value. the forms of nature, when studied and duly conventionalised, will supply much valuable material: as, for example, the white water-lily, with its central globular mass of petals, surrounded by its large and simple leaves; the hawthorn, when in flower or fruit; the fruit and foliage of maple or of oak. fig. presents us with a bold and good example (norman) of valuable contrast of form, produced by freely con- ventionalised fruit and leaf forms. in figs. , , , the forms composing the pattern and the ground are identical. in these cases the only way to develop the design is by variation of colour; while in fig. the principle of contrast is employed both in form and colour,-the richest development of the principle. fig is sketched from a bowl of deruta ware, of the sixteenth century, in the south kensington museum collection of ceramic art; while fig. is from a piece of indian embroidery, a particularly pleasing example, as the alternate foliate and floral forms, raised in silver from a ground of crimson, have a very rich and beautiful effect. \/ve need not now stay to point out any further examples of these principles in our plates, as the reader will, we trust, find enhanced interest and profit in searching for them himself. we need scarcely say that many of our illustrations serve to exemplify much more than the one point with which, in our comments upon them, they may have been so far identified; thus fig. , recently referred to as a good example of (a) contrast, is an equally good illustration of (é) the use of conventional foliate forms, (c) the principle of alternation in form and colour, and (al) of a running and repeating pattern. the analysis of a given form in this way, the endeavour to understand the various principles involved in its construction, will be found to be a study at once entertaining and beneficial. while many of the leading principles of decorative art are of almost universal application —-symmetry, for instance, being observed in the ornamental work of almost all periods, pervading the labours of those who are separated from ourselves, either by lapse of time or by thousands of miles of ocean, and in many ways under the influence of conditions the opposite of those that affect ourselves—there are others that are not of such general application, or not so readily detected when met with: thus, though many influences are at work and greatly modify our power of expressing any generalisation, we can yet say that simplicity is a principle in the art work of some periods, complexity a ruling feature in the designs of other periods; though, in most styles, examples of each treatment are freely met with, and the recurrence of one or the other is to be in these cases regarded as the result of external influences, rather than the exercise of a principle. simplicity, as a rule, is to be met with in the beginning of a style, while men were yet feeling their q principles of rname vtal ariz way, painfully and laboriously striving after an ideal; hence ornament is a growth, a development that in most cases can be easily traced. a style of ornament does not spring minerva-like into existence. the middle period of each style is generally the finest. in its earlier history its course is often erratic, the forms rude, the conceptions barbarous; time, however, brings a change in all these respects, and for some few years the refined ideal of the artist seems almost, if not quite, reached. a period, however, shortly, and too soon arrives, when men, proud of past success. degrade their art by making it the medium for a display of their own exceeding cleverness; art beauty for its own sake, or its teachings’ sake, is no longer the high consideration, the lofty aim, and the style that under purer aims slowly grew, arrived at length at a time when manual dexterity enables the designer clearly to express his meaning, is approaching the most perilous period in its history, since this very dexterity speedily becomes its pride and weakness, and the art, once so expressive and refined, loses its hold of men’s regard, and expires, choked by the wanton excess of ornament and fatal complexity and redundancy everywhere manifesting themselves. complexity is, however, not of necessity a sign of decay, though it frequently accompanies it, as at one and the same time both principles, simplicity and complexity, may be found. much depends upon the nature and position of the thing ornamented; obviously an ornament on the level of the eye may be more complex than one that will always be seen from a distance. in the one case every detail tells and has its value; in the other these details would not merely represent wasted work and ill-directed ingenuity, but they would be positively hurtful, as by their presence they would, while in no way enhancing the beauty of the work, destroy that breadth of effect that in a decorative work intended for distant inspection is so charming and in fact essential. the materials at command must also largely influence the work, some being susceptible of high finish and elaboration of effect, while others necessitate bold and simple work. the outlay that may be indulged in, the cost in time, the labour available, will be other matters for consideration, matters that must strongly bias the mind in the choice of treatment. where arrangements permit of it, the introduction of both features, simplicity and complexity, will, as we have already indicated on a preceding page in our remarks on contrast, be a mutual benefit, each deriving increased beauty from the presence of the other. there is, moreover, frequently a moral fitness to be observed ; some parts of a building, for instance, are of higher use than others, and it is only seemly that on these more honourable parts greater richness of decoration and more lavish exercise of thought and ingenuity should make itself felt. the hinge of a stye-door may very fitly be less complex in design than that that attracts the eye at the portals of the baronial hall. this our readers may say is an extreme case, but it may on that account more clearly convey our meaning; and the principle it involves, when once impressed on the mind, will assist the designer in coming to a right conclusion in cases less widely separated. this consideration of the fitness of the ornament to its place should run through all such work: thus, to give but one example out of many, a supporting pillar, be it corinthian column or gothic shaft, will ordinarily be found to be clearly divisible into three main features—a spreading base, a central shaft, a crowning capital. the base must not only be strong enough to support the superincumbent weight, but it must also convey that impression to the eye. this double requirement is best met by a bold simplicity of treatment. moreover, good ornament would be wasted in such a position; it is too low to be conveniently seen, too exposed to chance injury for it to be desirable to expend much fine design on it. ornament, if applied at all, should either be pri./vciples of orjva./iiental arzi or early greek and the early english gothic are, perhaps, the best examples of the principle of simplicity (a very different thing to poverty of thought, we must remember); while the moresque, with its elaborate interlacing, its delicate network of geometric tracery, its vivid colouring, scarlet, blue, gold, black, and profusion of ornament everywhere, is an excellent example of a style in which complexity is a dominant feature. a doric temple is at once recognisable by its simple, massive proportions; its few ornaments, such as the triglyphs, were the memorials of real utility, representing in this case the ends of the beams in the earlier wood construction. the romans, in adopting the order, made several modifications and to a great degree impaired its individuality. in the greek work the columns were without pedestal or base, the end of the shaft resting directly on the paved floor. the capital was of a very simple character, a few plain fillets, a projecting ovolo moulding, very slight and delicate in its curvature, and surmounting all a plain abacus, without fillet or any other ornament. the columns, very massive in character, being sometimes only six diameters high, have considerable lightness of effect owing to the fluting. the fluting of the greek doric is peculiar, being composed of twenty shallow depressions, the junctions of the flutes being marked by a sharp line; whereas in the ionic, corinthian, and composite orders, the flutes are twenty-four in number, and have small intervening fillets; the curves, too, are much rounder in character. fluting may or may not be used in the preceding orders, but in the tuscan order it is never in any case met with. the famous temples of athens, that of minerva, better known as the parthenon, and that of theseus, are fine examples of the doric, and from their general beauty of composition and simple grace of detail are worthy of the most attentive regard. the roman doric is seen in the theatre of marcellus, the only example of its use now extant. the early english gothic, though not so severe in treatment as the greek order we have just referred to, affords us a very good example of like simplicity of treatment. \ve need not here dwell at any length upon it, as excellent examples of it are easily accessible, the cathedrals of salisbury, vvinchester, peterborough, york, lincoln, beverley minster, the abbeys of \-vestminster, romsey, netley, and many others, affording good illustrations. vve may, however, briefly indicate some few of the salient points, such, for example, as the bold and simple forms of the shafts, the mouldings and windows, the delicate grace of the foliage, the simplicity and beauty of the designs for flooring-tiles and stained glass, leaving our readers to work out the clue thus afforded either by actual study of the remains, or, if these are inaccessible, by aid of the numerous excellent works that in these days may so facilitate the labours of the student, if only he be willing to avail himself of their aid. as the early gothic has simplicity of treatment and detail as a conspicuous feature, so in later gothic do we find the reverse. as illustrative of our statement we may refer to buildings so well known as henry vii.’s chapel at \vestminster, and the cathedral of milan. in each of these we find a great complexity of treatment, an overloading of ornament, a want of the repose that is so agreeable a feature in earlier works, and that, as in an equally well-known building, salisbury cathedral, imparts a feeling of such quiet dignity to the whole. much of the german gothic errs greatly in this overloading of ornament. the oriental nations, guided by what almost appears to be instinctive good taste, while delighting greatly in quaint and complex arrangements of lines and colours, do not destroy the beauty of their work by a too great prominence of these features. the metal-work and embroidery of india, the textile fabrics and mss. of persia, are rich in ornamental details of the greatest beauty. many of the. simplicity and complexitk forms are complex in the highest degree, yet nothing is strained for the sake of effect; all appears to spring naturally from the circumstances of each case, and never interferes with the use. we see this very well in fig. , a cairene example. in the sultry east, as we saw in our first chapter, that on geometry, it is essential to comfort that the window openings should be numerous and at the same time small, that the refreshing breeze might enter, but not the fierce rays of the sun. hence the walls are pierced by a series of small apertures, and to render these more pleasing to the eye they are. ordinarily arranged in some geometric pattern and enclosed in an ingenious arrangement of strapwork. much of the early work of the northern and western nations is very complex in its character. celtic, runic, and scandinavian art is almost entirely composed of the interlacing of grotesque animals or of simple bands, but though thus limited in its aims, exhibits a wonderful development of skill in this narrow field. nature, ever the ornamentist’s court of appeal, presents many fine examples both of the most refined simplicity of form and of the richest complexity. we need not dwell at any length on these, but if we consider the forms of foliage alone, as being those perhaps most commonly employed in ornamental compositions, we are struck with the variety displayed, some being, like the leaves of the fir, needle-shaped; others like a spearhead, as in the privet; or, like those of the box, elliptical; while, on the other hand, the leaves of the hemlock, carrot, fennel, peony, and many others, are exceedingly rich in outline. we need scarcely say that in choosing the plant upon which we propose to base an ornamental composition we must be greatly guided by a consideration of the amount of simplicity or richness we wish to throw into our work, as the character of leaf will greatly influence the character of the design. a simple leaf, like that of the olive or laurel, will, as we see in fig. —a very common ornament upon greek vases—produce a bold simplicity of design, while leaves deeply serrated, like the violet, or cut into bold masses, as in the maple or buttercup, are of themselves sufficient, as we observe in decorated gothic work, to give a very considerable richness and complexity of effect to the work in which they are introduced. it is therefore a not unimportant consideration in commencing any decorative work, to reflect, first on the effect we really wish to produce, and secondly, on the means that, judiciously employed, will best aid us in our endeavours. this, when stated in so many words, seems too self-evident to need mentioning; the want of, this consideration nevertheless is especially hampering to the novice, who too frequently commences work without a settled plan, trusting to the chapter of accidents to supply in the end that which should have been the natural product of forethought at the beginning. this forethought may justly be deemed another development and offshoot of that consideration of the principle of fitness that we have already in a previous chapter advocated. simplicity of effect is largely assisted by the continuous repetition of units, a simplicity still more apparent when the units themselves are of simple character, and arranged methodically according to a plan that the eye easily detects; thus, for example, figs. , , a series of round spots all similar in size and equidistant, placed in a series of horizontal lines, gives a much greater effect of simplicity than if we modify these spots and make them into stars, some five-pointed, some six-pointed, and varying in size, further breaking up the methodic arrangement and scattering them broadcast like the stars of heaven, though in each case the elements of our design are of a very simple character. complexity of effect is greatly aided by the principle of variation, as the eye does not so readily comprehend the full scope of that which is presented to it. fig. is a good , principles or ornajiiental ar '. example of this; it is derived from a norman window-head at birkin church, in yorkshire. in the original these forms are placed in juxtaposition round the semicircular line of the arch. they are verynumerous and varied in design. vve have here merely selected three fairly representative specimens. our readers will, we think, readily feel the increased complexity and richness of effect that result from the marked variation and contrast of these disc forms. a cast of this window-head may be seen, by those to whom the original is not readily accessible, in the permanent collection in the museum at south kensington. colour, at the will of the ornamentist, is a powerful agent either in assisting the effect of simplicity or of adding to the richness and complex character of a decorative design. a familiar example of this latter effect may be seen in the tile pavements now so frequently to be met with, where the combination of very simple forms, such as the square, oblong, and right-angled triangle, results, owing to the colour, in designs frequently of great richness and beauty, as by this means particular combinations of forms simple in themselves may be developed and emphasised, and almost any amount of intricacy of design may thus be produced. as an illustration of what ingenuity may effect in producing the maximum of effect out of the most uncompromising and unyielding materials, fig. , a chinese fret pattern, is not uninteresting. if we put the problem in this way-—given, a number of lines parallel and equidistant, crossed at right angles by other and similar lines, to produce a pleasing design, we shall, we think, decide that the difficulties have been fairly met and equally fairly overcome. the arabs are no less clever, figs. o and , in producing the most complex designs out of combinations of such straight lines; and many of the more elaborate greek frets are almost as ingenious in their conception as the works of the orientals. in some byzantine and german gothic work, figs. and ioo, we meet with very elaborate interlacings of straight lines on capitals, &c. our space forbids our giving many illustrations of these, but any good illustrated book on the subject, such as “ heideloff," will furnish numerous examples. the interlacing of lines has in some styles become a very marked principle; it appears sometimes to be an imitation of weaving, or, more correctly, a form derived from and suggested by it, the bands being contiguous, fig. , as in woven material, and not having any open spaces between them. it is thus met with in assyrian ornament, and very commonly indeed - in byzantine work, and more especially on the capitals of the columns. our readers may, in the “stones of venice," see many excellent illustrations of this use of it. more frequently, however, it is found, fig. , as an open interlacing of straps or cords, while in german gothic, fig. , the forms often simulate the branches of trees. the strap form is abundant in byzantine, mohammedan, elizabethan, and italian work. a good example of it is seen -in fig. , the pierced stone screen from cairo. in some of these eastern piercings the openings are more stellate than in the one we have here represented, producing a very pleasing and suggestive effect when viewed from the inside of the apartment, or when, the sun shining brilliantly through them, their forms are transferred in golden light on to the opposite wall or the floor beneath. it is to an effect thus produced by these openings of ornamental form that victor hugo alludes, except that in his charming poem the forms are cast by the moon’s milder rays in silver on the walls—- “ quand la lune, z travers les mille arceaux arabcs, some les murs de tréfles blancs !” the more flowing and rounded form that, for distinction's sake, we have named cord- interla cing forms. interlacing, in opposition to strapwork, which is ordinarily flat, is of constant application in early irish, runic, celtic, scandinavian, and anglo-saxon art, both in illumination and stone-carving. the crosses that may from time to time be met with in ireland abound with beautiful .examples of interlaced patterns, wonderfully intricate in form and faultless in execution, sometimes being merely a cord, as in figs. , ; sometimes, as in fig. , the pattern is developed by dots, and in other instances formed into writhing masses of snakes, birds, and nondescript monsters, their tongues, crests, legs, and tails being knotted and entwined in endless variety. \ve see the same marked features again in the celtic mss. on one page alone of the gospel of st. chad, a ms. of this early period, more than one hundred of these fanciful animal forms occur. interlacing was very largely introduced in mss. during the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, and to a certain extent in the eleventh century. after this time it does not become in any degree a characteristic, though scattered examples of it may frequently be found in later work. interlacing patterns occur very commonly in classic work. the mosaic pavements, roman, carthaginian, &c., in the british museum, afford numerous examples, some of them of a very complicated character; and the very popular patterns known as the speira or plait, and the guilloche, that are more or less met with throughout the whole range of art, no doubt owe a great deal of their charm to their interlacing lines. interlacing forms also enter very largely into thirteenth century italian art, fig. . they are ordinarily far less complex in character than the northern examples, but what they may lack in complexity is ordinarily fully compensated for in the refinement of their forms. a very good example of interlacing conventional foliate forms is seen in fig. . a highly curious set of chessmen, carved in walrus ivory, was found at uig, isle of lewis, and may now be seen in the british museum. the bishops are sitting figures, and the ornament represented in our illustration is carved on the back of one of the episcopal chairs. the love of interlacing forms reveals itself again in heraldry, in the numerous varieties of knots employed as charges in blazoning arms. of these the most pleasing are the bourchier, boven, harrington, heneage, lacy, and stafford; the five first being borne by the families after whom they are named, while the sixth is a county device, tradition stoutly affirming that in mediazval times the staffordshire men were such scoundrels that it was necessary to devise a knot that would facilitate the hanging of three at once. be that as it may, the inhabitants of the county are proud of their device, and most of our travelled readers must be familiar with it, as it is painted on all the carriages and general rolling stock of the north staffordshire railway. badges in heraldry are frequently knotted together by various interlacings at the union of two houses: thus the dacre knot unites the escallop shell borne by that family with the historic ragged staff of the beauchamps. the idea is a good one, as it at once pleasingly unites two dissimilar forms into one composition, and at the same time symbolises the closeness of the tie between the houses. ruskin, in the “stones of venice,” has some such thoughtful and interesting remarks on the love of all early nations for interlacing that we shall make no apology to our readers for quoting them, and more especially as in these pages our desire is not simply to give ex parte statements of ours, but also to direct the reader to other sources of information, being “well content if,” in the words of quintilian, “i can say what is right, though it may not be of my own invention." after referring to the works of the scandinavians and anglo-saxons, the author goes on to say, “ it is not often that any idea of utility has power to enhance the true impressions of beauty; but it is possible that the enormous concluding remarks. that is neither desirable nor indeed justifiable. the numerous breaks of line that result in this system of interpenetration are, if not really a source of weakness, at least apparently so, and on this ground also offend the eye. we conclude, as we commenced, with a strong feeling of the magnitude of the task that lies before any one who would desire to treat the subject exhaustively. should our labours, slight as they are, prove in any way a help to those desirous of gaining some insight into the principles and practice of ornamental art, we trust that they will thank us rather for what little help we may thus have afforded them than dwell, as we too well know that they might do, upon all the sins of omission that might so readily be charged to us. vve shall not indulge in the usual formula by saying that if but one student finds himself the better for our work we shall feel amply repaid, since such assertion appears to us often a little hypocritical, and at best but the expectation of a result that does not bear due proportion to the labour expended. we would rather say that we cherish the hope that many who read these pages will rise from them prompted by a desire to search more deeply into matters than we are here able to go, but nevertheless deriving from our labours at least this desire to know more. many kindly expressions of appreciation have reached us from those to whom personally we are quite unknown, and from some—since even far australia has contributed—whose faces we may never see. we therefore gladly take this opportunity of thanking all such well-wishers, assuring them that in the feeling that ourilabours are of use we find our highest reward, and in the appreciation of those who have thus benefited we derive our greatest encouragement. , j . ./vpzx gubbio \vare, . guidobaldo ii., duke of urbino, . guilloche form in ornament, , i . gules in heraldry, . c-urge or whirlpool, i . h. hampton court palace, glass at, . hand of the lord, . harmony of colour, i . harpocrates, god of silence, . harpy in blazonry, . hawk and vulture, sacred to re, . hebrew alphabet : its nature, . heidelotf on byzantine decoration, , i . hell in mediaval representations, . henri deux \vare, i , . henry ll., badge a broom plant, . henry iv., badge a columbine flower, . heraldry or blazonry, . herb-basilisque, . hercules the hydra-slayer, . herodotus, on the assyrian empire, o ; on the phoenix, . hesiod, the phoenix, . hexafoil in ornament, i . hieroglyphic characters of egypt, , . higher animal forms bi-symmetrical, . hippopotamus, ass, and pig dedicated to typho, |. “ history of ancient mss.,” forsyth, . “ history of egypt,” sharpe, . hittorf on the colouring of the greeks, i . hogarth, “ analysis of beauty,” i . holly, design founded on the, h . "' holy \var :” its pictorial imagery, . honeycomb: its geometric character, i . honeysuckle, natural growth of the, , . honourable ordinaries in heraldry, . horizontal line in ornament, . horned snake in egyptian art, . horse, an emblem of strength, . horus, throne of, . hudson on symmetry in design, ; naturalism and con- ventionalism, h . hues of colour : their nature, . human form in christian art, . humboldt,“atlas pittoresque,” . hydra in art, . hyperbolic character of eastern poetry, |. ibis of the egyptians, . “ idler,” papers on art in, . i.h.s., sacred monogram, . imitation of one material in another, faulty in principle, ii - impalement in heraldic bearings, . incarnation of vishnu, . incongruous combinations in some renaissance \v rk. . indian lotus or \vater-bean, . influence of commerce and war on art, , ;. inherent beauty of geometric forms, . inquisition in spain, . inscriptions, as elements of ornamental art, ; of the alhambra, , |; on coinage, , ; prefaced by the cross, . insect forms in art, ; in heraldry, . interchange as a principle in design, . interlacing of animal forms in celtic art, , i , . interlacing of lines in ornamental art, i , . interpenetration of f onns in ornamental art, i . intersection of lines in ornamental art, i . ionic capital, . ivory as a substance for writing on, . ivy, design based on the, . j. jackal of anubis, , . jameson on symbolism, . james iv. of scotland; the thistle, . javanese treatments of fruit forms, h . jerome on the evangelistic symbols, |. jewels as expressive of tinctures, . jewish animal worship, . jewish church, figure symbolising the, . john st., symbol, the eagle, . johnson on the use of the labours of others, . josephus on the assyrian empire, . juclaea, symbolic figure of, on coinage, !. jupiter ammon, i . jupiter, thunderbolt of, . justin on the assyrian empire, . juxtaposition of colours: its modifying effect, rot, i . k. kaleidoscope, multi-symmetrica.l forms in, , . karnac, temple of, . katharine of arragon, badges adopted by, . k ei/furmzlg, or tl’/e-ti-¢'/ou, . kelland on colour~b indness, i . kells, book of, . key patterns or frets, . keys of st. peter, . kilklispeen, celtic cross of, . kimmeridge coal-money, i . knots, various forms of, as heraldic devices, , . koran. the dog, ; the influence of, on mohammedan art, , . kyonjik, pavement from, , . l. label as mark of cadency, . labour available a consideration in design, i . lamb as a symbol of christ, . lamp as an emblem, . lancastrian rose, , . language, symbolism of, . lardner on snow-crystals, n. lassen and grotefend, labours of, . ‘ last supper,” of leonardo da vinci, . laws in art : how far binding, . laws of moses, solon, and themistocles, . layard, botta, and rich, labours of, . lead as a substance for writing on, . leaves of trees as substances for writing on, . lecterns, durham, ; messina, ; and norwich, . leebeck on colour-blindness, i . legend, of prometheus ; of the phtenix, . lens found at nineveh, . leonardo on colour harmony, . lepidotus of the egyptians, . levitical priesthood, rites of the, . lilies of france in english heraldry, . index lily, its symbolic significance, ; of the bourbons, ; of the nile, . linen-pattern in late gothic work, . lion, emblem of st. mark, ; heraldic device, ; in ornamental art, ; sacred to hercules, . lizard, object of worship, . lote-tree of the koran, . lotus form in art, ; indian treatment, . love of ornament universal feeling, . love of the marvellous and mysterious, , . loving-cups of civic feasts, . lower animal forms ordinarily multi-symmetrical, . luke, st., ox the symbol of, . m. machinery, influence of, on design, . madras school of art, drawings from, . magi of persia, . magpie and raven in christian art, . mai, literary labours of, . majolica: its nature and history, . malay creese, inscription on, . mantling in heraldry, . “ manual of heraldry,” cussans, . marine signal-code, . mark, st., symbol, the lion, . marks on chelsea, dresden, and swansea \vare, . mars, the star of the warrior, . marshalling in blazonry, . martes, sacred fish of the egyptians, . martlet as mark of cadency, . martyrs, christian, of rome, , , . material influencing form of design, . matthew, st., emblem, the angel, . maximinian, st., chair of, at ravenna, . medeenet haboo, temple of, . merchants’ marks, . mercury, caduceus of, . mermaid as heraldic device, . messina, lectern at, . “ metal work,” digby wyatt, . mexican, god of the air, ; picture-language, ; pottery, . milton : the amaranth, . minerva, olive, symbol of, ; owl, symbol of, . mohammedan ornament conventional, . mohammedan sects, . monograms, on coinage, ; on pictures, ; origin and nature, . montesqueu on taste, . moore, “ paradise and the peri,” ; the phoenix, . moors, use of geometry by the, , . mosaic: its nature and history, , . mottoes in heraldry, , , . motto from exeter cathedral, . multifoil figures in ornament, . multi~symmetrical forms, . murano glass, , musical instruments, representations of, as decorations, . mythical animal forms, , , . n. napkin-ornament in late gothic, . napoleon i., tomb of, , oo. natural geometric forms, . naturalistic argument for use of colours, , naturalism and conventionalism of treatment, . n ebuchadnezzar, golden image of, . nehushtan of hezekiah, . “ nenzo ma implme lacessz't," . neph, asp of, . ' neptune, trident of, , . new guinea, fret fomt on pottery, . new zealand, woven geometric patterns, . nimbus forms, , . nisroch, vulture dedicated to, . norwich, lectern at, . o. oblong in ornament, . odin the originator of written characters, . oiron or henri deux ware, , . olive, symbol of pallas, . or: its use in heraldry, . omament based on geometric construction, . ornament of past not necessarily good, . osiride pillars in egyptian architecture, . osiris, sacred bull of, o. ostrich feathers as a badge, . outlay available a consideration in decoration, . overthrow of perseus : influence on art, . owen jones, “ alhambra," ; “ grammar of ornament,” , ; naturalism and conventionalism, . owl, emblem of desolation and ruin, ; object of veneration in tartary, ; symbol of pallas, . oxyrhinchus of the egyptians, . p. palimpsest mss., . pallas, olive and owl symbols of, . palm-branch as a symbol in christian art, . palm-tree on jewish and scottish coinage, . papyrus as a substance for writing on, , . “paradise and the peri,” moore, . “ paradise” of dante, . parsees of india, . parthenon or temple of pallas athene, , . pasht, cat dedicated to, . passion-flower: its significance in ecclesiastical art, . passion symbols in christian art, . patera form in ornament, . pavia, majolica at, . peacock, burmese, ; in christian art, . pelican, in heraldry, ; in sacred art, ; emblem of desolation, , penrose on colouring of greek architecture and sculpture. . pentalpha in byzantine work, . persecutions of the early christian church, . perseus the dragon-slayer, . perugia ware, . pesaro, school of pottery at, . phagrus of egyptians, . pharaoh, meaning of the word, . philae, resting-place of osiris, . phoenician relics in england, . phcenix, in art, ; in heraldry, . pictorial allegories, . picture-language of mexico, . pictures marked by monogram of artist, . pig an emblem of gluttony, . “ pilgrim’s progress,” pictorial imagery of, . i./vdex. pillar of fire in the wilderness, . pine-apple or cone form in assyrian sculptures, . pine-tree : natural example of fitness of form to growth, h . plait form or speira, . planets as expressive of heraldic tinctures, . planets as symbols of the classic deities, . plantagenista badge, . plants largely used in biblical teaching. . “ plants : their natural growth and ornamental treat- ment,” , . ' plato on the sameness of egyptian work, . plautus on the polter’s vl/heel, . pliny, on mosaic, ; the phoenix, . polygonal forms in ornamental art, . pomegranate, badge of katharine of arragon, ; in jewish ornament, . portcullis of westminster, . portraits of christ, . posy-rings : their nature, . potter's art antiquity of, . prevost on colour-blindness, i . primary colours, nature of the, ioo. principal figures made larger in early \/vork, . proto-doric columns of beni hassan, . prussia, eagle symbol of, , . pseudo-buttresses in decorative work, . pthah of the egyptians, . ptolomy epiphanes and the rosetta stone, . publius lentulus, description of christ, . purpure in blazonry, . pythagoras and thales as geometricians, . q. quartering of armorial bearings, . quatrefoil in ornament, . quintilian, extract from, i . r. radiation as a principle in ornament, . rano, asp dedicated to, . raphael, cartoons of, o. raphael ware, . ravenna, chair of st. maximinian, . ravenna vi/are, i . raven, in blazonry, ; the standard of vikings, . raven and magpie in christian art, . rawlinson, labours of, at bagdad, . “ recollections of the last four popes,” wiseman, . redgrave, “ report on design,” . red : its symbolic significance, , . rehoboam a captive in egypt, . reisner work, . relief, simulation of, , , n . repetition as an art principle, . reptile forms in design, ; in heraldry, . restoration : its use and abuse, . re, vulture and hawk sacred to, . reynolds, sir joshua, on laws in art, ; on naturalism and conventionalism, h . rhombus in ornament, i . ribbon-letters, . right-angled triangle in ornament, . robin, a symbol of christmas, . rock-tablets of behistun, . rolls of arms, . roman churches, majolica alfixed to, . roman stamped tiles, . rome, catacombs of, ,- , , . rosa sine s /)/illl, , . rose, as a mark of cadency, ; dedicated to virgin mary, ; heraldic use of, ; in classic mythology. ; in christian art, ; of pagan art, ; of the popes. ; of sharon, ; of york and lancaster, . rose or vi/heel windows, i . rosetta stone, , . rosette form in ornament, . rules of colouring vague in their nature, , too. runic characters of scandinavia, . ruskin, advancing and retiring colours, i ; juxtaposition of green and blue, ; “ modern painters,” ; naturalism and conventionalism, ill ; on inter- lacing, ; “ stones of venice,” , i , ; study of the figure, ; symmetry, . russia, eagle a symbol of, , . s. sable in blazonry, . sacred fire of the vestal virgins, . sacred fish of the egyptians, . sacred geese of rome, . sacred monogram, forms of the, !, . sagittarius in blazonry, . salamander in heraldic devices, . santa apollonica, pisa, majolica at, . santa alnria n?-ila rum, . saturn a symbol of the god of time, . saxon coin, the vvolf and children, . scale and position of ornament to be studied, i . scale form in ornamental art, . scarabazus or sacred beetle, , . scotland, thistle of, . scottish clans, badges of the, . sea horse and sea lion as heraldic devices, . seals, value of emblazoned devices on, . seb, goose sacred to, . secondary colours, nature of, i . semicircle in ornament, . semper on the colouring of classic architecture and sculpture, . seneca indians, custom of, . sennacherib, king of assyria, , , . sense of flatness in floor-coverings, . serpent in mythology and a , . seven, the number of perfection, . shades and tints of colour, nature of, . shaft-sections geometric in character, ii. shalmanezer, king of assyria, , . shamrock of ireland, . sharpe, “ history of egypt,” . sheaf of arrows, badge of katharine of arragon, . shushan, mosaic at palace of, . signal-code, marine, . silver, its symbolic significance, , . simplicity as a principle in design, i , i . simulation of relief work, , ioo, . siva, equilateral triangle a symbol of, . six, its symbolic meaning, . skins of animals as substances for writing on, . snowdrop dedicated to virgin, , . soul of man symbolised in art, . speira or plait form, . spenser, “ the faerie queene,” . -.-gr ~>w>|ir index. sphinx forms, in blazonry, ; in ornamental art, . spiral line, in nature, i ;~ in ornament, , . stag, in blazonry, ; christian and classic symbol, . standards, of the caliphs, ; of constantine, , . “stones of venice,” ruskin, ioo, , i . strap form in interlacing, . study of the figure, dyce and ruskin on, , . stupidity, ass a symbol of, . style in ornament, . sub~ordinary charges in blazonry, , . substances used for writing on, . sun-worshippers, . supporters in heraldic devices, . symbolism: its nature and use, . symmetry as a principle in ornamental art, . t. talbot dog represented on tile, i . tarsia work or tarsiatura," io. tau form in early christian work, . temples of the earth and heaven at pekin, . temple of solomon, symbolic ornaments, , . temple of the winds, capital from, . tertiary colours, the nature of, ioi. tertullian on the early christian church, . t é'le-ti-clou, or k eilfnrmzlg, . thales and pythagoras as geometricians, . thebes, mural paintings at, , ; tombs of , , . thistle, a symbol of scotland, . thoth, ape dedicated to, ; ibis dedicated to, . three : its symbolic meaning, . tigris : its representation in assyrian art, . tinctures in heraldry, . tints of colours : how obtained, . tones and lines of colour : their nature, i . tooba-tree of the mohammedans, . tortoise the incarnation of a deity, . trajan, column of, i . tree of life, . trefoil in omament, i . triangle in design, . trident, marked on swansea ware, ; symbol of neptune, . trinity, symbols of the, , , . tri-symmetrical forms, . triton as a device in blazonry, . tudor rose, io. twelve : its symbolic significance, . twining on symbolism, . typho, ass, hippopotamus, and pig dedicated to, . u. uig, carved chessmen found at, i . ulphilas, writings of, . unicorn as a device in blazonry, . unsymmetrical character of chinese and japanese work, . urbino ware, . v. vagaries of early heralds, , . vair in armorial bearings, . variation as a principle in ornament, , , i . venice, mosaics of st. mark’s church, . venus of classic mythology, . vert in blazonry, . . vesica form in omament, , . vestal virgins clothed in white, . vine, a symbol of bacchus, ; foliage of, an example of bi-symmetry, ; in christian art, , ; on jewish coin, ; symbolic meaning in old testament, . virgin mary, lily dedicated to, ; snowdrop dedicated '¢°i - - vishnu, incamations of, , vision, of ezekiel, ; of st. john, , . vulture and hawk sacred to re, . vulture symbol of n isroch, . w. watchman beetle, . water-bean, indian, . water : how symbolised in ancient art, . waved line in ornament, . wax as a substance for writing on, . vveathercock, . wedding-rings, inscriptions on, . westwood on celtic art, . wheel or rose windows, i . \vhirlpool or gurge in heraldry, . white hart as a badge, . white : its symbolic significance, , , . whit-sunday, origin of the name, . wilkinson, on colour and taste, i ; egypt, ; juxta- position of green and purple, ; naturalism and conventionalism, i . wilson, dr., on colour-blindness, i . winckelman, on colour in classic art, ioz; on egyptian mosaic, . wisdom, owl the bird of, . wiseman, “lives of the last four popes,” . vvolt', in blazonry, ; emblem of cruelty, ; of the capitol, . wood as a substance for writing on, . wonnan, “ analysis of ornament,” ; naturalism and conventionalism, ; symmetry, . wreath or crown as symbols, . writers of antiquity on the potter's art, , vi/yckliffe on the evangelistic symbols, . wyvern in blazonry, . x. “xmas ” as an abbreviation of christmas, . y. yellow : its symbolic significance, . yorkist rose, . z. zahn’s vvork on pompeii, , . zeuxis, anecdote of, . c/~.sszl . pnrrizn & galpiu- belle sauvage works- lounou. e.c. w ."q."~m;i§z é?',w/' '- %-: '// // "»>'///~ / //.. //my>'/."/. / é s////,/ii’?/ y . w ‘ " , / , '- , ,-§/ ,. / ' ’ l i ._.. 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'’-l|'i'ia§ i' '!''"ili“}|v--|ui;i-|a;;-|“.mims’ '>|||:%!; @’a!@|!*!" !!!!'ai'§!i§;a;;\ %;: %! *-!’.!!\!a' l!_ill\| "ig;'.;~' | 'yl m '. i v~‘ "' a - i ._ ‘\ z i’ it-' * .. j . .i- “ - '- ' , | i . "" ‘mil-. - h ww;-s;'-: ;-ss.'~ }!' ma u" m “ .'.~“=.| i\h|.:!l\l.l:!*fl|!il!i\m. b'!:i!!!:! !:| |z|t i }. \ . \".,\'.\.-- wsh,“\!;":'-. \ . ’ d. .. . ':,“:.~, . . qiunnnknlj>a. pk-u .rs ma qnun, h h fi.'. > rn. _ ,'___i fine arts library fl - projective ornament harvard university dia et emia risto eccles n.no atas cov chr avis library of the fogg art museum danman rocs claude bragden al des sept projectives ornamento claude bragdon rochesterny the manas press dedicated to e. b. the need of a new form language we are without a form language suitable to the needs of today. archi- tecture and ornament constitute such a language. structural necessity may be depended upon to evolve fit and expressive architectural forms, but the same thing is not true of ornament. this necessary element might be supplied by an individual genius, it might be derived from the conventionalization of natural forms, or lastly it might be devel- oped from geometry. the geometric source is richest in promise. architecture and ornament in contemplating the surviving relics of any period in which the soul of a people achieved aesthetic utterance through the arts of space, it is clear that in their architecture and in their ornament they had a form language as distinctive and adequate as any spoken language. today we have no such language. this is equivalent to saying that we have not at- tained to aesthetic utterance through the arts of space. that we shall attain to it, that we shall develop a new form language, it is impossible to doubt; but not until after we realize our need, and set about supplying it. projective or n a ment consider the present status of architecture, which is preëminently the art of space. modern architecture, except on its en- gineering side, has not yet found itself: the style of a building is determined, not by necessity, but by the whim of the designer; it is made up of borrowings and survivals. so urgent is the need of more appropriate and indigenous architectural forms with which to clothe the steel framework for which some sort of protective covering is of first importance, that some architects have ceased search- ing in the cemetery of a too pentahedroids sacredly cherished past. they are seeking to solve their problems rather by a process of elimination, using the most elementary forms and the materials readiest to hand. in thus facing their difficulty they are re- creating their chosen art, and not abrogating it. the development of new architectural forms appropriate to the new structural methods is already under way, and its successful issue may safely be left to necessity and to time; but the no less urgent need of fresh motifs in ornament has not yet even begun to be met. so far as architecture is con- cerned, the need is acute only for those who are determined to be modern. having perforce abandon- ed the structural methods of the past, and the forms cv projective or n a m e n t associated with these methods, they nevertheless continue to use the ornament associated with what they have abandoned: the clothes are new, but not the collar and necktie. the reason for this failure of invention is that while common sense, and a feeling for fitness and proportion, serve to produce the clothing of a building, the faculty for originating appropriate and beautiful ornament is one of the rarest in the whole range of art. those arts of space which involve the element of decoration suffer from the same lack, and for a similar reason. three possible sources of supply suggest them- selves for this needed element in a new form language. ornament might be the single-handed creation of an original genius in this partic- ular field; it might be de- rived from the conventional- ization of native flora, as it was in the past; or it might be developed from geometry. let us examine each of these possibilities in turn. the first we must reject. even supposing that this art saviour should appear as some rarely gifted and resourceful creator of ornament, it would be calamitous to impose the idiosyncratic space rhythm of a single individual upon an entire architecture. fortu tesseracts: cubes nately such a thing is impossible. in mr. louis sullivan, for example, we have an ornamentalist projective or n a ment geometry . there remains at least one other possibility, and it is that upon which we shall now concentrate all our attention, for it seems indeed an open door. geometry and number are at the root of every kind of formal beauty. that the tapestry of nature is woven on a mathematical framework is known to every sincere student. as emerson says, “nature geometrizes ... moon, plant, gas, crystal, are con- crete geometry and number.” art is nature selected, ar- ranged, sublimated, triply re- fined, but still nature, how- ever refracted in and by con- sciousness. if art is a higher power of nature, the former must needs submit itself to mathematical analysis too. the larger aspect of this whole matter — the various vistas that the application of geom- etry to design opens up—has been treated by the author in a previous volume*. narrow- ed down to the subject of ornament, our question is, tesseract what promise does geometry hold of a new ornamental mode? in the past, geometry has given birth to many characteristic and consistent systems of ornamenta- tion, and from its very nature is capable of giving *the beautiful necessity. projective ornament birth to many more. much of hindu, chinese, and japanese ornament was derived from geometry, yet these all differ from one another, and from moorish ornament, which owes its origin to the same source. gothic tracery, from perpendicular to flamboyant, is nothing but a system of straight lines, circles, and the intersecting arcs of circles, variously ar- ranged and combined. the interesting development of ornament in germany which has taken place of late years, contains few elements other than the square and the circle, the parallelogram and the ellipse. it is a remarkable fact that ornamentation, in its primitive manifestations, is geometrical rather than naturalistic, though the geometrical source is the more abstract and purely intellectual of the two. is not this a point in its favor? the great war undoubtedly ends an era:“the old order changeth.” our task is to create the art of the future: let us then draw our inspiration from the deepest, purest well. geometry is an inexhaustible well of formal beauty from which to fill our bucket; but before the draught is fit for use it should be examined, analyzed, and filtered through the consciousness of the artist. if with the zeal of the convert we set at once to work with t square and compass to devise a new system of ornament from geometry, we shall proba- bly end where we began. let us, therefore, by a purely intellectual process of analysis and selection, try to discover some system of geometrical forms and configurations which shall yield that new orna- mental mode of which we are in search. - - -- ii ornament and psychology *.. ornament is the outgrowth of no practical necessity, but of a striving toward beauty. our zeal for efficiency has resulted in a corresponding aesthetic infertility. signs are not lacking that consciousness is now looking in a new direction-away from the contemplation of the facts of materiality towards the mysteries of the supersensuous life. this transfer of attention should give birth to a new aesthetic, expres- sive of the changing psychological mood. the new direction of con- sciousness is well suggested in the phrase, the fourth dimension of space, and the decorative motifs of the new aesthetic may appropri- ately be sought in four-dimensional geometry. .--- the ornamental mode and the psychological mood architectural forms and features, such as the column, the lintel, the arch, the vault, are the outgrowth of structural necessity, but this is not true of ornament. ornament develops not from the need and the power to build, but from the need and the power to beautify. arising from a psychological impulse rather than from a physical necessity, it re- flects the national and racial consciousness. to such a degree is this true that any mutilated and time- worn fragment out of the great past when art was a language can without difficulty be assigned its place and period. granted a dependence of the ornamental mode upon the psychological mood, our first business is to discover what that mood may be. a great change has come over the collective consciousness: we are turning from the accumula- project i v e o rn a m e n t a primer of higher space may be found useful, and there is besides a literature upon the subject. if after reviewing this literature the reader is disposed to regard the fourth dimension as a mere mathematical convention, it matters not in the least, so long as he is able to make practical use of it. he may likewise, with equal justice, question the existence of minus quantities, for example, but they produce practical results. with this brief explanation the author now turns up his shovelful, leaving it to the discerning to determine whether it contains any gold. protective orn a m e n t if we have really achieved the plane representa- tion of a pentahedroid, it should be easy to identify the projections of the five tetrahedral cells or bound- ing tetrahedrons, just as we are able to identify the four equilateral sides of the tetrahedron in plane pro- jection. we find that it is possible to do this. for convenience of identification, these are separately shown. by dint of continued gazing at this pentagon circumscribing a five-pointed star, and by trying to recognize all its intricate inter-relations, we may come finally to the feeling that it is not merely a figure on a plane, but that it represents a hypersolid of hyper- space, related to the tetrahedron as that is related to the triangle. the corresponding higher developments of the square let us next consider the series beginning with the square. the cube may be conceived of as developed by the movement of a tesseract generation and square in a direction at plane projection right angles to its two dimensions, a distance equal to the length of square one of its sides. the direction of this move- tesseract or hypercube) ment can be represented jcude on a plane anywhere we wish. suppose we establish it as diagonal- ly downward and to the right. the resultant figure is a cube in isometric perspective, for each of the four projective or n a ment sions; the plane representations of the tetrahedron and the cube portray certain relations in solid space, while those of the pentahedroid and the tesseract portray relations peculiar to four-dimensional space. it will be observed that the decorative value of the figures increases as they proceed from space to space: the higher- dimensional developments are more beautiful and carry a greater weight of meaning. dictum, “beauty is truth; truth, beauty.” the above exercises consti- tute the only clue needed to understand the system of orna- bibilibisinibinizibile sigisisisi liigi symmetrical plane figure has its three-dimensional correla- tive, to which it is related as tetrahedrons: prisms a boundary or a cross-section. these solids may in turn be conceived of as boundaries or cross-sections of corresponding figures in four- dimensional space. the plane projections of these hypersolids are the motifs mainly used in projective ornament. projective orn a ment the decorative value of these figures m * cise his skill. as this is a handbook for artists and not a geome- trical treatise, the description of regular polyhedroids need not be carried further than this. the reader who is ambitious to continue, from the -hedroid even unto the -hedroid, is referred to the geo- metry of four dimensions; upon this he can exer- cise his mind and experience for himself the stern joy of the conquest of new spaces. but the designer has already, in the penta- hedroid, the hypercube, and the hexadekahe droid the hexadekahedroid, ample axes material on which to exer- cise his skill. it should be remembered that just as in plane geometry a regular polygon can always be in- scribed in a circle, and in geometry of three dimen- sions a regular polyhedron can always be inscribed in a sphere, so in four-dimensional geometry every regular polyhedroid can be inscribed in a hyper- sphere. in plane projection this hypersphere would be represented by a circle circumscribing the plane figure representing the polyhedroid. almost any random arrangement on the page of these three hypersolids in plane projection will serve to indicate what largess of beauty is here- they are like cut jewels, like flowers, and like frost. combined symmetrically they form patterns of endless variety. projective or n a ment it is a simple feat of pattern from magic squares mnemonics. the per- former must remember numbers in their or- der, the sequence which yields the magic line in magic line from magic line of the magic square of . asquale ofs taken four times the plotting of this line is shown in figure ; its decorative applica- tion in the binding of the beautiful necessity. euler, the great mathe- matician, constructed knight's move squares path traced by the knight in making what is known as the knight's tour of and of , having peculiar properties. in one diagram of figure the natural numbers show the path of a knight moving in such a manner that the sum of the pairs of numbers opposite to and equidistant from the middle figure is its double. in the other diagram the knight returns to its starting cell in such a manner that the difference between the pairs of numbers opposite to and equidis- tant from the middle point is . w magic line of interlaces figure shows interlaces derived from these two magic squares. they so resemble the braided bands found on celtic crosses that one projective or n a m e n t to , they will be found to fall magically into the same places they occupy in the magic square of . because all magic lines in magic squares have, in their corresponding cubes, this three-dimensional ex- tension, the patterns derived from magic squares come properly under the head of projective orna- ment. binding the magic line of . a tesseract projective ornament space and time: the field and the frame now the characteristic of time is succession; in time alone one thing follows another in endless sequence. the unique characteristic of space is simultaneity, for in space alone everything exists at once. in classifying the arts, for example, music would go into the time box, for it is in time alone, being successive; architecture, on the other hand, would go into the space box. yet because nothing is pure, so to speak, architecture has something of the ele- ment of succession, and music of simultaneousness. an arcade or a colonnade may be spoken of as successive; while a musical chord, consisting of several notes sounded together, is simultaneous. the same thing holds true throughout nature. the time element and the space element everywhere appear, either explicitly or implicitly, the first as succession, the second as simultaneity. in ornament we have the field and the frame, and the unfolding of living forms in space within some fixed time cycle may be thought of as symbo- lized by a foliated field and a geometrical frame or border. in the field, the units will be disposed with relation to points and radiating lines, implying the simultaneity of space, and in the border they will be arranged sequentially, implying the succession of time (figure ). seeking greater interest, subtlety, and variety, we have, in the projected plane re- presentations of symmetrical three-fold and four- fold solids, a frame rhythmically subdivided. these subdivisions of a frame may be taken to represent lesser time cycles within a greater, and the arabesque with which these spaces can be filled may be felt to projective or n a ment symbolize the growth of a plant through succes- siveseasons, or the development of an indi- vidual in different incar- nations. time and space symbol- ized in ornamentas successive ( ) simultaneous tdi a book all bones and no flesh simultaneous it is by artifices such as these that the world order gets itself external- ized in forms and ar- successive rangements which ex- press “the life movement of the spirit through the rhythm of things.” this is the very essence of art: first to perceive, and then to publish news from that nowhere of the world from which all things flow and to which all things return. it will be evident to the discerning reader from what has been said regarding the symbolic value of the straight line and the curve (the frame and the arabesque) that the whole subject of foliated or free-spreading ornament has received scant attention from the author. this intentional concentration upon the straight line explains the poverty and hard monotony of many of the diagrams here presented. they are not so much ornament as the osseous framework of ornament. but by reason of our superficial manner of observing nature, our preoccupation with mere externals, we have lost our perception of her beauti- conwy auszub ikkaa projective or n a ment into curves; and by subjecting them to these modi- fications their beauty is often augmented. yet if their geometrical truth and integrity be too much tampered with, they will be found to have lost a certain precious quality. it would seem as though they were beautiful to the eye in proportion as they --- оооооооооооооооооооооооооооо qdecodode cet .ua та ос е с uutuuttuvottuwtc um u tiittitud dupl d architectural library na p 一 ​ the architectural reprint. vol. i, plate . $ mo mim - 年​ 年​ 月 ​せ​て​やり​き​たり​え​ない​の ​get to deonoreigloria ngures en gilt ground c co es t tex solid bronze figures on top at a b - palencia choir screen in cathedral date ! drianvs mten mex carolvsv ro-mr hsp, rbxwviveno . pris mo stok buat simtar in design to out side gale cale of a trie il y m from prentice. plate and frontispiece. the custocic monastery of silos-burgos the architectural reprint. door to street burgos from prentice. tynythmetik vodstvo part. elevation of staircase in the north · transept of cathedral mere do orqa[e ! hd golfo plan of staircase vo scale of feet. the balustrade is of wrought iron painted and gilt: the other fortions of stair case are of fine stone and marble recess containing wcture ed sax note the desion of this stair case is the same on.bo th sides.” the balustra de- -omitted on-left side in order to shew.detail of steps luluinidonado mai . buses الliiiiii vol. i. plate . side elevation and section plate . , feet. scale of opi ontv moine andrew & caamam co, uthographeas, washington, dc 一​、 the architectural reprint. vol. i, plate . tanssi ויוייוייויין joale of feer half inside elevation half outside elevation wall of.patio - sheld over fireplace in reception hall the central part of this doorway is missing -- · but must have been hung in two portions of similar design to · side panelling. scale of hins. peÑaranda provincia de burgos palace of the duke ofalba details of oak door to reception hall on. first floor c outside from prentice. plate . andrew e. gaanam co., ltnographeas, washington, dc --- the architectural, reprint. vol. i. plate . semanca palace of monterey mm mm d f sketch of window km on side faÇade. e ht e f min mich from prentice. plate . the architectural reprint. vol. i, plate . salamanca faÇade and detail of doorway of house near the church san benito fit f b b o с d e fr scale of +++ one milor from prentice. plate the architectural reprint. in dots sosle of from prentice. avila casa- polentina portal to courtyard avil iron pulot in catheargia side of choi entirely git: b on richied th re section at e d eleron of side but werowong carver swar to other side section at a section at d tote. these moulding are backed with wood except the pedestal mouldings erich are solid iron cuostinian gran carved secular to other te sketch elevation at bb. plan section at b. sec tomt section at f ground line section at c scale of scle of scale lev. scale for details. tches onu moi vol. i, plate . plates and . ). the architectural, reprint. vol. i. plate soale from prentice. of feer toledo · cathedral + wrought iron and bronze screen tochoir half-elevation with details - la cual jab«t* * %*** - n pa cas lide + + + or+ po en ti med c - - . su continuation of aa plate scale of feet. hov andaew b. graham co, lithoga apmeas, washington, dc the architectural reprint. vol. i. plate . seville white marble tomd in university chapel ΣΩΠΟ j.woulutors ja mood seville tomb in university chapec oxoxoxo thmooxorovolonowe kodu du vo hol nb from prentice. plates and . o the architectural reprint. vol. i, plate . pet/ uruga 业 ​会​兽​兽​兽​兽​兽​会​趋稳 ​兽​兽​兽​兽​色​鲁鲁鲁​兽​兽​兽​。 复合​套餐 ​食 ​seville cathedral siderea to-altar.mayor (iron gilt) cale of taji #feet only or from prentice. plate . from prentice. plaster ceiling dalidade lxdxdxdxdxdxdxdxdxdddddxxx ladudu doux granit vvv the architectural, reprint. v alcalÁ de henares कादम्परा part-edwardy of staircase opening inte upter galery . . wide the pllaster and bracket op stome lintelorwood patio del palacio arzobispal us sas sofyit of lintel at ab. plan of corner her namann detail of ceiling and frieze to-room. e detail of ceiling and frieze to room-d floor le tikes wood joist alcala de henares carved.wood ceilings to rooms on principal floor palacio arzobispal ga transverse section of wood joksts room :d room .e plans of ceilings + o for carved scale of teet torstall.plam perpantop digen p carved section .a.b. see plan scale of feet pemdamtg note this arcade is-built-of.a yellow.colour ed-stone with the exception of-lintel to. upper gallery which. . of granite b cuenca tog streer cathedral plates and half plant of celino at cuenca * . sketch of pendang atg carved wood ceiling to capilla honda del espiritu santo vol. i, plate cround line scale for details + y feet. andrew & gaaham co. lithographeas, washington, dc the architectural reprint. vol. i, plate . alcalde ene: detail of windows from the facade of the university t . slone sear est oron inc section. scale or philosophy from prentice. plate . the architectural reprint. vol. i, plate . from prentice. cuenca cathedral cuenca cathedral iron screen · or gate to side chapel enlarged detail of a a wrought iron reja-or screen situated at the back of the high altar thus jesse screen retains much of the original. colouring secties aa reisw * bare or sre wong taor or son work section elevation plates and soale of scale of scale for details opere hin andrew b graham co. lithographers, washington, dc the architectural, reprint. vol. i. plate . from prentice. palma majorca cuenca: amd zaragoza 흄 ​wrovoht iron lamp drackets from:palma examples of iron.escutch- eons and door handles from old palaces details of iron and · brass work im details of brass turned work from screens.in-cathedral of zaragoza detect details of iron screen to capilla mayor in cathedral of cuenca see platextil hk plates and . scale of. + feel fur. brass, work [ scale-of-inches seak off ť ht ť inches + andrew b. gaaham co., lithographeas, washington, dc. the architectural reprint. vol. i, plate . phica freet to d + plan of patio b feet aaan transverse section thro: ab w) ods yvacv.vn section thro patio and staircase zaragoza of the casa de la infanta (cccccccc {{ccccccc cccccccccccccccccc scale of htt dyn from prentice. plate . andrew b. graham co., lithographers, washington, dc. the architectural reprint. vol. i. plate . section wood hhhhh - feel stucco arch + stone zaragoza the casa de la infanta details-& sections of.carved - pillar and arcade of patio wa thith o marble pillar vui ground line on son l from prentice. plate . the architectural reprint. vol. i, plate . poblet details of lower part ofhighaltar see plate xlvii pilaster.a.a base a bunda ii oo il floor: line aa detail of pilaster to arcade under figure of madonna scale of enlargement of-carved panel at.floor level 'inches of from prentice. plate andaew b. graham co., lithographers, washington, dc. the architectural reprint. vol. i. plate . ta tils ac de tal of projecting wooden roof. palma:majorca details taken from the palace of the marques-del-palmer section of ·window first floor window scale of 'w i feet. half elevation of.ground-floor window. sketch.of.carving over ground floor window. panel over:door from prentice. plate . - | ot - je 六 ​ ཀྱི་དེང་ cc coco ) ) ) ) ) a.“ l|. a*z~n*¢* *vip bl ‘ \l a .- ' v. v. .vna .v' ' ---. v me --— -.-_.-rvu-vwfi-'--...-_ why—ht“ r w som e principles of every-day art. mr. lewis f. day’s ' text books of ornamental design. price three-and-sixpe'nce each, crown vo, bound in cloth. some principles of every-day art: introductory chapters on the arts not fine. in great part re-written from ‘every-day art,’ and containing nearly all the original illustra- tions ; forming a prefatory volume to the series. the anatomy of pattern. second edition, revised. with thirty-six full page illustrations. the planning of ornament. second edition, revised. with forty-one full page illustrations. the application of ornament. with forty-two full page illustrations. in preparation. nature in ornament. with nearly a hundred full page plates, and many illustrations in the text. * ' " ‘ a r j r‘-“ "'~' ' ' n \ *“ ‘ in ‘ j ' ' \ . t. in u h ‘\l\lr\ ll.ilml -i k_ i lip-ik' .'._'_-'ti, if "lilli-w" iii? ~ \¢ \ some princeples of \ ay art; \w, \ _ everwd vintroductory chapters on the arts not fine. b y lewis foreman day, author of ‘text books of ornamental des!g.\'-’ “ de gustibu: est dzlrpulana'um.” numerous illustrations, chieflv by the author- _london: b.t.batsford,p,high holborn . wk ) ' .,d ' to the reader. the original edition of “every-day art” being out of print, it occurred to me to issue the first (and, as i think, the only permanently interesting) i part of it, in the form of anintroductory volume to the “text books of ornamental design,” without, however, substantially reducing the number of illustrations. when it came to revising the text for the press, i found on every page something which i thought might be better said. and so. it has resolved itself into my writing the greater part of it anew. lewis f. day._ , zllecklmburg square, london, . contents. —.<>o-- v on ornament .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. i “ orno, ornas, ornat, ornamus, ornatis, ornant.” g. o. a. . . ii i. i. on a. “ i know what i like!” past and present .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. “ new lamps for old !” the nature of art .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. “ art is man’s nature.” '/ . the use in ornament.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . “ surely use alone makes money not a contemptible stone.” the workman and hrs toors .. .. .. .. .. “ if you do not use the tools they use you.” l the rights and wrongs of imitation .. .. .. “ nothing concealed that is done, but all things done to adornment.” on so a. no “the eagle never lost so much time as when he consented to learn of the crow.” form and colour .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. “ n man can serve two masters.” every-day art. on ornament. “ orno, ornas, ornat, ornamus, ornatis, rnant.” rnament is the art of every-day. the great picture galleries may be likened to the temples of art, whither devout worshippers, and others less devout but no less anxious to pass for pious, resort only at intervals. , also, a treasured painting may be the shrine at which a man offers up in private the incense of his admiration. but every day and all day long we breathe the atmosphere of ornament. there is no escape from its influence. good or bad, it pervades every object with which our daily doings bring us in contact. we may, if we choose, keep away from picture galleries and not look at pictures; but, our attention once turned to ornament, we can no longer shut our b every-day a rt. eyes and decline to take heed of it, though there are all about us forms of it which every cultivated man would evade at any cost if he could._ it may be to us a dream of beauty or a nightmare, but we cannot shake it off. at every turn in life we come face to face with some fresh phase of it. ' i the question of ornament is, therefore, neither insignificant nor one that has significance only for the wealthy few. neither is it a matter which concerns only those who take some interest in art, since we are all of us, however little inclined towards the arts, alike compelled to ornament our dwellings, our belongings, and our persons. imagine for a moment how a man would set about furnishing a house without art. in the first place the house itself would need to be built for him, and not a door, or window-frame, or chimney- ‘ upiece, not so much. as a fire-grate, door-knocker, or area-railing, but would have to be made to his express order. the furniture, from the door- scraper to his easy chair, would in like manner have to be designed for him; and it is doubtful whether the markets of the known world would suffice to supply the necessary utensils, imple- ments, and household vessels, all innocent of orna- ment. were this at last accomplished,.the first time he entered. it he himself would introduce within its walls the inevitable decoration—unless indeed, he put off on the door-step the clothes that n ornament. the usages of society have determined to be necessary appendages to the natural man. the cut of his coat, or the rib of the cloth, the polish of his boots, the curve of his hat-brim, the starch of his linen, the knot of his necktie, the shape of his studs, the pattern of his watch-chain, the ring on his finger, the umbrella in his hand, even the all-necessary money in his pocket, would any one of them be enough to destroy the artless simplicity at which he vainly aimed. a lady in every-day walking costume would introduce a small museum of ornamental detail. you cannot so much as accept the present of a box of elvas plums without at the same time receiving food for thought on ornament. there is the pattern of red and green printed on the paper with which it is covered, bearing upon it distinctly the stamp of a period, and illustrating the very simplest form of printing. . a further problem is suggested by the relation of the alternate stripes of colour to the circular shape of the box. then we find inside a disc of cut paper, delightfully na'fve in its perforation, and. exemplifying to perfection the adaptation of design to the method of its execution. no less suggestive of the scissors are the shreds of tinsel mingled with the plums; and the barbaric richness of their effect in the box is admirable. but there is a warning in them, too. they have away of adhering to‘ the fruit ; and you relish the tinsel less when it gets between your teeth. x b every-day a ‘. the love of decoration is by no means a charac- teristic peculiar to the {victorian age. ornament dates back to the rudimentary stage of the human race. if we were to trace it to its beginnings we should find ourselves in eden— r wherever else top of plum-box. the scientists will allow the human race to have had its origin. to-day it is omnipresent among us; and we can scarcely conceive a “coming race” without ornament. the association of art with every common ob- ject of daily use seems to be in the natural order . every-day a !. was ever entertained that use and ornament were in any sense antagonistic. the result of attempting * j;.\\“\i\\_\\s\s\.\> /////////////////////////////' ' //\‘ . : m-w-s '- ~- /.s ‘k 'xxxx xxxxx xxtxxx'xxxxxxxx fiz.es. §st.cln'r>t;rs - y we“ , v igqii h”, __ i v: -‘ eludéér savage ornament. to draw the line between use and ornament, as though the two were not to be reconciled, was that n ornament. z ornament, which is irrepressible, struck out on. its own account, and, unrestrained by sober use, indulged in all the extravagance and excess which the better taste of recent years has, we cannot yet say ended, but at all events interrupted. perhaps we may assume, since there is usually some ground in fact for every fiction, that it was“ the perversion of ornamental art among civilised nations, subsequent to the degradation of renais- sance design, which led to the idea that use and ornament were incompatible. the recurrence to a better style of decorative design among us in this generation, and a truer appreciation of the end and object of ornament, would soon overturn this fallacy; so that not even the most practical and prosaic person would be able to rest in the belief that use andvornament are independent one of the other. for decoration is, or should be, art con- ttolled by common sense. it is beyond dispute that the influence of our every-day surroundings must affect us; possibly they influence us much more powerfully than we are accustomed to suspect. that some among us should be doomed to live without beauty is one of the curses of our civilisation; such unfortunates may find relief in deadening the sense of beauty within them; even then it can never be quite the same thing to them whether they live in the midst of beauty or of ugliness. > festhetic culture is not the high-road to all the io every-day a rt. taste. “i know what i like.” settles in the first place whether decoration at all, how much of it, of what kind, where introduced, and how executed. it prescribes ‘ l|| et is characteristic of decorative art.that it de- pends almost as much u on the critical as upon the crea— tive faculty thearfist. m thallimslother art—rt—elepends gppniaste ;and by that test it stands or falls. it is taste that determines— what is'it that it does not de- termine in de- coration? it there shall be taste. i i what is wanted; what is admissible, and what is becoming. not one of these questions can be solved without reference to it. every work of applied art is a 'problem, and the most important factor in its solution is taste. this, too, is worthy to ‘be remembered, that whilst we judge of a man’s power by the high water-mark of his achievement, we measure his taste less generously, not even according to the average of his work, but by the record of its lowest ebb. when once an artist has succeeded in pro- ducing a powerful impression, it survives many failures. we point to his great workkand say: that shows what he can do! but a single false step in taste may be fatal ; it is difficult to believe any more in the certainty of a judgment that has once been flagrantly at fault ; 'we think always of the man’s failure, and wonder: what must be the taste of a man who can have letlthat pass p in the tacit assumption of taste on the part of every educated person there is unconscious recogni- tion of the supremacy of the faculty. so firmly is this infatuation rooted in men’s minds that to question their authority in this respect is' taken as an insult. is not every alderman a man of taste ? we have all of us met ere now the worthy gentle- man who “knows what he likes ”; he announces that incontrovertible fact with a self-satisfaction which seems to imply that really it is no slight merit in him that he knows no more. it would be, i e very day a rt. of course, the height of rudeness to suggest that his preference did not of necessity argue excellence. but why is it that in this matter of art a man, even while admitting that he knows nothing of the sub- ject, will protest that he is none the less competent to give judgment ? _ he would hesitate with regard to any other subject to pit his ignorance against the special knowledge of an expert. the confusion in men’s minds is owing in part to a confusion of the different senses in which the word is used. bad taste may mean bad breeding, and no one cares to be accused of that/ again, taste may be understood to signify liking, and in respect to liking every man must be a law to him- self. there is no disputing on that point. even though it be raw spirit that we prefer to mellow wine, or crude combinations of red, blue, and yellow that we like better than any subtle harmony of colour, we have a perfect right to our preference. whether by announcing it we show discrimina- tion or expose our ignorance is another matter. - in reference to art there should be no mistake about the meaning of the word. liking is one thing, and taste quite another. one may thoroughly dislike a work at heart, and yet acknowledge that it is good ; and the faculty that enables us to re- cognise its merits, apart from our own likes and i dislikes, is taste. the more competent the critic, the more readily he will acknowledge that he is not unerring. his t astt. i judgment must, he knows, be to some extent biassed by personal predilection. it is reserved for the average ignoramus to assume calmly that his .likes and dislikes constitute good and bad in art—- only in art: in other respects he is sane enough. he does not argue with his solicitor or pretend to prescribe to his physician. he goes to them for advice, and whether he acts upon it or not, the fact that he is prepared to pay for it implies that he attaches some value to it. it is true that society does not insist that a man should be versed in the law or in medicine, and that it does demand that he should be able to converse about art. society, by the way, appears to be quite unconscious of the nonsense he talks when he begins. if for a moment he could but see himself as artists see him ! the unaffected expression of a man’s preference is valuable in proportion to his experience and character; and there is no particular reason why he should keep it to himself; but the way in which those who never held a brush since the days of their childhood venture to determine what is good and bad, “well painted,” or “ out of drawing," shows not only that they are unaware of the depth of their own ignorance, but' that they are quite incap- able of learning. lookers-on see the best of the game, it is true, but not unless they know its rules. for every fault that the mere dilettante really dis- covers in a work of vart, there are possibly a dozen merits that he fails to detect; and, on the-other i every—day a rt. hand, if certain works in which he finds great merits are not highly esteemed by the expert, such poor opinion is probably warranted by faults of execu- tion he has not the experience to see. it would be only decently modest in him to assume that, when; ever he differs from an artist as to a matter of art, which he has himself not particularly studied, he is in the wrong ; for the artist probably has studied it. . to go beyond the expression of personal opinion, and say what is good or bad, is to assume the function of critic, an assumption only justified by knowledge. there is no more common pretence than that of a knowledge of art ; and though the affectation is evi- dent at once to those who really know, it is difficult to prove to those whom it has duped how hollow it is. the best in art can only be demonstrated by appealing to faculties which comparatively few persons possess, and fewer still have cultivated. ignorance mostly pays a penalty of some sort :'it is that way we buy our experience. the man whose palate is not so delicate but that he enjoyed the liquor he drank last night, may be convinced, if only by the logic of this morning’s headache, that it was not of the best, and begin to mistrust his judgment accordingly ; but the indulgence in cheap art pays no such obvious toll—there is no headache afterwards. a man’s natural vanity, the want of discernment that permitted the purchase of a poor work of art, and the ungraciousness of the task of taste. i pointing out to him the worthlessness of his bargain, together, make his enlightenment all but impossible. the thing remains before his eyes, still further to vitiate his sense of what is beautiful. “ after all,” \ says the popular fallacy, “it is a matter of taste ! ” te is not a ersonal matter. ilisno more mere preference than judgment is mere opinion. .twaiimsiupprzsedmbemommon. it implies not only artistic feeling and critical pong; web-mo failing artistic sympathy, we miss the very aroma of the art we profess to judge; without critical faculty we are inevitably led away by our feelings ; and without experience we are in danger of mistaking molehills for moun- tains, never perhaps having seen such a thing as a mountain. he artis l a ws som ' h' in w the cloak of art does not altogether disguise the man under it; and, though he should pose as the personification of impersonality, his very pose, the mere fact of his posing, tells tales. silence sometimes betrays as much as speech. i but if ‘this be true_ of the artist’s personality, it is still more true with regard to his culture ; wince itrsélmali’s-wntk-oinitummiswghflflultila- _ tion and experience, that distin u's_h_ as,_ta_ste. ‘fimmfiéste the con- trolling as distinct from the creative or manipulative faculty, might be a common attribute of the more refined and cultivated class; and it is so far true i ‘ every-day a rt. that a man of mere culture is far more likely to err on the side of harmless commonplace than to break out into outrageous extravagance. but the fact remains that the mere looker-on does not educate himself in anything like the degree that the worker does. you may look at a thing fifty times, and carefully too; yet when you come to copy it you find .that you had not seen half that was there. with rare exceptions, a man who has not been him- " self a practical workman, never really gets to know much about workmanship; he has neither experi- ence nor training ; his'theories are at second hand ; his judgment is mere opinioh. ' i—iow astonishingly crude is the criticism of persons who are, except in art, cultivated! they do not even know what an artist means when he talks of vulgarity in art. a loud voice or coarse expression will offend them, just as mincing affectation or pretence may do; but they would be startled to be told that the brutal workmanship, the crude colours, the mechanical affectation of finish, and the cheap pretentious ornament, whichiare to be found broadcast in their drawing rooms, are simply vulgar. they have perhaps a general idea that anything rather strong in effect approaches vul- garity, and scarcely dare to like it till it has received the stamp of general approval. their estimate is very much according to the cata- logue : a picture is of more account than a panel, and a panel of more account than a pattern taste. i importations to anything that is produced by his tribe. his sense of what is beautiful,~more_over, stops abruptly short at what is absolutely subordinate to use. the battle-clubs and paddles of savages, their basket-work and mats, are admirable ; but their idols are, without exception, monstrously ugly, and their ideal of personal adornment culminates in the distortion and mutilation of their natural bodies. i the more cultivated art of the mohammedan nations is proportionately more refined and beau- tiful. enforced obedience to the law of the prophet was in itself a restraining influence. religion served as a bridle to asiatic extravagance, and made moresque art almost too evenly excellent. in the art of the ancient greeks, the most exqui- site taste of all is shown ; and in their case it mus be ascribed mainly to the degree of culture to whic they had attained. f it would seem that the quality of taste, as revealed ' in the art of the past, may be the outcome either of simplicity, of submission, or of culture. seeing that the times on which we have fallen are out of . tune with simplicity, and since the sceptic spirit of , the age has determined that obedience in us shall i not be blind, it would seem as if modern taste must be rooted in culture. ’ every-day a rt. past and present. “ new lamps for old ! " q he opinion a man _. ' \rh‘fllx' gig/ill may hold concern- .w ing old work is by ‘ no means a fixed quantity: it pro- gresses, in a some- what curious order. we begin in our ignorance by con- demning it very _ likely as barbarous or old-fashioned; on further acquaintance, we find ourselves attracted to it; and by degrees we are taken captive by the charms of antiquity, and are even liable to be smitten at last with a blind pedantry that can see no beauty in anything that is new. to recover from this stage of love-sickness argues a degree of native energy and independence which not all of us appear to possess. there is no knowing how the art of the past may affect a man, or what lesson he will draw from it. very often he is mastered by some phase of art which most men thought was long since dead, but .~ -:¢~ in r past and present. t with life enough in it, at all events, to allure and fascinate him, and take, perhaps, entire possession of him, until he is no more himself but the exponent of a style gone by. one artist finds in the very idea of style a hindrance; it stands in his way, and he cannot get over it. another masters a style and bends it to his own will, compelling it to conform to his individuality and express his thought. others there are, again, who make use of it only as foothold for some fresh venture in art. something is to be said for the devotee who kneels before the past and worships. but retrospect is not art ; and it is more in the spirit of the nine teenth century to accept a given style as a starting— point—not as an end. those who went before have left tracks which will be helpful to us. we should be wasting time, were we to insist ‘on finding out always a way for ourselves where they have trodden for us a sure path ; but there is no occasion to follow them into regions which we'don’t want to explore, or to confine ourselves entirely to the beaten way. it is well to have always a pretty clear idea as to the direction in which the high road lies ; we can wander, then, widely from it without losing our bearings; but if we are in search of something that is not quite commonplace, it will serve us perhaps more often as a line to depart from and to return to than strictly to follow. old work should be not much more than a starting- point for the art of any but a student. in a certain past and present. at all events, they were not merely of a day or of a “season.” the fashion of a century ceases to be a fashion—or, if a fashion, is no longer contemptible. the ancient styles were not pushed and puffed into ephemeral existence ; they had time to grow, style or fashion of franoois '- develop, culminate, and die at last a natural death ; the new style developed itself as naturally from their remains as a fresh plant from the seed of last autumn. ‘ v each succeeding phase of ancient ornament em- bodied in some degree the ideas of the people among whom it arose, although the ideas, like the forms of ornament, may have been by no means every—day a rt. original, and the people themselves may have had no consciousness of any particular idea at all in the art about them. from the evidence of pots and pans alone, it ,would be quite safe to declare a remote people simple or sophisticated, unrefined or cultivated, sensuous or ascetic, or whatever their character might have been. in every case their ornament would betray them, and all the more 'surely that they did not for a moment suspect that, in the manufacture of ordinary objects of every-day use, they were writing their own history for posterity. the testimony of decorative art is, again, the more valuable in that it represents, not a single class of wealthy and perhaps cultivated purchasers of pictures, sculptures, and objects of luxury, but the whole people. everybody had need of pots and pans, and all the multitude of common things, the decoration of which was so much a matter of course ‘ that the artist was scarcely aware he had left his mark upon them. v ' whatever we may think of the various styles of ornament that have come down to us, it is impos- sible for us to‘leave them altogether o'ut of account. they are the various languages in which the past has expressed itself; and unless in our foolishness we fancy we can evolve from inner consciousness something at once independent of and superior to all that has been done before our time, we must . begin by some study of the ancient principles and practice. it will save time in the end. does any past and ' present. . one flatter himself that he has only to take one bound into successful originality. he is much more likely to arrive there safely by stepping back a pace or two and gathering himself together for the leap. if there were no other reason why we should know something of past styles, it would be sufficient that, in the absence of any marked national style~ among us at present, we have taken to “reviving” in succession all manner of bygone styles. the ornament of to-day is to so great an extent a reflection, in some instances a distor- tion, of old work, that one cannot well discuss it without reference to its origin. these “revivals,” irrational as they are in themselves, may not be without good results. there is such a wealth of old work accessible to us nowa- days ! what modern facilities of travel do not enable us actually to see, modern pro- cesses of reproduction bring home to us, and modern l k___j i no? d \t. e modern outcome of greek ornament. methods of publication press upon our attention. there is no possibility of escape from its influence. - every-day a rt. we are compelled to such study of the various styles that, when we shall have arrived at reason and begin to express ourselves naturally in the language of our own day, it must tell to some purpose in our work. ie """ w """"" " n . ~| , . : a '/ at: ‘ ' s. ) , // ' , a): '. \ \. f . .... s: __ it“: i \ ) (o : ' b' \ , ) |\ iv _ “ \h \l m ‘ j) \i: . n r ( ‘. ». \ ' o a/ ,_‘_‘__ “. “ * e '. “ j. . .- : : _\ ' i; ‘\ . a l' / /_ i ‘ ' i . é \ f ie .‘.'.' . . . . . . . _ m window showing gothic and japanese influence. it is only by the widest stretch of courtesy that ~ the greater part of modern ornament can be called design at all. there is very little but what is borrowed. some few of the more prominent deco- rative artists of our time have, indeed, established what is to be recognised as a style of their v past and present. ache to apoplexy. it is strange that men who would be the last to put faith in any patent pill, and believe in its efficacy against all the ills that flesh is heir to, should be so eager to swallow the nostrum that this or that particular style of bygone art is bound to suit their case whoever they may be. nearly all old work has something to teach us, but the more deeply we study it the more thoroughly we realise that side by side with the special merits of each style lie its inherent 'defects. the grace we find wanting in one style is atoned for by a strength and character absent from the other. one excels in form, another in colour, a third is symbolic, and a fourth sensuous; each is best in some particular, even though its individual excellence be of no very high order. ' " it would be beyond the truth to say that the principles which underlie all old work are the same. those principles are as diverse as the temperaments and characters of the races among whom they were developed. the egyptians showed what could be done within the bounds of severe convention ; the greeks carried refinement of form to perfection; the romans revelled in richness; the byzantines indulged in a brilliance of colour that is yet always barbaric; thelarabs gave themselves up to the subtle interweaving of intricate detail; the artists of the gothic period combined religious sentiment with energy 'of execution ; and those of the renais- sance returned to the worship of beauty for its own o . every-day a rt. sake. we should seek in vain elsewhere for the all- pervading symbolism that runs through egyptian ornament, the purity of line that characterises greek detail, or the sumptuousness that belongs to roman scrollery. inasmuch as all nations and all ages differ, their expression in ornament differs; and inasmuch as all nations and all ages are alike, they express themselves alike in their every-day art. though one race of men may be naturally dis- posed to remain in the grooves of tradition, and another always eager to start off on a new track, there is no race of men among whom all are exactly alike; everywhere there have been skilful and clumsy, conscientious and dishonest workmen, and in every period of art there has been good work and bad. fortunately for us, the latter has most of it gone the way of bad work and perished; so that, although in ancient art collectively we have not an unerring guide, it is mainly the good that remains to us. the winnowing of old work has i been done for us by the sure hand of time. the art of design does not consist in the slavish reproduction of classic, mediaeval, or other detail. it is not enough that we are familiar with antique forms, we must make ourselves masters of the old methods, that we too may go and do, not likewise, but as good or better, if we can. our success is more than uncertain, and, to speak frankly, we ‘every-day a rt. ornament, earnest but bigoted; mohammedan de- sign, as exquisite as it is limited? what if it be of old japan, with its facility not always restrained by taste; of the renaissance, that is responsible for the most beautiful and the most degraded in decorative art? in no case is it possible that such art can- be sufficiently in sympathy with us to serve our needs of every day. reaction against the pedantry of modern gothicism was but natural. men were so sick of trying to build nineteenth-century dwelling houses according to the precedent of thirteenth century churches and abbeys, that.even the affecta- tion of what is called “queen anne” architecture was welcome, because, being really a sort of no.- style-in-particular, it allowed some freedom to the artist. the promptitude with which that liberty has been used is an indication, perhaps, of a temper to which a fusion of past styles into something like really characteristic modern work may not be ‘ altogether impossible. . ~ although each style of ancient art has its intrinsic merit, the value of any particular style is relative, and depends upon our immediate object in study. we should not expect to find in an egyptian mummy-case any very marvellous degree of airy grace or elegance, nor look for quaintness and piquancy in the sculptures of the parthenon; we should not go back to ancient rome for purity of style, nor to byzantium for beauty of figure- past and present. drawing; we do not ex- h) ; ' ~ pect- to find freedom in l l moorish art, or restraint in japanese. if the ex- ‘ perience of time past is to serve our turn, accord- ing to the nature of our own work we must refer to the art of the par- ticular period or people that afforded the most perfect examples of that kind; according to our particular difficulty we should refer to the par- ticular style of art in , which it had been most satisfactorily solved. notwithstanding the beauty of a great deal of old work (and some of it is so perfect that the mere study of its details is a sort of edu- cation in itself), there is infinitely more to be ‘ learnt from the study of ancient processes than from the worship of an- tique forms. half the . ,, goldsmith’s work of the best type. past and present. ' opportunities. manufacturers reproduce, at pre- posterous prices, laborious copies of inexpensive oriental pottery which is chiefly admirable for the ease and directness with which the artist potter produced so satisfactory a result, whilst they remain in contented ignorance of the secrets of the superiority, so far as art is concerned, of eastern ware to the products of staffordshire. in spite of old work, in spite of common-sense almost, they still hold, in all the sincerity of ignorance, to the faith of the amateur—that finish is only so much smoothness, that the highest art consists in the most ' minute elaboration. they think to imitate etruscan terra-cotta by ‘copying antique vase shapes, and‘ printing upon them mechanical travesties of the bold and beautiful forms that flowed from the brush of the greek so freely, that it is difficult to say exactly how much of the credit is due to the artist and how much to the brush. so again with our even- ‘ tinted imitations of old persian carpets, which miss all the charm of the originals. and so in all our manufactures. there is perplexity in the wonderful variety of the styles of art with which we are familiar, but there is something more than perplexity: each reflects some light on the 'other. with all the dif- ference between the various styles of ancient orna— ment, there are certain characteristics common to the best, of whatever race or period. a critical examination of old work will go far to show that d \ every-day a rt. the best in each style is akin to what is best in all others; even as its authors, though they differ in type and feature as chinaman differs from greek, are all built upon the skeleton common to humanity. and as all races go to make mankind, all styles go to make ornament, in which are embodied the un- written laws of decorative design. not that they were perhaps ever consciously followed. the gram- mar is compiled from the language; the language is not constructed on the lines of the grammar. nevertheless, what is to be gathered from the practice of the masters of design may conveni~ entl‘y be formulated for the guidance of beginners. all arbitrary rules and dogmas ate in the nature of leading-strings, irritating to a degree when once we can do without them; but small children cannot run alone, and every one is a child in art to begin with. of modern ornament the most perfect is that which is not modern, that is to say, such indian, persian, japanese or other eastern art, as is tradi- tional, and has changed little or not at all for centuries. - all that we know about the ornament of the future-is that it must be influenced by what has gone before. what that influence will be is matter for speculation. when we think of the diversity between ancient and modern modes of life and thought, we cannot but feel that the expression of ancient and modern art must of necessity be past and present, l, a, were. . in? llii t t v i i u». i lvl : .ji “a. modern traditional ornament. - every-day a rt. different. yet, when we come to reflect how near we. are to the most remote of our race, and how little of novelty there is in art, we are more disposed to believe that the elements of all possible art lie buried in the ruins of what has been. the past is there to teach us, the present is here to work in. what may be the due relation of ancient precedent to modern practice is a question not easily to be solved; the designer in his work solves it as best he may. every-a'ay a rt. picturesque panel decoration. natural way of treating ornament? what is- the artistic way of rendering nature? it may be assumed that no .one seriously believes that art is nature, and that natureisart. how- ever dependent the one may be upon the other, they are always distinctly two. _ nature is before all art, and above it, and beyond. all that. gives us satisfac- tion in ornament existed first of all in nature, though not of necessity in the animal or ve- getable kingdom. human nature counts for some- thing. butwe have long since ceased to be the unsophis- t/ze‘natnre fart. ticated children of nature. art, though it be only second nature, is now at least quite natural to us; and the discussion of human affairs from the point of view of primeval simplicity, interesting though it may be, does not go far towards the solution of any ~ real difficulty. ' the world has determined that it cannot do without ornament. if it be contrary to nature, and nature to it, nature, in so far as she is refractory, must be brought into subjection. is not our whole life artificial? whosoever takes service under art must keep in the ranks. to say that it is art which should serve under nature, is to say that ornament has no business to exist; for ornament very clearly insists upon the precedence of art. it is not here a question of easel pictures. the painter is restrained only within the limits of his own ability and the four sides of his picture-frame. the decorator has comparatively little liberty of invention, and yet no excuse for the lack of it. he can put in no plea for unreasoning realism. his business is to add the grace of ornament to some- thing predetermined, if not already in existence; and the opportunity for naturalism is of the rarest occurrence. he may not say all that he could say. he has not even the privilege of silence. his art is, so to speak, in submissionth one continual cross- examination. whatever he does is more or less in answer to the question; how in this instance can art and beauty best be reconciled? his rank as a the nature fart. decorator will depend upon his habitual succ'ess'in the solution of that problem. the copying of natural forms is no solution, but an evasion, of the difficulty. if we would pay to nature that sincerest flattery of imitation, we should begin by adapting to the purpose in hand, as she inevitably would do, every form that we adopt from her. that so-called ornament which is only a copy of nature is no more natural than it is workmanlike or in- telligent. ornament is in its nature an accessory art, and must, in common sense, be re- duced to harmony with the architecture, craft, or industry with which it is associated. madam" pam‘- to compare a picture with nature, or decoration with a picture, is in either case, to judge it by a false standard, that is to say to misjudge it. judge ornament after its kind, consider it as ornament, and you cannot fail to see that its most essential characteristic is fitness. there are some to whom the necessary adapta- tion of natural forms to ornamental conditions appears to be a mere stopping short of nature. in a sense that may be so. painting is no doubt a stopping short of relief, sculpture a stopping short every-day a rt. \ of colour, music a stopping short of words, poetry at stopping short of reality; and like them, decorative art stops discreetly short. but this apparent “stopping short ” is really selection, a deliberate and wise rejection of this or that for 	he moment unimportant fact, in favour of the all-important impression at which the artist is aiming. ornament may be called, if you will, a stopping short of imitation, as breadth a stopping short of detail. all art stops short'of nature, and that inten- tionally; else we should have no drawings in black and white, no sculpture without colour, no painting without actual modelling. the barber’s block and the tailor’s dummy would go nearest to our ideal ; and, with the aid of clockwork, no need even to stop short of motion. the coupling of science and art need be confined no longer to the newspaper_ heading, but might become at last an accomplished fact. what a picture rises before the imagination —art ,yielding at length to the fond embrace of mechanism ! art is compromise. the most literal of painters reject many truths for the sake of the one truth they desire to enforce. only children and amateurs attempt to represent all that is before them. a painter makes up his mind what effect it is that he wishes to produce and sacrifices all else to that. so does the decorator. but the sacrifices due from him to purpose, place, material, and fitness are greater. he has not merely to choose between the nature ofart. beauty and truth, or between one truth and another; but whatever is in any way contrary to his deco- rative purpose, that it is his bounden duty to suppress. half the art of the decorator is in the cabinet panels, stopping short oflight and shade. faculty of selection. it is not so easy to strike a balance between beauty and~ use. let any one attempt, by the process of “ stopping short,” to produce a decorative work. perhaps he will realise, after inevitable failure, that to reach the success that seemed so easy he must retrace his steps, and travel quite a different path—all the more difficult to him, that he does not know his bearings. decorative treatment consists neither in the ' every-day art. violation nor in the disregard of natural forms, but in their selection and adaptation; not in ignorant omission of anything, but in the deliberate rejec- tion of all that is irrelevant. neither does it consist in the grouping of any number of copies of the same prim sprig of foliage round a central point, like so many spokes of a floral wheel. to dissect a plant and arrange. its members on a g g = e e g e medlar tile—the characteristic sepals, &c., essentially ornamental. geometric basis, is a quite childish idea of orna- ment. dissection is useful enough in its way, but it is only a preparatory study. the nature of art. ll all'lilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll ill]illllllhlllllllllllllllll llillilllllllilillllllllllllllllllllw llllllillllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllllllllllillllllillliillllll]lllllllllllllllllliliillllllllllllllllllllllllllll f‘l lllllll o :- aracteristically ornamental growth of strawberry. o every-day a rt. ' in studying nature the ornamentist will naturally be on the look out for forms which are in. them- selves suggestive of ornament. and there is in the world such infinite variety, that he who needs mtist cling always to nature has scarce occasion to let go her skirts. i not seldom it will be found that the characteristic features of a plant, for example, are at the same time the most ornamental; so that, in adapting it to ornamental design, he may emphasise instead of obliterating its individuality. . so essentially ornamental is the growth of some plants, that a closer study of nature shows how many a decorative detail which we have been in the habit of looking upon as evidence of consummate skill ‘ in design, is in reality borrowed from nature. in the same way, when we come to adapt a study from nature to the purposes of design, we often find that we have, all unconsciously, reproduced some quite familiar form of ornament. not only is every particular part of plant-growth suggestive of decoration, but each different plant reveals fresh decorative possibilities. certain plants grow with such crispness and vigour in the curl of their foliage, that they invite the smith to hammer his metal like that! some are as broad and large in style as if they were already carved in stone; and others, again, grow in such symmetrical and simple lines, that they all but say to the decorator, in so many words, “ come, copy us !” every-day a rt. l! m all ‘l nu g. , .‘i . . !? w _ v i i, ’ v" ‘ ‘ iii . ‘ . . ll . . a it were, a high- ‘ water mark, be- “, yond which the ‘ tide of nature , seldom dares to rise. ‘ there are cases in which imitation may be carried as l far as you please, ' m . . i so long as it ‘ in ‘ i, neither obtrudes itself nor brings into ‘ prominence the i object ornament- obtrusive ? i ed. thethingto be decoratedmust - i“. always be in the i x ;, artist’s thoughts. ‘. . . fl.“ if for a moment w he be perverted h.“ w» , . from his decora- ‘w tive purpose by ~ i u l “i 'j l ‘ m delight in k ‘ power of copying , ‘ ‘il nature, the proba- ‘ bility is that his - i“ work will distract the attention from the the nature 'ofart. what is amiss in these imitative tricks, and why it is amiss. the examples mentioned above are doubly in fault. in the first place, it is but a poverty-stricken idea to make a vase after the model of a basket, or to fashion a dish in the like- ness of a leaf. in the second, it is an unworkman- like proceeding to manipulate clay as if it were osiers, or to neglect the beautiful and altogether appropriate forms natural to the lathe and the potter’s wheel, in favour of the less convenient shape of any natural leaf. for it is an inflexible law of design that in every work of decorative art the artist should be influenced by two primary con- siderations, namely, by the purpose of the thing to be decorated, and by'the characteristic qualities of the material in which he is working. to design, as in the two instances supposed, without regard to either consideration, is to confess one’s incapacity, and to confess it twice over. the least reference to the laws of nature would suggest a very different procedure. every tree that grows adapts itself to its place, or dies in the attempt. when the circumstances of an individual plant are changed, nature modifies that plant to suit its altered state. if, for example, a flower that is naturally short in.the stalk, with its leaves clustered ‘closely round it, chance to grow in a dry ditch, it will shoot up so quickly, in haste to get its share of the sunlight, that it will leave long lengths of stalk between the leaves, quite contrary to its e way-day a rt. habitual growth. ivy leaves, again, grow in spiral order round the stem, but against a wall " they appear alternately on each , side of the stalk; and the rooty fibres by which it attaches itself, do not occur on the loose, berry- : bearing branches, which hold ‘ their own among the trees. _ nature brings forth herbs and ' flowers answering to all manner of human needs; but her scope does not include the art of domestic decoration. had she produced a species of plants whose province in the world was to serve as models for painter, carver, or weaver, she would doubtless have modified her accustomed forms and colours to meet this novel purpose. since she .has neglected to do this, it devolves, obviously, upon ' us to adapt whatever we may take from nature to the purpose l of our art. v not even the painter can afford to transcribe too literally from nature. there is always “ “ ;? ‘° {mm the danger that in a painting ci. the nature ryfart. adapted beyond recognition. the colours of nature will be too startlingly bright, even though they be less intense than in the reality. but grass in spring is l rm: e my w/m/foq [ma/as r/j/a/va nfawr never too green for us; soft cloud-shadows creep over it continually, and its most vivid colour is only revealed in m - mentary gleams of light too bright to last. “ why is it that you have made me so perish- able? ” asked beauty of jupiter, and the god answered : “nay, but it is only the perishable that i have endowed with beauty ! ” cer- tainly the most beautiful effects are'those which are most fleeting. to fix them before us in naked isolation, is to rob them of their loveliness. they decline to be trans- planted bodily. it takes a poet to translate them. “true to nature” is the catch phrase of a party; the allegiance of the artist is to art. in ornament we have rather the nature qurt. ' to consider the nature of the work to be done, than the nature of any object from which we may gather an idea. if our intention be purely decorative, the mere fact that nature has sug- gested a certain form, need not trammel us in the use of it. we are perfectly at liberty to depart from the suggestive type if we see fit, or even‘to engraft upon it a character derived from quite another source, so long as we can persuade all into harmony, and produce consistent and satisfactory ornament. where, however, some natural type has been selected for the sake of symbolism or sugges- tion, one is less at liberty to alter any of its charac- teristics. certainly nothing should be added arbitrarily to it. what is omitted may be regarded as a sacrifice to the necessities of material, position, or purpose. for example, if in a decorative panel we wished to symbolise morning, we should not be justified in disregarding any of the charac- teristics of the “ day’s-eye,” we might choose for that purpose. it would be desirable to consider the growth as well as the form of the' flower, and, indeed, due modification would consist in little more than in fitting it to the space it occupied, and in treating it according to the nature of wood-carving, modelling, painting, or whatever processwe might adopt for its execution. in adapting the same plant to surface decoration, as in a textile fabric or wall paper, the necessity for repetition, and for a somewhat uniform distribution of design, would o every-day a rt. "\‘///l"““*_'. -/ ~ . r/ / . / / ‘ l /\l i/l.\'l/"' if” él. _ a.”/? ;i h ”, (v g\ll//él\l////\ /,lmw//// \////.\{/f imiilill- _ ll, fir d or a a h l //// / f ©ueri l b dfiis y=_ / / .\m§ \-.\w/////.\u. ///////_\ // > , :: .\'////_\'i/stl.\¥/n il/i/ .sm'zjixf \ o f e p pted to ' _ _ .\ "/// ///-\"'lllllw///&nhilv/////a\ll||| //////. “ex/ v: nul¢ .. the nature ofart. necessitate less strict adherence to natural growth ; and, the consideration of the secondary nature of all mere surface decoration would suggest a flatter treat- ment. one might content oneself with the flowers daisy diaper. alone, without any indication of growth. if it were only the shape of the flower that led to its use, and no value were attached to its meaning, it might be modified out of all recognition ; and every departure from nature would be justified by the production of beautiful ornament. (see daisy-like ornament over- leaf.) there is a wide difference between ornament suggested by a natural type, and natural form used for its own sake, but reduced to harmony with some ornamental scheme or purpose. the nature ofarz‘. opposite, and with the japanese and persian ren- derings overleaf. i ' the keynote of a design may be struck by some- tudor rose. thing in the flower itself, or by something in any one of its past representations, or by the material and'tools in use: but the one thing .of importance is that all should be in tune. nowhere is the discrepancy between idea and execution more obvious than in the heraldry of the nineteenth century. heraldic art is apt to look in these days rather puny. it is, to all intents and purposes, more dead than alive. the “sign of the red lion " will not bear comparison with “a lion gules” of four or five hundred years ago. no mediaeval herald was ever guilty of the absurdity of representing a zoological beast dyed red. he concerned himself little about the anatomy of a every-day a rt. the nature ofart. _ natural lion ; he just meant to symbolise the bravery, the lion-like nature, as he conceived it, of some fierce combatant; and he man- aged to combine symbolism with ornament. the forms he drew were sufiiciently intelligible for their pur- pose—more so perhaps than if they had been more literal : there would be no fear of mistaking his de- vice in the field. such heraldry as this was her- aldic, thorough-bred. it remained for a more culti- vated age than his to gene- rate a mongrel something between heraldry and the illustrations in a natural history book, not, perhaps, altogether unworthy to figure on the coach panels of those whose pedigree dates from the herald’s ofiice. “hbut,” says the “ you want a persianrendering ofthe rose. lion paint a lion, and not a nondescript creature that might with quite as much propriety be called a f every-day a rl. leopard or a cat!” yes, if that is what you want! but heraldry has to do with sym- bols, not pictures. then paint the symbol. a zoo- logical lion is as much out of place on a shield of arms as an her- aldic beast would be in the wilds of africa. it is in a little art like this of heraldry that the reasonableness of apt expression is most obvious; but ill-adapted orna- ment is always unreasonable. in all art that has any claim to be decorative the natural must needs be trans- lated into the lan- heraldic dragon. the use % ornament. asked of the decorative artist is, that he also shall express himself idiomatically. this idiomatic expression in ornament has been called ; conventionality. but the term “conven-- d,“- / » adaptation of the oak to ornament. tional" is not altogether a happy one. for one i thing it is associated in our minds with what is commonplace and insincere; and it is not desirable l that the art of ornament should be bracketed in o e very-day a rt. conventional not traditional- men's minds with the pretence that keeps society going. then again, the word, even as applied to ornament, serves to express that which is traditional; and, if we trace it back to its root, it does mean literally that which has been agreed upon by mutual con- sent. it happens that a large proportion of ornament in any de- gree idiomatic is at the same time traditional, and more or less stereo- typed in character; and, as a consequence, the idea of fixedness or familiarity has come to be popularly associ- ated with the word conventional. yet it is quite possible to have apt expression in ornament not in the least according to tra- dition. the use in ornament. suggested by some useful purpose, and so falls into its place as a matter of course. ornament has uses, too, quite independent of art. it is not only that plain surfaces are tiresomely monotonous; they are often very inconvenient as well. the slightest soil or scratch, sooner or later inevitable, betrays itself at once upon an even ground; and it is only taking time by his proverbial forelock, to dapple such spaces with a pattern or to scratch them with orna- ment, to figure the delicate silk, to'carve the surface of the wood. ) that ornament should be beautiful is under- stood ; it is no less essential that it should be apt. this is no fantastic theory or arbitrary dogma. it is the plain teaching of nature, of old work, and of common sense. nature works in no simply utili- tarian spirit. most things natural are also beauti- ful ; and the beauty is perhaps as much another use as the usefulness is, in a sense, a fresh source of beauty. the practical purpose of nature’s orna- ment may not always be apparent to us; but we never find in nature ornament that is contrary to use. the harvest may not be in direct relation to the golden glow of the cornfield, nor the vintage quite according to the mottled crimson of the vine leaves ; but the bread is not the less sustaining nor the wine the less refreshing, because of the beauty of field or vineyard. in many instances we find on investigation, that beauty is subservient to some useful purpose ; as in the case of flowers and berries every-day a rt. which by the brightness of their colour attract the bees and birds. it is only“ nature’s journeyman" who is proud of a progeny of monstrous flowers that bear no fruit, and of which not one is to be compared, for beauty, with the simple almond blossom or the wild briar-rose. one of the first functions of ornament is to com- pensate, correct, or qualify the simplicity or ungain- liness of form dictated by necessity. it is a common mistake to suppose that this is to be done by over- laying it with enrichment, and hiding it under a heap of ornament. the simplest and most obvious lines on which to build a house, the inevitable con- struction of a machine, the comfortable proportions of a piece of furniture, the convenient form of a gas-pipe—each and all of these may be far from beautiful; but that is scarcely an argument why they should be smothered with scrollery. if the fit and proper form be indeed beyond redemption, there are two courses open to us—either to do without it, or to put up with it as it is. happily it is not often so hopeless as that. in most cases a little consideration will show that some of the objectionable features may be omitted or supplanted by others more presentable, and that if the actual lines of an object cannot be made in themselves harmonious, their awkwardness may be to some extent relieved by decorative features which in no way interfere with its use or character. it is not quantity of ornament that tells, but ornament the use in ornament. . q® flag és $ €o\ zr“ we we we av w'a w? ' ."e'z‘x'zbz‘e'z‘e'z'sz'e'z‘e; e'z‘x'z‘b'z‘m‘mmme , j nz“ - / kit‘kvt‘kv ornament in cross bands. ' every-ddy a rt.’ in the right place ; a cross band here and there to break any disproportionate length, a few parallel stripes to counteract the appearance of thickness, an occasional rosette or flower to withdraw attention from the less interesting parts of the construction— simple devices like these are often quite enough to redeem a thing from ugliness. l/the defect of the thing to be ornamented is the starting point of the decorator. if it be already perfect, why, that is enough. it is because the proportion of a room is defective that we desire to give the appearance of greater height or length to it; because it is bare that we seek to enrich it; because it is dull that we wish to enliven it ; because it is glaring that we do our best to subdue it; because it is cold that we want to give it warmth ; because in short it is unsatisfactory that we propose to do anything at all to the room. the motives which prompt the undertaking of decoration should also by rights suggest the nature and extent of the ornament. welcould do very well, for example, with perfectly plain cardbacks but for the fact that every speck on the enamel would tell tales. it is convenient, therefore, to cover the back of a card pretty evenly with orna- ment; and a design which did not cover the ground would fail of its purpose. ornament may be in itself perfectly satisfactory and even charming, and yet so inadequate to the purpose to which it is put that it is obviously out of every-day a rt. intelligent decoration has always some definite . intention in it; and that intention or idea rules everything absolutely, even to the least significant detail. whether the motive be nnpretending or ambitious, every stroke of work properly leads up to it. every stroke that does not! do so is ill done. the first step in design is to determine which shall be the culminating point of the decoration ; and however lavishly the artist may distribute enrichment, he reserves for it his crowning effort, making all else converge towards it. with,- out such emphasis of treatment ornament sinks into monotony. the point or points of emphasis being determined, all else is subordinate, background, to be decorated, if at all, with ornament apt to a position comparatively unpretending and subdued. i the term “background,” however, is itself only relative. both walls and floors, for example, are unmistakably backgrounds, from a decorative point of view ; yet the enrichment befitting the one would be offensive in the other. it is not difficult to keep a background in its place, if you are content with simple monochrome, or with minute pattern-work in tints which, however bright, lose themselves at some little distance in a haze of soft colour, and only reveal the design that may be there when you come closer and look for it. the difficulty is in inventing a pattern that shall not be insignificant, nor yet beckon your attention. the the use in ornament. unpardonable sin in ornament, is the attempt to usurp the first place. it should simply fit its pur- pose, neither more nor less. it is equally at fault when it is too rich or too poor for its place. background pattern. we see frequently, set in excellent cabinet work, panels of so trivial a character as to cast suspicion o every-day a rt. over the whole work, and make it hard to believe that the workmanship has been conscientious and careful up “to that point, and has failed only just where it should have culminated. economy is pleaded in excuse for this paltriness. true eco- nomy would suggest rather that tawdry ornament should be left out. the opposite fault of degrading good work toa position unworthy of it is less common. yet we do find flower and figure panels as background to shelves for objects with which they cannot but compete. this is no more to be condoned than uninteresting diaper or coarse ornament usurping a place of honour in a framework of delicate mouldings. certain objects, such as things purely ornamental, and certain portions of objects, such as the doors and panels of furniture and the like, deserve pro- minence ; and in these posts of distinction the artist is justified in a freedom of treatment not warranted elsewhere. the panel occupies a position that may be either insignificant, or of the very highest importance. in the latter case there is little restraint as to the extent to which elaboration and realisation may be carried. the law of fitness decrees that it shall always remain a panel—however admirable in itself, still more admirable as part of the whole. the danger with pictorial work is that it may forget its dependent position, and attract too much attention, the use in ornament. si either to itself, or to the ; object which it pretends to honour. but if only the artist bear in mind the condition of fitness or decorative unity, for the rest he is free to per- fect his work to his heart’s content; and it is neither more nor less than pedantrythat would hinder the competent man from doing his utmost. there are many ways in which a decorative painting, artistically on a level with pictures on the walls, may acknow- ledge that it is part of the wall or cabinet in which it is framed. the evidence that it was de- signed to occupy the space it fills, its unob- trusive neutrality, or the fact that it forms as it were a high note of the prevailing colour scheme, may suffice to show that it has no desire whatever g clematis panel. ( ) the workman and his tools. “ if you do not use the tools they use you." othing is more striking to a stu- dent of old work than the tradi- tional character of the best orna- ment. so much is this so that there is more than a possibility of forms intrinsically beautiful becoming at last weari- some to us from perpetual repetition. we have even to remind ourselves that, however appropriate certain traditional forms may be to the purpose to which they were put, that appropriateness has only this much to do with tradition, that it was owing to their fitness that they were preserved; and that in passing down from hand to hand, whatever of inappropriateness there may have been, in them has been worn away. they are often, in effect, perfect, so perfect sometimes as to have lost some- thing of their interest. traditional forms and even every-day a rt. traditional methods, however, do not exhaust the possible in ornament ; they are only the prelude to what may yet be done in the way of decorative treatment. ' _ the gulf which commercial: economy has found it convenient to dig between the arts and crafts has to be bridged by the ornamentist, though he pretend to be no colossus. the prospects of art are brightest when the artificer is himself the designer and the vendor of his wares ; for he cannot fail to have some respect for the traditions which exist in all trades, embodying as they do the accumulated knowledge of all time. the best tools and the best ways of using them may not yet all have been discovered ; but we may be pretty sure that in current modes of workmanship will be found the key to simpler and more perfect processes. a gobd workman hits upon a new manner, and good workmen following him improve upon his discovery ; and so the tradi- tional ways of working represent the sum of technical experience. unhappily, intelligent and earnest workmen do not largely preponderate in any art or trade. adam bedes are as exceptional as they are worthy. the lazy find out cheap and easy ways of shirking honest work, and succeeding lazy ones carry these tricks to the furthest possible point. one favourite expedient of laziness is never to go out of the beaten track, never to do anything new, which exacts thought, but to reproduce the same lold ' ‘he workman and his t ools. well-worn pattern, till a man can do it almost with his eyes shut, certainly without consciously bringing his brains into play. his handiwork has conse- quently about as much feeling in it as if it had been cast in a machine. it has been cast in a machine. and this stereotyped and lifeless detail has come to be called “ conventional ! ” the vice of laziness, however, is only incidental and not peculiar to craftsmanship. “scamping” cannot fairly be identified with “that which has been agreed upon by mutual consent.” it would be nearer the truth to say, that not until all possi-‘ bility of growth has ceased in it is it possible for an art to crystallise into forms altogether conven- tional. that kind of conventionality which comes of knowing how to use one’s tools with effect, controls to some extent the character of all good ornament, but it does not impose the slightest restraint upon variety, invention, or individuality. it will save confusion, however, to describe such treatment by a name which does not suggest any other mean- ing and simply call it “apt.” clearly, art is apt inasmuch as it is distinctly after its kind, painting, carving, hammering, stitching, or whatever it may be. _ i a workman fairly proficient in any of the applied arts, and in the habit of thinking over what he is about, must produce work that is apt. if he be a man of any individuality his work will _be the worhman and his tools. that is applied judiciously, that it does not in the slightest degree interfere with the use of the object decorated, and that it is strictly adapted to the nature of the material in which it is carried out. misapply the most exquisite workmanship, and it is adapted to appliqué embroidery. worse than wasted ; add enrichment that unfits an object for its prime purpose, and it becomes offensive ; work in antagonism to the material employed, and you produce, perhaps, at great pains, an effect far inferior to what you might have gained with ease by an intelligent use of the means at hand. the considerations of material, process of manu- every-day a rt. facture, and method of execution, are of too tech; nical a nature to be discussed here at any great adapted to painting. length. but it is necessary that even the amateur should know something of the value of work- manlikeness in ornament; and he has only to know it in order to appreciate the unreasonableness of neglecting it. it may require some little train- ing and study, some degree of familiarity with the various crafts, to detect at once whether a design is adapted to ‘be wrought or cast, printed or woven, carved or mo- ‘delled ; whether it is fit to be executed in stone or plaster, silk or paper, wood or metal. but it will take only a. the worhman and his t ools. moment’s thought to convince the least artistic, that the processes of hammering and casting, weaving and printing, modelling and carving, are so different; and the nature of hard stone and soft plaster, cross-grained wood and malleable iron, the printer’s block and the weaver’s cards, are so different, that they call each for different treatment. and more than this, whoever inquires a little more closely into the matter will see that each particular material, and each particular process by which it is manipulated, even each particular tool employed in its manipulation, has its own particular limitations as well as its facilities. the surest way to success - is to bear these in mind, to keep well within the limits prescribed by the circumstances, and to make the most of the advantages peculiar to them. it is only too possible to work in opposition to natural conditions. but this is at best boasting. exhibition work is, for example, most of it brag, the exhibitor being aware that delicate and reticent art would stand no chance of recognition in the bustle of an international bazaar. in every-day design such boasting is fatal ; it leads straight away . from that modest workmanship which is the ideal of craftsmanship. in the first place it is very doubtful whether the conditions will be overcome by the ambitious craftsman—his presumption is very likely to be in excess of his power—and in the second, supposing the result to be satisfactory, it will have been reached by an expenditure of time, every-day a rt. energy, and material, which, wisely directed, would have gone very much further. it is difficult to speak in moderate terms of such blundering wrong- headedness. just as the general character of ornament is properly suggested by its position and purpose, so also must material and method of production deter- \ i ‘ “ i i r r l .  . f - - k / l ) " i l ’/\ - f, ii .n j i i i i i if domestic stained glass. mine to some extent its detail. there is no reason why wood-work should protest that it is joinery, why stained glass should proclaim that it is glazing, or a wall paper shout at you that it is printed. the simple reasonableness of the matter is that each should be, and be content with every-day a rt. thinking about whether the cost of decoration ‘be increased or diminished ; and it may be worth while to remind them that nothing is more costly than unpractical work, whereas apt treatment mini- mises expense. those who begin by encouraging judicious workmanship for merely practical reasons will soon learn to appreciate it for its individuality. it was not until all character had been smoothed out of it by unthinking-mechanism that folk became apathetic about every-day art. no wonder that such lifeless stuff ceased to interest any one. ' the aptness of ornament to material, tools, and mode of workmanship is a virtue best appreciated by the workman. yet, in the eagerness to show his skill, he is often led to do just the kind of thing he should not do, if only to show that he can do it. nor is he in this respect restrained by the taste of the purchaser, who is ordinarily far from realising any necessity for workmanlike treatment. and as a fact we find that any illogical tour de farce is more generally admired than the most masterly grasp of resource. you have only to put into marble a subject that is worthy of nothing more enduring than a page in punt/z, and it will attract greater attention than a masterpiece of greek art. possibly some enterprising manufacturer will pur- chase it—for a trade-mark! it is hardly necessary to discriminate particularly between the special aptitude of design to material, to tools, and to method; the three are so closely every-day a rt. effect, where there is no strict use in it : it is enough that it gives scale to the design. from the beginning the apt use of a particular material has continually served, not only as a wholesome restraining influence, but actually as suggestion of most beautiful ornament. something at least of egyptian dignity is due to the employ- ment of granite ; something of greek refinement to the marble used in architecture; while the peculiar character of swiss or scandinavian wood-work is, perhaps, more obviously carpentry than it is dis- tinctly scandinavian or swiss. inthe more strictly decorative arts, how much of the beauty of cloz'samze' or champler/e' enamel depends upon the network of gold lines that frames-in each separate colour! yet the gold outline is as much a condition of manufac- ture as are the leads in stained glass. think of the infinite variety of beautiful geometric pattern-work that has resulted from the need of simple forms in mosaic-work and inlay; and the graceful and vigorous metal-work that has grown out of the readiness with which a bar of iron can be hammered into shape. it would seem almost as if every success in decorative art depended to some extent upon restricting circumstances, and every process of manufacture were suggestive of some specific beauty in design. the process of incising suggests its own simplicity; niello or damascening invites the delicate intricacy of detail that we find in persian the workman and his t s. : ....s its ip -"; a a ' i) a. a m... \. q *rii m; > = arias i." r_.__ ; . as i . fig .m design adapted to inlay. ioo every-day art. conditions, pay toll to consistency, and so, instead of making enemies of the means at hand, win them to your side. it is they who will help us eventually to the most sure success. and though sheer force may sometimes prevail over everything, it is safer by far to depend upon one’s brains. a clear- sighted craftsman takes in the situation at once, and resolves what is best to be done. the decorator is not yet master of the situation when he is acquainted with the use of the thing to be decorated, its position and purpose. he must appreciate the nature of his material, in all its strength and all its weakness; he must be master of his tools, knowing well what they can do, what they can best do, and what they cannot hope to do at all; he must be at home in every process to be employed. what a catalogue the common sins against con- sistency in ornament would make! china is painted with realistic pictures that have not, and in the nature of things cannot have, the colours true to nature, whilst all the beautiful effects proper to ceramic painting (semi-accidental but wholly deco- rative) remain unsought. we see stucco bursting in the attempt to look like stone, when it might have been so easily enriched by scratching or incising. marble is worried out of all the dignity of sculpture. painting rivals the mechanical exact- ness of manufacture, lackingall the charm of hand- work. this chapter would not hold the illustra- t he w orkman and ': tools. and the pattern was complete. the accompanying diagram may make this more clear. with experience the most intricate frets may be sketched in this manner, the eye learning to measure the distances with almost absolute cer- tainty. the greeks saved themselves much trouble in this respect by habitually interrupting the long horizontal bands by means of square stops or patera, leaving themselves only short lengths to deal with. the familiar wave scroll may be sketched in two or three different ways. it is as easy to sketch it in d la grecgue as it is difficult to put it in with the mechanical exactness of modern imitators. ~ we have instances of greek ornament which is nothing at all but brush-play. the painter just amused himself by letting the brush go, almost without guidance, and watching the curves that came of it, much as he might have watch- ed the wreaths of smoke curling q ' upwards from his pipe. the, forms first suggested by the example ofbrush—play. i i every-day a rt. and according to such different traditions, should arrive (the one from brush-work to nature, the other from nature to brush-work) at forms of orna- ment which may be said to overlap one another. the apt form seems to be almost inevitable : good workmen in all times have been agreed upon that bird rendered in brush-strokes. one point. hence it is that modern progress is mainly in the direction whither the old ways led. design and workmanship have risen to a higher point, not when materials and tools have been despised, but when apter, and more sympathetic treatment has been adopted, more idiomatic expression found. the rights and wrongs of imitation. “ nothing concealed that is done, but all things done to adornment.” ore than enough has been said concerning the heresy of shams in decoration, and yet not quite enough. the reasons that have been urged against shams have not always been the most reasonable. rather too much stress has been laid upon the immorality of pretence, and not enough on its paltriness. some- thing remains to be said upon the fiimsiness of the shift of imitation, upon its futility, upon the lack of feeling and fancy that it implies in the artist who resorts to it. have we no invention that we complacently fall back upon the poor device of making one material look as nearly as possible like another? judged on its own merits,apart from itsinsincerity, there is really very little to besaid in favour of such expedients as graining or marbling. once in a 'way, as a kind of practical joke, the thing might be amusing ; but no joke was ever so little able to bear i i every-day a rt. repetition. from the economical point of view it is contended, and fairly, that the imitation wears better than plain paint or simple paper, and that the varnish on it is a protection ; but plain paint and simple paper are not the only alternatives to pre- tence, and there is no law against the use of varnish wherever it may be necessary. besides, there is the obvious alternative of mottling your colour somewhat after the manner of certain japanese lacquer. this method lends itself to very rich and varied effects of colour, without imitating anything; it wears quite as well as graining, and is quite as easily “ touched up.” ' ~ the plea that effect is everything, never mind how you arrive at it so you reach it, is none the less unscrupulous that this unscrupulousness is exercised in the matter of art. that true artists have used it proves, not that it is good, but that they were fallible. the argument that it pays better to supply the demand for graining, than to endeavour to create a demand for something worthier, is only an argument of the pocket, and does not touch the question at issue. whatever of beauty there may be in sham wainscot or marble, or other such efforts of prevarication (and they are sometimes satisfactory enough as colour), is more than counter-balanced by the pretentiousness of it all. a curious fact in connection with graining is that really good imitation is almost as expensive as the wood itself would be. but then polished wood- t he rzlghz‘s and wrongs of [mz'z‘atz'on. i i work would need to be of the best ; every crack and every clumsyjoint would be exposed to view; whereas painting hides a multitude of sins, and men live in happy ignorance of the yawning gaps in the joinery when they have been stopped with putty and covered over with paint. the most elabo- rate pattern-work would scarcely be more costly than the best graining. it is true that many so-called imitations are either so ill done, or so misplaced, that they must in fairness be held guiltless of any serious intention “h sir (a elaborately painted door-panel. l . ll» i l illillir i i l w ‘ \ ...:. unaware)”. ., t . n. . .e, f fifiu§$$fiu€§$fi a. a. l / u v\ v .ud epvsi/ hw \ . - .wucmw.w.nwoww
so i . . uqruru/gururuf/aw fin, ore/$ . , \q y/aj‘j ' w < ') ~. c‘m‘qos; r . li (i'c . i" w'wv , ...; una..." aft.) r/ch. , ,. an»... sr. use”... ,oiaanfipé - fie\/ (a. sl ; swivlfiapwngt _ . . ‘ a i / .p,._: rh\_ . ‘ l‘xqk‘lx‘: i lulfin. ' “( . ‘ n ‘viliml’u . ,. n,..v \q r '\ x \' ' "\lr}_,. ; i . _.ll ‘ i l _'.‘ ' '< i 'ai'cll o , :r u l “j! ' n y a mu . ..\ f ilr iwht‘shina' p l. in . ). i‘ll‘h. t . whu~(i l u n. . i r . ~\fi~nwu\.a\~/t , it {a}? '- ‘ w‘w i \ rxlkr in. immw. ~de a w. l r l "t wk . wuh“ lllllll ill “" ww. (' .‘fh§§, . ' r v .r . .. .. -. . .. .. . nab/i $ . )ra). a? . .. - . . q. . ... e . quad... . . . \qjf ) @zje. \ h. . . . . “l! rxuqluh rt. . makokf .o, k$$ q a. . , . . . uterus thenwotkatnwwwwwwaflff !. vulvtc ' o +v+u \ ml ill. . . l t a -... .j .w) \l +vl.r\.+wuwl¢ .v \i ska/o inane anew.» . . amend/seesaw? \ll : lill elaborately patterned door. i every-day a rt. of marble. the mock granite looks peculiarly mean on the staircase of the british museum l thoroughly to realise all the shabbiness of sham marble, one should see it in process of peeling off the walls of a ducal mansion. the more appropriate the real thing would be, the more offensive becomes its imitation, for the more obvious it is that it was meant to deceive. one can look leniently upon the marble “end-papers,” so dear to the book- binder, because they could not be marble, because they are not like marble, and because they are the natural outcome of a workmanlike process of making. where there is really intent to deceive, neither the transparency of the cheat nor its success will justify it. i v it is easier to denounce pretence than to draw with certainty the line at which it begins. where we have a right to expect the actual thing instead of the counterfeit, we resent the deception. where the thing counterfeited would itself have been out of place, the inappropriateness of the pretence jars upon us. marbling and graining, for example, must be guilty either of pretentiousness or incongruity. the handsome oak door which you discover to be only painted deal, stands con- victed of fraud. the gorgeous marble door, which you know can only be painted wood is merely ridiculous. in many instances the right and wrong of imita- tion is not so obvi us. the use of veneer has been the rzlghls and w rongs of imitation. i most indiscriminately condemned; but it is rather the abuse of it that deserves tobe denounced. there can be no occasion to deny ourselves the luxury of rich marble on our walls because we cannot possibly construct them of it throughout. if we could do so it would be a wanton burying of beautiful colour. n o sane person would expect the walls of s. mark’s to be built of the precious material with which they are lined. when there is a possibility of misapprehen- sion it would certainly be advisable that the baser stone or brickwork should come to the front occasion- ally and confess itself. it is a simple thing to embed veneers of marble on a wall in panels (with or with- out mosaic work) in such a way that no one could for a moment mistake it for anything but what it is. a, in wood-work the abuse of veneer has been so shameless, one is almost prejudiced against its use at all. yet it would be a pity that the beauty of rare wood should be sacrificed to a theory ; and there is, besides, this real use in veneer, that by crossing the grain of veneers some danger of shrinkage and warping is met. nothing could be more objection- able than the use of veneer on curved surfaces and in the framing of cabinet-work, but it would be arbitrary to deny the just use of veneered panels, if only the wood be rich enough to deserve cutting into thin slices. no one, probably, would be found to object on principle to veneer in the form of marquetry. there is even a charm about the very i every-day a rt. of a bath-room, and the refreshing effect of them, has led to the common use of so-called “tile- papers ” by those who cannot or will not afford the luxury of the real thing. perhaps it has not occurred to them that this effect might just as well have been produced without resorting to the representation of the jointing of the tiles. a pattern printed on the white paper ground, or, still better, stencilled on the white walls, may have much of the cool and fresh appearance of tile-work; it may even with advantage be based on the square form of the ordinary tiles, so as indefinitely to suggest them, and thus through association afford additional satis- faction, without for a moment pretending to imitate them. the same may be said of other effects, that have from the first been copied in wall-paper. french wall-paper effaces itself in the endeavour to look like tapestry, brocade, cretonne, damask —apparently no matter what, so long as it does not look like what it is. yet the effect might in all cases have been arrived at without simulation. we may take it that the imitator knows this well enough, but simply shirks the difficulty. number- less are the expedients, more-or less pretentious, that are adopted, and in the name of ornament, to save trouble and supply the place of skill. occasionally, a decorative device turns out to be less guilty of pretence than would appear at first sight—such for example as embossed “leather- paper ” which is to some extent discredited by its the rights and wrongs of imitation. i . q" \ he: ' .,,/ ‘\ q ’§‘ ‘ \| ‘\‘i ' ‘itll'h'sh -\!!!llll gin"... l. ' - . = <.., - . . “f” ) , = tx’v s“ -,-”“ ‘ ;;“<§i"'.“ v. .-_= . _. " lu ‘ ",,,'.~"\l| ir-x' '. : lulllll':”/i~,:lk‘%fl iii .- h” (“-‘fi -.|||l -;_-_‘.\“ —<-. "lo-lo \ -, rum/m ' "“ - any a n ? s < “new =_ .|\“ ~ . .~ based on square lines of tiles- i every-day a rt. in a wall-pattern would be offensive, not simply on account of its deceptiveness, but because it would be sure to assert itself more than a background should. if, however, not aiming at relief, the de- signer should arrive at a satisfactory result, which somehow suggested slight and delicate relief, such as would not be otherwise than pleasing to the eye were it actually modelled, it would be dogmatic to declare that such an effect was not legiti- mate. we have to beware of bigotry. “the truth, the whole truth, and nothingibut the truth,” is a fiction of the law. morally it may be desirable; socially it is impossible. the man who, in season and out of season, is perpetually parading his truth- fulness, comes to be put down as a prig. art, too, may be priggish. what we esteem in men and in their work is sincerity; and that is quite possible in every-day art as well as in every-day life. a real man puts himself into his work. there will be no falsity in his art, if he is honest. if we speak without prejudice, we must admit that it is very difficult to define the limits of what is allowable. in some cases it is perhaps only the intention that determines whether an expedient is right or wrong. a certain degree of downright imitation might not be altogether inexcusable if the motive were merely the laudable desire to bridge over some abrupt transition from ornament in bold relief to flat painted-decoration. if the choice lie only the rights and wrongs of imitation. between two evils, one is not to be blamed for choosing the lesser; and incongruity is an evil, just as imitation is : which is the greater of the two may, in exceptional cases. be matter of dispute. in mural decoration one is continually compelled to approach so far at least in the direction of imita- tion as to give in painting the value, if not the effect, of modelling or carving. if every builder were an artist, it would not be so. but every decorator has at times to balance constructed ornament by painted decoration, for which there should have been no occasion. in the attempt to accomplish this he may do something which is in danger of being mis- taken for relief; in which case the fault should in justice be debited to the blunderer whose short- comings he is endeavouring in all honesty to make good. even then the too ready resort to imitation is a confession either of incompetence or laziness. whoever is artist enough will find some mean between pretence and slovenliness. we ask not only for honesty but for a certain amount of frankness in the use of materials. the degree to which such honesty and frankness should be carried, each one must determine according to his conscience and according to his temperament: feeling will often anticipate reason in pointing out the way that is right. is it not always so p the best of us are scarcely fit to inhabit a “palace of truth.” upright men who would scorn deliberately to lie, make concessions to social convenience which are i every-day a rt. not consistent with strict truth. they would vindi~ cate themselves, perhaps, by saying that in their lives they are truthful, and that it is only the literal truth which they appear to violate. and in art also, it is not so essential that our wor should be true to the letter, as that it should be frank, honest, unpret?d,ing, workmanlike, obedient to the spirit of trut . z ( ) leading-strings. “ the eagle never lost so much time as when he consented to learn of the crow.” might seema simple thing to state broadly the principles that govern ornament ; and, indeed, it is easy enough for an ex- perienced workman to give some simple working rules that may be of use to the beginner; but these are not to be confounded with “ principles” even though they be put forth on authority. the prin- ciples enunciated by owen jones in his ‘grammar of ornament’ are, strictly speaking, only a de- scription of the lines on which that tasteful artisthimself worked, plus certain dogmas deduced from his own practice. now, the truths that appeal to us are not necessarily the highest nor the only truths: not every good work- ing rule is to be accepted as a principle of design. dogmas are two-edged tools to play ‘with. one k i every-day rt. which the various colours should be used, are based upon the fact, or fancy, that a ray of sunlight is divisible into coloured rays in those proportions. we were taught in childhood that the seven colours of the rainbow went to make white light; later, we learnt that there were three primary colours, although there was some doubt among scientists as to what those three were ; we have since been asked to believe that there are only two primaries. at all events, nature (who has on the whole not a bad eye for colour) has very carefully concealed from us the component parts of white light. it is of infinite importance to the astronomer and the chemist to resolve colourless light into its elements ; but the spectroscope is not likely to revolutionise art, or even greatly to help the artist. dissect and analyse as much as you like, you cannot draw up any formula guaranteeing the production of fine colour. there is just this fact in connection with the theories of colour proportion, that the eye can bear as a rule more of those colours which preponderate in the spectrum. we can-endure, that is to say, more of blue than of red, and more of red than of yellow; but any rule as to the ratio in which colours should be used is as futile as it is arbitrary. the very test of good colour is that it is too subtle to be put into words. only the coarser, cruder tints, those which can be quite clearly defined, come within the scope of the theorist. some trouble might doubtless be spared us, if we could leading-strings. i consent to shut our eyes, and swallow obediently some such formula as this :—“ take three parts of yellow pigment, five of red, and eight of blue; distribute evenly over a surface geometrically sub- divided into small spaces, with care that no two colours impinge; sugar with orientalism, flavour with conventionality at discretion, and serve up boldly in the form of ornamental art!” but how is one to arrive at a pure primary colour? our pigments do not approach the purity of the prism. and how shall we measure them ? the eye must be judge. better by far trust to it altogether, and dispense with the encumbrance of a theory. form and colour. i ritative dogma. those consummate colourists, the chinese, are not particular about the forms they employ, so long as they lend themselves to colour. old chinese embroidery, the forms only a vehicle for colour. all that can safely be asserted is, that in any scheme of colour there should be strict relation between its quality, its quantity, and its place every-day a rt. —that is to say, the quality of colour will be determined by the area it covers and its situation ; the amount of colour will depend upon whether the tone is light or dark, whether the tints are rich vor delicate, whether they are seen in strong light strongly defined form. or in shadow, and so on. 'the contrast between capricornus, above, and his background is none too sharp for the dark corner the panel was designed to occupy. _ no need of much philosophy to tell us that the form and colour. i cruder a colour the less we must use of it, and the more it should be broken up and separated from other crude colour; or to teach us that low tones are lost in dark places, where bright ones are only subdued to due sobriety and softness. the slightest feeling for colour will suggest that the larger the surface to be covered with one flat colour the lower it must be in tone (unless again it be in shadow), and that the smaller the surface the brighter it may be. every house-painter knows by experience that for a ceiling he must mix his tint a shade or two lighter and brighter than he wishes it to appear; but to insist upon the adoption of one colour for projections, another for hollows, and a third for flat surfaces, is to prove oneself a theorist beyond redemption. one need not even have studied chevreul in order to know that some colours appear to advance and others to recede from the eye. where it was desired to throw back one member of a moulding, we should naturallypaint it in some colour approach- ing to greyness, and not bright orange; but it is by 'no means necessary in architectural decoration to exaggerate every projection and deepen every hollow, as if the architect had expressed himself so timidly that it was necessary for the decorator to underline his words; when architect and deco- rator are one, he wisely leaves it to the painting to supplement the modelling. he relies, perhaps upon colour to deepen hollows (as did the greeks i every-day a rt. when they made their curves so flat) perhaps upon the depth of the hollow to soften the crudity of available colours. this is more nearly the function of colour—to qualify form, defining or subduing it as need may be. in the design below, the dark colour behind the boys is used to emphasise their \i h colour used to modify form. forms, and, at the same time, to confuse the form of the arabesque. every-day a rt. hard form to be softened by very subdued colour. i . every-day a rt. was inspired by nothing of the kind. the cultivated instinct of the artist must be its own law. let him dare to be true to his artistic conscience, and he can afford to despise the theorist and all his works. it is impossible to reconcile all the claims of form and colour. the two work often together to their mutual gain. but, however friendly the rivalry between them, it is always rivalry, and each claims for itself something that the other would fain deny to it. it is seldom that they are found together in equal perfection ; rather it would seem as if absolute perfection of the one were only to be obtained by some sacrifice of the other. there are, and have been in all times, men who in their work aim at combining the two qualities equally, and who have attained in both a measure of success; but they are just the men who fail to satisfy, either colourists in the matter of colour, or draughtsmeri in the matter of form. and with respect to decorative art, what remains to us of ancient ornament goes to show that the masters of form are often those from whom the secret of colour is hidden, and that colourists are as frequently half contemptuous of form, making use of it merely to assist them in their effect of colour. perhaps the very pre-eminence of the greeks in form was in some measure due to a defective appre- ciation of the beauty of colour. mr. gladstone’s theory of the colour-blindness of the ancient greeks may or may not be correct; but at least it seems ' every-day a rt. counter-attractions. even in the poetry of the greeks, is it not rather the form that is so ad- mirable? both evidence and presumption point to the fact that in greek art perfection of form was not allied with equally splendid colour. perhaps it could not have been otherwise, and the perfect purity of form was owing to perfect singleness of aim. colour, with its sensuous charm, did something towards blinding the artists of ancient rome to the 'value and beauty of pure form. though their work may have been, in a sense, a debasement of greek art, we must admit at least that it was richer. the purity of greek art has sometimes the air of being slightly cold-blooded ; and there are moods in which one can sympathise with the romans losing patience with its calm faultlessness, and breaking out into reckless excess. in the renaissance the culmination of colour was accompanied by almost equal magnificence of form ; but the latter had not the refinement of the best greek art; and, certainly so far as ornament was concerned, the purest form was always in monochrome, carved in wood or marble, or wrought in metal. the key of colour in the earlier art of egypt appears to have been pitched higher than in that of greece, and its success was less uniformly assured. it is true that, though among the egyptians both form and colour were strictly subordinate to sym- bolism, in the ornaments which decorate the ancient form and colour. i jewel-like brilliance, and even to the accident of capricious mending and patching and misplacement of glass by glaziers before the days of “restoration.” admitting all the beauty of old glass we cannot take it as proof of the universal excellence of gothic colour. the illuminated manuscripts, preserved with a care that is less than kind, tell a different tale, a tale for the most part of a crudity that can only be described as childish. nor do the remains of mediaeval wall-painting give us a very high idea of the power of the artists. their safety lay in the \discreet use of ochre and other simple earths, with which they could not go far wrong. it is not here the purpose, however, to disparage gothic or any other colour, but to show that the perfections of form and colour are seldom twin-born. nowadays, as always, an artist according to his idiosyncrasy, looks upon form as a vehicle for colour, or upon colour as it may influence form. his best chance of success in either is in the subor- dination of the other to it; and it behoves him to know clearly which it is that he desires to attain, and to give his mind to that, not ignoring the other, nor being content to do work that is in any respect bad, only doing always the best that is compatible with his main purpose. it is characteristic of strength not to believe in the impossible. but much modern art fails because it attempts too much—seeks to combine qualities works on decorative art. yapanese encyclopedia of design (native printed). book i.—containing over engraved, curious, and most ingenious geometric patterns of circles, medallions, &c., comprising conventional details of plants, flowers, leaves, petals, also birds, fans, animals, key patterns, &c., &c. book ii.- containing over most original and effective designs for diaper ornament, giving the base lines to the design, also artistic miniature picturesque sketches. oblong izmo, price :. each, net. n atzoe przntea' yapanese a rt books : a charming series of studies of birds in most characteristic and life-like attitudes, surrounded with appropriate foliage and flowers. in two books, each containing pages of highly artistic and decorative illustrations, printed in tints. price :. d. each book ; or the set of two, :. net. art folzoge for soulptnre and decoration. by jas. k. colling. second edition, enlarged and revised, containing plates, with letterpress and numerous woodcuts. royal to, cloth, :. examples of englzsh medmoal folzage and coloured deroration. by jas. k. colling. taken from buildings of the twelfth to the fifteenth century. lithographic plater, and woodrut illustra- tion:, with text. royal to, cloth, gilt top, :. - flat ornament: a pattern book for designers of i i n awl textiles, embroideries, wall papers, inlays, &c., &c. plater, some printed in colours, exhibiting upwards of examples of textiles, embroideries, paper hangings, tile pavements, intarsia work, tapes- _ tries, bookbindings, surface ornaments from buildings, &c., &c., collected from various museums, churches, mosques, &c., &c., with some original designs for textile and other ornament by dr. fischbach, giraud, and others. imperial to, bound, :. examples of a nczent and modern furnzture, metal work, t apertrier, decoration, w. by b. j. talbert, architect, author of “ gothic forms applied to furniture and decoration." ! plater, with description, &c., folio, cloth, reduced to :. original sketches for a rt furnzture : by a. jonquet. a series of designs for modern furniture in the jacobean, queen anne, adam, chippendale, and sheraton styles, illustrated in daig’n: on lithographic plum, exhibiting examples of drawing room, dining room, bedroom, and hall furniture, chimney-pieces, &c. imperial to, cloth, s. examples of deooratzoe wrought iron work of the seventeenth and eighteenth cmturier. measured and drawn by d. j. ebbetts. sixteen large photo-lithographic pz'alrr, containing examples. folio, bound. price :. . “ mm mill” -,“. jan mg . ,brih'fiifim claw“ freetoimitettiilit tiroidiano porn maturii w!!!"uolirnim 'll ditu ii muliw nerenverk "how sr . some terms commonly used in ornamental design thomas erat harrison, w. g. paulson townsend Ärchittcvuna library i £ . йза. vi preface. having any absolute demarcation, are still sufficiently explicit to be easily understood. in consequence of this overlapping of kindred designs a collection of mathematically exact definitions cannot be given, but an attempt is here made to render each one as stringent as possible, and to suggest a more methodical application of terms than is customary, so that students may more easily be able to give a definition of a pattern or to realise a pattern from its definition. no reference is here made to pattern con- struction or its nomenclature, as this has already been exhaustively dealt with in the books of messrs crane, day, rhead, ward, and others. the author's thanks are due to messrs morris & co. for permission to publish figs. and . contents. page the scroll - i interlacing ornament - border patterns stripe patterns - diapers ----- is sprig patterns - counterchanges - - - - interchange - all-over continuous patterns the trellis - self-contained ornament foliated and floral ornament geometric ornament - grotesques - arabesques - x list of illustrations. no. drawn by page . scroll - t. e. h. - - ,, - ,' - - si . „ - - .. „ - . . „ - . „ - . volute - „ - - - - - - » . scroll-like ornament „ - - . scroll - - „ - - . wave - - „ - . „ „ - » „ . „ - . interlacing - „ - - . „ „ - , „ - „ - ., . „ „ - - w. g. p. t. - . - - . „ - t. e. h. - - . - - l -, - . strapwork - - „ - . stripe - - » - - ,. - - xii list of illustrations. no. drawn* by page . geometric - - t. e. h. - - - - .. - - - » - Ю . - „ - - - ». - - - . arabesque - - „ - . - - . „ - - t. e. h. - - . - „ - - in . „ - - w. g. p. t. - - index to illustrations. all-over pattern, figs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . all-over continuous pattern, figs. , л, , , , , , - arabesque, figs. , , , , . arabic, figs. , , «. assyrian, fig. . border patterns, figs. , , , , , , , , , , , «, *. , , , , . «, , , - byzantine, figs. , , л, Л celtic, fig. conventional, figs. i, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , a, ¿, , , , , , , . corinthian, fig. . counterchange, figs. , , , , , . diaper, figs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , . durer, fig. . dutch, fig. . the scroll. of which have apparently but slight affinity to each other. one of the most usual is a series of spirals springing from a main stem, or from each other, in succession, and this forms the basis of nearly all scroll borders, whether re- peating or merely flowing. grotesque figures frequently terminate in scrolls, and detached animal forms, not being integral parts of the design, are often introduced as accessories. as an example of a, ¿z, in conjunction with purely abstract ornament, take fig. i. in- numerable varieties of this treatment occur in renaissance work. as a series of spirals growing from a common stem or from each other, see fig. . developments of this are shown in figs. and , which give examples of highly con- ventional foliated and floral work in repeat- ing borders. figs. and are examples of flowing (not repeating) designs, and show some of the varieties of ornament included under the term "scroll." fig. shows spirals springing from a series of common stems. fig. is the filling of a panel constructed the scroll. the single spiral (see figs. and ) and the double spiral (see fig. ), when occurring in the capitals of columns or pilasters of any kind, are called "volutes." fig. consists of fantastic foliage de- signed in a scroll-like manner, but is not, strictly speaking, a scroll. some confusion has arisen from the border shown in fig. , being commonly known as the "greek wave pattern." it will be seen that it is really a scroll pattern, being a repeat of the curves in figs. с, c. wave patterns are founded on the lines shown in figs. and , and are not scrolls. for developed examples of the "wave," see figs. and . repeating patterns. borders. stripes. diapers. sprig. counterchange. interchange. all-over continuous. the trellis. repeating patterns—border patterns. these from their nature repeat in two direc- tions only, i.e., backwards and forwards. as examples take figs. , , , , , , , , , , , , ¿, , , , , , «. . . and . repeating patterns—stripe pattern. this pattern consists of a series of parallel stripes, straight or waved, set out so as to show (a) a series of strongly marked bands, plain or decorated, or (в) so disposed that the stripe is but slightly defined, thus giving the impression of an "all-over continuous" pattern. take as example of a figs. , , , and . take as example of в fig. . is repeating patterns—diapers. "diaper" is the term used to express an all-over repeating pattern in which the scale of repeat is small in comparison with the space occupied. in other words, frequency of repeat is one of its characteristics. it may or may not be continuous, the field must be evenly covered, and, no feature being specially prominent, its general effect is flat. no repeat on a large scale or loosely flowing design is a "diaper." the close arrange- ment of a number of small and varied units, without any definite repeat, is sometimes called a " random " diaper. in effect it closely resembles a repeating diaper. a diaper may be either (a) purely geo- metric, (в) a design in which the geometric construction plays an important part, (с) a series of one or more disconnected units of repeating patterns—sprig pattern. frequently used in lace work and embroidery, and known as " sprigging," would be properly defined as a " random diaper." see fig. . as an example of a take fig. . as an example of в take fig. . as an example of с take fig. . repeating patterns— counterchange. in a "counterchange" two colours only are used to discriminate between the ground and pattern. both the device and the ground are identical in shape and area, and the whole is nearly always geometric in character. the simplest form and basis of this kind of de- sign consists of chequers only. as examples take figs. , , , , and the border of fig- - sometimes an independent decoration is superimposed on the counterchange. heraldic counterchange refers to change of tincture only, not to form. see fig. . repeating patterns—inter- change. fig. is not a genuine "counterchange," as the device and ground are not identical in form and area. it is properly an "inter- change." the toned lines merely separate the bands, and do not alter the character of the design. repeating patterns—all-over continuous pattern. this pattern is one which repeats in all directions, the neighbouring parts being con- nected by stalks, bands, overlappings or con- tacts, in such a manner that these form part of the design. as examples take figs. , , «, , , , . , , , , , and . figs. and « are given side by side to show how nearly a "stripe" may approach an "all-over continuous" repeating pattern. in this case one of the repeating branches by passing over and under another transforms a "stripe" into an "all-over continuous" pattern. repeating patterns—the trellis. this pattern usually consists of a running floral or foliated pattern interlaced with lattice-work. as example take fig. . i geometric ornament. a geometric device or pattern may be alto- gether composed of lines which are mechani- cally produced, such as straight lines, circles, or their segments, ellipses, &c. hence it may consist (a) entirely of straight, or (в) entirely of curved lines, or (c) it may be formed of a combination of the two. such curves (d) as require freehand drawing may also be used, but no direct transcript of a natural form is admissible. flatness is essential to a geometric pattern, and as a rule it lies entirely in one plane. absolute flatness is not possible in the case of overlapping or interlacing ornaments, but even in these the difference in planes must be exceedingly slight. geometric is the most conventional of all patterns. as examples of a take figs. , , , , - . , , , , and . geometric ornament. as examples of в take figs. , , , ¿. . ot> and d, , , , , and . as examples of с take figs. , «, , , , , , , and . as examples of d take fig. . spot diaper, fig. , is also "geometric." grotesque. "grotesque" is a word generally applied to fantastic and extravagant animal forms designed with a certain humour and used in conjunction^ with other ornament. in some gothic examples the grotesque has but little beauty, and is occasionally ugly or even repulsive, and often grimly satirical. see figs. , , , , , . с arabesque. arabesque usually denotes a flowing orna- ment of more or less capricious design, con- taining vase shapes, grotesques, trophies, realistic or imaginary floral, animal, and human forms. the raffaello (raphael) pilaster decorations are well-known types. it will be seen that "arabesques," though more elegant, are closely connected with "grotesques." the word, which was origi- nally used to specify arabian ornament, is now seldom so used. as examples take figs. , , , , . these devices may be considered border decorations, but are not border "patterns" as they do not repeat. illustrations. scrolls. . scroll, repeating border pattern, conventional. ancient greek. . scroll, repeating border pattern, conventional. indian. . scroll, border, repeating, conventional. byzantine, i ith cent. scrolls. . scroll, flowing, foliated. italian, early th cent. scrolls. scrolls. . scroll, self-contained, interlacing, . scroll, border, foliated, conventional. german, repeating, con- th cent. ventional, foli- : : ...... ated. german, : :: a.d. . scroll. . scroll, interlacing, conventional, self- contained. english, th cent. i. scroll, conventional, foliated, grotesque. early i th cent. volutes. lu "s'-.r si* . volutes. italian, late th cent. . volutes. ro- man ionic, nd cent. a.d. volutes. roman cor- inthian, nd cent. a.d. innnnnnnnñnr scroll-like. ornament. ?foliated, flowing, self-contained, conventional. german, th cent. interlacing. interlacing pattern, bor- . interlacing patterns, borders, der, repeating, con- repeating, continuous. tinuous, geometric. byzantine, nth cent. interlacing. . interlacing pattern, geometric. arabic, th cent. interlacing. . interlacing, self-contained, . strapwork, self-contained. b and d geometric. italian, french, th cent. i ith cent. - stripe pattern, repeating, continuous, sprig, floral and foliated. french, th cent. stripe. . stripe pattern, repeating, continuous, conventional, foliated and floral. th to th cent. . stripe pattern, repeating, continuous, conventional. sicilian, th cent. stripe and all-over continuous. f diaper. . diaper, repeating, all-over (in heraldry called "semée "). french, th cent. . diaper, repeating, all-over. modern. random diaper. . diaper, random, sprig, limerick lfic£..-, jotr}".< ent. sprig. . sprig, repeating, ail-over, floral and foliated. french, th cent. counterchange. interchange. all-over continuous. ioi . all-over continuous pattern, conventional. founded on persian, th to th cent. geometric. . border, repeating, continuous, geometric. ancient greek. gggggggggggg . border, repeating, continuous, geometric. ЖШЖШ. . border, repeating. ancient greek. -ml . self-contained, geo- metric, japanese. . repeating, АН-over continuous, geometric. arabesque. arabesque, flowing. . scroll, develop- albert durer. ger- ing into arab- man, th cent. esque, flowing. dutch, a.d. i . arabesque. i. arabesque, grotesque, . arabesque, grotesque and human flowing. raffaello pil- forms. raffaello Çil^steç..- l-tajian, aster. italian, th cent. th cent. * *"* studien und ideen ursprung, wesen und sti ornaments zeichenlehrer, kunsthandwerker, kunstfreun” und künstler. von j. häuselmann , lehrer des kunst- und technischzeichnens am progymnasium biel- mit über o illustration en. zweite, verbesserte und vermehrte auflage. rechte yor oehalten. zürich & leipzig, druck und verlag von orell fÜssli & co- a h inhalts-verzeichnis. einleitung - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . wo und wann ist das ornament entstanden? . wie ist das ornament entstanden? ... ... ... - - - - - - - - - - - . die geometrische form ist der ursprung des ornaments . wie mochten sich die typen weiter entwickelt haben? . wer hat die ersten typen des pflanzenornaments erfunden? . wem verdankt das ornament seine künstlerische durchbildung? . welches ist der stilgedanke griechischer plastik? ... ... ... . Über stil und naturalismus im allgemeinen ... ... ... ... ... . verschiedene grade der stilisierung sind möglich ... ... ... . das flachornament nach antiker auffassung ist fortgesetzter pflege würdig - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . weiteres über den stilgedanken der tektonik . . . . . . . . . . . . . Über das stilisierungsverfahren - - - - - - . wie hat die alte kunst slilisiert? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wie dekorieren die orientalen die textilstoffe? wie die europäer ? . nach welchem prinzip ist die dekorative plastik zu beurteilen? . das ornament im kampf mit der mode ... ... ... ... . die konturen des ornaments ... ... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . ornamentzeichnen und perspektivisches zeichnen als ausgangs- punkt für den schul-zeichenuntericht ... ... ... - - - - - - - - - . ist das ornamentzeichnen nach vorlagen gleichbedeutend mit - «gedankenlosem kopieren»? - - . Über die ornamentalen grundgesetze ... .. - - - - - - - - - - - - . Über die Ästhetik der regel vom goldenen schnitt - - - - - . die kunst als bestandteil allgemeiner bildung ... ::: --- anhang. leitende grundsätze ... ... - - - - - - projekt. stufengang und stoffverteilung ::::::::::::: – # ze: - s o () s vorwort zur zweiten auflage, die erste auflage vorliegender schrift entstand an- lässlich des in biel diesen sommer stattgehabten, staatlich angeordneten kurses für zeichenlehrer. die gleich darauf erfolgte lebhafte nachfrage erschöpfte rasch den vorrat der vorhandenen exemplare. aus dieser tatsache durfte ich neuerdings entnehmen, dass meine bescheidenen publikationen aus dem gebiete der bilden- den kunst im allgemeinen mit regem interesse entgegen genommen werden. nicht, dass ich freundlicher nach- sicht nicht bedürfte – es irrt der mensch, so lang er strebt – habe ich daher mit neuer freudigkeit und bei besserer musse die durchsicht und erweiterung des mir selber sympathisch gewordenen buches zur hand nehmen können, und der stets willfährige verlag hatte die freundlichkeit, es durch viele illustrationen zu be- reichern. in dieser gestalt wird es nunmehr einem weiteren publikum zugänglich gemacht. möge es die früchte zeitigen helfen, welche mit mir alle freunde * zeichnens und des kunstgewerbes herbeiwünschen: biel, auf neujahr . der verfasser. bergen von schutt die trümmer jahrtausend alter pracht ans licht gezogen. nur dem volke, das sich das stille nildelta zu seinen ansiedelungen ausersah, den Ägyptern, war es vergönnt, das erbteil der kultur aus der alten heimat ohne durchgreifende störung und fremde ein- mischung eigenartig zu entwickeln; denn die indier, welche ausserhalb des gemeinsamen völkerlebens des orientalischen altertums stehen, fallen für uns nicht in betracht. jahr- tausende früher als die zeit, welcher z. b. die in europa gefundenen stein- und bronzearbeiten angehören, machte in Ägypten die töpferscheibe die thongefässe rund, und in farbigem glasfluss wurden mit der pfeife die gefässe in formen geblasen. die ersten völker, von welchen uns die geschichte zu melden weiss, hatten ihre kinderschuhe längstens ausgetragen: ein beweis einer langen voraus- gegangenen zeit des strebens und der arbeit. wie wir bei jedem einzelnen menschen einen seiner selbst nicht klar bewussten zustand als die zeit der kind- heit bezeichnen, so müssen wir auch die zeit des orien- talischen altertums als die zeit der geistigen unfreiheit und abhängigkeit von der materiellen natur, als die zeit der kindheit der menschheit ansehen. . wie ist das ornament entstanden? da uns die kulturgeschichte über die ersten anfänge der kunstübung ohne auskunft lässt, so ist der kunst- historiker darauf angewiesen, uns aus den funden der prähistorischen zeit im vergleich mit den erzeugnisse" derjenigen völkerstämme, welche sich noch heute im ?" stande der kindheit befinden, die nötige belehrung ” vermitteln. wenn wir bei der vergleichung dieser kunst- leistungen eine Übereinstimmung wahrnehmen, wº * der that der fall ist, so dürfen wir schlüsse folge" deren richtigkeit nicht bezweifelt werden kann. das bedürfnis des menschen, alles, um sich hat, zu verschönern, ist bei allen völker" zu. beobachten, und schon bei den pfahlbauten-bewohnern finden wir instrumente, die mit verzierungen aller art, welch' letztere mit spitzen steinen eingraviert wurden, geschmückt sind. in ähnlicher weise statten die eskimos ihre gerätschaften aus, und die schnitzereien der neger die malereien der buschmänner, die mit figuren v y - - - Ör- zierten boote der nordküstenbewohner von guinea, d mit muscheln und f edern und pelzstücken geschmücÄ kleider der indianer, die kunstreichen flechtereien j den südseeinsulanern, sie alle geben den beweis, dº das kunstbedürfnis nicht etwa die folge erreichter hoher kultur ist, sondern das der kunstdrang ein / /rünglic/e- und natürlicher und daher so alt ist, wie die menschheit selber. aber nicht minder interessant und lehrreich ist die weitere wahrnehmung, dass jene künstlerische be- thätigung keineswegs die darstellung des naturschönen q/ szc/º sich zum ausgangspunkte nimmt – der ursprüng- liche mensch kennt die natur zumeist nur in ihren schreck- nissen. dagegen ist die naivste und ursprünglichste mani- festation, die zum künstlerischen genusse erfreut, in ihren kleinen kunstwerken « das gesetz der bildnerischen natur, wie es in der realität durch die regelmässigkeit. vero&r- was ex aa wwè obdach hervorgerufen. es war also zunächst die zertie kunst (flechten, nähen, stricken etc.) und die keramische kunst oder schlechtweg die kleinkunst (gefässe, geräte, waffen etc.). der instinktive trieb zur verschönerung dieser gebrauchsgegenstände führte zur weitern entwick- lung jener primitiven kunstthätigkeit. der zeppic/ aus riemen vom tierfell oder dem bast der baumrinde, wurde zum schutzmittel für die füsse gegen feuchtigkeit und kälte, als dach schützte er gegen hitze, regen oder vwind, und raumabschliessend erscheint er als wand. der teppich ist somit nicht nur als das grundmotiv der textil- kunst zu betrachten, sondern er führte zugleich zur weitern urkunst, zur architektur, wobei ihm in der eigenschaft als konstruktiv-dekoratives füllungsornament eine inte- grierende bedeutung und wichtigkeit zukommt. aus der gleichzeitigen verknüpfung und wechselbeziehung dieser dem . jahrhundert datiert eine ausscheidung. nach modernen begriffen lässt sich die kunst als allgemeinbegriff aller im dienste der schönheit stehenden thätigkeit des menschen in folgende gliederung einfügen: a. die hohe oder freie kunst oder die sog. schönen künste a) die zeit/ichen. musik, poesie und mimik. z) die räumlichen, oder die sogenannten bildenden künste - *** - tektur, skulptur, malerei. im engsten zusammenhang mit der bildenden (freien) kun** jene grosse gruppe: b. die dienende oder ornamentale kunst geheissen. also: - . keramik, kleinkunst (gefässe, werkzeuge, waf°°°): . die textilkunst: kleidung, der teppich und a"end". * teppichs als zelt, also der Übergang zur primitiven . baukunst: wohnung oder das zelt mit gerüste, bedachung und razzzzzaösch/iessenden wändezz. dem verschiedenfarbigen bast der pflanzen entstund das dessin des teppichs, aus dem verzierten teppich ergab sich die geschmückte wand etc. es ist erwiesen, dass das geometrische muster sich weit früher ausgebildet hat, als das pflanzliche muster. das ist ja auch ganz natürlich, denn jenes setzt einen viel geringeren grad geistiger ent- wicklung und naturbeobachtung voraus, als dieses. «in der wahl tritt ein wichtiges und erstes axiom der kunstpraxis in ihrem einfachsten, ursprünglichsten aus- drucke auf – das gesetz nämlich, aus der awoz (naht) eine zugend zu machen, welches uns lehrt, dasjenige, was wegen der unzulänglichkeit des stoffes und der mittel, die uns zu dessen bewältigung zu gebote stehen, naturgemäss stückwerk ist und sein muss, auch nicht anders erscheinen lassen zu wollen, sondern vielmehr das ursprünglich geteilte durch das ausdrückliche und ab- sichtliche hervorheben seiner verknüpfung und ver- schlingung zu einem gemeinsamen zwecke nicht als eines und ungeteiltes, wohl aber um so sprechender als einheitliches und zu einem verbundenes zu charakter- sieren.» (semper, der stil.) die naht ist somit nichts anderes als ein notbehelf, der erfunden ward, um stücke homogener art, und zwar flächen, zu einem ganzen zu verbinden und der, ur- sprünglich auf gewänder und decken angewendet, durch uralte begriffsverknüpfung das allgemeine analogon und symbol jeder zusammenfügung ursprünglich geteilter flächen zu einem festen zusammenhang geworden ist . wie mochten die typen sich weiterentwickelt haben?*) die naht, welche die stoffteile nicht allein nach der hauptrichtung verbindet, wie das band, sondern ihre funktion gleichsam in zickzack ausübt, erscheint in ornamentaler versinnlichung als eine einfache linie; aber als eurhythme (wiederholung) muss sie mindestens in zwei parallelen linien repräsentiert sein (fig. ). in dieser fig. . die versinnlichung der doppelten awahz oder des saumes. form erscheint die naht schon als saum oder schmuk. als schraffierung begrenzter flächen erscheinen parallellinien seit ältester zeit wie namentlich auch heute in ornamentalemsinne (fig. ). aus parallelen linien ent- stunden paralle/e winkel, eine schmuckform, welche nicht nur bei den alten ägyptischen male- reien häufig vorkommt, sondern fig. . in tausenden von gefundenen trojanischen spinnwirteln anzutreffen ist (fig. ). > fig. . *) diesem teil vorliegender arbeit wurde wesentlich die sehr ver- dienstvolle abhandlung zugrunde gelegt, welche hr. dr. a. claus in breslau in nr. , und dieses jahrgangs « zeitschrift des vereins deutscher zeichenlehrer» zur veröffentlichung brachte. einer freund- lichen mitteilung zufolge, wird uns der verehrte herr kollege in seiner doppelnatur als philologe und diplomirter zeichenlehrer noch mit weitern ähnlichen gaben erfreuen. eine weitere kulturgeschichtliche kreuzesform ist d sogenannte swastikakreuz (fig. ). | | d- fig. i . bei wiederholung des liegenden oder schräge kreuzes ergiebt sich ein geschmücktes band oder dº rautenstaô. (fig. i .) ><d><o><o><o>< fig. . zu den beliebtesten raumfüllungsornamenten – di alten völker hatten einen wahren schreck vor dem leerer raum – zählt das quadraz. (fig. .) t- den griechen gereicht es zum un- sterblichen ruhme, aus dem swastikakreuz jenes herrliche ornament erfunden zu haben, das uns heute unter dem namen gebrochener stab – fälschlich mäander geheissen – bekannt ist (fig. , und ). te te te- | e. fig. i . fig. . unter den krummlinigen rnamenten erscheint zu- nächst die regelmässigste figur, der kreis. die sonne und der mond mögen hiezu das urbild gegeben haben, doch kann er auch aus der beobachtung entstanden sein, dass er sich ergiebt aus der drehung eines stabes oder einer schnur um einen der end- punkte. diese verzierungs- fig. . form, welcher bei einzelnen völkern eine religiös-symbo- lische bedeutung zukommt, ist jedenfalls schon sehr alt. (fig. .) die nächstfolgende fortbildung des ornaments ist die verwendung mehrerer konzentrischer kreise (fig. ). auf vielen gefässen aus cypern (z. b. bei cesnola tafel ) sind diese parallelkreise wie scheiben auf den bauch derselben all- gebracht. aus parallelkreisen ergaben sich parallelbogen für flächenmuster wie für bandmuster als bogenreihe (fig. ). selbst stwsts fig. . fig. . auf gerätformen, z. b. auf trojanischen thonwirteln und bei dem bekannten siebenarmigen leuch- ter im tempel zu jerusalem erscheinen parallelbogen als schmuckform fig. ). weit *hºner sind die nebeneinander gereihten kreisbogen. wurden sie un- mittelbar aneinander angeschlossen, so fig. . fig. o.) die griechen gaben aber dem halbkreise gar bald eine längliche form. um mehr abwechslung zu haben, wurde die aus zwei spitz zusammentreffenden fig. . kreisbogen gebildete sogenannte drachenzunge einge- schoben, und das ganze plastisch herausgearbeitet. diese form wurde im korinthischen stil weiter ausgebildet, in- dem man am platze der einfachen kurve eine doppelt gekrümmte setzte und so eine blattähnliche form heraus- brachte (fig. i.) aber der anfang dieser gestaltung fig. . liegt stets im geometrischen ornament; er bestund darin, dass der verzierende handwerker einen streifen senkrechter parallelen nach oben zu einem bogenförmigen oder auch bloss die ecken abrundenden abschluss gab, wie die dorische blattwelle zeigt. bei der flächendekoration führte die wiederholte verwendung des bogens zu dem bekannten fisch- schuppendessin. ein sehr kleiner kreis wird zu einem punkt; auch dieser ist, wiederholt oder reihenförmig verwendet, eine sehr brauchbare zierform. einfache und mehrfache punkt- reihen sind seit unbestimmter vorzeit ein beliebtes muster. auf uralten vasen fehlen die punktreihen, namentlich als seitliche begleiter gerader und krummer linien, nicht. auch die dreieckstellung der punkte e ist dabei uralt. eine besonders beliebte form war die stellung der punkte - im viereck mit angabe des mittelpunktes. eine vortreffliche verwendung der punkt- reihen hat in der griechischen architektur bei der sogen. perlenschnur stattgefunden. der rhythmische wechsel von zwei oder drei verschiedenen formen verleiht dieser bildung ihre kanonische schönheit, obschon auch die einfache reihe eine edle wirkung hervorbringt (fig. ). nächst dem kreis und der bogenlinie ist eins der ältesten krummlinigen ornamente die schneckenlinie oder die spirale. ihre bildung mag ebenfalls geometrischen ursprungs sein. es ist ja möglich, dass ein verzierender künstler, der einen kreis aus freier hand zeichnen wollte, die krümmung ungleichmässig zog und sich dem mittel- punkte mehr und mehr näherte und so eine spirale er- hielt. vielleicht hat ein sich einrollender span oder die windungen der ranke einer pflanze den menschen zur zeichnung dieser kurve geführt. bei den Ägyptern hat die spirale nicht grosse an- wendung gefunden, dagegen war sie in assyrien eine bevorzugte form in verbindung mit andern kunstvollen ornamenten. aus den trojanischen funden lässt sich ihre entwicklung erkennen und in den zieraten aus den heroengräbern von mykenä ist ihr vorkommen geradezu dominierend, während die klassische zeit griechenlands sie zwar zurückdrängt, aber dadurch in um so schönerem ebenmass mit den übrigen formen hineinbringt. schmücken, oder womit man sich bekränzte (fig. und ), wie diejenigen, welche der gottheit aa zum opfer gebracht werden (fig- ), und die pflanzen, welche aus --- < ſ shs - fig. . dem wasser emporwachsen samt den wellen, erscheinen stilisiert, d. h. regelmässig und charakteristisch gezeichnet (fig- ). die uns bestbekannten zarten, fächerartigen gestal- tungen der herrlichen palmettengebilde, welche meist mit sz p *- x- fig. spiralen in verbindung gebracht wurden (fig. und ), verdanken wir wieder dem hohen kunstsinn der henen, welche die kunst mit einer ganzen anzahl neuer, der natur näherstehender motive, (vor allem der berühmte akanthus darstellte und verwendete (fig, ), nicht weil sie die wirkliche natur nicht wiederzugeben vermochten – wer es in der porträtzeichnung ) und im bronzeguss bereits zur vollendeten naturwahrheit gebracht hat, wie die alten Ägypter, dem konnte es an dem nötigen geschick keines- wegs fehlen – sondern man hat die natur vereinfacht, stilisirt, weil man kunstgefühl genug besass, zu empfinden, fig. . agyptisches ornament aus blumen und knospen des lotos. dass die schmuckform sowohl der bestimmung des zu schmückenden gegenstandes, wie dem materiale, aus dem - *) theodor graf in wien, dem wir so viele für kunst und ge- schichte wichtigen entdeckungen verdanken, wie z. b. den papyrus- fund von el tayum und die textilen funde aus den gräbern vom dritten jahrhundert an – demselben ist es auch geglückt, in Ägypten die grösste bisher bekannt gewordene sammlung von antiken auf holztafeln oder leinwand gemalten bildnissen zu erwerben. diese porträte zeigen eine ungeahnte vollendung der künstlerischen form und verbreiten licht über die verschiedenen, meist misskannten antiken techniken. es findet sich in dieser galerie allerdings kein werk, der von den alten schriftstellern gepriesenen meister der portrait- malerei. aber die perlen der sammlung sind werke von einer so ausserordentlichen wahrheit der darstellung, dass sie den vergleich mit manchem werke heutiger meister wohl aushalten können. – die porträttafeln lagen im sande wohl geborgen. die meisten sehr dünnen holztafeln sind vollkommen erhalten und die malereien erscheinen nach müheloser beseitigung der feinkörnigen sandschicht, als wären sie erst vor kurzem aus den händen ihrer verfertiger hervorgegangen. in der zeitschrift für «bildende kunst» heft i, jahrgang finden sich etliche dieser porträte in photographischer nachbildung. / er besteht, angepasst werden müsse. die lotosblume des teppichs erfuhr eine andere gestaltung wie als opfer- gabe für den verstorbenen oder als schmuck des mu- mienkastens. Überall be- f # gnügte man sich, auf die - zweckdienlichste und ein- Ä\f§ fachste vweise auf das objekt der natur im sinne seiner symbolischen be- deutung hinzuweisen. das ornament hat sich auf jahrtausende hin- aus auf die verzierung der zeezzzez fläche beschränkt. es war dies zunächst eine # pädagogisch - psychologi- º sche notwendigkeit. aber selbst die sehr fortgeschrit- u. tenen Ägypter begnügten tºº sich, die kranzgesimse der pylonen ihrer temgel und die mauerwände ihrer gräber vorzugsweise mit fachem schmuck zu ver- sehen und wo man zum meissel griff, hat man sich mit ausgrabung der kon- turen begnügt, aber der inhalt derselben blieb immer flach. dagegen bediente man sich in ausgedehntem masse der farbe, die auch die flache form zu ihrer entwicklung der vasenbildnerei war der willkommene anlass das flachornament zu einer seither nicht wieder erreiche höhe auszugestalten: man findet auf den antiken vasen keine licht- und schattenwirkung, keine pºrspektivischen täuschungen, nicht, weil man es nicht konnte, sondern weil man über genügendes kunstverständnis verg um einzusehen, dass vasenbilder der grundform des g fässes, sich unterzuordnen haben, und daher eine andere behandlung erfordern, als historische darstellungen, als landschaftsbilder und gemälde, welche mit allem reiz der Än f fig. o. griechisches blumenband aus lotos und palmetten und verbindenden spiralen. illusion und der wirklichkeit aufzutreten bestimmt sind. bei der keramischen kunst ist insonderheit der schwarz- und weissbemalten thongefässe zu gedenken, bei welchen die streng befolgten ästhetischen stilgesetze das produkt dieses gewerbes zum wahren kunstwerk zu erheben vermochte. harmonisch, mannigfaltig und weich, ohne jegliche Überladung wechseln in sinnvoller anordnung mäander-, guilloche-, wellen- und palmettenornamente, akanthus- und aloeblätter, epheu- und lorbeergewinde, perlschnüre, masken, tierköpfeu. s. w., aber immer in der unterordnung unter die konstruktivform (fig- ) griechen in kunstvollendeter weise die treffendsten aus- drucksformen geschaffen (fig. – ). die verschiedenartigen formteile, aus denen jedes produkt der technischen künste zusammengesetzt oder zusammengesetzt gedacht wird, erfordern den ausdruck einer sehr innigen verbindung, wenn sie in ihrer gesamt- heit als ein einheitliches, in sich abgeschlossenes und gleichsam belebtes wesen erscheinen sollen. diese sinnbildliche vereinigung der glieder geschieht ebenfalls durch formen, in welchen die begriffe des verbindens und verknüpfens verkörpert und deutlich wahrzunehmen sind. die formale gestaltung und bedeutung solcher kunstsymbole ist stets von dem inbegriff derjenigen struk- turteile abhängig, welche unmittelbar auf dieselben folgen. die einfachsten und am meisten angewandten mittel dieser art sind die runden, geschweifen oder eckigen platten, deren aufgabe darin besteht, andere gegenstände aufzunehmen und denselben eine sichere lage, einen festen standort zu gewähren. so z. b. die quadratförmige platte welche die klassische säule nach unten mit der Über- deckung des fundaments, dem stylobat, verbindet und nach oben bereit ist, den mit einem kleinen anlauf und aé/az/, dem karnies, versehenen zylinder, trochilus ge- nannt, aufzunehmen, welcher seinerseits auf die gestalt des nun folgenden säulenschaftes anspielt (fig. ). die thätigkeit des tragens der säule wird symbolisiert durch ihre ansc/we//ung in der mitte, und durch angebrachte kinnen oder canne/ören scheint sie an stützkraft wie an höhe zu gewinnen. durch die kleinen querschnitte zuoberst am schaft der säule wird einerseits dessen abschluss ange- deutet und anderseits auf das nun folgende kapitä/ vor- z fig. . attisch-jonische ordnung. bereitet. das kapitäl nach form und aus- stattung als die be- krönung des säulen- stammes sich reprä- sentirend, weitet sich nach oben, ist aus- ladend, bereit, die deck- platte aufzunehmen, welche die säule auf diese weise als decken- stütze charakterisiert und als konfliktssym- bol des statischen ge- setzes von kraft und last auf die decke selber oder auf die die- selbe tragende mauer (ante) vorbereitet. auf demselben prinzip der gliederung und ver- knüpfung der teile zum ganzen, beruht auch die gefässbild- nerei der antike.) wird nun diesesprache, die in der konstruk- tiven form des gegen- standes selber liegt, durch figürliche dar- *) die renaissance kehrte in der gefässbildekunst wie in der architektur zu diesem prinzip zurück. stellungen aus pflanze, blume, frucht -, - - -t= oder was immer, noch weiter ver- z - sinnlicht, dass die bedeutung des s. / gegenstandes und die bedeu- . tung seines schmuckes zusammen- treffen, so entsteht daraus ein werk /“ höherer ordnung. seine sprache – - - - - - cz wird, wie im liede, zur musik, es - - spricht seine bestimmung in künst- lerischen vweisen, in tönen aus, die, wenngleich dem plastischen und malerischen gebiet entnommen, im grunde aber der poesie angehören ſº und, wenn auch lautlos, doch ver- ständlich zum herzen sprechen. eine solche formensprache ist also eine eigentliche weltsprache, weil sie von jedermann verstanden wird (fig. ). - die antike formensprache ver- stösst sich aber nie gegen den stilgedanken, dass die grundform höher steht, als der schmuck und fig. . dass dieser sich jenem unterordnen aufriss des dorischen muss. denn das ornament ist säule samm“ gefäé. - - - - - . a. abakus. b. ec\Ämus. c.ysanne- nichts selbständiges, kann also für Ä. - - . einschnitt. f arcº- sich selber nicht gedacht werden, "Ärjº f. geison. denn es ist von etwas ausser ihm liegenden abhängig. trotz solcher abhängigkeit ist es aber von allen elementen der bildenden kuns. das freieste, weil seine form an kein bestimmtes objekt gebunden ist. der ornamentist hat bei der wahl seiner motive die völligste freiheit. ihm darf es gleichgültig sein, ob dieselben der geometrie, dem pflanzen- oder tierreich angehören, wenn er nur die gebrauchten formen ohne verstösse gegen das gesetz ihrer natur- --- - a a "e= - = = yx = t= fig. o. gemaltes sima-ornament. gemässen entwicklung anzuwenden und im dienste des zu schmückenden gegenstandes darzustellen versteht. alle elemente der schmuckformen hellenischer kunst- blüte suchten sich in freiem künstlerischem schwunge als fig. . plastisches sima-ornament. eigentliche flachornamente zur stilvollen schönheit zu ent- wickeln und durch die mitwirkung harmonischer farben mit der geadelten grundform zu einer künstlerischen ein- heit zu verbinden (fig. o). erst mit dem rückgang der freien künste (archi- tektur und skulptur) des klassischen zeitalters wurde das flachornament vielfach vom plastischen verdrängt. aber es geschah immer in bescheidener weise und nie wurde zum beispiel in der kleinkunst die konstruktivform des gegenstandes ungeziemend überwuchert oder ihre linien gestört oder durchschnitten, wie es mehr oder weniger bei allen spätern kunstepochen vorkommt (fig. i). . Über stil und naturalismus im allgemeinen.*) eine wichtige lehre für die gegenwart ergiebt sich, wenn wir untersuchen, wie die organische natur von der klassischen kunst aufgenommen und verwendet wurde. es erzeigen sich aus der vergleichung mit der gegen- wart zwei lawt. nerschiedene methoden der naturnach- ahmung. der eine künstler macht sich zur aufgabe, die natur möglichst getreu wiederzugeben und rücksicht- nehmend auf all' die zufälligkeiten, die durch ungünstige Örtlichkeit, durch regen, wind und wetter verursacht sein mögen, zur erscheinung zu bringen und die nach- bildung dieser originale auf den gegenstand, den er zu schmücken hat, naturgetreu zu übertragen. ein solches verfahren geschieht nicht mit rücksicht auf den charakter seines werkes, auf seine form, glieder- ung und bestimmung. die natur will dabei schon für sich selbst befriedigen, für sich selbst schmuck sein; der gegenstand, den sie schmücken soll, fällt erst in zweiter *) vergl. j. von falke, Ästhetik, kapitel . . verschiedene grade der stilisierung sind möglich. der grad der stilisierung, bis zu welchem die natür- lichen vorbilder geführt werden müssen, hängt ab vom geschmack und dem willen des künstlers, vom geschmack des landes oder volkes, dem er angehört, und drittens vom geschmack der zeit und kunstepoche. danach gibt es einen individuellen, einen nationalen und einen historzsc/en stil. alle drei sind für die gegenwart bedeutungsvoll, die nicht nachahmen, sondern studieren und frei schaffen will. wir sind also an keinen bestimmten stil gebunden und unsere stilisierung kann eine sehr verschiedene sein, in einer weise, welche der natur sehr nahe steht, und in einer weise, in welcher das urbild kaum mehr oder auch gar nicht mehr zu erkennen ist. zwischen diesen extremen liegen gar viele abstufungen, je nachdem man es für zweckmässig hält, sich der natur mehr zu nähern oder sich von ihr zu entfernen (fig. ). für den grad der stilisierung, insbesondere der pflanzen- und tierischen formen ist von massgebender bedeutung die verschiedenheit der eigenschaften des zu verwendenden materials. der eine stoff macht es vielleicht möglich, dass die nachbildung des motivs der normalform beinahe gleichkommt, ein anderer erlaubt nur die wiedergabe der wichtigsten und ausgeprägtesten züge des originals. ein in silberblech oder eisenguss ausgeführter akanthus ge- stattet je eine ganz andere stilisierung, als wenn ein solcher in sandstein oder marmor ausgemeisselt werden soll, und eine centifolie in gold oder schmiedeisen wird feiner sein, als in stuck oder terracotta. auch der massstab, in welchem das vorbild ausgeführt und die entfernung, von welcher aus das fertige objekt gesehen zu werden be- stimmt ist, müssen bei der stilisierung berücksichtigt werden. fig. . zdoppelter b/ätterke/ch aus römischem akanthus, bestimmte normen über den grad der stilisierung lassen sich natürlich nicht aufstellen und wir beobachten ein be- ständiges schwanken hinschtlich der als richtig erkannten grenzen fast bei allen kunstepochen, bis die moderne ornamentationsweise im naturalismus aufgegangen ist.) *) vergl. j. matthias, formensprache § . . das flachornament nach antiker auffassung ist fortgesetzter pflege würdig. bekanntlich erscheint uns die körperwelt in drei dimensionen, nach länge, breite und tiefe. dem un- geübten auge erscheinen die tiefendimensionen nicht im verhältnis des hintereinander, sondern in dem des neben- fig. . italienische holzintarsia. einander. die wahrnehmung dieser sogenannt »dritten dimension« geschieht erst allmälig auf empirischem wege. mit andern worten: das perspektivische oder körperliche sehen ist das resultat eines ziemlich langwierigen bildungs- prozesses des menschlichen auges. . Über das stilisierungsverfahren. der weitaus grösste teil der ornamente ist der pflanzenwelt entnommen, weil diese formbildung für den schmuck am unentbehrlichsten ist. das blatt spielt dabei die hauptrolle. wie soll nun das blatt der natur stilisiert werden ? am besten ist, man zeichne es von seiner rückseite, wobei das knochen- gerüste, die formgestaltenden blattnerven, sowie das charak- teristische des stilansatzes am auffallendsten zur erscheinung gelangen. derhauptnerv, diesymmetrieaxerepräsentierend, wird zuerst gezeichnet. nun folgt der allgemeine umriss der blattform, als die zurückführung auf die ihr zu grunde liegende geometrische form, kreis, polygon, oval, zwei- eck, die elliptische form u. s. w. hierauf folgen die wichtigern nebenrippen, die blattaugen, die blattlappen, einschnitte und verzahnungen, alles in naturgemässer entwicklung. einzelne partien der blattfläche erscheinen durch die kraft des wachstums vorgedrängt; es bildeten sich die blattspitzen, einzelne sind zurückgeblieben, es entstunden die einschnitte. so hat man sich die ent- stehung des blattschnittes, worin die individualität haupt- sächlich repräsentiert erscheint, zu denken. nur das wesent- liche und unterscheidende wird aufgenommen, oft sogar übertrieben, das unwesentliche und unbedeutende wird weggelassen; das blatt erscheint stilisiert: man hat die idealform, den typus, den die natur gewollt hat. eine blume wird am einfachsten und schönsten stilisiert, wenn man sie von oben betrachtet, und in symmetrischer fig. o. pilaster- /üllung aus venedig. stellung ihrer blätter zeichnet. je nach der form der motive erhält man so rosetten und sterngebilde in grösster mannigfaltigkeit, die zur ornamentation in reihungen oder bei regelmässiger verteilung im dessin die vortrefflichsten dienste leisten. bei glockenförmigen blumen empfiehlt sich die profilzeich- nung, wie die Ägypter ihre lotosblüte stilisiert und in wahrhaft künstlerischem sinne verwendet haben. eine hauptbedingung naturgemäs- ser stilisierung ist die sorgsame beob- achtung des prinzips der unterordnung. jedes vegetabilische ornament erscheint in haupt- und nebenzüge gegliedert. das herrschende, die hauptzige, sind die ranken, resp. die grossen, durch- laufenden linien (fig. o). diese bilden das grundgerüste des ornaments, um das sich die übrigen, untergeordneten teile in tangentialer verbindung grup- pieren. das ist stets das detail, das nebensächliche, also das blatt, die blüte, der blütenkelch, die raumfüllenden ran- kenartigen endungen, ja mitunter selbst das ins ornament mitverflochtene figu- rale motiv. beim entwerfen einer zeichnung ist dem gesetz der unterordnung in der weise rechnung zu tragen, dass man mit den herrschenden zügen beginnt und das detail erst hineinfügt, wenn jene richtig gestellt sind, nicht um- gekehrt. es muss überhaupt jeder einzelne linienzug auf. seine schönheit geprüft werden. jedes ornament be- steht aus einem system von linien. wenn jedes ein- zelne element für sich schön ist, so muss auch das ganze schön sein, sofern die elemente richtig auf einander be- zogen sind. ein schöner linienfluss und die verständnis- volle beobachtung des gesetzes vom verhältnis ungleicher teile ist immer die lösung des rätsels, wenn uns ein ornament bei all seiner sonstigen einfachheit so sympathisch anspricht, was namentlich bei mehrfach - symmetrischen raumfüllungen am klarsten zu tage tritt. je freier im übrigen der künstler über seine formen verfügt, um so grössere freiheit gewinnt er, dieselben nicht nur zu geistreichen kombinationen und zusammen- stellungen nach gutfinden zu verwenden, sondern er kann mit eben so freiem ermessen auch über die farben ver- fügen, denn die stilisierung der form entbindet ihn von der wiedergabe der farbe des urbildes und er hat allein auf den koloristischen zweck rücksicht zu nehmen, wie der indische kunstjünger mit der zerpflückten blume sein spiel treibt, um neue blumenformen und stern- gebilde und farbenkombinationen zu erfinden, so ist der ornamentist im reiche der formen und farben der un- umschränkte herrscher und schöpfer. aber wie im sozialen leben die ungebundenheit keine freiheit zulässt, so iluss sich der künstler einerseits von den eingebungen eines ausgebildeten kunstgeschmackes leiten lassen, wie er andererseits rücksicht zu nehmen hat auf die ästhetischen gesetze, welche in der ornamentalen formensprache zum ausdruck gelangen und von keinem stile abhängig sind. es sind die gesetze der eurythmie (die wiederholung in der reihung gleicher oder abwechselnder elemente), die symmetrie (als ausdruck der einheitlichkeit und ab- geschlossenheit einer kunstform als individuum) und als das dritte und letzte, das gesetz der proportiozz oder die beziehung ungleicher teile zu einander, wovon soeben die rede war.) unter diesen drei gesetzen ist das rhythzzzzsc/e das primitivste; bei ihm kommt vorzugsweise die geometrische form zum ausdruck. als ein kunstgebilde höherer ordnung ist das ornament von entschieden symzznetrischer durchbildung, wie sie hauptsächlich bei der vegetabilischen blätterform zur erscheinung gelangt, zu betrachten, und am höchsten steht das ornament, bei welchem von pro- portion, von schönen verhältnissen ungleicher teile unter einander die rede sein kann. in diese kategorie ge- hören die edleren erzeugnisse des kunstgewerbes, schmuck- sachen, kannen, krüge, becher, architektonische bau- teile und als höchster triumph aller proportionalität – der mensch. (vergl. goldener schnitt, kap. ). . wie hat die alte kunst stilisiert? merkwürdigerweise treffen wir auf die strengste stili- sierung gleich beim beginn der ganzen entwicklung der kunstgeschichte, eine zeit, von der man doch eher hätte *) vergleiche ritter v. feldegg, kunstgew. formenlehre, einleitung. erwarten könne", dass den ersten künstlerischen ein- gebungen die blosse kopierung der natur näher gelegen gewesen wäre, als die stilisierung, die gewissermassen eine höhere stufe des könnens und der intelligenz erfordert. wir haben bereits der merkwürdigen erscheinung gedacht, dass der erste kunststil, der ägyptische, die natur meister- haft zu stilisieren verstund. die ägyptische kunst war freilich nicht v " rein künstlerischen gesichtspunkten ge- leitet und nicht im alleinigen dienste der reinen schönheit. sie stund vielmehr unter dem zwange hieratischer vor- schriften, und die religiöse symbolik entschied über die wahl der motive, welche zur verzierung dienen sollten. aber es blieb immer noch die art der stilisierung frei, und dieselbe wurde mit grosse" künstlerischen verständnis durchgeführt. zu den wenigen elementen, welche die ägyptische kunst der natº entnommen, gehören der lotos, der papyrus und die palme wodurch die nahrung des leibes und des geistes symbolisch dargestellt wurde. die ge- brauchten motive sind nicht einmal weit von der wirk- lichkeit entfernt und doch nicht mehr das, was sie in der natur sind. alle sind ihrer zufälligkeiten entkleidet und in durchaus regelmässige symmetrische form ge- bracht, sowohl als knospe", blume oder pflanze. sie °- scheinen " verschiedenen reihungen, in verschiedenen graden ihrer entwicklung, bald in bündeln vereinigt, bald in fächerförmiger anordnung selbst da, wo diese blumen au” dem wasser emporsteigen, stehen sie in gleichen abständen, in gleichem wuchs und gleicher form, und sogar die wellen haben in ihren linien ei" regelrecht" lauf (fig. , vergl. fig: ? vornen). - . wie dekorieren die orientalen die textilstoffe? wie die europäer? eines stiles müssen wir doch noch gedenken. es ist der textilstil der orientalen, der in der neuzeit an- lässlich der weltausstellungen erkannt und nach verdienen gewürdigt und auch seitdem in den produkten des euro- päischen webstuhls vielfach nachgeahmt wurde. « die europäische dekorationsweise der textilstoffe geht dahin, zeichnung und farbe stets klar und deutlich auseinander zu halten. sie beruht daher auf dem kontrast der farbe und zugleich auf der schönheit der zeichnung. die zeichnung ist für sich ein etzwas, sie ist von formeller bedeutung. diese dekorationsweise hat ihre volle be- rechtigung, wenn sie geübt wird, wie z. b. in den zeiten der renaissance. die bedeutung des ornaments aber übertreibend, und die dekorative wirkung vernachlässi- gend, ist sie heute entartet, und hat in dieser entartung zum naturalismus geführt.» « die orientalische weise geht von der beobachtung aus, dass nebeneinander gestellte farben, wenn das auge ferner und ferner tritt, sich auf der netzhaut mischen, und zwar in der weise, wie es auf dem farbenkreisel geschieht, nicht aber so und in den tinten, wie bei der mischung der pigmente, den körperlichen farben. es giebt aber noch einen andern unterschied. die mischung der pigmente ergiebt einen einzigen gleichmässigen ton, die mischung der farben auf der netzhaut aber behält stets ein inneres, schimmerndes leben; die farbe wird nicht tot und stumpf, sondern bleibt lebendig, spielend. und das ist vom dekorativen gesichtspunkt aus gewiss ein grosser vorzug.» « aus diesem vorzuge hat die orientalische kunst ihre hauptsächlichsten reize geschöpft: sie hat ihr system, ihre dekoration der harmonie darauf gegründet, wie man ihre art im gegensatz zur europäischen weise zur de- aboration des kontrastes, nennen kann. ihre eigentliche tendenz ist es, die farben so durcheinander zu verteilen, dass sie bereits in gewöhnlicher entfernung des beschauers sich im auge mischen und in eine tonreiche harmonie zusammenfliessen. sie stellen nicht die zeichnung, das ornament, der grundfläche, der farbe des grundes gegen- über, sondern sie heben diese durch die verteilung ge- wissermassen auf und lassen sie nur als eine farbe neben der zweiten oder neben den übrigen mitwirken. dabei verliert freilich die zeichnung an bedeutung; doch ist sie deshalb der orientalischen kunst keineswegs gleichgiltig, wenigstens durchaus nicht überall. wenn es z. b. teppiche giebt, bei denen alle zeichnung, alle symmetrie gänzlich vernachlässigt erscheint, so giebt es viele orientalische arbeiten, bei welchen die arabesken von bewunderungs- würdiger kunst und feinheit sind. « auf dem gleichen prinzip beruht der effekt der gedruckten blumigen baumwollstoffe indiens und persiens; diesem prinzip folgen die farbenreichen teppiche von hochasien, vorderasien, die teppiche von syrien bis marokko. in allervollkommenster weise ist es in den shawlgeweben von persien, tibet und kaschmir durch- geführt.» (j. v. falke, Ästhetik) . nach welchem prinzip ist die dekorative plastik zu beurteilen? nach antiker auffassung besteht jedes erzeugnis der tektonik aus einem gerüste von teilen oder gliedern, deren zusammenwirken zum ganzen notwendig ist. die individualisierung dieser teile erfordert eine unterordnung unter sich sowohl wie zum ganzen, und jeder teil für sich hat diejenige funktion zu symbolisieren, die ihm nach seiner bestimmung vom ganzen übertragen ist. die neuzeit sucht mehr und mehr zu diesem für alle zeit giltigen prinzip zurückzukehren, nachdem man es seit der zeit der renaissance, namentlich aber seit dem rococo des . jahrhunderts, vollständig verlassen, um sich dem sterilen naturalismus in die arme zu werfen. der tiefe sinn, welcher in der antiken anschauungs- weise zum ausdruck gelangt, wird uns erst vollkommen klar, wenn wir es versuchen, verschiedene erzeugnisse der keramik oder der tektonik nach diesem prinzip zu beurteilen. - kein kunstwerk besagter art ist in gleichem masse hiezu geeignet – weil ohnehin schon der allgemeinen kritik ausgesetzt – wie das wohnhaus. schon durch seine hohe bedeutung an sich, ist es dazu angethan, die kritik wach zu rufen, namentlich aber durch den umstand, dass eine ganze reihe von fachleuten direkt oder indirekt dabei beteiligt sind, welchen urteilsfähigkeit nicht abge- sprochen werden kann. dass aber auch ein weniger sachverständiges publi- kum im kritisieren nicht zurückhält, ist so bekannt, wie natürlich; und gegen solche, die gar nur zu tadeln wissen, ist der bekannte spruch gerichtet: «wer will bauen an die strassen, muss die narren reden lassen.» versuchen wir es, einige leitende grundsätze aufzu- stellen, welche es uns ermöglichen, ein wohnhaus, das nicht blosser nutzbau sein will, sondern den anforderungen der Ästhetik zu genügen trachtet, zu beurteilen. wir werden bei unserem vorgehen auf die zeit des ursprungs der menschlichen wohnung zurückgehen müssen. wie wir bereits wissen, ist das zelt der urtypus des wohnhauses. das zelt besteht aus dem konstruktiv-thätigen gerüste von holzstäben. der boden ist mit dem primi- tiven teppich belegt; teppiche bilden die wände und dienen als dach. das ist das haus nomadisierender völker. wo ein volksstamm, ackerbau treibend, bleibend sich ansiedelte, hat auch das zelt einen festen standort und eine dauerhafte gestalt und bauart gewonnen. aus den holzstäben sind holzbalken und aus den teppich- wänden lehmz- oder mauerwände geworden, und die maurerei, sowie andere mit dem bauwerk in verbindung stehende gewerbe haben ihren anfang und fortgang genommen. das ursprünglich natürlich äusserst primitive haus hat sich mit der zeit stetig weiter entwickelt; es ist solider und bequemer geworden, bis es sich im klas- sischen zeitalter, namentlich im tempelbau, zu einem werke höherer kunst herauszubilden vermochte. aber der gedanke, welcher im urtypus, im zelt niedergelegt ist, konnte nie verloren gehen; denn sein ursprung ist so naturgemäss, dass der zusammenhang von zelt und haus sich wieder ergeben müsste, wenn alles bestehende untergienge und eine ganz neue welt geboren würde. betrachten und beurteilen wir deshalb das haus nach der klassischen auffassungsweise – sie ist ja für alle zeiten feststehend und unabänderlich. nach der antiken idee besteht das haus aus einem gerüste von stein, dem in symbolischer weise die thätig- keit des stützens und tragens unterlegt ist, während die mauerwände gleich den teppichwänden neutral oder un- thätig erscheinen, obschon sie in der wirklichkeit ebenfalls thätig sind. welches ist nun jenes konstruktiv-thätige stein- gerüste des wohnhauses ? das ist zunächst der über dem fundament gelegene sockel, wozu, wie auch für die übrigen konstruktivglieder, ein festeres und wertvolleres steinmaterial verlangt wird. auf den socke\, etwas zurücktretend, stützen sich die, die hauptfaçade begrenzenden ecksteine, ferner die säulen, pilaster, die fenster- und %ürlaibungen, als glieder, in welchen die idee des stützens und tragens verkörpert ist, während die neutral erscheinende mauer, als in ge- danken weniger wichtig und gewöhnlich auch aus ge- ringerem material bestehend, wieder etwas weiter zurück- steht. betrachten wir der einfachheit wegen nur die haupt- façade eines gedachten hauses, wie dieselbe etwa einem vorbeigehenden kunstfreunde zur kritik sich präsentieren dürfte. da machen sich vor allem die verschiedenen stock- zwerke bemerkbar. dieselben dürfen nicht beliebig und willkürlich aufeinander aufgesetzt sein, wie die häuser des alle einzelnheiten hinab von der liebe zur kunst und ihrem heiligen lichte durchglüht, und, gleichviel ob un- bedeutend oder wertvoll, erschien – wie uns z. b. die ruinen von herkulanum und pompeji belehren – zur zeit der antiken kunst alles in den anmutigsten formen, und bei aller mannigfaltigkeit der erfindung musste sich das ornament dem zu schmückenden gegenstande unter- ordnen, und überall liess sich die bestimmung des gegen- standes aus seiner form erkennen. wir aber, als die nächsten erben des rococo und der zopfzeit sind immer noch von jenem geiste beherrscht, welcher das orna- ment vom gegenstand loslöste und zur hauptsache er- hob und die berechtigte form zu unterdrücken suchte, um desto auffallender und paradoxer auftreten zu können. auf diesem irrationellen wege, in gestaltung unserer kunsterzeugnisse, sind wir zu dem gelangt, was wir « mode» nennen, oder zum gefallen an dem, dass wir in einer saison schön finden, was wir in der nächsten als «altmodisch » bei seite stellen. der mangel einer berechtigten form bei vielen artikeln unseres kunst- gewerbes lässt uns nicht mit bleibendem wohlgefallen an dieselbe fesseln. das luxusbedürfnis will aber gleich- wohl befriedigt sein, und, da wir von der einfachen schönheit der natürlichen form abgewichen sind, suchen wir den blick durch das ungewöhnliche anzuziehen und sagen dem publikum, dass das die neueste mode und deshalb schön sei. so wird in der sucht nach neuem der gute geschmack stetig verdorben und gegen den einfachen satz der kunst, dass die form eines gegen- standes seiner bestimmung und der natur seznes materials entsprechen muss, gesündigt. der bierhumpen wird zum bierfass, der zigarrenbehälter zur alphütte oder zum hundehaus, auf dem zigarrenspitz treibt eine schweins- jagd, der zuckerlöffel erscheint als gestielte blume, auf dem holzlöffel prangt das edelweiss, gold erscheint als leder, holz als metall, der stecknadelkopf als insekt, das hufeisen als schmuck, ein zierleić wird zum trink- geschirr, eine fruchtvase erscheint als zerbrechliches blätterwerk, auf eine blumenvase, welche zuweilen eine viereckige gestalt hat, kommt ein gemaltes oder plastisches bouquet. eine amphore erscheint in der imitierung von holz und plastischem silberschmuck. ein band, wider- sinnig genug, ist mit erhaben gemalten blumen ge- schnmückt. hunderte von gegenständen finden wir in unseren modemagazinen zum verkauf ausgestellt, bei welchen kein bestimmungsgemässer gedanke aufkommen kann. nur da ist eine solche verwechslung des ornaments mit der konstruktivform zulässig, wo es sich darum han- delt, eine glückliche laune oder einen guten witz zu veranschaulichen. bei solcher modeherrschaft leiden namentlich auch unsere frauen. es ist ihnen immer noch nicht gestattet, sich nach gutfinden zu kleiden, wenn sie sich nicht der gefahr aussetzen wollen, als altmodisch und ungebildet zu gelten. ob eine form oder farbe die vorzüge hebe, oder vorhandene mängel bis zum unscheinbaren ab- schwäche, fällt erst in zweiter linie in betracht und die taille wird nicht selten unter aufopferung der gesund- heit bis zum unnatürlichen geschnürt. dass die schmalen stiefelabsätze und die engen roben unsern frauen einen sichern gang unmöglich machen, dass der hut zur haube o oder zur kappe geworden, gilt heute so wenig als un- ästhetisch, wie die sogenannten tournüren; freilich wird man bald über solchen unsinn spotten, um möglichst schnell einem andern platz zum machen. aber unser kunstgewerbe leidet noch an grösseren mängeln: ein grosser teil unserer erzeugnisse hat sich jedes schmuckes entkleidet und ist zum produkt der reinen utilität herab- gesunken. es ist das freilich zunächst die folge vielfach veränderter verhältnisse, der zunehmenden maschinen- arbeit, der übertriebenen konkurrenz und der dadurch bedingten grossartigen arbeitsteilung, bei welcher der arbeiter selbst wieder mehr oder weniger zur maschine wird. allein es bleibt für geschickte hände noch sehr viel zu thun übrig; darum muss der angehende hand- werker wieder zeichnen lernen und, an der hand guter muster unterrichtet, ästhetisch erzogen, zum kunsthand- werker gemacht werden. doch fängt es in dieser be- ziehung an zu tagen, und man trägt für den formen- schmuck und den reiz der farben nicht mehr die frühere unempfänglichkeit zur schau. auf allen gebieten der in- dustrie ist in dieser hinsicht ein fortschritt zu verzeichnen. aber der pfuscherei und dem modeschwindel gegenüber ist das echt schöne und gute immer noch sehr im nach- teil, und das grössere publikum lässt sich immer noch durch den schein der billigen ware verblenden. um so mehr wird es pflicht jedes einsichtvollen bürgers, nach dem masse seiner kräfte dafür zu wirken, dass die ächte kunst der industrie wieder zugänglich gemacht und das wirkliche verdienst belohnt werde. es soll nicht das erste und letzte ziel des kunstgewerbes sein, einer gewöhn- lichen kundsame zu genügen, sondern es muss danach - nahe berührung nicht vertragen, so müssen die kontur- linien recht kräftig ausgezogen werden. Öfter werden sie sogar doppelt gezogen, indem z. b. neben gold oder silber noch schwarz oder weiss hinzugefügt wird. in all diesen fällen ist die konturlinie als eigentlicher be- standteil des ornaments zu betrachten und zu behandeln. Öfter wird das flachornament statt in schwarz in farben konturiert. bei der wahl solcher konturfarben gilt als allgemeine regel, dass jeweilen eine hellere oder dunklere nuance der sich im muster berührenden lokal- farben genommen wird. im allgemeinen ist schwarz als die geeignetste kontur- farbe anzusehen. es trifft dies namentlich dazu, wo feinere ornamentformen vom grunde abzutrennen sind. in diesem falle müssen aber auch die konturlinien nur fein ausge- zogen werden, damit das kolorit kein düsteres aussehen gewinnt. schwarze konturen sind im besondern auch da zu empfehlen, wo es sich darum handelt, goldene ornamente von farbigem grunde oder farbige ornamente von goldenem grunde abzuheben. häufig leistet auch ein stumpfes braun') sehr gute dienste, weil es fast ebenso gut deckt und trennt als schwarz, dabei aber wärmer und freundlicher aussieht. die hellen farbentöne sind weniger passend, weil sie wegen ihrer lasierenden eigenschaften nicht genügende deckkraft besitzen. will man sich aber aus ästhetischen gründen dennoch derselben bedienen, so müssen sie *) ein vortreffliches deckbraun liefert die mischung von indischrot oder zinnober mit wenig blau oder neutraltinte. die farbe muss aber hinreichend dickflüssig angerieben werden. lung der der wirklichkeit angehörenden gegenstände wird immerhin geeignet sein, mehr oder weniger das subjektive können des künstlers vor seiner objektiven auffassung der natur zum vorteil des dekorativen schmuckes zur geltung zu bringen und in dieser weise dem sterilen naturalismus der gegenwart einhalt thun. für die zwecke des schulzeichnens ist zu empfehlen, dass alle ornamente, welche schliesslich koloriert werden sollen, nach deren reinzeichnung in bleistift mit feder (kugelspitz)und tuschein entsprechender stärke ausgezogen werden. die manipulation ist für den anfänger freilich etwas schwierig und es bedarf zur herstellung einer un- gebrochenen und gleichmässig starken linie aufmerk- samkeit und fleiss. aber die Übung zur ausdauer ist nicht der letzte zweck des zeichnens. gewiss wäre es aber vom Übel, sollten die bleistiftkonturen gänzlich ver- nachlässigt werden. wir besitzen eben kein pigment, das dem blei mit all seinen vortrefflichen eigenschaften, (z. b. die hardtmutstifte) für das auge wie für die hand gleichgestellt werden könnte, und es ist kaum begreiflich, wie man denselben für die zeichenübungen") aus vielen schulen ausschliessen und die alleinherrschaft der feder zu einem neuen evangelium erheben konnte. um nicht gefahr zu laufen, dass die tuschkontur beim Überwaschen mit wasser – was ja zur erlangung eines *) zeichenunterricht oder zeichnenunterricht? die letztere bildung verstösst gegen die regel, nach welcher verben mit substantiven zu- sammengesetzt werden. es verliert dabei das verb seine infinitiv-endung, z. b. sehwinkel, sprechsaal, turnkunst. nun heisst der infinitiv voll- ständig zeichenen (altdeutsch) und demnach die zusammensetzung zeichen- zunterricht. zeichnungsunterricht kann man so wenig sagen als schreibungs- oder turnungsunterricht. a wenn wir in der gegenüberstellung des perspek- tivischen zeichnens mit dem ornamentzeichnen dem letztern eine unbedingt höhere bedeutung zuerkennen, so müssen wir uns dabei noch etwas deutlicher aus- sprechen. wir verstehen unter ersterm die unverhältnismässige betonung der sogenannten dritten dimension, wie es sich aus dem fast endlosen perspektivischen körperzeichnen ergiebt. bis all jene würfel, pyramiden, prismen, kegel, und kugeln in allen möglichen und unmöglichen dreh- ungen und stellungen besprochen und gezeichnet und in schwarzer und weisser kreide fein ausstaffiert sind, damit man deren täuschende körperlichkeit bewundere, geht die schulzeit zu ende und über dem mittel geht der zweck verloren. nach unserem ermessen hat die per- spektive, welche im praktischen leben seltene anwen- dung findet, für die schule nur insoweit bedeutung, als sie ein nicht zu unterschätzender faktor ist, den schüler an eine ruhige vorurteilsfreie betrachtung der gegenstände zu gewöhnen, überhaupt das auge für räumliche auf- fassung körperlicher formen auszubilden. und da zum verstehen einer kunst meist auch eine gewisse Übung erforderlich ist, so ist es ja sehr wünschenswert, dass der schüler anleitung erhält, wie die einfachen objekte seiner umgebung in leicht hingeworfenen skizzierungen auf papier zu bringen sind; mehr braucht es nicht. eine aus- gesprochen malerische wirkung soll dabei nicht erstrebt werden; die «schöne linie » soll immer die hauptsache bleiben und eine akademische auffassung der form, wo- bei auch die luftperspektive in betracht gezogen werden muss, halten wir bei der allzu knappen zeit mit den al- gemeinen aufgaben der schule nicht für vereinbar.) man darf uns aber auc/º nzcht so verstehen, als zwurde das ornamentzeichnen überhaupt und schlechthin den stoff und die aufgabe des zeichenunterrichts repräsentieren. wir verstehen eben unter ornament nicht bloss die zierformen, womit man kunstgewerbliche gegenstände zu schmücken pflegt; wir fassen den begriff in weiterm sinne, wo schon einzig die geläuterte körperliche grundform durch das ebenmass ihrer verschiedenen teile, d. i. durch den künstlerischen adel ihres profils das ästhetische gefühl befriedigt, was ja bei den antiken thonwaren, selbst wenn sie gar keine verzierung hätten, der fall ist. ja, in vielen fällen ist das ornament so eng mit der grundform ver- bunden, dass das eine ohne das andere gar nicht gedacht werden kann, wovon uns wieder die antike in ihren freien endigungen (stirnziegel, meilenzeiger, grabstelen) und stützen, den kymatien bei konsolen und kapitälen, die herrlichsten beispiele liefert. statt jener ewigen körperdrehungen zeichne man recht viel solche edle körperformen zumeist nur in blossen umrissen und en profil, wo die darstellung der dritten dimension der geometrischen projektion gleichkommt oder nur wenig davon abweicht, eine darstellung, die keinem schüler kopfzerbrechen macht, selbst ohne alle perspektiv- lehre. *) im . und . jahrhundert war, sozusagen, jeder handwerker ein fertiger zeichner; aber sie haben diese kunst nicht vom geometrischen körper abstrahirt, sondern auf dem wege des nachbildens mustergültiger ornamente erlernt und geschmack und phantasie zur freiheit und zum selbstbilden erzogen. ständig gleichgiltig, ob es durch einen schreiber oder durch eine kopierpresse vervielfältigt wird, wenn man nur kopien erhält. man kann aber auch zeichnungen kopieren, am leichtesten durch den pantographen, die photographie und mittelst durchpausen. jede zeichnung trägt daher auch den stempel des mechanischen an sich, die in der weise der schriftkopie, auf dem wege ge- dankenloser nachahmung, zustande gekommen ist: es ist eine kopie im engern, geringen sinne. dagegen ist jede nachbildung als eine zeichnung zu betrachten, wenn zu ihrer darstellung eine zielbewusste, die geisteskräfte bethätigende methode befolgt wird. diese unterscheidung ist für die schule von um so grösserer wichtigkeit, als es gerade hievon abhängt, ob der zeichenunterricht als bedeutend, als fruchtbringend sich erweisen soll, oder ob er, wie es leider noch meisten- orts geschieht, als leichte ware in den kauf mit wich- tigerem noch ferner mitzulaufen hat. es entsteht daher die frage: wer « kopiert» und wer « zeichnet »? es ist dies bereits angedeutet; doch wird es am platze sein, auf diese unterscheidung noch etwas näher einzutreten. beide thätigkeiten unterscheiden sich wesentlich in der art und weise, wie sie begonnen werden. der zeichner wird je nach dem massstab seines könnens auch die wege und mittel wählen, welche ihm die nachbildung ermöglichen sollen. es geschieht dies entweder mittelst klarer, bewusster und freier auffassung des objekts, was geist, auge und hand bildet, oder die darstellung ist eine verständnislose, oberflächliche und mechanische, welche das ästhetische formgefühl beleidigt. der kopierende schreiber wie der zeichnende kopist lässt den wert oder unwert seiner arbeit und die dazu ver- wendeten mittel unbeachtet; denn beiden ist es nicht um den gewinn von erkenntnis, sondern um das schliessliche ergebnis zu thun. wie es dem kopierenden schreiber nicht unbedingt nötig erscheint, sinn und zusammenhang des geschriebenen aufzufassen und zu behalten, sondern nur die richtigen schriftzeichen wählt, so ist es dem kopierenden zeichner auch nur daran gelegen, ein leidlich richtiges nachbild der vorlage zu liefern. der geist, welcher in der form liegt, bleibt ihm in verschleiertem dunkel gehüllt. ein solch' denkfauler schüler greift nach jedem mechanischen hilfsmittel; er misst ab, sticht durch, pausiert und überträgt; er ahmt gedankenlos nach. ein solch' mechanisches verfahren, das im gegensatz steht zu allem verständigen, methodischen und gesetzmässigen, ist nicht allein stillstand, sondern es führt den schüler intellektuell und moralisch zurück; weil er dabei alles ver- trauen auf seine eigene kraft einbüsst und die liebe zur wahrheit verliert. in ganz anderer weise verfährt dagegen ein richtiger zeichner. die hauptarbeit seines zeichnens ist geistiger art. ihm ist in erster linie darum zu thun, der gesetz- mässigkeit im organischen aufbau seines originals nach- zuspüren und mit klarer einsicht den ästhetischen form- gedanken zu erfassen. er prüft und vergleicht; er ruht und rastet nicht, bis er denselben in seinen grundzügen beherrscht und frei und selbständig zu reproduzieren ver- mag. einer solchen auffassung wird auch der vorgang der wiedergabe entsprechen. er wird z. b. bei einem ornament mit feststellung der allgemeinen grundform beginnen und in genetischer stufenfolge die herrschenden berechtigung der flachen form geleugnet werden, so möchte man versucht sein, an die rückkehr des rococo zu denken, der durch die raffinierteste weise die fläche aus der welt zu schaffen suchte und in grellem wider- spruch mit der forderung des zweckmässigen nicht nur die ebenen flächen an kisten und kasten mit erhabenem schmuck versah, sondern sich sogar bemühte, den pro- dukten der texterie eine verlogene körperlichkeit zu ver- leihen. man wird in schulen von allgemein bildendem charakter doch nicht gleich holzschnitzler, stuckarbeiter, bildhauer und ciseleure heranziehen wollen, sondern man wird mit hintansetzung spezieller berufszwecke in metho- discher reihenfolge vom leichtern zum schwerern, vom nahen zum fernern, vom bekannten zum unbekannten vorzugehen und an einer grossen zahl von formen, auge und hand des schülers zu höchstmöglicher freiheit zu erziehen haben. zudem ist es auch ganz widersinnig, von einem schüler auf dieser stufe, dessen auge und hand noch fast ohne schulung ist, die abstraktion vom körper- bilde zum flächenbilde zu verlangen. viele mögen sich dabei auf pestalozzi stützen, der jeden unterricht auf die anschauung, auf die sache, gegründet haben will. diese aber übersehen, dass im vorliegenden falle das flächen- bild eben die sache selber ist, welche zur anschauung gebracht und nachgebildet wird. was kann doch auch so ein schüler leisten, wenn man ihm ohne triftige gründe und bevor seine hand einigermassen das dienstbare werk- zeug seines auges geworden, ein gipsmodell zum nach- bilden vorsetzt, wie man heute vielerorts zu thun pflegt man erschwert ihm nicht nur in völlig unmotivirer weise die auffassung der linie, welche das ausdrucksmitte * form ist, sondern es gehen während der ganzen schul- zeit so wenig bilder an ihm vorüber, dass dabei die hand unglenk bleibt, die vornehmste kunstkraft, die phantasie, und das gefühl für die schöne form weder entwickelt noch befruchtet wird. das unstäte kind, das stets vorwärts drängt, hat doch gewiss schwierigkeiten genug zu überwinden, wenn es durch beständiges anschauen, vergleichen und beurteilen des flächenbildes nach seiner lage, seinem umfange und die notwendige beobachtung der symmetrie und pro- portion seiner teile, zur darstellung bringt. hat es der schüler einmal dahin gebracht, dass ihm die schöne aus- führung freude macht – so einfach auch das objekt sein mag – so ist er fürs zeichnen gewonnen und man darf schwereres von ihm verlangen. von da an wird der unterricht recht wirksam und fruchtbar. erst dann ge- langt der schönheitssinn ins stadium fortschreitender ent- wicklung, wenn der kunstjünger imstande ist, selber etwas schönes zu bilden. man lasse ihn in vollem masse den reiz der farben geniessen und begnüge sich nicht damit, durch die vielempfohlenen abgeblassten töne die ange- borne farbenfreudigkeit selber erblassen zu lassen. die mit aufgaben anderer disziplinen niedergehaltene kind- liche freude soll sich wenigstens am zeichnen und malen möglichst ungeschmälert erheben können. « das jugend- /c/e alter ist kein Ölosses mittel, um zu einem reiferen zu gelangen, sondern es sz ein zweck an sich selbst.»") im schaffen und im besitz des schönen wird ihm auch wieder eine ernstere arbeit leicht und das kindliche gemüt steigt zu jenem beneidenswerten glückszustande empor, *) tiefsinnige sentenz des philosophen dühring. der ihm im spätern leben so spärlich blüht. es ist hauptsächlich aufgabe des zeichnens, diese freude zu fördern, nicht aber sie schlechthin der sterilen rücksicht auf den nutzen einer ungewissen zukunft zu opfern. darum bleibt es stets von grosser wichtigkeit, dass an den augen des schülers nicht nur eine beschränkte zahl von modellen vorbeigehen, die ihm so bald verleiden, sondern es muss ihm ein möglichst grosses anschauungs- material dargeboten werden können. er braucht nicht alles zu zeichnen, was er sieht; im anschauen edler formen und gewählter farben erhalten schönheitssinn und gestaltungskraft gewiss mehr anregung und weisern rat als in mühsamer Übersetzung der drei dimensionen des körpers in das bild von nur zwei dimensionen, was ja doch dem wirklichen modellieren gegenüber immer nur als eine abschwächung und als notbehelf zu betrachten ist. eine korrekte umrisszeichnung, ein mit gefühl durch- geführter blattschnitt sind mehr wert als eine noch so fein ausgeführte schattierte zeichnung, deren formen unrichtige verhältnisse, unsichere und unschöne linienführung zeigen- ein gut gewähltes vorlagenmaterial wird daher für den zeichenunterricht auf obern stufen, wo die vorzeich- nungen des lehrers und die wandtabellenbilder nicht mehr ausreichen, zu allen zeiten unentbehrlich sein, und es ist kaum begreiflich, wie man dazu kommen konnte, hilfsmittel, die uns die kunst von jahrtausenden ver- gegenwärtigen, aus der schule schaffen zu wollen und für die sünden verantwortlich zu machen, die dere" missbrauch verschuldet haben. man ist eben von ein" extrem ins andere geraten, wie es im suchen nach * bessern meist zu geschehen pflegt. nachgerade sollte es aber doch jedermann einleuchten, der im zeichnen die ausbildung der kunst- und gemütsanlage der nüchternen verstandesbildung voranstellt, dass die profane körperform keinen ersatz bietet gegen den verlust der echten kunst, welche in der ornamentik niedergelegt ist. . Über die ornamentalen grundgesetze. alle zum zwecke des schmückens menschlicher gebrauchsgegenstände erdachten formen, seien sie blos schmückendes oder zugleich geschmücktes, seien sie in rein praktischem, kulturellen gebrauch oder seien sie im dienste des kultus, sind gewissen, allgemein geltenden grundgesetzen unterworfen. wie gross und reich die gebilde des schmuckes auch sind und wie mannigfaltig der stil und die sprache ihrer formen, so sind es doch nur drei allgemein giltige gesetze, welche die ornamentale kunst beherrschen. es sind die gesetze der eurhythmie, der symmetrie und der proportionalität. eurhythmie. unter eurhythmie im ornamentalen sinne versteht man die wiederkehr des gleichartigen in reihungen. es gehört zum wesen des rhythmus, dass es zu seiner wirkung einer wiederholung, einer vielheit der zierenden elemente bedarf. das auge empfindet daher den eindruck rhyth- mischer anordnung erst, wenn die wiederholung mindestens eine dreifache ist. der eindruck steigert sich mit der zu- nahme der zahl des gleichartigen. bei der manifestation der rhythmik ist dann eine dreifache gliederung möglich. es kann ein und dasselbe element wiederkehren, dieselbe rosette in einem band, dasselbe blatt an einer ranke (fig. und ), oder die rosette, das blatt, die palmette, kann mit andern ähnlichen formen in gleichen intervallen selb- tºur- tsurt ss s est es q n s - "s, - sº tff Ähn - "mf. tºm pg- " Ä. - -f . ><>>< d-da ------- tuuummumm" fig. . bandornament mit gerader mittelrippe. zweit abwechseln (fig. o und ). oder es können je drei verschiedene elemente regelmässig wiederkehren, wie z. b. bei der perlenschnur die selbdritt geformten oder ge- färbten perlen, bei einer ranke die fortlaufenden abzwei- gungen von knospe, blume und blatt. in der dreiheit scheint aber auch das maximum der zusammenstellung fig. . bandornament mit wellenförmig gebogener mitte/riffe. der rhythmischen elemente erreicht zu sein, denn bei einer mehr als dreigliedrigen abwechslung müsste eine unklare und verworrene wirkung eintreten. symmetrie. das gesetz der symmetrie ist vom gesetz der eurhythme ganz verschieden. es ist hier nicht die wiederkehr und vielheit des gleichartigen, welches das wesen und * einfacher, fig. in doppelter richtung, nämlich von links nach rechts, und nach unten und oben. sf y sº fig. . griec/zsches aassettenornament. die anwendung des gesetzes der symmetrie kann in strengem oder mehr freiem sinne durchgeführt werden- die der symmetrieaxe gegenüberstehenden hälften können bis in alle deaws miteinander übereinstimmen oder man fig. . italienische renaissance. mag sich damit begnügen, blos die hauptorm" und die herrschenden züge der symmetrischen ges“ mässigkeit "erzuordnen, während man die einzelheiten mehr oder weniger davon befreit. beides ist erlaubt und namentlich hat die renaissance von der freiheit umfassen” . Über die Ästhetik der rege vom goldenen schnitt. der lehrsatz vom goldenen schnitt lautet bekanntlich: der é/eznere zeit einer strecke verhält sich zum grösseren, zwie der grössere zur ganzen strecke. die theorie dieses satzes wurde von den pythagorären aufgestellt und am fünfeck, an der oval- und eilinie etc. nachgewiesen. man hat diesem satz ursprünglich eine etwas düstere und ge- heimnisvolle deutung gegeben im hinblick auf die un- endlichkeit seines vorkommens im pentagramm (druten- fuss), welches schon zur zeit des grauen heidentums als zauberformel gegen die macht böser geister und als er- kennungszeichen und symbol gebraucht und gescheut wurde. die tieferé bedeutung der regel des goldenen schnittes wurde erst in der neuzeit wieder ans licht ge- zogen. es mag sich damit ähnlich verhalten, wie mit den zehn büchern des vitruv, des einzig erhaltenen schrift- stellers über die antike baukunst – vitruv lebte als architekt in rom zur zeit des kaisers augustus – welche erst im . jahrhundert in der bibliothek des klosters st. gallen wieder aufgefunden wurden und deren studium die rekonstruktion der verfallenen tempel griechenlands ermöglicht hatte. der goldene schnitt scheint noch im mittelalter, im etagenbau der zum himmel anstrebenden türme praktische anwendung gefunden zu haben: es dürfte angenommen werden, dass jene regel mit dem aufgehen der bauhütten, wo die geheimnisse des bau- handwerks aufbewahrt zu werden pflegten, verloren ge" gangen sein möchte. wie dem auch sei, so gebühr“ prof. zeising das verdienst, im jahr im goldenen schnitt ein gesetz der Ästhetik gefunden und am mensch- lichen körper, dem ideal aller proportionalität, nachgewiesen zu haben. die sache ist ungefähr so zu erklären: eine strecke, z. b. ab, bildet ein ganzes. ein ganzes setzt die möglichkeit einer teilung voraus. bei vergleichung der teile zum ganzen, wie der teile unter sich, müssen notwendigerweise gewisse gegensätze hervor- treten. dieselben dürfen aber nicht durch blosses gleich- machen aufgehoben, weil proportionalität zwischen gleichen teilen unmöglich, noch dürfen sie ignoriert werden, weil proportion eben die beziehung ungleicher teile zu ein- ander ist. ist der unterschied der teile unbedeutend, so wird nicht nur ihre beziehung zum ganzen aufgehoben, sondern es gewinnt die vermutung raum, es möchte bei der absicht des gleichmachens ein irrtum begangen worden sein, was keine befriedigung aufkommen lässt. ist der unterschied aber ein sehr bedeutender, so muss diese tat- sache den versuch einer weitern teilung veranlassen, und da man damit nicht zu ende kommt, so bleibt auch in diesem falle die ästhetische befriedigung ausgeschlossen. es kann sich also nur darum handeln, bei den nicht zu entbehrenden ungleichheiten ein verhältnis aufzufinden, welches in allen fällen wohlgefällig erscheint. dies wird erreicht im bestimmen der masse nach der regel des goldenen schnittes. konstruktion des goldenen schnittes. eine beliebige strecke z. b. ab (fig. i) wird halbirt in c. von a aus das perpendikel gefällt und darauf die hälfte von ab in d aufgetragen und die hypotenuse bd stimmt, was aber nicht hindert, dass wenigstens das die höhe traversierende mittelstück derselben nebst schloss in die richtige höhe zu stehen kommt. wo nur die länge oder die breite gegeben ist, da ist aus dem bekannten das unbekannte abzuleiten. soll ein tisch o cm lang werden, so wird seine breite nach dem verhältnis des × o goldenen schnittes ( : ) = i , cmz betragen müssen u. s. w. dabei hat man keineswegs zu befürchten, dass der goldene schnitt zur lästigen formel werden möchte, welche zu schablonenhafter einförmigkeit kunstgewerblicher er- zeugnisse führen könnte; im gegenteil wird die befolgung der regel geradezu die mannigfaltigsten abwechslungen und gliederungen mit notwendigkeit hervorrufen, was z. b. bei vielen artikeln der kunstschlosserei, bei geländern und ballustraden etc. nachgewiesen werden könnte. zu unsern zwecken mag es schliesslich genügen, die wirkung der teilung nach dem gesetze des goldenen schnittes in einem allgemeinen satz zusammen zu fassen, indem wir sagen, dass die durch denselben geschaffene notwendige ungleichhezz der eile stets wieder ausgeglichen wird durch die gleichzezzig erreichte harmonie der grössen- verhältnisse, welche, zm vergleich der zeile unter sich wie der zeile zum ganzen, sich herausstellt. oder, um konkreter zu sprechen: subtrahiert man den minor eines ganzen vom major, so bildet der rest einen neuen minor und der gewesene minor wird zum major eines neuen ver- hältnisses; wird wieder subtrahiert, so wird der rest wieder zum minor eines weitern verhältnisses, u. s. w. man mag also vorwärts oder rückwärts rechnen, addieren oder sub- trahieren, so ergiebt sich stets eine wohlgefällige Übereinstim- mung der grössenverhältnisse, wie z. b. aus der gliederung der arm-, hand- oder fingerteile deutlich zu ersehen ist der goldene schnitt am menschlichen körper, in der natur und im kunstgewerbe. –r-a vergleicht man nun die nach dem goldenen ſ schnitt geteilte linie ab (fig. ) mit der länge der menschlichen figur, so fällt der teilpunkt für die beiden ungleichen teile in c, das ist die höhe der taille, oder der punkt, welcher durch die natur an- gedeutet ist. der grössere teil des körpers, oder m der major, welcher von der fusssohle bis an den gürtel reicht, ist also gleich der strecke bc und i der kürzere teil, der oberkörper, vom gürtel bis zur scheitelhöhe, ist gleich dem minor ac, und die körperlänge und schenkellänge bilden je die hälfte der ganzen figur und die mitte ist also in m- lb zwischen den ungleichen teilen des körpers be- fig. . steht nun eine harmonie darin, dass die eigenlänge eines teils jeweilen soweit über die hälfte des damit verglichenen grössern teils hinausreicht, als notwendig ist, um bei den Überresten stets wieder ein neues verhältnis entstehen zu lassen. dieses findet nun bei der mensch- lichen figur in ausgedehntestem masse statt, beim körper sowohl wie bei den gliedern, bis in die äussersten finger- und zehenknöchelchen hinaus, und zwar vorwärts wie rück“ wärts gemessen. die ästhetische notwendigkeit dieser verhältnis” erhält aber erst ihre volle würdigung, wenn wir uns die selben gestört vorstellen. eine person, deren kÖ"per imit zu den umrisszeichnungen auf der oberstufe, welche mit farbe behandelt werden sollen, ist feder (kugelspitz) und tusche oder chinesische sepiatinte oder ein ähnliches un- verwaschbares pigment zu gebrauchen. zu den einfassungen und konstruktionslinien kom- plizierterer ornamente ist der gebrauch von zirkel und lineal unbedenklich zu gestatten. v. die spezielle behandlung der geometrischen und rein akonstruktiven körperformen ist dem echnischzezc/znen, bezw. der projektionslehre und der parallelperspektive zuzuweisen. allein auf dem wege exakten messens und Übertragens der wahren raumgrössen nach grundriss, aufriss und schnitt erhält der schüler genaue begriffe von körpern und zeichnungen körperlicher gegenstände, wie sie im spätern berufsleben vorkommen. vi. die theoretische behandlung der perspektive, welche teils nach der mathematik, teils nach der hohen kunst hinstrebt, gehört nicht in den lehrplan für schulen, welches mit der schulpflicht abschliessen. auch der wert der freien perspektive darf nicht überschätzt werden, denn sie ist für die spätern berufsarten nicht unbedingt not- wendig, weil sie sich ja nur scheinbarer grössen bedient und nicht so weit fortgeführt werden kann, dass die aus- bildung des kunstsinnes dabei erheblich gefördert wird. immerhin ist die wahrnehmung und darstellung der per- spektivischen erscheinungen auf dem wege der freien anschauung, als erweiterung des formalen gesichtskreises mittelst einfacher skizzierungen soweit möglich zu pflegen und zu fördern. projekt. stufengang und stoffverteilung. (für günstig gestellte sekundarschulen. bei kleinen sekundar- und primarschulen muss namentlich für die oberstufe entsprechende reduktion stattfinden.) a) für kunstzeichnen. (wöchentlich – stunden.) für den stufengang des zeichnens ist derselbe weg einzuschlagen, den die kunstentwicklung ursprünglich ge- nommen; das sind die geometrischen elementarformen. viertes schuljahr. die gerade linie nach ihrer lage und richtung. die linienteilungen. zickzack- und mäanderzüge. die winkel- arten und teilungen derselben. das quadrat. das rechteck und der rautenstab. fünftes schuljahr. die teilweise wiederholung und fortsetzung des vorigen pensums, raumeinteilungen. bandverschlingungen. das gleichseitige dreieck. vielecke und sterngebilde. mäander und mäanderähnliche bänder. sechstes schuljahr. der kreis, das oval und die eilinie, der wende- bogen und die wellenlinie und ihre verbindung zu flecht- bändern. schild- und herzformen. rosetten. einfache blattformen. bandwellen. beginn des tuschens in farben. '^rab^ styles of ornament exhibited in designs and arranged in historical order with descriptive text. a handbook for architects, designers, painters, sculptors, wood-carvers, chasers, modellers, cabinet-makers and artistic locksmiths as well as also for technical schools, libraries and private study by alexander speltz architect" translated from the second qerman edition by david o'conor full-pages illustrations with illustrated descriptive ti e. w e y h e • lexington avenue • new york nk / 'so printed by p. a. hrockhaus, leipzig editor's preface the first german edition of this work was published in and met with such signal success that its author herr alexander speltz was called upon to bring out a second edition two years later. in this edition the number of plates was increased from three to four hundred which enabled the author to give a more complete representation of ornament as developed in england and america •cthan had been at first contemplated. j the original work was undertaken with the object of representing the entire .grange of ornament in all its different styles from pre-historic times till the middle jof the th century and to illustrate the different uses to which it had been ^applied. the whole of the illustrations which were taken from the best autho- vj rities on each subject and period were drawn specially for the work and evince the remarkable industry and knowledge of the author and his artistic power in representing ornament. in fact it is only necessary to glance through the several plates to see how closely the author has caught the style and character of each period. acknowledgments of the sources are made throughout the work and in addition a special list of books of reference, including those which have been drawn upon for illustrations, has been inserted at the end of the volume. an english edition was published in america in for sale in that country only, but the historical accounts were not in accordance with the latest research and many of the descriptions to the plates had suffered so much in translation that very considerable revision was necessary in preparing the present issue. three new plates of english ornament have been added to this edition taking the place of others which it was found necessary to delete, various changes have also been made in the headings to some of the chapters and in the terms employed, more particularly in the section devoted to the renaissance period; for instance the term "barocco", which although well-known and recognised throughout germany is but seldom used here, has been replaced by "later renaissance" which is more familiar to the english student and includes that which used to be known as the pure italian style introduced by inigo jones. iv editor's preface. the term rococo has been retained as it would have been difficult to find any other to suggest the vagaries of the louis xv. style which spread through italy, france, spain, germany and flanders and here in england led to chippendale's work; the terms adopted to distinguish the later periods are adhered to as in the original edition. the plates and their accompanying descriptions being arranged throughout in chronological sequence renders an index a very important adjunct and special care has been taken in preparing that given in the work. the examples are entered according to both subject and material and the periods to which they relate are indicated, thus enabling any particular object in any style to be imme- diately referred-to. the plates in which the several styles of ornament are illustrated contain a larger and much more varied series than in any work hitherto published, indeed the volume forms a veritable encyclopaedia of the evolution development and application of ornament in architecture and the decorative arts throughout the ages, and it should prove of great value to the architect, craftsman, designer and student. london, january . r. phene spiers. contents. introduction. - - - - - - - prehistoric and primitive ornament . antiquity egyptian ornament . - babylonian-assyrian ornament. persian ornament. phoenician-hebraic ornament indian ornament . greek ornament etruscan ornament . roman ornament . pompeian ornament. celtic ornament the middle ages early-christian ornament . . . . . . lombardo-byzantine ornament in italy visigothic ornament in spain. italo-byzantine ornament in italy frankish ornament . - byzantine ornament. - byzantine ornament in spain romanesque ornament. - - - romanesque ornament in germany romanesque ornament in france . . . . . . romanesque ornament in upper and middle italy saracen-norman ornament in sicily and lower italy romanesque ornament in spain. romanesque ornament in england . romanesque ornament in scandinavia. – — – – — – – – – – – – – , – – – – – – – – — ... – vi summary of contents. plates page russian ornament — mahometan ornament — arabian ornament — moorish ornament — saracenic ornament ottoman ornament — persian ornament — indo-saracenic ornament — gothic ornament — gothic ornament in france — gothic ornament in the netherlands — gothic ornament in england — gothic ornament in germany and austria — gothic ornament in italy — gothic ornament in spain — chinese ornament — cambodian ornament — japanese ornament — renaissance and modern times - renaissance ornament — renaissance in italy — florence — rome — venice — various — renaissance in france . . — renaissance ornament in spain and portugal .... — renaissance in germany, austria and switzerland. . . — swiss renaissance wood buildings — renaissance ornament in hungary renaissance ornament in the netherlands — ornament of the northern renaissance — slavonic renaissance ornament — renaissance ornament in poland renaissance ornament in russia — renaissance ornament in england . — later renaissance ornament — later renaissance ornament in italy — later renaissance ornament in france (louis xiv. style) — later renaissance ornament in germany, austria and switzerland. _ — later renaissance ornament in the netherlands . . . — later renaissance ornament in england — summary of contents. vii plates page rococo ornament — rococo ornament in italy rococo ornament jnjiancejlouis xv.^tidcu - ... -_-. _• — . rococo ornament in germany and austria — rococo ornament in england (chippendale style). . . . — colonial style ornament in the united states .... — ornament of the classical revival of the th century — th century ornament in italy — th century ornament in france (louis xvi. style) . . . — th century ornament in the netherlands th century ornament in germany — th century ornament in england — examples of the work of r. and j. adam — furniture made from designs by sheraton — furniture made from designs by hepplewhite .... work prepared from various designs — empire ornament — empire ornament in france — examples of the work of percier and fontaine . . . — various designs , later empire empire ornament in italy — examples of the work of guiseppe borsato .... empire ornament in germany — biedermeier or old fashioned style in germany . . . , neogrec ornament in germany — list of reference books index of illustrations according to subject and material introduction. ighlly understood, the conformation of an ornament should be in keeping with the form and structure of the object which it adorns, should be in complete subordination to it, and should never stifle or conceal it. as varied and as many-sided as it may be, still, the art of ornamen- tation is never an arbitrary one; besides depending on the form of the object, it is influenced also by the nature of the material of which the same is made, as well as by the style or manner in which natural objects are reproduced in ornamentation by different peoples at different times. the art of ornamentation, there- fore, stands in intimate relationship with material, purpose, form; and style. the oldest forms of ornamentation consisted of geometric figures, initial from a german manu- .... . , ... ... script. th century (dolmetsch). small circles, bands, straight and curved lines, <sc, all of which were drawn with categorical regularity and according to a certain rhythm. with the advance in the intellectual development of mankind, artists acquired more technical skill, and ventured even to make use of animals, plants, and, finally, of the human figure itself, for orna- mental purposes a plant or a living being can be employed in ornamentation in two ways, firstly, just as it is formed by nature—which is naturalistic orna- ment, and secondly, in a form which reflects the spirit of the times, the political or religious ideas of the peoples, or the effects of foreign influence—where by speltz, styles of ornament. introduction. was formed the stylistic ornament . each style exhibits one and the same plant and one and the same animal in a different fashion. each country sought the models for its own ornamentation in its own fauna and flora, and each style had certain plants and animals which it preferred to all others. style is really more the product of one epoch of time rather than of a single people, and it is according to this chronological standpoint that the present work has been ar- ranged. in keeping with the tendency of the work, it may be remarked that the illustrations, are all reproductions of such objects only as were really produced at the period for which the style is characteristic. stonehenge near salisbury. prehistoric and primitive ornament. stonerellef from yucatan (globus ). ivided according to the periods of development during which it existed, prehistoric ornament extends over two great epochs: the stone age and the metal age. it is, however, charac- teristic not alone of all peoples who lived on the earth in prehistoric times, peoples se- parated by thousands of years from each other, but even of people who exist at the present day. we find the prehistoric orna- ment not only amongst the remains of those races of people who lived along the medi- terranean over years ago, but also the primitive ornament amongst different people who inhabit certain parts of the earth at present but who have not yet advanced beyond that stage civilisation to which this style of ornament is peculiar. prehistoric ornament embraces two periods: the stone age and the metal age. the stone age is generally supposed to have begun at the end of the last period of the tertiary age, distinct proofs place it at the last epoch of the diluvian era. during the paleolithic or ancient stone age, stone was habitu- ally used as the material from which tools were made; in the neolithic or later stone age the tools were polished and given an artistic form, and vessels made of clay decorated with simple ornamentations were manufactured. lake dwellings, the burying of the dead in caves, middens, barrows, cromlechs, and other nu- merous megalithic monuments, the use and purpose of which are still matter of speculation, are all characteristic of this era. in the course of time these early inhabitants arrived at a stage of development which enabled them to make prehistoric ornament. use of metals, bronze being first employed and later on iron, the different periods being designated as the earlier and later bronze age and the earlier and later iron age. the use of bronze was introduced from the east throughout the entire of europe at about the year b. c. the later bronze age extended only over the middle and north of europe and dates from about to b.c. iron was however already worked during this period in the countries bordering on the mediterranean, and was besides extensively known to the assyrians in the ninth century before christ. in all probability the use of iron was intro- duced from assyria into europe, where, in consequence of its introduction, new forms were given to arms, tools, and implements of all kinds. iron was now used almost entirely for arms and tools, bronze being employed for artistic work. the earlier or ancient iron age is called also the hallstadt period, hallstadt being a locality in the salzkammergut where all the greatest and most important discoveries dealing with this period were made. the later iron age, designated also as the la tene period in consequence of the discovery of remains found in the castle in the island la tene in the lake of neuchatel, dates from to b. c., and is confined generally speaking to the gallic races. even in those prehistoric times a very lively commercial intercourse existed between the different peoples. the locality, therefore, where a certain article has been discovered cannot by any means be accepted as the country of its origin. it could just as well have been manufactured by another people more advanced in civilisation, and have been brought by itinerant traders to the locality where it was eventually found. the stone and metal periods, however, are not confined alone to those pre- historic peoples who have long since passed away, and of whose names or descent we have never been able to acquire the slightest knowledge. there are people in asia, africa, america, and australia, at the present day, who have not even yet arrived so far as the metal period. the inhabitants of america at the time of its discovery had not yet advanced beyond the stone or metal age. examples of their work are therefore included in the two plates dealing with these periods. prehistoric and the primitive ornaments may be said to be purely geometric ones, the artists of the time rising very seldom to such heights as to try and imitate in their work the figures of men, animals, or plants. altough there cannot be any mention of "style" in connection with it as it was so disconnected, and so widely separated by time and space—still, prehistoric ornament as such formed the foundation upon which genuine styles were constructed later on. plate i. prehistoric ornament. prehistoric ornament. plate . prehistoric ornament. plate . prehistoric ornament. fig. . ivory carving found in a cave in lourdes (hoerner, urgeschichte). „ . ivory carving found in arudy (basses pyrenees), france (hoerner). „ . ivory carving found in brassempoy, france (hoerner). „ . clay statuette found in budmir, bosnia (hoerner). „ , and . earthenware vessels found in budmir, bosnia (hoerner). „ . vessel found in the pile-dwellings on laibach moor, later stone age (hoerner). „ . bronze object from the first iron age found in hungary (hoerner). „ . bronze jewel found in hungary (hoerner). „ . bronze needle (brockhaus, konversationslexicon). „ . earthenware vessel found in odenburg, first stone age (hoerner). „ . urn found in west prussia (hoemer). „ . urn found in borgstedfeld, holstein (hoerner). „ . bronze plate found in glarinoc, bosnia (hoerner). „ . bronze greave found in herzegovina (hoerner). „ . weapon found in hungary (hoemer). „ . iron dagger found in the lake of garda (hoerner). „ . fragment of an engraved bronze girdle found in chodschali in transcaucasia (hoerner). „ . jewel from the gold-discoveries in vettersfelde (hoerner). „ . lance-head, germany (hoerner). „ , , and . wicker-work found in the swiss pile-dwellings (lubke, die kunst des altertums). „ . border ornamentation of a bronze basin found in the wles, styria (hoerner). „ . clay figure found in a boeotian grave (hoerner). „ . stone axe of montezuma (sir john evans). „ . sword of the bronze age (lubke). „ . needle of the bronze age (lubke). „ , and . bronze clasps (brockhaus). „ . scabbard (brockhaus). „ . figure of charon on a bronze relief plate found in north syria (hoerner). „ . bronze fibula (brockhaus). „ . double earthenware vessel found at langenlebron in a grave of the hall- stadt period (hoerner). „ . scissors (brockhaus). „ . bronze wedge (brockhaus). „ . neck ornament (lubke). „ . needle (lubke). „ . bronze sword (lubke). „ . stone spear-head (brockhaus). .- ,. „ . bronze fibula (brockhaus). /*.•. •:' „' . stone knife (brockhaus). „ . stone sickle (lubke). / „ . iron spear-head (brockhaus). ( . „ . iron vestment pin (brockhaus).! primitive ornament. plate . prehistoric ornament. plate . prehistoric ornament. fig . ancient peruvian vase (brockhaus konversationslexikon). „ . granite vase found in honduras (brockhaus). „ , , , , , , and . bronze weapons (llibke, kunst des altertums). „ . urn found in the district of the elbe (reichhold, flachornament des altertums). „ , , and . knives found in the swiss pile-dwellings (reichhold). „ . relief on the monolith gate of tiahuanaco (lubke). „ , and . wedges of the inkas period (brockhaus). „ , , , and . earthenware vessels found in america (reichhold). „ . relief from a mexican temple (brockhaus). „ . earthenware vessel found in the island of cyprus (reichhold). „ . sepulchral urn found in england (reichhold). „ . sepulchral urn found in sweden (reichhold). „ . ornament from a building in prinxillo (lubke). „ , , , and . earthenware vessels from the middle rhine (reichhold). „ . old italian sepulchral urn with engraved ornamentations (reichhold). „ . relief cut in the rocks in izamal, yucatan (brockhaus). „ . , , , — , and . bronze jewels (lflbke). „ . fragment of a column (american), found in tula (brockhaus). „ to . metal-vessel ornamentations of the bronze age (lubke). - . idol. plate . primitive ornament. fig. . mat from the southsea (finsch, erfahrungen und belegstacke aus der sudsee). „ . fan screen of painted feathers from australia (racinet, l'ornement polychrome). „ , and . painting from an australian canoe (racinet). „ . painted woodcarving from central africa (racinet). „ . model of a bouse of the haida, queen charlotte's islands. in the anthro- pological museum of berlin. „ . ebony spatula with incrusted work from new guinea (reichhold, kunst und zeichnen). „ . specimen of woven work from australia (racinet). „ . club from new zealand (racinet). ,, . native chair, camerun. in the anthropological museum of berlin. „ . woodcarving from a canoe in new zealand. in the louvre (racinet). „ , and . terminal heads of paddles from polynesia (glazier, a manual of historic ornament). door of the grand theocalli of uxmal, yucatan (gailhabaud, denkmaler). frame: mexican ceramic ornaments in the british museum (owen jones, grammar of ornaments). antiquity. § egyptian wood columns (prisse d'avennes, hist. d. 'art égyptien). egyptian ornament. egyptian dress (lflbke). wig before civilisation was known in egypt there existed at one time in ancient syria and ba- bylonia, countries once so rich and flourishing, a civilisation much older than that of egypt . proofs of this civilisation have been brought to light in the excavations carried out in recent years in these two countries. it is, however, egypt that has supplied us with those series of monuments by means of which the most ancient historical facts now in our possession have been put together and verified. even so far back as b. c. an extensive artistic spirid reigned throughout egypt. the historic period of the country, which dates from about the year b. c. when mena was king, comprise thirty dynasties, and is divided in accordance with the records of the priest manetho into four principal periods, namely: . the ancient kingdom dating from about b. c. to about b. c. this period, reached ,its highest glory under khyan, the last king of the tenth dynasty. the city of memphis in lower egypt flourished during this period. . the middle kingdom dates from to b. c. the principal centres were in middle and upper egypt with the capital thebes. the highest period of development characteristic of this epoch was reached about b. c. during the th dynasty, the decline and decay of this development being brought about by the conquest of the country by the hyksos who had their centre of government in the city of tanis. egyptian ornament. . the modern kingdom dates from the year to b. c. the principal city was thebes in upper egypt. the highest period of development was reached in the years to b. c. under hat-shepsut, rameses, seti, and rameses ii., of the th and th dynasties. the decline began about the year b. c. . the later period dates from the year b. c., the period of the restoration by psammeticus with the capital sais. the final development took place under the ,h dynasty between the years to b. c. when the country was conquered by the persians, during whose occupation few buildings were erected. in b. c. a revival took place under the rule of alexander the great which was continued by the ptolemies from the year b. c. and by the romans from b. c. the life led by the ancient egyptians was characterised by distinctly marked order and regularity, and to this is due the clearness, exactness and dignity, which distinguish egyptian works cf art. they are deficient however in that warm spirit which animates grecian art, and are in consequence cold and stiff. owing to the scarcity of timber, all the great enclusures of temples, palaces, and domestic structures generally were built in unburnt brick, a material which necessitated a much greater thickness for the lower part of the wall at the base, and this type of construction would appear to have been the model on which all the great monuments in stone were based, thus accounting for the raking walls given to the pylcns and temples apart from a pure geometrical setting-out, egyptian ornament consists of a rigidly systematic arrangement of plants native to the country. the well-known egyptologist, louis borchardt, has arranged a clear classification of egyptian plant-ornamentation, and the complete plants used as models being arranged by him as follows: . the lotus-flower, nymphaea lotus l, nymphaea cerula l, and nym- phaea nelumbo l . the lily, the botanical name of which has not yet been fixed. . the papyrus flower, cyperus papyrus l . the date-palm, phoenix dactylifera l. . reeds and a kind of withe* were also cften employed as can be seen from certain fragments discovered in the excavations. the lotus and papyrus flowers were, however, used the most often by the ancient egyptians in the ornamentation of all kinds of work, from the most colossal egyptian columns down to the smallest objects. borchardt denies that there is any constructive importance to be attached to the egyptian plant-column. to the ancient egyptians, the temple meant the world, the ceiling was the heavens, under which the columns, made to represent plants, rose up from a mound of probably the leaf of the maize or indian corn. egyptian ornament. earth. that the imitation of a plant was used as a support for the ceiling is an idea which cannot be accepted. as, however, supports for carrying the ceiling were necessary, there was placed, as connecting link between the supports and the burden, an abacus, which on account of the strong swell of the capital, was invisible from below. in this way, the idea of having again flowers under the open skies was realised. it is therefore, according to this, evident that the ornament was used as a support and not that the support was ornamented. the principal featuies characterising the manner in which egyptian artists wished to represent the lotus flower were, first, the elliptical form of the buds with stalks, then the calyx of the flowers rounded off above, and the intermediate petals rounded off in a similar manner. the lotus-flowers have no foot-leaves, these being peculiar to the papyrus-shaped columns only. there are closed and opened lotus and papyrus columns, as well as simple and compound ones. although stone is the material which predominates, columns and vessels in wood have also been discovered. casting in metal, clay and even glass-blowing, were known to the ancient egyptians, and they were adepts in the textile industry. in the ornamentation of egyptian buildings, more especially in temples and tombs, painting was the predominant characteristic. plate . border: column with closed lotus capital from a mural painting found in the tomb of the kej of bersche. it dates from the middle egyptian kingdom (borchardt). fig. . column with closed lotus capital from the middle kingdom, found in beni- hasan. horizontal section is also given. (lepsius, tagebuch.) like all lotus columns, this one has neither foliage nor entasis. from the stone base, on which the column is raised, rise main stalks. these, and the intermediate stalks, are held together by means of chaplets. the capital is made up oi lotus-buds with longitudinal convex bands. the abacus is small and square. „ . closed lotus capital dating from the ancient egyptian kingdom, found by de morgan in the tomb of the ptah-schep-ses near aboukir. horizontal section of the column is also given. (revue arch. .) the column consists of principal and intermediate stalks, held together by neck-bands. the ca- pital consists of very sharp-pointed buds. the intermediate stalks end above in open lotus-flowers. the whole column is painted over in a naturalistic manner. „ . closed lotus capital from the ptolemaic epoch, taken from the temple of isis-us-ret in philae (borchardt). columns with closed lotus capitals did not exist in the modern kingdom. this kind of capital, like all capitals from the time of the ptolemies, was peculiar in the fact that the stalks were allowed to appear below the bands of the necking. in this example, furthermore, the triple intermediate stalks do not rest between the main stalks. the shaft is smooth and completely covered with hieroglyphics. plate . egyptian ornament. plate . egyptian ornament. egyptian ornament. fig. . open lotus capital in edfu, dating from the time of the ptolemies (prisse, histoire de l'art egyptien). this capital consists of large lotus-flowers standing close to each other. between each pair of these flowers are others—one large and small ones—which rise from small intermediate posts, and between these flowers are other extremely small ones. open lotus capitals of columns dating from the ancient kingdom have not yet been discovered in a perfect condition. „ , and . open lotus capitals decorating piers from the ancient kingdom, found in the tombs and of the hepl in sawijet el meitni (borchardt). „ . symbol of the union of upper and lower egypt from the throne of a cephren statue in glzeh (borchardt). the symbol of upper egypt was the lily, the botanical name of which cannot, however, be even yet fixed, and the symbol of lower egypt the papyrus. „ . thothmes pillar of granite dating from the new kingdom, found in the sanc- tuary in karnak (lepsius, tagebuch). „ . open papyrus capital in philae dating from the time of the ptolemies (prisse). „ . papyrus ornament from a mural fresco found in a tomb in beni-hasan (prisse). „ . osiride pillar from medinet habu (perrot and chipiez, history of art). plate . border: papyrus column with closed capital from a mural fresco found in the tomb of kha'-em-het at gurna. this example dates from the later egyptian king- dom (borchardt). fig. . papyrus column with closed capital in front of the pyramid of amenemhet near hawara. this column dates from the middle kingdom (prisse). from the stone base on which the column rests, spring stalks arranged in regular order. the horizontal section of the column given in the same figure will make this clear. as is the case with all papyrus columns, there are, at the foot of the stalk, sheathing leaves which enclose the lower portion of the column. under the capital, the stalks narrow off, and are bound together by fillets. over these fillets, closed buds, each with a head-foil, develop themselves. the section of the buds and stalks is triangular. under the neck-band are clusters each having stalks. these capitals, however, gradually lost their characteristic form, until finally, they became completely changed as in fig. . „ . palm-leaf capital of a column at philae dating from the later egyptian kingdom (prisse). here, also a space exists between the capital and the neck-band. „ . capital in the palace of thothmes, — b. c. in karnac (lepsius). „ . palm-leaf capital of a column in bersche dating from the middle kingdom (borchardt). „ . papyrus column with open flower capital from the granite pilasters in front of the sanctuary in karnac (lepsius). „ . open papyrus flower capital at karnac, dating from the middle kingdom (prisse). pictures and inscriptions are worked in between the painted flower stalks. „ . clay mould with lily from tell-el-araarna dating from the middle kingdom (petrie, tell-el-amarna). speltz, stylo of ornament . plate . egyptian ornament. egyptian ornament. pig. . turned papyrus-capital of a column with closed flower, at karnac, dating from the later egyptian kingdom (prisse). „ . decoration of a figured dish in the british museum (borchardt). „ . figured frieze—flowers and buds from the same plant—from the palace of amenophis' iv. in tell-el-amarna (borchardt). „ . papyrus ornament on a figured dish in the british museum (borchardt). „ . papyrus thicket from the mural fresco of a tomb in benihasan, dating from the middle kingdom (borchardt). „ . withe from a painted wreath of a coffin, dating from the middle kingdom. „ . palm-shaped column in process of manufacture from a mural fresco at gurna; dating from the middle kingdom. plate . border: closed lotus capital from a mural fresco (borchardt). fig. to . egyptian mural fresco (uhde). „ . woven work sandals (prisse, hist, de tart egypt.). „ , and . sphinx in red granite in the museum of the vatican (tatham, anc. ornam. arch, in rome). „ . scent-spoon from collection in the louvre (perrot and chipiez). „ . egyptian dagger (perrot and chipiez). „ . leather sandals (perrot and chipiez). „ . egyptian bronze knife (perrot and chipiez). „ , and . egyptian lions in green basalt before the capitol in rome (tatham anc. ornam. arch, in rome). „ , and . egyptian heads in relief dating from the later kingdom (lflbke). „ . egyptian sewing-needles (perrot and chipiez). „ , and . old-egyptian wooden chairs (koeppen und breuer, geschichte d. mobels). „ , , and . egyptian furniture (canina, arch. ant.). plate . border: columns with open lotus-capital from a painted canopy in a tomb at ourna, dating from the middle kingdom (borchardt). fig. . painted bouquet-column in the tomb of sennundem. dates from the egyptian middle kingdom (berlin museum, ph. ). „ . breast-plate of gold with incrusted enamel bearing the name of rameses il . (perrot and chipiez). „ . head of nofret (labke). „ . egyptian clay jar (libonis, les styles). „ . egyptian amphora (libonis). plate . egyptian ornament. egyptian ornament. fig. . rhyton, an egyptian musical instrument (libonis). „ . ceiling ornamentation from memphis and thebes (prisse). „ . winged sun, the symbol of royal dignity dating from the ancient kingdom of the egyptians. „ . gold necklace (libonis). „ . girl with guitar from a mural painting in thebes (perrot and chipiez). „ . ornament (libonis). „ . ring of rameses ii. (perrot and chipiez). „ . transporting a mummy, from a mural painting. „ . harness (prisse). „ . engraved ring in the louvre, paris (perrot and chipiez). „ . egyptian doors of wood (prisse). „ . bracelet of prince psat, dating from the new egyptian kingdom. building a temple, from a mural painting found in a grave at abd-el-gurna (lttbke). babylonian-assyrian ornament. long the banks of the euphrates and tigris, in the sacred land of mesopotamia, and under the special influence of these two streams, a characteristic civilisation deve- loped itself more than years ago— much the same as the civilisation which was .developed in egypt under the influence of the nile. the results of the latest exca- vations in tello, niniveh, nimroud, koyunjik, khorsabad, and other places, have afforded proofs of the existence, even as far back as b. c. of the sumerians, a non-semitic people who became afterwards united with the assyrians. it may therefore be accepted as certain, that in this river valley a civili- sation existed which was older than that of egypt . the language cf the sumerians long after it ceased to exist as a living tongue was spoken as a dead language by scholars. the bible itself mentions the colossal buildings erected by the babylonian and assyrian kings at that remote period. in this particular country, there was such a mixture of peoples, one alternately subjugated by another, that the art of the epoch must be regarded as one common to the people as a whole. the people themselves appear to have been more of a sensible and practical, rather than of a peotic turn of mind. they were at once commercial as well as warlike, keeping material gain and their own supremacy above all other matters. stone imbossed work, representing the surrender of lachis to sen- nacherib (roger-miles). babylonian-assyrian ornament. in the third thousand before christ a number of small principalities . . . such as shirpula, ur of the chaldees, isin, larsa, etc. . . . existed in south babylonia, but were finally conquered by khammunrabi, king of north babylonia in the year b. c. after this conquest the city of babylonia was made the capital. the kingdom of the semitic assyrians was founded and began about the year b. c., developing into a powerful state about b. c., the principal cities being ashur and nineveh. this kingdom reached its highest glory in the reigns of assurnasipal ( — b. c.), shalmaneser ii. ( — b. c.), sargonll. ( — b.c.), sennachirib ( — b.c.), esarhaddon( — ), and ashur-bani-pal (sardanapalus) ( — ). under this latter monarch assyria became the principal world-power, being however deprived of this supremacy by nabcpolassar of babylonia and cyaxaras of media in the year b. c. the new kingdom now established flourished for a short time, to b. c. under nebuchadnezzar, being itself finally conquered by cyrus king of persia in this year b. c. while structures built of stone predominated in egypt, in these districts on the tigris and euphrates the buildings were almost always constructed of air- dried bricks, which accounts for the fact that so few of them have remained intact. walls made of these unburnt bricks were first coated with stone slabs, plaster, or asphalt, and then covered with mosaic-work formed of glazed pieces of terra-cotta. most of the discoveries, therefore, made in this region, consist of these fragments of glazed terra-cotta, in which work these people excelled. the specimens of sculpture which have come down to us are mostly all in relief, few of them being in cavo-relievo. many of the art objects discovered in recent excavations show egyptian influence, but there is no proof of any kind at hand pointing to the supposition that such objects were brought into assyria by egyptian traders. as in egypt, so here also the lotus-flower played a very important role in ornamentation. there must be a distinction made between a specific babylonian period and a specific assyrian period, the ruins of which were discovered at different levels in the excavations in nimroud, khorsabad, nineveh, and koyunjik. it must be regarded as certain, that, next to the egyptian, babylonian-assyrian art exercised a very great influence, on the one side, towards the east and north, that is, india, china and persia, and on the other side, towards the west, especially in the mediterranean islands. plate . babylonian-assyrian ornament. @mmmi£ e^>w&smlbki^& urn 'iffi'^^^^asa^so ';>£?'ggggggampf 'am ism ' babylonian-assyrian ornament. plate . fig. . assyrian relief in alabaster from nineveh, taken from the palace of king ashurbanipal ( — b. c.), after a photograph from the english excavations. what is very remarkable in this example is the extremely soft outlines of the lioness as she lies stretched at the feet of the lion; the lithe grace and lissomness of her body are in fine contrast with the strongly-marked, swelling, and powerful muscles. „ . bas-relief showing a wounded lion (libonis). in the british museum. „ , , and . capital in ivory from the ruins of nineveh. in the british museum. (dieulafoy, l'art antique). „ . window with balustrade under cill, from the ruins of nineveh (dieulafoy). „ , and . relief in ivory from the ruins of nineveh (dieulafoy). in the british museum. „ . capital of baluster. „ . assyrian bowl (semper, der stil). „ . the assyrian winged-globe (perrot). „ . the assyrian mysterious tree (perrot). „ . siren (babelon, archeologie). „ . assyrian pedestal (dieulafoy). „ . vessel resembling a basket in the hand of a sacrificer (semper). ,, . the babylonian lion. bas-relief made of glazed bricks from the temple of ninmach (gurlitt). the babylonian lion was white with a yellow mane, or yellow with a green mane, the background being light blue. plate . fig. . floor ornament from koyunjik (labke, kunst des altertums). the motif in this ornament appears to have been copied from a very ancient piece of textil-work, which, notwithstanding its antiquity, shows highly-developed artistic workmanship. „ . capital or base of column at khorsabad (uhde, architekturiormen des klas- sischen altertums). „ . mural decoration made of burned, glazed stone, from nimroud (uhde). „ . assyrian relief in alabaster, showing king ashurbanipal ( — b. c) hunting. taken from a photograph at the english excavations in nineveh. „ . assyrian wall decoration made of enamelled slabs (labke). „ . from an assyrian embroidery (perrot and chipiez). „ . bronze fragments of chairs found in nimroud (uhde). „ . ornamentation on glazed, coloured bricks from the wall of a court in the palace of king nebuchadnezar at babylon. from a photograph taken in the recent german excavations in babylon. „ . assyrian standards (libonis). „ . arched portal from koyunjik (labke). „ . horse bridle (brockhaus). „ . bronze lion from the palace of sardanapalus (libonis). „ . winged steer with human head, in the louvre, paris (libonis). plate . babylonian-assyrian ornament. > i»»*. v.; u ^ , ^♦^-^ n ) pfs ims ik-®- plate . babylonian-assyrian-ornament. babylonian-assyrian ornament. plate . border: flag-post on palaces (uhde). fig. . ancient babylonian female head in diorite. a genuine original is preserved in the berlin museum. a similar head was discovered in the excavations carried out by the french in tello (south-babylonia). . assyrian chair (perrot). . bronze tripod in the louvre (perrot). . carriage-pole (perrot). . bronze sword (perrot). . footstool (perrot). . beaker (perrot). . bracelet (perrot). . , and . ear-rings (perrot). . metal bucket (perrot). , , and . amphorae of clay (perrot). , and . goblets (semper). . bronze fragment from a chair of state (babelon). . washhand stand (semper). . dish (semper). . metal bucket (semper). . and . fork and spoon (smith, assyrian discoverls). . gold buttons, in the british museum (perrot). . harness (perrot). . gold ear-ring (perrot). . embroidered breast-piece (layard, monuments). . royal necklet of gold (perrot). assyrian fighting car (l'art pour tous). persian ornament. isunion and a continual state of unrest were the conditions permanent in the south- western part of asia in ancient times. the supremacy was ever changing and never fixed, and, as a consequence, the peoples who inhabited it were not in a position to develop any independent art distinct from each other. the conquerors or the con- quered were always naturally influenced by the more advanced section of those with whom they were brought into contact. for these reasons, it is clear that persian orna- ment can show but very little characteristic peculiarities, egyptian, assyrian and helle- nic influences being all plainly discernable. the beautiful buildings of the persian kings were erected by artists who were made prisoners in the wars in babylonia, egypt, and in the grecian colonies in asia minor. the first beginnings in persian art were very probably made by the medes, a people who conquered the kingdom of the elamites with its capital city susa imbossed work, representing the king xerxes upon the throne (roger-miles). plate . persian ornament. alawi/siliwºº, ſºlº//- persian ornament. in the th century b. c. an then founded a powerful state making egbatana the capita], but who were, later on themselves subjugated in the year b. c. by the persians under cyrus. no remains, however, of a special median art have ever been discovered. persia developed into the most powerful empire in the world under the reigns of cyrus ( — ), cambyses ( — ), darius — ), and xerxes ( — b. c.), but was in its turn conquered by alexander the great in the year b. c. from the years to b. c. it was under the sway of the seleucidae, from b. c. to a. d. it was subject to the parthians, and from a. d. to a. d. to the sassanians. under the sway of the latter a new persian empire was established which flourished until it finally became subject to islamite supremacy. the islamites when in decided power changed entirelv the character of art then flourishing, giving it an entirely new direction an turning it on to entirely different lines from those along which it had hitherto moved. persian art, which continued to develop for about two centuries, is the last echo of the art of the mesopotamian lands. with the destruction of the persian empire by alexander the great, hellenic art, already flourishing at that period, won the upper hand throughout the east . plate . fig. . lion frieze in the louvre (dieulafoy). „ . lion and griffin frieze (dieulafoy). „ , , and . columns from persepolis (uhde). „ , and . column in the hall of xerxes in persepolis (uhde). „ . detail from the tomb of king achemenides in the necropolis of takhte- djemschid (dieulafoy). „ . floor of stairs in the palace of artaxerxes (libonis). „ . frieze, a winged steer (libonis). „ . relief at persepolis (liibke). „ , and . persian bases (dieulafoy). plate . fig. , and . persian wall decoration of glazed terra-cotta (libonis). „ . head of a steer in the louvre (perrot and chipiez). „ , , and . persian pottery (perrot and chipiez). „ . from a bas-relief in the hall of the columns, persepolis (flandin et coste, perse ancienne). „ . persian silver coin (perrot and chipiez). „ . bas-relief at persepolis. „ . head-dress of cyrus (dieulafoy). plate . persian ornament. yi .j persian ornament. fig. , and . fragment of an enamel bas-relief from susa (dieulafoy). , , and . bas-reliefs from the graves of naksché roustem (dieulafoy). , . mosaic from the floor of stairs in the palace of artaxerxes (libonis). , , and . utensils in chased silver. dating from the sassanian period. in the paris medaillon-cabinet (havard, histoire de l'orfèvrerie française). curtain over the throne of achemenides (dieulafoy). speltz, styles of ornament. . phoenician-hebraic ornament. phoenicia lived a distinctly commercial people, full of the spirit of trade, thinking of nothing but gain and commerce and keeping their commercial interests always above other interests of any kind whatever. in the second thousand before christ they were already settled on the coast of syria, had trading-stations and colonies in greece, italy, gaul, hispania, and africa, and in their intercourse with the various peoples with whom they traded paid attention only to such matters as were best likely to forward their own commercial interests. to this commercial spirit is due the fact that there is no strictly phoenician art . in the phoenician ornament evidences of all kinds of decoration can be recognised, egyptian-assyrian influence being specially predominant . the most characteristic examples of phoenician art which have come down to us are their jewels. these imply that the phoenicians lived in a high state of luxury, and prove also that they had reached a high state of development in the art of working in gold. the hebrews in palestine were entirely dependent on the phoenicians for their technics and their art. the mosaic law forbidding pictures and images prevented the free development of art amongst the jews. in the reigns of david and solomon, that is, about the year b. c., hebrew art was in its highest glory, and remained so until the destruction of jerusalem by nebuchadnezar in the year b. c. the principal buildings of king solo- mon's palace, and of the temple, were however the work of phoenician artists and artisans. numerous tombs cut into rocks at this time and characteristic of this period are still preserved in north syria along the upper euphrates a phoenician in the time of king thoutmes iii froger-milesv plate . phoenician-hebraic ornament. phoenician-hebraic ornament. and in cappadocia lived a people called the hittites who were neither of aryan or hebrew stock. they were settled here since the year b. c., and, from b. c. were continuously attacked by the assyrians, being finally conquered and destroyed by sargon in the ' century b. c. these people had a special, characteristic style of their own, a style, however, which shows traces of egyptian and assyrian influence. the art of the hittites, however, on the other hand played an important part in and powerfully influenced the development of persian art only very few remains of this civilisation are now in existence. with regard to the other races who also lived in asia minor, it may be remarked that, the remains which have come down to us from these peoples are so few that it is no possible to deduce from them any distinct, characteristic style. plate . fig. . frieze hewn in stone (renan mission, libonis). „ . capital found in cyprus (vogue mission). „ , and . phoenician capitals (libonis). „ , , and . phoenician jewels (libonis). „ , , , and . phoenician vases from dali (lflbke). „ . vase from larnaka (lflbke). „ . glass vase from jerusalem (libonis). „ . pigmy in burnt clay, in the louvre (libonis). „ . head of a sarcophagus in clay from carthage (libonis). „ , , and . phoenician vases from alhambra (lflbke). „ . phoenician glass vases (libonis). „ . phoenician altar (cippe), (libonis). „ . silver dish from curium in cyprus (graul, bilderatlas). „ . coffin plate (libonis). painting from an old cyprian clay vessel representing tree adoration (seesselberg, frflhmittelalterliche kunst). indian ornament. bas-relief from ellora. [ t is generally believed that indian civilisation dates back to a very remote period, it was not, however, till about the year b.c. that the aryans who had emigrated from central asia settled in the south of india and reached the plenitude of their power. the archaeo- logical discoveries made in india reach no further back than a few centuries before christ . a close observation of old-indian ornaments shows us that indian art was by no means free of foreign influences, more especially persian, and later on, greek. india is but a purely geographical expression, and has no ethnographical signification whatever. it is inhabited by races of people so dif- ferent and distinct from each other that to class them together as the indian race would be incorrect . to speak of a homogeneous indian art is therefore impossible, the more so, as each race which inhabited the country had its own art history. the general history of indian art may be divided into the following periods: . the vedi-brahman era extending up to the middle of the rd century b. c. there is perhaps no monument from this period in existence. . the buddhist era which extends to the th century a. d., and began when buddhism was raised to be the established state religion by king asoka in the year b. c. . the new-brahman period which began on the restoration of the brahma religion in the th century and continued up into the th century a. d. this period reached its highest glory between the th and th centuries a. d. plate . indian ornament. indian ornament. . the period of the dominion of islam to the present time. the spread of buddhism helped most materially in giving a great impulse to the development of art. indeed the progress made in art in other countries besides india has [always been greatly influenced by religious fanaticism. the style of decoration used at this period, although worthy of admiration, was so fantastic and bizarre, that the form was completely overspread and hidden by the ornamentation. the oldest monuments from this period at present in existence date from the reign of king asoka — b. c. with the spread of islam, indian art took a new direction based on arabian art. this part of the subject will be treated of later on when dealing with the art of the mahommedans. plate . fig. . corner-pillar of the temple in nijamizzur (uhde, die konstruktionen und die kunstformen der architektur). „ , and . details from temple in ahmedabad (uhde). appears to havt been made after textile samples. „ . capital from the temple in kumurpal, palitana (uhde). this capital shows clearly defined traces of grecian influence. „ . isolated monolith column near the temple at peroor (uhde). the use of metal in this example strengthens the impression that the ornamentation was copied from a textile sample. „ . capital from bharhut (labke). „ . isolated stone-column from the cave at karli (uhde). hewn out of the solid rock. the lion signifies the victoy of bhuddism. „ . pillars from the chaltya cave in karli (uhde). „ . pilaster, with crest, from the temple in bhagovatl (rajendralala mitra). „ . west portal at sanchi, tope (uhde). this is one of the oldest stone monuments in india. it is however an imitation of wooden architecture. „ . iron memorial column commemorating the victory of buddhism (uhde). this column dates from the reign of king asoka in the third century b. c „ . detail from the temple in mukteswara (rajendralala mitra). „ . column from the rock-temple in lauka, ellora (uhde). „ . capital from the kutub near delhi (uhde). dates from the later period — . „ . column from the rock-temple of indra in ellora (canina, architectura antica). „ . column from the vlhara in ajunta (uhde). „ , and . details from the temple at bailur. appears to be copied from a carpet pattern. plate . pig. . window from the temple of muktes'wara (rajendralala mitra. the other illustrations in this plate are all from the same authority). „ . moulding from the temple of bhagovatl. „ . detail from the tower of bhuvanes'war. „ . medailllon from the temple of sari dcul. „ . moulding from the temple of muktes'wara. plate . indian ornament. indian ornament. fig. . . . . . . . fig. . . . . . . . , . . . , . . . . . , . . , , , statue of the province from a niche in the temple of bhuvanes'war. relief from the same temple. pillars from the rock-temple of uday-agirf. lotus ornament from the temple of rajerani. relief from the temple of bhuvanes'war. base of a pilaster from the great tower of bhuvanes'war. cornice from the temple in parasurames'vara. plate . , , and . old indian furniture (rajendralala mitra). ornament worn by females of the middle class (raj.). club found in bhuvanes'war (raj.). bas-relief from bharhut representing an indian of the nd century b. c (lebon). club found in purl (raj.). flag found in sanchi (raj.). javelin from cunningham's bhilsa topes (raj.). , and . tridents found in the same place (raj.). wooden jewel-case found in amravati (raj.). wooden box found in bhuvanes'war (raj.). antique fan (raj.), and . ear ornaments (raj.). four sided clay vessel (raj.). urn for holy water (raj.). guitar from amravati (raj.). metal shield found in konarak (raj.). short club (raj.), and . battle axes (raj.). crown for a goddess (raj.). gold bracelet (raj.). , and . clay vases (raj.), and . samples of antique textiles (raj.), and . bow and arrow (raj.). painting in a grotto at adochanta (after grunwedel). plate . indian ornament. greek ornament. grecian women at home (gerhardt, auserlesene vasenbilder). t has been clearly and defini- tely proved, both from disco- veries made in excavations, as well as from certain signi- ficant statements made by homer himself, that even in prehistoric times several cen- tres of art existed in greece and in the islands lying in its neighbourhood. these centres were chiefly found in the pelo- ponnessus, in attica, in miletus, ephesus, chios, samos, and many other islands, as well as also in southern italy. the prehistoric greek ornament, which was brought to light by schliemann in the excavations undertaken by him in troy, mycenae and tiryns, contains so many egyptian and assyrian motifs that no doubt can be entertained, that egypt and asia minor exercised a most powerful influence on its early be- ginnings. that an intercourse existed between these countries is beyond doubt, for, even in prehistoric times, the waters of the mediterranean were alive with craft trading in all directions. in its primary stages of development, greek art in the islands of the aegean sea was subject to oriental influences. the greek style was developed from wooden structures, the constructive forms, in many cases, changed into ornament in the stone masonry. greek ornament. the national character of the greeks was very different from that of the egyptians, the cold severity peculiar to egyptian art was antagonistic to the sense of beauty characteristic of the greeks, and the latter, consequently, soon changed the egyptian form into one more genial, pleasing, and agreeable. style is after all but the truthful expression of the character and perceptions of a people or of an historical epoch. greek art can be divided into four epochs: i. the mythical period or the heroic epoch which continued up to the migration of the dorians to the year b. c. the aryans, a tribe of people of the same stock as the hellenes and designated by the latter under the general title of pelasgians, were without doubt the original inhabitants of greece. this period is con- fined to that prehistoric era when stone and copper predominated, and to the bronze age of the mycae- nean epoch. the principal centres of the artstyle of this period were found on the coasts and islands of the aegean sea but especially in argos and crete. ii. the dcric, or archaic period, from — b. c. the national hellenic period began about the year b.c., when the hellenes had taken up permanent residence in the country, at which time the monarchy was changed into a republican form of government. the mythology which arose at this period kindled the spirit of art and gave it that predominating ideal character which afterwards distinguished it . the hellenes themselves on the other hand brought with them into the country their own peculiar style which they further developed by allying it with the ancient mythic art existing at the time of their settlement, and by making new use of egyptian, assyrian, and hettite influences. from the th century b. c. downwards, when oriental art began to decline, hellas took up the leadership in art and civilisation, developed its own style in a characteristic manner and made it the ruling one throughout all the civilised countries existing at that time. three orders of columns were etablished, the doric, the ionic, and a later one, the corinthian. hi. the period when greek art reached its principal development from to b. c., during which time the doric and ionic orders exer- cised their influence mutually one on the other. the centre of this flourishing period was that reached at athens under pericles in the years — b. c., when the doric and ionic styles, which developed together, evolved the attic-doric and, attic-ionic styles. the latter ex- celled in elegance, the former in manly strength. the erechtheion which greek ornament. was begun in the year b. c. but not completed till b. c., is one of the most beautiful monuments of greek art in existence. iv. the alexandrian period from to b. c.; this included the deve- lopment of the corinthian style down to the destruction of corinth, which was followed by the downfall of greek independence and the union of grecian with roman art . although the two great styles of greek construction were developed simul- taneously still the general employment of each separate style enables a chrono- logical division to be made. the doric must be described as the oldest style, but its strongly marked, earnest character, unsuitable for rich ornamentation, failed to give pleasure to the gay spirit of the luxurious athenians who lived at the time of pericles when greek art was in its glory. the doric was, there- fore, partly superseded by the ionic, and, later on, by the corinthian style. the ornamentation in these two styles allowed more play to the artisfs fancy, and was not so binding in its rules as the doric. the quiet harmony peculiar to the doric was, however, lost, ornamentation became predominant and, later on, tended to mask the masonic form in roman art . late doric frieze found in the wall of a church at athens. plate . greek ornament. greek ornament. plate . greek pre-historic ornament. fig. . mural frescoes in the palace of tiryns (schliemann). , — , , and . gold jewels found in graves in mycenae (schliemann). . bronze plate from olympia (lubke). . dipylon vase (baumeister). . cyprian coin. . capital of column from the tomb of agamemnon (canina). . kyanos frieze from tiryns (schliemann). . ceiling in relief from orchomenos (schliemann). plate . doric ornament. fig. . angle of pediment of the temple in the island of aegina. (mauch, archi- tektonische ordnungen). this temple is an example of the doric order architecture at the period of its highest splendour, that is, after the defeat of the persians, and when pericles stood at the head of the government of athens. pericles fully under- stood, at this period, the great importance of art and its influence on the state. all the works of art designed by him were carried out by phidias the renowned sculptor, with the assistance of ictinus and callicrates, the best architects of the time. these men succeeded in bringing greek architecture in all its parts to the highest perfection. the temple was erected, probably in the th olympiad, and was dedicated to aphaea. the columns have an entasis of */,„ of the lower diameter, and present much more pleasing proportions than those from paestum. this is especially so in the capital; here, the strong, sharp-angled projection produced by a swelled cushion is avoided, and the capital formed of cornicelines which rise delicately and gracefully from the flutings. in this way, an echinus is formed, which, while being strong, is not bent and swollen out under its burden, and in which the effects of light and shade are most attractive. the fillet under the echinus displays that delicate formation peculiar to the time of pericles, the ehannels in the neck alone being the only parts which remind one of the ancient columns from paestum. the profile of the cyma over the sloping gable-cornice is very beautiful, and was painted with an ornament which the greeks called anthemion. the griffin on the roof of the gable has been reconstructed after discovered fragments. the whole structure was built of polished and painted sandstone. traces of yellow and green foil have been found on the architrave. the taenia was painted in vermilion, the regula, triglyphs, and mutule, in blue. the plain bands were red, with traces of scrolls having been painted on. the cymatium above these was decorated with red and blue foil, the same colours being given to the flowers on the cyma. the back ground of the pediment was blue. „ . angle of pediment from the temple of the apollo epicurius near phigaleia in arcadia. (mauch, architektonische ordnungen.) this temple, which was built by ictinus, the architect of the parthenon in athens, was with the exception of the temple of tegea, one of the most beautiful throughout the entire peloponnesus. it was constructed of bluish-white limestone, the sculptured frieze inside being of white marble. the entire proportions resemble those from the time of pericles in attica. the cyma over the gable-cornice is, however, entirely different. it is ornamented with the acanthus-flower in relief. plate . greek ornament. liiilliiiif^^ greek ornament. fig. . capital from the temple of ceres in paestum (mauch, architektonische ordnung). this temple was in all probability built under the rule of the sybarites, about the year b. c. certain peculiarities point to etruscan influence. „ . ante-fix from temple of the apollo eplcurlus near phigaleia in arcadia (mauch, archit. ordn.). this ornament is beautifully sculptured in marble. (see fig. .) „ . acroterlum of the pediment of the temple on the island of aegina (mauch, archit. ordn.). see fig. . „ . profile of the capital from the same temple (mauch, archit ordn.). see fig. . „ . under surface of the corona from the parthenon in athens (mauch, archit. ordn.). „ . ante-fix from the parthenon in athens (mauch, archit . ordn.). „ . capital found in paestum (mauch, archit . ordn.). this capital shows undoubted evidences of etruscan influence. „ . anta-capltal in athens (mauch, archit ordn.). the cymatium of this capital is painted with the foil peculiar to the ancient doric anta capitals. ., . anta-capital from the temple of nemesis in rhamnus (mauch, archit . ordn.). „ . doric cymatium (labke, kunst des altertums). plate . ornamental mouldings. (from uhde, architekturformen des klassischen altertums.) fig. — . ancient bead and reel. „ — . ogees from the ptolemeion. „ , and . ogees from the erechthelon. „ . painted ogees from the theseum athens. „ , and . painted ogees from the propylaea. „ . ogee from mausoleum at hallcarnassus. plate . ionic ornament. (from mauch, architektonische ordnungen.) fig. , , , and . pilaster-capitals from the cella of the temple of apollo dldymaeus near miletus. fig. shows the front view of half such an ionian capital, and ilg. , the side view. figs. and are ornaments of the space between other capitals with the same cella. „ , , , and . angle columns from the temple of minerva polias at priene. this temple is one of the most beautiful examples of ionian architecture. fig. is the section of the column at the neck, with the capital, seen from below. fig. is the pedestal with four-cornered plinth. this description of base is rare, being found only in the ionic column. fig. shows the ornament on the under side of the cornice. details as to the helicoid of the ionic capital will be found in "speltz, saulenform der schneckenlinie des jonischen kapitais". „ . capital and plan from the temple of apollo dldymaeus near miletus. „ . capital of the central column of the temple of minerva polias in priene, with plan. speltz, styles si ornament. greek ornament. plate . p º § º ſº u. [...] [...] ſil wººl!" r |||||||| |-|| || - ºfºº nº nº. ſºlº tºll º wº @gpxxx xxx xxx plate . greek ornament. plate . greek ornament. ^'^fi!pp.iaiiibiiaabm?ii i,fibmiiiiiiiiiol greek ornament. fig. . capital from the aqueduct of hadrian at athens, with plan. „ . ornament between the capitals in the cella of the temple of apollo dldy- maeus near miletus. „ . side-view of a capital in the propylaeum of the temple of minerva polias at priene. „ , and . side and front-views of a pilaster-capital at priene. plate . ionic ornament. fig. , and . capitals and pedestals of columns in the temple of minerva polias at athens (mauch). in the acropolis at athens were erected numerous buildings of which the parthenon and the erechtheion were the most important. the columns in the latter, with their energetic, double-fluted volutes, the braided torus over the echinus, the latter being visible in its entire round, the finely moulded cushion, and the delicately ornamented neck, display structure of the purest and most refined style. instead of the sanctuary which formerly stood here, and was destroyed during the persian war, the erechtheion was erected, but was not completed until after the year b. c. in the back wall of the north portico, was the celebrated beautiful door, details of which are given in figs. , , and . at the west end o the south side is the caryatide portico. this portico, which is covered with marble tiles, is carried on supports, called caryatides (fig. ). they probably represent pan-athenaic virgins. the entablature over these figures has no frieze. ., . pilaster-capital from the hexastyle or eastern portico of the erechtheion, athens (mauch). „ , , and . details from the door of the erechtheion in athens (mauch). „ . capital from the interior of the temple of apollo at bassae, near phiga- leia (mauch). „ . capital from the temple of neandria (labke). „ , , and . grecian antefix of the time of pericles (libonis). „ . caryatid of the erechtheion at athens (mauch). „ , and . capital and anta from the temple of minerva polias at athens (mauch). „ , and . grecian coins (labke). plate . corinthian ornament. fig. . capital of temple at patara (semper). „ . capital from the tower of the winds in athens (mauch). this corinthian capital, which is of the simplest kind, has been found with but very slight changes all over greece. it was even employed in byzanthine architecture. „ . capital and entablatures from the monument of lysicrates at athens (mauch). this tower-like structure, which dates from the year b. c., is built of pentelic marble, and is still in existence although in a very damaged condition. a six-columned circular pseudo-peripteral, rests on a substructure built in the form of a podium. on the roof are three caulicoloe (plate , fig. ) with central finial greek ornament. ^ohiilhilbp^ql . plate . greek ornament. plate . greek ornament. greek ornament. or crest (plate , fig. and ). this crest, which is of one piece, is one of the most wonderful examples of greek sculpture. the three wide projecting scrolls of the same were at one time supported by consoles, but these have now entirely disappeared. the capital approaches more to the real corinthian capital than that of the tower of the winds. fig. . capital of a column from the ruins of the temple of apollo near miletus (mauch). „ . upper part of the tower of the winds in athens (mauch). this is an octagonal tower of pentelic marble, on the sides of which, under the cornice, the figures of the eight winds are shown in relief. on the pyramidal top of the roof was a brazen triton which served as a weather-cock. the tower itself contained a clepsydra or water clock. „ . base of a column of the lysicrates monument at athens (mauch) (fig. ). „ . capital of portico of the temple of jupiter olympius at athens (mauch). „ . pilaster capital from paestum (mauch). „ . upper part of the lysicrates monument in athens (mauch) (fig. ). „ . crest of the same monument (mauch) (fig. ). „ . plan of the capital in fig. . „ . capital at eleusis (mauch). plate . fig. . terra-cottas from olympia (botticher, olympia). „ . frieze from a portico on the island of delos, built at the time of philip of macedon — b. c. (uhde). „ . mosaic flooring in the temple of zeus at olympia (graul). „ . lion from the tomb of mausolus, in the british museum (roger-miles). „ . bronze plate, representing the dispute on the tripod (roger-miles). „ , and . fragments of a grecian frieze in the villa albani in rome (tatham). „ , and . columns from portico on the island of delos, front and side views (uhde). „ . head of zeus in bronze from olympia (lubke). „ . roof of the monument of lysicrates in athens (mauch). see plate , figs. , , , and . „ . painted clay antefix (reichhold). plate . (from c. thierry, classische ornamente.) fig. , and . bas-reliefs from the kircher's museum, karlsruhe. „ . bas-reliefs from the national museum, karlsruhe. plate . fig. . bas-reliefs suggesting oriental influence (thierry). „ . marble ornament from branchidae (thierry). „ . marble bas-relief in the villa poniatowsky in roma (thierry). „ . painted terra cotta dish (dolmetsch). „ . marble seat or throne (thierry). plate . greek ornament. plate . greek ornament. plate . greek ornament. greek ornament. plate . principal examples of the grecian vase from baumeister. the principal centres of pre-historic ceramics was in troy and in the islands of cyprus and mytilene. the real grecian ceramics are distinguished as follows: . vessels of the geometric style (about — b. c.), which have been discovered principally near the dipylon gate in athens, hence the title dipylon style. the colouring is dark-brown on yellow clay. . vessels showing oriental influences, dating from the th to the th century b. c., the principal centre being in corinth. . attic black-coloured vessels which were developed in athens from the u> century b. c. downwards, the clay is red. . red-coloured vessels which were developed from the fore-going style in the fifth century b. c, the entire vessel being painted over with black varnish, thus enabling red figures to be made on a black ground. the ceramic art entirely disappeared from greece about the year b. c., being afterwards revived in lucania, campania, and apulia. fig. . vase from the island of mytilene, dating from the beginning of the last millenium, b. c. the surface is gray, painted of a dull brown. „ . vase, lacquered, from the greek islands, of mycaenean origin. „ . athenian vase from the th century b. c. „ . phaleronian jug from attica, found in grave near phaleron. „ . attic amphora from the th century b. c. „ . vase of later date from the island of rhodes. „ . corinthian vase. „ . chaldaean vase. „ . vase of gamedes from boeotia. „ . vase on three feet, boeotia. „ . attic amphora. „ . black figured amphora, athens. „ . attic oinochoe. „ . attic kylix. „ . amphora by nicosthenes. „ . krater or mixing bowl for wine. „ . pyxis or toilet box. plate . frescoes and vase-painting. fig. , , — , — , , — , , , , , — . greek vase paintings (libonis, reichhold, meyer). „ , , — , — , , . fret-work fillets, principally from greek vases (meyer, reichhold). „ . team of carriage horses from the older grecian period, from a black figured vase (gerhard, ausserliche vasenblldung). „ . grecian war-ship from a vase-painting (baumeister). „ , — , . coffer-work from the ceiling of the propylaea in athens (meyer). „ . vase-painting, ceramic work from the grecian islands (reichhold). „ . ornamental work on the ears of a greek vase (reichhold). ,, . ornamental work on the neck of a greek hydrla (l'art pour tous). „ . ornamentation of a coffered work celling from the parthenon, athens (meyer). greek ornament. plate . greek ornament. plate . fig. . grecian mirror (reichhold). this is given as an etruscan mirror, bout it would perhaps be more correct to consider it as having been produced in greece. „ . female apparel dating from the time when greece stood at its highest splendour (reichhold) . and . furniture inlay from the greek colonies in the crimea (semper). . marble chair of state (baumeister). . bronze leg of an arm chair (reichhold). . , , . chairs (racinet and baumeister). . bronze tripod from he geometrical ornament period (reichhold). . fans (racinet). . kylix or dish found near kertsch with engravings showing the furniture of greek lady's boudoir (antiq. d. bosph., cymm.). — . lyres (racinet). . drinking-horn (racinet). . small table (racinet). . marble arm-chair (dorpfeld and reich, theater). . couch with table after copy from the industrial art museum in dresden. plate . fig. . helmet from samnium (baumeister). , and . helmets of gladiators (baumeister). , and . relief, arms and armour (baumeister). . dagger (baumeister). . iron helmet (baumeister). . bronze figure from a carriage-pole, in the museum dutuit, paris. . relief, weapons, from pergamon (baumeister). . iron helmet with silver ear-laps (baumeister). . bronze greaves (baumeister). . bronze shield (libonis). . helmet from the time of homer (racinet). . bronze tripod from metapontum (reichhold). . bronze handle of a looking-glass, from the dutuit museum, paris. . spear-head (baumeister). . coins stamped with the olympian zeus, from ells (lubke). . fragment of statue of a woman, from the acropolis in athens (lflbke). . stele of aristion by aristocles, athens (lflbke). . and . arrow heads (baumeister). , and . theatre masks for men and women (baumeister). . box, from a vase-painting (gerhard, etruskische spiegel). greek ornament. plate . plate . greek ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. greek ornament. plate . fig. – , and . ornaments (libonis). , and . foot-gear (renard). . cymbals (renard). . gold belt-clasps (libonis). . tambourine (renard). , and . sacrificial knives (renard). . sunshade (baumeister). . girl with embroidery-frame (baumeister). , , , and . coiffures with ornamentation (racinet). . torch (renard). . horse-bridle (racinet). , and . necklaces (havard). the first is considered by some to be etruscan work, it is, however, in all probability grecian. . silver vase with relief in gilt (havard). greco-phoenician bust. (l'art pour tous.) etruscan ornament. scene of a banquet (martha, l'art etrusquev 'truscan was the name given to a people who lived in what is now called tuscany at the time when rome was founded. it is impossible to trace the origin of their descent, but it appears as if they had wandered down from the north east and took forcible possession of the country about the twelfth century, b. c. in which they afterwards settled and which was inhabited by samnites, umbrians, pelas- gian and other races. the period of the highest development of the etruscans dates from to b. c. they were subjugated by the romans, after which they gradually disappear from history, the only traces of their once having existed being some few architectural monuments, chiefly tombs, which have come down to us. although the monuments left behind by the etruscans show most decided traces of grecian influence, still, the hypothesis that the etruscans were of grecian origin cannot be accepted on that account. the racial differences between them and the grecians were so marked, they were so totally different in their physical constitution from the latter, that it is impossible to regard the etruscans as of hellenic origin. it is possible that in their wanderings towards italy they came into intimate contact with the grecians, and thus brought with them the elements of grecian art into their adopted country. their art was in all probability subject to influences proceeding from phoenicia and carthage, but more especially to ancient ionic influence. they understood, however, how to change all these influences in such a way as to give them the stamp of their own national art. at the period of their subjugation by the romans, the etruscans had brought their own art to such a high state of development that it was able to exercise an influence by no means small on the development of roman art which was at that time in its infancy. roman art came afterwards, of course, entirely under the influence of grecian art. s« etruscan ornament. plate . ºft| || º º etruscan ornament. fig, . n . n , n . , . , . -- . plate . relief, travelling-carriage (baumeister). antefix of a tomb (martha). and . etruscan bigas with bronze casing. these were found in norchia and purchased by the metropolitan museum in new york. etruscan frescoes (martha). bronze candelabrum (martha). from the facade of a tomb in norchia (lübke). clay sarcophagus from cervetri, in the louvre (lübke). , , and . marble altar from the collection in the villa borghese near rome (tatham). a . fig. , terra-cotta altar (tatham). plate . and . swords (baumeister). n , and . helmets (libonis). -- . -- , º, . , . º, . , . , . n . n . , . , . , . º, . link for the handle of a bucket. th century b. c. (reichhold). , , , , , and . ornaments (libonis). , and . greaves (libonis). fibula (libonis). fighting warriors (racinet). etruscan peasant (racinet). razor (libonis). etruscan mirror in the numismatic collection in paris (gerhard, etruskische spiegel). this is considered by some to be grecian work. tripod (reichhold). tripod (martha, l’art Étrusque). dagger (baumeister). heating-stove (martha). antique bronze cist (gerhard). spear-head (baumeister). etruscan tomb in cervetri (renard). plate . etruscan ornament. roman ornament. ith their art the greeks conquered the world, the romans with their politics and their legions. the whole civilized world at the pre- sent day is striving to emulate the works of art of the former, the laws of the latter are consi- dered throughout the world as the foundation upon which all laws must be established. in these facts lie the difference in character between the two peoples. those romans who lived at the beginning of roman history were unable to develop an in- dependent art of their own, for all their endeavours were directed to amassing wealth, and increasing their lands. they were obliged therefore to take the motifs for their art from etruria and continued to do so until grecian art became predominant . becoming more accustomed to luxury from the conquests which they made, the roman began gradually to form a national art of their own under the guidance of greek teachers. the practical spirit of the romans and their taste for monumental work are naturally to be seen best exemplified in their architecture, a science in which they have performed most magnificent work especially in connection with the monumental development of temples, basilicas, thermae, theatres, etc. the romans furthermore took up and accom- plished the task of combining numerous elements in a homogeneous whole, and of developing them further. in this latter art they became the teachers of future generations. the romans adopted the three columnar orders of the greeks retaining however at the same time the etruscan column. to these four orders they added the composite order. besides bringing architecture to a high state of development, the romans also succeeded in bringing the art of sculpture to a great degree of perfection. roman ornament. in this latter, however, they had the assistance of greek artists. the manner, however, in which the romans enriched their ornament was detrimental to the characteristic greek outlines, and the insatiable luxury predominating during the time of the caesars finally destroyed completely the exquisite harmony of greek art—the form was entirely overgrown by the ornament. the art of mosaic work, which had its origin in the orient, was brought to its highest perfection by the romans, all the old roman mosaics now in our possession prove this beyond any question. the fall of the roman empire, and the victory of christianity, marked also the decline and fall of classic art, for this art could no longer appeal to those christian barbarians who now poured into the country from all sides. the eastern roman christian empire exercised a very great influence on the deve- lopment of a new art amongst the christian states which rose from the ruins of the western roman empire. from the so-called early christian and byzantine style shortly afterwards developed, the romanesque style which from the th to the tt centuries spread through all the newly constituted states. roman labrutn (tatham). plate . roman ornament. roman ornament. plate . sºğºſſ roman ornament. plate . fig. , , , . capitals and entablatures of the doric order, found in albano, near rome (mauch). it appears as if vignola organised his doric order according to this fragment . the entablature produces a specially fine effect by means of the under aspect of the corona soffit. fig. . there are two fascias to the architrave, the upper one projecting infront of the lower. figure gives a view of the capital seen from below, and fig. , the base of the column. „ , , . doric capitals and entablatures from the thermae of diocletian (mauch) which were erected about b. c. the delicate profile of the cornice, the decorated members, and the fretwork denticulations in meander form, belong really more to the ionic order. figure shows the capital seen from below, and fig. , the soffit of the corona. ., . from a white marble altar in the vatican museum (tatham). „ , . from a white marble altar in the museum of the capitol in rome (tatham). „ , , , , , . foil for cyma (mauch). „ . bead-moulding (mauch). „ . arch with rustication from the amphitheatre in pola. completed a. d. (uhde). „ . frieze ornament (tatham). plate . fig. , , . square angle pier with principal cornice from the thermae of diocletian in rome (mauch). this pier, which is of the ionic order, and was placed on an angle, is an example of the questionable inconsistency of employing the capital of a column on a square pier. this is seen in the fact that the echinus, which is rounded above, is forced, below, together with the astragal, to sink into the straight lines of the body of the column. the frieze is pulvinated, a form often used by the romans. figure shows the base of the pilaster, and fig. a view of the capital seen from below. „ , , . columns and entablatures from the temple of fortuna vlrilis in rome (mauch). this temple was tetrastyle pseudo-peripteral with a portico two inter- columniations deep. its erection took place towards the close of the republic. the entablature is by no means free from objections, for, besides other errors, the bed moulding is heavy, the frieze and the architrave poor. figure shows the base of the column, and fig. , the capital seen from below. „ . column in the court of saint hieronymus in rome (piranesl). „ . capital of a house on the bridge of gratianus in rome (piranesi). „ . capital from the temple of procedis (piranesi). „ . capital from the basilica of san clemente (piranesi). „ . capital from a house in rome (piranesi). ., . capital from the palace pionetti in rome (piranesi). ,, . capital from the temple of priscae in rome (piranesi). „ . capital of a column in the villa negronla in rome (piranesi). roman ornament. plate . : º º --- | §§ u ---- º º roman ornament. plate . pig. . soffit of the corona from the temple of castor in the forum romanum (mauch). „ , , , . capitals and entablatures from the interior of the pantheon in rome (mauch). * this building is still well preserved it was built by hadrian a. d. on the north side of the thermae of agrippa. figure gives a view of the capital from below, figure , the base of the column, and fig. an under view of the corona. „ . fragment from the villa borghese in rome (piranesi). „ , , . fragments found near s. gregorius (mauch). „ . fragment from the villa albani (piranesi). „ . fragment from the villa borghese (piranesi). „ . capital from the temple of castor in the forum romanum (mauch). plate . fig. , . capitals and entablatures from the arch of septimius severus in rome (mauch). this is an example of the composite order. figure is a view of the capital from below. „ . from a roman sacrificial altar (piranesi). marble fragment from rome (tatham). plate . roman ornament. plate . roman ornament. s plate . roman ornament. roman ornament. fig. , , , . base, capital, and entablature from the temple of vesta in tlvoll (mauch). this temple was circular and peripteral with columns, of which are still in good condition. the columns are not perpendicular but inclined to the axis in such a manner that the inner lines on the tapering shaft receive almost a vertical direction, thus increasing not only the apparent but the real stability of the whole. in order to produce this effect, the fillets under the base and above the capital are somewhat wedge-shaped. the capital, which differs in form from the usual normal capital of the corinthian order, has a very pleasing shape with a large central-flower between the volutes. the leaves also bear more resemblance to the curled cabbage rather than to the acanthus. figure shows a section through the corners of the capital and one at the roots of the leaves. figure gives an oblique view of the capital. the base on podium in fig. has no plinth, possibly on account of the circular form in which it is constructed. the frieze is most effective being decorated in a natura istic manner with ox head, rosettes, festoons, and patera, instead of the usual ox-skull. „ . roman egg and dart moulding (mauch). plate . fig. and . pedestals from the villa of cardinal alexander albani before the solarian gate in rome (piranesi. the remaining examples are all from the same authority.) „ . base from the villa barberinl. „ . base from the temple of nero. „ . base from the mausoleum of augustus. „ . capital from the villa farnese. „ . base from the church of s. s. quattro coronati. „ . base from the basilica of s. bartolomeo all' isola. „ . pedestal from the church of s. prasscde. plate . fig. , . pilasters of veined marble in the cloister of the convent of ara coeli near rome (tatham). „ . fasces from a bas-relief in the massimi palace in rome (tatham). „ . ancient marble altar from the collection in the villa borghese in rome (tatham). „ . fasces from a bas-relief in the capitol (tatham). . fragment of an antique frieze found in tivoli (tatham). „ . fragment of a frieze in high-relief from the villa aldobrandini in rome (tatham). speltz, styles of ornament . plate . roman ornament. plate . roman ornament. roman ornament. plate . roman ornament. plate . roman ornament. plate . roman ornament. jvin(tow domestic ki\y ivi etcons ok.d roman ornament. plate . fig. . marble candelabrum (canina). , . marble table (canina). . fragment of a bronze candelabrum from naples (libonis). silver dish found in the silver discoveries in hildesheim (havard). marble candelabra (canina). roman scales (dutuit). roman satyr (baumeister). . amulet with head of mercury (dutuit). . roman sedan chair (baumeister). . portrait of julia, daughter of titus . portrait of augustus . clay oil-lamps (libonis). . bronze toilet-vase (dutuit). . roman coins as (baumeister). , , . silver forks (baumeister). . vase in chased silver (martha, manuel d'archéologie etrusque et romaine). . bronze from naples showing hercules fighting with the snakes (baumeister). . bronze wine-jug (baumeister). : } on cameos, found in florence (libonis). plate . fig. , , . hair pins (libonis). ++ -- -- . medallion with picture of hercules (libonis). . massive gold necklace (libonis). – , , . ear-rings (libonis). . bronze candelabrum from naples (libonis). . bronze lamp in the louvre (libonis). , . terra-cotta lamp (libonis). , . rings (renard). – , . pins (renard). . needle (renard). ,, . quiver with bow (renard). . bronze comb in the mayence museum (renard). , head of medusa (libonis). , , . silver vessels discovered in hildesheim (havard). plate . fig. . costume of a consul from the later period (baumeister). , . a roman helmet found in germany (baumeister). . relief from the mayence museum showing a rider leading his horse (baumeister). . bronze ribbon brooch or clasp (lindenschmitt). roman ornament fig. . iron dagger-sheath in the mayence museum (baumeister). , . shield (renard). , . bronze tripod from naples (libonis). , , , . roman military badges (raciner). , . ivovy sword-pommel (baumeister). , . bas-relief from puteoli, showing a trireme (baumeister). ,, . helmet of a centurion (libonis). ,, . marble statue of titus in state armour, in the louvre (baumeister). ------te- ancient chimaera in white marble, rome (tatham). pompeian ornament. n the neighbourhood of mount vesuvius on the bay of naples stood the cities of pompeii, herculaneum and stabia. these three cities were destroyed by an eruption of vesuvius in the year a. d., and were so thoroughly and completely buried that for centuries no trace of where they stood could be found. their po- sition was, however, accidentally discovered in the year . the city of pompeii became subject to the romans in the th cen- tury b. c., and, having been thoroughly romanised, grew to be the favourite summer residence of the wealthier classes. the characteristic tendency of the romans towards luxury soon made pompeii a special centre, greek artists were introduced, style was given to classic art, and, finally, a special pompeian style grew into existence. the small arts and work in metal were brought to a very high state of perfection. the remains of objects of this class at present preserved in the museum at naples, more especially those vessels found in the silver discoveries in boscoreale, are extre- mely beautiful and worthy of the highest admiration. peculiarly characteristic of pompeian art are the mural paintings and the coloured stucco ornamentation. similar work might of course have also existed in other roman cities, all traces having disappeared in the course of time. four distinct and regularly consecutive periods can be distinguished in these mural paintings, the incrustation style, already used in hellenic-oriental art, consisting of imitations of many-coloured marble ashlar-work combined with ornament worked in stucco. after this came the pictorial architectural style which con- sisted in exhibiting, in perspective, on smooth surfaces, paintings of fantastic pompeian ornament. architectural pictures. the wall was divided into panels in free ornamental style and decorated with small figurative centre pictures. the type which appears to have been in most general use was the prospect style, here, the straight wall, was so changed by a rich play of delicate stone architecture that the chamber had the appearance of being larger than it really was. these types, as far as their collective arrangement goes, show decided leaning towards hellenic proto-types from alexandria, at the same time, however, very many single or- naments show, in their pure naturalistic style, very great artistic independence. although the al fresco mural paintings, which were coloured by simple hand- workers, are of a most dazzling brillancy of colour, still, the gradations are toned off so regularly and legitimately that the effect of the whole is soothing and pleasing to the eye. this style of art was, in all probability, well known to a large circle. it is impossible to form an exact picture of roman life in any roman city, but this is more especially the case with pompeii which was completely over- whelmed in one night. it is impossible also to differentiate exactly pompeian from rom art, for it is highly probable that many objects discovered in pompeii were manufactured in other parts of the empire, and that other articles disco- vered in various other cities had their origin in pompeii. plate . fig. . column from the house of the tragic poet in pompeii (uhde). „ . mural ornamentation from the house of m. lucretius in pompeii (uhde). „ . mural ornamentation from the house of modestus in pompeii (uhde). „ , . capitals from the basilica in pompeii (uhde). „ , . pilastercapital, and column from the house of the colours in pompeii (uhde). „ . capital from the house of the faun in pompeii (uhde). „ . capital of column from the house of actaeon in pompeii (uhde). „ . podium from the tomb of naevoleia tyche in pompeii (uhde). plate . fig. . mosaic from pompeii, showing a theatrical scene (libonis). . mural frescoes from pompeii (reichhold). . , . mosaic floors (d'espouy). . mural fresco, the holy marriage of zeus and hera (baumeisterj. . from a mural fresco, illustrating mediation (roux ami). . mural fresco with theatrical mask (baumeister). pompeian ornament. plate . fig. . marble table from the house of cornelius rufus in pompeii (bühlmann, die bauformenlehre). n , , , . vessels in embossed silver from the discoveries of boscorcale (libonis). , . bronze table in the museum at naples (buhlmann). n . bronze candelabrum (libonis). , , , , . ornaments (lübke). , . bronze figure of a triton (collection dutuit). n . lamp (collection dutuit). , . pompeian glass vase (libonis). , , , . bronze tripods (lübke). plate . fig. – , , , , . from pompeian mural frescoes (roux ainé). , , , , , , , . bronze candelabra (mauch). , , , , . from pompeian mural frescoes (reichhold). , . later sphinx of bronze (baumeister). plate . fig. – . various mural frescoes in pompeii (roux ainé, herculanum et pompell). t tttttttttt|||||||||| figure of bronze (roux ainé). speltz, styles of ornament. plate. pompeian ornament. celtic ornament (france and germany) frankish warrior (hottenroth). oubts no longer exist as to the fact that before they came into contact with the romans, the celts and germans had their own characteristic national art, even, although the same had not advanced beyond the bronze and iron periods. it is difficult to strictly separate celtic from germanic ornament, the connections between the two races were so varied and so intimate, that what was characteristic of the one was transplanted to the other. the celts, who had occupied the whole of europe, were after a time driven out from germany and austria by the germans, there must have been therefore ample opportunity, before the romans came into contact with the germans, for celtic and germanic art to exercise mutual and abiding influence on each other. the romans became, afterwards, the instructors of both in ornamentation, and under the influence of roman art, celtic and germanic art came closer to each other, the relationship developing into a most intimate connection at that period when the germans held possession of the western empire of the romans. after the fall of the roman empire, byzantine influence predominated, and as the roman style became developed, a new art period made itself manifest . pure celtic ornament, far purer than in france, existed in the british islands up into the th century. this part of the subject, however, is dealt with in the next chapter, although it would be perhaps more correct chronologically to refer to it in treating of the art of the middle ages. plate . celtic ornament. celtic ornament. germanic ornament was entirely confined to the decoration of weapons and useful articles. nothing was known of architecture, not even of archi- tecture in wood, even rites and ceremonies were never held within doors, but in the open air under a tree. n their first attempts at architecture, which were made soon after the introduction of christia- nity, the celtic artists confined themselves almost entirely to the building of wooden churches and oratories. all their splendid triumphs as seen in the development of the celtic church architecture were achieved gallic warrior (racinet). a few centuries later. f, plate . v -" / fig. , and . breton embroidery from pont l'abbe, finisterre (racinet). „ . bronze ornament, found in castel near agen, in the cluny museum (radnef). „ . bronze buckle, cluny museum (racinet). „ . belt-buckle, cluny museum (racinet). „ . bronze brooch, cluny museum (racinet). „ . neck ornament of bronze (racinet). „ , , and . belt buckles from the merovingian period (racinet). „ . bronze fibula, in the louvre (racinet). „ . bronze fibula from the merovingian period, cluny museum (racinet). „ . bronze belt-buckles, cluny museum (racinet). „ , and . heads of gallic chieftains from the time of the romans, after bronze medals (racinet). „ . silver brooch from goldboroilgh in yorkshire (racinet). „ . remnant of a reliquary of iron with bronze and silver ornament from cashel, co. tipperary, ireland (racinet). „ . brooch with granate and gold filigree-work, found near abingdon (racinet). „ , and . bronze fibulae (racinet). „ . bronze brooch with silver ornamentation, found near lincoln (racinet). „ . bracelet from pont-audemer (havard). „ . bronze brooch found in the churchyard at blasion (havard). „ . buckle found in the churchyard at chlsell-down, in the isle of wight (racinet). „ . bracelet, found in reallon, hautes alpes (havard). „ , and . bracelets from caranda (havard). plate . celtic ornament. am & * ^cf s <>> b ,a ^ celtic ornament. fig. -> plate . . . frankish weapons, from the museum at st. germain (barrière-flany, les arts industrials peubles barbares de la gaule. all the following figures in this plate are from the same author). . burgundian ornament from elisried (canton bern). . necklet, same origin. . neck ornament in the museum at st. germain. . burgundian ornament from delle near belfort. . west gothic buckle from jean-le-pouget, in the museum at cluny. . burgundian buckle from flerier near tonniges (haute savoie). . frankish glass bottle from achery-magot (aisne). . burgundian clay vessel from tournus (saone et loire). . frankish glass dish from anguilcourt-le-sort (aisne). . west gothic clay vase from herpes (charente). . frankish comb. . burgundian clay vase from charnay (saone et loire) in the museum at st. germain. . anglo-saxon knife. . west-gothic buckle from figoret-guzarques (hérault). plate . the merovingian period. – , – , , and . ornaments (havard). . sword of the childerich (roger-milès). . cross from st. martin, limoges, made by saint Éloi (havard). . chair of dagobert, made of gilt bronze (havard). plate . . , and . german sword in the mayence museum (lindenschmitt, aus der heid- mischen vorzeit. the following are all according to the same authority). silver needle from the frankish graves near neuhofen. frankish fibula. half-drawn dagger from the graves at hallstadt. frankish bracelet, museum in mayence. bucket with bronze mounts and iron handles from the frankish graves near monsheim, in the mayence museum. . bucket with bronze mounts found in the graves on the schiersteiner wege. wiesbaden museum. . ear-ring from the graves near wörrstedt. . dagger from sprendlingen, rheinhessen. . german ribbon clasp, mayence museum. . fibula from the graves near nordendorf. . necklet from a grave in wurmlingen, württemberg. i plate . celtic ornament. plate . celtic ornament. celtic ornament. fig. . ear-ring in the wiesbaden museum. . shoe found in the turf moor friedeburg, west friesland. hannover museum. . frankish belt-buckle, mayence museum. . glass vase found in grave near kreuznach. . clay vase found in grave near ulm. . clay vase found in graves at osthofen, mayence museum. . and . coffins of gypsum. . clay urn found in graves near remingen. . ring from the mayence museum. anglo-saxon baptismal font (mailer and mothes). celtic ornament (great britain and ireland). rnamental art, such as was developed in the british isles, but more especially in ireland, even during the sway of heathenism, was, without any doubt, a pure celtic art of its own, without any traces of byzantine or south european influences. the very same ornamental work which we find in the old heathen stone coffins are also to be seen in the manuscript paintings of the celtic monks of the sixth century. celtic artists show a most astonishing and extraordinary skill and variety in the delineation of ornamental tracery, in which the bodies of birds, dogs, snakes and fantastic animals are most skillfully interwoven. vegetable ornaments were entirely absent in the earlier specimens of this work, appearing first in the th century, very probably as the result of roman influence. the very great similarity existing between scandinavian and celtic ornament points to a very close connection between the two styles of art, a fact which is all the more evident when we remember that christianity was introduced into norway and sweden by irish missionaries. initial from the th century (owen jones). plate . celtic ornament. plate . celtic ornament. celtic ornament. plate . fig. . manuscript painting from the th century (dolmetsch). „ . initial from a psalter, ll,h century, at present in trinity college, dublin (owen jones). , and . manuscript paintings from the th century (owen jones). . the aberlemno cross (owen jones). . initial from the th century (dolmetsch). — . manuscript paintings of celtic-anglo-saxon origin (owen jones). . ornament from base of cross in the church of eassie, angusshire (owen jones). . ornament from base of cross in the church at st. vigean, angusshire (owen jones). . ornament from base of cross in the church at melgle, angusshire (owen jones). plate . fig. , , , and . specimes of manuscript paintings from the th century (dolmetsch and owen jones). „ . manuscript paintings from the th century (dolmetsch). „ , , and . manuscript paintings from the th century (dolmetsch). „ . manuscript painting from the th century (dolmetsch). „ . initial from the franco-saxon bible at st. denis, from the th century (owen jones). „ — . specimens from manuscript paintings of celtic-anglo-saxon origin (owen jones). plate . fig. — . specimens of manuscript paintings from the th century (dolmetsch). „ . manuscript painting from an irish gospel of the th century. the border is copied from the gospel of st. cuthbert now in the british museum, and known as the book of durham, a book which was written between the years and . (henry shaw, mediaeval alphabets and devices.) from an irish spelling-book (mothes and muller). plate . ill celtic ornament. roman marble vase (piranesi). window from monastery st. juan de los reyes, toledo (monumentos de espafla). si'rltz, styles of ornament. early christian ornament. from a carolingian gospel in the british museum (mttller and mothes). radually, as the political supremacy of a country begins to decline, art in that country begins also to decay. the decline of classic art was the natural consequence of the political weakness and final decay of the western roman empire, as well as of the decisive victory which christianity finally obtained over heathenism. in all the old historic styles there exists an intimate connection between religion and art . art developed under the aegis of religion and was so strongly influenced by it that a style of art produced under the influence of a certain religion could never har- monise with any other religion except that from which it sprung. when, there- fore, christianity received into its hands the remains of classic art, it was obliged to change and harmonise them into a style in unison with christian ideas, tastes, and necessities, without a the same time entirely freeing itself from classic in- fluences. on the ruins, therefore, of the western roman empire, the christian states erected a new civilisation changing everything they found to fit the new condition of affairs, and making use of the peculiar elements of byzantine art, then in its full glory to form a new style of art of its own. the byzantine influence was so powerful at that time, that it is often a matter of real diffi- culty for the art historian to say whether certain works of art belong to the early christian or to the byzantine style. the antiquities discovered in the ancient city of ravenna show most remarkable traces of byzantine influences. early christian art may be regarded as a period of transition the tendency of which was to free itself alike from classic and byzantine influence. it was only when this latter influence had been entirely overcome, when, about the year a. d., the romanesque style of architecture began to develop itself, hut art began again to move along secure lines. plate . early christian ornament. plate . early christian ornament. early christian ornament. plate . lombardo-byzantine ornament in italy. (e. a. stückelberg, longobardische plastik.) . circular pattern braided work from ventimiglia. . diamond pattern braided work from ravenna. . bottom of a basked from rome. . relief from ventimiglia. ,, , and . interlaced work from milan. . relief from spalato. . interlaced work from como. . processional crucifix from milan. . interlaced work from valeria. ,, . lattice work from milan. , . church altarscreen from aquileja. ,, . relief from altar in orvieto. plate . lombardo-byzantine ornament in italy. (after professor karl mohrmann and dr. eugen ferd. eichwede, germanische frühkunst.) fig. , , and . capitals from the church of s. ambrogio, milan. ,, . fountain, in the museum at venice. , . from a balustrade in the cathedral at aquileja. , – . portals from the church of s. ambrogio, milan. , . capital of column from the church of s. ambrogio, milan. crucifix in the museum at ravenna (dehli). plate . early christian ornament. early christian ornament. plate . ſº - # - . º º ttttttt p º --- º & sº º ºsitºrsº plate . early christian ornament. early christian ornament. : plate . visigothic ornament in spain. (after monumentos de españa.) cross from the crown of reces wint. crown of suinthila. votive crown. - votive cross. arm of a processional crucifix. plate . italo-byzantine ornament in italy. frieze from the church at dana in syria (vogüe, la syrie centrale). capital from the church of st. apollinare nuovo, ravenna (dehli). , , , and . capitals from the church of st. vitale in ravenna. the church fig. . xx . -> . -- . -- . -> . , . jºr . -- . , . fig. . of st. vitale in ravenna was founded by the treasurer julianus argentarius being moved thereto be the exhortations of bishop ecclesius ( – after christ). the strongly marked byzantine character of this church is easily explained when it is remembered that very intimate relations existed at that time between ravenna and byzantium (dehli). marble panel from ravenna (bilderatlas). monogram of christ in a sarcophagus in the church of st. apollinare-in- classe, ravenna (dehli, selections of byzantine ornament). plate . frankish ornament. gospel of charles the bald in the national library in paris (havard). sword of charlemagne in the imperial treasury in vienna (havard). chair of the statue of st. foy in the treasury at conques (havard). gold crucifix, presented to the monastery of st. denis by charles the bald (havard). crown of charlemagne in the imperial treasury in vienna (havard). crown of the statue of st. foy in the treasury at conques (havard). reliquary medallion of charlemagne in the monastery at aix-la-chapelle (havard). throned christ from a gospel of charlemagne (müller and mothes). hunting horn of charlemagne in aix-la-chapelle (müller and mothes). madonna from the catacomb of st. calixtus in rome (müller and mothes). plate . diptych from the th century, supposed to be the cathedral of maxentius (libonis). sarcophagus of the exarch isaac, representing the adoration of the three magi (libonis). plate . early christian ornament. l | º ºº | º § º: - º º º º º - * º º *cºxº º early christian ornament. fig. . ambo in salonica (gagarin, russische ornamente). . bookcase in church in ravenna (havard). . chalice, presented to the monastery of kremsmünster in by duke tassilo (müller and mothes). . reading desk of st. adelgundi (libonis). , and . sarcophagi in ravenna (d'espouy). . mosaic flooring from the church of st. vitale in ravenna (d'espouy). . the empress theodora and her suite. mosaic from the church of st. vitale, ravenna (libonis). - º } º s b. ; º ºſº . altar in the museum at ravenna (dehli). byzantine ornament. yzantine is the title given to that conglomerate style of art which was developed in the eastern roman empire from all the different styles which were in existence at that early period. the first impulse to the development of a byzantine style was given in the year a.d., when byzantium or constantinople became the seat of the royal residence of the emperor constantine, and when christianity was made the established state religion. byzantine art may be said to have reached its highest standard in the th century when it spread throughout the whole empire and extended to north africa. its influence however was not confined to those regions for already in the same century it had reached as far north and west as scot- land and ireland, in which countries it is found intermingled with celtic art. it also penetraded through the balkan states and italy, and, from the th century when under the influence of the macedonian empire, it took fresh life, down to the middle of the th century, it permeated the ornament of all the romanesque styles of europe, whilst even in constantinople when taken by the turks, in , the church of sancta sophia became the model on which all the turkish mosques were based, so far as their main features are concerned. initial from a breviary in the mazarin library (libonis). plate . byzantine ornament. m*x^x+x*x^te&t*i+x*i*x*i*) plate . byzantine ornament. byzantine ornament. it was in fact the political influence which the byzantine empire enjoyed during the period of its supremacy, together with the low standard of civilization existing at that period in the christian states of the west, which caused the new christian art, whose development had already commenced, to be strongly influenced by the byzantine style, more especially in its ornament . plate . fig. . arch and column of the lower gallery in the church of st. sophia, constantinople. (salzenberg, altchristliche baudenkmale von konstantinopel.) this church, erected in place of a basilica destroyed by fire, was built under justinian in the years — , after plans designed by anthemios of tralles assisted by isidorus of miletus. the church has been used as a mosque since . „ — . details from the facade of the church of st. marks in venice (gagarin). the church of st. marks, although a prototype of romanesque architecture, contains many features peculiar to byzantine art. though founded about a. d. the five domes were not commenced till a. d. and the sumptuous marble decoration not completed till two centuries later. „ . bronze door in the church of st . marks, venice (gagarin). „ . arch and capital in the baptistery of the church of st. marks, venice (gagarin). „ , . capitals in the church of st . marks, venice (gagarin). plate . fig. . arch from a gallery in the church of st . sophia, constantinople, from the th century (gagarin). „ , . bronze knockers from the door of st . marks, venice (dehli, byzantine ornament). „ . capital from the church of st . marks in venice (dehli). „ — . capitals from the church of st. marks in venice (gagarin). plate . after dehli, selections of byzantine ornament. fig. . stone panel from the atrium of st . marks in venice. . baptismal font in the vendramin palace, venice. . sarcophagus from the church of st. antonio, padua. . relief from the church of st. pietro in verona. . from transept of st. marks, venice. . frieze over door of the zeno chapel in st . marks, venice. plate . byzantine ornament. t#m# speltz, styles of ornament. plate . byzantine ornament. plate . byzantine ornament. º byzantine ornament. plate . fig. . gold ring from the collection of rollin and bourdent (libonis). ,, . border of a manuscript of the th century (libonis). ,, . stone panel in the gallery of the church of st. marks, venice (dehli). , . ivory bookcover in the south kensington museum (libonis). , . marble mosaic (libonis). , . mosaic panelling in the triforium of the church of st. sophia, constantinople (bilderatlas zur geschichte der baukunst). , – . marble mosaics from the church of st. marks in venice (dehli). , . letters from a manuscript (libonis). , . stone relief from the church of st. sergius in constantinople (krauth und meyer, steinhauerbuch). plate . fig. . well head from venice, now in the south kensington museum (dehli) , . cover of an ivory reliquary in the south kensington museum showing john the baptist between saints philip, stephen, thomas, and andrew (libonis). byzantine ivory coffer. cover of book of the four gospels owned by st. john of besançon, showing the crowning of romanus iv and eudoxia. dates from the th century, at present in the national library, paris (libonis). . byzantine miniature-painting (libonis). , . leaf of a diptych in the british museum showing michael the archangel : (libonis). plate . fig. – , – . miniature paintings from manuscripts in the national library, paris (gagarin). ,, . lectern, from a manuscript in the national library, paris (gagarin). , . byzantine crown (hottenroth, trachten). ,, – . byzantine coiffures (hottenroth). ,, . reliquary (hottenroth). ,, . chalice (hottenroth). ,, , , . arm chairs (hottenroth). ,, . consular chair of state. plate . byzantine ornament in spain. (after monumentos de españa.) fig. . ruins of the ancient cloister of san roman in hornija. ,, . capital from the same cloister. ,, . fragment of parapet, preserved in the cathedral of cordova. plate . byzantine ornament. plate . byzantine ornament. plate . byzantine ornament. byzantine ornament. fig. . outer cornice of the camara santa in the cathedral of oviedo. , – , and . window from the church of san salvator in valdedios. concejo de villa viciosa. , , and . capitals from the hermitage of santa christina in lena, oviedo. , . medallion from the same church. , . pulpit parapet from the same church. , , – . capitals from the church of san salvator in valvedios. plate . byzantine ornament in spain. (after monumentos de españa.) fig. , and . fragments from a building — called the cisterna — in mérida. , . fragment from the basilica in cordova. , . enamelled work from a reliquary in the cloister of san domingos de silos. , and . pillar from the transept of the church of st. miguel de lino, oviedo. decorative frieze (libonis). romanesque ornament. o soon as charlemagne had succeeded to a certain extent in consolidating his empire, he selected aix- la-chapelle as his place of residence, and called around him in that city artists of all kinds both from the former western as well as from the eastern roman empires. these artists were en- gaged in decorating and adorning his palaces, and it was here that a new style, the romanesque style, based upon classic architecture, and very strongly influenced by byzantine art, which stood then at its highest glory slowly developed itself. at first, after the death of charlemagne, art could not make much progress in the empire, a circum- stance due to the fact that charlemagne's successor was an incapable ruler under whose dominion the and lay diseased and dormant, awaiting with dulled apathy the end of all things. it was not until the year had come that new life began to be again manifest, and later on when the religious zeal was stirred up by the crusades that some really great and genuine works of art were produced. the romanes- que style of architecture, whose earliest architects were priests and monks, the lay element being introduced later on, is a genuine orthodox style. in the be- ginning this style was heavy, but it soon developed, and reached its highest standard in the th and th centuries. the aftergrowths of the romanesque style in germany were produced by a combination of the same with the gothic, a style which came in from france, resulting in the pointedarch style which sprung into existence. the romanesque style itself spread rapidly into all those countries which were included in the former western roman empire, its character becoming changed in accordance with the character of the inhabitants initial from a german xiith century manuscript (dolmetsch). plate . german romanesque ornament. german romanesque ornament. of each particular country. in france spain and england the romanesque style developed into the gothic, and some time afterwards, towards the middle of the th century, germany, following the example of france and using the french gothic as a standard, began also gradually to develop, the gothic style of architecture. romanesque ornament in germany. plate . (heideloff, omamentik des mittelalters.) fig. . keystone of a vault in the church of st . sebald, nuremberg. „ , and . arch frieze with consol from the same church. „ , and . bases of columns, from the convent church in heilbrunn, bavaria. „ . capital from the church of st. sebald, nuremberg. „ . view and ground plan of large column in the vestibule of the cathedral in schwabisch-hall. „ . shaft of column from the portal of the burggraf chapel in the augustinlan cloister, esslingen. „ . capital from the same church. „ . capital from the benedictine abbey in murrhard. „ . capital from the convent church in faurudan near goppingen. ., . cornice on the tower of st . john's church in schwabisch-gmund. plate . fig. . abacus from the church of st. michel in hildeshelm, th century (raguenet, materi.uu et documents). this church, which was begun by bishop bernward of hildesheim in the year , and completed in the year , marks the transition from the early to the late romanesque style. „ . abacus from the church of marmoutiers in alsace (raguenet). „ . capital from rosheira near strassburg, dating from the th century (raguenet). „ . stone cross in the market-place at treves (raguenet). „ . capital and base from eger (gruber, kaiserburg in eger). „ . capital from the cathedral in limburg (opderbecke, bauformen). this church was built by konrad ii in the years — , and dedicated in in the reign of henry iii. the building operations were conducted by the cluniac abbot poppo von stoblo. „ . signature tablet from the l t > century (mailer and mothes). ,, . door-knocker in the cathedral at aix-ia-chapelle from the "> century (raguenet). „ — . mural paintings from the cathedral in brunswick (gailhabaud l'architecture). „ . frieze from mary's chapel in the cathedral in gandersheim (raguenet). german romanesque ornament. plate . plate . german romanesque ornament. german romanesque ornament. plate . german romanesque ornament. plate . fig. . frieze from the burg at monzenberg in hesseu (opderbecke, bauformen des mittelalters). „ . frieze from the church in denkendorf, th century (lubke). „ . from a stall in the cathedral at ratzeburg (joseph). „ . ornamentation on shaft of a column from buchenberg near goslar, th century (opderbecke). „ . capital from the church in brenz, wflrttemberg, th century (opderbecke). „ . base from the abbey church in laach, th century (opderbecke). „ . archivolle from the doorway of worms cathedral, th century (opderbecke). „ . capital from the scottish church of st. jacob in ratisbon, th century (opderbecke). „ . window from the church at laach (opderbecke). „ . window-column from the cathedral at worms, "> century (opderbecke). „ , and . doorway from the church at geinhausen, th century (opderbecke). „ . tympanum from st. michael's church in schwablsch-hall, th century (opder- becke). „ . base from the church at amsberg, "> century (opderbecke). plate . fig. . throne of emperor henry ii, after a miniature in the monarch's own book of gospels which is at present in the court library in munich (mailer and mothes). „ . flagon in the royal imperial numismatic cabinet in vienna (maller and mothes). . comb of henry i (hefener-alteneck, trachten). . wrought-iron candlestick (hottenroth). . seven-branched candlestick in brunswick cathedral (mailer and mothes). . bronze candlestick (hottenroth). . bishop's crozier from the church treasuries in deutz (maller and mothes). . two-handled chalice from the marlenstern cloister in saxony (muller and mothes). . candelabrum from the cathedral in aix-la-chapelle (hottenroth). . reliquary of oak with gilt reliefs in lead, dates from the year , at present in the nuremberg museum. . glass painting from th century in neuweller, alsace (mailer and mothes). plate . fig. . wooden coffer, th century (hottenroth). „ . initials from the time of joseph xiii (mailer and mothes). „ . candlestick, "> century (hottenroth). „ . bishop's crozier, ll > century (hottenroth). „ . chalice, llui century (hottenroth). „ . fragment of a small crystal bottle, lo"> century (hottenroth). „ . initials from the bremer gospel, from the year (mailer and mothes). „ . thurible of gilt copper, "' century (miiller and mothes). plate . german romanesque ornament. plate . german romanesque ornament. speltz, styles of ormment . german romanesque ornament. plate . german romanesque ornament. fig. . writing-desk, after a manuscript in the national library at paris (gagarin). „ . bronze church lamp, th century (mailer and mothes). „ . stool (hottenroth). , and . beds, th century (hottenroth). . fighting warrior, th century (hottenroth). . cup (hottenroth). . bishop's chair (hottenroth). . imperial shoe (hottenroth). . clasp of imperial mantle (hottenroth). . sprinkler (hottenroth). . cover of the prayer-book of st . elizabeth (mailer and mothes). . bed, 'h century (mailer and mothes). plate . north-german brickwork. (after stiehl, backsteinbau romanischer zeit.) the romanesque style of brick architecture was introduced into the altmark, at jerichow, and into parts of mecklenburg, holstein, and pomerania, during that period of time when these wendic lands were being germanised. these districts being poor in stone and very rich in clay, necessitated the employment of burnt bricks. the origin of brick architecture has been traced to lombardy by herr o. stiehl, government architect, who carried out a series of careful and searching inquiries into this question (o. stiehl, der backsteinbau romanischer zeit, besonders in oberitalien und norddeutschland). from lombardy it was introduced into the wendic districts by missionaries. as the romanesque style of architecture was the prevalent one at that period, the brickwork was constructed in accordance with it . fig. — . capitals from the convent church at arendsee. „ . capital from the church at jerichow. . . capital from the church of st. maria auf dem damme at jflterbog. „ — . arched doorway and capitals from the church of st. nicolas in treuen- brietzen. „ . capital from the cathedral at brandenburg. „ . capital from the church at gadebusch. „ . arched corbel table from the church at m ln. „ . rib mouldings from the convent church at dobrilugk. „ , and . bases of piers from the cathedral at ratzeburg. „ , and . compound piers from the church at altenkrempe. „ . window from the village church at grobmangelsdorf. „ . capital from the convent church at dobrilugk.''' plate . german enamel work in the middle ages. (after v. falke and frauberger, deutsche schmelzarbeiten des mittelalters.) the historic art exhibition held in dusseldorf in the year contained a most beau- tiful and unequalled collection of german enamel-work from the romanesque art-epoch. the different works of art contained in this collection have since been reproduced by otto von * german romanesque ornament. falke and heinrich frauberger in their beautifully illustrated work ..deutsche schmelzarbeiten des mittelalters". there can be hardly any doubt but that the german artistic enamel-work has its origin in the byzantine empire. in germany itself certain centres for this art were established in a few cities, the masters giving instruction each according to his own particular school. one of the most celebrated centres was at cologne, where the great and celebrated master frederick taught. celebrated schools were also established in treves, coblenz, and a few other places. fig. . plate from angle column of the mauricius shrine in cologne by frederick; dates from the year . „ , , , and . enamel plates from the ursula shrine in cologne, done by frederick in the year . „ . the benignus shrine in siegburg. made in cologne, in the year . „ . bronze pillars from the anna shrine in cologne, . „ . reliquary plate in fritzlar, from the second half of the th century. „ . crest of the albinus shrine in cologne, from the year . „ . crest of the anna shrine in siegburg. made in cologne in the year . „ , and . crest of the mauricius shrine in cologne, by frederick in the year . painting from bamberg cathedral (heideloff). french romanesque ornament. romanesque ornament in france. in the provinces of france, the romanesque style of architecture developed itself in a somewhat peculiarly characteristic fashion, while the roman classic predominated in the south, more especially in provence, but the byzantine style held sway in the south-west . in the north of france, and in normandy, the two styles were blended together. plate . fig. . doorway of the church of st. ursin, bourges, 'i> century (opderbecke). „ . column from the church of saint pierre, chauvigny (havard, histolre et philosophic des styles). „ . doorway of the church at surgeres, ll»h century (opderbecke). „ . column from the church of st . lazare, avallon, th century (opderbecke). . base from the church at cusset, 'h century (opderbecke). „ . ornament on doorway of the church at suger, th century (opderbecke). „ . base from the church at poissy, «« century (opderbecke). „ . shaft of column from the cathedral at chartres, »> century (opderbecke). „ . and . base and carved string from church at vezelay, "> century (opderbecke). „ . corbel table from a chapel in laon, th century (opderbecke). „ . corbel table from apse of the church et lcognon, th century (opderbecke). plate . fig. . frieze in relief from cloister at moissac (havard). „ . frieze from the cathedral at bourges (raguenet). „ . frieze from the museum at toulouse, "> century (raguenet). „ . corbel table from the church at auinay, charente inferieure (raguenet). „ . cross from notre dame du port, clermont-ferrand, ll'h century (raguenet) „ . abacus from the museum at toulouse (raguenet). „ . abacus from the cloister of st. trophime, aries (raguenet). „ . capital from the cathedral at senlis, th century (v. pannewitz, formenlehre der romanischen baukunst). „ , and . capitals from toulouse (heideloff). „ . base from the church of semur in brionnais, burgundy (raguenet). „ . capital from the church of st. severin, toulouse (joseph). plate . romanesque ornament in provence. (after m. henry revoil, architecture romane du midi de la france.) fig. , and . column and arch from the cloister of st. sauveur, d'aix, bouche du rhone. „ . capital and principal cornice from the chapel of st . gabriel, bouche du rhone. transition from the classic to the romanesque style. „ , , and . principal cornices. french romanesque ornament. plate . ºº: l hº . a-t/ | | d aei lººſ plate . french romanesque ornament. plate . french romanesque ornament. "t^r plate . french romanesque ornament. french romanesque ornament. plate . "abto es ehiklm - n () p o rn cva x % french romanesque ornament. fig. . compound pier from the abbey of montmajour. „ , , and . compound piers from the castle of simlane, basses-alpes. „ , . pilaster from the church at thor, vaucluse. plate . norman-romanesque ornament. (after v. ruprich-robert, l'architecture normande.) fig. , and . pillar capital from the church of montevllliers, seine inferieure. „ . doorway of the church of anlsy, calvados. „ . capital from the church of montevilliers. „ . tympanum from a door of the church at marigny, calvados. dates from the year , and represents the old custom of tree-worship. „ . doorway of the church at beaumais, calvados. „ . window of the church at saint-contest. plate . norman-romanesque ornament. (after v. ruprich-robert, l'architecture normande.) fig. . painted capital from the church of st . georges de bocherville, th century. „ . capital from the church at mont saint michel (manche). „ . capital from the church at breteull (oise). „ , , , and . columns from the church of st. gervais, rouen, th century. „ . norman alphabet, th century, after m. de caumont. „ . column from the chapter hall of the abbey of hambe (manche). „ . capital from the crypt of the cathedral of bayeux. „ . cross from the church sainte trinite in caen. plate . fig. . iron grille from the church of st. john of malta in aix, provence (havard). „ . wrought iron hinge on the sacristy door of the cathedral at noyon (havard). „ . glass painting from the cathedral of chartres (havard). „ . baptismal font in the church at besme, champagne (raguenet). „ . bishop's crozier (l. roger-miles, comment discerner les styles). „ . grisaille in the church at bonlieu, creuse (havard). „ . cloth fabric from the abbey saint germain-des-pres, paris, lit* century (roger-miles). „ . crozier of archbishop abaldos, who died in the year , in the cathedral at sens (roger-miles). „ . gold embroidered silk (roger-miles). „ . iron grille in the museum at rouen, "> century (raguenet). „ u. iron grille from the cathedral at puy, u> century (raguenet). plate . french romanesque ornament. plate . french romanesque ornament. plate . french romanesque ornament. french romanesque ornament. fig. . -- : i . . . plate . wood coffer from the sacristy of the cathedral of noyon (havard). chafing-dish from the archbishop's palace in narbonne, th century (müller and mothes). chalice and cover from the cathedral of saint-omer (havard). initial letter from the prayer-book of charles the bald (roger-milès). holy mass flagon from the church treasury of st. denis (müller and mothes). wooden arm-chair (roger-milès). seal of the capitol of toul, – (ary renan, le costume en france). stool (roger-milès). jewel of the holy tear of vendome (havard). eagle from hilt of a sword, th century (roger-milès). small-writig-desk for writing on the knees (roger-milès). paten of open-worked silver, chased and gilt, th century (havard). plate . french enamel-work in the middle ages. in the middle ages, certain centres of art were formed in france as well as in germany, one of the most celebrated art-schools in the th century being established at verdun. the verdun altar is the most renowned work of art during this epoch. it was prepared by nicholas of verdun in the year , and is at present in the religious establishment at klosterneuburg near vienna (karl dreschler, der verduner altar). enamelled plate from the verdun altar. – . details of borner, etc., from the same. |tf re; ves - wº: &==sn'zºº º §§§ º vº º sº hi- frieze from the church of st. pierre de maguelonne (hécourt). (revoil, architecture romane dans le midi de la france.) plate . italian romanesque ornament. italian romanesque ornament. romanesque ornament in upper and middle italy. the lombard-romanesque style shows evidences of germanic influence but does not evince such a high degree of development as the german-romanesque style. in tuscany and venice, this style had to give way before the florentine and byzantine style. plate . fig. . pulpit in the cathedral at bitonto m century (raguenet) „ . portion of arcade in museum at brescia (mohrmann). „ . carved string in museum at brescia (mohrmann). „ . rose-window from the church at pomposa (mohrmann). „ . fragment of column in museum at brescia (mohrmann). plate . fig. . blind arcade from verona (mohrmann). „ . relief from the cathedral in matera (raguenet). „ a capital from the cathedral of torcello near venice, th century (raguenet); „ . italian rose-window after rosenkranz (bilderatlas der baukunst). „ . window from the church of st. abondio, como (joseph). „ , and . capital and archivolt from the church of st. zeno, verona (mohrmann). „ . doorway from the church of the fathers in padua (raguenet). plate . (after prof. karl mohrmann and dr. eugen ferd. eichwede, germanische friihkunst.) fig. , and . doorway from the church of st. stefano in bologna. „ . lion plinth from the principal doorway of the cathedral at verona. „ , and . lion plinths on the doorway of the church in modena. saracen-norman ornament in sicily and lower italy. the normans where originally a northern tribe which had settled in norway, and who afterwards, being forced through over-population to leave their scandinavian home, founded a colony in normandy. they, conquered sicily and lower italy and established also colonies in these countries. in the th century a characteristic romanesque style had developed in normandy. in the norman colonies in lower italy, this style, being very strongly in- fluenced by the islamite style of the saracens, developed further into another most charac- teristic style, which reached its highest standard in the th century. from this combination of oriental and christian art, the only exemple perhaps of the kind in history, from this union of quick oriental fancy with the courage, strength, and power of the northman, have sprung works of art whose delightful, and entrancing beauty charm the beholder and excite his wonder and admiration. pei tz, styles of ornament. plate . italian romanesque ornament. plate . italian romanesque ornament. - plate . italian romanesque ornament. italian romanesque ornament. plate . fig. , , , and . nave arches and superstructure of the cathedral at monreale (j. j. hittorff et l. zanth architecture moderne de la sicile). „ , and . ceilings from the same cathedral (hittorff). „ . arcade from the cathedral at monreale (camillo boito, architettura del medio evo in italia). this church was built between the years and , and restored between the years — . „ . arch from the cathedral at monreale (hittorff). plate . (after kutschmann, meisterwerke der sarazenisch-normannischen kunst in sicilien und unteritalien.) fig. . relief on the front side of the altar of st. cataldo. . baptismal font in st. cataldo. — . window archivolts from the palace of st. antonio, palermo. . ear-ring from the coronation hood of queen constance ii. . mosaic from the capella palatina, palermo. . inlaid frieze from the same church. . mosaic from a window reveal, same church. , and . mosaic friezes from the cathedral at monreale. . mosaic from the church of the martorana, palermo. plate . fig i, and . mosaics from the church of the martorana, palermo (kutschmann). „ . from the ceiling of the cathedral at monreale (hittorff and zanth). „ , and . fragments from archivolt in the side aisle of the capella palatina at palermo (kutschmann). „ . mosaic from arch soffit in the same church (kutschmann). „ , and . mosaics from the cathedral at monreale (kutschmann). „ . painting from the cathedral of messina (d'espouy). mosaic from monreale cathedral (hittorff and zanth). italian romanesque ornament. plate . plate . italian romanesque ornament. plate . spanish romanesque ornament. ll^.'v^'i.'li..i spanish romanesque ornament. romanesque ornament in spain. romanesque church architecture in spain was influenced by moorish architecture of which there are many remains. plate . (from monumentos de espafla.) fig. . window from the church of san isidoro, leon. , and . strings from the same church. . capital from the same church. , and . capital and base from the church of st. lorenzo, segovia. . soffit from the same church. , and . capital and base from the gate of mercy in the same church. . fragment from the old cathedral of salamanca. capital, corbel and base from the church of st. peter and paul, barcelona. plate . (from monumentos de espafla.) fig. . doorway from the church of san mil ian in segovia. . arch mouldings of doorway of church of san martin, segovia. . and . plan and elevation of window from the ancient cathedral of salamanca. . capital from the pantheon san isidoro, leon. — . panels from frieze in the church of san lorenzo, segovia. . stone sarcophagus in the pantheon san isidoro, leon. plate . (from monumentos de espafla.) fig. . arcade in the interior of the apse of the church santa maria de villa mayor, concejo del infiesto. „ , and . capital and base from the tower on the camara santa of the cathedral at oviedo. „ , and . corbel table from the church of santa maria de villa mayor. „ . capital from tower in no. . „ . sarcophagus probably of king alphonzo the wise, in the cloister of santa maria la real de las huelgas, burgos. corbel table of doorway of san lorenzo in segovia (monumentos de espafla). plate . spanish romanesque ornament. plate . spanish romanesque ornament. msmisszmm '^umswm j£&, #&, .k& m|. ' f 'fc |^j english romanesque ornament. plate . english romanesque ornament. romanesque ornament in england. the art of the early middle ages in england can be divided into two periods: . the anglo-saxon period from to . the art of this period consisted in an attempt to reproduce the remains of roman architecture in the country, or in italy. . the norman-period from to . the ait of this period was an imitation of the norman french, developing gradually into a characteristic national style. plate . fig. . norman mural paintings on the altar of our lady of pity, durham cathedral. dates from the year (antiquarian gleanings in the north of england by william b. scott). . door in peterborough cathedral, th century (raguenet). . column from canterbury cathedral, from the year (pannewitz). . arcade from the schools at canterbury, from the year . . capitals in the church of st . peter at northampton (graul, bilderatlas). . door-knocker from durham cathedral (scott). . tomb of an english knight, th century (hefener-alteneck). plate . fig. . capital and base from the church at lastingham, yorkshire, »> century (pannewitz). „ . capital from the same church (pannewitz). „ . capital from the church at dunfermline, scotland (pannewitz). „ . capital from the church of st . peter-at-gowts, lincoin, anglo saxoa (baldwin brown, the arts in the early england). „ . capital from canterbury cathedral (pannewitz). „ . capital from waltham abbey (pannewitz). „ . capital from the white tower of the tower of london. „ . double window of the east facade of the tower at deerhurst (baldwin brown). „ , and . pyxes (hottenroth). „ . from the chasuble of st. thomas a'beckett (hottenroth). „ . coffer from the church at brampton, northamptonshire, "< century. „ . norman ornaments from st. saviour church, southwark (pugin, gothic ornament). „ . late-romanesque tiles, yellow and red, from the church at bloxham,. th century (dolmetsch). plate . (after v. ruprich-robert, architecture normande du xi et xii siecle en normandie et en angleterre.) fig. . triforium arches of rochester cathedral, kent. „ . archivolt of doorway, peterborough cathedral, northamptonshire. „ , and . window shafts in the abbey church of sl albans, herefordshire. „ . baptismal font in sculthorpe church, norfolk. plate . english romanesque ornament. plate . english romanesque ornament. fi • • .t i . rumm. plate . english romanesque ornament. myy- v-n--.''^ii|ii|i)i,'i|ii ^ english romanesque ornament. pig. , and . baptismal font in winchester cathedral, hampshire. „ , and . mural paintings from same cathedral. „ . archivolt of doorway of st. peter's church, northampton. „ . column from the crypt of canterbury cathedral, kent. plate . (after james k. colling, details of gothic architecture.) fig. . capital and base from the crypt of vestry in canterbury cathedral. ,. , and . rose window from patrixbourne church, kent . ,, . capital from the church at walsoken, norfolk. ,, . south doorway of the small church at gt. totham, essex. „ , and . west-doorway in the tower of the church at etton, yorkshire. plate . fig. - . from norman cornices (parker's glossary of architecture). fig. . lincolnshire, c. , deeping st. james. . st. contest, caen, normandy. . corbel table, st. peter at gowts, lincoln. . transept of winchester cathedral, . . billet, canterbury cathedral. . beak head, st. ebbe's oxford. . double square westminster hall, c. . . chevron, north hinksey, berks. . rose, iffley, church oxon. . segmental billet, abbaye aux dames, caen. . double cone, stoneleigh church, warwickshire. . embattled, lincoln cathedral, c. . . grille in winchester cathedral (bailey scott murphy, english and scottish wrought ironwork). — . capitals and base in the western tower of the church at great hale, near sleaford, lincoinshire (baldwin brown, the arts in early england). plate . fig. . canon's staff (hottenroth). . ship in which duke william came over to england (hottenroth). „ . anglo-saxon pyx (hottenroth). ., . anglo-saxon sword-hilt (hottenroth). ., , and . pyxes (hottenroth). „ . norman shield (hottenroth). ., . mitre of thomas a'beckett (hottenroth). „ . norman sedan chair (hottenroth). „ . anglo-norman woman with water-jug (hottenroth). „ . cross from monasterboice abbey, ireland, dates from the year (margaret stokes, early christian art in ireland). speltz, styles of ornament. english romanesque ornament. plate . plate . english romanesque ornament. - plate . english romanesque ornament. tsw/xj: english romanesque ornament. . anglo-saxon dagger, from the th century (hottenrolh). . and . candlesticks (hottenrolh). . coronation spoon (hottenroth). . dragon ship, llth century (hottenroth). . lantern (hottenroth). . norman knight in chain armour (hottenroth). fig. , , , , , - plate . (h. shaw, mediaeval alphabets and devices.) letters from the works of josephus and other mss. th century. letters from the same period taken from manuscripts in the british museum. arched doorway from the church at framlingham, norfolk. from the middle of the th century (v. ruprich-robert). plate . scandinavian romanesque ornament. scandinavian romanesque ornament. ]n norway, the scandinavian ornament stands in the most intimate relationship with the celtic, a circumstance which is due to the fact that christianity was first introduced into norway by the irish. in south norway, where english influence had to give way before the german, stone architecture is predominant, one of the most beautiful examples of this style being the cathedral at lund, a basilica founded in , but not completed till . arch- bishop eskill who consecrated it and presided over its completion came from hildesheim and it is to his influence that the pronounced german character of the design may be attributed. the same is found in the large conventual church at dalby, south of lund, which was consecrated in , the crypt however being of earlier date. besides being found in south norway, stone architecture of a most decidedly early germanic style is also predominant in sweden and denmark. in the north of norway, however, and during the same period, a typical style of wooden architecture was developed. this style in all probability had its origin in england, although at the present time, there is but one example of a wooden church throughout the whole country, namely, the wooden church at greenstead, near london. the greatest and most powerful influence, however, to which the romanesque-scan- dinavian wooden style of architecture was subjected during its development was the influence exercised by irish-celtic art. it must not be forgotten, at the same time, that the peculiar norwegian parish churches appear to have had an independent development of their own, the richly decorated, ornamental doorway of these churches being very characteristic. three periods are noted in the construction of these churches. from side doorway of the church at urnes (dolmetsch). scandinavian romanesque ornament. . the archaic form, or the period ot irish influence up to the year a. d. . the period distinguished by the romanesque form, a style, which, in all probability was taken from the anglo saxons and anglo normans up to the year a d. . the period of gothic influence up to the decline of art. the gothic could never entirely supersede the influence of the romanesque, a style which had already taken such deep root in the country. there are three styles of doorways: . the sognin type. this takes its name from a country district, and, is distinguished from the other styles of doorways by the delicacy and elegance of the tracery work, no different or distinct periods of development being apparent. . the thelmark type. this type of doorway may be seen in the church of christianasand. the traceries are broad, very often rough and coarse, and in strong contrast to the foregoing style. the development and decadence of the thelmark type of doorway can be much better observed an followed the sognin type. . the figurative portals. this style of doorway which belongs either to bible history or to mythology, is found only in south norway. the artistic treatment of the figures is inferior that of the ornament. plate . romanesque ornament in norway. (after sesselberg, skandinavische baukunst). fig. . capital from the cathedral at nidaros, drontheltn. this church was built in the year . „ . shaft of column from the church at wal. „ , and . window from the cathedral at lund. „ . door from the church at torlosa. „ . capital from the cathedral at lund. „ . interlaced work from the church at wal. plate . (after dietrichson and munthe, die holzbaukunst norwegens.) fig. . doorway of the church at aardal, at present in the museum at bergen. this church was built in the year , and is the most elegant example of the sogn- valdres type of ornament. plate . scandinavian romanesque ornament. plate . scandinavian romanesque ornament. plate . scandinavian romanesque ornament. plate . scandinavian romanesque ornament. scandinavian romanesque ornament. pig. , and . column and capital from the church at urnes, one of the most interesting of irish wooden churches. it is very ancient. „ . doorway of the andreas church in bourgund. this church lies on the road leading from christiania to bergen, and dates apparently from the year after christ . „ . west gable of the church at urnes. ,, . remains of a ruined irish church in hopperstad. ,, . doorway from the church at hitterdal, dates probably from "' century. „ . mask from a wall pillar in the church at hegge. this church was first mad" mention of in the year . . column from the aisle of the church at hitterdal. „ . unrolled cylindrical capital from the church at hegge. „ . part of a chair from the church at hitterdal. plate . (after dietrichson and munthe.) pig. . half of the outer west-doorway of the church at hegge in valdres, bishopric of hamor. „ . half of the doorway of the church at hemsedal in hollingdal, bishopric of christiania. „ . half of the doorway of the church at hitterdal in thelemarken, bishopric of christianiasand. . north doorway of the same church. . doorway of the church at rennebo, orkedal, bishopric of drontheim, in the museum at drontheim. . doorway of the church of tonjem, sogn, bishopric of bergen, in the museum at bergen. plate . fig. , and . arm chair in the museum at christiania. „ . hanging bracket in the same museum (v. ruprich-robert). „ . prow of ship in the same museum v. ruprich-robert). „ . door lock in the museum at bergen (mohrmann). „ . door handle in the hedal church (mohrmann). plate . romanesque ornament in sweden. (after mohrmann.) fig. , and . baptismal fonds in the museum at stockholm. . ornament from a baptismal font in the same museum. ,, . capital from the crypt of church in dalby, sweden. . inscription on a baptismal font in the museum at stockholm. ., — . columns from the crypt of the church in dalby, sweden. scandinavian romanesque ornament. plate . - s=> | scandinavian romanesque ornament. plate . romanesque ornament in denmark. (after mohrmann.) fig. – , and . incised border from altarplate in the church at sal, jutland. , . doorway of the church at ripe, jutland. ... . altar of the church at sal. stone ornament from the cathedral at lund (sesselberg). plate . russian ornament. russian ornament. artaric influence — which dates chiefly from to , when the tartars were in power—may be regarded beyond any doubt as the chief cause why the pure byzantine style originally established in russia came to be changed later on into the ornament special to that country. there, as into every other country where they appeared, the christians brought with them a new style of art, which developed itself afterwards in accordance with the national character of the people. the commencement of russian art may be said to date from the end of the th century under the reign of vladimir the great. in the latter part of the middle ages and towards the beginning of the modern period, italian artists were invited in great numbers into the country and were engaged in the construction of numerous monumental buildings. the influence of oriental art, however, was already so very great, that even italian art was not powerful enough to entirely eliminate it from the country. wooden architecture plays a great part in russian ornament . there exist at present in russia some old- slavonian manuscripts dating from the th century. initial from a gospel in the rum- jantzow-museum in moscow (dolmetsch). plate . (after e. viollet le duc, l"art russe.) fig. . arch of a doorway in the cathedral of st. dimitri, vladimir. i> . russian capital. tl . cupola of the cathedral of st . basil. »» . russian column. »» . stucco ornament . plate . (after gagarin, russische omamente.) fig. . from st. george's church in jurjeff-poisky, government of vladimir; dates from tt> century. „ . wood carving on an ikon, th century. „ . relief decoration of a stone wall in the church of st . george, jurjeff-poisky, government of vladimir. „ . from a silver mounting of a picture of christ in antschishat, tiflls, th century. „ , and . entrance porch of st . george's church in jurjeff-poisky, th century. speltz, styles of ornament . plate . russian ornament. plate . russian ornament. j*» plate . russian ornament. russian ornament. plate . fig. , and . painted ornamentations from an old russian psalter, in the imperial public library at moscow (dolmetsch, ornamentenschatz). . from a psalter, in the library of the holy trinity, moscow (dolmetsch). . from a prayer-book, in the miracle-cloister at moscow (dolmetsch). . from a prayer-book, th century, in the bjaloserski cloister in moscow (dolmetsch), . club in chased iron (libonis). . old russian helmet (libonis). . chalice of st. anthony of rome in the cathedral of the assumption, moscow. dates from "> century (libonis). . krubok (beaker) belonging to prince john iii. (libonis). . spoon belonging to bishop antonius, in moscow, "> century (libonis). . eagle with victim in claws, made of siberian gold, at present in the museum of the hermitage (moscow). . altar in antschishat in tiflis, th century (gagarin). . pew of the czar in the cathedral of the assumption, moscow. this church was re-built in the years — . by an italian architect named aristotle fior- avanti, which accounts for the italian renaissance influence observable in the ornament . . details from the figs. . plate . (after e. viollet le duc, l'art russe.) fig. . embroidery from a russian shirt. „ , , and . ornaments from throne of the czar alexis mikallowitch. „ . diadem in enamel-work, * century. „ . mural painting. the custom of tree-worship, transmitted from very remote periods, is here plainly discernible. from a gospel in the cloister at novgorod (dolmetsch). mahometan ornament. decorative fragment fronib tomb of the sultan el-ghoury (prisse). in ancient times, art was the expression of the religious feelings of a people. when, therefore, a new religious faith was proclaimed, the deve- lopment of a new art commenced. the procla- mation of the peace of the church by constantine in a. d., led not only to new requirements to meet the demands of the new religion, but to great changes in design, and eventually to a style which differed materially from that which had gone before. the early christian style in rome and the west, and the byzantine style in the east gradually transformed the ancient classic art. a similar change took place shortly after mahomet carried the islamic faith through egypt, syria and persia. at first the conquerors and their new convents contented themselves with the structures then existing in the various countries subdued and converted, or, having no preconceived styles of their own, employed the native workmen to build for them, making use of the materials at hand, such as existed in profusion in the pagan temples and the coptic and byzantine churches. in course of time these resources were no longer available, and then commenced the gradual development of the maho- metan style. this style varied in the several countries according as it was in- fluenced by local traditions, and also in the periods when it commenced and when it reached its fullest developments. thus in syria, north africa and persia, the chief elements of the style are found towards the close of the th century. in egypt it was nearly a century later, as also in spain, where it was in- troduced from kerouan in tunis, in asia minor under the rule of the seljuk mahometan ornament. turks of rum it began to flourish toward the close of the th century, in india, at about the same time, but only in a small portion of the country, and in con- stantinople toward the close of the th century. in all these countries there was one universal rule which was rarely departed from, viz, the absolute pro- hibition of naturalistic representations of men, animals or plants. this led from the first to a purely conventional type of leaf design, which often served as backgrounds for the magnificent inscription in arabic characters, and to geome- trical designs of immense variety, the followers of mahomet being the greatest geometricians of the world; and at a later period to the decorative treatment of constructional features, such as are shewn in the elaboration of the voussoirs of an arch and more especially in the so-called stalactitic vaulting, which, except in india, prevails throughout the mahometan style. originally evolved from con- structive features of small materials, such as brick, it was imitated in stone throughout syria, egypt, asia minor and constantinople, in plaster in spain and in all countries in wood. the titles of the several developments of the mahometan style vary in the different countries: thus in persia, it is recognised as persian, in syria and egypt as saracenic, or arabian; in tunis, morocco and spain as moorish, in turkey as ottoman, and in india as indo-saracenic. in persia, syria, egypt, and asia minor, and to a certain extent in india, the pointed arch, first in- troduced as an important constructional feature in the mosque of ibu tfllun in cairo a. d., became eventually an emblem of the faith. in syria and egypt the pointed arches were also horse-shoe, that is to say, the arched from was continued below the level of the springing or centres. in persia and asia minor the arches were generally four centred and not horseshoe and the same is found in india. in tunis, morocco and spain the horseshoe arch with semicircular head would seem to have prevailed, this would appear to have originated at kerouan in tunis and was carried into spain by the moorish followers of mahomet . to the moors, however, is due another development of the greatest importance from the ornamental point of view, they were the first to cusp the arch, in a. d., in the sanctuary of the mosque of cordova, and this, so far as decorative form goes, constitutes the leading characteristic of the moorish style in spain. plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. t plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. arabian ornament. towards the middle of the th century the islamites developed in egypt a characteristic style of art of which the pointed arch was the distinguishing feature. plate . fig. — . colnmns and capitals from cairo, th century (prisse d'avennes, la decoration arabe). „ , and . windows from the mosque thelay-abou-rezyq, th century (prisse d'avennes). „ . parapet of the mosque of the sultan ibn kalaom (owen jones, grammar of ornament). „ . archivolt ornament from the same mosque (owen jones). „ , and . wrought-iron door knocker from cairo (owen jones). „ . soffit from the mosque el nasw (owen jones). „ . stalactite ornaments from cairo (dolmetsch). „ . frieze from the mosque thelay-aboy-rezyq (prisse d'avennes). plate . fig. — , — , and . decorative details from the interior of the mosque of ahmed- ibn-tulun, th century (prisse). „ , , and . wooden trellis work, 'h and th centuries (prisse). „ . from a wooden ceiling in the mosque at qous (prisse). „ , and . wooden trellis work from the mosque thelay-abou-rezyq, th century (prisse). „ . from the mosque tekieh cheikh hacen sadaka, th century (prisse). „ . interior window decoration from the mosque queycoum, i> century (prisse). plate . fig. . window of open-worked plaster in the mosque of el-ashraf, u> century (prisse). „ . sample of stuff in the museum at utrecht, "> century (prisse). „ . wall decoration in the mosque shekhun, th century (prisse). „ . wall decoration in the palace of ismail bey, th century (prisse). plate . fig. — . samples of mosaic work, th century (prisse). „ , , and . helmet and arms from toman-bey (libonls). „ . lamp from the mosque of kalaom. in the cairo museum (libonis). „ . lamp from the mosque el-ghuri. in the cairo museum (libonis). mahometan ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. . mosaic frieze from the tomb of bursbey, "' century (prisse). , and . decorative fragment from the tomb of the sultan el-ghurl (prisse) , and . wood carving from the mosque at quos, ul century (prisse). , and . border of wall-tiles, th century (prisse). . carved joist from the hospital of the muristan, th century (prisse). enamelled glass lamp from the mosque of sultan barkuk th century (prisse). plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. moorish ornament. in the wonderful buildings of the moorish kings in spain from the th to the th cen- turies, more especially in the cathedral at cordova, the alhambra in granada, and in the alcazar in seville, mahometan ornamental work may by seen in its highest splendour. in the artistic interlacing and interwaeving of geometric and arabesque ornament, moorish artists show extraordinary talent, and give free rein to the wonderful powers of fancy and imagi- nation which they possessed in such a high degree. despite the exuberance of the orna- mentation and the rich and vived coloured of the painting, moorish ornament never wearies or confuses the eye, the technical drawing and the colouring of each single system of orna- ment beeing so clearly defined and so distinct, that each can be distinguished from the other easily and clearly. the fine arabic lettering was often used by the moors as ornament. plate . ornament from the caliphate in toledo. in the old synagogue, new the church of st. maria de la bianca, toledo. fig. . capital from the central aisle. . capital of the lower story. . stucco ornament from the arch of the central courtyard. — . console under the tie beams of the aisle. . capital and springing of the arch. . console of the gallery at the entrance. . capital from the upper story. plate . ornament from the caliphate in granada. fig. , and . arch panellings in the alhambra (junghandel). „ . capital from the alhambra (junghandel). „ , and . decorative details from the alhambra (junghandel). „ . capital from the alhambra (dolmetsch). „ . wall panelling from the alhambra (dolmetsch). ,, . taken from portal of the mosque in tangiers (uhde). „ . beginning of arch in the alberca court, alhambra (uhde). „ . beginning of arch in the myrtle court of the alhambra (uhde). „ . corbels from toledo. in the archaeological museum, madrid (uhde). „ . cresting from the alhambra (uhde). plate . ornament from the caliphate in granada. fig. i. wall panelling from the alhambra (dolmetsch). „ , and . decorative details from the alhambra (junghandel). „ — . wall panellings from the alhambra (owen jones). plate . mahometan ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. ... , .,.?. ,, ,. - mahometan ornament. plate . (after monumentos de españa.) fig. – . tile facings in the hall of the ambassadors, granada. . taken from the lower part of the mirador de lindarāja in the royal alkazar of the alhambra, granada. – . tile facings from the royal chamber of santo domingo in granada. plate . fig. . door from the alhambra (uhde). , . boabdil's sword (libonis). , , , and . mosaic borders (owen jones). , and . plastic wall-border decorations (owen jones). , and . enamelled glass bottles (libonis). . glass lamp from a mosque (libonis). . corner ornaments (owen jones). -- cornice impost from the central arch of the court of lions in the alhambra, granada (monumentos de españa). - plate . mahometan ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. saracenic ornament. the saracens, who originally came from northern arabia, like the moors of hamitic origin, were both for a long time the chief standard bearers of islam art. when sicily was conquered by the normans, the saracens placed their art at the disposal of the conquerors, in many cases christian churches were ornamented and decorated by mahometan artists. in this manner a peculiar saracen-norman style of art developed itself in italy (see page ). unfortunately, there are so very few remains of saracenic art in sicily now existing that we cannot form any general view of what it really was. plate . (after kutschmann, meisterwerke der sarazenisch-normannischen kunst in sizilien und unteritalien.) fig. . fragment of a wooden celling in the national museum at palermo. „ , and . panellings of a wooden door in the martorana at palermo. „ . door softit in the national museum at palermo. ottoman ornament. the term ottoman is given to the mahometan style as practised by the turks in con- stantinople. it has, however, a much earlier origin, having been fully developed by the seljuk turks, who towards the close of the th century had conquered a considerable portion of mesopotamia, syria and asia minor. one of their earlier buildings is the' medresseh, or collegiate mosque at erzeroum, dating from the middle of the th century. all the arches are pointed and the capitals of the columns carrying them are decorated with stalactites. in this mosque and generally in those found at konia, nigdeh, kaisariyeh and other towns, the principal feature is the entrance porch, which is surrounded by numerous borders, either elaborately carved with conventional designs and inscriptions, or covered with persian tiles of brilliant colours in some cases probably exported from persia, so that the influence of their design is noticeable in most of their work. sometimes their mosques are preceded by an open arcade, with pointed arches, the voussoirs of which are alternately of black and withe marble at kaisariyeh in the mosque erected by houen in a. d., slightly horseshoe and ogee arches are found, but here, as also at nigdeh, the most beautiful features are the octagonal tombs, in the former of the founder houen and at nigdeh of havandah, the wife of ala-ed-din of the th century. these tombs are enriched in profusion with elaborate carving; with stalactite cornices and conical terminations. other seljukian monuments are the four mosques at sivas, built between and . amasia with th and * century examples, and divrik, where the entrance doorway with its boldly relieved ornamentation is of great beauty. the power of the seljuks lasted till their conquest by timur in a. d., who devastated the country, which eventually in a. d. passed into the possession of mohamet ii the conqueror of constantinople. mahometan ornament. the turks followed the example of all mohametan rulers and adopted the architectural forms of constantinople, the church of sta. sophia, built by jus'.inian becoming the model on which all their mosques in future were based. pre\ious to the conquest of constantinople, the osmanli turks had already taken possession of nicaea in a. d., where tere were many scljuk mosques, to which they added and enlarged. it was, however, at brusa, which they took in , that they erected their finest mosques, such as the great mosque - , the green mosque a. d., a title given to it on account of the green glazed tiles with which its minarets and porch are covered, the tomb of mohamet i, a. d. and other structures, in some of which there is certain evidence of byzantine influence, possibly due to the tact that greek architects were employed. the employment of tiles encasing the porches and minarets gives a persian character io all these mosques. the first great mosque built in constantinople was the mosque of mohamet ii, built in — a. d. on the site of the church of the holy apostles, this was designed by christodoulos, a greek archi- tect. this was followed by the bayezidiyeh, built — ; the selimiyeh — ; the suleimanie ( — ) designed by sinan, who is said to have been an armenian architect, and the ahmediyeh erected by sultan ahmed — a. d. in all these mosques a central dome with great apses forms the chief feature, as in sta. sophia. the pointed arch, however, was adopted throughout and the details were all based on the seljukian style with stalactitic capitals, conventional foliage decoration, and inscriptions in fine cufic characters. in the th century western rococo architecture commenced to influence the design, and although, as in the tulip mosque — , the central dome is fine in its contour, its details are of the most debased cha- racter. — the seljukian style was followed in the palace and public monuments, amongst which the numerous drinking fountains, with their rich orna- mental decorations in inlaid marble are the most remarkable. in the cemeteries adjoining constantinople the tombs, consisting of vertica slabs of stone richly carved with ornament, are interesting examples of the ottoman style. tomb stone at constantinople (normandi. plate . plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. plate . elements of ottoman architecture. (after sebah, die ottomanische baukunst.) fig. , and . stalactite capitals, after sinan. „ , and . pedestal of column, after sinan. „ . stalactite capital and principal cornice. „ , , snd . various capitals of piers. plate . (after sebah, die ottomanische baukunst.) fig. . frontal with ornamental cufic characters from the yeshil-jaml mosqe in brusa. this mosque was completed by the architect uias aali in the year mahometan time, which in our time correspondends to the year a. d. „ . border of a niche in the yeshil-jaml mosque in brusa. „ , and . portal borders from the same mosque. „ . bronze trellis work in the taouk bazaar. plate . (after sebah, die ottomanische baukunst.) fig. , and . finials of ottoman cupolas. „ . stalactite mouldings on the large window of the yeshil-jami mosque in brusa. „ . glass window from the same mosque. „ . decoration on bars of window in the same mosque. „ . door panel from the same mosque. plate . (after sebah, die ottomanische baukunst.) fig. . frieze with glazed brick from the yeshil-jaml mosque in brusa. „ , , and . iron mountings. „ . shaft of column from the tomb of sultan suleiman. „ . bronze lattice work. „ . window with pierced work dating from the time of sultan selim. „ . celling from the yeshil-jami mosque in brusa. „ . paving-tile ornament . plate . mahometan ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. plate . fig. , , and . taken from a fountain in pera, constantinople (owen jones). „ . from a tomb in constantinople (owen jones). „ , and . from the yenl jami mosque in constantinople (owen jones). ,, , and . glazed clay ornaments from the tomb in mouradieh (doltnetsch). ,, , , and . glazed clay ornaments from the tomb of mahomet i. (dolmetsch). „ — , , and . glazed clay ornaments from the mosque of yeshil-jami at brusa (dolmetsch). „ , and . from tomb of the sultan suleiman i., constantinople (owen jones). „ . decoration of the dome sultan suleiman i. in constantinople (owen jones). ornamental pea-tendril. transition from naturalistic to ottoman ornament (sebah, die ottomanische baukunst). plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. persian ornament. although in its system of ornamentation persian-islamite art followed the fundamental principles of mahometan art, still, its most marked characteristic feature consisted in the employment of richly coloured glazed tiles. the extreme loveliness and beauty of the archi- tectural structures of the ancient kaliphate under haroun-al-raschid in bagdad and ispahan are due to this method of ornamentation. although the geometric ornament in this style does not show such prolific combinations as that of the saracens or the moors, its vegetable ornament, on the other hand, with its greater variety while keeping close to nature, more than makes up for it. persian art reached its highest glory towards the end of the th century. plate . from ispahan. (after dolmetsch, ornamentenschatz.j fig. , and . spandrels from the college or medresse of maderi-chah-sultan-hussein. . openworked window-arch of stone. the dotted background is stained glass. . and . finials. . faience tile, th century. . border of faience. . openworked window-case of (tone (belongs to fig. ). . and . columns. . minaret of the mosque mesdjid-i-chah. . wall border. plate . (after friedrich sarre, denkmaler der persischen baukunst.) fig. . tile paintings from a palace of shah abbas the great . in possession of f. sarre. „ . wainscot in the dome of the medresse of the kora tai in konia. , and . wainscot in the liwan of the court of medresse slrtscheh in konia. „ . brickwork mosaic from the mausoleum of mumine chatun in nakhichewan. „ . inscription from the same mausoleum. plate . (after friedrich sarre, denkmaler der persischen baukunst.) fig. . faience mosaic from the dome-chamber in the blue mosque at tabriz. „ . brickwork mosaic in the mausoleum of mumine chatun at nakhichewan. „ — . mural decorations in the dome chamber of the medresse of karl tai. in konia. speltz, styles of ornament . is plate . mahometan ornament. jj£. plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. plate . fig. . copper vessel from kaschan (dolmetsch). , and . ornaments from the british museum (owen jones). . wall decoration of faience tiles (dolmetsch). , , and . ornamental work on metal vessels (dolmetsch). . glazed ball (dolmetsch). , and . old-persian faience plate in the cluny museum, paris (dolmetsch). , and . fragments of knives and forks (dolmetsch). . persian carpet, th century (dolmetsch). . manuscript painting from the koran (dolmetsch). faience decoration from the mosque of sheik safl in ardebll (f. sarre). plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. indo-saracenic ornament. when islamism made is appearance in india in the "> century, it found already there an ancient style of art which was characterised by great elaboration, a distinction which very naturally became also associated later on with indo-saracenic ornamentation. the buildings erected at this period display, however, a peculiar splendour entirely their own, a splendour which very often rises into the most luxurious beauty. this style of ornamentation, made up of ancient indian elements and of saracenic art, reached its highest glory in the th century, plants in natural style being preferred to the geometric ornament of the moors. the saracenic restriction laid down by the koran that living animals should not be repre- sented artistically was not regarded either in the indo-saracenic or persian art. plate . fig. . from the temple at vijayananagar, dravidian style, (uhde). „ , and . from a minaret in ahmedabad, built in the years — (uhde). figure is to be placed above fig. . „ . principal entrance to the mosque at jaunpur, — (uhde). „ . wood carving from burma (dolmetsch). plate . fig. . pierced-panelling in sandstone, from futtipore-sikri (dolmetsch). „ . window from a house in amritza (indian architecture and ornament). „ . piers from the mosque ranee slpre in ahmedabad (indian architecture and ornament). „ . column from the palace of the shah jehan in agra (indian architecture and ornament). „ . arch from the palace of amber (indian architecture and ornament). plate . fig. . copper flagon in the munich museum (libonis). „ . dancer's costume from ceylon (libonis). „ . mahout's lance (libonis). „ . embroidered quiver (libonis). „ . powder-horn (libonis). „ . faience plate (libonis). „ . battle-axe with etched ornament (dolmetsch). „ . vase of incrusted silver (libonis). „ . faience jug (libonis). „ . damascened vase (libonis). mahometan ornament. plate . plate . mahometan ornament. º mahometan ornament. plate . fig. , and . ornament from damascened metal-work (dolmetsch). . mahout's lance, enamelled (dolmetsch). . gold embroidered state sunshade (dolmetsch). . and . embroidered fans (dolmetsch). . frieze from an iron, silver damascened, vase (libonis). . marble inlaid-work from the monuments of shah jehan and the begum muntaz-i-mahal (dolmetsch). . ornamental work from metal vessels (dolmetsch). decorative work on a damascened shield, gold on steel, in the ethnographical museum of the louvre (l'art pour tous). gothic ornament. ;orthern france began to evolve the gothic from the romanesque style when this latter had arrived at its fullest development. the new style, which spread rapidly over england, germany, italy, spain and other countries, owed its origin to that desire for a freer, more intellectual development which animated the peoples of europe about the year , and to a thorough change in the entire civilised life of the period. on one side were abstract intellectual ideas, on the other, intensive, impulsive emotionalism, and religious mysticism. these various feelings found their expression in the deve- lopment of the gothic style, which, although it originally proceeded from northern france, was ultimately regarded as the expression af a pure german style. with the exception of a few de- generate examples in later work, the ornament in the gothic style is always kept in strictest sub- ordination to the form. it never overgrows or conceals the masonic substructure, but, on the contrary, is specially employed to supplement and complete the expression of the form in a harmonious manner. the principal ornament of gothic is the leaf-moulding, the plants being always selected from native flora, the manner in which they are worked being in nearly every case a pretty sure guide to the period in which they were produced. in early gothic, in the th century, the leaves were nearly always more or less conventionalized with a slight naturalistic leaning. later on, the leaves were produced with more force and energy, becoming finally, in late gothic, much more naturalistic in their form. during this epoch they were thick set in appe- arance, and were also sometimes very much under cut, two circumstances which resulted, first in imparting stiffness and rigidity, and secondly, from the sharp contrasts of light and shade which the hollow leaves produced, in giving them constantly varying movement. in the selection of plants, symbolic allusions were also often taken into account. the figures of men and animals made use of in from an english th century manuscript (owen jones). gothic ornament. the gothic were employed in very many cases in a humorous and exaggerated manner. the name gothic has no connection whatever with the goths. already in the romanesque style will be found nearly all the essential principles of the gothic style, so much so that it was at one time suggested to give the term of round arched gothic to its complete development at the commencement of the th century; the title romanesque is, however, that by which it is best known and therefore has been adhered to here. the term, however, is generally applied to all its phases, which vary in different countries; thus in north italy the term lombard is generally followed. in central and south italy it is known as central and southern romanesque, in sicily as siculo-norman. in north germany it is called rhenish; in north france, norman, in the south, provencal or perigordian, and in england as saxon and norman. these various developments were all based on constructional requirements and the materials employed, but these elements form no part of the province of this work, dealing as it does with ornament only. at the same time it is impossible to dismiss some of the early evolutions which took place, as they form the ground work both in the romanesque and gothic styles for the ornament applied to them. the variety of the ornament which is found on the doorways and windows of the norman style, such as are illustrated on plates , , , and , and which eventually led to that of the great portals of the french, spanish and english cathedrals, and of which an example at beverley is shewn on plate , cannot be correctly understood without some reference to their construction. in order to emphasize and give importance to the entrance doorway, a series of concentric arches were thrown one above the other, some times called "orders", each one projecting further than the one beneath, to this characteristic sir gilbert scott gave the title of "subordination of the arches". the roman, byzantine, and many of the italian romanesque arches were all in one plane. in france, germany and england, and especially in the latter country, there are many planes formed by the concentric rings of masonry one on the other, and these are all moulded and sometimes carved with the designs shewn on plate , but the subordination of arches led to a subdivision of the piers carrying them and to the employment sometimes of shafts or columns as a means of decoration and accentuation. on plate , fig. for instance, are two angle shafts, each of which has a differently orna- mented capital, and the same on plate , fig. . in the gothic style fig. , , , plate are examples of the variety of design of the capitals on compound piers and in fig. , plate , are illustrated many slender shafts, each with its respective capital, which gives variety and change to the main design. there is in fact in the evolution of the romanesque and gothic styles that characteristic to which reference has already been made, viz, that the orna- ment is specially employed to supplement and complete the impression of the form in a harmonious manner. gothic ornament. in the earlier gothic style, the foliage has a certain conventional character, which will be seen in plates and . about the middle of the th cen- tury it became more naturalistic, as shewn on plates and , and this tendency increased in the th century, so that, as in fig. , , and , plate , the sculptor would seem to have imitated the natural leaves so far as the material would allow, this is specially the case in the porch of the chapter house of southwell cathedral. at a later period, and especially in germany, the ornament became very debased, and what were originally constructive fea- tures, such as the shafts of compound piers, were looked upon as decorative features, as, for instance, the columns of st. blasius cathedral in brunswick, of the th century, fig. , plate , where they are carried spirally round the columns. the ribs of the tracery in panels were cut short, forming stumps as in fig. , plate , having no sense of fitness or beauty. on the other hand, in her wrought metal work germany takes the lead in the th century and it would be difficult to find more magnificent specimes than those which are illustrated on plate , where the decorative forms follow closely the nature of the material in wrought iron or bronze. the gothic let- tering engraved on the bronze plates of tombs, as illustrated on plate shews how beautiful a surface or flat ornament inscription can become, having the additional value of being an historical record. in the german initial letters also represented on plate there is a plethora of design of the most beautiful character. from a german th century manuscript (dolmetsch). •v gothic ornament. gothic ornament in france. ery gradually from northern france, where its origin is to be found, gothic architecture spread over the whole of christian europe. after many constructive attempts made both at autun and vezelay, abbot suger finally erected in the years — the aobey church of st. denis. although this church shows very many traces of romanesque in- fluence, as do all early gothic buildings, and is a combi- nation of old architectural habits with new ideas, it is still the first and most important example of gothic architecture. that great master-piece of early gothic, the cathedral of notre dame in paris, was erected in the years — . towards the beginning of the th century the complete, fully-developed and fully-ripened form of (he gothic was finally arrived at, from which time it began to flourish until it developed at last into the period of its highest glory. the after-growths of the gothic in the "> and th century were called, in germany late-gotic, but were designated in france as the flamboyant style. the desire for greater lightness becoming now apparent, and the purity of design being neglected at the same time, it finally happened that the ornament grew apace and masked the form, a fate which in the end overtook almost all styles of architecture. from a th century manuscript (racinet). principal cornice from notre dame de paris (viollet le duc). base from paris cathedral (viollet le duc). cornice from the notre dame at chalons (viollet le duc). plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . fig. . finlal from the cathedral of paris, end of the th century (opderbecke). „ . gallery from rouen cathedral, t» century (opderbecke). „ , and . crockets from a church in rouen (opderbecke). „ . gargoyle from reims cathedral (album de la cathedrale de reims). „ . eagle from the apse gallery in reims cathedral (restored). (album de la cathedrale de reims). „ . finlal from the southern tower of chartres cathedral, th century (opderbecke). „ . cavetto ornament from the abbey church at larchant (opderbecke). „ . finial from amiens cathedral, (opderbecke). „ . spire from the church at poissy, th century (opderbecke). „ . capital of pier from notre dame, paris (g. dehio, and g. von bezold, die kirchliche baukunst des abendlandes). „ . cross in reims cathedral (album de la cathedrale de reims). plate . fig. . capital from amiens cathedral, (opderbecke). „ . capital from middle of «i> century, after viollet le duc. „ . capital from the church of st. chapelle, paris, (opderbecke). „ . capital from the church of st . martin des champs, paris, (opderbecke). „ , and . capitals from the cathedral at bayeux, calvados (raguenet, materiauz) ,, . capital from the church at sens (salle synodiale), (opderbecke). „ . capital from the church at vezelay, middle of th century (opderbecke). „ . base in crypt of the church at rosnay (aube), (raguenet, materiaux). „ . base of stair-baluster, lyons (raguenet). „ . capital from the cathedral at nevers (album der kathedrale von reims). „ . base from the church at brou (ain), (raguenet). plate . gothic flora. ^from viollet le duc, dictionnaire raisonne de rarchitecture francaise du xl« au xvie siecle.) fig. . cavetto moulding, with vine leaves and grapes. „ , , and . conventionalished arum. „ . fig-leaf. „ . leaf of the bellflower. „ . cavetto mouldings, maple-leaf and flowers. „ . cavetto mouldings, cress leaves and seed. „ . parsley-leaf. „ . conventionalised lily. „ . leaf of the meadow-rue. plate . gothic ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. gothic ornament. plate . plate . gothic ornament. - gothic ornament. plate . fig. . spandril from the church of st. severin in bordeaux, (viollet le duc). . stone vase, th century; found in aix, provence raguenet, materiaux). . doorway of the church of st . genest at nevers, middle of the 'n century (viollet le duc). . boss of vault from the priory of st. martin des champs, paris, th century (raguenet). . door-knocker from cordes, tarn (raguenet). . door-knocker from bayonne, th century (raguenet). . and . boss of vault from the church of st. severin, paris (raguenet). . arcade from st. chapel le, paris, "> century (raguenet). . doorway of the episcopal palace at beauvais, oise, th century. plate . (oothic mural painting after p. gelis-didot et h. laffillee, la peinture decorative en france du xle au xvie siecle.) fig. . stencil painting from the church of chateloy near herisson, allier. „ . frieze painting from coney castle (aisne). „ . from the roof of the church at cunault, maine et loire, beginning of the th century. „ — . textile paintings in the chancel of amiens cathedral. these patterns, which have had their origin, without any doubt, in the orient, were also very frequently used in flat-painting. „ . from the chapel of st. antony in the cloister of the jacobines in toulouse. „ . from the church of the jacobins in agen. „ . from the church at romans (dr me). „ . from the chapel of saint-crepin in evron (mayenne). „ . from the church of saint-ours in loches (indre et loire). „ . from the sacristy of the cathedral at clermont . „ . from the chapel at prltz (mayenne). this represents the month of september, and is one of the panels which illustrate the twelve months of the year. plate . fig. , and . belt with knife, * century (viollet le duc, dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier francaise). „ . reliquary, in the cluny museum, a crystal cylinder with gilt copper mountings (viollet le duc). „ . coiffure of queen isabel of bavaria, (viollet le duc). „ . buckle, th century (viollet le duc). „ . embroidered prayer-book bag, th century (viollet le duc). „ . purse, th century (racinet, le costume historique). „ . lock of coffer viollet le duc). „ . harness, th century (viollet le duc). plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . fig. , and . textile pattern, th century (gelis-didot et laffillee). , and . enamel-work on copper (roger-miles). . armour, * century (roger-miles). . glass painting from bourges cathedral (owen jones). . glass painting from angers cathedral (owen jones). . and . textile patterns, * century (gelis-didot et laffillee). fig. . fig. . ,. . .. . ., . „ . „ . ., . » . „ - ., . „ . .. . plate . painting from a prayer-book in the national library at paris. the latin text dates from the year , the painting, which has been ascribed to israel of mekenen is, however, of a later period. stall cluny museum, th century (e. bajot, collection des meubles anciens). credence table, th century (raguenet). stool from the bedroom of louis xi. lorraine wooden coffer in the museum at cluny, tb century (bajot). plate . napkin border, * century (raguenet). printed cloth, th century raguenet). goblet, with transparent enamel (havard). antique cameo, said to be portrait of king charles v (havard). processional crucifix of beaten sliver, chased and gilt (havard). silver cooling-tankard (havard). altar candlestick of chased silver (havard). prayer-book belonging to st. louis (havard). bread-knife, in gilt silver filigree-worked sheath (havard). wine cup in silver gilt, in the cathedral at reims (havard). neck ornament and goblet of the nlveller rifle-corps (havard). ebony coffer in the cluny museum (l'art pour tous). rose window from the abbey at braisne (viollet le duc). base from the cathedral of maux (viollet le duc). plate . gothic ornament. | | gothic ornament. plate . plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. gothic ornament in the netherlands. |nto the netherlands, gothic architecture soon made its way, a most natural circumstance considering how near that country lay to france, the land where the gothic style had its origin. varied specimens of gothic archi- tecture appeared all over belgium, but in holland, where this style was latter on very strongly influenced by germany, and where, for obvious reasons, plain brick- work architecture had to predominate, the examples are far more simple and not so varied. one very remarkable and most peculiar feature of the gothic style in belgium consists in the extreme care with which the entire decorative-work, even the very minutest details, is carried out. the most important cathedral in holland, utrecht was built by bishop henry of vianden in the years — ; the most im- portant gothic monument in belgium being the celebrated cathedral of antwerp, which was begun by jean amel of appelmans from boulogne in the year . the finest examples of gothic architecture, however, were the town hals, the most beautiful specimen being in louvain. initial from israel of mekenen (hirth). fig. . plate . (after ysendyck, art dans les pays-bas.) embroidery-work from the frock of a king-at-arms, during the reign of philip ii. the spanish coat of arms are embroidered in coloured silk on a foundation of carmine-red velvet. two robes similar to this are still preserved in the arsenal at madrid. window from the cloister of st . servais, maestricht, t>> century. chimney-piece in blue stone from the pas-perdus hall in mons, "' century. balustrade of granite, th century. this is employed at present plinth for a copper grating in the church of walburg in fumes. wrought iron hinge on the door of the treasury chamber in the cathedral of st . paul, liege (l'art pour tous). plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . fig. . flemish sculpture, th century (raguenet). „ . brass wine goblet, th century (ysendyck, art dans les pays-bas). „ . tabernacle door of wrought iron, th century (ysendyck, art dans les pays-bas). „ . wrought iron candlestick, 't> century (libonis). „ . lectern from the church at tongres, "> century (raguenet). ,. . fountain from quentin-matsys, antwerp, th century (raguenet). gothic ornament in england. y william of sens, an architect of french origin, gothic was employed in the cathedral of canterbury which was begun in the year . even in westminster abbey, which was erected in the years — , french influence is also plainly discernible. notwithstanding this, however, the gothic style in england soon learned to move along on independent lines of its own. the english gothic tudor arch and the ogee arch, are specially peculiar of late english gothic. there are three gothic periods in england. . early gothic (early english) in the th century, characterised by the lancet arch. . the decorated style, so-called on account of its rich decorative development. . the perpendicular style in the th century. in this style the tudor and the orgee arch predo- minate, and the forms become gradually more and more fantastic. the vaulting is carried to its greatest elaboration, and therewith begins the decline of this style. from a th century manuscript (owen jones). plate . fig. . from stone church, kent (owen jones). , and . from wells cathedral, decorated style (owen jones). . rosette from oxford (pugin, gothic ornament). , and . capitals from warmington church, northamptonshire (owen jones). . capital from wells cathedral, early english (owen jones). , and . leaf mouldings from trinity stratford-on-avon (pugin). plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. ifib'.'i l plate" . gothic ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. gothic ornament. plate . (after pugin, gothic ornament.) fig. . crocket from winchester cathedral. . finial to a stall in all soul's college chapel, oxford. . portion of stone canopy from york minster. . crocket from trinity church, stratford-on-avon, warwick. . finial of a stall in new walsingham church, norfolk. . capital from st. saviour's church, southwark. . stringcourse from winchester cathedral. plate . (after pugin, examples of gothic architecture.) fig. . turret over entrance gateway, east barsham manor house, norfolk. „ . window from the cloisters, new college, oxford. „ . monument of sir richard carew, beddington church, surrey. „ . oak tracery at the back of stalls in all soul's college chapel, oxford. „ . canopy to one of the stalls in st. catherine's church, tower hill, london. plate . (after pugin, examples of gothic architecture.) fig. — . sin bracket, george inn, glastonbury. „ . window in gable of the abbot's barn, glastonbury. „ , , and . details from the abbot's barn, glastonbury. „ . window from raglan castle, monmouthshire. „ . canopy on the west front of the chapel at houghton-in-the-dale, norfolk. plate . (after pugin, examples of gothic architecture.) fig. . panel from the common room of the vicar's close, wells. ,, , , , , and . details from the banqueting hall of the manor house, great chalfield, wilts. „ , , . details from the western doorway of magdalen college, oxford. „ . chimney-piece in the bishop's palace, wells. plate . (after pugin, examples of gothic architecture.) fig. . oriel window on the north side of the quadrangle of balliol college, oxford. ,, . canopy in falkenham church, norfolk. „ . door handle, temp henry vii. „ . doorway at the westend of magdalen college chapel, oxford, „ . small lock for a chest, temp henry vii. plate . gothic ornament. ^=== ^ | ||t imi i i i ] * plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. tessssa^sur ss f*j ^sl ^ pn£j ira i j s --r-^^vll gothic ornament. plate . plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. fig. fig. fig. -- . fan vault from all souls' college, oxford. , , and . moulded tiles from chimney stacks, east-barsham manorhouse. norfolk. . oak ceiling, new walsingham church, norfolk. plate . (talbot bury, remains of ecclesiastical woodwork.) – . roof of st. mary's church, bury st. edmunds. , and . roof of lavenham church, suffolk. , , , and . roof of burford church, oxfordshire. , and . roof of wantage church, berkshire. plate . . . finial from exeter cathedral, th century (raguenet). . solid springer from the same cathedral (raguenet). . rosette from chester cathedral, th century (raguenet). . font from bradfield church, suffolk (raguenet.) . pulpit in bridgewater church, somersethshire (talbot bury). . grotesque figure, oxford (pugin). . panel from the façade of wells cathedral (raguenet). – . encaustic tiles, th century (owen jones). plate . . . from a stall in the church at weston zoyland, somersetshire (talbot bury, remains of ecclesiastical woodwork). . chandelier from church at piddletown, dorset. . goblet of silver gilt, th century (libonis). , , and . from a manuscript of the middle ages (owen jones). . coronation chair in westminster abbey (libonis). . stall in wantage church, berkshire (talbot bury). . stained glass window in merton college chapel, oxford (pugin). . stained glass window southwell minster, nottinghamshire (owen jones). plate . . middle gothic glass-painting in norbury, derbyshire. . lead glazing in brabourne church, kent. . head of queen of sheba in window at fairford. , , and . grisaille glass from salisbury cathedral. . late gothic glass-painting in wells. . glass painting, with figure of edward the confessor, st. mary's, ross. plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. s=zr i> ^~- plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . fig. . coffer in the sacristy in louth church, lincolnshire (colling). xx . panel from the church at trull, somersetshire (colling). , and . panels from the font in the church at great conerby, lincolnshire (colling). . gilt iron lock from the hall of beddington manor house, surrey (pugin). plate . (franklin a. crallan, gothic woodwork.) . . bench end, breadsall church, derbyshire, th century. . stall from st. andrew gatton, surrey. . canopy over the tomb of edward iii. in westminster abbey, . . door from the church of st. laurence, norwich. . end of a seat from witley, surrey, th century. . panel in tudor style from the south kensington museum. plate . . . west doorway of st. mary's church, beverley (colling). . gate of the bishop's chapel in ely cathedral (bailey scott murphy). . doorway of the presbytery at north petherton, somersetshire (colling). . door of the church at bocking, essex (colling). plate . (henry shaw, mediaeval alphabets and devices.) . . lettering from the monument of henry iii. in westminster abbey, . – , , and . letters from the monument of richard ii. in westminster abbey, . . letters from a benedictional, . . grotesque lettering from a printed book, th century. . signature of a wood-engraver, th century. . initial from a manuscript in the british museum. plate . ornament on english monuments. (from c. a. stothard, the monumental effigies of great britain.) . . from a tombstone in the ingham church, norfolk. . crown of the earl of arundel, died . . ladies' coiffure, th century. . sheath of dagger belonging to lord hungerford, died . . crown of queen berengaria, wife of richard coeur de lion. . shoe of henry iii., died , from a tomb in edward the confessor's chapel. , and . bag and brooch of queen berengaria. gothic ornament. fig. . necklace, th century. „ , and . heads of sir edmund de thorpe and lady in ashwelthorpe church, norfolk. „ . spur of sir hugh calvely, in bunbury church, cheshire. ,, . belt buckle of the earl of warwick. ,, . hilt of sword belonging to sir john peche, from his tomb in the church at lullingstone, kent. „ , and . sword-hilt and sword-belt belonging to john de la pole, duke of suffolk. „ . shoe of edward iii., died in , taken from his tomb in westminster abbey. , . end of sword-belt, 'h century. ,, . coiffure of the countess of westmoreland. „ . glove of ralph neville, earl of westmoreland, from his tomb in staindrop church at durham. head-dress of beatrice, countess of arundel. from a statue in trinity church, arundel, th century (viollet le ducj. plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. w" /i r^m ^^^^^^^^^^^^ h . jab ccp ex© n iansimopcu plate . gothic ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. gothic ornament. gothic ornament in germany and austria. yvvrrnn'r•tyy'ty,'r^'''t''.,'r^^ s soon as the gothic style had well entered on its victorious march throughout england, it began also to make its way gradually throughout germany, where, on account of its french origin, it became generally known under the title of "opus franci- genum". although it had not completely won the victory over romanesque art until about the commence of the 'h century, it was nevertheless, at this time, fully perfect in all its forms. the early gothic con- tinued up until the beginning of the th century. the oldest gothic building in germany is the choir in the cathedral at magdeburg which was conse- crated in the year . the most beautiful specimens of the gothic are however to be found in the rhineland where the gothic style reached its highest perfection, the cathedral at cologne, which was begun in the year , being its noblest work. from a th century manuscript (dolmetsch). coat of arms from the rosette town hall at lflneburg. from neubrandenburg. rosette from stargard. (fritz gottlob, formenlehre der norddeutschen backsteingotik.) plate . gothic ornament. * gothic ornament. plate . (after heideloff, ornamentik des mittelalters.) fig. . frieze from the passage between the nicholas chapel and the cathedral- church at aix-la-chapelle, . „ . finlal from the fountain in the market square at rottenburg on the neckar, late gothic. . crocket from st. kilian's church at heilbronn. . and . balustrade, and inscription from the court-yard of the house adler str. l , nuremberg. . capital from cologne cathedral. . finial from a stone tabernacle in the hospital church, esslingen, the work of matthaus von boblingen. . finial from the shrine of st. sebald in nuremberg, wrought in bronze by peter vischer and his son ( — ). . corbel of vault from the lilienfeld cloister near vienna. . baptismal font in monnerstadt on the lauer. plate . fig. , , and . capitals from the cathedral church of st . peter at wlmpfen in the valley near heilbronn (zeller, st. peter zu wimpfen i. t.). „ . capital from the church of the cistercian cloister lilienfeld near vienna. „ . capital from the cathedral at frankfurt on the main, th century (raguenet). „ . column from the st. blasius cathedral, brunswick, \ ^ century (hartung, mittelalterllche baukunst in deutschland). „ . capital and base from the princes' tomb in the holy cross church near vienna (heideloff). „ . capital from a window of the saalburg on the saale (franconia) (heideloff). „ . capital from the cathedral at worms (raguenet). plate . fig. . door from ober-kranichfeld (heideloff). „ . late gothic door from coburg fortress (heideloff). „ . portal of the elizabeth church in marburg (hartung). „ . bridal door on the north side of the choir in the church of st. sebald, nuremberg, th century. plate . (after heideloff, ornamentik des mittelalters.) fig. — . late gothic ornaments in flat wood relief in the gallery balustrade of a house in the hauptmarkt, nuremberg. „ , and . wood-carving from a writing-desk in the rectory of st . lorenz, nuremberg. „ , and . panelling from stone gallerv in the choir of the cloister church in blaubeuren. plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . (giºiºſº º - +- n a ſ | . | / / / plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. gothic orxament. fig. . from a stall in the cloister church of st . clara, nuremberg. ,, , and . wooden rosettes from the rose chamber in the princes house, coburg castle. „ . window head in the st. lawrence rectory, nuremberg, . „ . window head of a private house in nordlingen. „ , and . window heads from the ruined hospital in esslingen. plate . fig. i,and . glass window from the church at hundelshausen (ungewitter, land- und stadtkirchen). „ . relief over the door of the chapel tower in the parish church, rottweil (heideloff). „ . stained glass from the cathedral at regensburg, now in the national museum at munich (dolmetsch). „ . glass painting from the frauenklrche, esslingen (dolmetsch). „ . pulpit from the church of the ursuline convent in fritzlar (ungewitter). „ , and . from the cathedral church of st. peter in wimpfen-lm-tal (zeller, st. peter zu wimpfen-im-tal). window from the gable at the market from the south chapel stargard gate, side of the town hall of the katharinen new brandenburg. of kfinigsberg. church, brandenburg. (fritz gottlob, formenlehre der norddeutschen backsteingotik.) plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . german gothic brickwork. (after fritz gottlob, eormenlehre der norddeutschen backsteingotik.) the romanesque brickwork of north germany, which had its origin in north italy, became, naturally, when gothic architecture developed and became prevalent, gradually changed into the gothic style. the marked differences between the two were due, to the different materials used, and to the manner in which these materials, stone and brick, had to be treated. the brickwork was very probably prior to the stone gothic, and in the level plains of north germany, where sandstone is scarce, there gradually arose a special style of gothic brickwork quite in keeping with the peculiarity of the building material and the character of the people. fig. . window from the nikolai church in wismar. „ . window from the town hall of lubeck. . north doorway of the church of st. mary, konigsberg, prussia. „ . buttress in the same church. „ . rose window from the church at prenzlau. „ . principal doorway in the cloister church, berlin. plate . (after heideloff, ornamentik des mittelalters.) fig. . glazed heating stove in burg fflssen on the lech. the stove contains the following inscription „dieser ofen wol-gestalt ward gemacht do man zallt jar bey hannsen seltzmann vogt zu oberndorf". — this stove was made in by hannsen seltzmann, steward at oberndorf. . quiver, after a painting from albrecht durer, showing hercules conquering the harpies. at present in the burg at nuremberg. . late gothic double goblet in silver gilt, in possession of the family knopf in nuremberg. . monument to graf von henneberg, done in bronze by peter vischer, from a sketch by albrecht dflrer. . arms of wurttemberg and savoy, from a tomb in the stifts church in stuttgart. . late gothic ornament from the bridal-carriage of agnes of hesse, wife of duke john frederick of saxe-coburg ( ), in flat relief, carved in wood and gilt. . eagle from panelling of the door of the emperor's room in scheurlis house, nuremberg. plate . (after f. paukert, tiroler zimmergotik.) fig. . wood ceiling in jochisturm, sterzing. „ . tiles from the burg in meran. „ . marquetry from a table. „ — . from a wood ceiling in freienstein. — . tie-beams of a wood ceiling in st . martin, ahrntal . plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornamental iron-work from nuremberg museum. fig. , , , , , , and . door handles. „ , , and . lock mountings. „ , , , , and . door mountings. „ . wood door with iron mountings. plate . fig. . late gothic crozler, from a tombstone in the cathedral at regensburg (heideloff). „ . late gothic candelabrum of bronze from the church of kraftshof near nuremberg (heideloff). . gilt wooden cross, from an altar in the church of st. mary at hersbruck (heideloff). . gothic cradle (heideloff). . and . manuscript painting, th century (dolmetsch). . coffer from bozen (paukert, zimmergotik). . late gothic balcony soffit from st. michael's church, hildeshelm (ebe, die schmuckformen der monumentalbauten). gothic wood carving. plate . gothic ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. * gothic ornament. plate . pig. . late gothic arm-chair from the ancient armoury in nuremberg. „ . arm-chair from tyrol, th century. „ . door from kunkelstein castle (paukert). „ . late gothic lectern from the stiffs church at herrleden, near ansbacb (heideloff). „ . stall from the elizabeth church, marburg (e. wasmuth, alte und neue kirchen- mobel). „ . table from the rhineland, th century (falke, mittelalterliches hausmobiliar). „ . church stall in oak. in all probability this belonged to the rival kaiser wilhelm of holland, and is therefore from the "i century; i* is now in the wartburg plate . gothic flat ornament. (after e. paukert, tyroler zitnmergotik. fig. , and . ornament from kunkelstein castle. „ , , and . stuff patterns after paintings in the castle of trotzburg. „ . ornament from neustlft. „ , and . wall-paper, printed on linen. plate . fig. . wrought-iron candelabrum, end of the th century, in the national museum at munich (hirth). „ , , and . crown and details in a picture of the blessed virgin in the church of st. martha, nuremberg (heidelofi). „ . late gothic goblet in silver gilt (heideloff). „ . rosette of sheet-iron on the knocker of the sacristy door in the church of st. lawrence, nuremberg (heideloff). „ . badge of the confraternity of the "holy mount", with the symbol of st. aegidius (heideloff). „ . late gothic censer, from a copperplate by martin schongauer (heideloff). „ . chain of the order of the swan (heideloff). „ . spout of a water barrel (heideloff). plate . fig. — . late gothic initals, from different parchment manuscripts' (hirth, formenschatz). „ — . early gothic letters, from rhenish manuscripts (dr. karl lamprecht, initiaj- ornamentik). plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . - c || || | . - d © - o gothic ornament. plate . (after wilhelm weimar, monumental-schriften.) . from a bronze plate in the monastic church at baden-baden, . . from the bronze tomb of bishop tilo of trotha in the cathedral at merse- burg, died . . inscription, engraved in bronze, from the tombstone of anna von vviers- hausen (died ) in the church of st. elizabeth, marburg. . from the engraved bronze tomb-plate of the scholt in nuremberg, who died in . in the church at langenzenn near furth. . bronze tomb-plate of jakob von oulpen (died ) in the st. gumbertus church, ansbach. window in bebenhausen convent, wurtemberg. window from the town hall at nuremberg. r window in the reichenbach cloister, ulm, wurtemberg. window from the gable of the now ruined preacher's church in nuremberg. (heideloff, ornamentik des mittelalters.) gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament in hungary. (after dr. bdla von czobor and emmerich von szaley, die historischen denkmaier ungarns.) fig. . helmet of banus from croatia and heiden, by szlgetvar nikolaus zrinyi (died ), in the court armoury collection, vienna. „ . helmet of georg castriota skanderbeg, duke of albania ( — ), in the court armoury collection, vienna. „ . goblet of sliver gilt, * century, was presented in to the protestant church in miskolcz by gregor von miskolcz. „ . horn vessel for holding oil, silver gilt mountings, property of the eszertom cathedral. „ . reliquary hermes of st. ladislaus, of silver gilt, ornamented with chain mail. hungarian th century work. in the cathedral church at gyorer. bronze baptismal font, made in for menardt church by johannes von novavilla. gothic ornament. gothic ornament in italy. |nto italy gothic art made its way at about the same time as it did into germany. this style of an first received the title of gothic in italy, a word which was used by the italians at that time to signify barbarian, or anything coming from the north. in italy more importance was placed on the horizontal than in either germany or france, and it was only very seldom that the vertical predominated in that country. the italians did not pay much attention to the development of the tower, which very often stands quite apart from the church altogether. the franciscan and dominican orders played a very important part in the spread of the gothic throughout italy. the italian gothic, however, could never free itself from classic, romanesque and byzantine reminiscences, and italian late-gothic is mixed with noumerous renaissance motifs. classic art had taken too strong a hold on the italians, it was so much a part of their life, they had become so imbued with its spirit that they really found it impossible to become true lovers of the gothic. as a consequence, gothic art rapidly declined, and, in the th century, a decided movement to break away altogether from the style of the period, and to turn back again to the old classic art began to make itself evident. from a th century manuscript (racinet). fig. plate . (from rohault de fleury, la toscane au moyen age.) . and . arch of the loggia of the palace of the signorla, florence, . painting by piero dl guido ( ) representing charity, in the loggia of the palace of the signoria, florence. . uon from the city wall in pisa. . pillar from the corn-market in florence. . mural painting from the city hall, florence. plate . fig. . window from a house in the synagogue street in trani, "> century (raguenet). „ . crest of the church of santa maria del flore in florence, th century (raguenet). „ . bronze knocker from florence, th century (raguenet). „ . window from the convent of st. theresa in trani (raguenet). „ . mosaic floor from florence cathedral (d'espouy, fragments d'architecture du moyen-age). „ , and . mural painting and pillar from the castle of pandino, th century (camillo boito, arte italiana). plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . fig. , and . altar in the church of or san michele (d'espouy). » . band-pattern, th century (raguenet). „ . door border from florence, th century (raguenet). plate . fig. — . locks and keys from the national museum, florence (bolto;. „ . credence from the villa reale del pogglo near florence, th century (raguenet). „ . fragment of a fresco-painting by jacopo avanzi in the oratorium of the st. giorgio church in padua (boito). „ . from a monument by bonjacopo sanolta in the choir of the st . antonio convent, padua (boito). plate . fig. . tunic from the museo clvico in turin, made of carmine-red velvet on a gold ground, th century (boito). „ . carpet pattern from a tempera painting by niccolo alunno ( ) in the pinakotheca at perugia (dolmetsch). . from a tomb in fano (d'espouy). . mural painting from the castle of pandino, end of the 'h century (boito). . table-cloth border, th century, the pattern is blue (raguenet). . railing round the scaliger monument in verona (d'espouy). . reliquary in the treasury of the pitti palace, florence, end of the th cent- ury (boito). plate . the venetian gothic. (after cicognara, monument! di venezia.) fig. . capital and base from the court-yard of the ca d'oro palace. „ . balustrade in the first story of the same palace. „ . window ornament, capital and base, in the first story of the same palace. „ . capital and base from the second story of the same palace. „ . capital and base in the first story of the doges palace. „ . ground plan of no. . plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. - gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. plate . fig. – . manuscript paintings from the th and th centuries (racinet, l'ornement polychrome). stuff pattern from an altar in milan, with the badge of the duchess bonne of savoy. at present in the museum poldi pezzole, milan (l'art pour tous). plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. gothic ornament n spain. ery soon after it had begun to reach its highest development in france, that is, in the first half of the "> century, and about the year , gothic was introduced from france into spain. it did not, however, undergo here that change in accordance with the national ideas of the people which it underwent in germany and italy, the very extensive number of moorish remains still existing in the country having made their influence felt. one of the oldest gothic monuments in the peninsula is the cathedral of burgos which was built under northern french influence in the th century. the western from a th century manuscript tower of this cathedral was completed in the years (monumentos de espafia). — by meister johann of cologne. plate . transition style (estilo mudelar). (after monumentos arquitectonicos de espafw) fig. , and . door and window heads from the palace de los ayalas in toledo. ,, . door head from the chapel of santiago of santa maria in alcala de henares. „ . details from the house called de mesa in toledo. „ . decoration over the door in no. . „ . crest of the church of st. mark, seville. plate . (after monumentos arquitectonicos de espafla.) fig. , and . window from the house lonja in valencia. „ . window from the cloister of st. juan de los reyes in toledo. „ . middle column of a double window from the tower of the lonja house in valencia. „ . stair newel from the hospital de la latina in madrid. „ . tombstone of king don alphonso vi and his consort donna leonor, in the choir of the church of santa maria la real de huelgas in burgos. plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . fig. — . details from the cloister of st. juan de los reyes in toledo (monumentos de espafia). „ . balcony from the court-yard of st. gregorio in valladolid (raguenet). plate . fig. . finial from transept of the church of st. juan de los reyes in toledo (monumentos de espafia). „ . linen hanging, "> century, blue pattern on a red ground (raguenet). ,, . wrought iron chandelier from tarrasa, province of barcelona, "> century (mira leroy). . window panel from the cloister of st. juan de los reyes in toledo (monu- mentos de espafia). „ . back of a stall seat in the cathedral of leon, tb century (mira leroy). „ . ceiling of the cloister of st. juan de los reyes in toledo (mira leroy). painted balustrade in the interior of the tower of santo domingo, called the hercules tower in segovia (monumentos de espafia). plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . the manoel style in portugal. (after frei luis de souza, church of batalha.) an extremely peculiar gothic, influenced by moorish, and other foreign forms, deve- loped in portugal, its most beautiful example being the church at batalha with its monument erected to the memory of king manoel. on the th august dom jo o, king of portugal at the time, found himself opposed to a very powerful spanish army, far superior to his own in numbers, under the command of don juan, king of spain. dom joao turned to the virgin for help in this critical situation, and promised, if she would give him the victory, that he would erect a building in her honour which would far outshine in size and beauty any similar structure throughout christendom. as the portuguese did actually beat the spanish, and gained an overwhelming victory over them, dom jo o immediately proceeded to carry out his promise. he called together the foremost architects and artists from all parts of europe, and in the very same year, , in which he won his great victory, close to the scene of battle, laid the foundations of the famous and beautiful church at batalha. the mausoleum erected to king manoel, who reigned later, is the most beautiful item in this structure. it was, however, never finished and is still incomplete. fig. . arch over the door of the mausoleum to king dom manoel. „ . arch of one of the chapels in the same. „ . principal cornice of the same. „ . spire of the tower in the north facade of the church at batalha. „ . entrance door to the mausoleum. shaft and band on the south front of the church of santa maria in belem (haupt, baukunst der renaissance in portugal). chinese ornament. chinese ornamental frame (racinet.) although the earliest record of chinese archi- tecture dates back to the century b. c., when the baku tribes emigrated east from elam and baby- ionia, and introduced their systems of building, there are no examples of their architectural ornament existing earlier than the th century a. d., owing to the ruthless destruction which has taken place at all periods of her history. in their temples and halls they would appear to have adhered to one universal type of design, the earliest example still existing of which, is that which was first built in japan in a. d. by koreans. it was then a completely deve- loped style, consisting of wood columns, carrying open timber roofs covered with tiles, and the principal ornaments were those found in the groups of brackets which carried the overhanging eaves and the ridge and hip rolls of their roofs: all in glazed terracotta of bright colouring. owing to the peculiar nature of the construction of their roofs (of which an example is shewn in plate , fig. ), the horizontal beams, instead of being carried on the tops of the columns are tenoned into them. there are therefore no capitals so that the chinese and japanese are the only nations in the world to whom the capital—the principal ornamental feature of all styles—is unknown. at an early period also the chinese discarded in their pagodas the timber con- struction which they introduced into japan and built them in brick, covering them sometimes with porcelain and glazed terracotta plaques of the greatest beauty, and it is in this branch of art and in their ceramics that they excel, and in the plates devoted to chinese ornament are represented some of the finest works of this kind. in bronzes also they are very great masters, as also in gold and silver embroideries. plate . chinese ornament. chinese ornament. plate . fig. . pillar crest of the pagoda of ho-nan. the chinese column has no capital, the beams and brackets being tenoned in at the sides (chambers, designs of chinese buildings). „ . from the colonnade in the court-yard of the pagoda of cochin-china (chambers). . corbel of a pagoda in the eastern suburb of canton (chambers). , , , and . chinese »h century furniture (chambers). , and . bases of the colums in no. . . roof crest of a small temple in the western suburb of canton (chambers). . spire of a pagoda on the ta-ho, between canton and hoang-pou (chambers). . upper part of a pagoda in cochin-china (chambers). . part of a curtain of a canopy bed, embroidered in gold and silk, th century (dolmetsch). chinese ceramics. in his history of chinese ceramics, ernest grandidier divides the products of chinese ceramics, chronologically, into five epochs: . under the dynasty of sung ( — ) and the dynasty of yonen ( — ). . under the dynasty of ming ( — ). . from the end of the latter dynasty to the death of k'ang hsi ( — ). . under the reign of yung-cheng and kien-long ( — ). . the modern epoch. plate . fig. . censer, used by the emporer fon-hi when making offering to the spirits of heaven and earth, dates from beginning of the th century. „ . vase with the mythological dragon, from the yung-tsching epoch ( — ). „ . vase with the goddes si-wang-mow, goddess of a long life, from the same period. „ , and . tea-pots, from the ming epoch, — . „ . vase, from the k'ang hsi epoch, — . „ . statue of konan-inn, goddess of charity. „ . antique vase in the museum adrlen dubouchet, limoges. plate . fig. , and . vases from the yung-cheng epoch. „ . vase from the k'ang hsi epoch. „ . wine-can from the k'ang hsi epoch. „ . vase from the sung epoch — . plate . chinese ornament. plate . chinese ornament. plate . chinese ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. chinese ornament. plate . chinese ornament. plate . pig. . escutcheon from the k'ang hsi epoch. „ . cup from the same epoch. „ . vase from the sung epoch. „ . plate from the klen-long epoch. „ . vase from the same epoch. „ . fragment of table plate from the k'ang hsi epoch. „ . vase from the yung-ching epoch, with raised gold meander, which, it is more probable to suppose, was discovered by the chinese themselves, rather than an imitation from the greek. the other patterns on the vase relate to buddhist mythology. plate . (after l'art pour tous.) ornamental butterfly from an antique porcelain plate, in the fig. — , and . gasnault collection. „ . antique gold censer, in the possession of admiral coupvent des bois. „ . antique tea-pot, from the casnault collection, now in the museum at limoges. „ . antique bronze vase from m. desaye's collection. „ , and . bronze vases from the period of the ming dynasty, in the bing collection. „ . antique bronze candle-stick. ornament for laquer painting (racinet). • cambodian ornament. cambodian ornament. in the countries lying between india and china an extremely peculiar and very ancient art developed into cxistence, which may be regarded as a transition from indian to chinese art. it is but very little studied and was first made known in europe on the formation of the musee des antiques cambodgiennes by m. louis delaporte, lieutenant in the french navy-similar to indian architecture, the cambodian is overloaded with ornament, but this overloading is, however, made up for in the regularity and harmony which characterises it . plate . (after l'art pour tous.) fig. . from the sanctuary of the temple of angkor vat, "i century. „ . upper portion of podium in the same sanctuary with mask of the god rheon. „ . bas-relief carved on the exterior of the same sanctuary. „ . mural decoration in the ame with the brahma gods. plate . (after l'art pour tous.) fig. . doorway of the temple of loley, * or th century. „ . square pier and entablature with sculptured frieze representing the apsaras (celestial dancing girls) from the temple of angkor vat . „ . balustrade window of the temple of angkor vat. plate . plate . japanese ornament. [gljlji japanese ornament. marbles of various kinds and elaborate carved woodwork whereas in japan the greatest simplicity is observed, in the palaces of the mikado and shogun the woodwork is simply polished, shewing the grain of the wood, with mounts in gilt bronze. the oldest japanese art report dates from the th century a. d., when the buddhist religion was introduced into the country from china through korea: shortly afterwards the fujiwara family engrossed the power of the state for nearly four centuries, when they were displaced by the taira and minamoto clans. the former were overthrown at danno-ura in a. d., when yoritomo te chief of the minamotos obtained from the mikado and his court the title of shogun (generalissimo). later on, the ashigawa family ruled as shoguns from to a. d., and they were succeeded by the tokflgawa family whose head iyeyasu was a scion of the minamoto family. they held power till , when the shogunate was abolished and the mikado again recovered his power and position as ruling sovereign. in the portuguese missionaries entered japan and endeavoured to convert the people, but they had brought discord into the country, so that in iyemitsu, the third shogun. of the tokflgawa dynasty expelled the missionaries and closed the country to all foreigners, the dutch only being allowed to carry on trade which was confined to the island of deshima. during the two and a half centuries of exclusion, the japanese made rapid advances in art and their lacquer and metal-work reached a perfection unknown in any other country, whilst their painting and printing, greatly in- fluenced by the chinese school, are now recognised as the finest works of their kind. plate . fig. . lock mounting (l'art pour tous). „ . scabbard mounting (l'art pour tous). „ . from the eastern door of the temple shin-shiu sect in kioto (wide, kon- struktionen und kunstformen der architektur). „ , and . ancient japanese vases (l'art pour tous). „ , and . sword scabbard and hilt (l'art pour tous). „ . altar shrine in the temple of miyo-jin-akagi (uhde). japanese ornament. plate . plate . japanese ornament. mfifuumfuuimuufl plate . japanese ornament. japanese ornament. plate . (after justus brinkmann, kunst und handwerk in japan.) fig. . wooden ceiling in the temple of shogun tokugawa iyemitsu at uyeno near toklo. ,, . posts at the entrance of the principal door of the temple nishi-hongwanjl in kioto. the bases of the post and the cross bars are encased in bronze. „ . roofed public lantern in the province ise. „ . open timber roof of the hondo from o-baku-san in uji valley. „ . painted drapery on a wooden column of a nikko temple. above, is the three-leaved holly-hock of the tokugawa-shoguns. „ . bronze nail-head from the castle of himeiji. shows a branch of the holly hock (asdrum caulescens). „ — . nail-heads from an old temple and old castles. ,, . rolled-up window-blind, front and back views. plate . fig. . iron sword guard (tsuba) from the chaser kinai, th century (bing, japanischer formenschatz). „ . painting on an ancient beaker-shaped vase (dolmetsch). „ . from an embroided silk robe, 'h century (bing). „ . cloisonne inlay from a copper dish decorated on both sides (racinet, l'ornement polychrome). „ — . japanese lacquer painting. \ plate . fig. . domestic cock, from the book ye-hon sha-hd-fu-kuro, beginning of * century. the text gives the names of the different colours (brinkmann). „ . ridge-tile, oni-gawara from the temple of horiuji, th century (baltzer, das japa- nische haus). „ . ornamental phoenix head as ending of a projecting timber (baltzer). „ . leaf of screen, from the designs of the artist kdrin which were published by ho-itsu (brinkmann). „ . helmet of minamoto yoshi-iye, called also hochinamen-toro, conqueror of the tairi, about the year a. d., at present in the temple treasury of itsukushima. the rounded, turned-down sides of this helmet are of leather, on which is stencilled a picture of the god indra who is surrounded with flames. taken from the itsuku- shima meisho published in the year (brinkmann). „ . young girl painting, from a wood-cut in the ehon tama kadzura by nishigawa sukenobu, . plate . japanese ornament. japanese ornament. fig. . border-tile ornamentation (baltzer, das japanische haus). „ . border-tile ornamentation, with chrysanthemum and water waves, the arms of the renowned hero kusunoki (baltzer). „ . bronze vessel, chased, for storing the utensils used for smoking (brinkmann). plate . japanese textile designs. (after l'art pour tous.) fig. , and . carpet patterns. „ , , , and . stuff patterns, th century. „ . pattern from the mantle of a bonze, or priest . sword and scabbard of a dalmlo, from the arima family, th century (binjj). japanese ornament. pfer decoration from the temple of angkor vat (l'art pour tous). renaissance and modern times eo evc lſº speltz, styles of ornament. belgian tea urn in beaten copper, ghent. (ewerbeck und neumeister, die renaissance in belgien und holland). renaissance ornament. from an italian manuscript (dolmetsch). the renaissance in italy in the th cen- tury may be regarded to a certain extent as a revolution in art, a peaceful revolution, of which the seeds had already been germinating for many years in painting and sculpture, showing the tendency to revert to that earlier classic art, many of the masterpieces of which still existed and in greater profusion than at the present day. whilst in other countries the gothic style had always represented in its gradual development the true feelings of the people who produced it, in italy its principles had never been understood or appreciated, and although in the th century in florence, venice, verona, pisa and in the towns further south magnificent examples of gothic ornament were evolved, which hold their own in comparison with those in other countries, their beauty consisted chiefly in their exquisite detail as apart from the general desigin of the structures which they adorned and enriched. on the revival of letters in the th century, the italians began to recognise that they were the national descendants of those who had produced the master pieces in ancient italy, the art practised by them was not a foreign importation like that of the gothic style, but their own, an art which had been developed in their own country, which recalled the history of their own people, who were at one time the conquerors of the whole world. beyond this there were other changes, among which the advance of civilisation, the reformation in religion, the printing press etc., all of which contributed to new requirements, whilst the patronage of men of letters, such as those of the medici in florence and iatei on that of the papal court in rome, all tending therefore and leading to the italian renaissance ornament. the renaissance in italy. the early renaissance commenced in the first quarter of the th century in florence, whence it spread to milan, venice and other towns in the north of italy, and towards the end of the th century to rome. the first architect who studied seriously the monuments of classic art and transmitted their spirit into his own work was filippo brunelleschi, an artist of powerful genius, who in the construction of the cupola of the cathedral at florence { — ) and the churches of st. lorenzo and st. spirito in the same town showed his great qualities as an artist and builder. he was followed by michelozzo, to whom we owe the chapel of st peter ( ) in st. eustorgio, milan, and the riccardi ( ) the first renaissance example of a palace of which the second was the strozzi palace by majano < — ) and cronaca ( — ). then followed alberti ( — ), whose chief work was the front of the church at rimini ( — ) and the church of st. andrea at mantua < ), giovanni de san gallo ( — ), antonio de sangallo ( — ), bramante d'urbino ( — ) the architect of the church at todi but better known in connection with his work of st. peter's, rome, which he commenced in and the cancellaria palace in the same city. peruzzi ( — ), the architect of the massimi palace in rome; the lombard! family in venice, pietro lombardo ( — ) the architect of the miracoli church, sante lombardo ( — ) who designed the vendramini palace and tullio lombardo ( — ) the cornaro-spineui palace. to these must be added san micheli ( — ) the architect of the bevilacqua palace at verona and the grimani palace at venice; sanso- vino ( — ) who designed the library and the loggia at venice, vignola ( — ) whose chief work was the castle of caprarola, miles from rome, and palladio ( — ) the architect of the basilica and other palaces at vicenza. illustrations of the work of some of the architects above mentioned are given in the plates. thus in plate michelozzo and san gallo are represented, and in plate san gallo and sansovino. in plate illustrations from the loggia of the vatican are given which was painted by raphael, who drew his inspiriation from the rich decoration in painting and stucco found in the golden house of nero, which had been buried beneath the thermae of titus. to this type of decoration the title raphaelesque is frequently given. pietro lombardos work is shown on plate , end burgognone's on plate . plate . italian renaissance ornament. umvmmwm|::. italian renaissance ornament. plate . florence. florence was the principal centre of the early renaissance and developed a type of palace which become the standard for all italy. fig. . window from the court-yard of the palazzo riccardi. this palace was designed and begun in the year by michelozzo michelozzi. the court-yard was built by bartolomeo amanati. (schatte, ornamentale und architektonische studienbiatter aus italien.) „ . principal cornice of the facade of the riccardi palace (schutte). „ . octagonal column in stucco-work from the palazzo vecchio. this palace was built in the year by arnolfo di cambio, but enlarged in by michelozzi, and in by vasari. the stucco-work of the column was done in the year by marco da faenzo on the occasion of the marriage of francesco de medici (schfltte).. „ . capital of column in the court-yard of the palazzo gondi. the palace was commenced in by giullano de san oallo (schfltte). „ . sepulchral slab from santa croce, florence (dolmetsch). „ . from a monument in the church of the holy apostles in florence (l'art pour tous). plate . florence. fig. . facade in sgraffito-work from the palace of montalon (d'espouy, renaissance). „ . detail of a cornice from the hall of the two hundred in palazzo vecchio (schfltte). „ . door border in the hall dell'orologio in the palazzo vecchio (schfltte). „ . sketch for a folding-door, from a pen and ink drawing by giovanni da bologna. in the florence (hirth, formenschatz). „ . coat of arms curved in stone from the palazzo feroni (l'art pour tous). plate . rome. in the development of the early renaissance rome played no part at first, the style being introduced from florence. fig. . from the tomb of a prelate in the church of santa maria del popolo. this tomb, which was built by andrea tatti called sansovlno, is, according to burkhardt, the most perfect work which has ever been produced by the union of decoration and sculpture (hirth). „ . balustrade of a balcony in the siixtine chapel (holtzinger, geschichte der renaissance in italien). „ , and . details from the facade of the palazzo farnese, built by san gallo in the years — (schutte). „ , and . flat-reliefs from a tomb in the church of santa maria del popolo (dolmetsch). „ . from a tomb of a prelate in the church of santa maria del popolo. this, the same as fig. , was built by andrea tatti called sansovino in the years — . these tombs in the choir of the church are the tombs of the two prelates basso and sforza visconti (hirth). italian renaissance ornament. plate . italian renaissance ornament. t>---.rti .a. „ / \^ = ttgljmppdi m n n n m h r,ti plate . italian renaissance ornament. plate . italian renaissance ornament. ututtutu uu uuuu : - --> plate . italian renaissance ornament. italian renaissance ornament. fig. . sgraffito-work from the house no. , via giulia (dolmetsch). „ . sgraffito-work from the house no. , via del coronari (dolmetsch). „ . sgraffito-work from the house no. , borgo al vicolo del campanile (dolmetsch). plate . rome. fig. . marble frieze in the church of santa maria del popolo (holtzinger). „ . mural painting from the raphael loggia in the vatican (l'art pour tous). „ . sgraffito-work from the house no. via giulio (dolmetsch). „ . mural painting by annibale caracci in the palace farnese (hirth). „ . painting in the raphael loggia in the vatican (d'espouy). plate . venice. the renaissance did not make its appearance in venice until the year , but in combination with the older architecture native to the city developed into a peculiar and characteristic style. (after cicognara, monumenti di venezia.) fig. , and . column and archivolt in the presbytery of the church of santa maria dei miracoll . plate . venice. (after cicognara, monumenti di venezia.) fig. . monument of generosa orsina, erected by her husband in the church of santa maria gloriosa dei frarl. „ . door border from the royal chapel in st . marks. „ . equestrian statue by bartolommeo colleoni on the piazza of san gio and paolo. ,, . mantel piece in the sala del colleglo in the ducal palace. plate . certosa of pavia. (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. . pillars from the niche with principal facade. the material used is white marble. the principal sculptor was ambrogio da fossano, called borgognone, but the work was begun in the year . in this master work of the italian early renaissance, however, which was completed at the end of the ") century, other sculptors also took part, amongst them being giov. ant. amadeo, christoforo da roma, andrea fusina, christoforo solari called il gobbo and agostin busti called bambaja. „ . window in the principal facade, burkhardt calls it the triumph of all deco- ration work. „ . pilaster, frieze, and principal cornice. italian renaissance ornament. italian renaissance ornament. plate . & zº º italian renaissance ornament. plate . sicily. (after j. j. hittorff et l. zanth, architecture moderne de la sicile.) fig. . door from the benedictine cloister in catania. „ , and . fountain in the cathedral square at messina. „ , and . reliefs from the large fountain on the cathedral square, messina. „ . window from the benedictine cloister in catania. „ . statue of neptune from the large fountain on the quay at messina. plate . fig. . doorway from the church of st . andrea in mantua (nicolai, ornament der italienischen kunst des . .lahrhunderts). „ . glass painting in the library at florence, painted by giovanni da udine ( — ), (hirth). . small column from the palazzo municipale in perugia (raguenet). . inlaid marble-work in the floor of the cathedral of siena (dolmetsch). . flat-relief from the vendramini tomb in the church of san giovanni e paolo, venice (dolmetsch). . wrought-iron railing from venice (l'art pour tous). . telamonlc support from the palazzo durazzo in the via novissima, genoa (raguenet). . ceiling in the ducal palace in mantua (nicolai). . stairs of a palace in florence (raguenet). plate . fig. . intarsia work from a stall in the church of santa maria novella, florence (teirich, intarsien). „ . coffer in the parish picture gallery in spoleto, "' century (boito). „ . table, italian-work, from the th century, at present in the arts and crafts museum in berlin (boito). „ . bronze knocker from the strozzi palace, florence (d'espouy). „ . wooden panel from the castle of salmes. piedmontese work of the th century. „ . intarsia work from a stall of the certosa near padua (teirich, intarsien). plate . italian majolica. fig. . faience dish from urbino (roger-miles). ., . majolica dish by maestro giorgio da gubblo, in the south kensington museum. dates from the year . the arabesques of this master are generally executed in yellow and green (jannicke, keramik). speltz, styles of ornament . italian renaissance ornament. plate . plate . italian renaissance ornament. [ * italian renaissance ornament. plate . italian renaissance ornament. fig. . apothecary's vase from castel durante. in the british museum (jannicke). „ . majolica can by maestro giorgio da gubbio (jannicke). „ . venetian dish. in the south kensington museum (jannicke). „ . floor with marble mosaic in the cathedral of siena. the work of beccafumi from the year (raguenet). „ . apothecary's pot from siena. in the south kensington museum (jannicke). „ . caffaggiolo. in the south kensington museum (jannicke). plate . fig. . sweetmeat tazza, after a drawing ascribed to benvenuto cellini (havard). „ , and . venetian glasses from the murano glass works, ' ' century (l'art pour tous). „ , , and . venetian glasses (roger-miles and havard). „ , and . ewer of enamelled gold, at present in the uffizien, florence (dolmetsch). „ . goblet of beaten silver, gilt and chased, said to be the work of benvenuto cellini. „ , and . cut glass tazza with enamelled cover, th century (havard). plate . fig. . court mantle of embroidered silk (roger-miles). . crotchet-work, th century (roger-miles). . venetian embroidery with raised embroidered flowers (roger-miles). . application embroidery, th century (dupont and auberville). . silk damask, th century (dupont and auberville). . genoese velvet pattern (dupont and auberville). plate . fig. . book-marker from the milan chronicles of bernardino corlo. milan, alexander minutiano, (hirth). „ . alphabet for embroidery from the year . from the work "esemplario di lavori" by nicolo zoppino, a venetian drawer and copper-engraver (hirth). „ . initial of johannes regiomontanus, taken from his work "epitoma in alma- gestum ptolemei", venezia (hirth). „ . head-dress, "i century (roger-miles). „ . initial of the printing-office of ottavio scoto. venice — (hirth). „ . leaf from the works of nicolo zoppino, see fig. (hirth). „ . venetian embroidery pattern from the year . from the work "esemplario di lavori" by giovanandrea vavassore (hirth). plate . italian renaissance ornament. plate . italian renaissance ornament. italian renaissance ornament. plate . italian renaissance ornament. fig. plate . (after hirth, formenschatz.) panel decoration (dolmetsch). venetian bellows, th century. sword, said to be given by francis i to the graf von lannoy, vice-regent of naples. it is, however, italian work. design for a harp, after a water-colour drawing in the uffizi in florence. helmet of the archduke ferdinand of tyrol. italian gold-damascened orna- mented work of the year . in the art historical collection of the imperial house in vienna. ºf ( . º : t window from the laurentian library in florence (dolmetsch). french renaissance ornament. the renaissance in france. vl printing initial (dolmetsch). ext into france during the last quarter of the th century the influence of the renaissance movement spread; but owing to the still lingering vitality of the flamboyant gothic style, at first it was able only to modify the decorative details, forming that which is known as a transitional style, which lasted during the first quarter of the th century. on the accession of francis ist, the new art was devoted more to secular than to ecclesiastical architecture, and then arose the magnificent palaces and chateaux of the loire at cham- bord, blois, azay-le-rideau, etc., which must be regarded as the masterpieces of the early french renaissance; it was also gradually employed in domestic architecture throughout the towns of france. here also, as in italy, the individuality of the architect or master mason became a real factor and the work pro- duced was connected with their names. thus we have hector sohier, the architect of the chevet of the church of st. peter's at caen ( ); the chambiges, uncle and nephew, pierre lescot ( — ), the architect of the louvre. robert lerou, pierre fain, philibert de l'orme ( — ), who designed the tuileries for marie de medids, jean bullant ( — ), and others, bringing us down to the close of the f> century. shortly afterwards follow the periods of louis xiii. and louis xiv., whose work comes more under the range of the later renaissance. in the latter part of the reign of louis xiv., when pomp and display were the fashion, the renaissance ornament degenerated, leading the way to the last change, viz, that of the rococo period. embroidery pattern (roger-miles). plate . french renaissance ornament. plate . french renaissance ornament. french renaissance ornament. plate . (after raguenet, materiaux.) fig. . door head in hotel lallemand, bourges, "' century. „ . window of a house in the rue des focques, dijon, "' century. „ . decoration of pierced panel in the choir of the cathedral, rodez (aveyron). from th century. „ . door of a private house in langres, haute marne, th century. plate . fig. . frieze ornamentation of a room in the louvre (raguenet). „ . door at angle of house in the rue de la grosse horloge in la rochelle, charente infeneur, th century. „ . capital from the baptistery of louis xiii. in the palace at fontainebleau (dolmetsch). „ . doric renaissance order after phillbert de l'orme (mauch). „ . ceramic panel (raguenet). „ . fire-place in the ducal palace, nancy, meurthe et moselle, th century (raguenet). „ . cresting of the stalls in the church of arques near dieppe, th century (raguenet). „ . hermes in the hotel d'assezat, toulouse, from the time of henry ii. (dolmetsch). „ . bas relief in the hotel carnavalet, paris, th century (raguenet). plate . (pfnor, palais de fontainebleau.) fig. . capital of marble in the palace of fontainebleau. „ . exterior pilaster in the chapel of st. saturnin. „ . pedestal from the chapel of st. saturnin. . porte dauphine. „ . pilasters from the baptistery of louis xiii. plate . fig. . ornament of the time of francis i. (racinet). „ . ornament of the time of henry ii. (racinet). „ . ornament of the time of charles ix. (racinet). „ . ornament of the time of henry iii. (racinet). „ . decorative motif by jean cousin, from his book on perspective (racinet). „ . border from book (hirth, formenschatz). „ . decorative panel in the louvre, time of henry ii. (dolmetsch). „ . coffered ceiling from the ancient grand chamber of the parliament of nor- mandy in the law courts at rouen (racinet). this building, which was erected by order of louis xii. and the cardinal of amboise, was begun in and com- pleted in . the ceiling is of oak. french renaissance ornament plate . french renaissance ornament. plate . french renaissance ornament. plate . french renaissance ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. plate . french renaissance ornament. french renaissance ornament. plate . furniture. (after bajot, musees de louvre et de cluny.) fig. , and . arm chair, th century. in the louvre. „ . oak buffet, 'h century. in the cluny museum. „ . cabinet in wainut, from the time of louis xiii. (l'art pour tous). „ . arm chair, th century. in the cluny museum. „ . table, th century. in the cluny museum. plate . fig. . mural decoration in glazed terra-cotta, th century. in the louvre (havard, dictionnaire de l'ameublement et de la decoration). „ . faience dlsh, by the celebrated potter bernard palissy, agen (jannicke). „ . jug in olron faience. in the south kensington museum (jannicke, grundriss der keramik). „ . terra-cotta figure. in the louvre (jannicke). „ . stoneware jug, "> century (havard). „ . small jug by bernard palissy, agen (jannicke). „ , and . inlaid floor-tiles after viriot-woeriot (roger-miles). „ . faience jug, bernard palissy, agen (roger-miles). plate . fig. , , and . halberds from the early renaissance ( — ) with distinctly marked gothic reminiscences (roger-miles). „ , and . helmet and sword hilt, probably owned by francis i. (roger-miles). „ . sword hilt, from the »' half of th century (l'art pour tous). „ . wrought-iron candle-stick, th century (havard). „ . silver warming-dish (havard). „ . pair of scissors, th century (havard). „ . tankard with cover, th century (havard). plate . fig. , , , and . silver knife, fork and spoon (havard, histoire de l'orfeverie francaisej. „ . neck pendant after viriot-woeriot (roger-miles, comment discerner les styles). „ . enamelled crystal glass (l'art pour tous). „ . figures engraved glass (l'art pour tous). „ . wine decanter of rock-crystal, ornamented with precious stones (havard). „ , and . fork and spoon, silver gilt (roger-miles). „ . enamelled plate, ascribed to meister jean penicaud (havard). „ . helmet of charles the bold, set with pearls and precious stones. from a drawing in the arsenal library (havard). „ . dagger-sheath (racinet). „ . costume as emblem of the jeweller's art, after larmessin (havard). * plate . french renaissance ornament. plate . french renaissance ornament. french renaissance ornament. plate . fig. . valenciennes lace. mailles doubles. in the dutuit collection. „ . valenciennes lace. mailles rondes. in the dutuit collection. „ . silk pattern, th century (dupont-auberville, collection of decorations). „ . wall tapestry in the palace of fontainebleau, th century (dolmetsch). „ . embroidery from the time of catherine de medicis, point coupe, that is, embroidery sewn on fine cambric (roger-miles). „ . embroidery from a bed. presented to the trappists near montague by henry ii. on his departure from the monastery (dupont-auberville). „ . velvet pattern, th century (dupont-auberville). „ . gold embroidered cushion, th century (havard). plate . fig. . ivory fan, th century. in the louvre (hirth). „ . hand mirror from a design by etlenne de laune. from a copper engraving from the year (hirth). „ . key by mathurin jousse de la fleche, of the year (hirth). „ . book cover with the arms of henry ii. (dolmetsch). „ , , and . dagger hilts etc. from designs by antoine jaequard, copper engraver and armourer in poitiers, st half of the th century (hirth). plate . fig. , — , , and . painted ornament from the castle of cheverny near blois (eugene rouyer, l'art architectural en france). „ , and . engraved frontispieces from the theatre des bons engins, published in paris in by guillaume de la perrieire, and dedicated to queen margaret of navarre. „ , and . inlaid, gold in wood, from the castle of ecouen (eugene rouyer, l'art architecturel en france). „ . inlay from the cardinal's room in the castle of ancy-le-franc. typographic ornamentation of the time of louis xiii. (dolmetsch). spanish renaissance ornament. renaissance ornament in spain and portugal. initial by juan de yciar (mirth). pain accustomed by moorish art to fantastic forms and configurations, worked the new italics, which came into the country from france and italy to- wards the end of the th century, at first into the plateresque or goldsmith's style in which form the early renaissance appeared in spain. it was not until the time of philip ii., after charles v. had a palace built by malchuca in the alhambra, that a pure renaissance style, called by the spa- niards, the oraeco-roman, came to be established. the most magnificent structure of this period is the escurial ( — ), which was built by gian baptista de toledo, and his successor juan de herrera. plate . (after monutnentos de espafia.) fig. . head of a nail from the door of the university of salamanca. „ . corner-piece from the tomb of cardinal ximenez or cisneros as he is best known in alcala de henares. , and . pilasters from the door of the university of salamanca. „ — . details of the facade of the university in alcala de henares. plate . (after monumentos de espafia.) fig. . figure from the facade of the university in alcala de henares. „ . finial in the court of the archiepiscopal college, at present the irish college, in salamanca. „ . finial from the door of the vestibule of the ancient hospitales santa cruz in toledo. „ . doorway of a house in palma, majorca (prentice). „ . pilaster capital from the gate of the university of salamanca. '„ . bracket capital of the gallery in the archiepiscopal palace in alcala de henares. „ . cartouche from a house in palma, majorca (prentice). plate . spanish renaissance ornament. plate . spanish renaissance ornament. plate . spanish renaissance ornament. plate . spanish renaissance ornament. spanish renaissance ornament. plate , plate . spanish renaissance ornament. plate . spanish renaissance ornament. madcnqmar, l lt b a s spanish renaissance ornament. plate . fig. , and . details of the north facade of the royal alcazar in toledo (monu- mentos de espafia). „ . order from the altar in the cloister of poblet, said to be the work of the spanish sculptor berruguette, a pupil of michael angelos (andrew prentice, renais- sance architecture in spain). plate . (after andrew n. prentice, renaissance architecture and ornament in spain.) fig. , , and . ceilings in carved wood in the vestibule of the archieplscopal palace in alcala de henares. „ . column of a wrought-iron grating in the cathedral of cuenca. „ . pillar from the stalrshouse in the cathedral of burgos. „ . coronal of an iron trellis-work in the baptism-chapel of the cathedral of toledo. „ . panel of a door in the palace of the duke of alba in penaranda. „ . cornice of the consistory in palma, majorca. plate . (after andrew n. prentice, renaissance architecture and ornament in spain.) fig. . inner gallery of polentina house in avila. „ . gateway from avila. „ . iron railing from cuenca. „ . frieze from the stone door of the cathedral of siguenza. „ . iron railing from the cathedral of siguenza. ,, . balcony from palma, majorca. plate . fig. . helmet from the armeria in madrid (l'art pour tous). . secretaire, t'> century. in the south - kensington museum. transition period (libonis). . folding chair from the cathedral of toledo. of black wood incrusted with ivory, th century (raguenet). . embroidered carpet, end of th century. in platersque style, from the collection of domingo guerrero y polo in barcel (mira leroy). . reading-desk of wrought chased iron, end of tn century (mira leroy). . pendant ornament (l'art pour tous). plate . fig. — . lettering from designs by juan de yciar, painter and writing master, born in durango, biscaya: "aite subtilissima por la qual se esenna a escrivir perfectamente, saragossa, " (hirth, formenschatz). spfi.tz, styles ol ornament. s plate . spanish renaissance ornament. spanish renaissance ornament. plate . (after albert haupt, die baukunst der renaissance in portugal.) fig. . silver filigree cross from the treasury in belem. „ , and . balustrades from the chapel of the new cathedral in cimbra. „ . window column in transept of the cloister dos jeronymos, belem. „ . tile wainscotting in the chapel of st. roque, lisbon. „ . mosaic in a chapel in penha verde near cintra. „ . court-yard in the benedictine cloister in porto. „ . wall tiles from the church of st . maria da monte in penha verde near cintra. application embroidery, th century (dupont-auberville). »• german renaissance ornament. the renaissance in germany, austria and switzerland. (dolmetsch.) jefore the new style of art, which was introduced from france into germany, became firmly established in the latter country, a long period of time was necessary. although at the period the new humanist movement carried on by johannes reuchlin, erasmus of rotterdam, and ulrich von hutten, was already in full activity in germany, still it was more in a theological and philosophic rather than in an artistic direction. the foundation for the renais- sance of art was far less favourable in germany than in france. german architects were so tied to gothic work that they strongly resisted the introduction of the renaissance. the painters, however, albrecht durer being the foremost amongst them were more amen- able. even though in his works one may notice the tendency not entirely to disregard the gothic, still, on the other hand, his fine constructive sense and understanding for the new italian forms can also be clearly dis- cernible. the first who really gave themselves up entirely to the renaissance were hans burkmair and hans holbein. the engravings produced by these artists were circulated throughout the country, and even though they did not understand them, were the source from which builders and artistic handworkers took the elements of the new art. this fact explains the bizarre character which distinguished the renaissance in germany from that of italy. it was only when an intimate connection was established between the german and italian artists, when italian artists came into germany, and italian works on architecture became known and read in that country, that the german artists first began to really understand what the renaissance was. the thirty years war, however, which broke out at this time, put an end to all artistic activity throughout the greater part of germany. besides this. protestantism, which also appeared, was an enemy to all kinds of decoration, and prevented the use of the renaissance for monumental ecclesiastical buildings. the people therefore con- fined their work to the building of castles and town halls. for this reason, the german renaissance lacks monumental force of form, but shows instead of that, a picturesque grouping and decorative talent. the most celebrated masters of the german renaissance were, albrecht dtlrer, burkmair, the two holbeins, peter fischer and his son, manuel deutsch, joseph graf, and peter flotner. the german renaissance did not succeed in developing into a homogenous style or characteristic system, a circumstance due to ruling loeal conditions which rendered it impossible to do what was done in france, namely to unify the prevailing style of archi- tecture peculiar to the middle ages with the antique forms. in all the numerous centres of art in germany, the new style developed in a different manner, according as it was influenced from frence, italy, or the netherlands. plate . german renaissance ornament. plate . german renaissance ornament. [cqs>kp plate . german renaissance ornament. plate . german renaissance ornament. mfle&fohb german renaissance ornament. plate . (after ortwein, deutsche renaissance.) fig. , and . chairs in the historical museum, dresden. „ . cabinet with inlaid work. this cabinet, which is in the wallraf-richartz-museum, dates from the year , and is made od seven woods, oak, sycamore, beech, and others each stained of a different colour. „ . consol from the kaiser house in hildesheim. „ . ornament from wall-panelling in the civil service office in luneburg. „ . panel from a stall in the ludgeri church at munster. „ . door of the tabernacle in the church of st. qereon, cologne. „ . panel from a screen in hildesheim. „ . cake mould in luneburg museum. plate . fig. . stove in the prince's hall of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). „ . stone jug from cologne. the ornamentation is done in blue glaze (ortwein). „ , and . terra-cottas from the castle in schwerin (ortwein). originally inten- ded for the furstenhof in wismar. „ . stone jug in the museum at munich, from the beginning of the ") century (hirth). „ . tin jug, th century. in the museum at lubeck (hirth). „ . chimneypiece in the town hall at munden (ortwein). plate . fig. . mural painting in the golden hall of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). the town hall at augsburg was begun in the year , the architect being the municipal architect elias holl ( — ). it was completed, all except the interior fittings, in . these latter were, however, not carried out in accordance with holl's designs, but from designs by different masters, the most renowned of whom were the painter peter de witt, called the candid, the jesuit matthaus rader, and the augsburg painter matthias kager. „ . painting on ceiling in the knights hall of trausnitz castle near landshut (ortwein). these paintings date from the years — , the building itself being originally constructed in gothic, and later on changed to the renaissance style. „ . glass painting from the cupola of the chapel in the royal residence in munich. „ . book binding, tb century, gilt and painted. in the nuremberg museum (hirth). „ . pilaster panel from wertheim castle (ortwein). plate . german renaissance ornament. german renaissance ornament. plate; . plate . german renaissance.ornament. german renaissance ornament. plate . fig. , and . bracket candle-sticks from the upper hall of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). „ . silver spoon in the luneburg museum (ortwein). „ . key in the munich museum (hirth). „ . figure of a woman holding a candlestick in the stertzing town hall, tyrol. the figure, which represents lucretia dying, is carved in wood, and tastefully painted and gilt. it dates from the st half of the th century (hirth). „ . chandelier in the church of st . mary at zwickau (ortwein). „ . iron cloth-shearing comb with etched design (hirth). belongs to the early renaissance. plate . fig. . hinge on door of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). „ . lock on the door of the prince's hall of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). „ . door hinge from the principal doorway of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). „ . from the lock of a chest in the munich museum, iron plate carved and engraved (hirth). „ . finial from the castle at munden (ortwein). „ , and . wrought iron railings, th century. in the salzburg museum (hirth). „ . railing in the tower staircase, castle yard, dresden (ortwein). „ . door knocker from rostock (ortwein). plate . (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. . hunting spear, "i century. in the imperial collection in vienna. „ , and . ornament of a halbard, etched in iron, from the middle of the lh cen- tury. in the munich museum. „ . ornament by peter flotner ( ). in the copper engraving cabinet, munich. „ . black and white drawing by albrecht durer. shows a cavalier an horse back in the triumphal procession of emperor maximilian. the original is in the am- brose collection in vienna. „ . bridle-bit from scutters "bit book", augsburg . plate . (after hirth, formenschatz). fig. . small book-cover of engraved silver plate with velvet ground. „ , , and . sketches for gold ornaments. black and white drawings in water- colour from hans holbein in the british museum. plate . german renaissance ornament. german renaissance ornament. plate . plate . german renaissance ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. plate . german renaissance ornament. plate . german renaissance ornament. • german renaissance ornament. fig. . gentlewoman of the th century, after a drawing by hans holbein. „ . gold chain with enamel-work. augsburg work of the th century. „ . jewel of enamelled gold, th century. „ , and . samples of work of the goldsmith jacob von der heyden, from the year . taken from the book "suite de dessins d'ornements pour bijoutiers meilleurs et emailleurs sur fond noir", published in strasburg. „ , and . samples of lace-work from the book "neues modellbuch" by johann sibmacher, copper engraver, who died in nuremberg in the year . „ . ornament pendant by paul birckenhultz. plate . (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. . bronze clock with engraved and chased ornamentation, made by benedict furstenfelder at about the middle of the th century. „ . hock glass, "i century. in the national museum, munich. „ . wedding goblet of gilt silver, th century. the large goblet is formed by the hooped farthingale, the small one is moveable round its own axis. the bridegroom was obliged to drink from the large goblet and empty it without spilling any out of the small one. the bride drank from the small goblet. „ . silver spoon and fork, th century. in possession of the owner of the possen estate, kurland. „ . chalice by wenzel janitzer. „ . silver knives and forks from nfiremberg (l'art pour tous). „ . silver drinking-jug, strongly gilt, nciremburg work from the wb or beginning of th century. plate . (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. . carpet pattern, from an oil painting by george pencz in the royal museum, berlin. from the beginning of the th century. the colours, exclusive of the black outlines, are a dark and a light moss green. . pattern of a gold brocade, from a picture by roger van den weyden "das christ kind erscheint den drei heiligen konigen" — the christ child appearing to the three kings — in the royal museum at berlin. . gold brocade on black velvet, from a picture of the cologne school, in the royal picture gallery, munich. . green velvet on a green silk ground, th century. in the national museum, munich. . black velvet on gold brocade, from a picture by dirk bouts in the royal picture gallery munich. . gold embroidery on black velvet, from the mantle worn by the pfalzgraf wil- helm beim rheyn on his marriage with renata von lothringen, on the "<i february . in the national museum, munich. plate . german renaissance ornament. plate . german renaissance ornament. plate . german renaissance ornament. plate . german renaissanne ornament. german renaissance ornament. fig. . corbel strut from langnau, canton berne. . old house at langnau. . and . sawn-out work from same. . back of chair from canton berne. . table from rothenthums in schwyz. . stool in schwyz. wood carving from the facade of iliitte's house in hoxtcr (ortwein). plate . dutch renaissance ornament. dutch renaissance ornament. renaissance ornament in the netherlands. n belgium, renaissance ornament did not develop to the same standard as gothic ornament . the earliest work of the renaissance in belgium is the palace of margarete of parma in malines, built about the year by the french architect beauregard. the most renowned is, however, the rathhaus, or town hall of antwerp, built in the years — by cornelius de vriendt or floris, a pupil of giovanni da bologna. the cities of ghent, ypres, fumes, and others, possess also remarkable specimens of town halls in this style. the renaissance appeared in holland later than in belgium, the most impor- tant buildings in holland being also the town halls, that of the hague ( — ), and leyden ( — ). the most celebrated architects of this period were hendrick de kayzer ( — ), and his colleague, corne- lius dankerts ( — ), who succeeded in holland in directing art along italian lines, while in belgium the renaissance degenerated much sooner. there developed, therefore, in holland, a specific, dutch style which spread also through north germany and scandinavia. door handle jn consequence of the epoch-making introduction of the modern system from ghent f n.pamtjng by the brothers hubert and jean van eyck, which rendered it (ewerbeck). p ssuj]e j gjve t^e reproductions of nature, so absolutely necessary for the development of realism, painting developed in a most magnificent manner in the netherlands. having its beginnings in flanders it grew to be the ruling style and fashion. plate . (after f. ewerbeck und neumeister, die renaissance in belgien und holland.) fig. . . . . . . . glass painting of the year . in the museum at middelburg. stone arm-chair from the year . in the museum at briiges, originally in the church at damme near bruges. console from a fire-place in the town hall at venlo. column of the pulpit in the cathedral at hertogenbosch (bois-le-duc). iron tee on a house in zalt-bommel. southern ornamental gable of the abattoir in haarlem. this is the most valuable monument of renaissance architecture in the netherlands. it was completed , but the name of the architect is unknown. capital from a stall in the large church at dortrecht. plate . fig. . shaft of column after vries, «> century (libonis). „ . cartouche from the atlas of abraham ortelius, antwerp (hirth, formenschatz). „ . bruges guipure lace in the grunthuze museum. „ . cartouche from the atlas of waghenaer, amsterdam (hirth). plate . dutch renaissance ornament. plate . dutch renaissance ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. dutch renaissance ornament. fig. . brussels lace. point de bruxelles, "drochel", foundation. from the dutuit collection. ,, . oak cabinet, th century. in the cluny museum (bajot). „ . table, th century. in the cluny museum (bajot). plate . (after ewerbeck and neumeister, die renaissance in belgien und holland.) fig. . balcony of the town hall at fumes, th century. „ . wrought-iron door furniture, in the haller tor museum, brussels. „ . wrought-iron fire-dog, etc, in the haller tor museum, brussels. .. . stalls in the stadtor of dortrecht. plate . (after ewerbeck and neumeister, die renaissance in belgien und holland.) fig. . wooden table in the town hall at oudenarde (l'art pour tous). , , and . glazed wall tiles of delft. . gold medallion (l'art pour tous). . gold pendant ornament (l'art pour tous). . delft plate (l'art pour tous). . brass fire dog (l'art pour tous). table from the salvator church n bruges (ewerbeck). northern renaissance ornament. ornament of the northern renaissance. n the scandinavian lands the renaissance style of art did not become properly prevalent until the th century, being introduced into denmark from the netherlands, and into sweden from the fiansa cities which is^^'^-zlsi^fisi? li* were a'so' in a l"" manner> subject to netherland influences. it did *?§? s^^ $i?^! ¥ not> however, develop in any of these countries into a characteristic style. the early renaissance in sweden extends up to the year , and the later renaissance, which in consequence of the deeper study given by the artists, approached more the italian forms of art, from to . the renaissance did not begin to make itself felt in norway until the beginning of the th century. considering the lively commer- cial intercourse with holland which obtained at this period, it is easy to understand that norwegian woodwork architecture, besides being subject to swedish, german, and danish influences, was also especially influenced by dutch renaissance motifs, motifs which the skilled norwegian peasants knew well how to handle independently, and to transform, by grafting them on the ancient native forms peculiar to the country. book ornament (dahlerup). fig. plate . (after dr. john bottiger, hedvig eleonoras drottingholm.) . door. . ceiling in drawing-room. . and . frieze of chamber of state. . chimney-piece in the lower retainer's hall. . ceiling in the south tower. . pilaster from the upper retainer's hall. plate . fig. — . norwegian wood ornaments of the th century (dietrichson und munthe die holzbaukunst norwegens). „ . bronze chandelier with console of the year . „ . fire-dog from noergaard, denmark, of the year (dahlerup, holm und stork, tegninger af aeldre nordisk architektur). » plate . northern renaissance ornament. plate . northern renaissance ornament. slavonic renaissance ornament. slavonic renaissance ornament. baptismal font in the family chapel than in russia. of the firlej near the parish church in bejsce, (odrzywolsky). nto russia, and also into poland, the renaissance was introduced by italian artists who had been invited into both countries. these artists, however, were unable to resist subordinating themselves to the oriental influences already prevalent especially in russia, the result being the development of a native, national style, whose prin- cipal characteristics were the imperial roof and the ogee arch. the wood architecture was also brought by the renaissance to a high state of perfection, to which result scandinavian and lower saxon influences very probably also contributed. in polish art, where local influences were not so powerful, the evidences of italian renaissance influences are far more apparent renaissance ornament in poland. plate . (after slawomir odrzywolsky, die renaissance in polen.) fig. . gold reliquary, th century, in the treasury of cracow cathedral. . silver candle-stick from the sigismund chapel in cracow cathedral, dates from the year . . choir stalls in the king stefan bathory chapel, cracow cathedral. in all probability the work of santi gucci. „ . dutch-tile stove in the castle of podhorce. contains the arms of the rzewuski krzwada family, very probably danzig work. plate . slavonic renaissance ornament. slavonic renaissance ornament. fig. , and . turret crest over the sigismund chapel, cracow cathedral. the angels and the crown are cast in copper, the cross and ball of wrought copper, all are richly gilt. window of the royal castle in cracow (odrzywolsky). plate . slavonic renaissance ornament. º os § (ºnzſº º | - - - --- - -m-l wºº- º - sºººººººººººººººººº- º §§§ºsºsºsºsºsº - slavonic renaissance ornament. plate . slavonic renaissance ornament. renaissance ornament in russia. plate . fig. , and . from a croatian peasant-house in progar near semlin, symrina (uhde, die konstruktionen und die kunstformen der architektur). „ . gable of a peasant's house in fataroff, russia (uhde). „ . window from the south side nf the church at tscherewkowo, russia (sonslow, ancienne architecture russe). ,, , , and . door wood-carvings, th century (sireitschikoff). to . table and ornaments from the nicolo mocky church (gagarin, russische ornamente). plate . (after n. p. sireitschikoff et d. k. treneff, ornements sur les monuments de l'ancien art russe.) fig. . chased ornament from a chandelier, th century. , , and . enamel ornaments, th century. . painting from a holy picture, end of hi"> century. . painting from a holy picture, painted by simon ouchanoff in . . painting from a holy picture, painted by ninite pauloff in . . decorative design, of the year . . silver mounting from a holy picture, end of th century. . wood-carving from a door, th century. mitre of a patriarch, th century, in the museum of the kreml in moscow. shows marked byzantine influence (l'art pour tous). english renaissance ornament. ornament over the window in winchester school. (after belcher and macartney, later renaissance architecture in england.) renaissance ornament in england. initial, th century (gotch). i s the gothic style in england retained its vitality much later than in other countries, and in its last phase known as the tudor style, had already affected in domestic architecture the principal changes in plan and design which transformed the castle into the country mansion, the transitional period lasted for a much longer period. the first attempt to open the way for the introduction of the renaissance in england was made by the italian pietro torrigiano with the erection in the year of the beautiful monument to henry vh. and his wife, and that to margaret of richmond, both in westminster abbey. the employment of the renaissance in england was however for a long time confined to the enrichment of the principal entrance doorways of mansions. the artists toto dell' nunziata, theodore haveus and john of padua also helped in bringing the new style into england. the real, characteristic english renaissance did not begin to develop itself until the reign of queen elizabeth ( — ) when it was known under the title of the elizabethan style, which was a transition style from the tudor or late gothic to the renaissance, similar to the transition in france of the style of francis i. from the gothic to the french renaissance. the english style resembled the german and french early renaissance, in so far as it too, in a similar, way confined itself more to secular buildings, castles and country houses, than to ecclesiastical, while, on the other hand, the latter were of the very greatest importance to the italian renaissance. even although the development of the elizabethan style was much influenced by italian art, still it cannot be denied that it possesses a genuine, national character peculiar to itself. as queen elizabeth brought german and flemish artists in the plate . english renaissance ornament. .,. english renaissance ornament. country for the building of the castles of the period, it is clear that german and flemish influences had also their effect upon the english style. the architect john shute, and the designer de vries of authory contributed much to the development of the elizabethan style. under the reign of elizabeth's successor, james i. ( — ), the renaissance took on a still more classic form, owing to the more intimate and deeper study of classic architecture, to the removal of all gothic reminiscences, and to the labours of the architect john thorpe. the english renaissance was rendered completely free of all gothic elements by the two famous architects inigo jones and christopher wren, who may be considered as the founders of the pure italian style. inigo jones ( — ) studied in italy, especially in vicenza, under the personal supervision of palladio, and when be returned to england after a second journey to italy in the year he succeeded in introducing complete change in the architecture, and became the founder, in england of the pure classical school after palladio. sir christopher wren ( — ) was professor of astronomy and mathematics in 'oxford, and, when london was almost destroyed by fire in the year , designed a plan for its reconstruction which although it was not carried out led to his employment in the rebuilding of london. in consequence of his studies in paris, there is more of french than italian influence in wren's work. at this period, when vignola exercised great in- fluence in france, and palladio in england, wren attempted to unite both styles. his prin- cipal work is st. paul's cathedral, london, which with his numerous other works, is now included in the later renaissance style. plate . fig. j. detail of tomb of henry vii., westminster abbey (h. o. cresswell in archi- tectural assoc. sketch book). „ . balustrade audley, end, essex (richardson). „ . garden porch, coombe abbey, (richardson). „ . carved baluster, blickling hall, norfolk (shaw). „ . detail of balustrade, audley end, essex (richardson). „ . ceiling of great chamber in an old house formerly in gravel lane, hounds- ditch, london (richardson). plate . (after gotch, architecture of the renaissance in england.) fig. . door of dining-room in gayton manor house, northamptonshire. . top of bench end in leeds church, erected in the years — . — . ceiling decorations from the manor house, south wraxall, wiltshire. . staircase clare college, cambridge, erected after the year . . balustrade to terrace, claverton. . chimney-piece in bolsover castle, derbyshire, th century. . gable of rushton hall, northamptonshire, from the year . . balustrade to porch, cold ashton. . gatewey in garden wall, stibbington hall, huntingdonshire, erected in . plate . english renaissance ornament. plate . english renaissance ornament. — -- english renaissance ornament. plate . (after gotch, architecture of the renaissance in england.) fig. . panel from a pew in leeds church. ,, . part of arcade of screen in leeds church. ,, . panel from a wood chimney-piece in burton agnes hall, yorkshire. erected in . - . carved wood string from the neptune inn, ipswich, . ,, . newel of staircase, aston hall, warwickshire. . wood work from astbury church. , and . balustrade in the library of merton college, oxford. plate . – . carved wood strings from houses in ipswich (gotch). . arch at end of terrace bramshill house (gotch). . pillar and vaulting in hall, bolsover castle, derbyshire (gotch). , . wood panelling over a fire-place in hull, (the builder). . door to library of st. john's college, cambridge (gotch). . boss to vaulting in porch at bolsover castle, derbyshire (gotch). plate . (gotch, architecture of the renaissance in england.) roof of the hall, wollaton hall, nottinghamshire. base to wood pilaster south wraxhall manor-house, wiltshire. balustrade from st. catherine's court house, somersetshire. panel from font cover in the church of st. mary-the-less, cambridge. pew front lanteglos church. panelling from burton agnes hall, yorkshire. i plate . fig. . portion of canopied chair, convocation house, oxford (j. gillespie in archi- tectural assoc. sketch book). ,, . carved detail from chimney-piece in old house formely in lime street, london (spiers and birch). -- carved baluster pier, claverton, somersetshire. ,, . staircase at dorfold, cheshire (richardson). . portion of ceiling, sexton's house, st. james's, bristol (richardson). . speltz, styles of ornament. plate . english renaissance ornament. mmmimmmmmm plate . english renaissance ornament. plate . english renaissance ornament. plate . english renaissance ornament. plate . english renaissance ornamemt. english renaissance ornament. fig. . -- i -- i plate . detail of tomb, westminster abbey. terminal to gatepier, claverton, somersetshire (richardson). balustrade, with vase, duke's house, bradford-on-avon (richardson). carved frame, crewe hall (richardson). balustrade audley end, essex (richardson). portion of ceiling at dorford, cheshire (richardson). detail from crewe hall (richardson). detail from st. lawrence church, kent. plate . toft plate. from the bateman collection (jānnicke). fulham pottery (stoneware). from the reynolds collection (jannicke). drinking-beaker. from the mayer collection (jannicke). stoneware jug. in the geological museum, london. bed of oliver cromwell, carved in oak (bajot, encyclopédie du meuble). red stoneware by elers. south kensington museum (jannicke). plate . oak cabinet at wingfield manor (sanders, carved oak woodwork). chair th century (a. e. chancellor, examples of old furniture). head of oak cradle, th century (chancellor). armchair from hampton court, th century (chancellor). looking-glass in elizabethan style (chancellor). oak chest, th century (sanders). table and scholar's seat from the charterhouse, th century (chancellor). plate . from a damask chair-cover at knole park, kent. from the time of james i. (owen jones). ,, – , and . wood diapers, from the time of james i. (owen jones). ,, , and . applique needlework, from the time of james i. (owen jones). , . portrait of jane seymour, wife of henry viii., by holbein. in the vienna gallery (hirth). plate . english renaissance ornament. plate . english renaissance ornament. english renaissance ornament. fig. , and . needlework tapestry from a tomb in westminster. from the time of queen elizabeth (owen jones). „ , and . diapers from burton agnes, yorkshire (owen jones). „ . plaster diaper from an old house near tottenham. from the time of queen elizabeth (owen jones). renaissance chair (bajot). later renaissance ornament. the term later renaissance is the title given to the second phase of the renaissance and is applied to those buildings which were erected subsequent to the attempt made by serlio, vignola, and palladio, to formulate principles which should govern the employment of the classic orders. in the earlier work of brunelleschi, michelozzo and alberti, the architectural design was ruled more or less by an adherence to those principles which would seem to have guided the roman architects, ornament was only sparingly introduced, and then only in such features as in the capitals of columns and friezes which required more decorative treatment. the tendency, however, in other work and more especially in those which were entrusted to sculptors, who paid but little attention either to the structural design of the building, to its setting out or to the principles of the classic models which they tried to reproduce, was to overload their structures with ornament . this would seem in the second half of the th century, to have led a reaction in art by the theorists, who attempted to formulate the tradition of classic art on fixed principles and to establish rules for the employment of purer architectural forms. this movement was probably influenced by the example set by vitruvius, who in his manuscript, "de re aedificiatione", written about b. c. laid down rules for the employment of the orders of architecture. at all events it led to the publication of similar works, of which the first would appear to have been by serlio ( — ), who in published a work on the orders, followed by vignola in and by palladio in . vitruvius's manuscript, discovered about the middle of the th century, was accompanied by illustrations which have never been found; to supplement this loss these italian authors introduced orders of their own, based on the monuments of the first three centuries of our era, instead of those of greece, which vitruvius had described, as in his time the monuments of imperial rome had scarcely been commenced. vitruvius had described three orders only, the doric, ionic and corinthian, to which he had added a primitive form of the doric order, which he called tuscan. the italians included that as a definite order, and added a fifth, called the composite order. these publications henceforth constituted a copy later renaissance ornament. book which became a standard universally adopted throughout france, spain, england, and germany and led to what used to be called the italian revival, but which is now generally known in england as the later renaissance, and in germany as the barocco or barock; as this latter term is unknown in england, that of the later renaissance has been adhered to in this work. although in france the earliest influence in the louvre and at fontainebleau was that which must be attributed to serlio, in later times vignola became the chief authority, notwithstanding the fact that one of the greatest architects of the french renaissance, philibert de l'orme had published a similar standard work in . in england palladio was generally recognised as the chief authority, owing pro- bably to the influence of lord burlington, until sir william chambers in brought out his work on "civil architecture", which has since been regarded as the chief standard. as on the whole the five orders of vignola are looked upon as better authorities not only in france but in america, they have been here reproduced. the five orders after vignola.*) *) this numbers given in the drawing are millimetres on the supposition that the total height is a normal height of one metre, divided into millimetres. to find the dimen- sions in centimetres which correspond to this number simply multiply such with the height. for details see, "speltz, saulenformen der agyptischen, griechischen und romischen baukunst". italian later renaissance ornament. later renaissance ornament in italy. as with the earlier renaissance, the names of the architects were always associated with the buildings they designed, so that the individuality to which re- ference has already been made existed in all their works. the chief followers of this school were do- minico fontana ( — ) the architect of the lateral facade of sl john lateran, scamozzi ( — ) who continued sansovino's work along the south side of the piazza de san marco and published a work on the orders in , carlo maderno ( — ), ber- nini ( — ) the architect of the peristyles in front of st. peter's, rome, borromini ( — and pietro da cortona ( — ). coat of arms in the church sainte agnese by borromini rome, th century. plate . fig. . door in the entrance-hall of the palazzo cornaro della ca grande in venice (gurlitt, geschichte des barockstils in italien). „ . corner pilaster-capital from the palazzo nonfinlto in florence, commenced by briontolenti and continued by scamozzi (gurlitt). „ . canopy over an altar in rome, th century (raguenet). „ . balcony support from the portal of the palazzo fenzi in florence, by raffaele curradi, of the year (hirth). „ . garden gate at frascati near rome (raguenet). „ . window finlal of a palace in genoa in the via loncellini, "> century (raguenet). „ . gate pier from the villa lodovisi near rome, th century (raguenet). plate . italian later renaissance ornament. plate . italian later renaissance ornament. italian later renaissance ornament. plate plate . italian later renaissance ornament. plate . italian later renaissance ornament. * italian later renaissance ornament. plate . (after l'art pour tous.) fig. , , and . venetian lace collars, th century. . gold embroidery table cover, th century. . embossed genoese velvet, th century. . genoese work, silk on gold ground, th century. -- -- -> §: r. sa, wheel of a state carriage by filippe passarini, born in rome, (hirth). french later renaissance ornament. later renaissance ornament in france. (louis xiv. style.) nder the influence of debrosse (c. — ) and his pupil le- mercier ( — ), the former the architect of the luxem- bourg palace ( — ) and the latter of the sorbonne, a new development began at the commencement of the th century, to which the title of the later renaissance has been given. the germs of the movement may really be traced in the louvre i where pierre lescot would seem to have been influenced by serlio), but it took a more decided form in the luxembourg palace, and in the palace of versailles and the chateau of mai- sons-sur-seine by francois mansard ( — ). then follow- ed perrault the architect of the east facade of the louvre which marks a return to classic principles, lemaire ( to ) the architect of the hotel soubise, marot ( — ) who designed the hotel de noailles, and jules hardouin mansard ( — ), the nephew of francois mansard, who may be said to have been the creator of the louis xiv. style, a style better fitted for rich internal decoration than for the exterior of a mansion. initial louis xiv. (petzen- dorfer, schriftenatlas.) plate . (after cisit daly, motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture d'ornement.) fig. , and . balcony and doorhead from the house no. rue st . andre des arts, paris. „ , and . small consoles from versailles. „ . mask from the place venddme in paris. „ . balustrade from versailles. „ . console bracket in paris. plate . (after cssar daly, motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture d'ornement.) fig. . side door of the church of st. nicolas-du-chardonnet, paris. „ . door of the hotel beauvais, rue st. antoine no. , paris. plate . french later renaissance ornament. plate . french later renaissance ornament. plate a french later renaissance ornament. plate . french later renaissance ornament. plate . french later renaissance ornament. plate . french later renaissance ornament. plate . french later renaissance ornament. french later renaissance ornament. plate . fig. . door-knocker (l'art pour tous). „ . reading-desk of wrought-iron, from the le secq collection of the tournelle (champeauz). „ . candelabrum of gilt wood, th century. from the collection of the duke de la tremouille (champeauz). „ . console for a mantel-piece in chased, gilt bronze, from the period of the regency. from the collection of the museum of decorative art, paris (champeaux). „ . sedan chair (havard). plate . fig. . chest of drawers after jean berain (hirth). „ . bracket-candlestick from the palace of versailles, probably after berain (l'art pour tours). „ . cupboard of ebony with copper open-work. meuble de boule from the "i century (bajot, encyclopedic du meuble). „ . chair of carved wood in the mobilier national, paris (champeauz, portefeuille des arts decoratifs). plate . fig. . window mantle by daniel marot, architect, paris, — (hirth). . canopy bed by the same artist (hirth). . design of a candelabrum by gilles maria oppenort (hirth). . console table, jean berain (hirth). . and . spinet with double keyboard, "i century (bajot). . emblem by gilles maria oppenort from the period of the regency (hirth). plate . fig. . beaten and chased silver ewer, by daniel marot, from the year (hirth). „ . faience jar of the apothecary of the duke of orleans, beginning of "> century. in the gasnault collection (jannicke). „ . faience dish from moustlers. in the gasnault collection (jannicke). „ . faience jug from rouen (jannicke). „ . dish of beaten and chased silver, from a drawing in the robert colle album in the cabinet des estampes, paris (havard). plate . fig. . embossed velvet (havard). „ , and . stuff patterns by daniel marot (hirth). „ . curtain by daniel marot (hirth). french later renaissance ornament. plate . french later renaissance ornament. speltz, styles of ornament . french later renaissance ornament. ?m^wm french later renaissance ornament. fig. . curtain with ornament applique (champeaux). „ . carpet pattern, designed by robert de cotte for the manufacture de la savonnerie at the beginning of the th century. the drawing is now in the cabinet des estampes, of the national library, paris (champeaux). vase in the park at versailles (daly). . • german later renaissance ornament. later renaissance ornament in germany, austria, and switzerland. vase before the bridge in kuppenberg (ohmann). ne of the greatest enemies to the development of art is war. as soon as the horrors of the thirty years war were to a certain extent overcome, art began again to bestir itself in germany. the palladian classic style which ruled in holland established itself in north and south germany, on the rhine, and in austria. dutch classic was introduced into germany by johann arnold nering, who died in , in his famous building the berlin armoury, whose architectural re- putation is only excelled by the work of his successor andreas schlqter. schlflter, born in hamburg , died in st. petersburg , is the real founder of the rococo style in berlin. in dresden, the foundation of the same was laid by george baehr, — , in the church known as the frauenkirche which was commenced in the year , and by matthaus daniel poppelmann, — , in his building of the zwinger palace. the court church in the same city was built by gaetano chiaveri of rome, — . the later renaissance dominated catholic south germany, where it was introduced by gaspare luccali, — , in his building of the church called the theatinerkirche in munich. in austria it was specially influenced by the architects dientzenhofer, and their pupil johann bernhard fischer from erlach, — . but in consequence of the powerful position held by france at the period, the influence of the french louis xiv style became felt in austria also. plate . fig. . carved wood door from the armoury in berlin, about the year (cornelius gurlitt, das barock- und rokoko-ornament). „ , and . bracket and cresting from archiepiscopal palace in salzburg (ohmann, barock). „ . pilaster and entablature in the imperial belvedere in vienna (ohmann). , . mask of a warrior from the berlin armoury. by andreas schlflter, — (hirth). plate . german later renaissance ornament. german later renaissance ornament. plate . plate . german later renaissance ornament. plate . german later renaissance ornament. german later renaissance ornament. plate . zº german later renaissance ornament. plate . fig. — , and . goldsmith's work designed by friedrich jacob morisson, draughtsman and goldsmith in vienna and augsburg, — (hirth). „ . silver gilt jug, the work of the augsburg goldsmith johann heinrich mannlich, who died in . in the imperial palace at laxenburg (dr. albert ilg, sammlung kunstindustrieller gegenstande des allerhochsten kaiserhauses). „ . sword hilt . from the work "neu inventiose degengefab" by georg heumann, cutler in nuremberg, who died in (j. e. wessely, das ornament und die kunstindustrie). „ , and . goldsmith's work from "neues groteskenwerk", engraved by l. beyer (wessely). „ . plant ornament by j. honervogt, draughtsman and copper engraver who lived towards the end of the th century (wessely). „ . door handle by j. c. reiff, copper engraver in nuremberg in the * century (wessely). „ . goldsmith's work, acanthus leaf work in the form of a goat by wolfgang hie- ronymus v. bemmel, goldsmith, end of '*> century (wessely). plate . fig. . monstrance, end of «> century. in the cathedral treasury in limburg on the lahn (hirth). „ . carved relief on door in the rochus church, vienna (ohmann). „ . church candlestick. in the deanery church in klattau (ohmann). „ . nautilus goblet, end of th century. in the grunen gewolbe in dresden (hirth). „ . carved mirror frame in the glankirchen in upper austria. plate . fig. . embroidered vestment in the collection of vaterlandischer altertumer, stuttgart (dolmetsch). „ . pattern of material dating from the end of the «> century. in the pfalz arts and crafts museum in kaiserslautern (hirth). „ , and . wrought-iron candlesticks, — . in the nuremberg museum (hirth). „ . watch. in the munich museum. nuremberg work, beginning of the th century (hirth). plate . german later renaissance ornament. plate . german later renaissance ornament. iw^^ > /iat ^tametaestan 'sftic tumuli <£st imodium severe & aratiosus catnedraus et^ecrues'ris _)ecanm electusjnerbipoun z^niit a/t v crntrx^n \ , * wu aia.oll i l. v u. /a iiiu \ c atatis&ijal.lxxi. \m fq hocl obligatiss:collegium.straubi> q vod magna ex parte fl/n tu viator defuncti nunibus. «tern^e laluiis po in patria, precare^ osje*v me~* german later renaissance ornament. plate . fig. . initial letter after lucas kilian ( ) (petzendorier). „ . initial letter (petzendorfer). „ . from an etched soinhofer stone plate, in the "qetreidekasten zum leeren beutel" regensburg, (weimar). „ . engraving on bronze by franz christoph von rosenbach, f . in warzburg cathedral (weimar). „ . etched on stone tomb of thomas von pirnitz, f . in the jesuist church at straubing (weimar). lantern in wrought iron (l'art pour tous) dutch later renaissance ornament. later renaissance ornament in the netherlands. initial from the printing works of j. covens and c.mor- tier, amsterdam (ysendyck). arly in the th century began the great art epoch called into existence by peter paul rubens. this development favoured the introduction of the later renaissance style into the netherlands. cardinal gran vella, who introduced italian artists into belgium, was most active, and succeeded in erecting a most important series of architectural con- structions. the jesuits erected also a number of most magnificent buildings in the rococo style; in holland, however, where rigid theology ruled, there was a tendency to more classical work, for which reason the former style never took root in the country. the chief exponent of the purer italian style in holland was philip vuyboons ( — ). fig. . plate . (after ysendyck, art dans les pays-bas.) cartouche, c. , engraved by peter de jode for the portrait of the holland painter g. flinck. wall-paper from a sample book of the factory in malines. in the royal antiquarian museum, brussels. — . carriage of the duke of ossuna used when entering utrecht as extraordinary ambassador from philip v. of spain. from an engraving by picart, amsterdam . plate . (after ysendyck, art dans les pays-bas.) fig. . lace from the «> century. is called "point de buiche", and is made with the spindle alone in one piece without any relief. „ . arm-chair from the book by crispin van den passe, printed in amsterdam in the year under the title of "boutique menuiserie" by m. w. silvius, antwerp. „ . chimney-piece. from the work "chemin es hollandaises" by g. de gaendel, drawer, born in middelburg. from the year , published by martin gottfried crosphius. „ . wrought iron door knocker. speltz, styles of ornament. plate . dutch later renaissance ornament. . dutch later renaissance ornament dutch later renaissance ornament. plate . (after l'art pour tous.) fig. — . sign of the old inn "a l'etrllle" in the market place at bruges. from the th century. „ — . wall tiles of delft from the inn "le diable au corps" in brussels. from the "> century. delft faience goblet in the collection gasnault (jaenicke). plate . english later renaissance ornament. english later renaissance ornament. later renaissance ornament in england. as already stated in the introduction to english renaissance ornament (page ) the later renaissance, which used to be known as the pure italian style, was introduced into england by inigo jones ( – ). the first building of importance erected in that style being the banqueting house in whitehall ( ). the style was further developed by sir christopher wren ( – ), sir john van- initial letter burgh ( – ), nicholas hawksmoor ( – ), james gibbs th century (belcher). ( – ), william kent ( – ), g. leoni ( – ), john james of greenwich (? – ), thomas archer (? – ); colin campbell (? – ); george dance ( – ), henry flitcroft ( – ), john wood of bath ( – ), sir robert taylor ( — ), john carr of york ( – ), james paine ( – ), sir william chambers ( – ), robert adam ( – ), henry holland ( – ), james wyatt ( – ) and john nash ( – ). plate . (from john belcher and mervyn e. macartney, later renaissance architecture in england.) capital and cornice of the bastards' house, blandford. details of stalls, trinity college chapel, cambridge. capital and cornice of the “red lion”, blandford. fig. . . . details of window, town hall, blandford. . . xx -- gate pier, from a house in west street, chichester. lead rainwater head from the great hall of winchester college. plate . fig. . detail of overdoor in carved oak and cedar, clifford's inn, london (henry thomson in “building news”). ,, . detail of entablature of reredos, st. stephen's, walbrook, london (e. h. sedding). . detail of pulpit shaft, st. stephen's, walbrook (e. h. sedding). , . detail of altar rail, st. stephen's, walbrook (e. h. sedding). , and . carved panel, s. margaret's church lothbury, london (h. inigo triggs in archl. assoc. sketch book). detail of chimney-piece, clifford's inn (john barbour in “the builder”). detail of frieze, north porch, st. pauls cathedral, london (r. w. schultz in archl. assoc. sketch book). ... . carved panel in chancel screen st. james's church, piccadilly, london, (c. l. gill in the archl. assoc. sketch book). º plate . english later renaissance ornament. mm® plate . english later renaissance ornament. plate . english later renaissance ornament. english later renaissance ornament. plate . fig. . sundial from wrest, bedfordshire (belcher and macartney). . hexagonal revolving lectern in pembroke college chapel, cambridge (belcher and macartney). — , and . details of stall ends in st. paul's cathedral, london (george h. birch, london churches of the th and th centuries). . carved open-worked wooden panel from st. mary abchurch, london (george h. birch). . organ in st. mary, wooinotb, london (george h. birch). , and . details of soffit of the gallery of the senate house, cambridge (belcher and macartney). plate . (from james gibbs, a book of architecture .) fig. , and . pedestals for busts. . cartouche in the pediment of st. martin's church, london. , and . designs for vases. . cartouche for monumental inscription. . pedestal of sundial. . cartouche for wall tomb. fig. . . m . f> . ii . . 'i . plate . (from john belcher and mervyn e. macartney, later renaissance architecture in england.) wrought iron gate, fenton house, hampstead. details of staircase from a house in the close, salisbury. clock of the town hall, guildford. balusters of staircase from a house in great queen street, london. chimney-piece in a house at epsom, surrey. section of panelling in the chapel of farnham castle, surrey. shield of arms over doorway in the same chapel. plate . fig. . carved oak desk, pembroke college, cambridge, (r. s. dods in arclil. assoc. sketch book). „ . detail from chimney-piece, northgate club, ipswich (henry tanner, jun.). „ . upper portion of panelling brewers hall, london, c. (a. stratton in archl. assoc. sketch book). „ . terminal vase, north porch, st . paul's cathedral, london (r. w. schultz in arch. assoc. sketch book). plate . english later renaissance ornament. plate . english later renaissance ornament. plate . english later renaissance ornament. english later renaissance ornament. plate . english later renaissance ornament. fig. . detail of wrought lron gate, hampton court palace (hugh p. g. maule in archl. assoc. sketch book). „ . side of canopy of pulpit, st. stephen's, walbrook, london (e. h. sedding). „ . side of bracket under doorway, hampton court palace (p. j. turner in archl. assoc. sketch book). plate . fig. . wall cupboard in the hall of the haberdasher's company, gresham street, london, (chancellor). „ . mahogany table, beginning of th century (chancellor). „ . china cabinet, middle of 'h century (chancellor). „ . cushioned chair (bajot). „ . vase of english porcelain, chelsea. in the british museum (jannicke). „ . georgian settee of the time of chippendale (chancellor). „ . toilet chest of the time of queen anne (chancellor). plate . (from bailey scott murphy, english and scottish wrought ironwork.) fig. , and . wrought iron stair rail of the king's great staircase, hampton-court palace. end of the * century. „ . wrought iron staircase in caroline park house, granton nb. erected by viscount tarbat in . „ , and . wrought lron balusters in south kensington museum. „ , , , and . details of the staircase in caroline park house, granton. „ . wrought iron staircase in caroline park house. plate . (from bailey scott murphy, english and scottish wrought ironwork.) pig. . sign of the "bell" inn at melksham, wilts. . wrought iron bracket in south kensington museum. . leg of a console table tn south kensington museum. . lamp bracket in micklegate hill house, york. . entrance gateway to a house in abbey street, carlisle. . sign of the "white hart" inn at gretton, northants. . lamp holder at the "white hart" hotel salisbury. speltz, styles ot ornament . plate . english later renaissance ornament. plate . english later renaissance ornament. • plate . english later renaissance ornament. english later renaissance ornament. plate . (from h. inigo triggs and henry tanner jun., some architectural works of inigo jones.) fig. . details of upper order and cornice of the banqueting house, whitehall. built by inigo jones in — . „ , and . details of window of the same. „ . details of lower order and cornice of the same. „ . detail of lower window in the same. „ . carved frieze from chimney-piece in the ambassador's room, knole park, kent . plate . fig. . fire-place in the salon at forde abbey, dorset (inigo triggs and h. tanner). ,, . rain water shoot in courtyard of wilton house (inigo triggs and h. tanner). „ , and . keystone in the church of st. catherine cree, leadenhall street, london (george h. birch, london churches of the th and th centuries). „ , , and . sections of mouldings from wilton house (inigo triggs and h. tanner). plate . fig . door with balustrade at coleshill house, berkshire (inigo triggs and h.tanner). „ , , and . cornices to fig. . „ . the spencer monument in the church of st. catherine cree, leadenhall street, london (george h. birch). „ . belvedere at coleshill house (inigo triggs and h. tanner). „ . door from raynham hall, norfolk (inigo triggs and h. tanner). plate . fig. . detail of internal doorway (henry tanner). ,, , and . ceiling at kirby hall northants (inigo triggs and henry tanner). „ . ionic capital, st . magnus church, london bridge (e. h. sedding in arch!. assoc. sketch book). „ . carving in the vestry, chesterton church, oxon. „ . font with cover, christ's church newgate street, london (birch's london churches). plate . english later renaissance ornament. border by charles elsen (hirth). %&&$ letter after laurent (hirth). fococo is the term applied to the decadent forms of the later renaissance. the rivalry which existed in the th century between the free style of michael angelo and that based on the principles laid down by palladio and vignola was continued into the th cen- tury until about the year with the more or less complete adoption of the former. this resulted in a development which held sway until about j and was known in france as the louis xv. style, and in other countries as the rococo. in this style the ornament is entirely seperated from constructional requirements and the lines run in free curves^ symmetry being avoided^ conse- quently, as a rule, it is more generally employed for interiors and for decorative and industrial art. the style flourished in france for about' thirty-five years. it was rarely employed in either italy or the netherlands, but remained in germany and england up to the end of the th century. in the latter country its chief exponent was chippendale whose name is generally attached to the style. shortly, however, rococo ornament. uplate . rococo ornament. after its introduction a reaction took place in which classic work commenced again to predominate in the somewhat pedantic style of louis xvi. this again became influenced by a new phase in which for the first time greek art com- menced to show itself, resulting in the development of what later-on became generally known as the empire style. rococo forms. plate . fig. . after thomas chippendale (gentleman and cabinet makers director). ,, . after melssonier (raguenet). „ . after moudon (raguenet). „ . after thomas johnson. „ . after habermann. „ . after f. de cuvillies (raguenet). ,, . after josef klauber, augsburg (raguenet). „ . from a clock in the art industrial museum in milan (raguenet). plate . italian rococo ornament. italian rococo ornament. rococo ornament in italy. although the origin of the rococo style is to be found in the works of michael angelo, bernini, and borromeo in italy, it made very little progress so far as interiors are concerned, and in the place of louis xv. and xvi. ornament, the italians adhered to their cold and formal classic style. plate . fig. . richiy carved frame, th century (raguenet). „ . console table in wood gilt (l'art pour tous). „ . bracket candlestick of bronze gilt, th century. in the arts and crafts museum in milan (raguenet). „ . processional crucifix in the church of pieve di budrio, th century (hirth). ink-stand of gilt bronze (l'art pour tous). plate . french rococo ornament. french rococo ornament. rococo ornament in france (louis xv. style). plate . fig. . console bracket in the house no. , rue casette, paris (daly). „ , and . from the fontaine de l'abbaye, rue childebert, paris. view and vertical section (daly). . terminal vase in vic-sur-cere, lorraine (raguenet). „ . gateway of the porcelain factory in sevres (daly). plate . (after champeaux, portefeuille des arts decoratifs.) fig. . bracket clock, made of chased and gilt copper, belonging to a. m. selig- mann, paris. „ . bracket candlestick from a drawing by rene michel slootz in the bibiio- theque natlonale, paris. „ . clock in case with chased bronze, by duhamel. in the collection of the conservatoire national des arts et metiers, paris. „ . chimney back of cast iron. from tinted drawing in louis fordrin's style at beginning of the th century. „ . candelabrum of chased and gilt silver. in the winter palace, st. petersburg, probably french work of the th century. plate . (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. . scissors in case, by meissonier. „ . chandelier in the grand ducal palace in karlsruhe. french work from the beginning of the year . drawing by a. stuchi. „ . louis xv. vase (l'art pour tous). „ . head of stick in metal chased, by meissonier. „ . silver table centre-piece, by meissonier. fig. . »• . >> . . plate . commode in rosewood marquetry (bajot, encyclopedic du meuble). chair with cane seat and back (bajot). key, by francois de cuvillies pere (hirth). design for an ambassador's carriage by vaneroe, sculptor in paris. from a drawing in the bibliotheque nationale, paris (champeaux). plate . french rococo ornament. plate , french rococo ornament. plate . french rococo ornament. plate french rococo ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. plate . french rococo ornament. french rococo ornament. plate . fig. . leaf from a book on ornament by juste aurele meissonier, born in turin in , died at paris (hirth). „ . mural decoration (hirth). „ . design for a throne for louis xv. by rent- michel slootz. from a drawing in the bibliotheque nationale, paris (champeaux). „ . top of gold frame by meissonier (hirth). „ . console table of carved and gilt wood, from the regency (bajot). plate . fig. , , and . samples of embroidery from coloured drawings by charles germain de st. aubin, — . in the bibliotheque de l'institut national (champeaux). ,. , , and . letters by laurent from a copybook by schenau: "l'alphabet de l'amour, ou recueil de chiffres a l'usage des amants et des artists". paris (hirth). „ . monogram with ducal coronet, ascribed to st . aubin (champeaux). plate . (after champeaux, portefeuille des aits decoratifs.) fig. . back of sofa from a coloured drawing by francois peyrotte. in the berard collection. „ . under mantle after a drawing by st. aubin. ,, . arm-chair of wood gilt the seat and back of beauvais tapestry. „ . chair covering of embroidered silk, from the end of the reign of louis xv. plate . (after roger-miles, comment discerner les styles.) fig. , , , and . embroideries of court dress. „ , , , , and . ornaments. ,, . sleigh carved in wood gilt. „ , and . spoon and fork by thomas germain, goldsmith in paris. plate . fig. . design for interior decoration by meissonier. * french rococo ornament. plate . plate . french rococo ornament. plate . french rococo ornament. l german rococo ornament. plate . german rococo ornament. plate . german rococo ornament. fig. . balcony of carved wood, middle of th century. in george hirth's collection. „ . box by joh. leonard wast, engraver and goldsmith in augsburg in the year (wessely). plate . design for interior decoration by habermann. plate . fig. . pulpit in the church at naumburg (raguenet). „ , and . shoe-buckle by jeremias wachsmuth, painter and engraver, born in augs- burg in , died (wessely). „ , and . sword hilt by the same (wessely). „ . handle of a key after gottfried forschter, mastersmith in brunn about the year (wessely). „ . stove from the castle of bruchsal by albert stucki (hirth). „ . rosette from a ceiling in the castle of bruchsal by albert stucki (hirth). plate . fig. — , and . melssener porcelain (dresden cluna) (champeaux). „ . meissener (dresden) vase from j. double's collection (jannicke). „ . meissener plate from the year (havard). plate . (after dr. albert llg, sammlung kunstindustrieller gegenstande des allerhbchsten kaiserhauses.) fig. — . articles belonging to the empress maria theresa. these consisted originally of articles in beaten gold for the toilet and breakfast table and were manufactured by the sculptor and goldsmith anton mathias joseph domanek, born in vienna , died . „ , and . gold boxes, presented by the empress maria theresa to duke charles oi lorraine. after having been in the possession of prince kaunitz and later on of various private people these boxes were bought for the crown treasury by francis ii. they are the work of the court jeweller franz mack, born in tyrol , died , the portraits are from the artist antonio bencini, who became court painter in . „ . grotesque figures, appear to have been the work of the dresden goldsmith melchior dinglinger, died . the bodies and legs are made of large pearls. „ . sugar-tongs, after martin engelbrecht, engraver, died (wessely). plate . -german rococo ornament. plate . german rococo ornament. english rococo ornament. plate . . º & t english rococo ornament. rococo ornament in england (chippendale style). in the th century art in england was influenced more by italy than by france and consequently the rococo style did not take much hold in the country. plate . (from chippendale, gentleman and cabinet maker's director, .) fig. . ribband-back chair. . oval glass frame. . design for a chair. , . wº for a frame. . ,, for a chimney-piece. , , and . schemes for frets. plate . mahogany bookcase of chippendale period (chancellor). design for a bed, by chippendale. chair of the chippendale period (chancellor). design for lantern, by chippendale. chair with cabriole legs of the chippendale period (chancellor). fig. xx : plate . (from chippendale, gentleman and cabinet maker's director, .) cabinet designed by chippendale. mouldings of a cabinet designed, by chippendale. design for cabinet, by chippendale. ,, for brass handle. ,, for brass escutcheon. and , , and . glass doors. and . design for lamp stands, by chippendale. design for pedestal, by chippendale. ,, for upperpart of chimney-piece, by chippendale. - - plate . english rococo ornament. colonial style ornament in the united states. it is evident that the art of a new country like the united states must be in most intimate connection with the style of art which predominates in the original country of the artist . this is the reason why styles of almost all the european states were originally represented in america. after a time, however, all these different styles became united with one another forming themselves into the so-called colonial style. the buildings erected in america from to correspond somewhat to the queen anne and georgian styles in england, a typical example of the symmetrical construction of this epoch being craigie house, cambridge which dates from the year . churches and meeting houses were constructed after examples by sir christopher wrea the best country houses were those found in virginia and maryland, while in florida and california, on the other hand, the spanish renaissance style predominated. from the declaration of independence onwards, the style in america became of a more monumental description but, after the fall of napoleon, all the various historical styles in fashion in europe were also included. notwithstanding the european reminiscences which they contain, the artistic creations of the th century in the united states possess undoubtedly certain characteristic national traits of their own. plate . american colonial style ornament. plate . american colonial style ornament. plate . american colonial style orn'ament. plate . american colonial style ornament. ■ifiiiiiimi ilmiaiiaimmlemsp t» mantel in farlcr section "a" oid ca etcst i ft. * n mall cornice ^j&ju coor trim measured by claude tayette bragdon american colonial style ornament. plate . (after edward a. crane and e. e. soderholtz, examples of colonial architecture in south carolina and georgia.) . mantel piece in corn house in charleston, from the year . . iron gate from s. michael's churchyard in charleston. ,, . ceiling in gordon house, savannah, georgia, built in . . stair balusters in brewton house in charleston, built in . plate . (after william rotch ware, the georgian period.) mantel pieces from the pincre house, salem, mass. door (goforth and macauley). frontispiece by carlo lasinio, draughtsman and engraver, (hirth). ™ century ornament. the classical revival of the th century. the excavations in herculaneum and pompeii commenced in , but at first very slowly proceeded with, resulted in discoveries which stirred up the interest in ancient classic art and brought new life to it. this was accentuated by the publication of piranesi's engravings in italy and in england by those of wood on the ruins of palmyra aud baalbek ( — ) and by robert adam on the palace of spalato in . these two latter revealed the existence of the remains of imperial rome, other than those in the eternal city, and led to a further revival of classic art not so much in italy as in foreign countries, and more especially in england where the works were published. accustomed only to the copybooks of the italian theorists, the architects found a new field and although the buildings discovered belonged to a decadent period, they were at all events purer in style and much more magnificent than the phases of the later renaissance and the rococo. in england under the direction of robert and james adam and of sir william chambers, the new revival superseded that which is generally known as the queen anne style, the quiet and unpretentious architecture of the commencement of the th century. in france it influenced the architecture and industrial art during the reign of louis xvi. creating a style to which that monarch's name is attached and this style introduced then into germany, led to what is known as the zopfstil period of which the palace at potsdam, sometimes called the german versailles, which was built in — , by the architect carl von gothard ( — ) is the best exponent. of this style the examples from freising and schonbrunn (plate ), show a return to classic forms differing widely from the rococo style which existed in the first half of the th century throughout germany and the netherlands. fan in the carnavalet museum, paris. made at the death of mirabeau (l'art pour tous) italian th century ornament. th century ornament in italy. although the rococo style originated in italy, the tendency in that country was towards the further development of the later renaissance, which in the palace at caserta ( — ) by vanvltelli ( — ) was reduced to its lowest ebb as it would be difficult to find a more monotonous design than that immense structure. in the decoration of their interiors, and in furniture, however, owing to the genius of piranesi ( — ) and followed by simonetti ( — ), piermarini ( — ) and guiseppe soli ( — ), a classic revival took place, not altogether however without some rococo influence as may be noticed in the mantel- piece on plate . plate . mural decoration from the work "diverse maniere d'adornare i cammini" by giovanni battista, piranesi, architect draughtsman and etcher. plate . fig. . table by guiseppe soli, architect and painter. from the work "ornamentale entworfe far mobel im stile louis" xvi." (hirth). „ . panel from a ceiling by albertolli (schoy, l'art de l'epoque louis xvi.). „ . bracket candlestick by albertolli (schoy). „ . design for wall decoration with table and clock, by piranesi (hirth). „ . chest of drawers by soli (hirth). plate . (designs by glocondo albertolli after schoy, l'art de l'epoque louis xvi.) fig. . ceiling in the palace of prince belgioso d'este in milan. . corner ornament of the same. „ . candlestick. „ . interior decoration. „ . study for centrepiece. speltz, style* of ornament. plate . italian th century ornament. plate . italian th century ornament. french th century ornament. th century ornament in france. (louis xvi. style.) the principal supporters and patrons of this style, amongst others, were constant d'yvri, and jacques germain soufflot. the art of the cabinet maker flourished in a specially unexpected manner under this style, as did also the goldsmith's art and porcelain manufacture. plate . (after cesar daly, motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture.) fig. . and . keystone of an entrance porch in paris. „ , , and . console brackets in paris. „ , and . detail of part of the facade of the palais royal, paris; towards the garden. plate . (after cesar daly, motifs historiques.) fig. . over door of an hotel in the rue de francs-bourgeois no. , paris. „ . decorated door of an hotel, rue de varenne no. , paris. „ . part of door of a house, route de chatillon no. , paris. „ . entrance door in the hotel des monnaies, paris. „ . door crest from paris. plate . (after cesar daly, motifs historiques.) fig. . mantel piece from a country house in blanquefort, gironde. drawing-room decoration of an hotel in the rue st . charles, bordeaux. plate . fig. . balcony in the rue roy ale, versailles (daly). „ . balcony from paris (daly). . door and frame in wrought steel from palais de justice, paris (daly). „ . vase from an engraving by lalonde, draughtsman and designer in paris (hirth). „ . pommel of stick by the same (hirth). „ g. candlestick by j. f. forty, brass-founder and chaser in paris, — (hirth). plate . fig. . sofa of painted wood covered with embroidered silk (bajot). . small table of mahogany with gilt chased, copper mountings (bajot). „ . cabinet (havard). „ . tripod of bronze gilt (havard). „ . design for drawing-room decoration, made for the marquis de sillery after a drawing by rousseau de la rottiere. in the south kensington museum (champeaux). „ . design for chased door lock, by lalonde (hirth). plate . french th century ornament. plate . french ™ century ornament. plate . french th century ornament. plate . \ french th century ornament. french th century ornament. fig. . . . . . . . plate . fire screen of embroidered silk in a frame made of carved and gilt wood (bajot;•. console table in wood gilt (bajot). salon decoration of the hotel d'hallwill, in carved wood. drawn by architect ledoux (champeaux). hanging lamp (l'art pour tous). chair, showing transition to the empire style (l'art pour tous). chased door bolt by lalonde (hirth). bronze door mantle (champeaux). plate . (after schoy, art louis xvi.) fig. , and . stand and table by jean francois de neufforge. , , , and . doors by antoine joseph rouvo. , and . arm chair and sofa by bouche le jeune. , and . furniture feet by neufforge. . mirror frame by p. ranson. . candelabrum by neufforge. fig. plate . . window valence of embroidered silk in the musee des arts decoratifs (champeaux). . driving saddle of leather with bronze gilt ornaments (hirth). . and . knife handle and lid of box after lalonde (hirth). , and . dress of embroidered silk (champeaux). , and . aigrettes from the work "nouveau recuell de panares et joaillerie", paris , by poujet tils, engraver and goldsmith in paris. monogram in precious stones, by ranson (schoy). dutch th century ornament. plate . plate . german th century ornament. tti speltz, styles of ornament. plate . german ™ century ornament. n^_g^ plate . english th century ornament. ifflpnnnnnero s^jftaagfesafrw^vj^^ ilfljijljlflrjlflfijlilflmmjlfjjlflojl mmmmjaitkxjifijikkjfiwjb&mmmikmkmmmmmb v plate . english ™ century ornament. r uuuuulfljuuuuuuuuuuulajul plate . english th century ornament. plate . english ™ century ornament. ii-iii-ll l-lll_ iii-iii- m _m _ni _m. m_ in _ in-in _ ni._ i hi h pi w m h u^umhgffi ill-ill ■irr-r' english th century ornament. plate . fig. . capital from the first storey of the staircase in luton house. „ , and . corinthian order by robert adam. plate . (after the decorative works of robert and james adam.) fig. . moulding round the bas-reliefs in the hall of slon house. „ , , , and . decoration of the attic window in the entrance hall, slon house. „ , and . greek order in the dining-room of the house of sir watkins williams wynn, st. james's square. „ . vase on the porter's lodge, slon house. „ . decoration of the plinth of the large niche in the hall of sion house. plate . (after the decorative works of robert and james adam.) fig. , and . design of the order for carlton house. „ . decorative vase in slon house. „ , and . mantel piece at slon house. plate . (after the decorative works of robert and james adam.) fig. , and . trophies in slon house. „ , , and . frame work of window in the entrance-hall, sion house. plate . (after the decorative works of robert and james adam.) fig. . mantel piece in st. james's palace. „ , and . organ in the house of sir watkins williams wynn. plate . (after the decorative works of robert and james adam.) fig. . ceiling of the entrance-hall in sion house. „ . ceiling of the dining-room of the house of sir watkins williams wynn. „ . celling in slon house. „ . ceiling of the music-room in the house of sir watkins williams wynn. plate . english th century ornament. rºwvw.rwºrryºrrº-ººrºººººººº...i --- ww. - ºdºº-d-leele, º mtttttttttttttt". --~~~~~~~ --~~~~ plate . english th century ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. plate . english ™ century ornament. plate . english th century ornament. i plate . english ™ century ornament. english th century ornament. plate . english th century ornament. inlaid table top. acanthus ornament. arm chair. sofa. : plate . fig. . panel decoration. ,, – . details of furniture. , , and . window mantles. ,, . head of doorway. , . frieze in bas-relief. plate . fig. – . designs for chair backs. ,, . center for a pier table to be painted or executed in inlay. ,, . design for a secretarire and bookcase. ,, . design for a cabinet. furniture made from designs by a. hepplewhite. (after hepplewhite, the cabinet maker and upholsterer's guide, – .) plate . . canopy bed. ,, . writing table with cupboard over. . chair. ,, . terminal vase. ,, – , – . cornices for furniture. , . glass door of cupboard. work prepared from various designs. plate . fig. . design for ceiling by pergolesi. ,, . mantel piece by g. richardson. ,, , and . panels by pergolesi. ,, . mantel piece with mirror by william thomas. , . emblem by pergolesi. ,, . ceiling by g. richardson. plate . english th century ornament. plate . english th century ornament. plate . english th century ornament. plate . english ™ century ornament. english th century ornament. plate . (after bailey scott murphy, english and scottish wrought ironwork.) fig. . wrought-iron gate in screen to dining halt, queen's college, cambridge, round which in the year the wood work in the prevailing renaissance style was carried out . „ . fan-light of a gateway in all soul's college, oxford, the work of hawksmoor. english th century pottery. plate . (after examples of early english pottery by john eliot hodgkin and edith hodgkin.) fig. . plate. cock pit hill of the year . black enamel with bronze-coloured flowers. . plate, of tbe same origin. brown glazing with yellow decorations, of the year . . drinking cup with handles, sgraffito ware, inscribed . . jug, sgraffito, inscribed . . drinking cup with handles from jackfield, , with gold ornamentations. . and . plates. delft porcelain, made in england, . . plate, staffordshire delft, about . . plate, lambeth delft, inscribed . design for a bracket candlestick by adam. plate . empire ornament in france. - º ºsºzºsº º speltz, styles of ornament. plate . empire ornament in france. hhlhlblhihiblhbhh seihbhm plate . empire ornament in france. empire ornament in france. \ plate . fig. . ceiling painting in a studio at paris. plate . fig. . pier in the venus museum in the louvre, paris. „ . tribune from the hall of the marshalls in the tuileries, paris. plate . fig. . mantel piece in the louvre, paris. „ , and . mural paintings. ,. . book cabinet, made in paris for amsterdam. plate . fig. . branched candlestick, paris. „ . soup tureen, made in paris. „ . candelabrum, made in paris. „ . bed stead and canopy, paris. plate . fig. . throne of napoleon i. in the tuileries, now destroyed. plate . fig. . writing bureau, made in paris. „ , and . table, made in paris for st. petersburg. „ . table, made in paris for count s. in st . petersburg. „ . arm-chair, made in paris for st. petersburg. plate . fig. — , — . furniture mountings (recueil des dessins d'ornements d'architecture de la manufacture de josep'i bennot a sarrebourg et paris). ,, . furniture mounting (l'art pour tous). „ . upper part of a chest of drawers (l'art pour tous). plate . empire ornament in france. plate . empire ornament in france. plate . empire ornament in france. empire ornament in france. on the fall of the empire, the same style continued but was much inferior both in character and execution. the neogrec movement of — led to more refinement in design, which after the franco-german war tended towards a revival of the louis xiv. and xv. style. plate . fig. . work table, of the year (bajot). „ . screen in mahogany, with gilt mountings (bajot). „ . arm-chair of the year (bajot). „ . console table, (bajot). ., . chair, (bajot). „ . key-hole plate (l'art pour tous). „ . pilaster from the cafe qaulois, rue poissonlere no. , paris (thlollet et h. roux). key-hole plate (l'art pour tous). empire ornament in italy. empire ornament in italy. although the empire style was taken up in italy later than in france, the country of its chief development on the other hand, it lasted much longer, being retained until the thirties, when quiseppe borsato became its chief exponent, his work being however, inferior to that of percier and fontaine. plate . fig. , and . sofa and arm-chair in directory style by gulseppe soli (hirth). „ . sofa for the milan cathedral, by glocondo albertolii (schoy). „ . stool in directory style, by albertolii (hirth). „ . perfuming censer in empire style, by albertolli, milan (hirth). work done from designs by borsato. (after percier et fontaine, recueil de decorations interieures avec des supplements par joseph borsato.) plate . fig. . internal decoration in the imperial palace in venice. „ . ceiling painting, carried out in the year for count albriggi in venice. „ . mantel piece in the royal imperial palace in venice. plate . empire ornament in italy. itt iii iii-iii-iii-iii-i-i-i-i-i-iii il i l i l i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-ii speltz, styles of ornament. empire ornament in italy. plate . fig. . internal decoration of reception room in the royal palace in venice, of the year . silver chandelier in the church of s. giorgio de greci, venice (percier et fontaine). empire ornament in germany. empire ornament in germany. towards the close of the * century, at a time when the imitation of everything french grew to be a passion amongst the germans, the german rococo and louis xvi. styles which were imitations of the french gave way to imitations of the new french empire style. this change was furthermore favoured by the political conditions which ruled at the period. plate . (after moritz heider, louis xvi. und empire.) fig. . parquetry floor in schwarzenberg palace, vienna. „ . stove recess in the same palace. „ . stove from the monastery of rein in steiermark. „ . ceiling decoration in modena palace, herrengasse, vienna. plate . fig. . sofa in the collection of duke karl theodor of bavaria in munich (luthmer, bargerliche m bel). „ , , and . sofa, stool, and small table in the appartments of the grand duchess of modena, munich (luthmer). „ , and . bed and cupboard in possession of the art dealer hugo helbing, munich (luthmer). „ . piano in mahogany with gilt bronze, made by m. selffert in vienna, (bajot). plate . fig. . mirror and console table in the bavarian national museum, munich (luthmer, bargerliche mobel). „ . end of a sofa in the royal residence in stuttgart (luthmer). „ . toilet looking-glass from the collection of duke karl theodor of bavaria (luthmer, burgeriiche mobel). „ . mantel piece in the munich museum (luthmer, burgeriiche mobel). plate . empire ornament in germany. plate . empire ornament in germany. plate . empire ornament in germany. empire ornament in germany. fig. . ., . ., . plate . branch bracket candlestick in bronze gilt (heider). toilet looking-glass with bronze frame (heider). bronze vase with the dance of the hours, in the royal residence in stutt- gart (luthmer). branch candlestick of bronze gilt (heider). , and . balcony railings in wickenburger qasse, vienna (heider). window of the husar inn in garmisch, upper bavaria (zell, bauernhauser im bayerischen hochland). biederme er ornament in germany. biedermeier or old fashioned style in germany. as a reaction from the elaborate ornament of the louis xvi. and empire styles, a new style arose in which work of the greatest simplicity and commonplace form the chief characte- ristics, this is known in germany as the biedermeier, or old fashioned style. plate . fig. . bed of hungarian oak, of the year (joseph folnesics, innenraume und haus- rat der empire- und biedermeierzeit). „ , and . chairs from vienna, — (folnesics). „ . table from the castle of obernzenn in unterfranken (luthmer). „ . sofa in possession of baron von pslinitz, bamberg (luthmer). „ , and . sewing-tables from vienna, (folnesics). silk stuff. after the original in the industrial museum, berlin. plate . biedermeier ornament in germany. neogrec ornament in germany. plate . º ºº: t. wº-vº-wº neogrec ornament in germany. plate . htre- at: @ &a ſº - ſº *e= --~~~~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ § tººlſ: - -- º - £º ºš \º ~ - ~! =º = fº j | --~~~~ ſº º - - - - º ºf: t i | u . i i i l ſ - t t plate . neogrec ornament in germany. plate . neogrec ornament in germany. speltz, styles of ornament. ( neogrec ornament in germany. plate . drawing-room table by schinkel (l. lohde). mural painting from drawings by stier (vorbilder). writing table by schinkel (l. lohde). goblet-glass by schinkel (vorbilder). wine cooler by ruhl (vorbilder). sample of stuff from bötticher (vorbilder). i plate . (from examples for manufacturers and artisans, by order of the minister for trade, industry and building, ). fig. . chalice by schinkel. . sample of stuff from mauch. ,, . sample of stuff by schinkel. . vase from mauch. marble tazza by schinkel (vorbilder für fabrikanten und handwerker). reference books. / pugln, a., examples of gothic architecture. pugln (welby), glossary of ecclesiastical ornament and costume. raclnet, a., le costume historique. raclnet, a., l'omement polychrome. raguenet, a., materiaux et documents. rajendralala, mitra, the antiquities of orissa. relchhold, km oriechlsche vasenmalerei. relchhold, kunst und zeichnen. revoll (henri), architecture romane du midi de la france. revue generate de l'architecture. rhead, g. w., principles of design. richardson, c. j., studies from old english mansions. richardson, c. j., architectural remains of the reigns of elizabeth and james. richardson, c. j., observations on the architecture of the reigns of queen elizabeth and king james i. roger-miles, u, la bijouterie. roger-milts il.), beaux-arts. roger-miles (i..), comment dlscerner les styles. rohault de fleury (o.), la toscane au moyen-age. rouyer (eugene), l'art architectural en france. roux, h., herculanum et pompt'i. rnprlch-robert (n.), l'architecture normande. saladln, h., manuel d'art musulman: architecture. salln, s., die altgermanlsche tierornamentik. salxenberg (w.), altchristliche baudenkmsier von konstantinopel. sanders, w. b., carved oak woodwork. sanders, w. b., half timbered houses and carved oak furniture of the th and 'h centuries. sarrc (frledrlch), denkmsler der persischenbaukunst . schlnkel (karl frledrlch), sammlung architekto- nlscher entwtlrfe. schllemann. h., tiryns and mycenas. schmidt, karl und schlldbach, der kfinlgllche zwlnger in dresden. schoy, a., die architektonisch-dekoratlve kunst der zeit ludwlgs xvi. schfltte, ornamentale und archltektonische studien- biatter aus itallen. scott, w. b., antiquarian gleanings in the north of england. sebah, p., l'architecture ottoman. • seesselberg. f., helm und mitra. semper, o., der stll. shaw, henry, handbook of mediaevael alphabets and devices. shaw, h. snd madden f., illuminated ornaments from manuscripts th to th century. shaw, h., details of elizabethan architecture. sheraton, t., cabinet maker and upholsterer's draw- ing book. smith, george, assyrian discoveries. spelts, alex, saulenformen der agyptischen, grie- chlschen und romischen baukunst . spiers, r. phene, the orders of architecture. spiers, architecture, east and west. stlehl, o., das deutsche rathaus m mlttelalter. stiehl, backsteinbau romanischer zeit. stokes, margaret, early christian art in ireland. strange, t. a., english furniture, decoration, wood- work and allied arts. stothard, c. a., the monumental effigies of great britain. stueckelberg, e. a., longobardische plastik. sulrelschchikov. n. p., et trener, d. k., orne- rm-nts stir les monuments de i'ancieii art russe. suslov, v. v., monuments de l'anclenne architecture russe. tanner, henry jr., english interior woodwork of the xvf, xvii and xviii centuries. tatham, c. h., etchings of ancient ornamental archi- tecture. telrlch, v., ornamente aus derblfltezeit italienischer renaissance. telrlch, v., intarsien. the builder. the building news. thierry, c, klasslsche ornamente. thlollet, f. et h. roux, nouveau recuell de menui- serie. trlggs, h. i. snd' tanner, h., some architectural works of inlgo jones. uhde, constantln and spiers, r. phene, the archi- tectural forms of the classic ages.l uhde, die konstruktionen und die kunstformen der archltektur. ungewitter, o. c, land- und stadtklrchen. van ysendyk, documents classes de l'art dans les pays-bas. vacher, s., fifteenth century italian ornament. victoria and albert-museum, handbooks on art. viollet-le-duc, e. e., l'art russe. viollet-le-duc, dlctlonnalre raisonne de l'architec- ture francaise du xi. au xii. stecle. viollet-le-duc, dictionaaire raisonne du mobilier francais. vogue, comte de, la syrie central?. vulllamy, l., and spiers, r. phene, examples of classic ornament from greece and rome. war* (w. rotch), the georgian period. colonial or xviii-century architecture in the united states. waring, j. b., stone monuments, tumuli, and ornament of remote ages. waring, j. b., illustrations of architecture and ornament . warner, o. p., illuminated manuscripts in the british museum. wasmoth, e., alte und neue kirchenmobel. watt, j. cromar, oreek and pompeian decorative work. weaver, lawrence, english lesdwork, its art and history. weimar, w., ein fahrer durch die sammlungen. weimar, monumentalschrlften. wessely, j. e., das ornament und die kunstindustrle. westlake, n. h. j., a history of design in painted glass. weatwood, j. o., paleographla sacra plctoria. westwood, fscslmlles of anglo saxon and irish manuscripts. wornum, r. n., analysis of ornament. zahn, w., ornamente aller klasslschen kunstepocheo. zahn, w„ die schonsten ornamente aus pompejl, herkulanum und stabiae. zeller, adolf, die romanlschen baudenkmaier von hildeshelm. zell, franz, bsuerntrachten aus dem bayrischen hochland. index of illustrations according to subject and material. abacus. – grec. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. , , . – romgue p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. ." acanthus. – grec. p. . f. , , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , , , , . p. . f. , . – lat. ren, p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . acroterium. — grec. p. . f. . agraffe. — page . aigrette. — th c. p. . f. , . alphabet. — celt.p. . f. . — romgue p. . f. . — p. . f. . – rem. p. . f. . p. . f. – . – roc. p. . f. , . altar. — etrusc. p. . f. – . — rom. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — romgue p. . f. – . — goth. p. . f. , . — page . ambo. – early chr. p. . f. . – romgue p. . f. . amphora.-egypt. p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. – . – grec. p. . f. , , , , . anta-capital. — grec. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . - ante-fix. — grec. p. . f. , . p. . f. . — page . apothecary's pot. — ren. p. . f. , . arcade. — romgue p. . f. , , , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. , . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . arch. — rom. p. . f. . — byz. p. . f. , . p. . f. . – romgue p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . – mahom. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . — "goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — page . architrave. — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , p. . f. . – rom. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . – early chr. p. . f. . archivolte. — romgue p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . arm chair. — grec. p. . f. , . — rom. p. . f. , . — byz. p. . f. . — romgue p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. , . — ren. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . p. . f. . – th c. p. . f. . – emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – biederm. p. . f. . armour. — rom. p. . f. , , . — russ. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. , . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . arms. – preh. p. . f. , , . — grec. p. . f. – , , , , , , , . etrus. p. . f. , , , . — goth. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. – . — lat. ren. p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . – page . (see also weapons.) arum leaf. — goth. p. . f. , , . badge. — goth. p. . f. . index of illustrations. bag.—assyr. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . balcony. — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. , . p. . f. , – . — emp. p. . f. , . baluster. — assyr. p. . f. — . — camb. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — lat. ren. p. . f. . — col. p. . f. . p. . f. . baluster pier. — ren. p. . f. . balustrade. — assyr. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. , p. . f. , . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , , , , . p. . f. . p. . f. – . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . – lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — coll. p. . f. . — neo g. p. . f. . — page . baptismal font. — byz. p. . f. . — romque p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , , . — goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. .— pages , . base. — egypt. p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. , . — pers. p. . f. , , . — ind. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. – , – . — byz. p. . f. , , . — romgue p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . — chin. p. . f. , . — jap. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — col. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . – neo g. p. . f. . — pages , . bas-relief. — preh. p: . f. , . p. . f. , , . — egypt. p. . f. , . — assyr. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. , . — pers. p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . – phoen. p. . f. . — ind. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. – . p. . f. . p. . f. . — etrusc. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . battle-axe. — preh. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — mahom. p. . f. . bead-moulding. — grec. p. . f. – . beaker. — assyr. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . bed. — romgue p. . f. , , . – ren. p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . – emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . — biederm. p. . f. . bellflower. — goth. p. . f. . bellows. – ren. p. . f. . belt.— goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . belt-buckle. — celt. p. . f. , – , . p. . f. . belvedere. — ren. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . biga. — etrusc. p. . f. , . bishop's throne. — rom. p. . f. . bishop's crozier. — rom. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . bookcase. — early chr. p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . – th c. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . bookcover. — early chr. p. . f. . — byz. p. . f. . p. . f. . — romgue p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . bookmarker. — ren. p. . f. . border. — romgue p. . f. – . p. . f. . p. . f. – . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , , , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. – . p. . f. , . , , . — russ. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. – , – . p. . f. – . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , , , . — goth. p. . f. , – . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. – . – ren. p. . f. , . boss to vaulting. — romgue p. . f. . goth. p. . f. , , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . bottle. — celt. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . bow. — ind. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. . bowl.– assyr. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . index of illustrations. box. — ind. p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . p. . . f. , . — th c. p. . f. bracelet. — egypt. p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. . — ind. p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. , – . p. . f. . bracket. — ren. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . - bracket candlestick. — ren. p. . f. , . — lat. ren. p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . – page . bracket capital. — ren. p. . f. . brickwork. — romque p. . f. – . — goth. p. . f. – . — page , . bridge. — th c. p. . f. . bridle-bit. — ren. p. . f. . bronze figure. — assyr. p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. . — pomp. p. . f. . p. . f. . — page . bronze furniture. — assyr. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. , – . — pomp. p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. . bronze ornament. — preh. p. . f. , . p. . f. – . — assyr. p. . f. . p. . f. , . – grec. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — celt. p. . f. , . — byz. p. . f. , . — mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , , , , . — jap. p. . f. – . p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. – . p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . – th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . bronze jewel. — preh. p. . f. – , , , , , , , , , . p. . f. , , , – , . — celt. p. . f. — , – , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , , , , . bronze tool. — preh. p. . f. , . — egypt. p. . f. , . — assyr. p. . f. , , , – . bronze vase. — chin. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . — jap. p. . f. , . p. . f. . brooch. — celt. p. . f. , , , , . — goth. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. , . bucket. — assyr. p. . f. , . — celt. p. . f. , . buckle. — celt. p. . f. , , – , , . p. . f. , , . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . buffet. – ren. p. . f. , . bureau. — col. p. . f. . — page . bust of head. — egypt. p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. . – grec. p. . f. . — page . button. — assyr. p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. , – . butterfly. — chin. p. . f. – , . cabinet. — ren. p. . f. . p. . p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . caffagiolio. – ren. p. . f. . cameo. — rom. p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. . candelabrum. — rom. p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . — pomp. p. . f. . p. . f. , , , , , , . – romgue p. . f. , , . — goth. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . candlestick. — romgue p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . – goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . — chin. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . — page . candlestick, seven-branched. — romgue p. . f. . canon's staff. — romgue p. . f. . canopied chair. – ren. p. . f. . canopy. — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . canopy bed. — lat. ren. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . capital. — egypt. p. . f. – , . — p. . f. – , . — assyr. p. . f. , , , – pers. p. .f. — . – phoen. p. . f. – . — ind. p. . f. , , , , – . – grec. p. . f. . p. . f. , , , – . p. . f. – , , – . p. . f. , , , , . p. . f. – , , , , . p. . f. , . – f f . . index of illustrations. f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . p. . f. – , . p. . f. . – col. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . chimera. — page . chimney. — goth. p. . f. . chimney piece. — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . – p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . p. . f. . — col. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . — th c. p. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . – emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . christ on throne. — early-chr. p. . f. . cimbal. — grec. p. . f. . cist. — etrusc. p. . f. . clasp. — preh. p. . f. , . — grec. p. . f. , rom, p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. . – romque p. . f. . clock. — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. , . — page . cloth fabric. — romque p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . club. — preh. p. . f. . — ind. p. . f. , , . — russ. p. . f. . coat of arms. – goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. ... — th c. p. . f. . – pages , . coffee pot. — th c. p. . f. . coffer. — byz. p. . f. . – romgue p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . coffin. — celt. p. . f. , . coiffure. — grec. p. . f. , , , . — rom. p. . f. – . — byz. p. . f. – . – goth. p. . f. . coin. — pers. p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . – rom. p. . f. . column. — preh. p. . f. . — egypt. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . – ind. p. . f. , , , , , , . — grec. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. . — pomp. p. . f. , . — romgue p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , , , . p. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . , , . p. . f. – . — russ. p. . . f. , . — mahom. p. . , , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . oth. p. . f. . p. . f. . — chin. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — pages , . comb. — rom. p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. . – romgue p. . f. . console. — mahom. p. . f. – , . — goth. p. . f. – . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. . – emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . console table. – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . consular chair. — byz. p. . f. . consul's costume. — rom. p. . f. . corbel table.— byz. p. . f. . — romgue p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — page . cornice. — ind. p. . f. , , , , . p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – rom. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , . – romgue p. . f. . p. . f. , , , . p. . f. – . — mahom. p. . f. , – . — goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . – emp. p. . f. , . — neo g. p. . f. . — page . corona. – grec. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – rom. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . coronation chair. — goth. p. . f. . corsage ornament. — th c. p. . f. . costume. — rom. p. . f. , . — romque p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — pages , , , , , . couch.-egypt.p. .f. . –grec.p. .f. . . index of illustrations. cradle. — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . – emp. p. . f. , . credence table. — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . cresting. — romgue p. . f. – . — mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . crocket. — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , , p. . f. . crotchet work. — ren. p. . f. . crown. — ind. p. . f. . — early chr. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — byz. p. . f. . – goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . cross. – celt. p. . f. . p. . f. , – . — early chr. p. . f. . p. . f. . — romque p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . cross finial. — ren. p. . f. . crozier. — romque p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . – goth. p. . f. . crucifix. — early chr. p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — page . cup. – rom. p. . f. . — romgue p. . f. . – chin. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. , . cupboard. – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . – biederm. p. . f. . cupola. — russ. p. . f. . curtain. — jap. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . — page . cymatium. – grec. p. . f. . p. . f. – . dagger. — preh. p. . f. , . – egypt. p. . f. . — etrusc. p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. , . – romgue p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . dagger hilt. — ren. p. . f. – . dagger sheath. — rom. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . damascened work. — mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. , , , . — page . damask. – ren. p. . f. . decanter. — ren. p. . f. . delft plate. — ren. p. . f. . diadem. — russ. p. . f. . diaper. — ren. p. . f. – , , , . diptych. — early chr. p. . f. . dish. — pers. p. . f. . – phoen. p. . f. . – grec. p. . f. . p. . f. . – celt. p. . f. . — chin. p. . f. .— — ren. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. , f. . door. — egypt. p. . f. . — byz. p. . f. . — romque p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. – . p. . f. . p. . f. . — jap. p. , f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . – roc. p. . f. . – col. p. . f. . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. . — neo g. p. . f. . — page . door furniture. — romgue p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. , , , , , , , , , , , , . – ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . – th c. p. . f. . — page . door hinge. — romgue p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. , , . — page . door-knocker. — romgue p. . f. . p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . doorway. — romgue p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . – romgue p. . f. – . – goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. – . p. . f. – . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . — camb. p. . f. . . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . . . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . - . p. . f. . p. . . — lat. ren. p. . º ; : f index of illustrations. f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — neo g. p. . f. . — pages , , dormer window. — lat. ren. p. . f. . dress. – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. , .-pages , , , . drinking-horn. — grec. p. . f. . eagle.— romgue p. . f. . – russ. p. . f. . – goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . ear-ring. — assyr. p. . f. – , . — phoen. p. . f. , , . – ind. p. . f. , . — rom. p. . f. – , , . celt. p. . f. , . — romgue p. . f. . th c. p. . f. , . earthenware vessel. — preh. p. . f. – , – , . p. . f. , , , , , – , – , , . – egypt. p. . f. , . — assyr. p. . f. . p. . f. , – , , . — pers. p. . f. – . – phoen. p. . f. , , , – . – ind. p. . f. , , , , . – grec. p. . f. . p. . f. – . – etrus. p. . f. . — om. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . . f. . — celt. p. . f. , , . . f. , , . — romgue p. . . . — mahom. p. . f. , . – th c. p. . f. – . — page . eaves tile. — jap. p. . f. , . emblem. – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . embroidery. — assyr. p. . f. . p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. , . — russ. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. .— goth. p. . f. , . d. . f. . — chin. p. , f. . – ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , . – lat. ren. p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. – . p. . f. , – . — th c. p. . f. , , . – page . embroidery-frame. — grec. p. . f. . enamelled-work. — byz. p. . f. . — romgue p. . f. – . p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. . — jap. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . pages , . r p p f encaustic tile. — romgue p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . p. . f. – . p. . f. , , . p. . f. – . p. . f. – , , .— goth.p. . f. – . p. . f. – . p. . f. . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , , . p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. – . — roc. p. . f. . – page . entablature. — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – rom. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — romque p. . f. , . — mahom. . f. , . — ren. p. . f. . p. . , . p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . – emp. p. . f. . equestrian statue. — ren. p. . f. . escutcheon. — roc. p. . f. . ewer. — ren. p. . f. , . – lat. ren. p. . f. . façade. — ren. p. . f. , . — th c. p. . f. , . faience.—egypt. p. . f. .— ren. p. . f. – . p. . f. , , . – lat. rem. p. . f. . p. . f. – . — page . fan. — preh. p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . – ren. p. . f. . – page . fan-light. — lat. ren. p. . f. – th c. p. . f. . fasces. – rom. p. . f. , . female apparel. — ind. p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. . fibula. — preh. p. . f. , . – etrus. p. . f. . – celt. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . fighting car. — page . fig-leaf. — goth. p. . f. . finial. — mahom. p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. , f. . p. . f. , , . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . fire-dog. — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . fire-stove. — goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . – emp. p. . f. , . fire-grate. — th c. p. . f. . fire-screen. — lat. ren. p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . flagon. — romgue p. . f. . — mahom. p. f. f. f. index of illustrations. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . floor-pavement. — assyr. p. . f. . – grec. p. . f. . – pomp. p. . f. , , . — early-chr. p. . f. . font. — byz. p. . f. . — romgue p. . f. , , . — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . — pages , . foot-gear. — egypt. p. . f. , . – grec. p. . f. , . – rom. p. . f. , , , . footstool. — assyr. p. . f. . fork. — assyr. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. , . . — mahom. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. . fountain. — early chr. p. . f. . – goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. , . – lat. ren. p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. , . frame. — ren. p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . p. , f. . p. . f. , , . — col. p. . f. , . fret-work fillet. — roc. p. . f. – . frieze. — egypt. p. . f. , . — pers. p. . f. , , , , . — phoen. p. . f. . – grec. p. . f. . p. . f. , m. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . – early-chr. p. . f. . – romgue p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . m. p. . f. . p. . f. . — . p. . f. . p. . ... — ren. p. . f. . . . f. . p. . f. . - , . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . — text- figures p. , , , . frontispiece. — pages , , , . furniture. — egypt. p. . f. – . — assyr. p. . f. , , . — ind. p. . f. , , , . — grec. p. . f. , , , – . — early-chr. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — byz. p. . f. – . — romgue p. . f. , – , , . p. . f. , , , . — goth. p. . f. — . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . — chin. p. . f. , , , . – ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. – . p. . f. , . p. . : : i ot h p. ; p. gº." : :- : . f. – . p. . f. – . p. . . – , . — p. . f. – , – . col. . . f. – . p. . f. – , , . th c. p. . f. , , . p. . f. – . p. . f. , , – . p. . f. , , – , , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. – . p. . f. – . p. . f. – . p. . f. – . – emp.p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. – . p. . f. , , . p. , f. – . p. . f. – , . p. . f. – , , . p. . f. – . — biederm. p. . f. – . – neo g. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. , . – pages , . furniture mounting. — emp. p. . f. – . p. . f. , , , – . gable. — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — page . gallery. — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . gargoyle. — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — jap. p. . f. . gate. — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . gate-pier. — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — col. p. . f. . gateway. — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . – th c. p. . f. . girdle. — preh. p. . f. . — ind. p. .f. . glass door. — roc. p. . f. , , , . — th c. p. . f. . glass vessel. — phoen. p. . f. , . – pomp. p. . f. . – celt. p. . f. , . p. . f. . — mahon. p. . f. – . — ren. p. . f. – , , , . p. . f. — . p. . f. . — neo g. p. . f. . — page . ; index of illustrations. hunting spear. — preh. p. i. f. , . — ind. p. .' f. . — ren. p. . f. . incense box. — rom. p. . f. , . initial. — celt. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — romque p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. — . — goth. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. — . — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . — pages /, , . . . , , . . . , . . . . . . . , , , . . , , . . . , . ink-stand. — page . inlaid work. — ren. p. . f. . inscription. — byz. p. . f. . — romque p. . f. . — pages . . intarsla work. — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . interior decoration. — roc. p. . p. . — emp. p. . interlacing ornament. — celt. p. . f. , — , — . p. . f. , , , , , — . p. . f. , , . — early-chr. p. . f. — , — . p. . f. . — byz. p. . f. . — romque p. . f. . p. . f. , p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. — , , . p. . f. — . p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . p. . f. — , . — p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . p. . f. , - . p. . f. . p. . f. — . p. . f. . p. . f. - , - . p. . - , - . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. , . — pages . , , , . . iron-work, see wrought iron. ivory carving. — preh. p. . f. — . — assyr. p. . f. — . — rom. p. . f. . p. . f. . — byz. p. . f. . p. . f. — , . — ren. p. . f. . jewel-case. — ind. p. . f. , . — grec. p. . f. . jewelry. — grec. p. . f. — , . — rom. p. . f. , , , , , , , , . — celt p. . f. . p. . f. . — early-chr. p. . f. . — romque p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. , , , . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. , . p. . f. — . jug. — rom. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. , , . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — m c. p. . f. . key. — rom. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. , . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . p. . f. . key-hole plate. — romque p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. , . — chin. p. . f. . p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . — page . keystone. — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . knife. — preh. p. . f. , , . — egypt . p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . knife handle. — th c. p. . f. . knocker see door-knocker. krater. — grec. p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . kylix. — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. . labrum. — rom. — page . lace-work. — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. a f. , . — lat. ren. p. a f. , . p. a f. , , . p. . f. . lacquer painting. — jap. p. . f. — . — page . lamp. — rom. p. . f. . p. a f. , , , . — pomp. p. . f. . — romque p. a f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . p. . f. . — jap. p. . f. . p. a f. . — roc. p. . f. . — » c. p. a f. , . — page . lamp stand. — roc. p. . f. , . — th c. p. . f. . lance-head. — preh. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. . lantern. — rom. p. . f. . — * c. p. a f. . — page . lead work. — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . leaf cresting. — goth. p. . f. , . leaf-table. — ren. p. . f. . leather-work. — egypt . p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. , , , . — romq«p. a f. . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . index of illustrations. sleigh. — roc. p. . f. . sofa. – lat. ren. p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — col. p. . f. , , . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — biederm. p. . f. . – neo g. p. . f. , . spandrel. — mahom. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . spear-head. — preh. p. . f. , . – grec. p. . f. . — etrusc. p. . f. . sphinx. — egypt. p. . f. , . — pomp. p. . f. . spinet. — lat. ren. p. . f. , . spire. — goth. p. . f. . spoon. — egypt. p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. . – romgue p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. , . spur. — goth. p. . f. . stained glass. – romgue p. . f. . p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. – . p. . f. , – . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — page . stair-balustrade. — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . staircase. — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . stair newel. — goth. p. . f. . stair rail. – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . stalactite. — mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. – . stall. — romgue p. . f. . – goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. – , . standard. — assyr. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. , . statue. — egypt. p. . f. . – grec. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — etrus. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — page , . r stele. — grec. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . stone figure. — egypt. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. . – ind. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . – page . stonehenge. — page . stoneware. — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. – , . stool. — assyr. p. . f. . — ind. p. . . — romque p. . f. . p. . f. . – goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. .— emp. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — page . stove. — goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . – emp. p. . f. , . stucco ornament. — russ. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. – , – , – . p, . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. – , . p. . f. – . p. . f. , , , . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. – . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . – lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. . — col. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. – . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — page . stuff pattern. — jap. p. . f. , , , . — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. – . p. . f. – , – . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — biederm. p. . f. , , – . — neo g. p. . f. , . — page . sugar bowl. — p. . f. . sugar-tongs. – roc. p. . f. . sunshade. — grec. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . sundial. — ren. p. . f. . sword. — preh. p. . f. , . p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. . — etrus. p. . f. , , . – celt. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — early-chr. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. – . — jap. p. . f. , .- ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . — page . index of illustrations. sword-hilt. — preh. p. . f. , . — rom. p. . f. . – romgue p, . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. , . symbol. — egypt. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — assyr. p. . f. , . p. . f. . — pers. p. . f. . syren. — assyr. p. . f. . tabernacle door. — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . table. — grec. p. . f. , . — rom. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — pomp. p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . – lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. – . p. . f. . – biederm. p. . f. .— neo g. p. . f. , . — page . table centre-piece. — roc. p. . f. . table cover. — lat. ren. p. . f. . tambourine. — grec. p. . f. . tankard. — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . tazza. – ren. p. . f. , , . — neo g. p. . f. . – page . tea-pot. — chin. p. . f. , . p. . f. . — page . tea urn. — page . tee, iron. – ren. p. . f. . telamonic support. – ren. p. . f. . terminal. — ren. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . terra cotta plaque. — ren. p. . f. , . textile ornament. — preh. p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. . p. . f. . – p. . f. , . — grec. p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. , . – romgue p. . f. – . p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . – mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. , , , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. – . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . — chin. p. . f. . – jap. p. . f. . p. . f. – . – ren. p. . f. – . p. . f. – . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. – . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , – . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. – . p. . f. , . p. . f. – . p. . f. , . p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. , , . p. . f. – . p. . f. , – . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . – emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . – biederm. p. . f. , , – . — neo g. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — pages , , . throne. — russ. p. . f. , , . — roc. p. . f. . – emp. p. . — page . thurible. — romque p. . f. . tiara. – ren. p. . f. . t'ing. — chin. p. . f. . toilet table. — th c. p. . f. . tomb. — etrus. p. . f. , , . — romque p. . f. . – goth. p. . f. . – ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . lat. ren. p. . f. . — pages , . torch. — grec. p. . f. . — page . tribune. — emp. p. . f. . trident. — ind. p. . f. , , . tripod. — assyr. p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. . — etrus. p. . f. , . — rom. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — pomp. p. . f. , , . – th c. p. . f. . trireme. — rom. p. . f. . trophy. — lat. ren. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. , . tureen. — lat. ren. p. . f. . – emp. p. . f. . turret cresting. — ren. p. . f. . tympanum. — romgue p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . — page . typographic ornament. — ren. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . – lat. ren. p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . – pages , , , . valence. — lat. ren. p. . f. . – roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . vase. — preh. p. . f. – , , , , . p. . f. , , , , , , , , . — phoen. p. . f. – , – , . — ind. p. . f. , , , . – grec. p. . f. . p. . f. – , – , . p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. , , , . p. . university of michigan . l ivvmv.'aow \ do not remove or miitiiatf card the library of the university of california los angeles gift of dr. c. donald o'malley —r—-- – "------ - - ） * s ug g e stions design. -- * - - - -- º ！ • . • s º ！ • **● ！• ！ ！ ·， |-• ！ → �* · ！ -· ae ！ • *• ！• ae •. ---- * ！----ae ：|- • • · ！--* · · · * * *… ----！ ●* • · -• " "， - * •*… · * -* ----*- * ！sº* |-！ * ~ * • .！ ·* ！ ， ！ ----• e- european assyrian . egypt lan - - - ---- _ - - - - - -._ & g g w s t o * * in -v, d e s i (; n being a comprehensive series of original sketches in various styles of orn ament. arranged for application in teie decorative and constructive arts. by john leighton, f.s.a., author of “the life of man symbolized,” “madré natura,” etc. with descriptive and historical letterpress, by james k. colling, f.r.i.b.a., author of “gothic ornaments,” &c. london: blackie and son, & old bailey: glasgow and edinburgh. publishers! pre fa c e. desire to ornament or to enrich by decoration the ordinary works turned wº out by the hand of man has been common to every age, and even among h savage tribes this love of ornamentation is as apparent as it is among our r most modern and art-loving craftsmen. it is, however, a melancholy fact that many gifted workers in the numerous branches of trade and manufacture are frequently led astray, or are at best often repeating common and hackneyed forms, in their efforts to enrich their works, for the want of a mere “suggestion”—not an elabor- ately worked-out idea, but an original thought, or as the french more happily put it a motif—which would suggest, by some slight turn or alteration, a form or kind of enrich- ment adapted to their purpose. a work supplying such suggestions has long been sought after, and would doubtless prove a boon in the hands of art-workers. the present series of “suggestions” was therefore projected, in which many distinct species of ornamentation have been carefully brought together and arranged for practical use. the designs are the production of mr. john leighton, a gentleman well known in the art world, who has been awarded medals for his ornamental and decorative designs in all the great international exhibitions at which he has competed, and who served on the jury at the paris exhibition of . they have not been taken from other examples or collected from already published works by other authors; they are throughout original, conceived in the spirit and with the proper art feeling of the various styles to which they severally belong, and are the accumulated result of long and arduous studies. they are intended as aids to design rather than for servile imitation or direct appropriation, serving to represent the type of many designs and not the exact portraits of any. the object of the author, therefore, being to present suggestions, leaving the designer or art-workman to modify or adapt them to his own purposes, it is hoped that the book will be found eminently suited to the wants of all engaged in decorative and ornamental work. for the convenience of reference, the various styles are placed, as far as possible, in their true historical order, and the descriptions aid this arrangement by giving brief but clear accounts of the various developments and different phases of ornamental art. the illustrations embodied in the text are mostly taken from actual examples, - * cº., * tº ºn iv publis/hers' preface. and serve to convey a good idea of the characteristic features of the various styles of architecture and ornamentation which have been developed in the different countries of the world. it may be proper to state that the nucleus of the present work, bearing the same title, - was published by mr. leighton under the nom de plume of “luke limner,” in – , | but it then contained less than half the number of examples ( plates). this original work was the first of its kind in which all the styles of ornament were displayed. it was begun when gothic art, under the influence of pugin, was paramount—when | owen jones had only published his alhambra, and his grammar of ornament had not even been thought of indian art was then only beginning to be appreciated, and the art-value of japanese work was still unknown. | this smaller work was highly valued at the period, and the marked success it met with has induced the author to revise and redraw the original plates, as well as to add to their number to such an extent, that the book may justly be considered a new one. i in the smaller work there was no letterpress beyond a slight description of the plates. the publishers of the present work, feeling this want, and resolved to spare neither | - - - expense nor trouble to make the work thoroughly useful, sought the aid of mr. j. k. | colling, a well-known writer on ornamental art. it is hoped, therefore, that the extensive | addition of descriptive and historical matter by this gentleman, with the numerous engravings introduced throughout the text, will render the book a valuable help to the º artist and art-workman. º december, . c o n t e n t s. page list of the plates, . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - ... ix chapter i.—introduction. drawing in primitive states of society — its importance as a part of education – design — need for a groundwork or motif— architecture – connection between nature and art — principles of regularity and irregularity in nature — plant and animal forms — crystals of snow — examples of ornamental forms, . - - - - chapter ii.-general principles of design. forty general principles of design founded upon the practice of art in the best ages, . - - - - - . chapter iii.—ornament of savage and early tribes. innate love of ornamentation among primitive races—their art imbibed from nature — carving out of surface— their symbolism —the potter's art coeval with written language. description of plate , . - - . chapter iv.—egyptian ornamentation. its antiquity — two great periods — the pyramids and the temples — adaptation of sculpture and painting — mouldings unfrequent—cornice—hieroglyphics—columns and capitals--colossal statues—tombs—mode of drawing and sculpturing — painting—colours used — building materials — rock-hewn temples—treatment of flat surface –the sun and sacred beetle —the papyrus, lotus, and palm. description of plates , , , . chapter v.—assyrian ornamentation. excavations at khorsabād and nimroud — palace at kouyunjik — bas-reliefs — exterior of palaces — entrances — walls — sun-dried bricks faced with alabaster — remains at persepolis and susa — similarity between the architecture of the jews and the assyrians — lotus and bud ornament — delicacy in wall sculptures — floors—terra-cotta cylinders —- carved ivory — bronze tools and implements — colour — silver and gold plates — pelasgic-greek based on assyrian — guilloche, patera, and wave-scroll. description of plates , , . chapter wi.—greek ornamentation. early inhabitants of greece —their colonies — magna graecia and ionia – asia minor the cradle of hellenic art — its elements — archaic spiral ornaments—the suastika — greek sculpture — the parthenon — phidias— the propylaeum and the theseum — polychromatic decoration — antefixal ornaments — the erechtheum — the monument of lysicrates — tower of the winds — acanthus and other foliage – echinus or egg-and- tongue, reel-and-bead, and enriched ogee — antique sculpture in european museums – terra-cotta vases, called etruscan. description of plates , , , , , , - - - - - - - - - - . chapter vii.—etruscan ornamentation. early colonization of etruria–modern discovery of vases — probably made by greek potters — antiquity of the ceramic arts—the ancient potter's wheel—excellence of work produced — ornaments on vases – vases of two classes — process of painting and baking—subjects represented — figures and foliage—variations upon greek forms — care and skill required — forms and names of the vases — bronze work and jewelry — armour and weapons—tools — mirrors. description of plate , - - - - - - - - . chapter viii.—pompeian ornamentation. excavations at herculaneum and pompeii — result — divisions of a pompeian house — architectural details — colouring and painting — mosaics—greek bronzes—intensity of colours — arabesque devices on the walls— extravagance and recklessness of cost in decoration. description of plate , . - - - - . . b vi co/l/c/l/s. chapter ix.—roman ornamentation. style borrowed from the greek—tuscan and composite added by the romans—greek artists and works – use of the orders extended — roman application of the arch – the pantheon — basilica of maxentius – aqueducts — bridges–groining—ornamental details and sculpture — the corinthian and composite capitals — cornices – mouldings, fascias, and friezes – houses, baths, and public buildings – mosaic pavements – elaboration of ornament—the sphinx, triton and griffin, with extremities passing into foliage – vases and tazzas— marble chairs, baths, altars, &c. — paintings. description of plates , , , , , , . chapter x.—chinese ornamentation. origin of chinese art involved in mystery —they possess elements of a great nation – excel in constructive talent— ornamental workmanship – garden structures, &c. — bricks—roofs and tiles — wooden forms, repeated in stone, marble, and metal — houses — padows – graves — tombs of the ming dynasty – peking – imperial temples — pagodas — polychromy – ceramic art — porcelain — its ornamentation and harmonious colouring — light, shade, and perspective — woven fabrics – paper-hangings — facility in drawing — diapers — embroidery pattern – borders — fret form — key and imbricated diapers–carving in wood, ivory, and jade – lacquer ware – enamelling — metal work—bells — iron bridges — josses. description of plate , chapter xi.—japanese ornamentation. japanese art closely allied to that of china — houses and temples mostly of one story – formed of wood with bracketting — roofs – tiles and terra-cotta ornaments – arrangement of houses – temples — tombs— egg-and-tongue fret — scroll and bud — ornamentation of common fabrics — fertility of invention - their love for variety — find geometrical precision in nature beneath apparent confusion – shun equality of parts — have no precise rules for art compositions – love of the irregular dominant – their power of obtaining variety – ability of drawing – birds, plants, flowers, fish, and insects rendered with fidelity – deficiency in drawing the human figure — landscapes quaint — smaller figures full of fun – in colour judicious — decoration in lacquer ware – crests or badges — red sun, the emblem of japan – evil spirits — colour printing – paper — its application — pottery – enamelling — their artistic feeling — japanese work not all good. description of plates , , , - - - - - - - - - - - - chapter xii.—indian ornamentation. architecture and ornament of india an intricate subject — many styles — stone temples erected about b.c.— ruins jain and buddhist architecture almost identical — early remains – structural buildings and cave temples — chaitya halls — dagobas – viharas — the kylas, a complete temple internally and externally cut out of the rock—the raths of mahavellipore — topes – gateways – construction of rails — rail at amravati – other styles of architecture — great temple of bhobaneser — arcſ not on true principſe – bracket capitals — s-shaped bracket strut — temple of vimala sah — saracenic or moorish engrafted upon the hindu styles — bulbous domes — inlay with precious stones and marbles — the moguls – palace at delhi – palaces at agra, allahabad, and other places — tombs — taje mahal – styles extend over a vast period of time – lavishness of labour and elaboration — architectural forms simple — buildings like sculptured rocks — every inch of space ornamented — the lotus — roses or pateras — beads or pearlings — flowing lines — geometrical diaper — buddhist emblems — inlay work — modern carving — woven fabrics — plant form conventionalized. description of plates , , . - - - - • * > - - - - - - - - - chapter xiii.—persian ornamentation. of persepolis – palace of darius and hall of xerxes – human-headed winged bulls — columns with double capital–susa–rock-cut tomb of darius – arab conquest – mosques—tiles—glazed bricks – colour – ispahan — the maidan or bazaar – palaces—tiles with geometrical figures and inscriptions—porcelain — carving d jour—sherbet spoons — metal work—textile fabrics — carpets—seal and gem engraving — illuminated manuscripts. description of plate , - - - - - - - - - - - chapter xiv.—moorish or saracenic ornamentation. co-extensive with mohammedanism – damascus–mosque of alwalid ii. – bagdad – the moors in spain – mosque of cordova–toledo—the alhambra–style, brick covered with tiles or stucco — forms, without surface enrichment, simple —the dome—minarets–horse-shoe arch—cusping–columns–corbelling-example from owen jones—the fret – the star form – pavements and wall decoration — ornament confined to surface – decorative forms double — colouring – rules from owen jones – arms and armour – furniture. description of plates , , , , page viii co///c///s. - . - º chapter xxi.—ren a issance ornamentation. rise of the style in italy — brunelleschi – bramante and michael angelo – spread of the style in france — early examples of it in england — torrigiano and hans holbein – characteristics of the style – italian palaces – the style in venice – san micheli, sansovino, and andrea palladio — arabesque decorations — ornamental furniture — marquetry — carved woodwork and furniture — flemish carved work – gold and silver smith's work — benvenuto cellini – niello or black inlay – ceramic earthenware or majolica. description of plates to (inclusive), . chapter xxii.—english renaissance ornamentation (elizabethan and subsequent periods). its first introduction — hans holbein – classical forms – a picturesque transitional style produced — tudor mansions — monuments — escutcheons — arabesque work – fire-places – staircases – carving — wains- cotting – tapestry – stamped and gilded leather — john shute — john thorpe – robert smithson — inigo jones — fire of london — sir christopher wren — vanbrugh, hawksmoor, gibbs, and chambers — stuart and revett — grecian style — french furniture — wren's school of carving — grinling gibbons — dutch furniture — queen anne style – gilded furniture – chippendale — better style influenced by chambers and the brothers adam – cipriani and angelica kauffman — vernis-martin. description of plates , , chapter xxiii.-french renaissance ornamentation. francis i. introduces italian artists — fontainebleau – the louvre – tuileries – late additions to the louvre — versailles – louis xiv. style — françois and jules hardouin mansard – louis xv. style – watteau — other painters and decorators — rococo — buhl-work – ormolu — tapestry — maison des gobelins – louis xvi. style — style of the first empire – renaissance the national style – modern work in paris. description of plates , , , . . . . . . . . . chapter xxiv.—floral ornamentation. nature the original source of ornamental foliage, and should be constantly referred to -- art – natural forms to be altered — revival not art — leading lines – angular—flowing – radiation – flowers – geometrical figures — law of growth — leaves – not necessary to adhere closely to natural form – greek acanthus—natural principle—suggestive examples. description of plates to (inclusive), . chapter xxv. figures, animals, chimeras, and trophies. representation of the human form – may be introduced in decoration to give a higher tone – greek terra cotta – the romans — foliage and figures combined — roman altar — frieze – griffins — festoons — amalgamating animals, birds, insects, and chimerical forms constant in italian, french, and english renaissance — celtic ornamentation on crosses and manuscripts — chimeras — trophies — armour and warlike implements — pastoral, hunting, and musical trophies — modern trophies – grinling gibbons — imitation not art — objects should have an emblematical or allegorical meaning. description of plates to (inclusive), . - - - chapter xxvi.—letters and monograms. manuscripts embellished ages ago–egyptian papyri – hieroglyphics — hebrew letters—egyptian papyrus scrolls— parchment — paper – classical manuscripts — capital letters – uncial style – maguscule and miniscule — “codex argenteus” of ulphilus — psalter of st. germain de pres—new testament in cottonian library – book of genesis at vienna – other specimens in libraries of paris, oxford, and london – age of justinian – palimpsests — cardinal angelo mai – ancient irish versions of the gospels – irish saints distinguished scribes – their schools famous throughout europe – st. columba – st. cuthbert -- durham book, &c. — diffusion of irish manuscripts — st. boniface — st. kilian — st. gall — saxon illumination died out — ingulphus – the plantagenets — french influence – english illumination — gothic manuscripts – queen mary's psalter – invention of printing — gutenburg and caxton — ornamental letters – designed by the best artists—monograms. description of plates , , - - - - - - miscellaneous. - º description of plates , , , description of the symbolical figures in the frontispiece, . pagr : zist of the pales. plate . ornaments for engraving, tiles, textile fabrics, &c., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . persia.n. moorish. borders, centres, and surface decoration, battlement, centres, and panels, follated and geometrical ornament, .. - - - panel and surface decoration for painting or inlay, . byzantine. celtic and other ornaments, interlaced combinations for inlay, anglo-norman and byzantine enrichments, norman, anglo-saxon, and byzantine ornaments, gothic. seal, vesica panel, tracery panels for metal work, rood-screen, tracery, panels, and diapers, emblematical book cover, . - - - - - - tracery and other panels, and foliated decoration, . . . panels and plate tracery for metal work, (superficial.) tiles and painted decoration, . metal work. designs for wrought and cast iron work, . - - - - - finial, hinges, bracket, corner for book cover, and key hol.e plate, vane, brackets, railings, &c., . - - - - - vane, door handles, key plates, terminal ornament, . geometrical. " forms for inlay, glazing, &c., labyrinths and inlays. warious geometrical combinations, inlays and diapers. panel, borders, and surface ornaments, panel and surface decoration, blazonry. faith, hope, and charity, crowns, roy al sceptre of england, crozier, &c., seal, helmet, shields, &c., - - arms with supporters, rebus, badge, &c., . - designs for medals or seals, crowns, and devices, blazonry and badges. medal, royal arms, crowns, &c., - lazonry and rebuses. arms, rebuses, medallions, &c., . renaissan ce. flemish pilaster, figures for stone carving, &c., . - - - - tympanum, panel, tail-piece for painting, bracket in metal, &c., - - figures, &c., for carving, examples. : : x- ** -- xx *: -> zist of the plates. xi plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . carving, string-courses, panels for niello or buhl work, . - - . examples. figures, &c., for stone carving, - - - - - - - - ... arabesque panel and other subjects for carving or painting, . - . heraldic tympanum and other designs, ) designs for inlay and carving, . - - - - - - - ) heraldic devices, composition for statuary, frame for glass, &c., w renaissance (superficial). borders, centres, and surfaces, . - - - - - - - - . fabric and other patterns for centres, &c., . - - - - - . patterns for textile fabrics, . - - - - - - . . ... » patterns for marquetry and engraving, . - - - - » wall diapers, panels, patterns for lace work, &c., . - - - , renaissance (elizabethan and jacobean). strap and cartouche enrichments, . - - - - - - - ... heraldic monument and other devices, . - - - - - - . ºs renaissance (louis xiv. and xv.). arms, spandrels for metal work, scroll and stalactite ornament, &c., » rococo scroll work, &c., . - - - - - - - .* panel, arms and rococo shell and scroll work, º floral * sprigs. rose, poppy, teazle, &c., - - - - - - - - . . . . fuchsia, thistle, lily, bindweed, &c., - - - - - - - . ** hyacinth, catch-fly, pink, pomegranate and poppy, leaves and berries, &c., maple, hemlock, maize, buds and leafage, - - - - - - . •y conventional and other flowers and leafage, foliated scrolls, - . oak, wine scroll work, follated cross, fruit sprig, &c., . - - . grass form, pea, oak, &c., . - - - - - - - - - . dock leaves and hart's-tongue, ferns, grass, &c., . - - - - . floral (miscellaneous). borders and centres for painting, marble or wood inlay, and woven fabrics, . - - - - - - - - - s - - . centres, borders, and surface decoration, - - - - - - . geometrical combinations filled in with follage, - . - - - - . » figures. clock panel, and panels of morning, noon, evkning, and night, panels (consolation, guardian angel, and satan reposing), and finials, *, panels and frieze for painting, and sprites with conventional follage, the wagon of love, war and peace, agriculture, work, sport, &c., . . double female head, halberdier, plant form with female heads, animal contrast, pilgrims of love, &c., . - - - - - - - . - satyr, medallions, venus, ceres, &c., - - - - - - - ... sport, snowdrop and rosebud, the ocean, love and cupid, muse and lyre, &c., - - - - - - - " * * - ... y? tragedy and comedy, youth and age, ornamental brackets and friezes, . xii list of the plates. plate animals (centres). . animals, birds, fish, and insects, - - - - - - - - . examples. . birds, insects, &c., arranged ornamentally, . - - - - - . -- chimera.s. . dragons, mirth and melancholy, dolphixs, grasshopper-bird dragons, bats, &c., . - - - - - - - - - - - - ... -- trophies, &c. . wine, beer, and tobacco. fish, fowl, and flesh, . - - - - ... -- letters, monograms, &c. . warious letters treated or namentally, . - - - - - - . -- . letters arranged ornamentally in panels, on shields, &c., . - - . -- - miscellaneous. . panel, support for pedestal, central form for inlay, &c., . - - . -> . centres and borders, ornamental cresting, &c., . - - - - . xx . dad , border, ornamental square, mask, date-plate, lamp, &c., . - . -- su ggestions in design. c h a p t e r i. inter o id u ction. *}|n the most primitive states of society, %| - % among the earliest efforts of the ſº jº ſ: § % - tº presentations of the natural objects by which man found himself surrounded. this was done either by tracing the form of the object in outline, which we call drawing, or making an imitation of the actual body of the thing, which we denominate sculpture. of the two, drawing is the earliest, for the object must in some shape be drawn before it can be sculptured. they are, in fact, intimately connected, for the power of draw- human hand was that of forming re- ing not only exists in the use of the pencil, but it may be expressed by the knife, the axe, the chisel, and the gouge. we may, therefore, speak of the excellence of the drawing in a piece of sculpture, equally with that which we see in outline upon paper or canvas. there is the same wonderful force and power of drawing in the sculpture of michael angelo that there is in his frescoes. drawing is the origin of all writing— indeed what is writing but simply drawing in a certain set and conventionalized form writing is the power of drawing rapidly specially arranged forms called “letters,” and combining them to convey to the eye a definite meaning. originally, as in the egyptian, a rude representation of the object stood for the word itself, and from this mode of expressing thought the art has gradually grown up, in the process of time, of making a combination of twenty-six arbitrary charac- ters express all our ideas. it has been discovered of late years that drawing was practised with considerable ability even in prehistoric times. “we may think it,” says mr. william maskell," “to be sufficiently strange, in tracing the early history of the art of carving or engrav- ing in ivory, that we should be able easily to carry it, upon the evidence of extant ex- amples, to an antiquity long before the christian era; through the roman, greek, assyrian, and jewish people, up to an age anterior to the origin of those nations by centuries, the number of which it may be difficult accurately to count. ancient examples are of the earliest egyptian dynasties; yet, between them and the date of the earliest now known specimens of works of art incised or carved in ivory, there is a lapse of time so great that it these very * “ivories, ancient and mediaeval:” south kensington museum handbook. . suggestions in /pesign. may probably be numbered by thousands of years.” in caves at le moustier and at la madelaine in the dordogne, many fragments have been found, of late years, of tusks of the mammoth and of reindeer's bone and horn, upon which have been discovered incised drawings of various animals, which no one can examine without acknowledging their merit. the animals are carefully and vigorously drawn. the heaviness and slug- gishness of the mammoth is as easily recog- nized as the grace and activity of the rein- deer." in short, these extraordinary pre- historic drawings are from the hands of men who were neither beginners nor blunderers in their art. they are the work of skilled artists, and the modern draughtsman would scarcely exceed their firmness and decision as well as their evident rapidity of exe- cution. but to what does all this tend, this mere proof of the extreme antiquity of drawing? why, to the fact that the power of the hand to represent form seems to have come to man by instinct, and that such a wonderful power would not have been given but for the very highest purposes. but if such pre- cision and accuracy of drawing were attained in prehistoric times, that they equal modern works, where is our advance? does it not suggest to our minds that drawing is an art which has been neglected among us? has not our power of expressing our ideas by the means of, what i have called, conventional drawing, the art of writing, led to our neglecting that of true drawing? no doubt but that it has. drawing has become the art of only a few among us; it has, therefore, not attained that high power and given us * copies of these may be found in sir john lubbock's work on the origin of civilization. that facility of command over expression in the fine arts, that it assuredly would have done, had it been the practice of the many. our hands have become cramped by civiliza- tion, as our feet have become ill-formed by our modern boots and shoes. how many men, for instance, are there, even among practised carvers and modellers, who can draw with facility and readiness? numbers of them have to depend upon some one else to draw and design their work for them, be- fore they can attempt its execution. but is this as it should be we never shall have high-class art workmanship in this country until the artisan, the executant, is also the designer of his own work, and this he can never be unless he practises the power of drawing. nothing is more common than to see chil- dren take naturally to drawing. yet when they go to school this instinct is neglected, and as they grow up it is totally discouraged, so that at length they lose all power of ex- pressing even the most simple forms on paper. doubtless there are many examples to the contrary, but as a general rule this is invari- ably the case. instead of which no education should be considered complete without a knowledge of drawing. this, however, is speaking of mere ordinary education. how much more must this power of delineating form be imperative to the student in art-workmanship; or to one who may be desirous of taking advantage of these “suggestions in design?” without this necessary skill with the pencil he cannot make use of them in the way that the author has intended that they should be used. that is, that they should not be taken as mere copies for imitation to avoid the necessity of designing, but that they should be looked a.n/roduction. upon and studied as hints, or motifs, as the french happily express it, for designs of his own. none of the “suggestions” are taken literally from old examples, yet nearly all are divided into the styles of different countries or specific periods. they are rather attempted to be designed with the feeling of the various countries, with the in- tention of pointing out how many ordinary and well-known forms may be made original by some simple variation, and thus to en- deavour to awaken in the mind of the student the power of design. without doubt we have, through the various art schools which have been estab- lished of late years throughout the country, a wonderful increase in the art of drawing, but many of them are apt to fall into the error of obliging their pupils to make ela- borately “shaded” drawings. now it should be distinctly remembered that “shading” is not drawing. that although it may be use- ful, yet the art of delineating form in simple outline with facility and precision, is ten times more important and ten times more valuable than the mere art of shading. yet many of these pupils are obliged to spend ten hours over shading to one that he spends upon actual drawing. however, having now pointed out the very great importance of the power of drawing, and that without it no progress can be ex- pected or hoped for in the decorative arts, it should be properly understood of what “ design" consists. - design may be considered to be of various degrees according to its originality, which is that quality that distinguishes it from the mere repetition of previously arranged forms. on the other hand, this must not be con- founded with novelty, which is a totally different quality. design may be described as the embodiment of thought. for instance, we may speak of design in architecture, such as that of a large and im- portant building, and we may perceive that every portion of it is something new, and such as we had never seen before. if, how- ever, we observe that the forms are fantastic or whimsical; that there is a want of pro- portion, a deficiency of light and shade, and the detail is badly drawn, we say at once that this is made new in form and appearance solely for the sake of novelty. there is no thought or conception, and the elements of true design are wanting. again, the work may possibly be only a repetition of some- thing which has been done before; or it may be but a collection of different parts obtained from many other works, put together in a species of patchwork of the most incon- gruous kind. but some trifling variations are introduced, upon the strength of which the author rests his claim for a new design, or he trusts that the sources from which he obtained his materials will not be detected, and so he will gain credit for originality. these are cases of the very lowest class of design. but if the building be one where beauty of proportion has been carefully studied, the light and shade arranged to give agreeable variety and pleasure to the eye, the detail well considered and the orna- mentation distributed with due regard to architectural embellishment, although every feature may not strike us as perfectly new and original, yet that design when it thus exhibits thought and aesthetic feeling is of the very highest class. unfortunately we in these times have been landed, so to speak, at a summit from which we complacently view the world of sugges/ions in design. art below, and think that it is not necessary we have all the styles of the earth spread out before us, and we think that we have but to take up that one which is most to our fancy to obtain hence we fall into copyism, and try to delude ourselves that this is the to strive to rise any higher. all we want. whole art of design. it is certain that no one can design or invent any work of art, solely and entirely new, without partially copying, or taking ideas from either nature or art. we must have some groundwork or motif to work upon. we have to learn all that has been done in art before our era, and to see how nature has been adapted and convention- alized by different people in former ages. we have to sift the good from the bad, the true from the false, and again study the works of nature in search of new forms and fresh modifications. for there are no forms in the whole arena of art which have not originally been taken from nature. with proper study design may be exer- cised by all who have practised the art of drawing, even down to the humblest crafts- man. it may possibly be only in a small degree; let him, however, but stamp his work with thought and add thereto one touch of beauty culled from nature's stores, and he will have created a work of art. to assist this effort is the object of these “sug- gestions,” and it will be observed that they aim at encouraging the artisan—he that has to work out the smaller and less important details—to add by his own “cunning hands” the ornamentation to a work, of whatever kind it may be. it is not only the master minds which help on the position of art in the world, but it is also the combined might and power of the workers, if only they can be guided in the right and true direc- tion. before, however, a man can design orna- ment of whatever description, he should know something of architecture. it is the gram- mar or foundation of the whole, and without this knowledge he is never sure of not going astray. architecture is founded upon a combination of geometrical forms, and these combinations are so infinite that they are practically inexhaustible. now as all geo- metrical forms are obtained from nature, it follows that if we seek fresh inspiration, we are most likely to obtain it by referring to inature. one portion of this work gives a great variety of the forms of ornamental art, accompanied by a short description of the architecture which has been practised at various epochs in different countries, from the earliest to the latest times, laying before the student a map, as it were, of the art of the world. but the latter part of the work, and perhaps by far the most important, is devoted to studies taken en- tirely from nature, without reference to any style whatever. for nature is of no style, and therefore is equally applicable to any phase of art. persons may assert that they cannot perceive any connection between nature and art, and it has been said that we do not find straight lines in nature. it may be quite true that we do not find mathematically straight lines, but we find them straight enough what can be straighter than the line formed by the horizon for all practical purposes. of the ocean, or the perpendicular stem of the fir-tree? also, as in the branching of ferns, as well as forming every variety of curves and spirals. lines are to be found angular infroduction. - they are of constant occurrence, we have —that all has been planned and is conform- but to search for them. in the accompany- able to rule. the ordinary geometrical ing figure, we find some elegant curved lines | figures are seen most distinctly in cross fig. . in a fish (fig. ), which is from the mediter- ranean, more especially in the vigorous curves of the crest-fin with the lines sweeping from it. spiral lines are seen in the tail of the twelve-thread plume bird (epimachus albus) of new guinea, fig. . these are only two fig. . examples selected at random from thousands of other instances. all geometrical forms are found in nature, such as the circle, the triangle, the square, the pentagon, and others. but nature is often so irregular that the geometrical basis cannot always be readily traced. it requires study and careful research to discover that amidst all the irregularity there is regularity sections; as the circle, in the suc- cession of rings in an onion when cut across; the triangle, in a section of the stem of the sedge; the square, in the stem of the dead-nettle; the pentagon, in the stem of the common bramble; and so on. these forms will often appear again in the leaves and flowers of a plant. thus the square or cross-form is followed in the mode of the branching of the leaves of the dead-nettle, and the leaves and flowers of the bramble are arranged upon the pentagon. but nowhere is the geometry of nature seen more clearly than in crystallization. all the solid figures of geometry are found among the metals and minerals. but one of the most charm- ing instances of this nature is the minute crystals of snow. they are composed most- ly of stars of six points, in a great variety of beautiful forms. they are found falling in minute tufts or flakes consisting of two or three of the crystals frozen together, in certain conditions of the atmosphere, when they do not become decomposed by the warmth or moisture of the lower strata, and in calm weather can be plainly seen by the naked eye. the collection of examples of these given in figs. to shows the great variety which exists in these curious little star forms, and which are represented about twice the natural size. they consist of a combination of the triangle and hexagon, radiating in lines from the centre, or are compounded of minute triangles and hexa- gons arranged symmetrically. their delicate suggesſions in zoesign. lines always preserve the hexagonal angles of ° or °, and sometimes they assume leaf-like forms which seem to suggest, with- out much alteration, beautiful designs for hexagonal tiles. imperfect crystallization of the same kind may be seen also on the window-pane of a frosty morning, the leafy combinations of which are most suggestive and elegant. the angles formed by the branching are here the same as in the stars, the reason being that ° is the angle at which water crystallizes in freezing. there is, however, the other principle which is found in nature, and which may be often legitimately taken advantage of in art —that of irregularity. we know that the japanese, especially, have made constant use of this, and now that japanese works have been so largely imported into this country of late years, many of our own artists have affected to adopt the same principle. thus we now come across instances where it is carried out in the most ludicrous and eccentric manner possible. such as circular introduction. designs on porcelain plates, the natural position of which would appear to be the centre of the plate, put on one side so that the edge cuts off a part of the design, while other parts of circles are made to overlap the first. this is, at least, a most dangerous course, because if worked out and applied through everything, we should arrive at a state where no design or previous arrangement would be required—no thought necessary; we should have but to use things at random and all would be attained. this may be all very well up to a certain point, and upon a limited scale, but it may be easily carried too far, so as to destroy the whole art of design. the children's play-table, fig. , exhibits a certain amount of quaintness in represent- ing accurately the confusion in which it was left, but there is no design. everything is thrown about at random, and there are objects in nature which are also totally irregular, such as the forked flames of fire and the arrangement of the stars at night, fig. . but when we come to the spider's web, fig. , we find that nature has taught the insect a certain amount of symmetry, and he radiates his lines from a centre, and keeps all his rings carefully parallel to each other, but the position of the insects and the foliage to which the web is attached give fig. . º variety and destroy too great a tendency to regularity. enrichment of surface is obtained by the breaking it up by ornament, which may be arranged either symmetrically or unsym- metrically, or by a blending of both. the japanese, as has been said, adopt the irre- gular and unsymmetrical. of this character are the flowers in rain, fig. ; tadpoles - suggestions in design. in a pool, fig. ; sand on the sea-shore, fig. , with the footprints of man and birds, sea-weed and shells, which we may call primitive, in distinction to fig. , the artifi- cial. this exhibits the forms indicative of fig. . modern civilization, such as the boot marks, horses shoes, the twisted rope, writing on { dima. the sands, and broken pipe. all this may be described as ornamentation of surface when used as decoration, but of a very low type. when we, however, find horizontal, perpen- dicular, and spiral lines in nature, and we fig. . proceed to arrange these symmetrically, we endeavour to produce a higher class of fig. . design, as in the slightly conventionalized forms of the grass and ivy on a brick wall, infroduction. fig. ; or if we take advantage of the sug- gestion obtained by the reflection in water of a reed on a river's bank, fig. ; but fig. . o §– §º o by the fish and the swallow we obtain variety. the beauty of symmetry is taught us again in all animal and insect form, where the two halves are always alike. radiation we have seen in the snow crystals, but it is found also in a vast number of flowers, as in the conventional form, fig. . the kalei- fig. . /nznznznznzn ||||| ||||| ||||| ||||| | |e| /n/n/n/n – kx – c – c — kx – xxx xxx doscope teaches us the value of radiation combined with symmetrical arrangement of colour. repetition alone is pleasing to the eye, and has been used as a source of the orna- mental from time immemorial. repetition of simple straight lines, as in fig. , is of constant occurrence in the formation of en- fig. . ©ng)\@@@) & & & & & (@@@@@ )|z)|zö)|z)|% richments for mouldings or bands; while curved forms, as in fig. , are still more ornamental, and are to be met with in various styles of architecture. - forms may occasionally be varied by ex- pansion or contraction, as in the case of the greek vase, which may on the one hand be expanded to the soup tureen, or contracted to the candlestick on the other, as indicated by fig. . this may be to the loss of beauty, as we perceive it in its more perfect form in the centre; but at the same time the other forms are beautiful in their degree, because they are more appropriate to the purpose for which they are intended than the central vase would have been. thus it is throughout art—those forms are the most suggestions in design. - beautiful that are the most fitted for the purposes to which they are applied. there are certain principles of this sort which have been followed as rules in art in all ages, although when art has been degraded and become merely the subject of ruling fashion during a period of vitiated taste, such rules have been often broken through and disregarded. still the artist has been glad to return to them again after such degraded phases have passed away. in the following chapter some of the most important of these principles have been collected and compactly arranged for con- venience of reference. for the facility of remembrance, consistent with clearness of expression, they are made as concise as possible. zoesign. suggesſions in . all ornament should be subordinate to the object ornamented; and if kept duly subordinate the object cannot be over-ornamented. take, for example, an indian sandal-wood box; the form of the box is not in any way altered by the vast amount of ornament worked upon it. the box can never be over-ornamented while the form remains unaltered, although it may be liter- ally crowded with enrichment. the true position of ornamentation, in most late styles, has become degraded by being made into the thing itself, instead of serving, as it should do, merely to enrich it. thus a lily, or convolvulus, has been made into a candlestick, the corolla forming the bowl to receive the candle, instead of the flower being used to ornament the candlestick. the first, is its false position; the last, its true one. whenever we hear of a work being over-ornamented, it arises invariably, in some way, from ornament being thus thrust into a false position. . all ornament should be founded upon a - * * geometrica' ' …s. this is also a natural law which may be found in nature by study and observation. . natural growth should be the law in ornament, and branches or scrolls made always to flow in their growing direction. never make foliage grow two ways. . flat surfaces should have a sufficient amount of flatness in their ornamenta- tion as not to destroy their quality of flatness. a beautiful example of this may be seen in the carved diapered spandrils of the triforium arches in the choir of westminster abbey. . the carved, sculptured, or moulded sur- face of ornament, should not be wrought into such violent light and shade, as to confuse it with the more intense shadows which should relieve it from the ground on which it is placed. thus the modelling of the surface of a leaf, as in the acanthus, should not be divided up into . . . . . . deeply wrought channels, as seen in late roman work, but be kept comparatively flat as in the greek. undercutting of a carved enrichment, when wrought out of the solid, should not be so great as to make it appear to have been afterwards inserted, or glued into its position. carving should never be executed in party-coloured materials, such as fig- ured marbles, or wood with strongly marked grain. simplicity in composition is far more difficult of attainment than complica- tion. elegance of leading lines is of more con- sequence than after adornment. for this reason the scroll form of enrichment has been so universally adopted in all ages, because of its beauty as a leading line or stem. that form is the most beautiful that is the most appropriate for its purpose. branch lines in ornamentation should be made to flow smoothly out of each other—but there are some exceptions to this rule, as when the angular or the opposite curve is used. natural forms, plants, animals, and the like, cannot be rendered literally for the purposes of ornament, but require to be treated in a conventional manner. the degree of imitation that is suit- able depends upon many circum- stances, such as the nature of the materials, or the distance that the object is to be placed from the eye of the spectator. what is meant by conventional treatment, is that departure from nature which is absolutely necessary to the successful application of natural forms to ornamental art; and, as conventional general principles. treatment is always varying according to circum- stances, it follows that no fixed rules can be laid down for direct guidance. . work should not be thrown away by an object being made too elaborate in detail for its position. carving should be simplified according to the height at which it is placed. for example, a rose which might be made double when placed near the level of the eye, would be improved and be more effective if made single, when situated far above it. . objects should be elongated in their proportion according to the height at which they are placed, to allow for the foreshortening which takes place when seen from the ground. this refers, especially, to finials and pinnacles placed at a considerable height. . light and shade in carving smould be duly balanced, and extreme contrasts of high light and deep shadow carefully toned down by intermediate degrees of shade. no positive rule can be laid down for this. it must depend upon the eye and judgment of the artist. it is, however, right to draw attention to its great importance. . a rough material such as coarse-grained sandstone, requires broader treatment and a greater contrast of light and shade than a fine-grained material, such as ivory or marble. for this reason, and the deficiency in power of our daylight, greek mouldings and other enrich- ments have very little effect when executed in the rough materials usually adopted in this country. they are too delicate and refined for our climate and our materials. . decoration should not be pictorial, shaded to imitate work in relief, or represented in perspective. . colours should not represent material, but be considered decorative only. . positive colours should never be used in juxtaposition or upon each other, but always separated by white, black, or gold. all colours are affected, more or less, by those with which they come in contact. adjoining bright colours therefore affect each other in different proportions, but both suffer, and neither of them are seen true. hence the necessity of separating them. white and black are relative terms, and all those shades are meant which approach closely to light on the one hand and darkness on the other. but a “broken” white (that is, with a slight admixture of colour) or intense and deep greys may be often substituted with good effect for the more positive colours, known as white and black. - . the same colours in different tones, as light and dark chocolate, called “self- tints,” may be useu, ºne upon another. we perceive this principle in nature when we examine the fronts and backs of leaves, the back being generally of a lighter tone than the front. it may be observed, again, in the new and old foliage of the ivy, when the young leaves come out in spring. . the primary colours, red, blue, and yellow, should always be used sparingly and in small quantities, as we see in nature, where the secondaries, greens, often toned down by the tertiaries, greys and browns, always predominate. red. the primary colours are | blue. yellow. orange. the secondary , |: purple. olive. the tertiary | brown. grey. . colours on light grounds appear darker, on dark grounds lighter than they really are. . sugges/ions in design. . if colour be applied to ornament in relief, the ground should be darker than the ornament. there is an ex- ception to this where gold is used. . harmony of colour can only be produced by contrast, but all contrast is not harmony. harmony is an agreeable contrast,--that is, pleasing to the eye as a chord is to the ear in music. no positive rules can be laid down for the harmony of contrasts. it appears to depend very much upon what is called an “eye for colour.” mr. j. g. crace says that “an experienced artist can bring any two colours together.” he, how- ever, has given the following useful list of agreeable contrasts:— . black and warm brown. . violet and pale green. . violet and light rose colour. . deep blue and golden brown. . chocolate and bright blue. . deep red and grey. . maroon and warm green. . deep blue and pink. . chocolate and pea green. . maroon and deep blue. . claret and buff. . black and warm green. | . as our primary colours are not perfect, - we are often obliged to oppose them to dull and dark colours in order to raise them in the scale of brightness, so as to make them appear of more perfect tones. the most refined carmine when compared with the natural colour of the scarlet geranium is reduced, by contrast, to almost a brick-colour. . it is a very easy matter to reduce the brightness of colours, but less so to make them appear bright. . all secondary and tertiary colours should be graduated to harmonize with the primaries. . in using the primaries it should be understood that blue retires, yellow or gold advances, while red holds an intermediate position. field gives the proportions of the primaries which neutralize each other to be yellow, red, and blue, thus showing that it would take only three superficial feet of yellow to neutralize of blue. yellow represents light; red, heat; and blue, cold. . design must necessarily be defective if applied indiscriminately to different materials. all materials require dif- ference of treatment according to their nature. . originality should never be adopted for the sake of novelty only. . unity without variety produces uni- formity and insipidity. variety with- out unity results in confusion, or the absence of design. . there are two different principles in architecture: the horizontal, in the classic buildings of antiquity; and the vertical, in the edifices of the mediaeval period. the first is represented by the beam, the second by the arch. these principles are founded upon the practice of art in the best ages, and are advocated in the body of the work, where it will be seen that they are further eluci- dated. savage and early tribes. c h a p t e r iii. ornament of savage and early tribes. tº those earlier races of men among whom some of the most elementary forms of ornamentation have arisen, to see by what means they tried to decorate and make more beautiful, the utensils, implements, or wea- pons they were forming. for whether it be a domestic vessel, a canoe, a paddle, or a war-club, we know that they must have dwelt upon them with pleasure, while they covered them with various lines and forms. they patiently carved their canoes and other wood-work with notches and curves of every description, until they gave the whole surface a quiet richness and beauty, that it did not before possess. this they did, too, from an innate love of ornamentation, which became without doubt fascinating to their eyes. how did this love of enrichment arise in them? why, they looked up into the sky of a calm day, and they saw it flecked with delicate white fleecy clouds, frequently so minutely divided as to appear like fairy-land —or, upon a clear night they beheld it studded and covered with thousands of stars sparkling like diamonds. they looked upon the sea-shore and observed the delicately rippled surface of the sand as left by the receding tide—or, they examined the shingly beach covered with beautiful shells and pebbles. they saw how the earth which they trod was carpeted with herbs of all kinds, with their flowers of bright colours at frequent intervals. they beheld the trees clothed with their various leaves of exqui- sitely graceful forms. they looked also at many of the wild animals and found them striped or spotted in the most beautiful man- ner. and so on, throughout all nature, until they came, after examining things more nar- rowly, to the wonderful colours of birds and insects— “fairy-framed and many-coloured things, who worship him with notes more sweet than words, and innocently open their glad wings, fearless and full of life.” " thus the primitive races, seeing all nature clothed with beauty, imbibed their love of art, and as children of nature, covered their arms and utensils with the simple forms which came readiest to their hands, or were most easily made with their rude instru- ments. but their ornament oftentimes was of use as well as for enrichment. the carv- ing of the handles of their war-clubs gave them a roughness sufficient to assist the hand in seizing them firmly. as the striped form of the tiger of the jungle, too, produced terror in their minds, so for the same reason they tattooed their faces (fig. ) and other parts of the body, in order to * lord byron's childe harold. suggestions in design. | strike terror into their enemies, and they used violent and repulsive colours to heighten the effect of their punctured lines. the carving of surface they did upon the fig. . true principle upon which ornamentation should be applied. their lines and forms were cut out of the surface and not added upon it. thus we find that the earliest inspirations of nature will invariably lead men right if they will but follow these natural promptings. instead of which, as man becomes more educated, he scorns the works of nature, thinking he can safely he soon begins to pile up his ornament upon his own works, trust to his own powers. loses their original and appropriate forms in crowded and vulgar ornamentation which he overlays upon them, until at length he arrives at an agglomeration of forms, which although consisting of large masses, often of very beautiful workmanship, are neither useful nor convenient for the purposes in- tended. thus it was, after the lapse of time, that abuses in ornamentation arose, and buildings became overloaded with useless and superfluous parts, so that their original construction oftentimes became in a great measure veiled, and they at length assumed numerous features of unmeaning exuber- an ce. the forms of enrichment used by the savage tribes of the south sea islands are simply geometrical, or are suggested by nature, and are frequently flowing and grace- ful. much of their work, however, has a mystical air, and may possibly have a mean- “it is only beginning to dawn upon us how wide and comprehensive this system of symbolism had become in past times. ing, or a symbolical character. it seems to have embraced everything. the flowers of the field were symbols; the trees of the forest had each some sacred meaning; the animal world figures largely in the old system; the stars are known to us from the zodiac or forms of living things, which are older than any his- tory we possess.” although there is an extreme rudeness in the forms used by savage tribes, yet there evidently is a meaning which runs through them, and there cannot be a doubt that many of them are of a highly symbolical character, had we the power to read or interpret them. they do not approach any- thing which may be dignified as works of art. still they are the germs of art, and they usually possess art feeling. the savage races appear, in many cases, to have drawn their figures and other devices without much care or thought, much as boys would draw with a piece of chalk. there are certain careless imitations of the human form, but all proportion or expression is wanting. as primitive designs they should be examined, for it is from such attempts as these that art arose, and to an artistic mind they will frequently offer suggestions that may *from a paper on symbolism, read at the society of arts by mr. william simpson. savage and early tribes. be sought for in vain even in more perfect works. we owe much to the potter's art for hand- ing down to us many of the forms of early ornament, from the ease in which zigzag and other lines are made in wet clay, and then rendered indelible, from the effects of time, by the aid of fire. of all the skilled works of man perhaps those of terra cotta are the earliest of which we possess actual examples. birch, in his history of ancient pottery, tells us that “the existence of earthen vessels is coeval with the formation of a written language, – years b.c.” dr. schliemann, in his troy and its remains, gives examples of early ornament upon vases and other works. on perforated terra cottas, which he found in great numbers, and which he calls “whorls,” are representations of animals, such as stags, made simply by an incised line in the most primitive manner; a single line serving equally for body, legs, head, and horns. yet the potters who formed these were, no doubt, in many re- spects, highly civilized; but they repeated the rude forms, from habit, that had been used by many generations of potters before them. plate . nos. and . what are called frets or meanders are common in all early work; of such are these rude frets, which are ancient mexican. no. is an ornament of somewhat similar character. strange, uncouth variations of such forms, which possibly had a meaning of which we have no solution, are found in the ancient cities of mexico and central america. these ornaments are applicable to the enrichment of narrow bands of stone- work or other material. no. may have been suggested by feathers, and consists of gracefully flowing lines, fitting one into the other. they represent incised lines engraved on a plain surface. nos. , , and are enrichments for upright surfaces. the first appears like an impress in clay of a hieroglyphical character. no. looks to be a series of birds' heads piled one upon another, as on a door post, and reminds one of the rude cats' heads of our own norman work. no. is evidently from matting. similar zigzag lines are to be found worked out in many ways. the zig- zag has been noticed by various archaeologists as being one of the earliest and most widely spread of all ornaments which are to be found among the most primitive works of mankind. we may easily imagine it com- mencing with the scratched lines on wet clay, or the alternate notching of a stick, as in figs. and . from this by an angular fig. . j’nznvn fig. . tool the workman soon arrived at the zigzag formed by recessed triangles, fig. , and the star-form, fig. , all of which are com- mom on the clubs of the south sea islanders. these ornaments are all monotonous, and º suggestions in design. | simple repetitions of the same form. repe- tition, however, is one of the means of giving pleasure to the eye, so common, that it is of constant occurrence in every known style or mode of ornamentation. it is equally frequent in nature. no. is a peculiar example of a crowned figure, and may possibly represent a prisoner taken in battle, and condemned to occupy a confined and cramped position. the head has a beard, the biceps of the arm is indi- cated by a scroll, and although nearly bodi- less, the knee, calf, and ankle-bone are clearly expressed, but in an odd conven- tional manner. no. consists of flowing and interlacing lines, combined with faces, and running into a beak or species of bird's head at the top. - no. may represent a mask with large goggle eyes, mouth and tongue. it is after the manner of a tattoed face, as seen among the new zealanders. - no. exhibits the use of colours, con- sisting of red, black, and white, and is apparently taken from leaning blocks, such as bricks, each being impressed with a stamp. if made continuous, it will be observed that the red and black alternate at regular intervals. no. is a carved idol, which besides the rudely formed side figures of grotesque shapes, contains in the centre the sugges- tion of a face with two eyes, appearing as if rising above the triangle. no. is ancient mexican. it is strange and uncouth, without much beauty of form, and probably contains the name of some great personage or king, as the centre is formed of what appear to be arbitrary char- acters. no. is a diaper with animal or cat's head, triangles and stripes. it also serves to show how prevalent geometrical figures were, even in the rudest ages. the angle squares contain a diagonal cross or saltire with square centre containing a diagonal square of the same breadth as the saltire. these angle squares might easily pass for mediaeval tiles. nos. , , and are applicable for bands of stonework executed in relief or incised. no. may have been suggested by steps added to an imperfect fret. no. by the surf of the sea. a somewhat similar form is found in the greek. no. is an incised line consisting of two alternating semicircles dove-tailing into one another, looking like a folded ribbon or plaited cloth. many more rude yet highly suggestive forms might have been given, but these are considered sufficient, to give a tolerable idea of the primitive efforts of mankind in the ornamentation of surface. a.gyptian ornamentation. cha pte r iv. eg-yiptian obin amientation. #he great antiquity, the vast ; size, grandeur and perfection i. of workmanship, the myste- # rious hieroglyphics, brilliant colouring, and strange symbols by which the monuments of egypt are covered, all combine to render them objects of intense interest. the mind of the beholder is impressed with the conviction that the world has hitherto produced nothing, in the truly sublime, that excels egyptian architecture. at a remote period, which is at least two thousand years before the christian era, egypt was a highly civilized country with a vast and teeming population. these early workers, who were far in advance of the rest of the world in the cultivation of the arts, covered their land with grand enduring monuments—pyramids, temples, obelisks, colossal statues, and tombs, many of which have lasted to our own time. some of them are in the form of gigantic erections, built in limestone or sandstone, while others are hewn out in the solid rock itself. of the three pyramids of gizeh, two of them are at once the oldest and the largest structures in the world. one of them rises to a height of about feet, which is higher than any tower or steeple in existence, and the other is but very little less. the great pyramid stands upon nearly eleven acres of ground; its base is square, and its four flat sides slope backwards, like the steep roof of a house, giving it the most simple as well as the most lasting and strongest of all forms. in the middle of this mountain of stone is a small chamber, covered with a flat stone, and entered by a narrow passage, the entrance to which was carefully concealed and built up in solid masonry. within that chamber was the sarcophagus which contained the king's body; the preservation of which is supposed to have been the sole object for the erection of this enormous pile. egyptian chronology is an obscure and diffi- cult subject, upon which it would be useless to enter here; but it may be briefly mentioned that the early history of this extraordinary people is divided by themselves into no less than thirty-one periods corresponding with the dynasties which reigned over the country till the conquest of alexander the great. modern writers recognize two great periods, during the first of which the pyramids were erected. the more remarkable of these belong to the fourth dynasty, and are situated in the neighbourhood of memphis, the royal city of the ancient kingdom of lower egypt. the second period is represented by the temples and other works erected by the kings of the later dynasties, who reigned at thebes in upper egypt. with the second period, which commenced with the twelfth dynasty, a new era is apparent in the character of the architecture. a series of magnificent suggestions in design. temples, palaces, and tombs, enriched with columns, sculpture, and painting to an ex- traordinary degree, replace the simple forms and style of the earlier period. the pyramid no longer appears, but the pyramidal form fig. . is frequent, and manifests itself in the in- clined wall surfaces of the temples and in the obelisks, which are two of the principal features of the style. the egyptians, moreover, surpassed all succeeding ages and styles in the power of adapting sculpture and painting to the decoration of their buildings. their colos- sal figures and avenues of sphinxes group themselves, with their obelisks and temples, into one great design. their historical paintings, also, gliding by degrees into hieroglyphics on the one hand and into sculpture on the other, succeed in harmon- izing all the arts into one grand whole. some slight idea of the magnificence of their works may be obtained from fig , which is a restoration of the great temple of luxor, at thebes. it shows the broad sacred way, leading to the temple, flanked on either side with variously headed sphinxes, an approach which was sometimes more than a mile long; the obelisks, on each side of the entrance; the gigantic seated statues of their kings, or pharaohs, as they were called; and the lofty coloured poles bearing banners floating in the wind. the surface of the pylon itself was covered with highly coloured sculp- tures of the victorious rameses, or other pha- roah, in his chariot with extended bow slaying his enemies, trampling them under his horse's hoofs, or dispersing them in flight. on the other hand he would be re- presented seated on his throne, in godlike atti- tude dispensing blessings to those around him. the whole approach, probably, lined with thousands of soldiers and slaves, with various chariots, was well calculated to im- press every beholder with the utmost awe on approaching the fane fig. . of their gods' r- mouldings are of ~ h-he unfrequent occurrence | upon their temples, with the exception of - a bold hollow cornice º by which the propylon' ** or entrance is crowned, º fig. , the hollow be- ing filled in the centre by a winged globe, as in no. , plate . the torus at the foot * the propylon, from the greek pro, before, and pylon, a portal, was the entrance to an egyptian temple, and consisted of two huge pyramidal towers, which were sometimes as much as feet wide and feet high; in the centre of these was the grand gateway, from to feet in height (fig ). fgyptian ornamentation. of the hollow is continued down the angles of the building, the remainder of the wall face being left unbroken for the purposes of surface decoration in sculpture, painting, and hieroglyphics, after the manner of no. , plate . the interior of their temples consisted of open courts surrounded by columns, and halls having numerous col- umns, carrying a series of stone lintels, which supported the enor- mous flat stones that formed the ceilings and roofs. this will be better understood by reference to fig. , which shows the similar construction of the roof of a propy- lon. the columns, although mostly circular in plan, vary considerably, and their capitals fig. are of several forms, but of a limited number of types and many varieties. the temple of luxor contains some which are formed of a cluster of eight shafts, or as if eight stalks of the papyrus plant were tied together by bands, fig. , the plan of which is given at fig. . on the top of each division is an unopened bud of the same plant forming the capital. the shafts get smaller towards their base, and rise out of several leaflets as in the natural plant. the columns are usually covered with hieroglyphics. the hall of columns in the temple of karnac has the side columns derived from a single stalk of the papyrus plant of much the same general form as the previous example, but circular instead being shafted (fig. ), and the fig. . fig. . - . . . . - - ?? -->m. rārī capital is formed of one unopened bud. the large columns of the fig. . centre avenue are in the form of single stalks of an older growth, with a full- fºr tº: blown flower for the capi- º tal, fig. . other capitals =lſº are formed of four flowers, Ç º as shown by no. , plate , v. º/ which represents the half titiii |- h- of a capital developed or laid out flat. capitals are also sometimes composed of four isis heads rising out of the flowers, with fig. . fig. . fig. . small temples above, as in fig. , which is from the colonnade at philae. other examples | | suggesſions in design. are very gracefully formed of the flowers of the lotus, figs. , , or of palm leaves, fig. . of this last the temple of esneh has a number of beautiful varieties. a series of piers in the memnonium at thebes, have their fronts formed of colossal statues, feet high, representing rameses ii., under the type of osiris, the great egyptian divinity, and hus- band of isis, holding the crook and flail, emblematical of his protecting care of his people and of his power to punish evil-doers, fig . the carving of his own tomb out of a solid rock appears to have been one of the chief objects of an egyptian king during the entire period of his -- reign. according to the num- ber of years he continued on the throne, so would appear to be the extent of his tomb, and he went on adding chamber after chamber, diving deeper and deeper into the earth until arrested by the hand of death. it there- fore happens that these tombs are scarcely ever complete. side by side with chambers finished and decorated with paintings repre- senting nearly every kind of employment in life, are others in various stages of progress, some half tunnelled in the rock, others with the stone brought to a smooth surface pre- pared for painting and sculpture; some partially carved, others carved and partly painted; so that in a succession of chambers the whole process is seen, which each in its turn had to undergo. the extraordinary dryness of the climate of upper egypt has, no doubt, contributed greatly to the perfect preservation of the decorations of these rock-cut tombs. it may be interesting to state the manner of proceeding. the wall was first chiselled and brought to a smooth surface, or plastered and covered with a yellow wash. lines were then ruled perpendicularly and hori- zontally with red colour, forming squares all over the wall, corresponding with the proportions of the figures to be drawn upon it. the subjects of the painting, and the hieroglyphics, were then drawn on the wall with a red line, most probably by some in- ferior artist, from a document or model divided into similar squares; then came the chief artist, who went over the figures and hieroglyphics with a black line and with a firm steady hand, giving expression to each curve—deviating here and confirming there, the former red line. the line thus traced was then followed by the sculptor. in this stage there are instances of a foot or head having been completely sculptured while the rest of the figure remains in outline. the manner of sculpturing these objects in low relief was either simply by incising, or by first incising the line round the object and then moulding the surface within to corre- spond with the various parts represented. this is indicated in the example no. , plate . in the assyrian wall subjects the ground is worked away so as to leave the object raised above it, although very slightly; but in the egyptian the ground is left standing, and the object is sunk below its level, although the surface of the ornament is moulded, as in the example fig. , and as shown by the section fig. . this pro- cess is distinguished as being in caro reliero. fig. . fig. . a.gyptian ormamentation. the next process was to paint the figures in the prescribed colours; and in some cases the painted line deviates from the sculptured line, showing that the painter was the more important workman, and that even in this last process no possible improvement was omitted. there are other instances where a considerable deviation from the position of a leg or an arm has been made after the sculpture was completed and painted. the part was recarved and the defective portion filled in with plaster, which having since fallen out furnishes this curious evidence of their practice. the whole of this may be seen in various tombs at thebes, but in none so well as in that discovered by belzoni. when this tomb, which is that of oimenepthah i. (b.c. ), was opened by this enterprising trav- eller, it was found in the same state of fresh- ness as when closed on the death of its occu- pant. the sarcophagus found there, which is formed out of one solid block of alabaster, was removed, and is now in sir john soane's museum in lincoln’s-inn fields. it is one of the most interesting objects that has ever been brought to this country, and deserves careful study. it is covered with hierogly- phics and figures inside and out, which re- present a complete history of the supposed wanderings of the souls of men after death; showing their passage, by a boat, through the various gates of hades, and their struggles to overcome the evil one, who is typified in the form of a serpent. there are also specimens of paintings brought from some of the tombs of thebes in the british museum which are very inter- esting, and with the exception of a few pecu- liarities, extremely well drawn. one espe- cially, which represents an egyptian of high rank in a boat, accompanied by his wife and child. he is fowling in the marshes, in which there is a cat among the rushes, remarkably well expressed, catching some of the birds, and evidently trained for that purpose. there are others representing entertainments, at which music and dancing are being per- formed; slaves bringing oxen, while others are driving geese; slaves carrying hares, corn, and a gazelle; offerings being brought to the gods; besides many other subjects. the colours used by the egyptians are usually simple ones, such as red, blue, and green, with black, yellow, and white—the three first being the most frequent combina- tion. the primaries are used invariably with judgment and knowledge. red and blue are never found in juxtaposition with- out the separation of a narrow line of white or yellow. black is invariably contrasted with yellow; gilding is employed sparingly, and generally with considerable taste. the excellent materials for building natu- rally found in the country, determined in a great measure their style of architecture. they had an abundance of both limestone and sandstone, and at syene, in upper egypt, unlimited quantities of beautiful granite, of different kinds, capable of receiv- ing a very high polish, and resisting the action of the elements for an indefinite length of time, as may be seen by the perfect polish still remaining on many of the egyp- tian antiquities now in the british museum. of this granite, which is mostly of a beautiful red, they were able to obtain enormous blocks, some of the obelisks of this mate- rial being as much as or feet long, wholly in one stone. the largest of these, which is at the temple of karnac, weighs not less than tons, and these, in many sugges/ions in design, cases, had to be transported from one end of the country to the other." basalt, marble, limestone, freestone, and alabaster were also found beyond all limit. the country, how- ever, was very deficient in timber, especi- ally that sort proper for building. oak is not to be found, and the fir used by the pre- sent inhabitants has to be imported from arabia. bricks dried in the sun were sometimes used even in large structures, but were probably faced with stone or granite. the masonry is ordinarily set in mortar, com- posed of lime or plaster and sand, but in some instances cements of a bituminous nature were employed. there are, however, many cases where no mortar or cement can be detected. some of the temples, and many of the tombs, were hewn out of the rock itself. the architecture, therefore, of these egyptian pharaohs was an enduring one, and their ambition appears to have been to make their works last throughout all time. their tem- ples were roofed with large flat stones, as already mentioned, and no appearance of sloping roofs, pediments, or arches is any- where to be traced. one of the most valuable lessons to be gained by the study of egyptian architecture is the exquisite treatment of flat surfaces. these were for a twofold purpose; that of serving as a public record of the greatness and power of this extraordinary nation, and * the obelisk now erected on the thames embankment, which was brought over to this country at the expense of mr. erasmus wilson, originally stood with others in front of one of the ancient egyptian temples, although many centuries afterwards it was removed and set up in alexandria by queen cleopatra, from which circumstance it obtained the name of “cleopatra's needle.” this obelisk, which is feet in height, was hewn out of one block from the quarries of syene. it is of the quality of granite, called from the name of the quarries, syenite; and it is supposed that it was formed and polished on the spot where it was raised. at the same time for the artistic embellish- ment of their works. this enrichment of flat surface among the egyptians was at the same time essen- tially symbolical, and was mainly derived from natural objects treated in a conventional manner. these, combined with hieroglyphics, constituted the basis of nearly all their orna- mentation. the sun itself, as one of their objects of adoration, was introduced orna- mentally in a great variety of symbolical forms; as in the winged globe, no. , plate . but there is another image of the sun which should be mentioned. a ball or sun is frequently found in connection with a beetle, and this insect was looked upon as a sacred object. this appears to be due to the beetle depositing its egg in the refuse of some animal, and after forming the portion containing the egg into a small ball, burying it in the earth where it will catch the rays of the warm sun, and in due time bring forth a perfect insect. this circumstance seems to have connected the insect in the mind of the egyptians with the creator, of whom the sun was the symbol. a round ball or sun was therefore placed above the head of the deified beetle, as shown in the hieroglyphics no. , plate . the disk also surmounted other deified forms, such as the haje, no. , plate , and many other sacred objects. among plants the types employed in egyptian ornamentation were few, and were mostly confined to the papyrus, the lotus, and the palm. the equilateral triangle is said to have been a sacred conventional sign, as being the supposed origin and source of all things. it is even thought that the pyramids, which were formed of four equi- lateral triangles meeting together in a point egyptian ornamentation. at the apex, had from this reason a highly symbolical meaning. the stem of the papyrus being of a triangular form seems to have recommended it to notice, and when we find columns formed of bundles of this plant there can be no doubt again of their symbolical signification. the lotus, which was sacred in india as well as in egypt, was fig. . symbolical of the new birth or eternal life. it formed the ideal symbolization of the seasons succeeding from generation to gen- eration—bringing back life when there ap- peared to be nothing but the apathy of death. the reappearance of the sacred lily of the nile, upon the lowering of the waters, season after season, gave promise of a happy land. thus when we see this flower represented, as it so frequently is, upon a mummy case (fig. ), it was regarded as an emblem of faith in an eternal life where this worshipped flower would bloom for evermore. it is first seen in bud (fig. ), then while still in bud, rising through the conventionally ex- pressed water until the fully expanded flower on the top indicated that the waters having receded, it was henceforth welcomed as the harbinger of plenty and a happy land where scarcity would be never known. the palm-tree was the tree of life, and was supposed to be the sacred tree in the paradise of osiris. the zig-zag was the type of water, or the nile itself. thus a deeper meaning than mere enrichment pervaded all egyptian ornamentation, giving nearly every form an ideal and a poetical signification. some forms which they used, such as the meander and scroll, as well as a few others, had apparently no such meaning, unless, indeed, we have now lost the means of their inter- pretation. the vigour, accuracy, and power of drawing exhibited by the egyptians in all their works have never been surpassed, although, from their religious principles, they purposely retained such stiff and rigid forms—to all appearance resisting the freeness of their hand. the laws which guided them in their art were thus closely connected with their religious principles. plate . no. . head crowned with leaves and buds. the beard and hair crimped horizon- tally as represented in egyptian sculpture. no. . frieze with flowers and buds in low relief growing from water. no. . geometrical arrangement of leafage or palm grove, with crowned serpents below. the haje, or african cobra, when excited stands erect and swells out its body as here represented. the serpent was considered sacred in egypt. it is not uncommºn to suggestions in /pesign. -. find entire sculptured friezes and borders composed of a succession of these cobras, each surmounted by a disk to indicate their sacred character. no. . the papyrus in flower, bud, and seed. it is thus represented in low relief on the pedestal or altar in front of hapi- moon, the god of the nile, with other aquatic offerings. the statue is in black granite, and is now in the british museum. it was brought from karnac. no. . frieze or cavetto containing heads of the goddess isis, which are thus found crowned with small temples (see also fig. ). the heads are alternated with serpents and palm-trees. no. . leaf cornice. the only kind of cornice found (if it can be called a cornice) is formed by a large hollow springing from a torus or bold bead, as in fig. . no. . frieze of lotus and cartouche alternating. hieroglyphics surrounded by an oval line either upright or horizontal, called a cartouche, are of frequent occurrence and indicate a proper name, as that of a monarch, the one in the centre of this ex- ample reading kleopatra. the two signs on either side of the lower bird indicate the feminine. no. . one-half of a bell-shaped capital, developed or laid out flat. many of the capitals have the upper portion or lip of the bell formed of four arcs of a circle surround- ing a square, after the manner of a quatre- foil. no. . lotus growing in water, with band of eyes and stars above. water was usually represented by zigzag lines. the band con- taining the star indicated the heavens, and, probably, the eyes represented those of the deities, looking down upon the acts of men. no. . symmetrical arrangement of elon- gated incised lines with lotus and buds. no. . ornament formed of the lotus. band of reeds and vulture. the universal application of the lotus, or water-lily of the nile, which was a sacred plant among the egyptians, is very remarkable, and is found in every variety among the paintings and sculpture. plate . no. . baboons and fig-tree. the power of the egyptian artists in expressing the character of animals by little more than simple outline was very remarkable. no. . iłundles of lotus with the haje or cobra surmounted by a globe or sun. no. . spoon or ladle formed of a slave bearing on his head a bundle of reeds and lotus. in the louvre and british museum are many utensils ornamented by the lotus, but the use of the figure in this instance is somewhat questionable. there are exam- ples also of a fish being converted into a dish, a hand into a scoop, &c., but such in- stances are rare. these conceits, however, are not confined to the egyptians, for we find etruscan and early greek vases com- posed of figures and heads, with cavities in the cranium (figs. , ), or covered with rudely formed animals, fig. , and egyptian ormamentation. greek lamps made out of masks, feet, hands, animals, &c., but such applications are hardly within the province of refined taste." no. . cobra with the disk and flower ornament. no. . duck, showing the conventional treatment of the feathers as if formed of platted reeds. no. . centre ornament formed of triple fish and lotus flower. nos. and . painted bands, such as are found on mummy cases. see also fig. . no. . star-form tile or diaper. no. . the winged globe, accompanied by asps, the type of the sun, a sacred emblem of the highest order, and usually placed over the entrances to the temples. the wings are supposed to be those of the hawk, and are also symbolical of the sun, on account of the elevation to which this bird continued its flight, and of the faculty which it was considered to have, of looking at the sun with a steady gaze. no. . bold lotus treatment with flowers, being the same in all four ways that it is looked at. the flat ceilings of the temples were usually covered by painting in this manner. no. . frieze formed of bearded heads ornamented with head-dresses of banded reeds, alternating with lotus buds. plate . no. . lotus and aquatic plants bound together and arranged symmetrically. * of a similar character, also, are the owl-headed vases found by dr. schliemann on the site of troy. no. . fan-shaped standard ornament. no. . lotus band. many of the mummy coverings, as in the british museum, have bands and enrichments of this character, executed in gold and colour. see fig. , also incised as fig. . no. . emblem of security alternating with buds. nos. and . diapers or tiles. no. . throne bound by aquatic plants and the lotus of the nile, emblematical of egypt and its fertility. no. . lotus flowers and buds growing on the water. no. . border formed of a row of temples on a river. an example of doubtful taste, and rather to be avoided. no. . band for painting. with lotus flowers and buds. no. . bundle of lotus with the emblem of security and feather crest. no. . papyrus with emblems of stability above. fig. . no. . ornamental | | | | | | | | | | .. - - all/ave \l frieze or band divided by §§y. º reeds with cartouches and * bound reeds hieroglyphic writing. ||| || nos. and . papy- rus and lotus. fig. represents the lotus as incised in granite, from the collar of a figure upon the cover of a sarcophagus in the british museum. no. . decorated cartouche or shield. no. . circular ornament with lotus growing in water. sugges/ions in design. c h a p t e r w. assyerian orn amentation. i; years by the excavations of iº; m. botta, french consul at mósul, and mr. layard, has revealed to us some marvellous work of a kind hitherto unknown, but we cannot go so far as to say that these excavations have brought to light any complete style of architecture. m. botta, on the part of the french gov- ernment, commenced his excavations at khorsabãd in , and in the space of a few months a large number of halls and chambers were completely explored, belong- ing to a magnificent edifice whose walls were all panelled with sculptured slabs. in november, , mr. (now sir) austen henry layard commenced his excavations upon the great mound of nimroud, and after some considerable trouble came upon those colossal human-headed lions and bulls which are now in the british museum. after some months' labour, five-and-twenty halls and chambers were explored, all panelled with slabs of alabaster—some sculptured with figures, others merely in- scribed with assyrian writing, engraved upon the stone in what is called, from their peculiar shape, arrow-headed or cuneiform characters. upon mr. layard's return to assyria in further discoveries soon fol- lowed; among others the vast and magnifi- cent palace of sennacherib at kouyunjik, built about years b.c. some idea of the enormous extent, and of the richness and variety of decorations in this palace, may be formed when it is mentioned that less than seventy-one halls, chambers, and & in o passages were explored, whose walls, almost without an exception, were panelled with slabs of sculptured alabaster, recording the wars, the triumphs, and other great deeds of the assyrian king; that by a rough calculation about feet, or nearly two miles of bas-reliefs, with twenty-seven portals formed by colossal winged bulls and lion sphinxes, were uncovered.” among the most interesting bas-reliefs discovered are some representing the king hunting lions in a royal park or paradise; a campaign against the arabs, who are mounted on dromedaries; a palace with all its architectural details, and a bridge with pointed arches; the trans- porting of the colossal bulls; numerous battles and sieges; as well as one where the walls of a city are being knocked down by a battering-ram. the most important of these sculptures have now been placed in the british museum, and may be there studied. the exterior of these palaces, which were nearly square, had generally two façades, which consisted usually of three entrances, each entrance being flanked by two colossal human-headed bulls or lions. an eagle- * nineveh and babylon, by sir a. h. layard. assyrian ornamentation. headed lion of this character is given at no. , plate . the walls, which were of extraordinary thickness, were solidly constructed of sun-dried bricks, and were usually panelled or faced with slabs of alabaster or some other stone, elaborately carved with figures and other subjects in low relief as before mentioned. the whole of the upper parts of these buildings, with the exception in some cases of a few feet of sun-dried brick wall, have fallen in and perished. all that remain, therefore, of the assyrian edifices are those lower parts which being faced with stone have been able to resist the ravages of time. but little is known of what the upper parts consisted, further than that most probably they were of wood. among the edifices uncovered were some that had evidently been destroyed by fire, the ruins being buried in charred wood, and the alabaster almost reduced to lime. at nimroud many entire beams of cedar and other woods were found in the ruins, some still entire, others that fell to an almost impalpable powder as soon as exposed to the air. it is supposed by mr. fergusson that in the remains of the palaces of the ancient persian kings found at persepolis and susa we have a clue to the restoration of the upper stories of the assyrian palaces. that columns of a similar character to those there found were employed to carry the massive beams which formed the framework upon which the roof rested. some of these columns are double-headed, of which no. , plate , offers an example of a similar character. the shafts were fluted and the bases were en- riched, after the manner shown by the ex- amples nos. , , , and , plate . how far this supposition is well founded it is hard to say; but although we see a vast quantity of beautiful sculpture, it is evident we have only the remnants of a style which in its entirety must have possessed great grandeur and beauty. that it was originally derived from the egyptian there can be little doubt; still there are many marked and broad differences. there is one point connected with the remains discovered at nineveh which adds great interest to them: the similarity which appears to have existed between the archi- tecture of the jews and the assyrians. in the description of solomon's temple given in the book of kings the walls appear to have been covered up with carved woodwork much in the same manner as the assyrian palaces were panelled in stone: “and he built the walls of the house within with boards of cedar, both the floor of the house, and the walls of the ceiling: and he covered them on the inside with wood, and covered the floor of the house with planks of fir. . . . and the cedar of the house within was carved with knops and open flowers; all was cedar; there was no stone seen” ( kings vi. , ). again, “the two doors also were of olive tree; and he carved upon them carvings of cherubim, and palm-trees, and open flowers” (verse ). these winged figures, although carved upon the doors, appear to answer to the winged figures guarding the entrances to the assyrian palaces. in the mention of the “lily-work” which formed part of the “chapiters that were on the top of the pillars” ( kings vii. ), we are strongly reminded of egyptian or assyrian ornamentation, in which the lotus, the lily of the nile, forms such an ever-recurring en- richment. this flower occurs constantly and in a great variety of forms. it appears in suggestions in design. | º the assyrian, in the lotus and bud ornament, no. , plate . hence in all probability the “lily-work” of scripture was of this assyrian character. it also indicates that as “king solomon sent and fetched hiram out of tyre” to work the “molten brass” (or bronze) of the temple, that the phoenician had a likeness to the prevailing styles of the time. the delicacy and the extreme care with which the assyrian wall sculptures are wrought, developing the minutest detail with the precision of works in ivory, is most re- markable. they are in extremely low relief, scarcely projecting more than from a quarter to half an inch. the ground upon which the sculp- ture is wrought is worked down —that is, in bas- relieſ, and no parts are in caro- reliero,asis sofre- quently the case in the egyptian. many of the dresses of the fig- ures are covered with minute dia- fig. . pers, as shown ; and fig. is an ornamented band from a head-dress. the faces of all the figures are in profile, as in the egyp- tian; but the shoulders are more natural, and not squared so much as in the egyptian sculptures and paintings. the eyes, which in the egyptian are in front view instead of in profile, are in three-quarter view. there are many examples of the palm, date- palm, the vine, fig, tree-fern, and the lily, as well as a tall-growing grass, probably maize, introduced upon many of the sculp- tures. the sacred tree is also a conspicuous object occurring frequently. it appears to be a palm-tree conventionally arranged with a single and sometimes a double band of flowers or palms surrounding the centre tree. a portion of one is given at no. , plate . judging by the examples in the british museum from the palace at nimroud, their floors also appear to have been often sculp- tured. the largest example in the museum, which is wrought in very low relief, appar- ently in white marble, is formed into square divisions or panels, the centre of each of which is occupied by a rose or patera, from which radiate to the angles four fir-cones, and alternating with them, spreading to the sides of the square, are four lilies or lotus flowers. these square cen- fig. . tres are repeated, forming a diaper over the whole sur- face, separated by borders filled with paterae, fig. . the whole is surrounded by a general border, in which occurs the lotus and bud enrichment, no. , plate . the assyrians were also great workers in terra cotta, of which they made most im: portant use. “assyrians wrote on terra cotta cylinders, or hollow hexagonal prisms. the cuneiform characters were stamped with a prismatic stick or rod, or perhaps by the edge of a square of metal. it is supposed that , of these clay tablets or ancient books of the assyrians, containing the litera- ture of the country, have been discovered." * an account of the flood has been translated from these clay cylinders, and was read by the late mr. george smith before the biblical society. assyrian ormamentation. thus while the paper and parchment learning of the byzantine and alexandrian schools has almost disappeared after a few centuries, the granite pages of egypt and the clay leaves of assyria have escaped the ravages of time and the fury of barbarism.” not only did they also fabricate every kind of vessel which they required in terra cotta, but they made peculiar kinds of enamelled bricks and tiles, inlaid in colour, from which the enrich- ment no. , plate , is taken, and there can be no doubt that with these they laid many of their floors, and perhaps lined the walls of some of their apartments. there are ex- amples in the british museum of cast figures in terra cotta, with the terra cotta moulds from which they have been produced. in carved ivory the assyrians show con- siderable skill, and some of their works in this material are also inlaid with coloured enamel. many examples in ivory are in thin plates, probably for inlaying upon other work, and are incised with lotus and bud, palm ornaments, borders of paterae, and guilloche bands. fig. is a double guilloche from one of these incised bands in ivory, and is very similar to those found on the capitals of the columns of the erechtheum at athens. although iron was used by the assyrians, as well as by the egyptians, it does not appear to have been very plentiful, and bronze was evidently the most common * history of ancient pottery, by samuel birch, f.s.a. y metal. knives, adzes, axes, saws, and other implements were usually made of bronze. many bronze bowls have been found, en- graved with various ornaments, while some are very skilfully formed in repoussé work; that is, the figures and other enrichments are raised by being beaten up by a hammer from the back, so that they stand in relief, the details being finished by the graver or other tools upon the face of the work. in colour the ancient assyrians, like the egyptians, seem to have revelled. for it is well known that the bas-reliefs which lined the walls of their palaces were all painted and gilded, and in some cases covered with silver and gold plates. upon this point m. texier, speaking of persepolis, says, “i am sure that there was not a corner of the palace in which could not be found the most careful and delicate painting. it was the same at khorsabād, at nimroud, and also at ecbatana, the capital of media, where, according to polybius, describing the palaces of the kings of persia, the porticoes, peristyles, and the walls were covered with plates of silver and gold, which were pillaged by the soldiers of alexander.” in this again we see a similarity to the work of solomon's temple, in the description of which it is stated that “the whole house he overlaid with gold;” and that this was probably done in gold plates we have the further explanation in reference to the doors, that he “covered them with gold fitted upon the carred work” ( kings vi. ). we discover, therefore, by these assyrian antiquities which have lain so long hidden from view, but which now form such a magnificent collection in our national mu- seum, that the ancient assyrians cultivated the arts with no mean power six or seven * sugges/ions in design. centuries before our era. in their sculptures we find every variety of action and move- ment expressed with great judgment and ability. although the muscles of the arms and legs of their figures are represented in excess, it shows that they took nature for their guide, and did not follow a mere con- ventional rendering of the human form, as was the case with the egyptians. symbolism, as in all early forms of archi- tecture and decoration, was a guiding prin- ciple, and entered very much into most forms of assyrian art, although not to the same extent as in egyptian sculpture and orna- mentation. most of the assyrian wall sculptures were purely historical records of events, which took place during the reigns of the various assyrian monarchs whose deeds they chronicled. the primitive or pelasgic greek was evi- dently based very much upon the assyrian ornamentation, and the form of the greek honeysuckle may be undoubtedly traced to such examples as no. , plate , and no. , plate . the guilloche, so frequent in the greek, is found in the assyrian, as in the lower part of no. , plate . the double guilloche, as found in the capitals and bases of the erechtheum, may be seen on assyr- ian ivories, as already noticed, fig. . the patera also, which is of such frequent occurrence in the greek, is found in the assyrian, fig. . what is commonly called the wave or “vitru. fig. . vian scroll,” is not un- xgxgxgn common, as in the ex- 'si!'ní's 's ample fig. , which is from the british museum. without, therefore, in any way depreciating the skill of the greeks or the refinement which their genius stamped upon their works, it is extremely valuable and interesting to note from what sources they borrowed some of their forms. plate . no. . lotus and bud ornament, evidently a reminiscence of some of the egyptian orna- mentation, enamelled or inlaid with colour. no. . lotus and bud ornamentation sculptured in low relief, after the manner of that forming a border to the pavement from the palace at nimroud, now in the british museum. - nos. to . small ornaments, parts of thrones and chairs from the wall sculptures. no. . centre ornament, giving four different varieties or terminations after the manner of those found among the assyrian sculptures. no. . foot of sculptured chair or throne. no. . castellated termination, suggested by forins found among the sculptures. no. . palm flower from the terminals of the sacred tree, probably the origin of the greek honeysuckle. nos. and . centre ornaments. no. . wave and bandolette pattern for painting. no. . fan and fir-cone ornament. the fir-cone frequently occurs in assyrian orna- ment, and some of the priests in the sculp- tures have fir-cones in their hands. no. . fir-cone and lotus-bud ornament, somewhat resembling the patterns found edging the robes of the assyrian kings. the fir-cone is symbolical of fire, the lotus of water. no. . fan or palm ornament and alter- nating bud with guilloche band below. these are found executed in black and white in a species of glazed earthenware tile. assyrian ornamentation. no. . reeded columns with lotus-bud capitals supporting reel and bead, from per- sepolis. no. . opening bud and fir-cone border, from the edgings to the draperies of the figures in the sculptures. plate . no. . eagle-headed lions and ornament, designed in the assyrian manner. no. . rosette or patera. these are of frequent occurrence in the sculptures, as in the pavement from the palace at nimroud, forming bands of ornament which divide the whole into squares, the squares being filled in with fir-cones and the expanded lotus. - - no. . fan or palm ornament in metal filled in with enamel in two colours, from nineveh. a form of flower which is pro- bably the origin of the greek honeysuckle. nos. and . enrichments from the bases of columns found at persepolis. these are not strictly assyrian, but in a closely allied style. no. . colossal eagle-headed and winged lion, after the remains found at nineveh and persepolis. these monsters, found guard- ing the portals of assyrian palaces, may in many respects be taken as models of appropriate conventional treatment of animal forms, the majestic strength of the creature being well maintained without a too literal imitation of nature, the graceful attributes of the bird being combined with that of the quadruped. the winged bulls and human- headed lions in the british museum have the forelegs straighter than in our example, and consequently they have a greater appear- viewed diagonally, five legs. this is a de- fect which is caused by the attempting to com- bine semi with whole relief. the muscles of the legs are very much exaggerated. no. . sacred tree and pomegranates. these sacred trees occur upon the sculptures in different forms, often with priests or winged eagle-headed figures on either side, with a fir-cone in one hand advanced towards the tree, and a vessel in the form of a bucket in the other, said to be symbolical of the sacred elements, fire and water. no. . sacred ornament with acorn ter- minations. - - no. . diaper and fringe from the sculp- tured hangings upon the chariot horses. many of the dresses, harness, and other accessories upon the king's robes, their chariots and horses, are elaborately orna- mented and executed with minute delicacy. see figs , , and , already given. no. . bas-relief diaper from the sculp- tures, inclosed pateras and semi-pateras. the sculptures which lined the walls of the palaces were invariably in very low relief, never casting deep shadows or violating that appearance of solidity and flatness so desir- able in mural decoration. no. . twin lions, after the manmer of an assyrian sword-hilt. the capitals of columns from persepolis are frequently formed with double heads in this manner. double-headed capitals are also found in the indian, as may be seen in the sculpture of the cast of the gateway from the sanchi tope in the south kensington museum. no. . enrichment from the capital of a column from persepolis. no. . sculptured base from a persepoli- ance of strength. they have also, when tan column. - sugges/ions in /)esign. | c h a p t e r vi. g re e r o rn amentation. #ystery and fable enshroud i h the early history of greece. | the primitive inhabitants --- 㺠were called pelasgi, hence we hear of archaic greek art being dis- tinguished as pelasgic. at an uncertain but very early date, an asiatic people named the hellenes immigrated into greece, in some cases expelling the pelasgi, and in others intermingling with them, so that in process of time all the inhabitants of the country came to be called hellenes. the greeks were from an early period a great colonizing people, planting colonies and settlements in asia minor and the islands of the archipelago, so that their in- fluence became diffused over an extensive region, including portions of italy, sicily, and other parts of europe and western asia. wherever the greeks settled they appear to have preserved their nationality; indeed, the cities and territory in southern italy which they had occupied were collec- tively called magna graecia. in no country inhabited by the hellenic race, with the exception of athens itself, were the arts more highly cultivated than in the ancient greek colony of ionia in asia minor. besides many other works, the ionians erected the magnificent temple of diana at ephesus, which was considered one of the seven wonders of the world. greek art can, without doubt, be traced to the egyptian and the assyrian, although the athenians and other hellenic races purified and refined the forms handed down to them. the remains which have been found of the mausoleum at halicarnassus all point to- mr. r. p. pullan, in a lecture which he delivered at the royal wards this origin. institution on the “excavations in asia minor,” after adverting to asia minor as the land of homer and the i/iad, said “ that it was the cradle of hellenic art, in which respect also it was invested with a never- dying interest. it was there that they could best study the relations between classical art and architecture and those of ancient egypt and assyria. at halicarnassus they found that the oldest greek remains bore a distinctly assyrian character. at assus, also, where there were to be seen the ruins of some of the most ancient hellenic temples, they had been struck with the pal- pable traces of the same assyrianizing ten- dency. the greek sense of beauty had, however, infused a new life into the more antique and ruder forms borrowed from the banks of the tigris, the euphrates, and the nile.” thus the more these early works in asia minor are explored, the more com- pletely will the connecting links between greek, assyrian, and egyptian art be supplied. the elements of all architecture are few january , . sugges/ions in /pesign. * º of their art history affords so striking an instance of sudden and rapid progress, as during the age of pericles, which lasted only from to b.c. athens at that time had reached the height of her greatness. “she had now, in fact, become the capital not merely of attica, or even of greece proper, but of the whole civilized world; and by the liberal rewards which her princely wealth enabled her to bestow on men of genius and learning, had drawn into her bosom the most eminent philosophers, orators, poets, and artists, from all parts of the earth.” " it appears to have been the primary object of pericles to render athens the most brilliant city in the world, not only for power, but for the display of works of art and the cultivation of literature. the par- thenon, the most important and the most beautiful of all the buildings erected at athens during this period, was commenced by pericles in b.c. standing on the highest part of the acropolis, this noble temple was dedicated to athena (called minerva by the romans), the tutelary god- dess of athens. its form was of the utmost simplicity: a parallelogram feet long and feet broad, consisting of a continuous peristyle of columns inclosing the cella, which formed the actual temple. it is of the doric order, and was erected under the superintendence of the architects ictinus and callicrates. the whole edifice was constructed of pentelic marble, with ex- ception only of the tiles of the roof, which were of parian. the temple was adorned with those master-pieces of sculpture executed by or under the immediate control of the sculptor phidias, many portions of which are now deposited in the british mus- eum, and known as the elgin marbles. these, as must be acknowledged by all who examine them, evince a wonderful power; the human and animal forms being full of life and motion, combined with the utmost gracefulness in composition. they far exceed anything that had existed before that time, and for sculpture pos- sessing such high and intellectual char- acteristics we may search in vain during all the centuries which have elapsed since the age of pericles. they therefore remain to us as precious models and examples of the highest class of art; and although one may regret their having been torn from the temple which they adorned, yet possessing them, as we do, we ought to appreciate them as treasures of priceless worth. the whole of these sculptures had refer- ence either to the goddess athena, or to the people by whom the temple was erected. they may be divided into three classes:- . the statues filling the typanums” of the pediments. these consist of figures much above the size of life, and at one end refer to the birth of athena or minerva from the head of zeus (jupiter), and at the other to the contest between athena and poseidon (neptune) for the soil of attica. . the metopes, or square spaces in the frieze between the triglyphs, which were filled with alto-relievos representing the ex- ploits of the goddess herself and the strug- gles between the centaurs and lapithae. . the frieze or band which ran entirely round the top of the external walls of the cella, sculptured with figures in bas-relief * chambers's history of greece. * triangular spaces formed by the slope of the roof at each end of the temple. greek ornamem/afiom. representing the panathenaic festival, cele- brated in honour of athena, and held once in four years, in the third year of each olympiad. many of the figures in the procession are on horseback, others are about to mount; some are in chariots, others on foot. but the chief object of the entire procession is the delivery of the em- broidered veil and mysterious baskets into the hands of the reigning archon and a priestess. these sculptures were, after all, but a portion of the matchless works of phidias which originally beautified the temple. the acroteria or pedestals on the pediments sup- ported groups of sculptured figures, which, doubtless, were of the greatest excellence; and the temple contained also a statue of the goddess athena, said to have been one of the greatest works of phidias, and wrought by his own hands. it was formed of ivory and gold, and was feet high. the interior of the temple was divided into two parts, the inner one containing the statue of the goddess. other examples of doric architecture exist at athens, none of which, however, are so rich in sculpture as the parthenon. of these may be mentioned the propylaeum or en- trance to the acropolis, and the theseum or temple of theseus. the latter, although much smaller, is second only to the parthe- non. it was erected about thirty years before that building, which it resembles in its most essential points. the theseum was ornamented with a sparing hand, but the arrangement of the sculpture was so judiciously managed as to produce the greatest possible effect. the ten metopes in front of the eastern portico exhibit the labours of hercules, while those on the flanks refer to theseus. the sculptures from the pediment have dis- appeared. remains of the painting are in some parts very conspicuous. although it was for some time disputed, there is now but little doubt that painting, or what is more correctly termed poly- chromatic decoration, formed a conspicuous and distinguishing feature in all the greek temples, and that not only architectural mem- bers, but the beautiful and delicate sculpture as well, was elaborately painted and gilded. but as to what the colours were, or what portions were gilded, there is still a con- siderable difference of opinion; there can be no question, however, that the greeks used strong and positive colours. in excav- ating near the parthenon “there were found many pieces of marble, and among these frag- ments parts of triglyphs, of fluted columns, and of statues, particularly a female head. these three last-mentioned fragments were painted with the brightest red, blue, and yel- low, or rather vermilion, ultramarine, and straw-colour, which last may have faded in the earth. the colours are laid on in thick coats. the female face had the eyes and eyebrows painted.” distinct traces of ver- milion, and other colours also, can still be distinguished, although in minute quantities, in some of the examples preserved in the british museum. as to the forms of the painted enrichments we have clear evidence, as their outlines are frequently indicated on the marble by an incised line engraved by a sharp tool, which was probably done by the aid of stencil-moulds. it is necessary to explain that the mould- ings of the doric temples were, with very few exceptions, left plain and uncarved, but mr. bracebridge in wordsworth's athens and attica. sugges/ions in zoesign. were enriched by painting; while, on the contrary, the mouldings of the ionic tem- ples were elaborately carved as well as painted. upon the cymatium of the raking cornice of one of the pediments of the parthenon was discovered avery a bright blue, with gold stars, to indicate the heavens, as in fig. ; or they contained cºmmºn. of the anthemion ornament, fig. , which is formed of the honeysuckle and lotus. fig. represents one of the antefixal ornaments which terminated the rolls of the tiles above the cornice at the elegant form of sides of the parthenon. the anthemion ornament," fig. , and probably the fillets above and below it, as well as the plain fascia of the cornice, were covered with fret ornaments. as a rule, plain fillets, bands, fascias, friezes, and the abacuses of capitals were ornamented by what is commonly called the greek fret or meander—in a simple form on the smaller members, but more elaborate on the larger surfaces. fig. is a meander from the fragment of a frieze dug up near the par- thenon, and supposed to have formed a portion of that building. the meander ornament, variously treated, is common on all the other temples, both doric and ionic, as well as upon greek vases and dresses. it was frequently used to enrich the beams that formed the ceilings of the temples, and divided them into square panels or spaces called lacunaria. these were usually painted * another very similar example is given in stuart & revett's antiquities of athens, from a frieze in the small ionic temple on the ilissus. fig. . the ionic order, which at first was confined to the ionian states in asia minor, is said to be coeval with the doric. a very simple example of this order existed at athens, in the small temple which stood on the banks of the ilissus, but is now destroyed. the richest and the most beautiful example, however, still remains in the triple temple on the acropolis, called the erechtheum. it contained the temple of erechtheus, the temple of athena polias, and the temple of pandrosus. war and other causes hindered the completion of this temple; and an interesting inscription has been found, which contains the particulars of a minute professional survey of the un- finished parts, made shortly after the erec- tion of the building, and conducted under the direction of an architect named philocles. the date of this temple is supposed to be a little later than that of the parthenon. the erechtheum has three porticoes, two of which are ionic, very richly decorated, with the anthemion ornament sculptured greek or//a///eſ//aſio/. under the volutes of the capitals, and form- ing a band round the neck of the column, the whole being of extreme delicacy of execution. the same ornament is also used as a continuous frieze under some portions of the entablature. the mouldings of the entablatures, as well as the capitals of the antae and other parts, are most beautifully carved. of the remains of these which have been brought to this country, and are now deposited in the british museum, the late sir digby wyatt said in his slade lectures, “i may aver without hesitation, that there are no other archi- tectural fragments so beautiful in all the world.” fig. represents one of the fig. . / º, *na|| | ||||ſ/, |fº Č. y ~ - % w. w. g=s !? *—" º º º > £º % Şs-º Š- ss friezes or bands from the capitals of the antae. fig. is the enrichment from the cymatium of the great doorway; and fig. , a patera—a form of ornament which is of frequent occurrence in greek archi- tecture—from the architrave of the same doorway. - the portico of that part of the erech- theum called the pandroseum is supported by female figures called caryatides in lieu of columns. these figures have a kind of architectural cap upon their heads, upon which rests the entablature. with excep- tion of these figures there is no trace of any sculpture having ever existed in any part of the erechtheum. in the british museum there is an example of a carya- tide figure, of great elegance and beauty (fig. ), which was found near rome, but is of greek workmanship of the best period. there are other examples of ionic temples in asia minor, the remains of which show that they must have been of beauty, especially the mausoleum at halicarnassus, the temple of diana at ephesus, and the temple of min- erva at priene. portions of these works have been brought to this country and are now in the british museum. considerable ii) ol’ ” of the corinthian order there is but one purely greek example in existence—the small choragic monument of lysicrates at athens, the workmanship of which is carried to the highest pitch of refinement. this monument is known to have been erected in the year b.c. there is another example of a foliated capital in the tower of the winds at athens, but it cannot strictly be called corinthian. although it has been supposed that the corinthian capital was invented by callimachus, there cannot be a doubt that it was borrowed in some measure from the bell-shaped capitals of the egyptians. the capital in the tower of the winds appears to be intermediate between the egyptian and the fully developed corinthian, from its having no angle volutes. the greeks were, apparently, the first suggestions in /pesign. people who developed the acanthus foliage. nothing of the same character can be found in any previous style of architecture. it formed the leafage of the fig. . corinthian capital, and as far as we can judge by the small capital from the monument of lysicrates, it was of great beauty and elegance. fig. shows a portion of one of the leaves from the capital. on the roof of the same monument are some beautiful scrolls having sheaths of the acanthus foliage. one of these scrolls is given, fig. , from vulliamy's examples of ornamental sculpture in architecture. the greek acanthus foliage is of a sharp spiky form, and is supposed to be conventionalized from the plant acanthus lanceolatus. . similar foliage is to be found in some of the examples of an- tefixal ornaments which are fre- quently of terra cotta. fig. . ©) gº it is seen again combined with the honey- suckle upon the stelae or sepulchral monuments of the greeks, fig. . in all the examples the same character of sharp zigzag outline of the foliage with circular eyes is to be dis- tinguished. it is much to be regretted that so few examples of such elegant foliage have been preserved in greece. in all proba- bility, when the romans overran the country they became so enamoured with this species of ornament that they carried with them to italy many specimens of it, which are now lost for ever. besides the acanthus the greeks did not select many natural types for their foliage, and employed even these in a highly conven- tional manner. they consisted principally of the honeysuckle, of which an example from the roof of the monument of lysi- crates is given, fig. ; the laurel, of which a very beautiful wreath (fig. ) is from the monument of thrasyllus; the holly, of which fig. is an example, in a sculptured moulding from the erechtheum; and the lily or lotus, as seen in the anthemion orna- ments. but it must be remembered that greek ornament is considered to be purely aesthetic and ideal, devoid of all symbolical meaning, and that it can be but obscurely traced to - * greek ormamze/afałion. " natural types. what is called the “greek honeysuckle” has but slight resemblance to that flower, and it appears more probable that it is a refinement upon the palm as found in assyrian sculptures. again, the acanthus foliage is as likely to have been suggested by the thistle or the sea-holly as by the natural acanthus. the greeks pursued principles rather than a literal adherence to nature. these principles embraced sim- plicity and gracefulness of form, symmetry, and repetition. symmetrical ornaments are found in such examples as fig. ; repetition in figs. and , and in the long lines of the fig. . echinus or egg-and- tongue moulding (fig. ), in the astragal or reel-and-bead, and in the enriched ogee or cyma-reversa. that they sought beauty by simple repeti- tion may be seen from the long vistas of columns in their porticoes and peristyles. but they further understood the value of re- petition with variety, as found in their sculp- tures. in the panathenaic frieze the long procession of graceful horses and their riders are repeated with regularity but variety. so with the metopes of their entablatures. the triglyphs carry out repetition only, but the sculptures of the metopes add variety. the parthenon is the highest exemplification of the principle “unity with variety.” the beautiful antique statues and bas- reliefs, of which examples are now pre- served in nearly every important public museum of europe (such as the apollo belvedere, the venus of milo, and a vast number of others), are for the most part of greek workmanship, and many of them of the best period. as long as greece remained free, sculpture retained its high character, but upon the capture of corinth in b.c. thousands of magnificent works of art were dispersed. many were sold, while others were sent to rome. from this period the history of greece must be sought in that of rome. greece became a mere province, and her inhabitants will- ingly exercised their talents for their new masters. the most important manufacture of the greek period of which remains exist, was that of terra-cotta vases, and on these we find all the characteristic ornaments of the best epoch of greek decoration. these vases, which are commonly termed etruscan, will be more fully described in the following chapter. plate . no. . a free adaptation of the anthemion orna- ment. many varieties of it are found on greek vases. - no. . the honeysuckle and lotus alternating, but not connected by scroll work, as in the anthe- mion ornament. the arrangement is after the manner of the egyptian, from which the greek orna- ment was derived. no. are examples of flower-form ornaments, usually termed paterae, frequently found in greek architecture. derived from the assyrian. - no. . a simple form of frieze ornament for painting. nos. and . atlantes, given as suggestions for introducing in front of a pier or pilaster to support the entablature above. see also no. , plate . the idea of these male figures, which are some- times called telamones or giants, is taken from the temple of agrigentum, where they are represented supporting the superincumbent weight upon their head and arms. - no. . a four-way wave scroll, forming a panel for inlay or painted decoration. nos. , , , , contain suggestions for meander a:fruscan ornamentation. c h a p t e r w ii. etr u s can orn amientation. ; º truria, the modern tuscany, was a large and important É country in central italy. its * colonization and early history are involved in much uncertainty. it is supposed by some, that the etruscans emi- grated from lydia in asia minor at a period long before the christian era, and that they carried with them the germs of greek art. they appear to have made early progress in the art of working bronze and the precious metals, but more especially in the production of beautiful pottery ware, seen in the elegant vases found so plenti- fully in various parts of the country. many thousands of these vases were discovered in the year ; about three thousand being excavated from the site of vulci alone. they were found in small grotto tombs, some- times built, but usually hollowed out of the rocks, and are of various styles and periods of art. some writers, notwithstanding the fact of there being greek inscriptions upon many of the vases, claim them as purely etrus- can works; while others assert that they were imported from greece. the difficulty, how- ever, of transporting them in such numbers, in consequence of their extreme fragility, renders it more probable that the potters themselves rather than their products were imported. potteries producing works of the highest style of art existed at athens and corinth, and as it is well known that etruria beautiful objects. received fresh infusions of greek blood at various times, it may be assumed that among these colonists were potters and artists, who brought with them the neces- sary skill for fabricating and painting these from the vast numbers found, these vases had evidently been for a long period in great demand among the etruscans, and this circumstance would doubtless attract fictile artists from athens and other places throughout greece. al- though popularly known as etruscan, these vases may therefore be considered of greek workmanship, and in fact many vases in similar styles have been found in athens, corinth, sicily, samos, and other greek islands. the ceramic arts are among the earliest practised by mankind works in burned earth or terra cotta are found in egypt, and in many parts of the habitable globe, but nowhere more plentifully than in asia minor and the various states of greece. although the egyptians never attained to any high degree of excellence in this art, yet the use of such vessels among them was universal. the celebrated flesh-pots of egypt were of terra cotta, and for many purposes for which iron is now used, clay was in use during the time of the pharaohs. the ancient potter's wheel was of very simple contrivance, and was turned by the foot of the workman himself; yet the a fruscam ormamentation. afterwards it was returned to the work- representations of many products, instru- shop, where a workman or painter with a ments, and processes in the mechanical arts. pointed tool scratched in the details, when the decorations were black. but it is evident that these stiff lines were quite inadequate to express those softer con- tours, which melted, as it were, into one an- other, and which marked the more refined grace and freedom of the rapidly advancing schools of sculpture and painting. by chang- ing the colour of the figures to red or orange, according to the nature of the clay, the artist was enabled to draw lines of a tone or tint scarcely darker than the clay itself, but still sufficient to express all the fine anatomical details; while the more important outlines still continued to be marked with a black line finely drawn. the change was produced by tracing the figures on the clay with a fine point, and then working in the whole ground in black. the subjects represented upon the vases relate most frequently to heroic personages, such as jason, achilles, hercules, and others belonging to greek mythology; but many scenes are of a more ordinary and even of a domestic character. thus some represent the chase, the public games, women drawing water at a fountain, or employed in their in- door occupations. the figures are generally drawn in profile, full faces being very rare. temples also are occasionally introduced, with doric or ionic columns. or bordered with ornament, and armour and many of the dresses are diapered altars are of frequent occurrence, as well as furniture, such as chairs, upon which some of the figures are seated. many curious parti- culars maybe learned from these vase pictures, in reference to the hellenic ritual, games, festivities, and domestic life; and there are besides figures and similar subjects, etrus- can vases were also very elegantly enriched by bands of beautiful foliage, formed with spirals and honeysuckles of the most varied description, of which an ex- ample is given in fig. . these enrich ments are full of the most valuable suggestions to the ornamen- tist. they bear great similarity to the decorations found in greek architecture, of the bands contain some and many beautiful variations upon the greek an- themion or- nament — one of which is indicated by fig. . frequently more natural foliage is intro- duced, as in fig. , which repre- - •e sents the berries tºº c. § of the ivy alter- tº s • *- •'s". v, nating with the plain leaves of the ivy, which in nature are always found of this undivided form when on the same stem fig. . which bears the º e tº: e º flowers and ber- sw/v/\!/ ries. the greek - fig. . egg-and-tongue or echinus orna- ment, figs. ºn nbnzn monly introduced very skilfully varied, from the more rigid sculptured form. upon the sugges/ions in design. handles of many of the vases a heart form or leaf enrichment with a central stem is of constant occurrence, fig. . the meander, with flowers or crosses at intervals, almost invariably occurs as a band round the vase under the feet of the figures, as if to represent the ground. other characteristic ornaments are olive-leaf band (fig. ), and a leaf or bud with interlacing de à ébébébée qpq qpq º' all fig. . semicircles, as in fººt, fig. sº . this last is again fur- ther varied, as in fig. , which may also be considered as another variation of the there are besides a vast variety of the most elegant arrange- ments of greek leaf and scroll form to be found upon these vases, and the large collection of them which is now in the british museum presents end- less examples for the purposes of study. they all appear to have been painted by hand, and the lobes of the leaves and flowers, when in black, are evidently produced rapidly by a species of brush form united and brought together with the utmost grace and elegance. when, however, the ornament is left in red, as is so frequently the case in the second class of vase, the process is much more difficult, and the skill required is proportionately greater. the painter has then to go round the leaves and scrolls, leaving them of the colour of the anthemion ornament. fig. . ſ \ n z\z\z\z\as - fig. . asznzszszsznzsz | t | w #| iſ ground, as in fig. . even such elaborate enrichments as that shown by fig. are frequently left in red and the ground filled in black. although the artist was doubtless assisted by a tracing upon the clay, yet the care and skilful handling required to stop- out the ground and leave the ornament in red must have been very great. the forms which these vases present is an- other element of beauty, and an interesting and valuable study to the art-workman, but into this subject it is impossible to enter the names of only a few of the different kinds within the limits of the present work. show the variety which existed among them: as the hydria, for water; the amphora, for wine; the krater and or/bapha, large vases with two handles; and the oinochoë, or wine jug. upright vase, as shown by figs. and ; the situ/a or bucket, fig. ; and the kulir, fig. , of which fig. shows the top or in- side. these forms were modified and altered the lekythos is an elegant form of during the long period of time the manu- facture lasted, and in some of the later vases the figures and enrichments were executed in relief. - the etruscans were also skilful workers in metal. besides fictile vases, great quan- tities of bronze work and jewelry of the very highest degree of excellence have been discovered in the excavations. the smaller works in pure gold consist of diadems and coronets set with intaglios and precious stones; also hair-pins, earrings, collars, necklaces, bracelets, rings, and other objects, all worked with such perfection, extra- ordinary lightness, and delicacy, that they leave far behind all modern examples of the jeweller's art. armour and weapons, and many instruments requiring a fine edge, such suggestions in zoesign. torrents of volcanic mud that filled the latter city hardened into a coarse stone, and subse- quent eruptions had covered it to a depth varying from to feet. in , whilst sinking a well, the site of herculaneum was accidentally come upon. its existence was so little dreamed of that a modern village had been erected above its buried remains. marble columns and statues of surpassing beauty were brought to light by the aid of the well which had been dug, but the neapolitan government inter- fered, and for nearly thirty years operations were suspended. in , however, the marquis venuti was appointed superinten- dent of the excavations, and he commenced by carrying on a kind of tunnel from the old well. in a short time two bronze eques- trian statues were found, and soon after three full-length marble figures, with massive piers of brick, plastered with stucco, and painted with arabesques in various colours. the excavators had now reached the in- terior of the theatre, as the numerous steps and seats clearly indicated. the ancient name of the city was found on a pedestal, and the certainty that these remains formed part of the buried herculaneum is said - to have materially increased the energy of the explorers. vast numbers of wall pic- tures, statues, and other works of art were brought to light. but the difficulty of proceeding with the excavations at herculaneum in con- sequence of the hardness of the material, the great depth at which they had to be carried on, and the crowded habitations which existed above, compelled the govern- ment to abandon them and turn their attention more particularly to pompeii. in the disentombment of this wonderful city was commenced, and since then the work has proceeded with more or less interruption. the italian government now grants a sum of money annually for the pro- secution of the excavations, and a regular plan has been adopted, by which the ruins are systematically explored and carefully preserved. up to the present day, the gen- eral result of discovery may be stated as fol- lows:—three forums, nine temples, a basil- ica, the chalcidicum (probably employed as an exchange), three piazzas, two theatres, an amphitheatre, a prison, double baths, nearly one hundred houses and shops, several villas, town walls, eight gates, and twelve tombs. all were as fresh when discovered, and the paintings on the walls as bright, as if they had been buried but yesterday. the abundance of works of art and means of luxury found in this ancient provincial city of some thirty thousand inhabitants, affords us a vivid idea of the splendour of italian cities under the empire. the houses of pompeii illustrate in a remarkable degree much of the private life and manners of their ancient occupiers. the principal divisions of a pompeian house consisted of three square chambers, leading one into the other; the first and last of these were lighted each by a square opening in the ceiling open to the sky, but the central apartment was only lighted from the rooms on either side. there was no division between the apartments, beyond that made by curtains, by which the light from the other rooms could be regulated at pleasure. the first room, which was generally the largest, was called the atrium, and had a square tank or basin in the middle of the floor, to collect the water dropping from the roof and receive the rain falling through the aompeian ornamentation. opening. this arrangement for the free descent of rain afforded two essential luxur. ies to the inhabitants of a southern climate— shade and moisture. in a country like our own it is scarcely possible to estimate their value. the accompanying illustration, fig. , is a restored interior view of the house which has been named “the house of the tragic poet.” it shows the three apartments spoken of: first, the atrium, out of which opens the tablinum, the central apartment, through which is seen the peristylium, so called because surrounded by columns. this had a larger aperture open to the sky than the atrium, and the open space below was laid out with plants like a garden. the atrium was generally surrounded by smaller rooms, called cubicula or bedrooms; and the square of the atrium was broken by the fig. .-house of the tragic poet (so called), pompeii. further part being widened into alae or wings. the tablinum was narrowed by a partition, which took off a side passage, called fauces, through which the servants passed from one end of the house to the other without dis- turbing the occupants of the middle chamber. on one side of the peristyle was the triclin- ium or dining room, and on the other the culina or kitchen. there were also rooms for slaves, generally, in a story above. as in our modern houses, the proportions varied according to the fancy of the owner or the limitations of space. some had a greater number of apartments, others a double set ; but in all well - constructed houses, whatever the rank of the owner, the atrium, tablinum, and peristylium remain the essential portions. in the atrium the owner of the house received his clients and friends, transacted business, and was waited upon by his slaves. it was only in the tab- linum that he could indulge in privacy. the style of the buildings and decorations which have been discovered may be correctly distinguished as being of late or debased greek, with a frequent admixture of roman; it is sometimes called graeco-roman, and there cannot be a doubt but that greek sugges/ſouls in zoesign. or etruscan artists, both sculptors and painters, were very largely employed by the pompeians. the architectural details, how- ever, were carelessly and ungracefully de- signed. these artists did not depend so much upon form for effect as upon colour. the whole of the architecture of pompeian houses was coloured and decorated, and the walls covered with paintings and arabesque designs. the painters therefore depended principally upon the fanciful manner in which these decorations were worked out. £º ºiliº they appear to have delighted in represent- ing every form of architectural detail in the lightest and most graceful manner, often in perspective, fig. . scroll-work of the fig. . brightest hues, with every variety of orna- mental conceit, were brought together (fig. ), but their playfulness and elegance re- lieved them from vulgarity. paintings were often enriched by fanciful borders (fig. ); floors were inlaid with elaborate mosaics, and the borders with meanders and other devices shaded in colours (fig. ). the decoration in many instances was evidently executed with a marked greek feeling, as indicated by fig. , and had a pleasing and chaste character. it was com- posed for the most part of conven- tional ornaments in flat tints, fig. . nº either painted dark on a light ground, or light on a dark ground, but without any attempt at shade or being represented in relief. in contrast to this, however, much of it was in a very different style, shaded and coloured in the most fantastic and capricious manner. of this style, fig. , represented in outline, presents an example. this is clearly of a toman character, and was based upon the acanthus scroll, frequently interwoven with ornament in direct imitation of nature. again, in many of the floor mosaics, repre- sentations of raised surface, as in fig. , were of constant occurrence. that the pompeians highly prized greek art is evident from the number of greek bronzes that have been found among the ruins of the city. among these the bronze candelabra are very elegant, with greek foliage, gracefully introduced between the tripod legs; and they are precisely the same in style and character as the numerous examples which have been discovered in etruria. some visitors to pompeii may be struck with the intensity and crudeness of the colours on the walls, but this was to some extent toned down by the amount of shade in which the rooms were kept. in hot countries the exclusion of light and heat from the rooms in the daytime is a necessity, and the brightness of the colours is therefore a'oman ormamentation. ** much lessened on account of the sombre light in which they are usually seen. in all the variation of colour on pompeian interiors there is one pervading principle, namely, that the strongest and darkest colours are con- fined to the lower part of the wall. thus if the dado be black, the upper part will be red or yellow, and the ceiling white; if the dado be red, the rest of the wall will be yellow or blue; and if the dado be yellow, all the rest of the room will be white. the arabesque devices, which occupy so much of the wall space of pompeii, are replete with imagination and ingenious variety. there is so much playfulness and elegance in the combination of objects so unexpectedly brought together, that the incongruities are overlooked, and the whole comes to be regarded as a dreamlike suc- cession of images, passing easily from one extreme to the other without consideration of that which has gone before. the children rising out of flowers are charming; while the lions rushing through scroll-work of the brightest and most varied hues are purely ornamental conceits. the whole style of decoration constantly exhibits indiscriminate extravagance, and a recklessness as to cost or expenditure of labour, and plainly indi- cates the luxury and magnificence in which dwelt the proud and wealthy inhabitants of this ancient roman city. plate . no. . painted arabesque for narrow panel. no. . grotesque panel painted in relief. all kinds of animals, monsters, and children were thus introduced in the most incongruous manner. no. . wall decoration, painted in the brightest hues, with arabesque borders varied, the centre in perspective as if seen through an opening. no. . arabesque pilaster or filling for panel. nos. and . painted borders. no. . dolphin brought in with scroll-work. griffins and many other animals were often most playfully intermingled with the foliage. cha pter ix. roman orn amentation. its variations are mainly those of detail and arrangement. in greek and roman architecture there are the same orders—the doric, ionic, and corinthian. the two orders that the romans are sup- posed to have added cannot truly be called separate orders, the tuscan being simply a variation of the doric, and the composite a mixture of the ionic and corinthian. the corinthian was the order that was most in favour with the romans, and it was the style adopted for some of their largest and most important temples, as well as for many of their triumphal arches. suggestions - in design. the corinthian capital was made far more perfect than any greek example of that order which has been handed down to us, and the entablature was most ela- borately enriched by foliated sculpture. in effecting these alterations and improvements the romans availed themselves greatly of the exquisite talent of the greeks, by inviting many of the artists of greece to reside among them, and by intrusting to them all their most important buildings. such was the admiration of the romans for greek art, that they sought for it wherever it was to be obtained; and upon the conquest of greece they brought away many of the most beautiful works of sculpture and set them up in rome. the statues of the apollo belvedere, the venus de medicis, and many other highly-prized antiques are greek works, and were probably executed at the time of greece's greatest prosperity. the romans also greatly extended the use of the orders, by applying them not only to temples, but to basilicas, theatres and amphitheatres, baths, palaces, tombs, triumphal arches and pillars of victory, gates, bridges, and aqueducts. although not the original inventors of the arch, they employed it extensively in their architecture, a feature that was never adopted by the greeks, although its form was known to them at a very early period. one of the few instances of the arch or domical form being used by the greeks is found in the treasury of atreus at mycenae. the joints of the stonework, however, do not radiate with the curve, as in a true arch, but are kept horizontal, forming a series of corbel- lings with the underside worked to the form of an arch. although undoubted instances of the true arch have been found among the works of the egyptians, as well as in those of the assyrians, such as have been dis- covered at nimroud and khorsabād, yet apparently, the principle of the arch was unknown to the greeks. the arch was frequently applied by the romans in a somewhat inferior position— that of filling in between columns, which were set rather wide apart, and made to support an entablature, fig. . it was used in this manner in the triumphal arches, theatres, and other build- ings. afterwards the arch - e; tº; was placed above the en- iſ iſ iſ iſ iſ it c tablature, but the entab - * lature was discontinued between the columns, and retained only immediately above the capitals. although the entabla- ture was omitted in some cases in the palace of diocletian at spalatro, it was not until the romanesque period that it disap- peared entirely, and that the arch was made to spring immediately from the capitals of the columns. the most important use of the arch, how- ever, was its application to vaults and domes. as exemplifying the perfection attained by the romans in such construction, the pan- theon is one of the most interesting buildings of antiquity. it is covered by a hemi- spherical stone dome, which has an internal diameter of feet, and is the earliest of any great size in existence. the dome springs from a height of feet above the ground, and has a circular opening at top, feet in diameter, for lighting the building. of vaults, as developed by the romans, the basilica of maxentius (sometimes called the temple of peace) offers a good example. the plan is a parallelogram divided into a’oman ormamentation. nave and aisles. the nave was vaulted with intersecting cross vaults, forming three semicircular groins supported on columns which were feet apart. the height of the vaulting from the pavement was about feet. the aisles were roofed by three transverse arches, which were each feet in span. the arch was also used exten- sively by the romans in their aqueducts; and nothing impresses the traveller more than these structures, stretching as they do across the campagna in long lines of arches, often of two stories. although formed simply in brick, and devoid of all architectural pretension, yet they are among the most beautiful examples of roman skill. their bridges likewise were designed on a grand scale. the one built by the emperor trajan over the danube has piers which are said to be feet in height from the foundations, and twenty arches each feet span. it was this remarkable skill of the romans in the engineering treatment of the arch which enabled them to invent that new system of vaulting, which when developed into groins and domes formed one of the grandest improvements in the constructive and scientific application of stone that had ever before taken place. this invention was destined, in later styles, to lead to the happiest results, to the conception and construction of the magnificent domes of the byzantine and renaissance periods, and to the intricate and fairy-like groining of the gothic cathedral. it caused a complete and extraordinary revolution in architec- ture, and through the pointed arch being at length adopted in place of the semicircular it became the origin and mainspring of all the mediaeval styles. by these great works, handed down to those who followed them, the romans have successfully shown their wonderful ability in construction. in whatever part of the world the remains of their works are to be found, their profound skill in the use of materials is a marked feature. there can- not be a doubt but that their engineering skill was equally manifested in the use of wood, for we read of bridges of remarkable dimensions having been erected of that material, although from its perishable nature it is not to be expected that any of them should still exist. their ornamental details and architectural sculpture, however, are not of the same high character as their construction. for these portions they employed greek artists, who have left us examples which present the utmost skill in workmanship and the most elaborate fulness or intricacy of detail. we cannot but admire these works and examine them with wonder; but they do not impress us with that intense sense of the beautiful, which we so much appreciate in the more simple and less elaborate enrichments of the ancient greeks. in the roman sculptures there is a softness and, as it were, a volup- tuous magnificence, but there does not exist that crispness of form and delicacy of line with which we are so struck in the exquisite works of phidias. their corinthian capitals were wonderfully elaborated. that from the temple of jupiter stator at rome (fig. ) was perhaps the most richly foliated example which has ever existed; but the height at which it was placed must have concealed much of its delicate workmanship. the foliage is said to have been taken from the acanthus mollis, but it has very little likeness to any natural sugges/ions in /)esign, type. sir william chambers says that almost all the antique corinthian capitals fig. . at rome are which was again different from that which was adopted in the capitals. fig. . en rich ed with olive leaves; the a can thus being seldom employed but in the composite. but as the olive leaf is a simple plain leaf like that of the laurel, and not divided into separate parts as in the corinthian leaf (fig. , which is from one of the capitals of the pantheon), it only amounts to the points of each lobe being similar to the terminal half of the olive leaf. nor do the leaves of the compo- site bear any closer resemblance to the acan- thus. fig. represents a portion of a leaf from one of the composite capitals in the arch of septimus severus; but as it is said that parsley was sometimes used as a model, this must be one of the ex- amples meant, for the mode of division in these leaves is much the same as in the natural leaf of the parsley, and it is not at all similar to that of the acanthus. the cornices in corinthian entablatures were highly enriched (figs. , , which represent a section and front view), and no part was left plain as in the greek. mould- ings and fascias were richly foliated (figs. , ), and friezes were filled with foliage and figures, fig. . this example also serves to show the elaborate nature of the foliage, > - - , another mode of enriching friezes was by representations of the skulls of oxen, supposed to be the heads of those sac- rificed to the gods, *——— with tº º - toons of * w * fig. . flow er's and fruit suspended from their horns by ribbons, fig. . many of the roman fig. . friezes were of the most elaborate and in- tricate workmanship, of which some few fragments fig. . have been h a n d e d down to us, execu- ted in the - most delicate manner. they exhibit great fancy and playful imagination, containing a’oman ornamentation. frequently figures, animals, birds, insects, and other objects. in their houses, baths, and public build- ings, the romans were extremely fond of mosaic pavements, many fine examples of which occur at pompeii and in the baths of caracalla at rome. indeed, scarcely a house of any size at pompeii was without some kind of tesselated pavement; and wherever roman colonization extended we find traces of such pavements. in the enrichment of the earlier roman works, greek taste prevailed until about from this period elaboration and abundance of ornament the time of alexander. supplanted the more refined style of art. carving of surface, as in friezes and mould- ings, became universal; foliage was made intricate in outline, and its surface carving was so exaggerated that although extreme fulness and richness were thereby gained, it was invariably at the sacrifice of simplicity and beauty of form. scrolls grew out of each other, as in the greek, but the foliated sheaths became long, and formed into a number of divisions and subdivisions, often ending in an elaborate centre flower. the sharp and crisp forms of the greek foliage became lost in the imitation of obtusely pointed or round-lobed leaves, more like the leaves of the chrysanthemum than any other form of natural leaf. - the frequent introduction of animals and monsters, such as the sphinx, the triton, the griffin, often with their extremities passing into foliage, is a marked and distinguishing feature of the roman style. ornamental vases and tazzas of great size, executed in the finest marble, enriched with foliage, and frequently surrounded with bacchanalian processions,— marble state chairs, seats, baths, altars, sarcophagi, and candelabra, covered by ornamentation, or supported on griffins,—indicate to some extent the luxuri- ousness of the roman citizens of high rank and their love of magnificence. we may fairly assume that the houses of pompeii, although adorned with sumptuousness, fell far short of the splendour, boundless wealth, and richness in marbles and works of art which must have been found in many of the palaces of imperial rome. besides their rich architectural features and tesselated floors, wall paintings doubtless everywhere adorned their interiors, rendering them dwellings of the utmost luxuriance. the few examples of wall paintings which have come down to us from the public baths, show them to have been of very similar character to those discovered at pompeii. plate . nos. and . animals, monsters, and various chimerae were commonly introduced by the romans among their carvings, such as sea-horses, no. ; or griffins with their extremities running off into scroll foliage, as in no. . nos. and . what are called terminti are charac- teristic features in roman decoration and furniture. the terminus or terminal was a form commencing with a head, and sometimes shoulders, finishing with feet, with claws, or with a plinth at bottom, the intermediate space being filled with a square portion tapering downwards. no. is a terminal emblematical of bacchus, filled in with the thyrsus and grape vine; no. , indicative of the god mercury upon the globe, with cap and wings attached to the head and wings to the feet, the centre being filled with the caduceus or wand of mercury. nos. and . comic and tragic masks. the greeks and romans usually wore masks in their theatrical performances, hence masks are often found used as ornaments. no. . we have not many examples of roman wall paintings; but there can be little doubt that their rooms were decorated by painting of the most sugges/ions in / esig/. elegant description. no. represents an ornamental fountain of fanciful design, such as may have been used for a panel in wall decoration, or might be suitable for carving in low relief. nos. and are ornaments arranged after the manner of masks. plate . nos. and . female head flanked with monsters. no. , lion winged with bird's claws; no. , bird with animal's hind legs. for carving in low relief. nos. and . rings in bronze for gates. the one represents the head of a satyr, the other a conven- tional lion's head. nos. and . running ornaments for painting. no. , a variation of the egg-and-tongue; and no. after the type of the greek anthemion ornament. no. . a double-bodied sphinx supporting a ped- estal carrying a lamp, flanked bysitting female figures representing industry and law, with a back-ground formed by the rays of the rising sun. applicable to wall decoration in painting or low relief. nos. and . painted or inlay ornaments for pilasters or upright panels. nos. and . terminal angles of altars. no. , winged lion and foot, with shaft of column with twisted flute and foliated base. no. , griffin's head terminating in a horse's hoof. no. . female terminal figure in the centre, from the base of which springs foliated scroll-work, carry- ing flower-baskets. for painted decoration. plate . nos. , , , , , , and are ornaments more after the etruscan manner, but such as may reason- ably be supposed to have been used in their painted decoration by the romans, who frequently employed etruscan artists in their house decoration. no. . foliated ornament for cresting or border. no. . ornament formed upon the honeysuckle, and with acanthus foliage. no. . ornamental fluting for columns or for carving in wood-work for a dado or other purpose. nos. , , , and . upright running ornaments for painting, containing branching foliage and flowers; leaf and berries, upon a wave line; a varia- tion upon the vitruvian scroll, with the reel and bead; and ivy with berries. no. . fanciful mask of neptune with beard worked into dolphins and trident: eyebrows and hair formed of sea-weed and earrings of escallop shells. nos. , , , and . ornaments or borders for inlay or painting. no. . surface decoration in relief. no. . bracket formed with african elephant's head at the angle; the centre flower and festoons interlacing with the animal's trunk. no. . tablet with pendant, buffalo or ox's skull with swag of fruit and flowers. the ox's skull was frequently used in roman ornament and decoration. see fig. . plate . nos. , , and . medallions. no. , head with dolphin helmet; no. , the triumph of love; no. , romulus and remus suckled by the wolf, emblem- atical of the foundation of rome. no. . terminal composition for a base, suitable for sculpture. nos. and . acorn and grape batons. no. . ornament in the form of a horn, with foliations springing from a boar's head. no. . central composition of swans and foliage, suitable for carving. no. . bracket supporting statuette of a bacchante flanked with scrolls. nos. and . grotesque centre. comic mask with side scrolls, supporting ( ) conventional eagle with foliated wings, and ( ) conventional winged panther. plate . nos. and . roman altar or pedestal with shield of minerva in the centre, containing the head of medusa, the gorgon, supported by a cupid. the left side finished with a fluted pilaster and foliated frieze panel, with a terminal figure in profile; the right- hand side pilaster panelled and filled in with inter- lacing vine foliage with grapes and birds. ram's head terminal in profile. nos. and . grotesque lion and ram's heads, for application to ornamental purposes. - no. . cupid with foliated termination carrying a basket. no. . panel in relief: the head of the gorgon medusa, and claws of harpy. no. . trophy with heads of hercules, ajax, and agamemnon, accompanied by lion's skin and clubs arranged ornamentally. t chinese ornamentation. no. . angle terminal. no. . centre terminal. and hoofs. no. . dolphin terminal or angle of pedestal. no. . angle of pedestal flanked by cornucopia, the ever-fruitful horn of amalthea. the angle filled with reaping-hook and corn. no. . border formed of spiral line and convol- vulus bell. convolvulus, horse-shoe plate . no. . ornamental composition in bas-relief, con- taining boy in vase with two cupids, scroll-work, and ram's head. nos. and . ornamental vase with varied sides for carving. no. . frieze in bas-relief, with boys as warriors, cupids, birds, animals, and reptiles, among the foliage. no. . fret inlay for wood panelling or marquetry. no. . scroll-work border of foliage with swans, fountain, and fish, for painted decoration. no. . fret border for painting or inlay. nos. and . fretwork for inlay or mosaic. similar examples are found in ancient pavements shaded as in no. ." "all decorations of pavements should be by flat ornament and not shaded as if in relief. if applied to a wall surface the decora- tion may with propriety be executed in relief, but not shaded if in flat ornament. c h a pte r x. chin e se orn amentation. l: fall known forms of architecture and ornament, that of the chinese is generally considered =# the most ancient, or at least that it is quite as ancient as the egyptian. but the origin of chinese art is involved in mystery, and so little do we really know of its commencement, or of its progress, that we are quite unable to trace its history. much of the chinese ornament and other minor works which are now brought to this country, appear to indicate the existence of a higher state of art at some former time than can be assumed of the chinese at the present day. their works strike one forcibly as being a somewhat dim reflection of a more lofty cultivation and much higher attainments in art, which may have existed among them at some remote period of their history. as a people they have, doubtless, many of the elements of a great nation. they are endowed largely with skill, industry, patience, and application. they are the working bees of the great human hive. they excel in constructive talent and in the technic arts, but they manifest no progress in the inventive faculty. were they always so one can hardly answer in the affir- mative; for their present comparatively high state of cultivation could not have been reached but by degrees. we are, therefore, necessarily obliged to fall back upon another supposition—that they were, at some distant time, a much greater people—that they then cultivated the arts with a much higher power than they now possess—and that, after having reached a lofty summit, they are now gradually receding, and retain only the remains of their former greatness. the sugges/ions in / esign. empire is of so high an antiquity, that, if one may be allowed the expression, it seems to have reached a second childhood, and therefore exhibits no sign of progress. the chinese show much skill in orna- mental workmanship, cutting and working granite with great perfection. their garden structures, balustrades surrounding tombs, and many parts of their public buildings, are executed in marble in an admirable manner. in the manufacture of bricks they are unrivalled. these form their usual building material, and they put them together with great precision, forming with them triangles, squares, circles, and even flowers. their roofs are covered with tiles, often of a brilliant yellow—the imperial colour. for ordinary buildings other colours, such as green and red, have to be adopted. the roof tiles suggest that bamboo was first used for roofs, and gave origin to the round form of the upper tiles. each end of the ridge of the roof is often ornamented by a dragon. and in some of the grander temples and palaces, these are formed of very large and beautiful pieces of majolica work. on the hips, leading to each corner of the roof, are a number of smaller animals; which, as well as the dragons, are supposed to protect the house. the architecture of the country is essen- tially wooden, and these wooden forms, as in other countries, may be found repeated in stone, marble, and metal. many temples, houses, and garden pavilions (fig. ) are, however, wholly of wood, and the roofs are commonly supported on triple brackets, a striking feature, and bearing a strong resemblance to japanese and indian construction. the houses are erected upon one common type: the front facing the street is either entirely plain, with no opening but the door, or is occupied as shops. the houses of the better classes fig. . have a gallery or verandah in the upper story, and terraces are often formed upon the roofs, surrounded by neatly painted railings. a number of very handsome pailows, or monumental gateways, are to be found throughout the country erected in granite, marble, or glazed tiles, in yellow or green, and having a very good effect; but no one who is acquainted with the gateways of the sanchi tope, in india, can fail to notice the marked resemblance, and their wooden origin is evident at the first glance. ancestral worship in china leads to such a profound veneration for graves, that a chinaman never disturbs one; he will plough round it from generation to generation, but he would never be guilty of the sacrilege of destroying it. the result is that the whole country is one vast cemetery. the usual form of the grave is a mound commencing from a yard in diameter, and there are parts of the country where, as far as the eye can reach, nothing but mounds can be seen. among these the tombs of the ming dynasty (which ended in ), situated about miles t chinese ormamentation. north of peking, are of very imposing ap- pearance. they are approached by a long avenue, with colossal stone figures on each side, and pailows or gateways in white marble. at the end of the avenue the tombs become visible, extending for some miles round the base of the hill. there are thirteen of them, that being the number of emperors buried at this place. the tomb of yung-lo, who was the first of the mings buried here (in ), consists of an artificial earthen mound about half-a-mile in circum- ference inclosed by a wall feet high all round. to the south of the mound is a rectangular space of about feet long by feet wide, inclosed by a wall, containing temples and other buildings, at the altars of which offerings are made. the temple at an emperor's tomb is for this purpose, and is an important addition to the original tumulus, its plan being exactly that of a yamun or palace. in china the difference between domestic and ecclesiastical architecture does not exist. the temple there is only a better kind of house. if it is a grand temple, it resembles a palace, and this is the case at the tomb of yung-lo. the tablet or tomb- stone within it is a tall block of marble placed erect on the back of a tortoise. another building of importance is the grand hall, which in this case is one of the finest of its kind in china. it is placed on a stone platform, surrounded by a low marble balus- trade. the hall is feet by feet; and the roof, covered with tiles of a rich yellow, is supported by sixty pillars, sixteen of which are feet high and the others about feet. the wood is teak, and although full years old, the building is as perfect as on the day of its erection. it has the usual frieze, including a triple row of brackets, and the roof is like that of all other imperial structures." the city of peking is but an extended village of dirty streets and crumbling walls going to ruin. near the summer palace of the emperor, and standing on a terrace, is a temple wholly constructed of beautifully coloured majolica, rich and bright in effect, all covered with ornament and buddhist figures. close beside it is a very fine temple, formed entirely of bronze, with the wooden forms repeated in metal. besides these, there are a number of imperial temples, such as the temple of heavenor the great dragon, the temple of the earth, the temple of agriculture, the altars of the sun and moon, and others. among the most remarkable and peculiar buildings in china are the towers called pagodas; their origin is involved in mys- tery, although it is known that the cele- brated porcelain pagoda at nanking was a memorial of gratitude, while others were commemorative of victories. many of them are of great antiquity; one about feet high mr. gutzlaff considered to be about twelve hundred years old. they are gener- ally built of brick, and sometimes cased with porcelain. they mostly consist of nine stories, though some have only seven, and others not more than five; but the stories are invari- ably in odd numbers.” their form is usually octagonal, and each story has a gallery with ornamental gilt iron rails, below which are projecting roofs turned up at the angles, and covered with glazed tiles of a rich yellow colour, which receive from the sun * condensed from a paper on the architecture of china, read in at the royal institute of british architects, by william simpson, f.r.g.s. - * every part or form in chinese architecture has a symbolical meaning—thus heaven is odd, earth is even; again, heaven is round, earth is square. - - suggestions in design. a splendour equal to burnished gold. the apex of the tower is finished with a pole surmounted by a ball with chains and iron hoops, and at each angle of the several roofs a bell is suspended, which is rung by the force of the wind, producing a jingling sound not altogether unpleasant.” the pagoda at nanking, erected in the early part of the fifteenth century, now in ruins, was feet high, and consisted of nine stories. the chinese employ polychromy as an important and essential part of their archi- tecture; so much so, indeed, that with them colour becomes more important than form. the result is so singularly pleasing and satisfactory, that there cannot be a doubt that a more extensive use of colour would be advantageous in other styles of archi- tecture. “in statuary they do not appear to have ever been very successful, but in other carving they are perfectly at home, and it would be difficult to surpass some of the dragon-entwisted columns to be found in the temples of central china. there is also great grace in the leaf tracery occ - sionally to be met with in the balustrades with which they delight to adorn their quays and gardens.” it is, however, in the ceramic art that the chinese excel, although even in this art the japanese have gone far beyond them. they prefer to imitate rather than to origin- ate; and the utmost that can be said is, that some of their imitations are as perfect as, and in truth undistinguishable from, the more ancient wares from which they are copied. when porcelain was first made is not ' dictionary of the architectural publication society. * catalogue of chinese objects at the south kensington museum, by c. alabaster. known, but, in all probability, that kind commonly called by us “china” originated in that country. the great ming dynasty (about a.d. ) is generally cited as the period when porcelain was brought to per- fection, and first began to be decorated with flowers and buds in rich enamel colours. how highly these products were valued in europe, when first introduced, may be inferred from the costly and persistent efforts made alike by governments and individuals at dresden, sèvres, berlin, and in england, to discover the materials and the processes employed, and to produce similar works. the ornamentation found upon porcelain consists mainly of flowers and foliage; dragons and birds, conventionally rendered from nature; scenes in gardens containing houses and terraces; and figures delineated in a soft manner but without much expres- sion. there exists a great similarity between the ornamentation of the chinese and their neighbours the japanese, and without doubt the latter have borrowed largely from the former. the japanese, however, are gifted with a higher artistic ability, and they give evidence of a progress which, whatever may have been the case in former times, we now look for in vain among the chinese. the principal charm, however, in oriental china is its harmonious colouring, in which, as with colour when applied to buildings, the chinese appear to hold a far higher position in art than they do in regard to form. without being able to observe any clearly defined rules by which they are guided, their colours are strangely fas- cinating to the eye and rarely inharmon- ious. apparently they proceed more by a sort of instinct or some natural gift, in /pesign. sugges/ions upon the same form, fig. . there are arrangements upon the hexagon, the square, and octagon (fig. ), as well as upon the diamond, zigzag, and other forms. fig. . fig. . :^^xº~zº some of their borders of curved lines, as in fig. , appear as if derived from classic mouldings; but fig. . one can hardly imagine the chinese bor- rowing ideas of art from any other country. they are particularly fond of every variety of the fret form, but these usually differ all in their not fig. . from classical frets being continuous. fig. is an example as applied to railing they have a very clever for a balustrade. fig. . fret or key diaper, fig. , which is also frequently found in japanese work, as in the ground no. , plate . it is a fav- ourite ground for vases, screens, and other work. scale or imbricated forms (fig. ) are frequent, worked out in various ways and in a variety of colours. combinations upon these simple arrangements are very numerous, and many of them extremely they may be fre- quently adopted as suggestions for other puzzling and ingenious. combinations, where geometrical diapers or borders are sought for. in the carving of all kinds of wood, ivory, and jade the chinese display great fancy and ingenuity, as well as extreme delicacy; and, notwithstanding their love of the gro- tesque, they frequently obtain an effect which excites considerable admiration. in lacquer-ware they are scarcely equal to the japanese, although the art is largely practised among them. the art of enamelling, again, though it was formerly much pursued, is now apparently neglected, and the japan- ese far excel them both in beauty and finish, more especially in the kind known as cloisonné enamel." the working and casting in metal has been practised by the chinese from remote antiquity. they have bells, dating from almost prehistoric times, many of them of such enormous size that the largest bells in britain would appear small in com- parison. works in bronze—such as figures, animals, incense-burners, gongs, and numerous other articles—have always held a prominent place among the chinese, and the art has been practised by them at certain periods with considerable success. iron bridges were erected centuries before they were ever heard of in europe, and in northern china many an enormous joss or idol, cast in iron, is dis- covered standing amid ruins of temples, des- troyed by time or iconoclastic rebels. * this kind of enamelling derives its name from the pattern being formed by wires or bands of metal soldered to the ground of copper or brass, separating the various coloured enamels, and appearing on the surface of the work surrounding and outlining each object. each separate compartment is called a cloison. japanese ornamen/a/ion. plate . the bamboo, with the hanging vase, the gracefully arranged flowers and foliage, and the life added to the composition by the birds and insects, is very pleasing, and in the chinese manner, although it may not be very high art. if looked at as a “motif.” - for panel decoration, it offers an excellent suggestion, and should be worked out in colours on a light toned or a gold ground. no. is three fans arranged triangularly in a circle, with intermediate flowers on a gold ground. no. consists of three overlying circles, in a trefoil form upon a fish-scale ground, containing geometrically formed four-petalled flowers. no. is formed by a diagonal zigzag line in two colours with filling-in cf flowers and leaves, applic- able to textile stuffs. no. . a panel showing the conventional treatment the borders are made up with flowers and other forms peculiar to the chinese. no. has a fret-formed square panel in a circle containing a flower. around the circle is a border with trefoil foliage flowing from the circle, the oblong sides being filled up with geometrical forms and flowers. no. contains dragons or hydras, with corner flowers and “crackle” filling-up in the spandrels. these grotesque and quaintly drawn dragons fre- of a female figure in a garden. quently occur, and form features in chinese ornamentation. in the panel no. the picturesque treatment of highly characteristic they typify the evil spirit which is supposed to exist in the world, and when placed on roofs are sometimes shown as pinned down to the building by a sword. the idea is the same as the superstition in this country of the horse-shoe nailed over the door, to prevent the entrance of all warlocks and witches. the chinese notion of an eclipse is represented by a golden ball, with a monster of the dragon species floating in mid air, and supposed to be advancing with open jaws to swallow up the golden orb which thus they typify what they consider to be evils, as dreadfully ugly monsters, ready to appear out of darkness to engulf them in their enormous jaws. no. is from a heart-shaped hand screen or fan, containing a dragon vase from which grows a rose, supported on a flower-stand with earth and side indicates the sun. foliage. no. has a flower represented symmetrically on each side of the centre of a hand screen or fan, issuing from a shell. the flowers are in colours upon a gold “crackle” ground. this crackle is taken from the china, in which the glaze has been cracked by heat or time, and therefore such examples are supposed to be of ancient date. in modern work the crackle is frequently imitated by painted lines, and its origin is found in the chinaman's love of the antique, and his desire to reproduce the effects of time or imperfectly glazed specimens of early workmanship. c h a p t e r xi. jaipane se orn amentation. *ative art in japan is close. # ly allied to that of china, j: # and both nations appear to be i * alike gifted with art powers, indigenous to the soil, and apparently flour- ishing without care or culture. more par- ticularly is this the case in that marvellous perception of form and colour, founded upon the laws of nature, that seems to be intuitive in asiatic races. in contrast- suggestions in design. ing the arts of china and japan, what strikes one forcibly is the marked differ- ence in the expenditure of labour upon their respective works—the japanese aiming to produce the greatest possible effect with the least amount of trouble, whilst the chinese make minute painstaking a prin- cipal virtue." whilst the people of japan have sought safety in seclusion, they seem to be by no means insensible to outward influences. with all their love of feudalism and seclu- sion, however, they appear to be much more free in thought than their neighbours the chinese; and while they are strongly bound by tradition, they are ever ready to learn from others, as many of their arts and manufac- tures clearly demonstrate. in their architecture, construction usually comes, as it should, before decoration. it may be said that the man who constructs a common deal box by dovetailing it together fig. . produces at the same time a z rtz r- v beautiful ornament (fig. ), and the dovetail which he forms becomes doubly beautiful because it grows out of the construction. so with the japanese: in their buildings they cut their corbels and brackets into pleasing forms, carve their beams, and shoe their rafters with gilded and engraved bronze, but all rises naturally out of the construc- tion, fig. . architecture, however, in its highest sense, is an art unknown among the ja- panese. they make for themselves and their gods only temporary homes and shrines, commonplace in construction, and tent-like ' in design. their houses and temples are mostly of one story, although occasionally of two. they are formed of wood framed to- fig. . gether, with elaborate bracketing supporting | widely projecting tile roofs, the whole being carried on stone foundations. as with the chinese, the form of the roof is generally con- cave, and turned up sharply at the angles; or it has a double curve, convex at the ridge and concave at the eaves. the tiles with which it is covered are of a grayish black colour, and the joints are cover- ed with a thick roll of white cement. the ridge and hip ornaments are of great size, and are formed of several cour- ses of tiles and | - - ii. cement, ter- - minated at the extremities by well-designed terra-cotta ornaments, fig. . the frequent occurrence of earthquakes in * the matter of this chapter is partly taken from a discourse on japanese art, delivered by john leighton, f.s.a., at the royal institution of great britain, may, . japan may probably be the reason why the japanese limit the height of their buildings; japanese ornamentation. and the same reason may also render a wooden construction, in which each part is firmly framed together, an absolute necessity the general appearance and arrangement of the ordinary houses have not altered since very early times. the walls are constructed of vertical and horizontal framework of posts and beams, mortised and tenoned together, filled in with bamboo laths, coated with mud in several layers, and finally plastered over one external wall or more, and most of the internal walls, are not covered with plaster; being filled in between the uprights with light wooden screens, sliding past one another upon porcelain rollers in grooves formed in the heads and sills of the frame- work, so that the whole or any part of the partition can be thrown open at pleasure. where light is required, these partitions are filled in with tough translucent paper, which in other cases, in interiors, these sliding screens are covered serves the purpose of glass. with paper decorated with patterns or paint- ings. ing, and, except in the largest houses, passages are of rare occurrence. the temples of japan are by far the most interesting buildings to be found in the country. they are usually placed in quiet and shady groves approached by imposing each room opens into the one adjoin- flights of stone steps, and long avenues bordered with lamps both of stone and bronze. those temples of the buddhist faith are accompanied by gigantic statues in bronze. at kamakoura a bronze effigy of buddha, sitting on the lotus throne with his legs doubled beneath the body, is feet high, and was erected more than six centuries ago. the temples abound with wood carving, tastefully disposed, representing animals, birds, and flowers of every kind, sharply and beautifully cut, the whole being often enriched by well-harmonized colours, with gilding and bronze ornaments. from the frequent recurrence of the elephant in their carvings—an animal almost unknown in the country—there can be little doubt but that they have derived much of their architec- ture and sculpture from india along with their religion. it is also very curious to find many types from the ancient egyp- tian, assyrian, and greek perpetuated in the works of this remarkable people. in their cemeteries there are hundreds of tombs, the typical form of which is represented by fig , a form suggested by the sacred bean and lotus, and of fig. . very frequent occurrence in india. the ornaments, figs. ' and °, are purely classic. the greek fret and echinus, or egg-and-tongue moulding, are both used in . china and japan, and key or l fret patterns, of which an in- finite variety have been pro- duced, are very popular. fig. g-&- °, in which scrolls are united rºm to a bud in the centre, after the manner of the greek anthemion ornament, is also common, though it has more of an assyrian feeling than either of the others. but it is in decorative art, as applied to almost every object of daily use, that the japanese show their superiority over most in the ornamentation of other nations." * much of this superiority is no doubt due to the wide diffusion of art instruction in japan. in a collection of japanese books recently made by professor nordenskjöld were the following pro- portions of volumes:—history , poetry , art of war and fencing , dictionaries and grammars , geography and maps , natural history , medical , trades and farming , and books containing patterns . most of the books are provided with innumerable drawings, some of them perfect master-pieces; and the pattern- books must be of value not only as to the history of art in the country but as to different branches of industry. ( sugges/ions in design. “some of the commonest fabrics, such as towels and dusters of the least costly materials, may be seen choice designs con- sisting of the most simple elements. a broken bamboo or two in counter-changed colours, a flight of birds or a few creeping plants, suffice in their hands to produce the most pleasing effect, as artistic as they are original.” but by far the most striking feature in all their works, and that which creates the greatest surprise in the minds of european artists, is their extraordinary fertility and readiness of invention—a fer- tility which produces such an apparently endless and astonishing variety of design and arrangement. sir rutherford alcock says that, “ of the thousands of cheap fans now scattered over europe, he doubts whether two would be found exactly alike.” it is this extreme love for producing variety, united to their graphic power of faithfully representing natural objects with every variation of form, movement, and expression, which is at the root of all japan. ese art. in going to nature for their inspir. ation they have perceived that no two parts are exactly alike, even to the two halves of a leaf-that all is unstudied and irregular, producing endless variety both in form and colouring. but they have not failed to go further than the mere surface of things, and have discovered that, beneath all this irregularity and apparent confusion in nature there exists the strictest geometrical pre- cision and regularity. upon these two opposite and seemingly contradictory prin- ciples the japanese have founded their art. they shun an equality of parts, or rather the appearance of an equality of parts— * art and art industries of japan, by sir rutherford alcock. ibid. weighing with the steelyard b, instead of the scales a, fig. ; and although they give ...; y - i - weight and bal fig. . j . . i | Ö diametrical vision, therefore they reject the division of fig , and adopt that of fig. : ance in another way, it is not by uniformity. they dislike di- frequently - - - - fig. . fig. . going still further by following the precedent of nature, who never repeats herself either in spangling the skies with stars or the while, on the other hand, symmetrical arrangements earth with daisies, fig. . fig. . fig. . are not discarded by them, and geometrical diapers (fig. ) are adopted whenever it suits their purpose. many of their diapers are the same as those used by the chinese, some of which will be found illustrated on pages , . the japanese do not appear to have any precise rules for their guidance in their compositions; but they usually attain a happy blending of the regular with the irregular—the symmetrical with the unsym- }apanese ormamentation. metrical. at one time the sole ornamenta- tion of an object consists simply of a bird on a branch of bamboo (fig. ); at another, fig. . the whole surface is entirely covered with elaborate ornamentation, circles and other forms being arranged in a perfectly regular manner, yet variety is obtained by the way in which these forms are filled in, or by the arrangement of the subsidiary ornamentation. their natural love of the irregular is still dominant. used, they are broken off abruptly, or are left in parts uncompleted. at other times the colours are varied, or the diaper is cut when geometrical diapers are into some prescribed form, but repetition is seen and acknowledged as one of the means of obtaining beauty. the regular is sometimes maintained by the bringing of the irregular into geometrical forms; as when birds and foliage are arranged in circles, squares, hexagons, or other figures—for example, the bamboo in plate , no. . the regularity of the circle is occasionally broken by the overlapping of another circle, plate , no. ; or it is bent over the edge of the object. their power of thus obtain- ing variety is apparently unlimited. they never appear to be long of one mind, but are always seeking for change in design; at the same time they invariably retain an artistic balance, either by form, colour, or plain space. variety is the distinguishing char- acter of japanese work, yet it never fails in symmetry; though in what constitutes sym. metry these artists have a very different feeling from what we have. the arts in japan may be said to depend in an eminent degree upon the picturesque, though rarely to reach the pictorial. that is to say, the japanese never produce a | picture, because the principal element of pictorial art—light and shade—is wanting. art of the highest kind may, and often does, exist without chiaroscuro, as in the com- positions of flaxman, which owe none of their world-wide fame to light and shade or colour. in the works of japanese artists may be observed the effects of light and dark, somewhat akin to that of chiaroscuro, rendered with much truth to nature, and a dignified simplicity that many of our artists would find it difficult to imitate. in ability of drawing japanese examples vary greatly; therefore it is of the utmost consequence to the art student to know what to study. many of their rocks, skies, and water appear to be borrowed directly from the chinese, and are represented purely in their own conven- tional and peculiar manner; but their rendering of birds, plants, and flowers (figs. and ), fish and insects, is marvellously true to nature, and all done with the lightest touch of the brush. cranes, storks, ducks, and geese (fig. ) have all their characteristic move- ments hit off with wonderful pre- when, however, we fig. . fig. . cision and fidelity. come to the higher class of drawing, as in the human figure, we find a deficiency. ja/anese orname/l/a/ion. other compound colours, which they use in grounds and large masses generally the principles of surface decoration adopted by the japanese can nowhere be better seen than in their lacquer ware, which exhibits the greatest fertility of invention. the manner in which flowers and birds are bent and twisted over surfaces is highly curious, as also the way they suggest ideas for shapes— sometimes so true to nature as to make one wonder at the draughtsman's skill, in others so highly conventionalized as to make one doubt the authority. haw- thorn, blackthorn (fig. ), bamboo, and rush are very common and characteristically rendered, as also cranes and tortoises, and landscapes touched in golden outline. small round ornaments are very popular in japan, probably from their resemblance to the crests or badges of the daimios— forms defended by law, in the same way as lions rampant and dragons displayed, are popular among ourselves. it is curious that nearly all these badges (fig. a,b,c,d,e) should be derived from floral ornaments, japanese heralds being doubtless guided by some principle—for in a first book for children may be found a popular badge in its conventional form, with a plant it is derived from, e, fig. . a red sun, or rather a red ball, as we should call it, is the emblem of the empire of japan, and is seen frequently in their books, as well as on their official documents. their belief in the air being peopled with evil spirits causes the japanese artists to bring in dragons and other imaginary animals into their decoration and carvings. they represent the typhoon as a horrid dragon tearing up the earth and sea; thunder and lightning they depict as a grotesque demon, with a mallet or stick in each hand, beating half a dozen cymbals arranged in a circle over his head; and the winds, as an old man of sinister aspect, with an inflated bag on his shoulders, allowing the wind to escape from the corners, which are held by his hands. they have many other demons of a similar character, some of which, like the chinese, they carve upon their buildings as a protection against others. the chinese are known to have been skilled as engravers upon wood and metal long before europe had dreamed of tomes in black-letter; but who, a few years ago, would have ventured to claim for japan also, a similar priority in colour-printing? yet this appears really to be the case; for in no instance do their specimens bear evidence of having been copied from anything done in the western world, being hand-proofs, worked in flat tints, without a press. if their printing excites our surprise, what shall we say of their paper? certainly we have nothing like that article which plays so important a part in japanese life, serving a hundred purposes unknown to us: alike protecting them and their houses from wind and weather; windows, coats, and handker- in design. sugges/ions chiefs being all made out of that substance. it is not manufactured from rags, as our papers are, but of the bark of the paper mulberry, which furnishes an article much tougher than ours. the toughness and pliability of this paper is surprising, espe- cially in the thinner sorts. the papers by which their walls or screens are covered internally exhibit great originality, variety, and striking effects of colour and pattern. in pottery, as in some other arts, the japanese greatly excel europeans. the ornamentation of their works, of whatever kind, is skilfully adapted from nature, and is rendered in a striking and appropriate manner peculiar to themselves. in the art of enamelling, especially in that sort known as “cloisonné,” they are very proficient. but whether it be porcelain, leather, paper, wood, stone, metal, textile fabrics, or any other material, the skill displayed in the decoration of these various substances is worthy of all praise. in artistic feeling they possess much of which our works are often lamentably deficient. the ease and facility which are so apparent in japanese drawing, when contrasted with some of our own stiff and laboured productions, are qualities that we may look upon with envy and wisely seek to imitate. at the same time, in the examination of japanese art, we must be careful to dis- criminate between that which is worthy of imitation and that which is vicious in prin- ciple. for there can be no greater mistake than to suppose, because we find such subtle art feeling among the japanese, that there- fore all their work must be equally good. those who have taken up japanese art, and who affect the manner of the japanese in their own works, will probably, like most copyists, be more liable to seize upon and reproduce their errors rather than to the object, therefore, of every art-student should be catch their better qualities. not to copy, but to seek inspiration at the same fount that they have sought theirs— nature; and then to embody his conceptions in his own way, after having learned what he can, not only from the japanese, but from every other available source. plate . no. . aquatic birds and river plants, all full of expression. japanese treatment of circular figures is very various. no. . an unsymmetrical arrangement of inter- laced lilies. no. . a wheel or spring form, as if in movement. no. . a curious diaper of conventional birds swimming on water, represented as looking down upon them. no. . birds as seen in rain. no. . sections of flowers unsymmetrically ar- ranged. no. . bird pattern arranged symmetrically. no. . birds and flower brought into a circle. no. . butterfly diaper; the insects being placed bi-symmetrically and counterchanged in colours. no. . square on octagonal form, placed on the key or fret diaper, similar to what is found in the chinese, fig. . no. . conventional flower decoration. no. . natural flowers on a conventional form. plate . no. presents an interesting example of the symmetrical arrangements which are occasionally met with. it embraces a great variety of objects, very cleverly disposed and full of life, as if on the sea-shore: a crab in the centre, with lobsters on each side, dolphins and flying-fish; one of the flying-fish forming the centre over the crab being represented skimming the distant water and approaching towards us. the breakers on the shore are very conven- tionally rendered, giving the whole an odd mixture and quaint conceit, which is far from being un- pleasing. j'affanese ornamentation. no. . classic forms imitative of greek or roman furniture are sometimes met with in japanese works, as in this example, which represents a tripod- chair in which is placed a vase of flowers. it is probably a recollection from books shown them by missionaries or others from the west. an imi- tative people are sure to be struck with any new form they may see. no. contains some of their peculiar fret-forms growing from a bulb, the whole being arranged in the form of a trefoil issuing from a circle. no. is a conventional and yet lifelike arrange- ment of interlaced fish surrounded by a narrow border of water, which partakes of the general outline, and by its dark colour throws up the fish with great distinctness. no. is somewhat of the same character as no. , taking up the vase-form, which is filled in with fret and leaf ornaments. no. is a landscape, with bird of prey evidently intent upo the fish, which is attempting to ascend the cascade. the sun with clouds, the gnarled trunk of the tree, and the plants in the foreground are all worth noticing, and are highly characteristic of japanese art when representing nature. no. shows two overlapping circles, as may have been suggested by seals or coins. the first contains a fan, with a floor indicated by fret-work, and the sky studded with stars. the underlying circle has a wheel form of eight arms indicated in two colours. pattern upon pattern, and form upon form, is by no means uncommon in eastern art, but the way in which circular patches are placed upon frets and grounds is peculiar to china and japan. plate . no. . four-petalled flowers contained in contin- uous vesicas, the colours alternately change on each side the centre line. ribbon border. the lower margin contains a no. . hexagonal figure formed with bamboo, the articulations of the stem forming the angles, from three of which issue a triple arrangement of leaves, the centre ones meeting in the centre of the circle and the lateral ones turning down to the unoccupied angles. the ground is spread with flowers irregularly. no. is a hexagon with three spirally-formed petals, alternating with what are apparently meant for stamens. no. . fans, a damio's device. an odd admixture of animal and vegetable life, among which is seen a portion of a sculptured head in bas-relief. the birds among the reeds, the animal climbing a tree, the mermaid and her offspring, and the triple arrangement of the leaves of the water-lily, each of which also contains the flower, but, above all, the poor old horse standing shivering in the wind up to his fetlocks in rank coarse grass, which is evi- dently not inviting to his palate-all show what intensity of expression these artists are able to throw into comparatively minor objects. not a line out of place or that could be spared. no. is a fret diaper in two colours, carried diagonally by a z-like line. no. is a leaf border with fret edge on a matted ground. no. is a treble diagonal key-fret border, with zigzag edges and circles in the intervals. no. contains one of these extraordinary con- ventional birds, which, although so unlike anything in nature, is yet full of life and vigour. the clouds are indicated by curiously formed curly out- lines. no. is a border formed of the nautilus, sailing on a conventional sea, with the sand of the sea-shore in the foreground, and curiously formed clouds above. no. has a triple leaf-formed arrangement, with a spur or three-pronged figure in the centre. no. . an s-form on an oval flower. no. represents a tortoise and aquatic animals among reeds and bamboo. no. . fish with water and land back-ground. nothing seems to come amiss to the japanese,_ every form in nature is introduced in some shape or other. whatever does not in any way accord with their ideas of the beautiful is altered by them at once, and rendered in their own odd, conventional manner. sugges/ions in zoesign. c h a p t e r xii. indian orn amentation. examples of its ancient art :::::::::::::::: ºft which are still extant, render the examination and study of the architec- ture and ornament of india a difficult and extremely intricate subject. instead of one style of architecture, many styles have ex- isted, some of which commenced many cen- turies before our era. and there is the further difficulty, that we possess scarcely any documents to assist in unravelling the large and truly tangled skein of the history of indian art. mr. fergusson, our highest authority on indian architecture, says: “one of the greatest difficulties that exists—perhaps the greatest—in exciting an interest in indian antiquities arises from the fact, that india has no history properly so called, before the mahommedan invasion in the th century. had india been a great united kingdom, like china, with a long line of dynasties and well recorded dates attached to them, the task would have been comparatively easy, but nothing of the sort exists or ever existed within her boundaries. on the contrary, so far as our knowledge extends, india has always been occupied by three or four different races of mankind, who have never amalgamated so as to become one people, * history of indian and eastern architecture—a valuable work, to which we are much indebted for the material of this chapter. and each of these races have been again sub- divided into numerous tribes or small nation- alities, nearly, sometimes wholly, inde- pendent of each other—and what is worse than all, not one of them ever kept a chron- icle or preserved a series of dates commenc- ing from any well-known era.” this absence of any historical record is the more remark- able, because india possesses a written literature of great variety and extent. at a very remote period, supposed to be about years b.c., the aryans, a people coming from central asia, entered india across the upper indus. about six or seven centuries before christ buddha was born, although buddhism did not become the state religion until about b.c. with the adoption of buddhism, temples and other works, which previously had been of wood, were erected in stone. from this period, therefore, we have a series of architectural monuments handed down to us which are buddhist in style, and are so for five or six centuries after that time, when buddhism ceased to be the religion of the country. then arose the architecture of the jains, but the religion of the buddhists and that of the jains are so similar that the style of their architecture and their sculptures are almost identical. these early remains are very numerous, and consist of structural buildings and cave temples cut out of the solid rock. the amalian ormamentation. character of the former is that of great elaboration of ornament, the entire surface of the structure being covered with sculp- tured work. the caves are cut out in exact imitation of the interior of an actual structural building. the most interesting of these are the chaitya halls, or places of worship of the early buddhists. they are exact coun- terparts of the churches of the christians, not only in form but in use. one of the oldest of these, probably executed before the christian era, is situated at a place called bhaja. fig. is a plan and fig. a transverse section of this chaitya hall. it is feet in length, and in the form of nave and aisles, with a semicircular end, in the fig. . axis of which is a dagoba or altar. these caves ap- pear to imitate wooden structural buildings, and in their details are a transition from the use of wood to the ceilings, which are semicircular in the centre and a quadrant of a circle for the aisles, have ribs cut in the rock, but which are evidently copied from the wooden forms of previous structures. in front was a wooden screen, which has now disappeared, but the holes to receive its posts and the mortises by which it was attached to the stonework are still there. stone. fig. . many other chaitya caves exist, the largest and finest of which is at karli on the road between bombay and poonah. in plan and section it is very similar to the one already described, consisting of a nave and aisles terminating in an apse round it is feet long by feet inches in width, but it is which the aisle is carried. only about feet from the floor to the apex. fifteen pillars on each side separate the nave from the aisles; each pillar has a tall base, an octagonal shaft, and richly orna- mented capital, on which kneel two elephants, each bearing two fig- ures, all very much better executed than such ornaments usually are. above this springs the roof, semicircular in general sec- tion, and ornamented, even now, by a series of wooden ribs probably coeval with the ex- cavation. immediately under the semi-dome of the apse, and nearly where the altar would stand in a christian church, is placed the dagoba. the general effect of these chaitya caves will be more clearly understood by fig. , which represents the interior of the bisma kurm, at ellora. this indicates the stone-ribbed ceiling of the nave, with the dagoba, containing a sitting figure of buddha, in the semi-circular apse. these peculiarities are found more or less developed in all the other caves of the same class in india, varying only with the age and the gradual change that took place from the purely wooden forms that prevail in these suggestions in design. ancient caves to the stone architecture in the more modern ones. other caves, called viharas, were formed with a central hall, with cells around, as in fig. , from ajunta. they were a species of monasteries for the budd- hist priests or hermits. such monasteries were also fre- quently erected in regular structural buildings, and of several stories in height. besides the caves already described, others have not only been excavated in- ternally, but have been carved and formed on the outside as well, so as to present the appearance of buildings erected in the usual way. of these the rock-cut temple at ellora, known as the kylas, is one of the most notable examples. it belongs to the ninth or tenth century. in describing the kylas mr. fergusson says that, “it is not a mere interior chamber cut in the rock, but is a model of a complete temple, such as might have been erected on the plain. in other words, the rock has been cut away externally as well as internally, but in cutting away the rock around it to provide an exterior, the whole has necessarily been placed in a pit.” this difficulty has been avoided in the raths or pagodas of mahavellipore, as these were hewn out of enormous boulders of granite which were found lying near the sea-shore. they present the appearance of perfect iso- lated structures, and are supposed to be as early as the tenth century. among the monuments which have been left by the buddhists none are more interest- ing than those which are called topes the most extensive group of these is that known as the bhilsa topes, from a town of that name in the kingdom of bhopal, near which they are situated. the group comprises about twenty-five or thirty examples, and the principal one among them is known as the great tope at sanchi. little is known regarding their object, but it is supposed that they were for containing precious relics, or to mark some spot sanctified by the pre- sence or by some act of buddha. the tope at sanchi, constructed about b.c., con- sists of a solid dome somewhat less than a hemisphere, feet in diameter and feet in height. on its top is a flat space about feet in diameter, formerly surrounded by a stone railing, some parts of which are still lying there; and in the centre of this once stood a feature known to indian archaeolo- gists as a tee. the whole was surrounded by stone rails, which inclosed a space of about feet in diameter. these rails are supposed to have been erected about b.c. there are also four gateways, or torums, as they are more properly called. of these the south gateway is the oldest, dating about a.d." these gateways are covered with the most elaborate sculptures both in front and rear, representing various scenes in buddhist mythology. they are formed of two upright square posts in stone and three horizontal beams above, slightly arched in the centre, extending considerably beyond the uprights, and looking like a gigantic piece of timber-work which has been imitated and copied in stone. but it is the sculptures and ornamentation, which are executed with great care and minuteness, that cause these gateways, very deservedly, to be considered excellent examples of indian art at one a cast of the eastern gateway from this tope has now been placed in the south kensington museum. it is supposed to have been erected a little later than the south gateway. - * : amaiazz ornamentation. of its best periods. the front of one of the piers of the eastern gateway, for they are all different, is divided into stories containing figures with columns in bas-relief, and among these we perceive the two- headed capital, to those found at perse- similar polis. there are other parts which strongly re- one of assyrian the side of one of mind work. the piers or uprights is filled in with foliage (fig. ), consisting of large flowers probably meant for water-lilies, and some of the spaddrels betweenthem are composed of the lotus, having a. headed serpent or naga. the top rails are held in their position by tenons cut on the top of the pillars, and the rails, which are lens-shaped, are slipped into holes prepared to receive them on either side of the pillars, the whole showing an essen- fig. . tially wooden construction. these rails play an im- portant part in buddhist ar- chitecture, and upon them the workman lavished the utmost resources of his art. the rail which has been discovered at amravati, of which some portions are preserved in the india museum, is covered with intricate ornament and elaborate sculpture of a most inter- esting char- acter. | there are strong resem- various other blance to the styles of in- assyrian– dian architec- (plate , no. ture, differing ). these essentially and other fig. –great temple at bhobaneser. from those parts evidently point to a certain amount of classical origin. the rails that surround the topes to which these gateways are the entrances, are also formed in stone and put together after the manner of wood-work, and are frequently very richly sculptured. the rail at the sanchi tope is quite plain, but in a smaller one in the same group circular discs are added in the centre of each pillar and half discs at top and bottom (fig. ). the pillars are octagonal, and the discs are carved with roses, animals, and the five- of the rock-cut temples and topes, and in which the buildings are regularly constructed of solid masonry. of these it will be suf- ficient to mention the great temple of bhob- aneser as the type of many others (fig. ), which seems almost certainly to have been built by zelat indra kesari, who reigned from a.d. to —and taking it all in all it is perhaps the finest example of a purely hindu temple in india. the hindus, although they frequently used the arch form for their roofs, never erected them upon the true principle of an suggestions in zoesign. arch, with radiating voussoirs or truncated ever, the bearing is long, the weight is wedges, but invariably kept the beds of their stonework horizontal, as seen in the well- known example of the treasury at mycenae. it was, in fact, a series of brackets or corbels, ri. iso advancing towards each other as ~ they rise, and at last closed in with a single stone; the internal surface being then worked to an arched form. the capitals of their piers or columns were all again formed upon the same principle, that is, by brackets, to reduce the intermediate space to be spanned by the flat stone beam, fig. even a kind of stone strut, which is often found rising from the columns, is formed by a series of s-shaped brack- ets joined together. the jaina domes, ceilings, and curved roofs, which are extremely numerous, are all formed upon the same horizontal or bracketing system. the temple of vimala sah, on mount aboo, is one of the most perfect and beautiful of the jaina temples. it is constructed wholly in white marble, and dates from about the year a.d. fig. , which represents a portion of the dome and the pillars supporting it, will give some general idea of indian bracket construction. the columns finish with the usual bracket capital, from which an upper portion is carried up with additional brackets, and upon these rest the great beams or archi- traves which support the dome. as, how- fig. . –vimala sah, jaina temple, mount aboo. relieved by the curious shaped strut or truss formed of s-shaped brackets, mentioned above, which, springing from the lower capital, seems to support the middle of the beam. in the early part of the thirteenth century the country was conquered by the moham- medans, who at once commenced erecting mosques upon a grand scale, or altering native temples to suit the purposes of their own religion. from that time a saracenic or moorish char- acter was ingrafted upon the native hindu styles, and the moorish arch was introduced. but the native ar- tists, who were largely employed by their new masters, constructed it at first upon the hori- zontal principle, and it was not until a later period that they learned the manner of erecting a true arch by the aid of voussoirs. the bulbous domes of the moors, as well as many other features, were also introduced at this period, and a new style was, in course of time, engendered which in many respects differed essentially from the ancient hindu which had hitherto prevailed in india. in this fresh development, which was mainly due to saracenic influences, there arose an extreme fondness for inlay with precious stones and coloured marbles, and decoration of every kind was carried to the utmost exuberance and elaboration. after the mohammedan conquest many audian orname/l/a/ion. powerful dynasties were established, among the most splendid of which was that of the moguls, which commenced about a.d. . and had its seat at delhi. the palace of the moguls at delhi built by shah jehan, is, or rather was, the most magnificent palace in the east—perhaps in the world. it measures feet east and west by feet north and south. many other palaces were erected pre- viously to that at delhi, at agra and by akbar, who reigned from to , and who was one of the greatest builders of his race. the palace at allahabad, which was the favour- other places ite residence of this has been obliterated, its materials being monarch, nearly fig. .-interi used to repair the fortifications. but in spite of english desecration the plan of the great hall can still be made out. besides their magnificent palaces, each mogul emperor in india, like the egyptians of old, appears to have employed himself in building his own tomb. of these, many beautiful examples still remain, which amply testify to the skill and extraordinary talents of the architects and sculptors of that time. one of the most justly celebrated as well as the most elegant is the taje mahal at agra, erected by shah jehan as the mauso- it is almost impossible to convey an idea of the leum of his queen muntaz mahal. the extreme beauty and delicacy of this monu- ment, or of its complexity of design. beautiful as it is in itself, the taje would lose half its charm if it stood alone. it is its combination with other works—the platform on which it stands, with its tall minarets, and the perfect manner in which each is subordinated to the other—which makes up a whole that can- not be matched again in the world. the mausoleum proper is surmounted by a dome feet in dia- meter and feet in height, and the light is admitted through double screens of white marble trellis work, of the most exquisite design, one on the outer and one on the inner face of the these serve to temper the glare that would otherwise have been in- - mahal at agra. walls. tolerable in a building composed entirely of white marble. the interior is represented in fig. . in the centre of this apartment, and seen in the softened gloom of the subdued light, is the octagonal inclosure formed by a rich screen of perforated work of white marble, within which stand the tombs—that of muntaz mahal in the centre and of shah jehan on one side. these tombs, as well as the screens which surround them, are exquisite examples of that system of inlaying with precious stones which became the great characteristic of the style of the moguls after suggestions in / esign. the death of akbar. “all the spandrels of the taje, all the angles and more important architectural details, are heightened by being inlaid with precious stones, such as agates, bloodstones, jaspers, and the like, combined in wreaths, scrolls and frets, as exquisite in design as beautiful in colour, and relieved by the pure white marble in which they are inlaid.” from this cursory glance at the architec- ture of india, and the illustrations of it mr. fergusson says, which have been given, it will be understood that it consists of a series of styles, extend- ing over a vast period of time. that these various styles natur- played upon them. the buildings look like sculptured rocks; indeed it may be said that they are really so. for, apart from those temples which are carved externally as well as internally out of the living rock, these indefatigable hindu workers seem to have piled up mountains of stone in flat layers or beds like the natural rock itself, in the same manner as the egyptians piled up their pyramids. then commencing at the apex, as in the great temple at seringham, and many other examples, they proceeded to carve, literally, every inch of space with figures and elaborate ornament until they f-f-t- reached the ground; ally form two great divisions, each of which is perfectly distinct and separate from the other: . hindu architecture, which embraces the whole of the periods previous to the mohammedan conquest; and, , the architecture subsequent to that conquest, and extending to the present time, which may be more properly distinguished as indo-saracenic. what one is more particularly struck with, is the extraordinary lavishness of labour, the wonderful elaboration of the ornamenta- tion, combined with the utmost luxuriance of fancy, the picturesqueness of outline, and the grandeur of the masses which hindu architecture displays. in most instances the architectural forms are very simple, some- times consisting almost entirely of very steep roofs or lofty domes, apparently adopted for the sole purpose of showing how much sculpture and carving can be dis- fig. . – tomb of shah jehan in the taje mahal. and whatever the amount of ornamen- tation, it very seldom obtruded itself so as º cº- to destroy the dignity or impair the general form of the structure which it enriched. whatever the sect or religion, they carried out their works in the most durable of materials, and spared neither time nor labour even in modern times. whether the material was granite, amygdaloid trap, or marble, the work had to be wrought into the most intricate and difficult forms, often- times into the most elegant and delicate tracery. a window in a desecrated mosque at ahmedabad—in form a slightly pointed arch—has tracery representing three ordi- nary trees and four palms, their branches, leaves, and flowers extending over its whole surface. mr. fergusson says, “it would be difficult to excel the skill with which the vegetable forms are conventionalized just to the extent required for the purpose.” indian ornamentation. among plants the lotus was constantly used by the buddhists, and evidently had a typical and symbolical meaning. the large roses or pateras, found on the rails and on the gateways of the topes, were striking and conspicuous forms of ornament. string- courses and bands formed of minute repre- sentations of the rails surrounding the topes, are of frequent occur- fig. . rence, consisting of two horizontal beads with square cross- bands at intervals (fig. ). the large horse-shoe windows that lighted their chaitya halls was another con- structive form which was turned into orna- ment. continuous beads or pearlings are often met with, as in the border lines formed of them in figs. , , also beads at inter- vals carved out of a horizontal bead (fig. ); four-petalled roses placed in a hol- or three low at intervals, fig. . another exam- ple consists of roses with intermediate ones coming partially behind the others, fig. . other varieties have one edge of each rose concealed by the next. the flowing line shown in fig. is frequent, and the fig. . continuous scroll is not un- the assyrian hon- ey-suckle and lotus is found on the capital of a commem- orative pillar at allahabad, and capitals hav- ing a strong resemblance to the corinthian coin in on. have been found in a monastery at jamal- giri, pointing evidently to a classical origin. upon the lower part of the tope at sar- nath, near benares, fig. . is a very ingenious e^ kºſº - - º: "r nnrtiti, and singular diaper +. +:nnh; mt t lºſ the |- " – º -- stone work, con- | h.t. nºhºº! |+ º | - -i §: tv. --- | º sisting of a geo- metrical tºl- *l* n t | h tricacy, a portion }s hºl of which is represented by fig. . many wrought in arrange- ment of great in- of the ornaments upon the buddhist remains are emblems, conspicuously among which may be often observed the five and seven headed maga or serpent, the suastika (see fig. ), and a triformed ornament called the trisul. in the inlay work of the later mogul period the beauty of the design is beyond all praise, and is often of the most elaborate description, representing all kinds of flowers worked in the most skilful manner in precious stones, the stones being carefully picked for each particular leaf or petal, so that all shad- ing of the surface of the leaves is obtained by the graduated natural colour of the stones themselves. fig. represents a portion of an inlaid border fig. . of modern work- manship. native artists appear to have a natural instinct common to most eastern nations for producing really art works, and they still are gifted even at the present time, when uninfluenced by european ideas, to an extraordinary degree. in modern carving, as in fig. , which is from a carved sandal-wood box in the india () sugges/lous in / esign. museum, we perceive the same feeling and artistic delicacy that is found in works exe- cuted centuries before our gra. when we turn to woven fabrics, for the dia has been justly celebrated for many centuries, we observe the same fulness and elaboration of ornament that we perceive in their carvings and inlays; added to which their warm and harmonious colouring gives them a quiet richness and charm which is particularly agreeable. in fabric ornament the indian pine enters more into the designs than almost any other form, and has been worked out in thousands of variations both of minute detail and colour: sometimes by repetition in borders or diaper work, at others as the central feature of an elaborate floral composition. the outlines of modern indian ornamen- tation are often ungraceful, although the filling in is usually extremely rich and ingen- ious. plant form is frequently very elegantly conventionalized, flower often met with, resembling the car- especially a branching nation, as in no. , plate , the whole flower flowing with its leaflets after the manner of a feather. flowing lines with a repeated conventional flower, as in no. , plate , are very characteristic both in modern carving and woven fabrics. plate . no. . upright outline ornamentation of con- ventional forms, which have occasionally a slight resemblance to the classic. often again filled in with minute detail. no. . conventional growing ornament. beauty of which in- no. . vase and flowers, arranged after the manner of a branching tree. nos. and . foliated sprigs. no. . superficial pattern, for woven fabric in colours. no. . pear and heart shaped ornament, with flowers slightly varied from nature. no. . pine-cone section, for shawl or other woven fabric. no. . symmetrical and non-symmetrical or- nament combined in symmetrical outline, for colour. no. . symmetrical growing pattern, for raised work or for two colours. no. . symmetrical disjointed pattern, for raised work, inlay or colour. no. . flowing feather-formed flower border, for colour. no. . border of alternating and flowing triple leaf in red and gold. plate . no. . cross arrangement of heart-formed leaves, diapered with foliage. no. . upright branch-leaved ornament. no. . foliated heart-form symmetrical ornament. no. . surface decoration growing from central octafoil filled in with cross form and foliage. the star completed by eight lobes of leaf form. nos. and . sprigs conventionalized from nature. nos. and . upright patterns of symmetrical ornament for coloured decoration or inlay. nos. and . flowing and upright borders, for lace or other delicate work. no. . border to use any way. red ornament with gold bead or pearled outline upon black. no. . disjointed diamond border in blue, white, and gold. no. . flowing wave-line flower and leaf border for carving in low relief or inlay in hard wood, the lines engraved and filled in black. no. . diagonal bordering filled in with double pine and branched leaves. the following diagonal form to be reversed so as to leave a triangle between filled in with half leaf-form flower. - nos. and . sprig-form flowers on ornamental forms. indian detail fits one part into another so that the whole surface is covered with minute form or intricate combinations of colour. aºersian ormamentation. c h a p t e r xiii. peirsian obn amentation. Éersia has existed as a separate and independent kingdom from a very remote period. the con- ::: # quests of alexander the great in ancient times, and those of the moguls, the arabs, and the afghans in times more recent, have each left this ancient king- dom comparatively unchanged, not from its power of resisting attacks, but from its faculty of absorbing its conquerors; and this long-continued national existence has probably been favourable in developing art among the people, for even before the time of alexander they had attained a very high degree of perfection in architecture and sculpture. art in persia, as exemplified by the ruins found at persepolis and its neighbour- hood, dates from a very remote age. these ruins are probably nearly of the same age as the works of the assyrians excavated at nineveh, and they bear a strong resem- blance to the latter. persepolis was the favourite residence of some of the ancient persian kings, and the ruins found there are of great extent. the remains of the palace of darius and the hall of xerxes indicate a magnificence and grandeur which must have been unequalled when the buildings existed in their original splendour. in some cases sculpture occurs upon the walls and human-headed winged bulls guard the entrances, which are almost facsimiles of those found in assyrian palaces. but features have been discovered in the architecture of persepolis which are not to be found at nineveh, yet having such affinity of character that what is found in the one place assists in explaining much that is wanting in the other; and this, together with the correspondence in other features, shows conclusively that the styles of nineveh and persepolis are one and the same. among the most important of these missing forms found at persepolis, are columns which have a double capital formed of the halves of animals, but with bases fig. . and other parts which are º similar to assyrian work. gº the explorations of mr. [. . ſ loftus at susa have laid ºlºlººl bare the foundations of a palace almost identical with tº the palace of xerxes at persepolis, and among these ruins have been found col- | umns of a similar character (fig. ). others are again seen in the rock-cut tomb of darius at naksh-i-rus- this form of capital is also extremely interesting as pointing to the evident origin of the double-headed animal capitals found in the early hindu temples. for tam. several centuries after the arab sugges/ions in /)esign. conquest, which occurred a.d. , there is a complete blank in the architectural history of persia. scarcely any examples of work from that period until about the thirteenth century are known to exist. this arises mainly from the circumstance that persian palaces were built of perishable materials which have gone entirely to decay, the walls being usually of sun-dried bricks, roofed and covered with wood, among the oldest re. mains of this period are probably the ornamental glazed tiles with which the domes and walls of the mohammedan mosques were decorated. the mosques in which this mode of protection and decoration was principally adopted are among the few buildings that remain. in some cases the whole building, both externally and inter- nally, was covered with a perfect mosaic of tiles or glazed bricks, of brilliant colours and intri- cate patterns. colour has always been in persia a more essential element of architec- tural magnificence than form, and but few examples in any european style of orna- mentation can, for richness, be compared with that of persia during its zenith in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries of our gra. “persia is in all probability the country from which the arabs derived the arts afterwards developed by them in spain and elsewhere. the powerful khalifs of bagdad no doubt summoned to their court men of science and learning from all the countries under their sway, persia furnishing them with architects and other artists. skilled persian workmen were no doubt employed in large numbers in decorating the mosques and palaces in the arab capital, situated as it was on the very frontier of their own country. thence, doubtless, arose the so- called arabian or arabesque style of ornament, afterwards so widely spread and now so well known. the peculiar pendant orna- mentation of vaults and niches, of which the alhambra is so typical an example, is identical in style with that used throughout persia to the present day. speci- mens have been found of this species of con- struction in the ruins of rhages, a city finally destroyed six hundred years ago. persia, al- ways an artistic country, could hardly have borrowed it from her rude conquerors.” the most successful epoch of this form of persian art was during the reign of the great shah abbas, which terminated in . his works rendered ispahan one of the most splendid and magnificent cities of the east. among these works, by far the most celebrated was the great maidan or bazaar, with its accompanying mosque and other subordinate buildings. it occupies an im- mense rectangular area, by feet; the principal court measures by * handboºk of persian art, by major r. murdoch smith, r. e. persian ornamentation. feet, and is surrounded on all sides by façades in the richest style of persian poly- chromatic decoration, the brilliancy of which is almost unrivalled by any other example of its class. the mosque is surmounted by a dome feet in diameter and externally feet high. of nearly the same period and same style is the mosque of sultan hussein at ispahan, represented by fig. . the persian princes showed great taste and splendour in their palaces, but from the character of the buildings they did not admit of so much architectural display as their mosques. they generally consisted of a number of pavilions and detached halls, with trees and gardens connected by covered arcades or long lines of canals, and adorned the various parts were frequently of great beauty, and elabor- ately ornamented, but were wanting in with elegant fountains. architectural grandeur. the practice of decorating buildings in persia by encrusting them with tiles of various patterns, both externally and inter- nally, was very prevalent in early times, and has continued in general use until the present day. different kinds of tiles, often embrac- ing very elegant geometrical combinations, are also in common use for floors, plinths, and dados in private houses. the impression produced was generally pleasing, and the colouring was often brilliant and extremely effective. the more ancient tiles had a metallic lustre, and parts were sometimes in relief. these were used principally for embellishing the domes and walls of mosques and other sacred buildings. they were in some instances of great size, very elaborate, and having kufic inscriptions from the koran. the smaller uninscribed tiles were com- monly divided into various geometrical figures and combinations, as in fig. , which is of an octa- fig. . gonal star form and glazed, the pattern being in chocolate and white. these fit into and are com- bined with rich dark blue tiles of a cross form, which fill up the interstices left by the star-formed tiles, forming a very agreeable and highly effective pattern. many of these tiles are as early as the thirteenth century. in other cases the tiles are all kept square, and the figures or geometrical com- binations are worked upon the tiles themselves, each tile forming a centre, as in fig. , which is a diagonal cross in dark blue upon a circle and foliage in light green, the ground being white; or the design is carried on, as in the example fig. . the general line on this tile is a frequent one in persian work, and may be called the alter- nated tulip pattern. the colours are dark blue and light green, on white ground. the porcelain of persia, although not equal to that of china or japan, is often of great excellence. the persians valued the works of china highly, for numerous articles are not only imitations but actual copies of chinese porcelain, and many of them bear makers' marks in chinese characters. the art of pottery, however, gradually degener- ated after the time of shah abbas, since whose reign nothing of much value has been produced. the earthenware of the present sugges/ions in esign. day, as regards both materials and work- manship, is of the commonest description. that the knowledge of art has been long widely spread among the persians is shown by the great pains they take to ornament articles of daily use and of little intrinsic value. the form of the object having been decided upon, the whole surface is then covered with of various design in low relief. this practice is elegant ornamentation common to the moors, arabs, indians, and nearly all eastern nations where the religion of mohammed prevails, and to the style to which the general term saracenic art may be applied. an innate artistic feeling appears to follow the course of mohammedanism, which enables the people to beautify an object without distorting or twisting its shape; a fault which is so common among ourselves, under the mistaken idea of mak- all their decoration is flat and unobtrusive, full of ingenious devices both of foliage and figures, and inter- ing it more beautiful. laced with the most extraordinary combina- tions of geometrical lines. the method of carving d jour, that is, pierced, and without a ground, appears to have been long practised in persia, and is still much employed in the ornamentation of houses and other buildings, particularly for doors and windows, as well as for terrace balustrades and similar works. pierced ornamental work is also introduced upon carved wooden boxes and other articles. some remarkable specimens of this work are sherbet spoons carved in pear- tree. they have large flat handles in orna- mental pierced work with very deep and thin bowls, which are partly supported underneath and connected with the handle by a kind of keel or rib in carved pierced work. these spoons are made almost ex- clusively at abadeh, a large village in the centre of persia, and the only implement employed in carving them is said to be an ordinary penknife. many of the examples of persian decor- ation in metal work are as old as the arab conquest. the art is still practised by the persians at the present day with very little diminution of its beauty, and the skilful manner in which firearms, sword blades, bits, and stirrups are engraved or damas- cened is worthy of the highest praise. the more remarkable examples of orna- mentation in metal consist of a great variety of objects elaborately engraved, with foliage and figures, in geometrical divisions, and covering nearly the entire surface, giving the object a very rich and chaste appearance. in this manner are decorated bowls, vases, lamps and lamp-stands, hookahs, incense- burners, and every variety of utensil and these are usually of steel, brass, or copper, and vessel to which metal is applicable. are often also pierced or damascened in the example fig. is an engraved border from the silver or gold in addition. fig. . edge of a bronze basin, the interstices of the ornament being filled in with black varnish. when the intervening spaces between the foliage are cut away, the foliage is arranged with connecting branches so as to support itself. in the example fig. , which i aersian ormamentafiom. is from a brass incense-burner, and fig. , from a brass lamp-stand, both from the south kensington museum, the black portions are entirely cut out, and engraving introduced upon the flowers or animals where necessary. these are indeed works of very great beauty. in addition to the open work, engraved medallions are frequent- fig. . ly introduced, containing hunting scenes and other subjects, as well as in- scriptions filled in with black varnish or inlay of silver. the en- graved medallions are introduced among the pierced work, as shown by fig. , which is from another brass incense-burner. many of the minute representations of men, animals, and monsters are highly artistic, and are ingeniously interlaced with foliage and scroll-work, separated by borders and en- graved lines, or margins of geometrical or nament or continuous scroll-work. the people of persia have long been celebrated for their various kinds of tex- tile fabrics, and more especially for their carpets. sleeping upon the ground naturally leads to an extensive demand for fabrics specially made to meet the requirements of that the persian habit of sitting and custom. the designs for these articles are very numerous, display fig. . a remarkable facility of and elegant appearance. the conventional com- of natural flowers and the harmon- binations colours have much sought ious arrangements of their caused these fabrics to be after and highly valued by europeans. fig. repre- sents a portion of a carpet of simple but good design, having red flowers and green stems, on a white ground. the border lines are of dark brown. fig. is a con- ventional form of frequent occurrence, having red flowers and green stem. the flowers are represented in outline without any intermediate filling in. in seal and gem engraving the persians are deservedly famous, and the art is exten- sively practised on account of the universal eastern habit of sealing instead of signing letters and documents. at the present day pachas and other high personages in turkey, egypt, and other countries, get their seals engraved in teheran. in many persian manuscripts, copies of the koran for example, the illuminations are very beautifully and minutely worked out. frequently the first pages and headings of chapters are extremely elaborate, the flowers being usually represented very naturally, and sugges/ſons in /design. º in their way are perfect works of art. a number of these manuscripts may be seen in the british museum and the south ken- sington museum. the general lines of persian ornamentation are very similar in character to the moorish and arabian styles, modified by a feeling which is peculiar to persia, and which has again a strong affinity to indian work. the flora is more natural than the moorish or arabian, and figures and animals are of fre- quent occurrence, there being no restriction as to their use among the persians. the whole surface of a work—whether it be a building, a piece of metal, or a simple carpet —is often literally covered with ornamen- tation, no space is left unadorned, and yet no one part is obtrusive or overpowers another. all is in perfect keeping, and no part is crowded or would bear to be omitted. it may be described generally, as being subor- dinate to the object ornamented, founded on a geometrical basis, and nearly always limited to the decoration of plain surface. these are qualities, however, which are not con- fined to persia, but are found repeated in moorish work, as will be seen by the next chapter. plate . no. . pine-cone flaming ornament. fire worship has been a wide-spread superstition among the per- sians, hence the prevalence of flowing flame form. nos. and . conventional scroll engraved borders for metal work, filled in with black varnish. no. . peacock on inverted vase. the spreading tail is developed by eyes, which would be enriched by the most brilliant colours, the breast of the bird being contrasted by dark blue sheen of greenish hue. nos. and . borders of conventional ornament, which have a strong affinity to the moresque. these would be enriched by various colours, or engraved on metal. nos. and s. small upright engraved ornaments. nos. , , and . central ornaments for glazed tiles or other works, with natural leaves of the ivy, &c. no. . ornament for shawl or other textile fabric; the colours being harmoniously blended and intermingled as indicated by lines. nos. and . fanciful forms filled with char- acteristic ornament, allied to the indian, which it frequently closely resembles. cha pter x iv. moorish or saifracte nic orn amentation. iáot only the elements, but § many of the characteristic fea- tures of that style of archi- | tecture usually called moorish or moresque are found spread over the vast extent of country reaching from the shores of the atlantic to the bay of bengal. known also as arabian and saracenic, we find it developed in arabia, persia, india, turkey, egypt, and spain; in fact it was the architecture of the mohammedans modi- fied according to the country in which they settled, just as gothic was the architecture of the christians. before the appearance of mohammed and the subsequent establishment of islamism in moorish or saracenic ormamentation. the seventh century, the arabians were by no means celebrated for their skill in architec- ture. but the extraordinary conquests from the indus to the nile under the caliph omar the first, a.d. – , brought the victorious moslems in contact with nations much more civilized than themselves; and as their empire extended, their love for the arts and sciences increased. the ancient city of damascus, which became the seat of the empire, was considerably enlarged and vastly improved. among its numerous splendid buildings was the celebrated mosque founded by alwalid ii., who introduced the aminaret, which, though an innovation at the time, seems in later years to have been as necessary a portion of the mosque as the main body of it. great, however, as these works were, the removal of the seat of the empire to bagdad, on the western frontier of persia, gave an impulse and a lustrø to arabian art which almost surpasses belief. the powerful caliphs of bagdad summoned to their court men of science and learning from all the countries under their sway, persia furnishing them largely with archi- skilled persian workmen were doubtless employed in large numbers in decorating the mosques and palaces in the arab capital, situated as it was on the very frontier of their own country. this extraordinary city, which was founded in a.d. , remained the imperial seat of these arabian caliphs for a period of five hundred years. the moors were originally the people in- habiting mauritania in northern africa, corresponding to the modern empire of morocco and part of algeria. tects and other artists. for a time they resisted the progress of the arabian conquerors, but were finally overcome about a.d. in the moors from africa invaded spain, and in a few years the greater part of that country fell under the moslem yoke. scarcely a town in spain that was occupied by the conquerors but retains still some traces of their architecture, although many examples have disappeared from the effects of time or from the ruth- lessness of their successors in power. the most interesting example of early moorish architecture in spain is the mosque of cordova. it was commenced in the year a.d. , and was enlarged and orna- mented at various subsequent periods, so that it contains examples of all the styles employed by the moors in spain from the earliest times. it is a low building of im- mense size, and covers a larger superficial area than that of any christian church ex- the sanctuary of the mosque, erected in , is formed of white and coloured marbles, beautifully en- riched with true mosaic work, and is one of the most beautiful specimens of the moorish style in spain. a mosque, now the church of s. cristo de la luz, and many other moorish works of a very interesting character, exist at toledo." in the kingdom of granada was formed, and the royal palace and fortress of the alhambra was commenced in and finished about . this is perhaps the most perfect model of moorish archi- tecture which has ever existed. other phases of the style are to be found in the mosques of cairo, india, and constantinople —indeed wherever the religion of mohammed has been planted. the moorish was not a stone architecture, but was mostly composed of brickwork cept st. peter's at rome. * see gothic architecture in spain by g. e. street, r.a. sugges/ions in /pesign. covered with tiles or ornamented stucco. as what more than a semicircle, and therefore has been said it was evidently derived in | great measure from the persian, although the doorway shown in fig. . examples narrower at the springing than above, as in many of its early characteristics of it, however, are frequently were no doubt byzantine. in found pointed at the apex, after accordance with what appears to the manner of gothic arches. have been the prevailing mode of other examples are further de- decorating their works through- veloped into cusps of a trefoil or out all eastern nations, it was cinquefoil form. later, as in the an incased style, handed down alhambra, they became formed probably from traditions of the into a numerous succession of sculptured and incased walls of cuspings, each cusp being again assyria, babylon, and persepolis. frequently trefoiled, giving the the forms of its architecture, whole arch a very rich and ele- when stripped of surface enrich- ments, are very simple. the dome was one this style were usually slender (as shown of its leading characteristics, and formed a in fig. ), and the ornamentation of graceful and highly en- their capitals was ex- riched feature in a mos- lem mosque. the min- arets used in calling the fig. moorish doorway in cordova. gant appearance. columns in tremely varied. beyond the various forms of the arches and faithful to prayers are columns there are scarcely equally distinctive, and any mouldings, but an possess an elegance of immense variety of effect style and completeness of is obtained by corbelling construction which ren- der them, perhaps, the most beautiful form of in pendentives for sup- porting the angles of domes, the principles of which are well worthy of being attentively studied. the system is peculiar to tower architecture that has ever been invented. but the most striking and distinguishing feature of moorish or saracenic the arabians and moors, and has no analogous architecture is the horse- - - feature in any other style shoe form of arch. this º of architecture. it has is an almost invariable fig. g-court of the lions in the amambra been, most appropriately, accompaniment of the style, and serves to called stalactite work, and it is remarkable distinguish it from all other styles or modes both for its beauty and for the simple means of construction, in whatever country they by which it is produced. are found. the horse-shoe arch is com- || the examples in the alhambra, as monly of a semicircular form, but some. described by owen jones, are composed sugges/ions in / esign. s&s s. sometimes called the “star of solomon,” fig. . these frequently exhibit the utmost exuberance of fancy, and when united to the multiplicity of forms in their foliage and other combinations offer a wide and interesting field for study. they coll- tain innumerable hints and suggestions for design, which cannot fail to be of the ut- most value to those who are in search of materials from which to elicit new beauty and elegance in ornamentation. combinations fig. . of the star form zºº are also worked out with great ela- boration in glazed tiles for mosaic pavements and wall decoration. fig. presents an ex- rºº-ºº ample of the latter from the alhambra, the colours being blue, green, buff, yellow, and purple, separated by white lines. moresque ornamentation is very much confined to the decoration of surface. but although literally covered with intricate form, embracing lines of the greatest elegance and beauty, the ornamentation is so subordinated to the object itself, whatever it may be, that no part can be said to be over-ornamented—all is pro- perly subdued, and no part is more prominent than another. we find this prin- ciple so invariably adhered to in eastern art, and it is one so necessary to all truly artistic work, that the attentive student would do well to pause and consider its importance. it gives a character and charm to all mohammedan work, which may be sought for in vain elsewhere, unless this simple principle upon which the orientals proceed has been fully understood and adhered to. the decorative forms used for surface work are usually double, that is, the main lines are geometrical combinations of inter- lacing straight lines, and formed of two fillets; while the filling-in, or secondary fig. . º - forms, are interlacing curved lines of foliage, with centres of star forms at intervals, as in fig. , from the alhambra. there is also a very slight difference in the planes of the two systems, the surface of the foliage being kept slightly lower than that of the fillets. frequently there is a third species of ornamentation, which is introduced upon the leaves of the foliage itself, as indicated on fig. , from a ceiling in the alhambra. sugges/ions in /)esign. the relief of the ornament itself;-and this appears to be an absolute principle required in colouring—colours should necer be allowed to impinge upon each other." the moors were long celebrated for the manufacture and artistic decoration of arms and armour. among the productions of this kind none were more justly famous or more delicately worked than swords, and the sword manufactory of toledo acquired great celebrity from the perfection with which the blades were tempered. the most noteworthy specimens of this work now existing are the sword, dagger, and double- handed sword which belonged to boabdil, the last king of granada, now in the possession of the marquis of villaseca, at madrid. the sword is inches long, has a toledo blade, and the hilt is formed of solid gold enamelled in blue, white, and red. the dagger is of great artistic merit. the hilt is of iron ornamented with ivory delicately engraved in arabesque. the blade is dama- scened in gold with cufic inscriptions on each side. the scabbard is most beautiful. its chapes are made of silver enamelled in green, and the remainder is of crimson velvet embroidered in gold, from which hangs a fine tassel of silk and gold thread. a small eating knife is fitted into this same scabbard, but it possesses no artistic merit. the double-handed sword has an iron cylindrical hilt, inlaid with ivory, and on it appears the motto of the kings of granada, “god alone is the conqueror,” in cufic letters. the helmets used by the spanish moors were similar in form to those of the christians, but the shields were more varied. * this account of the method of colouring pursued in the decoration . - - in gothic characters; and it forms the of the alhambra, is condensed from owen jones, they were generally round, formed of wood or thick cow-hide, and were decorated outside in a variety of ways, sometimes with pierced iron plates, or bands of leather forming arabesques; and at other times with an ornamentation of iron, and leather embroidered with gold and silver, with rich hanging tassels and pendants. the moorish style as applied to furniture is sometimes found in spain, in combina- tion with the gothic. a very remarkable specimen of this combination of moorish and christian art exists at the academia de la historia, madrid, consisting of a trip- tych of very large dimensions, formerly in the church of the monasterio of piedra in arragon. when the doors are closed six compartments appear on each, surrounded by a border headed by a wide cornice. this cornice is divided in sixteen spaces formed by arches adorned by stalactite ornamentation in the moorish style; inside each span is painted the figure of a saint; there are also subjects from the life of our lord. the border which surrounds these doors is formed of a beautiful geometrical ornamentation in the purest oriental style, while in the upper and lower parts are inscriptions in gothic characters with the date . another interesting "specimen of this combination of styles is a recess or cupboard of the fourteenth century, now in the south kensington museum, and formerly in the court of an old house at toledo. it is feet inches high by feet wide; and is composed of an outer arch, with the tympanums ornamented with fine arabesques in relief, made of stucco. the arch is surrounded with two latin inscriptions mooris/ or sarace/lic or//a/le/l/a/io/l. opening to the cupboard, which is about a foot deep, and is divided into two compart- ments with two rows of shelves. each of these is supported by a series of moorish arches, the which ornamented with tracery, or an ornamenta- tympanums of al’e tion of leaves in a geometrical and oriental manner. on the lower shelf is a spanish inscription in gothic characters. plate . no. . interlaced ornament with foliage. nos. and . upright borders—interlaced fret, and foliage with interlaced form. no. . symmetrical flowing form. it is a common characteristic feature in moorish ornament for one form to be flowing round and fitting in to fill up the interstices left by another form. nos. and . small symmetrical ornaments. nos. and . outline centres of foliated and interlacing form. nos. and . flowing, angular, and interlaced terminals. no. . geometrical diaper. no. . interlaced square and diagonal design, with cross-form foliage in the centre. no. . interlaced geometrical design for tile flooring or parquetry. no. . interlaced outline ornament. plate . no. . arabesque pierced stone battlement inlaid with flat foliage. nos. and . upright ornaments, honeysuckle and pine. no. . geometrical and foliated centre ornament. form laid upon form. no. . cross-form pine ornament. no. . eight-pointed star filled with radiating foliage, in oval or vesica; the intermediate space being diapered with pointed ogee line from star, and foliage. - nos. and . oblong centres for panel decoration in colour. no. . interlaced fret tile pattern. there is a great variety of patterns, somewhat similar to this, to be found in the wall decoration of the alhambra, all formed by the intersection of equidistant lines, and which, owen jones observes, could be traced through the arabian to the greek fret. a pecu- liarity, however, which the moorish fret possesses is the addition of the diagonal line, without which the power of interlacing would be greatly limited. no. . flowing foliated upright form for colour or engraving. no. . panel in low relief for colour with shield surrounded by foliage. the moors occasionally in- troduced the shield charged with armorial bearings, the elaborate diapers and other designs on the walls, and other parts, in the alhambra are all worked in low relief in plaster but not very frequently. and afterwards picked out in colour and gold. plate . no. . upright flower interlaced with geometrical trilobed line. nos. and . conventional foliated forms with semi-conventional leafage. no. . pointed quatrefoil centre filled in with foliage. nos. and . damascene ornaments for metal. no. . geometrical superficial ornament for colour or inlay. nos. and . geometrical outlines for diapers, which may be further filled in with foliage according to the scale of the work or the degree of richness required. no. . arabian scrolls working one into the other, as is so frequently the practice in the style. no. . disjointed interlacing ornament. nos. and . oblong panel decoration formed with flowing and interlaced line and heart-form centre filled in with foliage. the two sides varied. plate . nos. and . oblong panel formed with interlaced fret-form square centre, carried into scroll foliage. two sides varied. nos. and . terminal flowers. conventional- ized harts'-tongue leaf and honeysuckle. no. . centre ornament for panel in low relief, and colour, interlacing foliated forms. nos. and . geometrical upright diapers for paper or wall decoration. nos. and . interlacing arabesque foliage, for colour and slight relief. sugges/ſouls & s. in zoesign. |-- no. . double triangle in circle, interlacing with hexagonal form and circles. nos. and . interlaced square and diagonal lines, with foliage for diaper or panel decora- tion. these designs do not follow literally the principles found in arabesque ornament, but are intended to suggest the application of a few of their ingenious and beautiful lines to the purposes of modern ornamentation. c h a p t e r xv. byzantin e o rn amentation, with not ices of r o m a nes que and c e l ti c. sh e here employ the term # byzantine in its most ex- # tended sense, as including -- # what is usually denominated romanesque art. out of these two great divisions certain sub-styles are considered to have arisen, as the lombardic, our own norman, and perhaps the celtic or irish, the last of these being principally exemplified in illuminated manuscripts, stone crosses, and similar works. the byzantine form of architecture originated in the ancient city of byzantium or constantinople, which upon the division of the roman empire became the seat and capital of the eastern or greek empire. it has, therefore, in many of its minor details, an evident greek origin. the romanesque, as its name indicates, arose out of roman architecture; it spread throughout the whole of europe, and was much more extensively adopted than the byzantine. there was, however, a charm, a greater richness and a beauty, about byzantine art that produced a strong undercurrent in its favour. its influence was almost universally felt, and from the fourth to the twelfth centuries byzantine art was eagerly sought after, and it was a style largely employed in those countries professing the greek form of the christian religion. when constantine, the first christian emperor of rome, removed the seat of empire from rome to byzantium, about a.d. , he determined that his new capital should stand without a rival for magnificence and beauty. in this view he carried with him as far as possible all the arts of rome, and also encouraged the employment of greek artists, inviting them to byzantium, as well as others from persia, or from whatever country the highest talent could be obtained. thus originated that combination of roman, greek, and oriental architecture which has been denominated byzantine. the most important period of this style was the time of justinian, who ascended the throne a.d. . he was a great builder of churches, and erected the celebrated church of st. sophia as well as others at constan- tinople. contemporary with the erection of st. sophia was that of san vitale at ravenna, . byzantine orname/u/afiom. which was founded by the piety of julian, the treasurer of justinian. from the time of constantine to that of justinian there appears to have been no marked difference between the architectural styles of the eastern and western empires, but with justinian a distinct separation of the empires took place, which induced a de- cided difference between their styles of ar- chitecture. continued disputes were main- tained between the east and west, and differences in the forms adopted in the arrangement of churches became strongly marked. the greek cross inscribed within a square and surmounted by a dome, with four smaller domes over the arms of the cross, was the typical plan adopted by the byzantines; while the form of the latin cross, founded upon the old roman basilicas, and terminating with a circular apse, was the plan adhered to by rome. existing buildings of purely byzantine character are few and isolated, although byzantine features may be distinguished in many. in venice the style was carried out in all its purity, and the grand church of st. mark, commenced in the tenth century and erected by byzantine architects who had been invited from constantinople, remains one of the finest monuments of the style. the most prominent feature in the byzantine and romanesque styles, distin- guishing them strongly from the antique greek and roman, was the universal adop- tion of the semicircular arch, and the entire omission of the classic entablature. the arch was made to spring immediately from the capital itself without the intervention of the entablature (fig. ). this had been done previously by the romans in some of their latest works, as in the palace of the emperor diocletian at spalatro, but it did not become the uni- fig. . versal practice until a later period. this mode of employing the arch without an en- tablature produced a complete revolution in architecture. in the romanesque it led to the development of vaulting and groining, and in the byzantine to the extended use of that most beautiful of all architectural features the dome. from the sixth to the twelfth centuries greek taste was held in the highest esteem in constantinople and throughout the east. thence were distributed over europe num- erous works of ornamental art, which were eagerly sought after, such as richly woven and embroidered stuffs, wood and ivory carvings, ornaments in gold and other metals; enamels and paintings on panel, and many other objects of byzantine art. numbers of these were brought to this country by crusaders returning from the holy land, or by traders from venice and these were justly other eastern cities. esteemed treasures of art, and became ob- jects of admiration and examples for imita- tion among our native artists. when the separation between the eastern and western churches occurred, and their architectural styles diverged, a marked dif- ference naturally followed in the various architectural details. the byzantine foliage was strongly tinged by a greek feeling, and preserved much of the sharp zigzag out- lines of the antique acanthus leaf, fig. ; the romanesque, on the contrary, followed the soft rounded lobes of the leafage of the roman capitals, fig. . sugges/ions in /pesign. a distinctive and characteristic feature in byzantine foliage, and one which may be plainly traced in many examples of our fig. . own norman work, is its being nearly all carved with a v section from out of the surface of the stone: also a peculiar fitting together of the points of the leafage, so as to leave scarcely any portion of the ground to be seen, as in fig. , which is a large car- ved stone bead or string course from the church of st. sergius at constantinople. the anthemion ornament of the greeks, carved after the same manner and arranged in a heart-form, is of frequent occurrence, and is thus found used as a string-course or as the abacus to capitals in many of our fig. is the heart- form anthemion ornament norman buildings. as found at constantinople, and examples almost iden- tical may be observed in this country. these are plainly reminiscences of the antique greek foliage, retaining the sharp zigzag outline and simple v section of sur- in fig. from st. the round-lobed foliage of the roman period, fig. . this sharp form of foliage indicates the employment of greek artists during the early development of byzantine architecture. a favourite arrangement of the heart-form enrich- fig. . ment, frequently met with in early greek churches, was that in the form of a cross, as mark's at occasionally carvings venice. are found which are evidently direct imitations from nature, and indicate a desire to depart from the more ordinary con fig. . ventional foliage, as in the example fig from the same church. another impor. tant and distinc- tive feature in byz- antine art was the covering the walls with gorgeous mo- saics, executed in colours on gold grounds, representing colos- sal figures of the deity, and of saints, apostles, and prophets. glass mosaic fig. . *zaº * / formed in - small geo- metrical pat- terns in gold and colour was also of frequent occurrence in borders, panels, and otherminor details. of these fig. from st. sophia, and figs. , from the church of st. francis face, as in fig. , as distinguished from at assisi, represent some of the most simple aygamfine ornamentation. forms. this beautiful mode of decorating wall surface with a profusion of mosaics in gold and colours forms one of the most lovely and imposing features of the byzantine style of fig. . architecture. in st. mark's at venice the whole of the vaults and domes are literally fig. . the byzantine and the romanesque, however, embrace other versions of the round-arched style besides those of con- stantinople, ravenna, and venice. of these the lombardic is justly celebrated. san michele at pavia, san thomaso near ber- gamo, and many other churches of northern italy, are existing monuments of this style; the baptistery at florence was also built under the lombard dynasty. lombardic branch that we obtain more it is from this immediately much of our own norman * version of the romanesque. another element that became mixed up j with byzantine and romanesque archi- ºtecture was the celtic form of ornamenta- covered with gorgeous colour in this im- perishable material." floors were frequent- ly inlaid with marbles of the most costly description. fig. is an example from fig. . º cºº yº: º º an º º the duomo at florence, and fig. from st. mark's at venice. * “the apse of st. mark kindled by the western sun into one blaze of gold, fairly rivals the storied windows of rheims in all the glory of the same happy moment. how much the unrivalled effect of st. mark's is due to the gorgeous mosaics is best felt by com- paring it with such a church as that of st. anthony at padua, where the domes—of no contemptible design, at least within—cry aloud for the same kind of relief to their bareness and whiteness.”—historical and architectural sketches, by e. a. freeman, d.c.l., ll.d. tion, the origin of which is most mysterious, and its ramifications among the earliest forms of mediaeval ornament very remark- able. wherever the northmen went— whether goths, ostrogoths, visigoths, huns, or by whatever name the numerous bar- barous tribes which overran europe in the fourth and fifth centuries may have been called—there, remains of this peculiar ornamentation are to be found, strangely mingled with forms clearly traceable to a classic origin. it has been sometimes termed “runic,” a name derived from the scan- dinavian word rune, a mystery; but is better known as celtic. the influence of this style of ornament not only extended to italy, france, and england, but it was, as far as can be ascertained, the indigenous style throughout scandinavia and the isle of man, but more especially so in ireland. whether the celtic or runic style was really derived from the byzantine is im- possible now to discover. most probably it arose independently of it. but there can be no doubt that it had a decided influence suggestions in /pesign. upon many of the later forms of byzantine an example, forming a portion of a letter and romanesque work. the character of celtic ornamentation may be clearly distin- guished in the many beautiful and highly interesting stone crosses which still exist in ireland. the enrichments on these consist “of interlaced ornaments, bands, cords, serpents, birds, and even human beings, weaved and interlaced in the most intricate manner; vegetable forms are very rare.” the same character of elaborately interlaced and knotted ornament is also found in the ancient and beautifully illuminated manu- scripts for which ireland is justly celebrated, as well as in the anglo-saxon manuscripts, which are very similar in style to the irish. the oldest of these celtic manuscripts date from the sixth century, and exhibit a series of entirely original features in the extra- ordinary illuminations with which they are decorated. no manuscripts require for their execution greater truth and delicacy of hand than some of these irish productions, more particularly such as the “book of kells”— which tradition asserts to have belonged to st. columba himself, and which is now preserved in the library of trinity college, dublin. “the leading elements of the ornament in these manuscripts are inter- lacing bands, terminating in spirals coiled eccentrically one within another, and inter- weaved birds and animals struggling as if in interminable contest.” all therefore are of the same general character as the ornament found on the crosses. examples of this peculiar form of orna- mentation, as found in the irish and anglo- saxon manuscripts, are given in plate , nos. , , , and nos. and , plate . * o'neill's crosses of ireland. *sir m. d. wyatt, trans. royal inst. brit. archts. . from an illuminated manuscript in a later style (the twelfth century), is given in fig. , and shows the use of animal fig. . form interlacing with straight lines. an interesting development of the celtic or runic style of orna- mentation is found among the wooden churches of norway. although these churches do not date so early as the irish manu- scripts, still the same feeling in treatment and the same interlacing of animal form in long strap-like lines are discernible in both. fig. is an example carved in pine from a wooden church of the eleventh or early part of the twelfth centuryat sauland, in norway. it has, as will be noticed, an admixture of foliage which is seldom found in irish examples, but which is met with in our own norman churches. numer- ous examples of this admixture might becited from various parts of the country,butone (fig. ) from the south door of iffley church, oxford- shire, will be sufficient to indicate the resem- blance. in both examples it will be observed that the animals are biting the strap-foliage, and that the stems are beaded or pearled, a common form of enrichment in all norman byzantime ornamentation. ornament. pearling also occurs in the irish manuscripts, where the ornament is fre- quently inclos- ed by bounding lines of closely- serried minute red dots the constant introduction of interlacing ani- mals and other forms had no doubt a connec- tion with serpent and worship, may probably have originally been derived no worship was more common among the heathen danes and northmen from india. than that of the serpent, and they retained a strong attachment to their ancestral faith long after they became nominally converted to christianity. m. viollet le duc, in noticing similar strange examples of sculpture at saintonge and poitou, observes that “these influences, we believe, are in part due to the forced relations which the country has had, from the tenth century, with the hordes desig- nated by the name of northmen, and who ceased not, during nearly two centuries, to infest the western coasts of france. these executed with a rare perfection, present now anglo-saxon manuscripts, to us again this strange ornamentation.” of another example he further remarks, “these animals of the pillar at souillac, which bite one another and are matted and twisted together, are met with neither in gallo-roman sculpture nor in the graeco- roman painting or sculpture of syria. to find any analogy to this art it is necessary to recur to scandinavia, northern europe, or to the anglo-saxon manuscripts of london.”” the same influence extended to italy, as is seen in the striking resemblance between the doorways of some italian churches and those of old churches in norway. indeed the style of the doorways of many of our own churches—as the monk's and prior's entrances at ely cathedral—evidently shows that in the mind of the english as well as the italian sculptor a strong scandinavian feeling must have existed. in addition, therefore, to a greek and roman influence in byzantine ornamenta- tion, there is frequently a blending of the intricate interlacings and peculiar features of the celtic or scandinavian type, which sometimes gives to it a compound character, and makes it difficult or impossible to say from what source much of it is taken;–still there are generally certain broad charac- teristics, with remains of classic treatment, that mark the style with tolerable distinct- iness. all our norman churches, cathedrals, and other remains, which are distinguished by having semicircular arches, belong to the byzantine or romanesque style, although the style is modified by the introduction of other features. the purest example of the romanesque in this country is the choir and trinity chapel of canterbury cathedral, the foliated capitals of which are very perfect specimens of the romanesque modification of the classic corinthian. it should be noticed that at canterbury, and in several other examples which are late in the style, many of the arches are pointed, although * dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française, by v. le duc, article “sculpture.” sugges/ions in design. only slightly so; thus foreshadowing, as it were, the great alteration which was about to take place. to show how nearly, in point of time, the round-arched style approached the gothic, it may be mentioned that the work at canterbury was not completed until the year , and yet lincoln cathedral was begun to be rebuilt in the early english style in . among the arts which were brought to great perfection by byzantine artists was that of enamelling. the enamel was often made in small pieces and applied as precious stones are, and attached to the object to be decor- ated. many fine pieces of enamel, however, were complete in themselves. unhappily, owing to the value of the pure gold of which so many of the finest examples of sacred vessels and royal ornaments, arms, and plate were made, very few byzantine enamels are now in existence. carving in ivory, which descended from the greeks, was also an art much practised during the early byzantine period. one of the most celebrated relics of this class is the throne or chair of maximian, arch- bishop of ravenna, which was executed about the middle of the sixth century. it is now preserved among the treasures of the cathedral at ravenna, and is engraved in the great book of du sommerard. it is entirely covered by plaques of ivory, arranged in panels carved in high relief, with scenes from the gospels and figures of saints. the borders and intermediate spaces are filled with foliated ornaments; birds and animals; and flowers and fruits. from the time of charlemagne ivory was more and more used for the decoration of ecclesiastical furniture, especially for the covers of books, reliquaries, pyxes, retables, episcopal combs, croziers, and pastoral staffs. beautiful and highly interesting examples of byzantine carvings in ivory, exemplifying great skill both in the workmanship and design, are to be found in our museums, and will amply repay close examination and careful study. plate . no. . interlaced cross-form in square, for execu- tion in low flat relief. byzantine. no. . celtic initial letter i, after the manner of the anglo-saxon manuscripts, with skeleton animal. no. . interlacing pearl-work, with nail-head border. norman or celtic. no. . double bird and scroll work, somewhat after the manner of the anglo-saxon manuscripts. to be worked in gold and colour. nos. and . circles containing cockatrice and stag, eccentrically twisted. no. . band of interlaced ribbon and foliage. nos. and . interlaced geometrical combinations for inlay. plate . no. . dragons in low relief for the tympanum of a doorway of anglo-norman character, inter- laced in the celtic manner. the two sides are varied. no. . diaper in low relief and picked out in colour, finishing with cresting upon top. no. . emblematical form of fish, eagle, and serpent united—a symbol of christian evangelism. no. . cherubim with heads formed of the emblems of the four evangelists. wings covered with eyes to symbolize the all-seeing presence of the deity. no. . upright ornament with interlaced animal form. no. . string-course of bird monsters forming scrolls. anglo-norman or celtic. no. . frieze of sharp-lobed byzantine foliage, arranged in the manner of the greek anthemion ornament. many varieties of the anthemion orna- ment are to be found in byzantine ornamentation. a heart-form arrangement, evidently upon the same type, is of frequent occurrence. see fig. . no. . interlaced star-formed frieze. these star patterns are sometimes found in the byzantine, but gothic ornamen faţion. are more frequent in moorish work, in which they are sometimes carried out in the most intricate manner. the animals' heads indicate that the work is byzantine, as animal form is never introduced in the moorish. plate . no. . norman bas-relief, having the celtic character of interlacing long-necked animal form with foliage. nos. and . foliated animal form in the celtic manner, as found in anglo-saxon manuscripts. no. . alternating fret-formed diaper for colour or low relief. forms of a similar character are found sculptured in low relief on the irish crosses. nos. and . borders or string-courses, in upright formed design of byzantine or romanesque char- acter. no. . double dragon scroll of celtic or irish character. nos. and . drop and final ornaments. no. , byzantine foliated enrichment for execu- tion in low relief. no. . cross heart-form panel for painting. no. . panel for painting or inlay. diamond and semicircles interlaced. c h a p t e r xvi. go thic orn amentation. #ollowing the round-arched or romanesque style of archi- c. tecture, there arose the style *]; termed gothic, which is dis. tinguished principally by the general use of the pointed arch. originally when the opprobrious name “gothic" or barbarous was given, it embraced the whole of the architecture of the middle ages, including the saxon and norman of our own country; but now it is found more convenient to limit the application of this term to the pointed style. in our own country the development of the gothic style commences about the end of the twelfth century, and the style continues in use during the thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and part of the sixteenth centuries. this period is divided into early, middle, and late gothic ; or, according to the more technical language now in use, into early english, decorated, and perpendicular. the early english style lasted throughout the thirteenth century, and included the long reign of henry iii. the decorated prin- cipally occupied the fourteenth century, and answers pretty nearly to the reigns of the three edwards. the perpendicular was the style of the fifteenth century, and was carried also partly into the sixteenth century. these three divisions also answer pretty nearly to the terms used in france, namely, “style ogical primitiſ,” “style secondaire” or “rayonnant,” and “style tertiaire” or “flamboyant.” but the french terms apply to periods rather earlier than ours—the style primitiſ commencing about fifty years before the early english. among the most prominent distinctions marking the divisions of gothic architecture, and one easily recognized, is the form of the sugges/ions in / esign. window, and the progress of “tracery” in its decoration. at first the window was used singly, having an acutely pointed arch, and was what is commonly called a “lancet window,” fig. . soon two lancets were put together, fig. ; and then a group of three, with the centre light frequently higher than those at sides, called a “triplet,” as in fig. . these forms mark the early english period. the next pro- gression was to throw a fig. . general arch over the two lights, and to pierce the intermediate space, first with a simple circle, and then with a quatrefoil, as in fig. . this gave rise to what is called “tracery,” and groups of two, three, four, or more lights were associated together under one general arch, the mullions at the head of the window being continued in curves and enriched by cusping, forming various foliated figures. fig. gives an example of a three-light decorated window with geometrical tracery. this form of window was in use early in the fourteenth century; at a later period in the style the lines became flowing, fig. . other exam- ples of flowing tracery will be found in the plates. early in the fifteenth century these forms were abandoned, fig. . and there came into use a more upright form of which the tracery, in perpendicular lines of the mullions ran through the head of the win- dow, and to which the name “perpendicular” has been given. see fig. . another characteristic of the different periods was the form of the pointed arch fig. . fig. . fig. . itself. when first adopted it was seldom used less than the equilateral, and often much more pointed, fig. ; but in the second period it was frequently less than the equilateral, fig. ; and in the later period of the perpendicular the “tudor” or four- centred arch came into use, fig. . again, in the roofs, the early english were high pitched, forming about an equi- lateral triangle. during the second period, the decorated, they became of a more moderate pitch; while in the third, the perpendicular, they became so flat as to necessitate the use of lead for covering them. groining is another feature by which the in the norman period groining was simply the inter- section at right angles of two semicircular progress of the styles is marked. vaults, with at most square or round ribs at go//tic orname/afałion. the diagonal intersections. with the introduc- tion of pointed instead of round arches came increased lightness in the contours of the groining and elegance in the moulding of the ribs, with elaborately carved bosses in the middle period the groining became richer and the placed at the intersections. number of the ribs was increased; and in the fifteenth century the ribs formed a per- fect net-work of great intricacy. during the perpendicular era, also, “fan "groining was invented, in which the whole surface of the groining was covered with tracery fig. radiating after the manner of a fan. a specimen of this mode of vaulting ; from the beauchamp chapel, warwick, is shown in fig. ; and fine examples of it are also found in king's college chapel, cambridge, st. george's chapel, windsor, and henry vii.'s chapel at westminster. with the adoption of the pointed arch in the thirteenth century arose a perfectly new and fresh creation in sculptured foliage. the conventional and traditional forms of the byzantine and romanesque foliage, which were more or less based upon the classical renderings of the acanthus, were entirely abandoned, and a style was origi- nated superior perhaps to anything which had been seen before. the artists went to nature, and simply by following their own mode of rendering natural form in stone they produced an architectural flora which possesses a grace and beauty entirely its own. their principal type was a round- lobed triple leaf, said to be the water-avens (formerly called the herba benedicta or “holy herb”), which these artists of the thirteenth century looked upon as emblematical of the holy trinity. it is, however, more probable that they followed the threefold principle which they found ran through other plants besides the water-avens—more particularly the clover, wood - sorrel, and hepatica. they further observed that nature carried the same tri- plicity through compound leaves, such as those of the columbine, creeping crowfoot, and the parsley. combining these natural principles with a beautiful spiral evolution of form, they worked out a system of ornamentation of extreme beauty and vigour. fig. , an example from the galilee porch of ely cathedral, shows the treatment of the simple trefoil united to a spiral stem. this was often varied by making the leaves compound, and increasing the subdivisions into three triple-lobed leaflets (fig. ), or dividing them into four or five lobes, as in fig. , from stone church, kent; but still they preserved their emblematical and symbolical character. all the main lines in early english foliage are flowing, and the leaves grow out of the suggestions in /)esign. parent stem in graceful and tangential curves. in large spandrels, as in those at stone church, a portion of one of which is shown, fig. , the main stems are arranged in grand scroll lines, which oppose and harmonize with the lines of the surrounding architecture, and from these scrolls the leaves branch off in easy curves. the foliage is also found in the bosses of their ceilings and in their stained glass. but, above all, every chancel of every church throughout the king- fig. . dom was enriched by . % º a beautifully arranged . nºw . * form of gable cross. --- in the capitals of this period the foliage surface modelling and the central ribs of invariably rises directly from the necking, these leaves are peculiar, and deserve attentive study. generally the main lobe - of the leaf has a strong and vigorous square rib diving down into a deep hollow, as in fig. , the end of the lobe beyond being frequently raised into a swollen form in the centre. then again the lobe of the leaf is occasionally filled, as in the side lobes, fig. , by a large bulbous form. the foliage, therefore, although evidently taken direct from nature, is yet full of peculiarities which are alone found at this period. nature is apparently concealed under a rendering which is highly conventional, and these artists appear to have taken a delight in hiding, as it were under a veil, the otherwise purely natural types from which their foliage was derived. the cross form of leafage, another highly symbolical form, was developed by these early workers in a variety of ways. from a four-petalled flower, or the terminal leaves of a branch having opposite foliage, such as the lilac and maple, containing the same elements as the flower, they formed their dog- tooth moulding (fig. ), which they sculp- tured in long lines filling the deep hollows of their arches and mouldings. they also covered their walls with cross-leaved diapers (no. , plate ), as may be seen in the spandrels of the choir arches at westminster abbey. the cross form worked out in the . - - - either with flat stems or with broad plain leaves like the common plantain. it rises gradually out of the surface, the heads fig. . turning over in crochets or bunches, as in fig. . in other examples, although ris- ing as before from the necking, the foliage. flows round the capital in graceful curves, as in fig. . at the end of the thirteenth and the commencement of the fig. . fourteenth century a more extended rendering of nature was developed, and a greater variety of natural types was adopt- ed; but the symbolical meaning which ran through the ornamen- tation of the thirteenth century was in some degree neglected. the artist, seeking fresh beauty from natural form, wrought into his go//hic ornamentation. works with consummate skill the ivy, the maple, the hawthorn, and the oak, as well as the vine (fig. ), the bryony, the mallow, the hop, and many other plants; and he also introduced the fruit fig. . § {}^% and flowerscharacter- !º § istic of each species. : jº nº. with these are some- 㺠. º times mingled ani- mals, birds, and other fanciful forms or non- r descript creations. the diaper-work on wall surfaces is less frequent than in the early style, but when it does occur it is much richer and is formed with natural foliage, as in an example from lincoln cathedral— fig. , which con- sists of the hawthorn, maple, and oak. an- other example (seen in fig. ), from a tomb in the church at winchelsea, is filled with a single vine leaf and a = cruciform ar- . rangement of ºf the the most characteristic ornament of this period is the ball-flower, fig. . sists of a round bud or flower with a triple maple. it con- opening clasping a ball inside, placed in rows in deep hollow mouldings. it occurs so frequently in some buildings, as in the south aisle of gloucester cathedral, that every hollow in the mouldings, as well as the tracery in the windows, are filled with them to the exclusion of any other kind of ornamentation. foliated capitals have the foliage arranged on the bell in a horizontal manner, instead of the more legitimate method of rising from the necking perpendicularly (fig. ), and the foliage occupies the whole space between the abacus and the necking in a boss-like form. fig. . the scroll arrangement of the stems in foliage was less frequent than in the previous period; and as the style ad- vanced foliage became less natural, and stems were al- most entirely omitted. leaves became divided into long strap-like lobes, and the sur- face of the leafage, as it became more con- ventional, was carved in an undulating or bulbous manner. after a time the foliage became so exaggerated as to appear almost like a collection of round knobs or swellings it had, however, rising out of deep hollows. an extremely rich and elaborate appearance, with a sparkling effect of light and shade. during the fifteenth century, the period of the perpendicular style, architecture fig. . as an art became so highly scientific that constructive ex- ecution, or masonic excellence, took al- - most a higher place than beauty of form, and the architectural carver lost much of his early artistic power. the application of elaborately panelled tracery and canopy work took the place of the earlier kinds of ornamentation. foliage was less used during this period than in either of the previous ones. capitals of piers were very much reduced in size, and were usually devoid of foliage. for the enrichment of wall surface, tracery panelling was almost invariably used, and foliated diaper work sugges/ions in /jesugu. was totally abandoned. foliage, especially but were seldom, as heretofore, mixed or that of the vine, was frequently introduced amalgamated with foliage. although the in the hollows of the cornices of small works, carving of the fifteenth century evinces great such as tombs and screens. these were crowned usually by an open-worked orna- ment, which has been called the tudor flower or “strawberry-leaf ornament,” fig. . the rose, a distinctive cognizance during the wars of the roses, was a frequent and conspicuous enrichment. the treatment of wood-work seems to have made an advance during this later period, and the carving in seating and screen work was very delicately executed, although a conventional use of the gouge is conspicious. to this age belong most of our beautiful and elegant oak rood-screens, which are often elaborately painted and gilded, with figures of saints painted in the lower panels. the timber roofs of this period are frequently highly ornamental, being enriched with bold and effective carv- ing. the bosses at the intersections of the timbers are often of good character, although carved square and flat, as in figs. , , from all-saints' church, evesham. greater scope was given to sculpture than foliage at this period, especially in large works, some of the doorways of the conti- nental cathedrals being crowded with sculpture. figures were placed in niches with elaborate canopies above. shields and heraldic emblems of every description were also commonly used, and grotesque animals and monsters often took the place of foliage, skill and facility in the use of tools, yet the freedom of form and the graceful curves and spirals of the earlier styles were entirely lost. towards the middle of the sixteenth century gothic architecture was almost superseded by the pseudo-classic style of elizabeth's reign. much of the old gothic character, however, lingered for a consider- able time, and is often found mixed up with the more classic forms of this later style. these examples show how the carvers of a later period still lovingly adhered to their older associations. during the middle ages the use of stained glass in windows was a striking and important source of decoration to build- ings of nearly every kind, but more espe- cially to cathedrals and churches. the glass of the thirteenth century was of two kinds: the one richly coloured with medallions and panels of small figure subjects accompanied by foliage, as seen in the windows of the eastern portion of canterbury cathedral; the other was without figures and with less colour, and was formed by various com- binations of geometrical lines in narrow strips of colour, the whole surface being covered with the conventional foliage of the period painted in black or brown lines, as in the example shown in fig. from salisbury cathedral. this species of glass is known as grisaille glass, and is highly characteristic of the early english style. the five lancet windows of the north tran- sept of york cathedral, commonly known as the “five sisters,” are filled with the original glass of this character. during the fourteenth century figures were more | gofſtic ornamentation. frequently introduced in the glass, with an increase of colour, and the foliage became more natural. towards the close of this period single figures occupying a consider- able portion of each light, with canopies above them, were frequently used. in the fifteenth century, the perpendicular period, the general character of the glazing became more uniform, and consisted mostly of large fig. . figures of saints or apostles, each occupy- ing an entire light, placed in niches with elaborate canopies. these niches and figures were arranged one above the other so as to fill the whole light. the draperies of the figures often consisted of large masses of colour, and the colouring in very large windows was much richer, with a greater proportion of yellow, than heretofore. in domestic windows arms and heraldic devices were abundantly introduced, accompanied by scrolls, and the only colour used was the quarry-work, each quarry containing a sprig of foliage with yellow leaves, with borders to the lights in brighter colours, was also very common for plainer buildings, or as a ground for the heraldic work. yellow stain. to make the walls of churches harmonize with the gorgeously coloured windows they were decorated and enriched with colour as well. gilding and colouring were often freely introduced in the roofs or groining; and the floors were also made to accord by the more sombre tones of encaustic tiles or inlaid marble. the artists of the gothic period excelled also in the goldsmith's and jeweller's art, for which england has been celebrated even in saxon times. we have, however, very few specimens remaining of this art," which doubtless was largely employed for english shrines. the shrines and other minor works preserved at aix-la-chapelle, cologne, mar- bourg, tournay, evreux, and other places on the continent, abundantly display the ex- cellence of design and the exquisite beauty of the gold and silver smith's work, the enamel work, and the jewelry which were lavished upon them. chalices and sacra- mental plate, reliquaries, and numerous other objects, were executed with the utmost perfection of art and workmanship. during the fourteenth century tapestry hangings were introduced in the halls of the nobility, and arras became famous for its beautiful fabrics of this kind. they were at first employed to line the walls of halls at the back of the dais, which was * the crozier of william of wykeham, bishop of winchester, preserved in new college, oxford, is one among the very few specimens of english workmanship which has been preserved to mottoes or inscriptions on long narrow our day. sugges/ions in /design. occupied by the high table. tapestry, indeed, became the favourite ornament of the later mediaeval period, and in processions and on state occasions great displays of rich stuffs and hangings were made, representing, as froissart relates, “various scenes and histories to the delight of all beholders.” plate . no. represents a seal after the mediaeval manner. a figure under a canopy, seated on a throne repre- senting vigilance (the greyhound) and power (the lion), between two angels, who are presenting the one a book, and the other a shield. no. . vesica panel with st. michael supported by saints overcoming the evil one. the lion of st. mark below. nos. , , , , . tracery panels of various design for metal-work. small tracery work of this char- acter was much in use for locks and plates during the fifteenth century. many specimens are very elaborately cut. the metal was usually in plates of several thicknesses fastened together with pins or bolts. the ground was sometimes covered with scarlet cloth, or decorated by painting, as is no. . no. . one compartment of an oak rood-screen (style fifteenth century). the figure introduced in the open-work above is an outline for painting. no. . a band or frieze of flowing tracery, of late fourteenth-century character. no. . asquare boss for carving in oak. fifteenth- century character. plate . no. . vesica under a canopy with the pascal lamb, and monogram “john lambe;” for engraving on brass or other metal. no. . decorated or fourteenth-century flowing tracery, from the back of the altar, beverley minster. no. . angle of panel with carved frame consist- ing of tracery and foliage, with painted and gilded panel in the centre. no. . panel for wood-work, with vine-leaves and grapes. no. . vesica with angel carrying a shield emblazoned with the sun of christianity enlightening the negro, emblematical of the motto, “lord, lighten our darkness.” composition for painting. no. . panel for wood-carving (fifteenth century) with head of king with sceptre. crowned heraldic shield with monogram and supporters. linen-fold panel below. no. . ornamental fillet. no. . late french flamboyant gothic tracery panelling, for pierced carved work in hardwood or ivory. no. . tracery panel for carving, with paintings or inlay of boar and fawn. nos. to . compartments for stone carved diapers, each division by repetition forming a sepa- rate and distinct pattern. examples of stone diaper work are to be found in westminster abbey, bever- ley minster, winchelsea church, &c.—see also figs. , . plate . design for a book cover, the new testament, and back for the same, in naturalesque gothic. among the foliage is introduced the lily as the emblem of purity, and the passion-flower as emblem- atical of the passion of our lord. in the centre is the cross with the sacred monogram. the dove as emblematic of the holy spirit descending from above within a triangle for the trinity and a circle for eternity. the cross as emblematical of christianity vanquishes the evil spirit, which is represented as a winged serpent in the act of falling. in the corners are the emblems of the evangelists, and the capitals of the slender columns are formed by angels bearing shields containing the emblems of the passion. the back contains a vesica, in which is the holy virgin and child, surmounted by the heart and cross, with angels at the sides in adoration. the foliage is composed of the rose, ivy, and lily. plate . no. . late german-gothic panel with bordered vesica containing painting or low-relief carving of the virgin and child, with the emblems of the evangelists at the corners. no. . panel with flowing tracery, containing shield with heraldic double-headed eagle, for carving or metal work. no. . carved oak panel, french flamboyant ornameſ, fa/ meſa/ //ork. tracery. the flamboyant form of tracery is also found occasionally in english work, as in the west front of york cathedral, and other buildings. the english artists, however, did not carry it to excess as in france. although it was adopted in late decorated work, the flowing forms were soon neglected for the perpendicular, which form of tracery was never adopted by french artists. hence the reason for their carrying the flamboyant to such an excess. no. . head of tracery panelling having interlaced lily foliage, with heart-form filled with branched radiating triple foliage. no. . lily in interlaced tracery form, with flat strawberry foliage, flowers and fruit, and thistle leaves. nos. , . tracery panels with foliage, for carving or metal work. no. . a suggestion for the combination of foliage and tracery, with crowned pine and heart. the parts blacked in are pierced. suitable for embossing. plate . no. . vesica panel filled with geometrical and flowing decorated tracery. nos. , , , , , . forms of plate tracery for metal work. no. . canopied head of niche, for metal work. no. . head of angle niche, for carving in oak. nos. , , , . small oblong and circular tracery panels for carving. might be applied to furniture. no. . flowing tri-form panel, representing the burial of the dead, the passage of the river lethe after death, and the ascension into heaven. plate (superficial). no. . decorative panel; conventional arrange- ment of the rose. nos. and . decorative and geometrical forms for wall-papers or draperies. no. . upright design for heraldic crowned shield and supporters, with circular and flowing lines combined. nos. to . designs for encaustic tiles or squares for repetition as diapers for painted wall decoration, —comprising, among other forms, interlacing lines, rose and crown, lily, fleur-de-lis, rose, shamrock, and thistle, maple leaf, horse-chestnut leaf, dolphin, crosses, and lion. no. . royal arms with tudor rose, oak and acorns (england). no. . diaper containing a combination of the thistle, st. andrew's cross, and fleur-de-lis (scotland). no. . combination of flowing lines with harp, shamrock, and stars (ireland)—the last three designs are intended for painted wall decoration, or might be adapted to bookbinding or other flat surface. * cha pte r xvii. orn amiental 'mong all the decorative arts no more comprehensive subject is to be found than that of e---~~ metal work. it not only embraces the working of bronze, brass, iron, and other metals, but it also includes the delicate and intricate processes connected mietal worik. with the working of the precious metals gold and silver. full reference to the decorative use of these more noble metals would alone be sufficient to form a treatise in itself; the subject, therefore, is here neces- sarily treated in a concise manner, and prin- cipally limited to the use of bronze and iron. | sugges/ſouls in /)esign. the mixture of copper and tin called bronze, and its application to nearly every purpose to which metal can be applied, dates from a very remote period in history, even before the use of iron was known or un- derstood. the egyptians, assyrians, and phoenicians were great workers in bronze; and the latter people in very early times, perhaps a thousand years before the christian era, traded largely with britain in copper and tin ores, which they obtained from devonshire and cornwall. other supplies of these minerals may also have been procured from arabia and persia, and perhaps from northern india. not only do the sacred writings make frequent mention of the use of brass, by which bronze is generally understood to be meant; but classical writers, both greek and latin, are full of references to numer- ous works in metal. homer and hesiod describe with great minuteness the shield and armour of achilles, and the shield of hercules, and by the frequent allusion to the use of plates of brass, or more correctly bronze, show how commonly they were applied to the decoration of walls and furniture. it was the greeks, more especially, who brought the art of working in bronze to perfection. not only were statues cast by them in this metal more colossal than have been ever done since, but the architraves, doors, and many ornaments of their temples, the prows of their war-galleys, their armour and weapons, and many instruments requir- ing a fine edge, such as razors, saws, axes, chisels, were all made of bronze. the egyptians and greeks had also some means of hardening and tempering these instru- ments with which we are unacquainted. the early greek sculptors, all of whom appear to have largely worked in bronze, executed many of their works by hammering out the metal plates in relief from the back and then fastening them together with pins or rivets. in the case of figures, these hammered plates, called sphyrelaton or tor- eutic work by the ancients, were probably fastened on a wooden core or model. this is similar to the repoussé or beaten work of our own day. the invention of hollow castings, in which the metal is kept to a given thickness by an inner core composed of modelling clay and plaster, is attributed by greek writers to the samian artists rhoekos and theodoros, whose date is considered to be between b.c. and . the process, however, was practised in egypt at an earlier date, and it is probable that these artists only brought it to greater perfection. as the art of casting advanced, the thickness of the metal was greatly reduced, until the minimum was arrived at consistent with strength and durability. bronze of a very fine quality and rich colour was used, and its effect was greatly enhanced by skilful tooling and chas- ing after the work was cast. parts were also sometimes inlaid with gold and silver or enamelled in colour. numerous great artists worked in bronze during the flourishing age of greece; among others we hear of myron, who executed a celebrated group of jupiter with minerva and hercules at samos, a statue of erechtheus at athens, and a group of minerva and marsyas, of which latter figure there is an antique copy in marble in the lateran museum at rome. the discobolus in the british museum, which represents a young athlete in the act of throwing the dis- ornamenta/ meſa/ //ork. w cus, is believed to be a copy of a celebrated bronze statue executed by this sculptor. to cresilas, a follower of the school of myron, has been ascribed the statue of a wounded amazon in bronze, of which some antique copies in marble are still extant. phidias executed a group of thirteen bronze statues, which were presented by athens to delphi in memory of the victory of marathon. he also cast colossal and other figures of minerva, particularly one made from the bronze spoils of marathon, which, some seventy feet in height, crowned the summit of the acropolis at athens, and became a typical representation of the goddess. some idea of the extent to which bronze was employed for sculpture may be formed from the statement that a roman consul, in the year b.c., found at athens three thousand bronze statues, and as many at rhodes and olympia. of these numerous works, many of which were doubtless of transcendent merit, comparatively few have been preserved to our own time, the value of the metal itself almost invariably leading to their destruction. of large works, the horses at st. mark's in venice, the colossal figure of hercules now in the vatican, the equestrian statue of marcus aurelius at rome, with a few others of life size, are almost the only examples which remain. antique bronzes of smaller size, many of them from pompeii and herculaneum, are to be found in most european museums, espe- cially the national museum at naples. we have in early records soon after the reign of constantine, many notices of gifts to churches of works in bronze, showing that casting and chasing in that material was still carried on. the most important specimen which has been preserved from those days is the seated statue of st. peter, in st. peter's at rome. its date is about a.d. , and the figure is unusually good for the debased art of that period. the chair or throne of dagobert, now in the louvre, is another famous bronze ascribed to the seventh century. with regard to beauty of form and perfection of casting in bronze, the old in- habitants of britain rivalled the most skilful workmen of the present day. during the later celtic period the shields and other objects were not only enriched with enamel, but were carefully executed in relief with no mean artistic power. admirable works in copper, executed in ireland about the eleventh century, are still preserved, among which may be mentioned the so-called st. patrick's bell, cleverly in- laid with gold filigree work of celtic char- acter and set with crystals. the irish from a very early period were skilful workers in gold and precious stones, besides being good bronzists, and they carried the art of enamelling on metal to great perfection. the use of engraved brasses as monumen- tal tablets in this country commenced about the thirteenth century. they were at first imported from germany and flanders, but were subsequently manufactured in england, and in no country are these memorials so numerous. they were often formed of several pieces of brass shaped to the outline of the figure or other object, and inlaid to an even surface on a slab of stone or marble. the engraving on the larger number of english brasses was certainly the able work of native hands. these brasses were some- times enamelled or inlaid with colour, and canopies of great elegance were frequently arranged above the figures. ii suggestions in esign. the beautiful monument to queen eleanor in westminster abbey, who died in , consists of an altar-tomb of grey marble enriched with shields and niches of carved work. on a table of bronze gilt, ornamented with a lozenge diaper in which are engraved the arms of castile and leon, reposes the effigy of the queen, a work of the greatest merit. the head rests on cushions again diapered with the arms of castile and leon, above which is an angular canopy of metal at one time richly gilt. round the verge of the table runs an inscription in raised letters. on the northern side is a screen of wrought-iron work, which will be described presently. the bronze effigy was the work of master william torell, goldsmith and citizen of london. many other excellent works still exist in bronze—or as the metal was called in the middle ages latten—both in westminster abbey and elsewhere. among these it will be sufficient to mention the effigy of henry iii., which lies next to the tomb of queen eleanor; and the magnificent bronze work forming the tomb in henry vii.'s chapel, the effigies being the work of torregiano, an italian. the screen inclosing the tomb, also of bronze, formed of tracery with statuettes in niches, is of english workman- ship. at the commencement of the twelfth century arose that extensive use of iron forged and united by the hammer while at a red heat which formed so conspicuous a mode of ornamentation during the middle ages. both the saxon and norman smiths displayed the utmost ingenuity, and arrived at great perfection in this branch of work. be- sides the numerous other objects to which it was applied, the hinges of church doors were expanded into beautiful ornamental forms, until they literally covered the whole door with elaborate and elegant combinations of scroll-work. º these hinges were executed in different modes according to the nature of the work. some of the most simple and yet effective, of the twelfth century, were formed in a great measure out of one piece of iron. a plate of that metal being cut as shown at a, fig. , was heated, and the tongues a, a, a twisted while hot into the spirals b, b, b. the whole branch was again heated and then bent to the required form. afterwards, when the parts were all prepared, they were welded to the centre band of the hinge at d. the scrolls when fastened to the door with nails had the appearance shown by c. in the thirteenth century, when scroll- work with leafage was adopted, as in the example fig. , from st. mary's, norwich, every small leaf or sprig had to be formed separately, and afterwards attached by welding to the main spirals. when each branch was completed, and the scrolls and leaves carefully regulated, they were welded ornamental meſa/ j/or/. to the centre band of the hinge. as it was a difficult matter to finish these principal weldings neatly and evenly, more especially when the scrolls became large and heavy, fig. . ſtill oºlººl. qºiiitſo lll hºmilitºimhilliºliſhimºmºmº they were usually concealed by a species of doubled-over leaf, as shown in detail at a, fig. . these leaves and flowers, as at a and b, were produced by stamps made of fig. . hardened iron, and containing a mould or the reversed form of the object to be stamped. no doubt there were formerly in existence many other beautiful works in iron, such as open-work screens of elaborate scroll work, but which from the lapse of time and other causes have nearly all disappeared. one now remaining, on the north side of the tomb of queen eleanor, before mentioned, was for a number of years thrown aside as worthless old iron, and has not very long been restored to its fig. is a portion of this elegant and elaborately wrought screen. every panel or division through- out its whole length is of a dif- ferent design; and it will be observed that the scroll work is so delicate that in some cases bands have been added at a later period to strengthen and keep it in position. keyhole plates and door handles were favourite objects of art with the mediaeval smith, and many examples of these are found of quaint form and very skilfully designed. cabinet hinges, especially in the fifteenth century, were frequently executed in two or three layers or plates of iron, as in fig. , (shown in section at a), each plate being original position. fig. . cut differently to develop tracery or other work. in this example cupped-trefoil flowers are placed in the centres of the trefoils, which are held in position by the nails. nos. , , , , , , plate , give designs for small ornamental panels, and a key-plate, of this species of metal work. these were sometimes left open without a ground, as in nos. and ; or the ground was covered with crimson cloth, nos. and , or gilded leather, no. . suggestions in /pesign. english smiths maintained their excellence of workmanship, and produced vast numbers of admirable examples of their skill, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. many of these existed in london and its neighbourhood until a few years ago, but they are now fast disappearing. some very beautiful iron work in the form of gate screens existed until lately at hampton court palace, but as they were fast perishing from fig. . exposure to the atmo- sphere they have been removed, and are now nº preserved in the south kensington and bethnal green museums. they were designed and exe- cuted by huntingdon shaw, a native of not- tingham, about the year . one of the pilas- ters, or side portions, of one of these screens is represented by fig. . the use of cast-iron is a much more modern application than that of the first iron castings in england wrought-iron. were made in , in sussex, by ralph page and peter baude, but the process did not come much into use until a considerably later date. the railing round st. paul's cathedral, which dates about and was cast in sussex, is said to be some of the earliest cast-iron work put up in london. fig. represents a bolt said to be of chiselled iron of french workmanship, dating about ; but it is probably an early - example of cast-iron, although perhaps finished by the aid of the chisel. iron is particularly well suited for the casting of such work, as it can be done with the utmost precision and beauty without having to be touched after it leaves the mould. iron is cast from a mould formed in sand. when the sand, which is of a soft and clammy nature, is properly prepared and firmly packed within an iron frame, the wood or metal pattern of what is intended to be cast is pressed into it, so as to leave a clear and well-defined impression. the pattern is then taken out by loosening it all round, tak- ing care that the sand does not give way or become in- jured. the otherhalfof the mould is then worked the same pat- term in a simi- with lar frame; this half has pins which enter into holes that correspond in the first half, causing the two halves of the pattern to fit exactly to each other. canals are provided for the metal to run through, small holes are made to allow the air to escape, and when all is ready the it great importance to avoid air-bubbles in molten metal is poured in. is of casting, and the more time allowed for cooling the better, because when rapidly ornamem/a/ meſa/ //ork. cooled the iron does not become so tough as when cooled gradually. in making patterns for iron castings an allowance of about one- eighth of an inch to every foot has to be made for the contraction of the metal in cooling. no material has suffered so much by injudicious treatment as cast-iron. every material, no matter of what kind, when used for constructive or ornamental purposes has a treatment or mode in which it should be used which is more peculiarly its own, and if not so used, it assumes, more or less, a false position. this is never more conspicu- ous than when one material has been made to imitate the appearance of some other material. in this respect cast-iron has been degraded by every variety of false treatment more than any other material. at one time it has been made to look like stone work, at another it has had the character of wood work given to it, but even more frequently still attempts have been made to give it the appearance of wrought-iron. the ease with which iron is cast into various ornamental forms aids this attempted imitation, but it invariably fails to be successful. to give iron the heaviness of stone by casting it with broad surfaces but hollow or in thin plates is a piece of deception which cannot be too strongly condemned, yet it has been so used in numerous instances. on the other hand, to make it imitate the light- ness and freedom of lines of wrought or forged iron is to expose it to be destroyed by breakage, as iron when cast is so much more brittle than when wrought. in design- ing cast-iron, therefore, the several parts should be moderately stout, arranged throughout to be of about the same size and thickness of metal; and when of open work, to have attachments wherever practicable. in scrolls frequent connections or ties should be contrived, so that no part be left un- supported and liable to be broken off. ornamentation and foliage should never be excessive upon cast-iron, because it becomes an easy mode of concealing bad casting. nothing is more difficult than to keep sharp, straight edges and angles in the sand mould; and in cheap work, therefore, we often see an attempt to conceal bad and inferior casting under an accumulation of wretched ornament. an excess of foliage should be avoided, espe- cially when introduced on a ground in high relief, for the t reason that there can be none of what is called undercutting in cast-iron, as every part in relief requires to be bevelled so that the model may be drawn out of the sand, as shown by the section fig. . when ornament is much raised from the sur- face, thick bevelled edges, as at a, fig. , become very disagreeable, and fig. . have a clumsy appearance when the work is viewed diagonally. no matter how good the modelling may be, if these thick and clumsy edges are persist- ed in they will invariably destroy all artistic feel- ing in a work. it follows, therefore, that all surface ornamention in this material should be of a flat, delicate, and slightly relieved character, so as to avoid deep chamfered edges. another false application to which cast- iron is subjected is that of casting it in twisted in / esign. suggestions bars for iron railing. this is a form which is admirably adapted for wrought-iron, and it is one which a skilful smith can produce with great perfection; but the cast twist, show- ing the clumsy junction of the moulds, be- comes nothing but a miserable imitation. in pierced or open work with cast-iron, such as railings, no form is more appropriate than the square bar, and all ornamentation should grow out of it, as shown by fig. . plate . no . portion of cast-iron grille or railing with wrought-iron twisted spike. no. . wrought-iron cross in plate-metal; lower portion in cast work, with angels, heart, and crown. no. . cast-iron pierced cross or finial, with the head of our saviour. no. . cast-iron key-plate with ornamentation in bas-relief; dragon and shield charged with mailed hand and bent rapier, with the motto, “true as steel.” dragons holding ring, horse-shoe, file, and arrow- head. no. . finial or ornament for metal-cresting, intended to be worked in wrought-iron. no. . grille with gablet and fleur-de-lis ter- minal in cast-iron, with panels partially filled in with pierced iron-plate. no. . design for cast-iron railing, the twisted bars are more suitable for wrought than cast work. plate . no. . cast-iron finial with st. george and the dragon, shield with st. george's cross gules on argent. no. . wrought-iron hinge, with crenated foliage. no. . wrought-iron hinge, with eyes and wings. no. . cast-iron hinge, shown broken for applica- tion to different lengths. no. . cast-iron hinge with cock and motto “vigilans; c. k. .” no. . cast-iron hinge, with raised edges and flowers in low-relief. no. . bracket for gas in brass formed with pan- s c.s. no. . bracket for gas in brass formed with fuchsias. this system, however, of making gas jets come out of flowers is not to be commended. no. . metal corner for book cover or other purposes. no. . key-plate, in two layers or plates of metal. - no. . ornamental head for nail. plate . no. . copper vane with fish and initials “i. e.” nos. and . brass corners or ornaments for wooden book covers. no. . cast-iron staircase railing in square iron. no. . ornamental terminals for railing in cast- iron, principal one surmounted with pelican upon ball. nos. and . bosses or bolt heads. no. . bracket for light in chased brass, with chameleon, viper, and snail. no. . portion of cast-iron grille or railing. no. . keyhole plate or escutcheon, with love on the heart and armed with the key of love. no. . wrought-iron key-plate with incised ornamentation, for alms-box, with the impaled hands and feet and wounded heart, to represent the five wounds of our saviour. no. . bronze handle or knocker, with head of hound. plate . no. . wrought-iron finial and copper vane, with stars and swallow. nos. , , , , and . door-handles for bronze or wrought-iron, with cut or moulded plates. nos. , , and . wrought-iron key-plates, the first with entwined dragons worked on plate. nos. and . ornamental nail heads. nos. and . foliated scroll work for wrought- iron or brass. no. . ornamentation in wrought-iron, crowned v, with rose, shamrock, and thistle. no. . metal bow for key, which may be executed as shown or pierced. no. . wrought-iron foliated terminal ornament. geometric orſza/ment. c h a p t e r xviii. g-e o meteric some late and extravagant styles (such as the louis xv.), in which novelty alone was sought for, that this principle is little heeded or altogether abandoned; but in the best periods of art it will unquestion- ably be found, upon careful examination, that ornamentation was invariably set out upon a geometrical basis. in the persian, the moorish, and the arabian styles geo- metrical combinations have been carried to a vast extent, and made to interlace and ramify into an infinite variety of the most complex arrangements and intricate designs. the chinese and japanese are extremely fond of diapering portions of their vases and other works with geometrical com- binations of lines filled in indian work also, although the lines are sometimes more erratic than those used in with colour. in other countries, they are nevertheless generally founded upon the same simple geometrical figures. a similar principle of geometric arrange- ment prevailed during the byzantine era, but it was not wrought out to the same degree of complicacy as in the mohammedan styles. it was found of the greatest use o bin ament. for marble inlays and mosaic decorations, which were such important features during that period. many of these geometrical combinations have been handed down to the gothic and other styles, and were employed more particularly for designs for early stained glass, inlaid pavements, and par- quetry. in these arrangements some are found which may be distinctly traced through all the previous great periods of art—even going back to the greek, the assyrian, and the egyptian. not only may geometrical form be found in such combinations, but it may also be traced in the setting-out or leading lines of all decorative foliage. geometrical lines form the groundwork upon which such foliage was designed. at no period is this more distinctly seen than in the foliage of the greek, the moorish, and the byzantine styles. this practice is in perfect accordance with natural laws, the shapes of all leaves and flowers being based upon geometrical forms. there are two great principles in nature which are always acting in opposition to each other —regularity or geometrical symmetry, and irregularity or absence of order. these are ever present, the regular as an under- lying power, but irregularity runs riot so as, apparently, to obscure or obliterate all geometrical precision. to create true art- workmanship we must in like manner em- sugges/ions in zoesign. brace the two principles—order and disorder, regularity and irregularity, but from our limited powers we must always hold much closer to the former than to the latter. it will be perceived, therefore, how necessary it is to study geometric form. all curved and straight lines are based upon the simple geometrical figures, the triangle, square, and circle, – with their compounds, the hexagon, octagon, and with these a vast variety of the most elegant combinations can be made, ellipse. many of which have been used in almost the principles of geometric ornament are the same in all styles of decoration, and the every period of ornamental art. fig. . fig. . fig. . simple elementary combinations are to be found, more or less, in all of them. it is a fact worth noticing, that the geometrical figures have led to similar results in various quarters of the globe, which probably have had no connection or correspondence with each other. this may be observed by com- paring the chinese, japanese, and indian lines of ornamentation with romanesque and gothic forms. the careful observation of the different modes of treatment upon the same lines, as exhibited in different and distinct styles, cannot fail to lead the student to greater power and facility in design, and this study should therefore be cultivated wherever opportunity offers. no entirely fresh geometrical combina- tions can be invented, although the ori- ginai ones may be varied and recombined indefinitely. if we commence with the triangle, one of the first and most simple arrangements is that of the double triangle drawn from the hexagonal points in the circle, fig. . then by the aid of the radius, from the same points, we can form what is commonly called the “kite star,” fig. . this may be varied by finding the intermediate points of the hexagon upon fig. . / n n / fig. . fig. . the circle, and striking therefrom the arcs of a circle touching the six points of the three interlacing vesicas, as in fig. . this will be seen ornamentally treated at no. , plate , and, with the reverse curve, at no. , plate . the triangle and square, with the hexagon and octagon, are used more than any other figures for mosaic inlay, and it is extra- hexagon, and forming fig. . fig. . ordinary the vast number of different combinations which it is possible to obtain upon these few simple figures. figs. and may be repeated so as to cover an extended surface as a diaper or inlay, instead of being used as a centre. if two squares are placed in a circle, as in fig. , they give an octagon in the centre, with eight right-angled triangles, a form which may be carried into various combinations. using the same points on * combinations upon the double triangle will be found at no. , plate , and no. , plate . geometric ornament. the circle with arcs struck from the points, as in fig. , forming vesicas, they give the cruciform flower-form, the points of the intermediate vesicas representing the calyx. the pentagon is also an elegant form, but it is incapable of being combined to any great extent. are united in a star, as in fig. , it makes what is called the pentalpha. it is the when the pentagonal points fig. . fig. . .n. h most common form in flowers, as in fig. , which represents a five-petalled flower of a pointed shape, with the intermediate another natural points of the calyx. pentagonal arrangement is that of fig. , which roughly represents the primrose, formed of five heart-shaped petals. to exemplify how simply and easily in made changes may be geometrical combinations, different results, suppose we take no. from plate , which is a combination of diagonal squares, with crosses at the inter- if we omit the giving entirely new and sections used for glazing. crosses it forms another well-known pattern for glazing, fig. . retaining the original diagonal squares, but removing the smaller squares to the sides of the diagonal ones, as | extremely simple pattern. in fig. , we produce a series of crosses. omit half of each smaller square, that is, cut out of each diagonal square four right-an- gled triangles, as in fig. , and we obtain a totally different result, namely, a tile pattern in two colours, each tile being of the same form throughout." alter the position of each right-angled triangle, so as to cut out four portions from each square at an angle of degrees instead of , and we have another very interesting com- bination, each division being of the same form, and fitting one into another, fig. . another combination for tiles is given at fig. , in which the original lines of the diagonal squares are indicated. each tile is fig. . fig. . ſºlº ſº. z-nº-tz-n [x) (x) ºx) z-lº- n-zº-zn-z co co here precisely alike, but the colours in the alternate tiles are changed, making ap- parently a complicated, but in reality an a variation will be again found at no. , plate . now going back to the diagonal squares, but subdividing them and using circles in- stead of the smaller squares, as in fig. , we obtain a pattern which has been used for marble inlay. omit half of each circle, and we arrive at a series of pointed quatrefoils and crosses, as in fig. . reverse the position of half the semicircles, and we get a mediaeval tile pattern in two colours, fig. , all of which are of similar form fitting alternately into each other. many other different results may be obtained upon the * no. , plate , is another variation upon the same lines. sugges/ions in /design. same general lines, but these examples will be sufficient to show the importance of the study of geometrical combinations as the basis of ornamentation. in bands, string-courses, mouldings, or borders the same geometrical formation is necessary. ornaments set out on squares are of frequent occurrence. if we divide a moulding into squares, and divide each fig. . square diagonally, as in fig. , we obtain the saw-tooth ornament; with a slight ad- dition, as in the second half of that figure, it becomes foliated; add another diagonal line, as in fig. , and we have the nail- head ornament; form this into four leaves, and it gives the dog-tooth ornament, as in the second half of that figure. reversed semi- fig. . fig. . zzzzy! dº! circles, made continuous, form the ordinary wave-line, which may be variously altered by increasing the radius, and two interlacing wave-lines give the ordinary guilloche, no. , plate . - upon such simple and elementary forms, or others of equally rudimentary character, are arranged a multitude of other kinds of mouldings, string-courses, or borders, more or less complicated, particularly in greek and roman ornamentation, of which examples will be found in the plates. by studying the method by which they are formed the student may soon learn to design others for himself which will be equally applicable for similar purposes. geometrical formations are also necessary for much larger enrich- ments. they form the “setting-out lines,” that is to say, the foundation lines upon which ornamental forms are placed, whether they be of foliage, of colour, or any other species of decoration. diapered surfaces require to be divided into geometrical divisions, and these may be varied according to the material to which they are applied—such as the glazing of windows, wall-papers, parquetry, tile-work, or mosaic inlay. the accompanying plate presents many useful examples of these. it will also be observed that a great number of the ornaments and designs in other plates throughout this work are set out and arranged geometrically upon similar prin- ciples. to seek to reduce intricate inlays and ornament to their simple and elementary geometrical lines will be found a useful and valuable study. it not only enables the student to discover on what simple elements the most enriched ornamentation may be founded, but it furnishes him with the means of devising variations which he may himself clothe in a different manner. plate . no. . eight-pointed star, for inlay in marble or wood. the lines indicate the mode of contrasting the colours, which may be black, white, red, and yellow. no. . square form suited for glazing, inlay, or filled in with ornament, founded on a four-petalled flower. no. . eight-petal flower-form with cross in centre. groundwork or lines for ornamental square panel decoration. nos. and . geometrical diapers for colours or glazing with tinted glass. suggestions in /pesign. different kinds of marble or other materials used. the art reached such perfection that tesselated pavements embraced representa- tions of human figures, animals, and fishes, as in the example fig. , from an ancient roman mosaic in the south kensington museum. landscapes, flowers, and foliage were also depicted with equal success. probably the most notable specimen fig. . of ancient mosaic that has down to us, is a battle piecediscov- ered at pompeii in , and now preserved in this remark- con in the museum at naples. able work, the subject of which is one of alexander the great's asiatic victories, men and horses in action are represented with great spirit, the figures being nearly as large as life. the process of forming pavements and other works in ceramic tesserae has been of late years pursued in england with great success. a frieze of this description, of large size, has been executed, surrounding the whole of the exterior of the royal albert hall at south kensington. the colours used were only three in number: buff for the figures, which were outlined in black, on a chocolate ground, and the sizes of the tesserae varied from about a quarter of an inch to one inch square. the romans frequently adopted another method of constructing mosaic pavements, which was called sectile, or sliced work. this was formed of different slices of choice marbles, which produced their effect solely by contrast of the shape, colour, and veining of the various kinds which were brought together. the finest specimen of sectile work now extant is the pavement of the pantheon at rome, where specimens of the principal marbles, each of great superficial extent, are arranged in alternate round and square slabs. a similar species of marble paving is frequently met with in early mediaeval buildings in italy, as in the example fig. , from the church of st. francis at assisi. it consists of a triangular ar- rangement of similar forms in white, gray, and red mar- bles. from the middle of the fourth centu- ry, when christianity began to extend itself over europe and the seat of the empire had been constantinople, the oriental taste for gold and splendour superseded the purer practice of the ro- mans, and byzantine glass mosaic came into fashion. mosaic was extensively em- ployed by the byzantines for wall decoration and for the enrichment of vaults and ceilings. it was used to some extent on the exteriors as well as in the interiors of their buildings. the pieces of opaque glass, or coloured enamels, employed in this kind of work were very irregular in size and shape, and the ground upon which the subjects were represented was almost invariably of gold. a great variety of shades and tones of colour were produced in these glass enamels, and the material for the gold grounds was formed by placing gold-leaf between two sheets of clear glass, which were then put into a kiln fig. . removed to im/ays, zabyrinths, and diapers. and heated until the whole became homo- the sheets were then broken up into the required sizes. the manufacture and working of this species of enamel mosaic, known as vene- tian or byzantine, has been successfully revived by dr. salviati, who has established works at murano near venice. many ex- amples of this work have been put up in this country, such as those executed by him at the albert memorial, hydepark. the enamel is cut into shapes not quite regular, and these are put together more or less near to each other, so that between them the joints are plainly seen, and the surface is left rough. another kind of mosaic is that which is formed in rome, where the work —different from the venetian—is made thoroughly smooth by rubbing or polishing the surface, and the stone or enamels have their edges fitting closely one to another. the best specimens of this kind of pictorial wall-mosaic are to be found in st. peter's and in the recently rebuilt church of st. paul outside the walls, rome. the gigantic pictures of the four evangelists that adorn geneous. the pendentives under the dome of st. peter's, and the long series of circular pictures (each about four feet diameter) introduced as a decorative band along each side of the nave of st. paul, representing portraits of the popes from st. peter onwards, are in rough surfaced mosaic. these pictures have the effect of frescoes of great excellence, and are imperishable in colour. the portraits of the popes in st. paul were executed at rome within the last thirty years." but the most perfect specimens of pictorial wall-mosaic are the * the atelier of the vatican is said to possess material for mosaic work in above three thousand tints and shades. copies from pictures by raffaele and other great masters which are placed in some of the chapels of st. peter's. in these the drawing, expression, colouring, and general effect are so well rendered, and the fitting together of the tesserae so perfect, that they impress the beholder as paintings of rare merit. most of the pictures are reproduced on a scale much larger than their originals, and the surface of the mosaic being polished they present the appearance of paintings in oil. these examples, however, although put together with such rare perfection, are not considered so good for the purpose of wall decoration as the earlier, although rougher and coarser, mosaics of st. mark at venice, or monreale in sicily. mosaics have a character of their own, which neces- sitates a certain conventional manner, and all attempts to make them look like pictures in oil for wall decoration should be avoided. miniature works in mosaic continue to be pro- duced in rome and in florence for the decor- ation of jewelry and other ornamental articles. in the mediaeval styles of england wall- mosaics do not appear to have ever been prevalent, but there cannot be a doubt that english artists painted and diapered their walls and ceilings upon the same principle, and even in some cases in imitation of inlay. of this a notable example is the very early painted ceiling of the nave of peterborough cathedral. almost the only example we possess of the glass or enamel mosaic of the middle ages is that which still partially remains upon the tomb of henry iii. in westminster abbey. the shrine of edward the confessor, which was erected by henry, has been also richly inlaid with mosaic work, but it is now nearly all destroyed or picked out; the forms, how- suggestions in design. ever, of the inlay are still discernible upon on the continent, were sometimes laid out the cement in which it was embedded. in the form of labyrinths. no. , plate , the floor of edward the confessor's chapel is similar to one which existed in the church is very richly inlaid with various kinds of of st. bertin at st. omer, and which is said marble, and the pavement before the altar to have been destroyed because the children of the abbey is of a similar description. and strangers in following its course dis- the materials of this pavement were turbed the services of the church by their brought from rome by abbot ware about noise. no. is the plan of a circular one . portions of another richly inlaid which still remains in the cathedral of marble floor are seen in the trinity chapel chartres. such labyrinths were generally of canterbury cathedral. this contains placed near one of the entrances, and were the signs of the zodiac in circles, but one supposed to be emblematical of the manner portion of the same pavement is filled in of approaching the temple at jerusalem: because during the time of the crusades the way which led to the temple was marked by a number of turns and stopping places, in which the pilgrims remained to pray before reaching the holy place. in like manner pilgrims went on their knees upon these labyrinths, praying at every turn, and patiently followed the tortuous course until they arrived at the centre, which was considered the holy place. with geometrical combinations of marble, por- another excellent mode of enriching phyry, &c. fig. presents a specimen pavements was by incising the form, and of this inlay all these works are no doubt filling the incisions with black or a dark- of foreign origin, most probably italian. coloured cement. several monumental a form of flint inlay, which is found upon | tablets at tintern abbey, and part of the the exteriors of the fourteenth and fifteenth pavement at canterbury cathedral, repre- century churches in norfolk and suffolk, senting the four seasons and the signs of the is also worthy of a passing observation. it zodiac, already referred to, are of this consists of the forms of tracery, inscriptions, description. this method of incising pave- or monograms, cut out in free-stone, the ments is well worthy of study and further spaces being then filled in flush with the development for modern work, as it has a stone work with split and square flints. very excellent effect and does not involve so the difference of colour developing the forms much labour as inlay. the wall decoration in strong contrast, the effect is rich and in the memorial chapel to prince albert at pleasing, and gives a distinctive character | windsor, done by baron trequeti for the to the churches of these counties which is royal family, as well as some of the pavements not found in any other part of england. which have been executed by other artists the large marble floors of the naves or in the restoration of our cathedrals, are also transepts of some cathedrals, more especially of this description. a good modern example zn/ays, / abyrint/s, and diapers. is that in the choir of gloucester cathedral by the late sir g. gilbert scott. the subject is the life of man from adam to jesus christ. in the manufacture of encaustic tiles the ornament is produced by an inlay of a coloured clay different from the body of the tile. red clay, is formed under great pressure by means of a steel die, which stamps the pattern on the face to about one-eighth of an inch in depth. when the tile is dry, but before being burned, a yellow clay, technically called a slip, is made up to about the consis- tency of cream and poured over the face of the tile, completely filling up the incised portion. after this has been allowed to dry, the superfluous clay is removed by the aid of a steel scraper, and the tile is ready for the kiln. when more than one colour is required for the ornament upon the tile, the more expensive colour, such as blue, is care- fully poured into those parts required to be of that colour, and when this is dry the yellow slip is added. care must be taken that the clay used for the slip is not liable to shrink in the burning, or cracks will be produced between the inserted clay and the incised form. the original tile, which is usually of during the seventeenth century a species of wood inlay, called marquetry, was applied very extensively to the ornamentation of furniture. it was formed of thin veneer, and required a considerable amount of skill in its execu- tion. flowers, birds, and other objects were imitated by different coloured woods, and shaded by partially burning the surface with a hot iron. this was done with remarkable exactness to nature, but the result was rather too like a laborious and inferior imitation of a painting than a work of art. another kind of wood inlay, of a larger and much simpler description, termed parquetry, has been long legitimately applied to floors, especially upon the continent, where the use of carpets is not so common as with us. flat diapers are very much of the same character as inlays, and may, of course, be executed in the same manner; but they are more frequently done for wall decoration by painting, stencilling, or by printing, as on wall-papers. examples are given for these on plates , . sculptured diapers in stone, as found in westminster abbey and other places, already referred to, chap. xvi., are exceedingly costly from the great amount of labour they incur; but a very similar effect and with equal beauty may be obtained by the use of terra cotta. in fact, this is one of the many legitimate uses of terra cotta, where one mould will produce an unlimited number of the same forms in a material which is comparatively indestruc- tible, and that will effectually resist the influence of the atmosphere for an incredible length of time. and it seems a more reason- able process than to set men laboriously to carve repetitions of the same forms over the whole surface of a wall. plate . no. . labyrinth inlaid in marble of two colours, somewhat similar to one which existed in the church of st. bertin at st. omer. no. . circular labyrinth from the nave floor of chartres cathedral, formed of blue and white stone inlay; other colours are also used in different parts. no. . flaming star with coronet and date, for inlay. - no. . panel with centre cross, borders, and other portions of various designs, for geometrical inlay or parquetry. nos. and . strap and geometrical inlay border. no. . border with combinations of right-angled triangle. sugges/loſs in / esign. no. . foliated inlay border with scalloped edges. no. . inlay border, white and black interrupted hexagons. nos. and . chinese or japanese geometrical diapers, for painting on porcelain or for inlay. these are both formed on the triangle and hexagon. plate . no. . triangular interlacing bands for diaper for parquetry or other inlay, with stars at the inter- sections of the white bands. nos. and . variations upon the last combina- tion, with flowers at the intersections, and cubes filling in between the triangular bands. a combi- nation of cubes formed upon the hexagonal lines, in black, white, and gray marble, was a favourite form of pavement in the last century. it is, however, a very objectionable pattern, from its representing the cubes as if in perspective with one angle standing up, thus losing the character that pavement should have—that of looking flat and even for walking upon. no. . interlaced incised line, on white stone or marble filled in with black cement. four varieties of borders, incised and filled with cement. the broader bands may be filled with cement of a different colour, or inlaid with coloured stone or marble. nos. , , , and . foliated diapers upon imbri- cated or fish-scale lines, for painting, stencilling, or wall-papers. nos. and . geometrical tile pavements, on triangle, and one form fitting by reversing into each other. no. . border of interlaced ribbon, formed by incised line, and filled in with black or coloured cement. the ground tooled in lines to give variety of surface. nos. and . upright foliated and geometrical designs, for painted dados for rooms, or for executing in paper. no. . marquetry border for woods of various colours and shades. plate . no. . incised brass filled in with black cement, the broader portions with colour. a crest formed of a mason's lewis with the motto “hold fast,” for the name “lewis.” no. . panel for line-painted decoration, with ground filled in with colour. continuous ribbon, with variations upon the motto “amour par tout.” no. . panel for painted decoration upon the same motto in english, “all for love,” with contin- uous line forming hearts and true lover's knot, filled in with shamrock foliage. nos. , , , and . four varieties of four-leaved diaper, with four other varieties of leaves at the sides. for painting, stencilling, or wall-paper. no. . centre of interlaced crescents. no. . centre containing triple arrangement of oak foliage in two colours. no. . star and cloud diaper. no. . diaper formed of triple gyrating cones and lines. no. . alternating letter z diaper. no. . fish diaper with conventional water. nos. , , , and . fret and open-line diapers or filling-in, for enrichment of surface in china or porcelain. no. . alternate-leaved bands for surface decor- ation. one-half of band may be also applied to metal cresting. no. . outline fleur-de-lis, leaf, and berries, for pattern of textile fabric. no. . acorn-and-heart enriched band for painting. no. . stencil pattern for self-tone decoration— that is, the ornament stencilled in the same colour as the ground but darker, or vice versa. b/aconry and a/eraldic ornament. c h a pte r. xx. blazon ry and heraldic orn ament. |n heraldry the term blazonry is applied to the description and to # the representation of all heraldic §º ! figures, devices, or compositions, as well as to the arrangement of the component members and details of any heraldic composition. the word, here used in its most extended signification, carries us back to a very early period, when it was the prevalent custom for both individuals and communities to be distinguished by some sign, device, or cognizance. war and the chase would naturally furnish the first forms and figures, worn upon some part of the person or emblazoned on the shield as a mark of distinction. physical powers or peculiarities as a warrior a man's or a hunter, or the issue of some exploit in which he may have been engaged, would, in many cases, determine his distinctive personal if swift of foot, or strong of hand, or fierce in demeanour, or patient of he would naturally seek to symbolize himself under the form of some animal distinguished pre-eminently for one or other of those qualities. for it is natural that man should find symbols of his own physical attributes in the inferior animals; because in mere swiftness, or strength, or such like qualities, certain animals are superior to man. the next thing would be to render this personal symbolism hereditary. a man's son would feel a natural pride in cognizance. hardship, preserving the memorial of his father's reputation, by assuming and also by trans- mitting his device. it would be the same with the comrades of a chief and with the subjects of a prince. thus a system of heraldry would gradually rise and become established. nearly six hundred years before the christian era aeschylus described the her- aldic blazonry of the chieftains who united their forces for the siege of thebes. the well-known eagle was the symbol of ancient rome, the standard of persia was an eagle displayed, and the state of athens was dis- tinguished by an owl. it is, however, to the crusades, which were begun in the year and terminated about , that we owe in a great measure the mediaeval system of heraldry, and the emblazonment of arms on shields. among the many and important results of those romantic enterprises were great changes in the weapons and armour of the western chivalry; and these changes were accom- panied by the introduction of an infinite variety of armorial devices, especially the adoption of crosses of various forms and colours. the crusade confederacy would necessarily require a more definite system of military standards and insignia than had previously prevailed. the use of improved defensive armour also, combined with a better system of organization and discipline sugges/ions in /design. in the armour-clad bands, rendered it necessary for each warrior of any rank to assume and wear a personal cognizance, without which he could not be distin- guished on the battle-field, where the known presence of certain individuals was of grave importance. the device of each baron and knight would naturally be assigned, with certain modifications, to their respective retainers and followers. for this reason crests wereintroduced and placed on bascinets and helmets, fig. ,' and some recognized device was dis- played upon all knightly pennons or banners. these were again em- blazoned upon the rich surcoats worn by the knights over their armour, and upon the coverings of their chargers, as well as upon the shields borne by the warriors (no. , plate ). such is the origin of coats of arms, a term which is still in common use at the present day. in england, during the reign of henry iii. heraldry assumed a more definite character than it had done before, and in the long and brilliant reign of edward iii. it attained its culminating point. again, during the lan- castrian era and throughout the wars of the roses heraldry maintained its reputation and popularity, but with the decline of gothic architecture it too showed signs of a coming degradation. such has been its long and gradual rise and its decadence; * see also the examples nos. , , , , plate ; and others in following plates. and although now somewhat in the position of a dead language, still its use is never likely to be abandoned so long as pride of rank exists, and individual and family distinctions are required. heraldic com- positions are of extreme value as historical and genealogical evidence, and if rightly understood may yet become a powerful auxiliary in the ornamental treatment of symbolized forms and images. early heraldic shields vary very consider- ably in their forms, the simplest having the contour of an inverted pointed arch, some- what stilted, as shown at no. , plate . the shields used by the normans in england were long and tapering, as seen borne by the knightly effigies in the temple church, london. to these succeeded al- most triangular, heater-shaped shields. in later times their forms were often of the most fanciful description. fig. represents the form known as the tudor shield. it has a notch on one side for the support of the lance used in tournaments. the ground or surface of the shield is called the field, and here are depicted the figures or charges which make up the coat of arms. the side of the escutcheon which is opposite to the left hand of the person looking at it is the deater or right side of the shield, and that opposite the right hand the sinister or left side. the tinctures, or colours generally used in heraldry comprise two metals and five fig. . colours, and are named:— or, ...... gold or yellow, represented in engrav- ing by dotted work. argent, . silver or white, always left plain. gules,... red,.............. perpendicular lines. azure, ... blue, ............. horizontal lines. : suggestions in design. never borne singly; when the field is covered by bars, it is said to be barry. in the same way the field may be covered with pales, when it is termed paly. the bar has two diminutives—the closet, half the bar, and the barrulet, which is half the closet. . the chevron, fig. , is formed of two lines placed pyramidally, like the rafters of a house. the chevron has two diminutives—the chevronel, half the chevron, and the couple-close, half the chevronel. . the cross, fig. , is formed by the meeting of two perpendicular with two horizontal lines eff as hh -— fig. .-chevron. fig. . –cross. fig. .-bar. about the centre of the shield, and when charged occupies about one-third of the field, but otherwise it contains one-fifth. the varieties of the cross are very numerous, but figs. - represent some of the most usual forms, as the cross moline, fitchee, patée, avellame, and the cross croslet. *h iſ lºſſ fig. . —cross moline. fig. .-cross fitchée. fig. –cross patée. . the saltire, or diagonal cross, fig. , is a combination of the bend with the bend sinister. it contains one-fifth of the field, but one-third when it is charged. it has no diminutive. ºf ºſ fig. .-cross avellane. fig. .-cross croslet. fig. .—saltire. . the pile, fig, , a wedge in form, generally issues from the middle chief and extends towards the middle base of a shield. occasionally, however, this ordinary is borne in the same direction as the bend; or it may issue from various parts of the inclosing line of a shield. charges are often placed and arranged after the form of the ordinaries; thus charges may be in chief, that is, arranged along the top of the shield, without the chief itself being indicated. in the same manner charges may be said to be in fesse, in cross, &c. fig. . -pile. fig. – orle. the shield may have a border, which continues all round the edge, is parallel to the boundary of the shield, and contains one-fifth of the field. this may be again engrailed, indented, &c. the orle, fig. , is an inner border of the same shape as the shield, but it does not touch the extremities of the shield, the field being seen within and around it on both sides. the tressure, fig. , a diminutive of the orle, usually half its breadth, and generally borne fleury and counter-fleury; as seen in the arms of scotland. the charges upon a shield consist of every description of figure or bearing, both animate and inanimate, such as beasts, birds, and fishes; lozenges, trefoils, quatre- foils, roses, stars, crescents; guttes, or drops of liquid of different colours; or roundles, being plates or coins of metal, or if of colour represented globular. these and a vast number of other objects are used as charges, and may be placed in various positions upon the shield, and of different colours. in the blazoning of charges, be they of what nature or kind soever, whether animate or inanimate, if they are intended to be of the natural colour of the things they represent, they must be termed proper. the art of disposing more than one or several coats of arms upon the same shield is termed marshalling. coats of arms are thus marshalled on various accounts: namely, to show descent, marriage, alliance, adoption, or the gift of the sovereign. such coats as betoken marriage are borne alazonry and heraldic ornament. pale-wise, that is, the man bears his coat on the dexter half of the shield and the half. woman on the sinister if a man marries two wives, the arms of the first, is placed in the chief on the sinister side and the second in the base. if more than two, the sinister side is again subdivided accordingly. when a shield is quartered or divided into four parts, it shows the bearer's alliance to two or more families, as when a man quarters his mother's arms with his father's, but it should be observed that the paternal coat is always placed in the first quarter. when a coat is borne with four or more quarterings, and any one or more of those quarterings are again divided into two or more coats, this compound division is indicated as counter-quartered, and the four primary quarters are distinguished as grand quarters. the first person who quartered arms in england was king edward iii. he bore the arms of england and france, quarterly, in right of his mother isabel, daughter and heir of philip iv. of france. the same king afterwards changed his arms to those of france and england, placing france in the first and fourth quarters upon his laying claim to that kingdom. by cadency heralds distinguish the different individuals, or the several branches of the same family, all of whom, in right of their common descent, inherit and bear the same arms. a shield of arms may be thus “differenced,” either by modi- fying or adding to the original blazon, or by introducing upon the shield some fresh charge, which has a special and a separate existence of its own, as a “difference.” thus the prince of wales bears a label in chief across the royal arms as a difference, the second son a crescent, and so on; each son or descendant of a family having inserted some alteration or addition to the original arms, without interfering with or altering the paternal coat otherwise than as a mark of “dif- ference.” apart from coats of arms, badges or cognizances were much in favour during the palmy days of mediaeval heraldry, and, indeed, they were in use before the adoption and recognition of regular coats of arms. badges consist of figures or devices assumed for the purpose of being borne either absolutely alone, or in con- nection with a motto, as the distinctive cognizance of an individual or a family of rank and importance. they commonly used for the decoration of were costume, military equipments, horse trap- pings, household furniture, and were worn by household servants and other retainers. pieces of plate and other valuable objects were also adorned and marked by the badge, and in seals they appear as the accessories of shields, and sometimes as diapers. the sovereigns of england adopted a great variety of badges, at the head of which stands the planta genista, that simple sprig of broom-plant which gave the name plantagenet to one of the proudest and most powerful families. second only to the planta genista in interest are the white and red roses of the rival plan- tagenets of york and lancaster. edward the black prince adopted the sun rising out of clouds, in addition to the three ostrich- feathers, and the motto “ich dien” (i serve). a black swan ducally gorged and chained was the badge of the de bohuns. fig. suggestions in design. is a representation of this badge from the brass to alianore de bohun, duchess of gloucester a.d. , in westminster abbey. the same device was sometimes borne as a crest as well as a badge, as in the case of the famous badge of the earls of warwick,--the bear chained to a ragged staff. to this shakspeare refers in the second part of henry vi., where he makes clifford conclude his threatening address to warwick with the words:— “might i but know thee by thy household badge.” to which warwick replies:– “now, by my father's badge, old neville's crest, the rampant bear chain'd to the ragged staff.”— this badge as well as several others have given the names to many inns, such as the “white hart” of richard ii., the “silver (or white) swan" of the house of lancaster, and the “rose and crown.” the last with the initials v.r., may also be deemed the national badge, as the thistle is that of scotland and the harp of ireland. among other devices which were used as badges were certain entwined cords, dis- tinguished by the title of knots, such as the stafford knot, the bouchier knot, and others. the badge sometimes took the form of a rebus, which was a favourite method of heraldic expression. it was formed by an allusion to the name or profession of the bearer. there are many quaint and curious examples remaining of such devices. for instance, in st. alban's abbey the monument of abbot ramrydge contains figures of rams, each of which has, on a collar, the letters langton; a hen sitting on rydge. the tun to represent the syllable “ton” was in great favour in olden times— as for example, a bolt or arrow through a tun for bolton (no. , plate ); a musical note called a long inserted into a tun for a tun for henton; a fire beacon formed of a tun on a pole with a ladder placed against it, for beckington; and the hat and tun for hatton. abbot islip in his chapel in westminster abbey gives two forms of his rebus: one a human eye and a small branch or “slip” of a tree; the other, a man in the act of falling from a tree, with the motto issuing from his mouth “i slip!” such heraldic puns are distinguished as canting heraldry. beautiful and elaborate seals were held in high esteem in the middle ages, and were frequently charged with heraldic insignia and designs of varied and fanciful character. fig. represents the seal of henry plantagenet, second son of edmund, first earl of lancaster. the motto so frequently borne with coats of arms or crests was a brief epigrammatic sentence, supposed to be in some manner characteristic of the bearer, and was usually placed on a scroll either beneath the shield or about the crest. it sometimes contained a pun upon the name, as for neville, ne riſe velis (“form no mean wish;” or, “desire neville”). as also in the well-known instance of the vernons, whose motto is ver non semper ciret (“spring does not always flourish”). the shield of arms is frequently flanked by supporters, nos. and , plate , which consist of human or of imaginary beings, or a/aconry and //cra/aſic orname/ſ. of any living creatures whatever, which act as if guarding or supporting the shield, as do the lion and unicorn on either side of the royal arms. supporters are only borne by the royal family, peers of the realm, knights of the garter, knights grand crosses of the bath, and a few others. from a very early period heraldic devices have been emblazoned upon flags of various kinds. the three principal varieties of these mediaeval ensigns were the pennon, the banner, and the standard. the pennon was of small size, pointed or swallow-tailed, borne immediately below the lance-head, and charged with the badge or other armorial device of the knight whose personal ensign it was. the banner was square in form, or nearly so, and was charged with the coat of arms of the owner, and not with any other device. the national banner of england, commonly called the “union jack,” contains the crosses of st. george for england, of st. andrew for scotland, and of st. patrick for ireland. the standard was of large dimensions, and usually of considerable length in pro- portion to its breadth. with a full coat of arms and quarterings, as in the case of the royal standard of great britain. standards appear to have been used solely for the purpose of display. there are many other flags, such as those belonging to the military and naval services, it was emblazoned but they are too numerous, and their forms too intricate, to be entered upon here. it was a prevailing custom in the middle ages to emblazon the sails of ships with armorial insignia, and thus the sails them- selves became flags." "for fuller information on blazonry and heraldry the reader is referred to the following works, as standard authorities: dugdale's plate . no. . a cartel for the commencement of the tournay; black and white. this example exem- plifies a change which sometimes takes place in a shield of arms, termed counterchanging. it denotes a reciprocal exchange of metal for colour, and colour for metal, either in the same charge, or the same composition as in this instance, where sable is counterchanged with argent. no. . faith, hope, and charity, with justice and mercy above. faith, shield divided into light and darkness, party per fess or and sable, charged with a cross resting upon the neck of a serpent surmounted on a skull. sin and death overcome by the power of the cross, which has for crest the celestial crown. supporters two angels holding the lower shields. hope, party per fess sable and sea proper, charged with the firmly planted anchor as the last. charity, on a shield party per pale sable and or, the pelican feeding its young with its own life blood, proper, the heart below gules, being typical of love. the term proper indicates the natural colour of any object. no. . sword of state, with a, king's crown; b, duke's coronet; c, marquis; d, earl; e, wiscount; and f, baron. no. . papal tiara, or triple crown, cross and keys of st. peter. no. . austrian imperial crown. no. . crown of charlemagne. no. . crown of france. louis le grand (xiv.). no. . bishop's crozier. no. . the royal sceptre of england surmounted by the orb and cross. the orb, a separate ball of gold six inches in diameter, upon which is placed a golden cross enriched with diamonds, pearls, and other precious stones, is placed in the monarch's right hand before the coronation; and after the ceremony is borne in the left, while the sceptre is borne in the right. plate . no. . an esquire's helmet and mantling or and sable, with crest of pelican feeding its young. the baronage, ; nesbit's system of heraldry, ; edmondson's complete body of heraldry, ; and later editions; planché's pursuivant at arms; parker's dictionary of heraldry; clark's introduction to heraldry, th edition, , small octavo; boutell's manual of heraldry, , octavo. suggestions in /design. mantling or lambrequin was a small mantle attached to the helm, and hanging down over the shoulders of the wearer. it is often so adjusted as to form a back-ground for the shield or helm, and as it was necessarily much exposed, and cut and torn in the melée, this is indicated by the jagged edges and irregular form given to mantlings by heralds. the ribbon with motto, “for the law and the people,” is intermingled with the mantling. no. . shield containing rebus upon the name “hartwell horn.” no. . circle with border containing horse-shoes, with emblems of rose, shamrock, and thistle, and spaces on each side filled by spurs. this is a rebus referring to the profession of the bearer, a farrier. shield divided party per fess; in chief, a pegasus; in base, a bridle. no. . grand seal, containing a knight “a cheval” armed cap-a-pie, trampling on the dragon, indica- tive of love and valour. arms, quarterly, first and fourth, or, a lion rampant, sable; second and third, bendy, sable and azure," a dove volant, argent. no. . shield, gules, on a bend sinister, sable," a flaming arrow, proper, between six flames of fire, proper. motto, “light in light.” crest, a lion's head, with mantling of lion's skin. squire's helm and sword. no. . oval panel containing the united arms of the “queen of hearts” and “hope.” supporters, griffon and lion; motto, “i hope, i dare.” no. . shield, of cartouche character; party per pale or and sable, a double eagle, counterchanged. no. . heraldic fanciful design. smile and frown. shield, stars of light and darkness; party per fess argent and sable, counterchanged. plate . no. . shield emblematical of love and valour; double crest, crowned harpy and cockatrice, divided by the initial i, surmounted by heart, and interlaced with motto and true-lover's knot. supporters, dexter, man crowned with oak foliage and armed with club; sinister, wild man armed with club. nos. and . foreign coronets. no. . arms, with collar carrying double-headed lion badge and ermine mantle, party per bend, charged with inverted orb surmounted by crowned skull. supporters, men with terminal bodies, the dexter armed with sword, wearing portcullis, and crowned with mural crown; the sinister carrying sceptre, wearing harrow badge, and crowned with oak foliage. disengaged arms supporting royal helmet. crest a skull-cap. no. . rebus: st. andrew, with saltire cross, represented fishing. name, “andrew fisher.” no. . armed cupid; shield charged with two fishes gyrate in water, proper. no. . triple fish in circle on flowing gyrate form, or, gules and azure, counterchanged. no. . the initial s, with the badge of ulster. argent, a sinister hand,” couped at the wrist and erect, gules. the distinctive ensign of the order and rank of baronets, instituted in by james i., is the ancient armorial ensign of the irish kingdom of ulster. plate . no. . wolf and lamb terminating in interlaced foliage, with shield charged with wattle. no. . knight and banneret, charged with a dragon engorging a woman. the knight supposed to be taking a vow for the destruction of the dragon, as st. george is said to have done. no. . oval ornamentally treated, containing shield or, charged with triple lion with one head, gules. motto, “three in one.” no. . circular design for medal or seal. page à cheval with lance bearing the legend “forward,” carrying a shield argent, charged with lion rampant sable, and crest, lion's head of the last. motto, “without fear and without reproach.” no. . circular design for seal: heraldic ship with sail argent, charged with rampant lion gules, with crest at the mast head, lion's head of the last. angel lighting the way at the prow, and angel guiding at the helm. motto, “cast thy bread upon the waters, for thou shalt find it after many days.” nos. and . crowns of louis xiii. and henry iv. of france. plate . no. . royal helmet and crest for england, with ornamental mantling, and motto of the order of the * colour upon colour, which is bad heraldry. the artist has not in all cases adhered literally to the heraldic laws, but has sometimes studied, as in these cases, the good effect of his work only. * in consequence of the drawing having been made upon the plate, the hand has not been reversed as it ought to be. the hand should be “sinister.” - - a/a onry and //era/aſic orname/ /. garter. “evil be to him that evil thinks.” sup- ported by demi-lion and unicorn, issuing out of rose and thistle. no. . foreign coronet." no. . st. george and the dragon on fancifully formed shield. no. . demi-rose and thistle, for england and scotland united under one crown. badge of the time of the union with scotland. no. . medal with ship, carrying banners charged with the arms of the three kingdoms, england, ireland, and scotland, and flag of the union at the stern. also pennons charged with the national badges, the rose, shamrock, and thistle.” no. . the crown of scotland. no. . the crown of russia. no. . cartouche shield, azure, an anchor, argent; on a chief wavy, argent, a naval crown proper. no. . fancifully formed shield, gules; swords in saltire, or, with triple foliage proper. on a chief embattled, or, a mural crown. no. . trefoil in circle, containing national emblems and motto, “three in one.” the spandrels filled with dolphins. no. . circular design or badge, the union of the rose, shamrock, and thistle. no. . the royal arms of her majesty queen victoria, with the supporters treated in a pictur- esque manner, not heraldically correct nor severe in taste. nos. and . continental crowns." plate . no. . arms with cupids as supporters. shield gules, bird with wings erect gorging fish. closed helmet with mantling and coronet. double crest— dexter a bezant, or, and sinister a heart, gules. no. . rebus, bell and daisy; motto, “à la belle marguerite.” name, “margaret bell.” no. . rebus. flower, keys, and monogram. name, “flora keys.” no. . rebus. bolt throughtun and olive-treegrow- ing out of it; monogram. name, “olivia bolton.” no. . coronetted shield within circular wreath. party per fess or and sable, charged with a lion rampant, counterchanged. no. . shield in an antique bark, or, on a bend sable three escallop shells argent. supporters, sea- horses on the deck, with mast and furled sail above. paddle in lower part, with monogram. no. . foreign crown." no. . ornamental shield, sable, diapered, charged with lion rampant with quadruple tail, argent. dragon under shield, and halberdier on dexter side with halberd on shoulder and supporting crest, a swan with wings erect, on helmet open and in profile for nobility. no. . mantling argent charged with serpent, gules, devouring a woman. crest demi-woman, with arms extended, in the dexter hand a bird, and in the sinister a fish. supported by moors or ethiopians with clubs. no. . shield, gyrony of six, sable and or, in middle chief and dexter and sinister base nine trefoils, two and one, in each gyron of the first. no. . rebus, with page supporting initial letters i.l., with legend “light on.” name “john leighton.” * the variety in the forms of crowns used by foreign barons during the middle ages was very great. they were not limited in their forms to indicate the special rank of the wearer, as in english heraldry. *the imperial united standard or “union jack,” as now used, was first displayed at the tower of london and at dublin castle on st january, . the first union flag contained the crosses of st. george and st. andrew only, for england and scotland. the cross of st. george is gules on a field argent; st. andrew, a saltire argent on a field azure; and that of st. patrick, a saltire gules on a field argent. sugges/ſouls in / esign. c h a p t e r xxi. re n aissan ce or namentation. vº *}uring the fifteenth century ; there arose in italy, where go- ; thic architecture never became º | properly acclimatized, a style of art which was a partial return to the antique. while based upon the classic forms of antiquity, this style contains several new and important elements. it was ori- ginated and practised by men whose great genius and eminent talents raised it to an important and conspicuous position, which caused it to be soon adopted in other parts of europe. to this school of art the name “renais- sance,” or revived classic, has been given, in allusion to its revival of the forms and principles that prevail in greek and roman work. filipo brunelleschi ( – ), one of the earliest revivers of antique archi- tecture, having studied at rome, returned to florence, his native city, in . in that year it was determined to adopt some plan for the completion of the duomo at florence, of which the four limbs of the cross had previously been erected. brunel- leschi proposed to erect a dome at the intersection of the cross, but the dimensions were so great that other architects and engineers declared such a work to be an impossibility. after much discussion the design by brunelleschi was adopted, and the work was at length confided to his care. he then, after raising the drum or attic story, carried out the dome, which is one of the earliest important works in the revived classic style. before its erection nothing had been seen of later date than the dome of the pantheon that could be fairly put in comparison with it. the domes of st. mark at venice and the dome at pisa are far below it in grandeur and simplicity of construction. in size it only yields to st. peter's at rome, for which it is probable it served as a model to michael angelo. in rome bramante ( – ), who is usually regarded as the founder of the modern roman school, was engaged to erect the grand church of st. peter, and in the first stone of the new fabric was laid. the work was afterwards carried on by michael angelo ( – ), who infused new character and vigour into the style. it is to this unequalled artist that we owe the erection of the dome, which is the largest and loftiest of all works of the kind ancient or modern, and which unites in its vast volume the beauties of proportion to simplicity and unity of form in an eminent degree. in northern italy renaissance art did not appear until a little later, and there the important works of the duomo at milan and the certosa near pavia, as well as the palaces of florence and venice, developed several remarkable and distinct schools of art. the style soon spread from italy a'enaissance ornamentation. i to france, and under francis i. many very important works were erected, both palatial and civil. the consequence was, that during his reign the new style became so thoroughly established in france that long before the accession of henry iv, the gothic had come to be regarded as bar- barous, and fit only for the dark ages. the steps by which the english were induced to adopt the revived classical style were slower and more uncertain than those which preceded its introduction into the other countries of western europe. per- haps the earliest examples in england of the pure renaissance are the monuments of henry vii. and the countess of rich- mond in westminster abbey. these are said to have been the work of torrigiano ( – ), a contemporary and fellow- pupil of michael angelo. in , during the reign of henry viii., hans holbein, another foreign artist, visited england. he was largely employed by the king, and assisted to spread widely the growing taste for the new style. but gothic architecture, although in a state of decadence, was still the style of the country. consequently the new style became mixed up with gothic forms, and this amalgamation gave rise in the succeeding reign to what is called elizabethan. of this more will be said in the succeeding chapter. it is difficult to give any idea of the characteristics of the architecture of the renaissance period in a few words, but it may be explained that one of the main features consisted in the manner of using the orders. the columns and their entablatures of classic temples formed their total height, and were arranged as porticoes and colon- nades around them, but with the revival these features became attached to the walls of the building. instead of the exceptional purpose of forming colonnades, they mainly consisted of three-quarter columns or flat pilasters, placed one above another and form- ing two or more stories of orders. fig. , which represents the entrance front of a church in rome erected in the seventeenth century, will give some idea of this system. these orders when at- tached to houses or palaces naturally indi- cated the internal divi- sions, but the same ar- rangement was also applied to churches in which there were no divi- sions to be marked. one of the great difficulties in the application of the orders to churches was how to obtain the re- quisite height, the propor- tions for a church being so different in this respect from a grecian or roman temple. but when naves and aisles, towers and campaniles, were adopted from the gothic, loftiness of proportion became an essential element, and as the height of the orders was immutable, the dilemma was a serious one. by way of overcoming this fixed height of the ancient orders various expedients were used,—such as, lifting up the columns or pilasters by placing them on pedestals; adding height above the entablature by balustrades; or, as in the case of st. peter's at rome, by the addition of a lofty attic. but where great height was desired this often necessitated the order to be formed of colossal proportions; sugges/ions in zoesign. and thus, especially in interiors, the enor- mous size of the columns tended very much to dwarf the appearance of a really lofty building. this is nowhere more observable than in the interior of st. peter's itself, where the proportions of a very grand church are marred and the impression of its great dimensions diminished by the gigantic size of its details. an appreciation of this defect led naturally to the placing of orders above orders (fig. ), and they became ex- traneous features applied merely as decor- ation and having no connection with the con- struction. this manner of using the orders independently of the necessities of the struc- ture was carried to the utmost excess in rome by such architects as borromini during the seventeenth century, and unfortunately led to an extensive use of applied ornament and sculpture of every description. figures were made to sit on the corners of pedi- ments with their legs hanging over, and spandrels of arches were filled with sculp- ture in alto-relievo resting upon the archivolts of the arches; pediments which should indicate the slope of the roof became totally disconnected from it, and were fre- quently made segmental or of an ogee form. then they were broken in order to introduce ornaments or sculpture in the centre (fig. ), or they were turned into scroll forms with festoons depending from one side to the other. these and other devices of very questionable taste were prevalent during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. many of the italian palaces, however, were successfully arranged without the aid of the orders, by the use of a few simple details and a bold cornice crowning the building. the surface of the walls was rusticated, the windows were oftentimes divided by columns in the centre and the head filled with arches with a rusticated arch above, as in fig. , from the strozzi palace, florence. venice, which is celebrated for the beauty and elegance, more especially, of its palaces, produced some very remarkable architects, who formed quite a school of their own. of these the most distinguished are san mi- cheli ( – ) and sansovino ( – ). but of all the men who fig. . have enriched the vene- tian territories with the greatest number of works of architectural art, no name is to be compared with that of andrea palladio ( – ). he published a work on architecture, which has had a universal reputation, and he has left his works, which are ex- ceedingly numerous, as models for the countries of europe, in which the style which bears his name has had no rival. his grandest church is that of del redentore at venice, but he was more especially successful in the designing and erection of villas and palaces. in elaborate works of this period arabesque decorations on the pilasters were frequent (figs. , , ), and were carried out with much delicacy and elegant design. friezes in imitation of the antique were designed a'enaissance ormamentation. with considerable taste and beauty, as in figs. , , . as these were carved out of a sunk panel this mode of decor- ation is perfectly legitimate. but the manner in which ornamenta- fig. . tion was so often added to the surface of buildings without any ornamenting construction, was one of the worst features of this period, and cannot be too strongly con- demned. the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth century is generally speaking the finest period of this style. happily amid much that is vicious there exist many noble works, which make the study of the renaissance of the utmost value for the purpose of modern requirements. during the sixteenth cen- tury menced a gen- eral improve- in the forms and de- coin- ment signs for orna- mental furni- ture. hitherto furniture of an ornamental de- scription was to be found on- ly in churches or palaces, but the important mansions that were erected at this time created a taste for a superior class of furniture, such as carved chests, presses, inlaid tables, and chairs of various ornate forms. the vene- tians had derived from persia and india a reason whatever, except that of constructing ornament instead of beautiful system of surface decoration, which is known as marquetry, consisting of a fine inlay of ivory, metal, and different woods stained to vary the colour. this was at first applied to furniture by the italians and other early workers in geometrical patterns only, fig. . but after a time flowers and foliage, with birds, insects, and other accompaniments, fig. . were executed upon tables, panels of cabinets, and other parts, with considerable skill and judgment. with the improvement in furniture there arose a class of wood-carvers, and the best artists of the day did not hesitate to give minds de- and their to the signing carving wood work and fur- a- mong the most striking fig. . niture. pieces of italian carved-wood furniture are the chests or large coffers for holding clothes or ornamental hangings when not in use. these chests, with a table and chairs placed against a wall, nearly complete the requirements of great italian halls and corridors. they are usually ornamented with masks, brackets, or caryatid suggestions in design. figures, and have panels, borders, or other spaces filled with historic sculpture in low relief. in the sixteenth-century furniture the architectural character of the designs be- came a strongly marked feature. arrange- ments which belonged properly only to stone-work were applied to wood-work; and cabinets, chests, &c., were covered with details of classic entablatures and columns reduced to minute proportions in order to adapt them to furniture. the artists of that time did this with the object of designing “in character,” and often took as models the old triumphal arches and sarcophagi at rome. at a later period cabinets grew into house fronts, and showed doors, arches, and balustrades inside, with imitation paved floors and looking-glasses. a walnut or ebony cabinet was thus turned into the model of an italian villa. in england most of the renaissance ornamentation and furniture of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has a flemish rather than an italian character, and there is little doubt that both artists and furniture and other wood-work were largely imported into this country from flanders." it is not easy to distinguish the nationality of pieces of flemish and english oak furniture of this period, but the flemings retained a higher school of figure carvers, and some of their best things, as their pulpits and church stall- work, are of a higher class and better designed than such works as we know to be undoubtedly english. a good example of flemish arabesque work is illustrated by fig. , a carved oak panel of about the year . among other arts which were brought * no. , plate , is of flemish character. within the new range of thought created by the renaissance, was that of the gold and silver smith. reliquaries, chalices, and other vessels for religious use, belonging to previous styles, were broken up and all europe, and were melted over remade according to the prevailing fashion. besides which, such the enthusiasm for was the new style, that armour for the no- bility, their plate, and jewels for the ladies, supplied in- cessant occupation for the goldsmiths of that some of the most period. renowned sculptors, ghiberti, brunel- leschi, and dona- tello, are said to have first practised and learned their art from goldsmiths. the most eminent gold- smith of the sixteenth century was the cele- brated benvenuto cellini ( – ). he was a native of florence, and was largely employed at rome by pope clement vii. whilst, however, the pope was besieged in the castle of st. angelo, cellini received orders to destroy a vast number of his finest works, and to melt down the gold; of which he obtained he was afterwards many two hundredweight. patronized by francis i. of france. of the vessels and other works which were a’emaissance ornameſ/aſion. executed by cellini were covered with small figures modelled with exquisite taste and designed with the utmost grace and beauty. the working in niello, or black inlay, was brought to great perfection at this time. this art consists in covering the surface with a kind of black enamel, in lines as of an engraving, after the manner of no. and , plate , which are incorporated with the solid metal by passing the work through the furnace. ceramic earthenware, known in italy as maiolica or majo/ica, attained great eminence during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the name of luca della robbia ( – ) was closely connected with its improve. ment during the earlier period. descriptions of the illustrative figures. the figures on the plates now about to be described, being original designs and not copies from any existing examples, it has not in all cases been the aim of the designer to keep them strictly within the renaissance style. they must rather be looked upon as suggestions for the advance of the style. it therefore frequently happens that some of the designs may have a character which has a certain similarity to other styles. this should not be considered an objection to them, or render them unsuited for being introduced among other renais- sance ornament, so long as they harmonize with the other features which surround them. plate . no. . flemish pilaster, dated . this kind of scroll work is usually distinguished as cartouche work, from its resemblance to stiff rolled-up paper. it was also common in france, and it occurs very plentifully in elizabethan. (see plate .) the com- position (no. ) is made up with scroll-work and parts in perspective, all in high relief, together with fruit, serpent, vase, and grotesque figures, the whole built up upon the head of a sitting figure, and crowned with a phoenix. it is an early example of constructed ornamentation, a vicious system that prevailed so much in renaissance work. nos. and . semicircular heads or panels, and having partly a gothic character. the first with vase and grotesque animals, the other with shield and radiating tracery. no. . dryad with boy satyr, cornucopia and flowers, for stone carving in high relief. no. . faun and satyr with accompaniments to pair with the last. mythological figures were frequently introduced in the renaissance. no. . panel containing angel with shields charged with cross and cross-keys and crowned harpy. plate . no. . shield within horse-shoe, party per pale, argent and gules, two hearts counterchanged with the field. on a chief, sable, two mullets, argent crest, flame of fire surrounded by chain, supported by grotesque dragons. and gules. proper. no. . sculpture for tympanum of doorway or semicircular panel. head of river-god, surmounted by compass, supported by two sitting female figures holding rudder and paddle. ground of gold stars on blue. no. . panel with eccentric combination of grotesque animals, birds, scorpion, snail, &c. no. . tail-piece for painting, wall decoration. cartouche shield with the monogram “c. o. g.,” surmounted by satyr's head, supported by scroll cupids and birds carrying festoons of flowers. no. . bracket or hook in metal formed of winged monster with female head wearing cap of liberty. - no. . date label, surrounded by foliated serpents and cartouche work. no. . shield containing the french cypher, double l, helmet and scroll mantling. crest, winged mailed arm carrying porte-crayon. lower portion made up with open book, and terminal of cat's head and rat. plate . no. . oval panel or shield supported by winged figure carrying the sword of justice. above, cupid with torch; below, head supporting vase, flanked by boy and branch, with fruit, &c. no. . half panel with minerva and shield, with centres of heads and vase, flanked by birds, festoons and scroll work above, and cupid with torch, elow. suggestions in zoesign. nos. and . wheat and rose, for raised and chased metal finger-plates for doors. no. . grotesque mask. these were of constant occurrence in this style. no. . bas-relief panel, containing cartouche inclosing burning heart engraved with tazza, flanked by male and female satyrs holding in their hands the thyrsus of bacchus and supporting cupids. plate . nos. and . flat carved terminals out of the surface. busts of king and queen, crowned with foliated hair, beard, &c. nos. and . string-courses carved in relief, arranged on alternating inclined planes and repe- tition of similar forms. no. . arabesque panel, for painting, or sculpture in low relief, with foliated figures, heads, and dolphins. the lower portion filled with the pelican feeding its young with its own blood. nos. and . panels with foliated scroll borders, suitable for niello or buhl work. no. . ornamental vase for execution in silver. no. . square flower for panel. no. . design for foliated inlay or incised work. plate . no. . sculptured pedestal with centre panel containing folded linen, flanked by male and female sitting figures, with festoons of flowers. cupids and crowned head in frieze above; satyr's head, swans and sculptured water below. this example, as also nos. and , plate , are intended to show that intimate admixture of sculpture and ornament which was so prevalent and characteristic of this period. - no. . venus and dolphins, with an arrangement of ribbons carrying medallions containing portraits of artists of the period. no. . ornamental fleur-de-lis composed of foliage and berries. no. . terminal monster for bracket. no. . panel containing an ornamental combin- ation of male and female satyrs and fauns, with festoons and foliage. plate . no. . mermaid and dolphins in lunette or semi- circular panel for painting. nos. and . terminal heads or arm-rests for stalls or chairs, for carving in wood-work. no. . arabesque panel in flat relief, with gold ground and blue grounds in centre. subject: night. a female figure about to envelop herself in her veil; the evening-star above; triple interlaced crescents below, the device of the celebrated diana of poitiers, with sleeping cat, and mice at play. the minor arabesque subjects are, boys with candles, sleeping masks, bat with star, incense vases, roosting peacocks, flowers, and scroll work. no. . grotesque combination of snake entangled and mixed up with legs and arms. no. . contest between a dwarf and a dragon. no. . heraldic composition: shield or, charged with dragon sable, surmounted by open helmet, feather crest, with foliated mantling sword and belt. no. . decorative vase with flowers, and scroll encircling the vase formed of the lily. no. . cartouche with winged head and inter- lacing bird scrolls. plate . no. . tympanum for segmental-headed doorway carved in alto-relievo. armorial bearings as for a seaport town. shield argent, charged with lion rampant, gules; crest, lion's head of the last; on closed helmet with mantling. supporters, sea god and goddess, carrying oar with trident and spear. angles filled in with dragons strangling snakes. nos. and . centre flowers for carving. nos. and . scroll terminals, female figure and cupid; winged head and bell. no. . spear piercing entwined serpent with foliage. no. . entwined double-headed serpent in vesica. no. . mask and scroll foliage. plate . no. . ornamental scroll figure bearing flower- baskets, for execution in flat relief and decorated in gold and colour. - no. . lioness-head claw or leg for pedestal, with entwined skin. no. . bracket; head of satyr with vine and other foliage. no. . composition for inlay. vase, out of which spring conventional scroll foliage and flowers. mono- gram “a. d.” in lower compartment. nos. , , and . masks for sculpture. a'enaissance or/d//le/l/a/ / . no. . spandrel filling in between circular panels. boys and bust in centre with monogram “b. a. b." below, surrounded with foliage and ram's head. no. . spandrel between circular panels with imbricated frames. angel scroll bearing grapes and vase supported by a bearded-lion altar. the scroll issuing from the angel terminating in rose and leaves, with cock's head and rabbit. plate . no. . composition for centre of panel, with centaur on shield surrounded by masks and foli- age. no. . kneeling supporter. chained negress and scroll work. - no. . fish and scroll of sea-weed and shell. no. . female kneeling figure with mural crown, leaning on shield, charged with arms. no. . demi-shield with kneeling female sup- porter. no. . rebus, i (eye) l, with olive branch. name, “john leighton.” no. . frame for glass (containing ornamental vase). group of children above, bearing palette, com- passes and brush, and mask in centre. below boys carrying maul-stick and plumb-rule, with festoon of curtain looped up to animal's head in centre. no. . fanciful arrangement of winged harpy, with boy scroll and butterfly; to flank a medallion or shield in the centre, a small portion of which is shown. no. . composition for execution in statuary marble. angels with scroll terminal bodies sup- porting a celestial crown, and a mantle bearing the representation of a skull in a sacred chalice and covered by the red hat and insignia of a cardinal. plate (superficial). no. . geometrical diaper, filled in with crowned rose rising out of fleur-de-lis. the other compart- ments having shamrock, thistle, and oak issuing from fleurs-de-lis. nos. , , , and . ornamental circles. nos. and . interlaced bands for parquetry. no. . frieze of alternated heart-forms filled with delicate scroll-work. no. . central triple flower arrangement, alter- nating with centres containing strawberries. no. . ogee net-work tracery, alternating with lower form of the same character. no. . diaper of conventional foliated forms. plate (superficial). no. . conventional wall decoration of fabric pattern. no. . cross with half circles interlaced. no. . centre with half circles interlaced having split points, alternating with four flower calices. no. . interlaced double triangles in a circle and a flower of six petals in the centre. no. . four vesicas interlaced in a circle with fleur-de-lis and leafage. no. . ornamentally arranged fleur-de-lis, with black drop ornaments and scrolls. no. . octofoil with heart-form cross and black foliage. no. . octofoil containing banded and interlaced cross, with alternating and interlaced bands and foliage. no. . centre for fabric pattern with geometrical bands, ivy-leaf, and other foliage. nos. and . square quatrefoils filled in with snow-drop and triple foliage. plate (superficial). no. . diamond and oblong interlaced enrichment for textile fabric. no. . textile fabric, leaf and pansy. no. . textile fabric, conventional foliage. no. . fern fronds in diagonal cross and inter- laced geometrical form in the centre. below, a composition of lines and circles filled in with foliage. no. . interlaced tinted and black form with triple terminations, and centres filled with leafage. no. . interlaced square and flowing bands with ogee quatrefoil centre and foliated ground for carpet or mat. plate (superficial). no. . geometrical pattern of circles and square in interlaced bands filled in with pointed quatrefoil and foliage. no. . square and diagonal cross centre in black for repetition in wall diaper, and filled in with black and white triple-berry foliage, on tinted ground; the dotted ground being in gold. no. . geometrical interlaced double quatre- sugges/ions in design. foils and circles in white and chocolate on tinted ground. no. . strapwork, interlaced form with ivy and trefoil foliage, for marquetry. no. . interlaced strapwork panel and oblong label in the centre with foliage, for engraving on metal, the black bands being filled in with coloured cement. plate (superficial). no. . diagonal bands for wall diaper. white on chocolate and gray on white. no. . a similarly treated diaper, formed with interlaced monograms, “d. w.” no. . ornamental painted fluting, for repetition in a hollow or cavetto. no. . foliated circle or boss with dogs in the centre running round ball-flower. no. . diapered diamond centre, with foliated angles and arrow-headed leaf and interlaced line scrolls. nos. and . patterns for lace work. nos. s and . panels of arabesque and interlaced strapwork. no. . woven fabric; mat or rug. diamond, circle and interlaced strapwork, picked out in colours and set in dark neutral-tinted ground. c h a p t e r xx ii. english re n a issan c e o b n amentation (elizabeth an and su bsequent per i o ds). #lthough the italian re- | naissance style was introduced § into england as early as , #. º when the monument to henry vii. in westminster abbey was commenced by torrigiano as already mentioned, yet the style did not at that time take root. before the reformation art flourished vigorously in the hands of the clergy, but when they were scattered by the dissolution of the religious houses art declined rapidly. henry viii. was a sovereign who did very little to en- courage native talent, but, on the contrary, did all he could to induce foreign artists to settle in england. among those who came to this country during his reign was the celebrated hans holbein ( – ), and he was employed by the king to erect the two gates at whitehall, but which have long since been removed. among other works holbein designed the stalls for king's college chapel at cambridge in the revived classic manner. this wood-work still exists, and forms a perfect model of renaissance carving, revealing in every arabesque the hand of the master. but the style of the country being still gothic, the new fashion could not entirely obliterate the feeling for mediaeval art which had prevailed in england in different phases ever since the norman conquest. at the same time there appears to have been a strong inclination to adopt the more novel style, glowing accounts of which, no doubt, were brought by travellers return- ing from italy who had seen the productions of the wonderful genius of michael angelo and the glorious works of raffaele. these reports among other circumstances caused ang/s/. atenaissance ornamentation. classical forms of ornamentation to be seized numerous examples of large and elaborate upon with avidity by the architects of that period, but native artists being yet imbued with the love of the gothic art of their coun- try, could not all at once throw off this feeling. their employment, however, of such classical features as they were acquainted with, pro- duced a picturesque transitional style, which is peculiar to the time of elizabeth and james i. tudor arches were made to spring from doric columns, and houses were divided into stories by classic cornices and friezes with attached pilasters added at intervals upon the face of the walls. the spaces be- tween were filled with square tudor mul- lioned windows or projecting oriels, and the buildings were crowned with fanciful balus- trades, quaintly formed gables, and tall twisted chimney-stacks, until a strangely picturesque style was developed,—a style employed in some of the most stately of the houses of england which were erected by the nobility of that period. thus arose such mansions as burleigh, longleat, hatfield, audley end, crewe, and many others of minor importance. the style was peculiarly suited to country houses, and when carried out in stone and red brickwork, and the building placed among luxuriant foliage, the contrast of colour was extremely agreeable. during the long and prosperous reign of elizabeth, the protection of castles came to be no longer needed, and the principal ministers of state set the example of building for themselves this and the succeeding reign, therefore, was a time in large and luxurious houses. which a great number of large country houses and palatial mansions were erected. very little, if any, church building was done during this period, but to it belong at no. , plate tude of prayer. these monuments still existing in our cathedrals and churches. the figures, as of a knight and his dame, instead of being recumbent as formerly, were represented kneeling in the act of prayer; while below upon the front of the tomb were represented in bas-relief long lines of their sons and daughters, close- ly succeeding each other and in the atti- fig. . monuments were frequently of ala- baster inlaid with marble, and some- times decorated by gilding and colour. tablet monuments were also very plentiful upon the walls of churches, many of which still existing have somewhat the character of that represented fig. . . cartouche shields panied by much strapwork orna- a ccoin- *...tºº lººº p tº ºvºº mentation were also extremely common (see nos. and , plate ). escutcheons § pººtºº tº pºlº pººjº and square panels were invariably sur- rounded by frames having the edges bent and notched as if formed of rolls of parch- ment, and with straps or bolts represented as if passing through the scrolls, as in figs. , , from holland house. arab- esque work, often of the most ingenious and intricate nature, was used largely; but, sugges/ions in / esign. instead of being carved and foliated as in the italian manner, it was mostly executed in square flat bands, with foliage only occa- sionally introduced, accompanied by an ad- mixture of animals, masks, and drapery, as in the example fig. , which is from a fig. . lake in surrey, by an artist named francis crane. this manufactory was patronized by the king, and afterwards by charles i., for whom were wrought a considerable number of hangings remarkable for the beauty of their execution. among others were tapestries worked from the cartoons of raffaele repre- senting the acts of christ and the apostles. these cartoons were found in a manufactory plaster frieze at audley end. plaster de- corations were used plentifully at this period, more especially for ceilings. many fine examples of these still exist. they are usually divided by intricate geometrically formed panelling, ornamented with foliage, heads, animals, shields, pendants, and many other devices. fireplaces were also favourite subjects for ornamentation. these were frequently flanked by grotesque terminal figures sup- porting a highly ornamented cornice covered with arabesque work; above which the space to the ceiling would be again enriched by columns or pilasters surmounted by an entablature inclosing panels containing paintings or armorial bearings. square staircases with heavy open-work balustrades and carved newels, often of a very ornate character, were of frequent occurrence, and added greatly to the dignity and grandeur of a house. carving both in wood and stone was largely adopted, but it was usually of a rooms were somewhat coarse character. often panelled with oak wainscotting and divided by corinthian or other pilasters; although tapestry hangings were still largely used. in the reign of james i. a manu- tecture, factory for tapestry was established at mort- at brussels, and were bought by charles i. by the advice of rubens. they were until lately preserved in the galleries of hampton court palace, and have latterly been removed to the south kensington museum. stamped and gilded leather was also used as a substitute for tapestry, and great quan- tities of this material were imported from flanders. but in england also the art of ornamenting leather was practised with success. leather hangings, however, never entirely superseded tapestry, notwithstand- ing their advantages of not suffering from dust, damp, or the ravages of the moth, and of losing little of their freshness and bril- liancy through lapse of time. among the english artists of elizabeth's time whose names have come down to us, is that of john shute (flourished from to ), who was employed by the duke of northumberland, and who published the earliest work in england on practical archi- entitled “the first and chiefe grounds of architecture used in all the ancient and famous monyments, with a farther and more ample discourse uppon the same than has hitherto been set forthe by any other. .” but the designs of most of the principal mansions and palatial edifices amg/is/: a'enaissance ornamentation. erected during the reigns of elizabeth and james are due to john thorpe," who was an artist of no mean power. a very interesting and valuable manuscript folio volume illus- trative of some of his works, and containing many designs which were not executed, is preserved in sir john soane's museum, lincoln's inn fields. he was succeeded in his work by his pupil robert smithson, who completed wollaton hall, nottingham- shire, which had been commenced by thorpe. the elizabethan and jacobean style con- tinued in use until the time of inigo jones ( – ), in the reign of charles i. in the early works of jones the characteristics of the style may still be traced; but after having travelled and studied in italy, more especially the works of palladio, he infused a more strictly classical character into the architecture of the day, and endeavoured to introduce a purer style, which should super- sede the incongruous although often quaint and picturesque mixture which was so much the fashion during the reigns of elizabeth and james. the career of inigo jones properly commenced during the time of james i., by whom he was largely em- ployed in designing masques for the court. his first employment as an architect, as far as has been recorded, was at the university of oxford in . his works were exceed- ingly numerous: among those which have been most admired is the banqueting house at whitehall, which was erected by charles i. as a portion of the palace he intended building, but to which parliamentarian troubles put a stop. the designs for the palace (of which the banqueting house formed but a very inconsiderable portion) have been published, and had they been executed, would have formed, beyond all comparison, the finest building of the kind in the world. the small part erected is sufficient to attest the great ability of inigo jones as the earliest english architect of the pure renaissance style. he erected the church of st. paul, covent garden, and was appointed architect for the repairs of old st. paul's, which were commenced in . he added the roman portico to the west front of that building. the fire which destroyed london in , a few years after the death of jones, brought into notice the talents of sir christopher wren ( – ), whose practice com- menced during the reign of charles ii. and was continued into the reign of george i. the great number and the excellence of his works are too well known to need any de- scription. besides st. paul's cathedral, no building of any importance was erected during the last forty years of the seventeenth century of which he was not the architect. among architects who were wren's con- temporaries or successors sir john van- brugh ( – , the architect of blenheim house—built in the reign of queen anne), hawksmoor, gibbs, and sir william cham- bers," may be mentioned as the more dis- tinguished. towards the end of the eight- eenth century great interest for greek architecture was created by the publication of the antiquities of athens by james stuart and nicholas revett, commenced in , and by other works on greek architecture produced by the dilettanti society, which speedily followed. in england at this time the taste for the italian renaissance died * the dates of thorpe's birth and death are not known, but he was engaged upon wollaton hall in , and finished holland *sir william chambers ( – ), who published a well-known treatise on architecture, was more particularly a follower of the house, kensington, in . palladian school. sugges/ions in / esign. out, and a modernized version of the grecian style was largely adopted in its stead. that was superseded by the gothic revival of our own day, which in its turn appears now to be passing away, except for eccle- siastical architecture, to give place to the latest and most fashionable version of the renaissance, the so-called “queen anne style.” towards the latter part of the seventeenth century, during the reigns of charles ii. and james ii., french furniture was largely im- ported into this country; but under the auspices of sir christopher wren there arose about this time a school of ornamental carvers of great excellence. this had a con- siderable influence upon furniture, but more particularly in the decoration of houses by carved oak panelling and wainscotting, with the doors and chimney-pieces carved to correspond. of this school the principal artist was grinling gibbons ( – ), who, although of dutch extraction, was born in england. he carved foliage, birds, fish, flowers, busts and figures, as well as drapery and lace, with astonishing dexterity. he appears with his assistants to have done an enormous amount of work, and excellent examples of his style, much of which was peculiar to himself, are to be found in the choir of st. paul's cathedral, st. james's church, piccadilly, hampton court palace, the library of trinity college, cambridge, and chatsworth in derbyshire. during the reigns of william and mary the fashion set in very strongly for dutch marquetry furniture, and a vast number of examples, most of them vicious in respect of design, were soon imported into this country. these consisted of bandy-legged chairs and tables, upright clock-cases, bureaux or writ- ing cabinets, and many other pieces of fur- niture which offered surfaces available for this species of inlay. the inlays presented all the gay colours of tulips and other flowers depicted from nature by stained or self-coloured woods, and shaded by scorching and browning the surface in lines or other- wise by the aid of hot irons. with the reign of anne and the com- of the eighteenth century english carvers and cabinet-makers were mencement more largely employed upon furniture, but they followed closely the style of the french and other furniture which was then being | imported. there did not exist at this time any such style as that which is now popu- larly denominated the “queen anne style.” as the century advanced the extravagancies of the french were followed more than before. gilded furniture was introduced, and legs of chairs and tables and the fronts of drawers became curved and undulated as if for the sole purpose of displaying the marquetry work or showing the skill with which the cabinet-makers could avoid all straight lines. among the most prominent names for wood carving and furniture of the eighteenth century was that of thomas chippendale, who worked from the middle to the end of the century. some of his work is very creditable, although much of it is designed in an exaggerated french style. there was, however, among the more educated classes a taste for a better style of furniture, which was owing to the influence of sir william chambers and the brothers adam. robert and james adam ( – ) were of scotch extraction. besides many private houses, they built the adelphi and portland place in london. but they designed a great deal of very graceful anglish Æenaissance ornamentation. furniture, as well as carriages and sedan- chairs. polished steel fire-grates belong to this period, and probably were first intro- duced by the brothers adam. satin-wood came into fashion during the latter half of the eighteenth century, and cipriani, a florentine, who came to england in , as well as angelica kauffman ( – ), both painted medallions and borders on table tops and fronts and on harpsichord cases. a process belonging to the same period should also be noticed, called after the inventor cernis-martin work. vernis-martin, born about the year , was a carriage painter of heraldic ornaments, flowers, &c. his work is commonly found on furniture such as tables or book-cases, as well as on needle-cases, snuff-boxes, and fans, on a gold ground, and protected by a fine transparent lac polish, the composition of which he kept a profound secret, although he had many imitators. plate . (elizabethan and jacobean.) no. . angle strap ornament with conventional strap, scroll, and monogram “w. s.” this kind of ornamentation was often executed in plaster or stucco on ceilings or walls. no. . bolt and scroll with cartouche shield con- taining initials “e. r.” tied together with cord, the ornament forming one-half of oblong frieze enrich- ment executed in oak, with shield gilded. no. . bolt and strap oval central ornament, with cartouche work and shield at bottom charged with cross spurs. arabesque line enrichment or niello-work in the centre. no. . cartouche shield within a diamond form, with the device of a falcon on a crescent tearing or killing a rat. star, shell, and cross arrows. date, “ .” time of edward vi. no. . hanging cartouche scroll-work, with ribbons and label from a ring in lion's mouth. surmounted by an exploding fire-ball. no. . bolt and strap device for stucco, with cupids and motto. bust of queen, masks, &c., with festooned drapery and looped-up cords. plate . (elizabethan and jacobean.) no. . square with tapering pilasters or ter- minals and cartouche scroll-work. shield contain- ing monogram “c. c. i.” no. . cartouche shield, with flowers within a grate. - no. . cartouche shield, with arabesque orna- ment in the centre inlaid in two colours. no. . small heraldic monument of the jacobean period. shield, or; on a bend, sable, three hearts, argent; between two dexter hands, gules. crest, a hand holding a flaming heart, placed on a closed knight's helmet from which issues an elaborate foliated mantling. motto, “labour and love.” the frame, which has knee corners, is surmounted by a segmental broken pediment, filled in with crowned and winged sprite. no. . rustic pole for long panel or pilaster, with ribbon, foliage, and hanging shield; charged with monogram “g. a.” on sable ground. no. . bolt and cartouche ornament for frieze on one side of centre shield or other enrichment. central mask with interlacing circle, with nail- heads and diagonal terminal ornaments. no. . central ornament, flat relief in alabaster on black marble, bolt and scroll with dolphins. shield containing the arms of shakspere, or; on a bend sable, a spear of the first. initials and date of shakspere's birth. no. . small niche of cartouche scroll-work, en- twined with rope, containing the subject in high relief of the “lion in love.” above, as a terminal ornament or crest, is the burning heart and inter- lacing rope. no. . ornament of bolt and square band work, with diagonal band interlaced and tying same on to centre enrichment. - suggestions in zdesign. c h a p t e r xxiii. e ben ch ben aissan ce orn amentation. # º Éy no people in europe was the - ºf revived italian style of archi- yi; tecture taken up with greater lºft eagerness than by the french, who gave it the name of the “renaissance.” they have also, under the several variations through which it has passed, adhered to it steadily up to the present time, until they have thoroughly made it their own national style. francis i., who returned from italy in , induced several italian artists to visit france, to whom he promised ample em- ployment. among others he succeeded in obtaining the services of benvenuto cellini, vignola, primaticcio, and serlio, all men of high repute in their own country. cellini devoted himself more especially to gold and silver smiths' work, and although he spent but a few years in paris, he was the means of raising the goldsmith's art in france to the very highest excellence. one of the most important works of this reign was the château de fontainebleau, the favourite palace of francis, and upon which primaticcio was permanently engaged. serlio was also consulted upon this and other works, and vignola sojourned two years in france to assist the king in his architectural projects. the rebuilding of the palace of the louvre in paris was also commenced, but this appears not to have been the work of italian artists, although serlio is said to have been invited to furnish designs for it. the architect was pierre lescot ( – ), and the sculptor the celebrated jean goujon ( – ). the old palace was a medi- aeval château, which francis i. determined to pull down and rebuild. the portion which was then erected, and completed in , is the south-west angle from the pavillon de l'horloge down to the river front. it is universally considered the most successful work of the period, and it formed the key-note for the remainder of the build- ing, which has been erected in succeeding reigns. the palace of the tuileries was commenced by catherine de medicis in , from the designs of philibert de lorme (died ). henry iv. added the long gallery of the louvre, connecting that building with the tuileries on the south side. other parts were added by louis xiv. and succeeding monarchs, but the whole was not completed until recently by the emperor louis napoleon, who connected the louvre with the tuileries on the north, and thus combined the whole into one grand palace. this completeness, however, was again de- stroyed, and the tuileries now lies in ruins. every sovereign in france continued to erect palaces, but the largest and most im- portant of these works was that at versailles, erected by louis xiv. in the course of his long reign. it was carried out from the designs of the architect françois mansard aºrench aºenaissance ornamentation. ( – ), who was succeeded by his ne- phew jules hardouin mansard ( – ). the style of this enormous building externally is somewhat grand, but heavy and sombre. internally many of the apartments and fig. . ºf *}^* nºe & alº- †)\ºſºsº º & ) \ºsº ºš & \@ º -sº . sº º*::::: º ººzºº| fº - ºw = galleries are of great richness and beauty; but towards the latter part of this reign french artists gave way to frittered-up ornament and wild unmeaning forms, which, however, suited the age as being rich and showy in appearance when gilded. fig. gives a good example of the elaborate nature of room decoration in the time of louis xv. it forms a portion over the head of a chimney glass, and which would be richly gilded, the centre of the upper portion being filled with a painting. paintings upon walls and ceilings, framed by elaborate ornament, were of frequent occurrence, and consisted of subjects from the supposed inhabitants of arcadia, as cupids, nymphs and fawns, shepherds and shepherdesses, playing pipes and dancing or amusing themselves in innocent games among their flocks. many of these were executed by the painter watteau ( – ), who was celebrated for these kind of subjects; but the taste gave rise to a whole school of painters and room-decorators, among whom may be mentioned delafosse, coypel, and the le pautre family. nos. , , , , plate , nos. , , plate | of this class of ornamental decoration. , and no. , plate , are typical examples what are commonly known as the c and s scrolls were introduced everywhere, and this kind of decoration, which reached its lowest depths during the reign of louis xv., became so fashionable that objects were literally covered up by it, until they lost all form of beauty, and became nothing but unmeaning extravagances of the worst possible character. the ornament being so universally gilded, also, gave rise to its being formed in putty composition and glued on, which still further helped to degrade and vulgarize its character. from the constant introduction of shells, the absence of straight lines, and the admix- ture of a fanciful form of rock-work, this style was known, by way of reproach, as the rococo, from roc-coquille, rock and . shell curves. no style of ornament, however, has retained its position for so great a length of time. it has been the favourite style, until very recently, of all gilded suggestions in design. picture-frame makers, as well as gold and silver smiths, some of whom still adhere to it. tages for modern requirements—in that it no doubt it possesses great advan- needs but very little thought in designing, it may be added to in any direction, and, for gilded work, it can easily be produced from moulds in composition which may be bent to any form and stuck on with glue. in the better and earlier class of work the ornament, however, is not devoid of grace added to a con- siderable a- mount of play- fulness, as will be seen by the example, fig. , which re- presents a por- tion of a carved pilaster from the stall work at notre dame in paris. for the furniture of the royal palace of versailles a new material was extensively employed, called buhl or boule marquetry, which owes its name to the maker andré charles boule, who was born in . he was made the head of the royal furniture department, and was lodged in the louvre. buhl-work consists of a peculiar kind of veneered surface composed principally of tortoise-shell and thin brass. the brass forms a pattern of scroll work or flowers and the shell the ground, while the edges and angles of the object, whether a table, cabinet, or other work, were concealed and protected by chased mouldings or ornaments in gilded brass called ormolu. in francis i. established a manu- factory for tapestry at fontainebleau, under the direction of serlio, and henry ii. estab- lished a second manufactory in the hospice de la trinité in the rue st. denis, paris. henry iv. gave a new impulse to the art by introducing workmen from italy and flanders. a colony of flemish workmen had also been attracted to paris, who, after a time, became settled in a house in the faubourg st. marcel, where for more than two centuries a family of dyers named gobelin had been established. during the reign of louis xiii., and the greater part of that of louis xiv., these manufactories continued to produce very remarkable and beautiful hangings in tapestry; but it was under the administration of the great colbert that these were united and concentrated in the maison des gobelins. the house itself was bought by the king in , and a general manufactory of upholstery for the crown was established in it. the painter lebrun ( – ), who was placed at the head of the establishment, gave a great im- pulse to its activity, and it soon eclipsed by its artistic superiority the manufactories of tapestries which were still in existence in flanders. thus were commenced and estab- lished these celebrated manufactories, which have continued with remarkable success to the present day. upon the accession of louis xvi. ( ) a return was made in architecture and decoration to a much higher standard in art, and the classic works of the greeks, which then began to engage the attention of europe, had their influence upon the orna- mentation of the period. room decorations and furniture soon reached the highest point of elegance that french renaissance art, of a sumptuous kind, had touched since the french renaissance ornamentation. sixteenth century. the panelling of rooms, usually painted white and the ornament gilded, was designed in severe lines with straightmouldings and pilasters, forming a remarkable and striking contrast with the pre- vious style, where every form, was dis- torted into the utmost variety wherever possible, of curves. the pilasters were decorated with well designed carved work (fig. ), but which was extremely fine and delicate, partly carved in relief, but partly drawn and painted or gilt. the minute and intricate character of the ornamentation at this period may be perhaps better understood by reference to fig. , which is from the lock-rail inches in breadth, of an inter- nal door in the hotel des postes at paris. panel, only seven the houses built for members of the bril- liant court of queen marie antoinette were r-------- º filled with admirable work in this manner, and the furniture was of the most delicate and recherché description. fig. is from a table of the period, carved and gilt, and with the festoons and other enrichments finely chased and applied in ormolu. the royal factories of the gobelins and of sèvres turned out also their most beautiful produc- tions to decorate rooms, furniture, and table service. in the former of these, tapestries were made for wall hangings, for chair backs, seats, and sofas. rich silks from the looms fig. . | “...lini. iiii tº . . . " *y * i of lyons, and from lucca, genoa, and venice were also employed for this kind of furniture. during this brilliant period we meet with the names of several artists em- ployed for painting the panelling of rooms, the lunettes over chimney fronts, and the panels of ceilings, fragonard, natoire, and boucher are among the foremost of these. other artistes, such as delafosse, lalonde, cauvet, and salembier, designed arabesques, decorative work, and furniture. with the first empire the style was devel- oped into one which was still more gorgeous, but wanting much in refinement, although it was considered more classic, and followed more closely in many respects the greek. all was arranged for show and glitter, and although more pretentious, it was far inferior to that of the time of louis-seize. sigges/ions in /design. the renaissance may be said to form the national style of the french, and it has been so since its first introduction in the time of francis i. although much varied at different epochs, it has always been prac- tised by them with remarkable success, and this and other countries have at various times closely followed them. the style has almost invariably been the one adopted by the french in their public buildings; the gothic being used only in a few very excep- tional cases, such as the church of st. clo. tilde at paris. the result of this is therefore, that in modern work france, especially in paris, can point to some very successful modifications of the renaissance, particu- larly in her street architecture, much of which possesses great beauty and elegance combined with ap- propriately arranged forms. many of the enrichments found in recent buildings are very well designed, and worked out with a degree of life and aesthetic feeling which we often look for in vain among ourselves. fig. , an enriched moulding found in some of the later works, is a small example of this, but in it we perceive a rather happy variation upon the egg-and- tongue moulding of the greeks. plate . no. . arms of the “grand monarque.” louis xiv. arranged for the tympanum of a doorway. azure; three fleurs-de-lis, or. figures representing fame, history, and love, which is quite in charac- ter with the pretentious and grandiloquent manner of the time. nos. , , spandrels for engraving on metal work or for inlay. these give the character of many of the confused lines of scroll work of the period, called buhl-work. no. . scroll grotesque mask. no. . scroll and stalactite frame containing a portrait of the “grand monarque.” the general form shows how beauty of outline is lost, and nothing gained but showy elaboration. no. . mermaid and mask of river-god, with dolphin, shell, and rock work. the bad construction of this most vicious style is clearly apparent in this example. no. . stalactite, shell, and rustic interlaced drop corner, for picture or glass frame. no. . mask and dragon with scroll-work for upper part of leg to gilded console table. period, late in the reign of louis xiv. no. . ditto, with draped mask. the legs for tables or other objects were never made straight in this style. plate . no. . centre portion of frieze of cornice with shepherd and dog. a great affectation of playing at shepherds and shepherdesses existed in the reign of louis xv., and sculpture and paintings intro- ducing arcadian life and scenes were of frequent occurrence. no. . scroll with sitting figure of justice resting on the fasces. no. . conventional rococo scroll with lattice, vine, and dragon, showing the combination of c scrolls and rock work. metal vase or flagon in the centre. no. . half of centre ornament for bottom of frame or panel, with lion's head and scroll-work. lattice and fruit. this was the character of the gilded panelling inclosing paintings, silk, or glass, so often adopted in french room decoration of the louis xv. period. no. . keystone of decorative arch, carrying fire-vase, cupid, bee-hive, flowers, stalactites, bul- rushes, &c., with festoon and drop from keystone. no. . scroll with satyr's head and fruit inclos- ing female head. no. . this figure is nearly an exact copy of a french example, and serves to show the vice in the compositions of the time. it is a caricature upon the egyptian, being a sphinx dressed d-la-mode, and holding a fan. in the centre an ordinary dressing-glass, initial, and crown above. the back- ground formed by pyramid. suggestions in design. from nature he must at the same time de- peculiarities, and every people have had vote himself to the study of all such works, of whatever style or period, in order to obtain a competent knowledge of how the artists of former have rendered nature for the purposes of creating foliated times ornament. without a definite clue to this knowledge, and the careful observation of what others have done, the student will be at a loss to know how to proceed himself. for one thing is perfectly clear, no literal copying of nature will ever form artistic ornament. there must be something added of the artist's own conception—something that he does not find in nature or in the works of other men—and which stamps the work this is the test, and the only one that can be allowed, of what constitutes true art. as one of his own creation. art—a word which has been so vulgarized and degraded in the present day, for trade purposes, that it really becomes a question whether people at all understand what is meant by the term. it is therefore necessary that it should have its true definition. all natural forms must be rendered differently and altered for art purposes. they have usually to be made more geo- metrical and symmetrical than in nature. in the ordinary mode of speaking all natural forms have to be conventionalized—that is, sufficiently altered to make them applicable and suitable to the material as in which they are wrought, to the purposes to which they are applied, or the position they are intended to occupy. no positive rules can be given for the manner of doing this, beyond a few general ones. if definite rules could be laid down, art would no longer exist. every age has had its own their own conventional mode of expression. resuscitation of any former mode of ex- pression, however accurate and painstaking such revival may be, does not constitute true art. yet how often has mankind made this mistake! how frequently are we en- deavouring to reproduce the style of some former age! experience, then, has taught us, as a general rule, that foliage and flowers cannot be represented as ornament precisely as we see them in nature; that for the various purposes for which they may be required fig. . they have to be altered and modified in different degrees according to the circum- stances under which they are applied. in the first instance we have to decide upon the leading fig. . lines or stems upon which the orna- ment is to be com- posed. these may be arranged in a variety of different modes, such as that of symmetrical branching; angular as in fig. , or flowing, fig. . if the foliage is to be continuous the scroll or spiral line, fig. , may be adopted. these may be again varied according to the character of the foliage by a/ora/ orſza/mem/afioſº. which they are clothed, but the branching should invariably represent natural growth, and not be made to flow in two different directions. crooked form, such as we often find in nature, should be altered to gracefully flowing lines, or rigidly straight ones; and it is as well to remember that uprightor ascending lines represent life, while hanging or drooping ones are suggestive of decay and death. another simple arrangement for foliage is that of radiating from a centre, after the manner of regular fig. . fig. . flowers. these radiate and arrange them- selves naturally upon the geometrical figures, and when reduced to the principles upon which they are formed will be found to be formed upon a regular plan. thus the snowdrop is formed upon the triangle, fig. ; the willow-herb, fig. , upon the square or cross form, the stone-crop upon the pentagon or five- pointed star, fig ; the lily upon the hex- agon or double tri- angle, fig. ; the pilewort crowfoot on the octagon, fig. . many other flowers, retaining the same geometrical arrangements, give again numer- ous beautiful variations upon these forms, all of which should be studied and carefully drawn that they may be at hand when required for art purposes. fig. . it should be observed, also, that when any flower is formed upon a geometrical figure, or number, as the number five, for example, there are five sepals in the calyx' and five petals in the corol- la, and that these invari- ably alternate with each other. besides this there will be five sta- mens, alternating with the corolla; or if there are ten, as in the stone-crop, fig. , they are in two sets of five each, alternating with each other. if the stamens are of an indefinite number, as in the wild rose, they will still be a multiple of the number five. but more than that, the number will be sometimes carried fig. . through the whole plant, as in the common bramble. in this instance the section of the stem is pentagonal, fig. , the leaves branch alternately, forming a spiral line, from each angle of the stem, as indicated by the letters a, b, c, d, e, and are formed each of five leaflets. the number in a flower will sometimes appear again in the fig. . seed-vessel, as in the -celled seed-vessel of the lily; thus carrying on the three-fold arrangement of the flower. (fig .) the law of growth in a flower will be found to be the same as in a branch. a * flowers have usually four sets or parts: ( ) the pistil, or end of the seed-vessel, forming the centre, surrounded by ( ) the stamens— thread-like filaments supporting the anthers, containing the pollen; ( ) the corolla, or floral envelope; and ( ) the calyx—the green portion at the back, and which serves as a protection to the flower while in the bud. sugges/ſons in /pesign. flower is simply a stunted and terminal axis with its leaves, while a branch is an elon- gated or growing axis with its leaves, and, as it develops, its lesser branches. if, there- fore, a branch viewed from the top, as in the lilac, fig. is fig. . , a similar arrange- ment will be seen as in cross-formed flow- ers, fig. . this cross form is due to the leaves growing opposite each other in pairs. in many cases of opposite leaves the stem also is square, as in the dead-nettle. but in alternate-leaved branches the leaves fig. . issue spirally from the stem, forming a star or flower form of five or six points, when viewed from the top. this is well seen in the oak, fig. , where the end leaves of a branch often grow at almost the same level. the leaves alternate as indicated by the letters upon the diagram, fig. . this law of growth in nature, being the same in flowers and branches, is important for the purposes of art. for as the forms of leaves are often more beautiful and orna- mental than the forms of the petals in flowers, it shows that it is perfectly legitimate and natural to substitute leaves for petals in forming flowers for art use. in carving, one of the most beautiful characteristics of the flower, that of colour, is necessarily lost; the artist, therefore, should endeavour to supply that loss by increased beauty of form. this has been frequently done at previous periods of art, as in the example fig. , from the soffit of an antique roman º cornice. - leaves in na- ture vary from a plain and simple form to that of - the most intricate and complicated. a simple leaf consists of one single lamina issuing from a single footstalk, and may have its edges uncut or entire, as in the lilac, fig. ; serrated, as in the elm; or lobed, as in the oak, fig. . the geometrical figures are again apparent in the forms of leaves—as the trian- gular arrangement or trefoil in the clover, fig. , the pentagon in the ivy. the geometrical arrangement of five-lobed leaves is shown by fig. , in which the leaves of the water-crowfoot, buttercup, and ivy are laid upon a penta- gon. a compound leaf has several leaves (or leaflets, as they are then called) arranged upon the same general footstalk, each leaflet being separate and distinct with its own footstalk branching out of the main one. the most simple compound leaf is termed binate, consisting of two leaflets issuing from one point, as in the everlasting pea; the next ternate, three leaflets, as in the fig. . pſoral ornamentation. clover, fig. ; palmate, five leaflets, the virginian creeper; and digitate, fig. , in the horse-chestnut, in which all the leaflets radi- ate from one point in the footstalk. other com- pound forms are: pinnate, where two or more leaflets are borne in pairs on each side of the centre stalk, as in the rose, fig. ; biternate, fig ; and bipinnate, fig. ; as well as many others, which soon become much too complicated for the purpose of ornamen- tation. it is curious to see how nature ad- heres to first principles by retaining the forms of simple leaves throughout all com- pound leaves. if we connect the points of fig. . the radiating lines or midribs in fig. by an inclosing line, as indicated on the left-hand side of the figure, we obtain the usual cordate leaf, as in the violet. doing the same with fig. gives an oval leaf, as the dock; fig. a trilobed leaf, as in the water-avens; while a doubly-compound leaf, as in fig. , will give a five-lobed leaf like the sycamore; and so on throughout all other compound leaves. the same laws invariably run through both those that are simple and those that are compound; indeed it not unfrequently happens that it is age alone which produces the more compound forms. nature is so prolific in form that no two leaves, or even the two halves of a leaf, are precisely alike. this may be ob- served most distinctly in the forms of the leaves of the common hawthorn. it follows, therefore, that it is perfectly in accordance with nature to simplify, alter, or omit parts from leavesand flowers when found necessary for the purposes of art, provided that the omissions or alterations are made naturally. to learn how to do this it is necessary to observe nature closely under different circumstances. for instance, if it be desired to simplify the form of a leaf, it should be examined when in a young state, for then it has a lesser number of divisions than when more mature, but at the same time the younger leaf displays the same general character as the older one. in a strawberry leaf, for example, fig , we find the three leaflets with serrated edges; but if we examine a very young leaf we find the serrations are few, as in fig. , which is from a young leaf from the same plant as the older one. in the leaf of the haw- thorn several very elegant variations may be found by observing its form at different periods of its growth. now this is a very important principle, and one that may be in / esign. sugges/ſouls constantly taken advantage of in art; for it frequently happens, that in consequence of the minuteness of the work or its distance, when placed in position, from the observer, leaves are often too complicated, and it is necessary to reduce the number of their parts. thus a compound leaf may be pro- perly reduced to a simple one, a five lobed leaf to three lobes, or the lobes omitted altogether, according to what is most appli- cable for the required purpose. this is a power which was much overlooked even in antique works. in the corinthian capital in all the roman examples the leaves in- variably consist of the same number of lobes (we have no means of comparing them in the greek, as there is but one example)." whether the capitals are large or small, or placed at a great height, the whole of the parts are always the same, giving the capital a confused appearance when seen from a distance. refer to fig. for the formation of the corinthian capital. again, it is not necessary to adhere closely to the form of natural leaves. the greeks, if they adopted the acanthus leaf, never followed it literally, but appear more to have adhered to a principle which they recognized in nature, and which equally belonged to the thistle, the sea-holly, and other plants as well as to the acanthus. they seem to have observed the beauty, crispness, and vigour of growth in stiff- leaved, prickly foliage, and from that formed a leaf of their own creation, which has been the admiration of all ages, and has been more followed and copied than any other form of decorative foliage which has ever existed. * the capital from the monument of lysicrates, the existing re- mains of which are very imperfect. a portion of one of the leaves of the capital is given in fig. . the artist, therefore, need never scruple in the alteration of his leaves taken from nature, so long as he does so upon principle and not mere whim. he must know why he takes from or adds to any natural form. he may increase his foliage in scale or decrease just as it may suit his purpose or be required by its situation. if he proceeds in this way he is at perfect liberty to cull from the beauties of one species and add them to those of another, or to omit any portion which he finds inapplicable to his purpose. he will then, if he succeeds, create foliage of his own, which will have all the char- acteristics of nature—be quite natural without being a servile copy of nature her- self. the following examples of floral sprigs have therefore been designed as suggestions, in the hope of elucidating and explaining the manner of conventionalizing flowers and foliage without adhering too literally to nature;—culling from all natural form, without strictly adhering to any, where departure becomes advisable; but at the same time never losing sight of nature without an efficient reason. it must be understood that it is not supposed that there are not other modes of treating even the same flowers. there are indeed many, and perhaps all equally good, for this is just the point where the hand of the true artist is felt. by working upon his subject, although he may have started with an idea or “motif.” which was not his own, if he elicits fresh beauty and infuses it into his own work, due to his own power of thought, he will have created for himself something new in art. if he stops at imitating, he may talk loudly, as too many do, of art, but he will fail to produce it. a ſora/ orname/l/a/io/l. plate . no. . a composition of rose, corn-flower, wheat, and holly. no. . the teazle arranged symmetrically for carving in low relief. no. . tropaeolum speciosum, arranged for painting, the flower being laid out symmetrically. no. . fancy floret, with serrated leaves in two colours. no. . the poppy, with seed-pods arranged orna- mentally. no. . flower with radiating leaves surrounding the stalks after the manner of goose-grass. no. . heath-like sprig. no. . water-lily and eel. no. . conventionalized flower of the knapweed for carving. plate . no. . arrangement of the fuchsia for painting. centre of panel or other decoration. no. . scroll of berries and curled leaves. no. . bindweed growing out of and entwining rustic pole. no. . the thistle arranged ornamentally, for carving in low relief, out of the surface. the ground being left standing level with the highest portion of the carving. technically known as cavo-relievo. nos. and . flower sprig and grasses arranged ornamentally. no. . the lily, arranged symmetrically and growing from combined hearts, as an emblem of purity. no. . ivy for painting or stamped work, for book covers. no. . plant with seeds, called the “pope's money.” curved stems embracing leaf. plate . no. . outline foliated forms, spirals and leaves. no. . stick and scroll forms with flowers and berries. root entwined ornamentally. no. . symmetrically arranged tulip-like flowers and leaves growing from bulb with ornamental root. no. . founded on hyacinth growing in glass with ornamentally arranged root. no. . hanging basket with arrangement of flowers. no. . symmetrical arrangement of the catch-fly. no. . the pink, ornamentally treated. no. . spirally arranged flower growing from stick. no. . the pomegranate and poppy for painting in a panel. no. . currant leaves and hanging berries entwined spirally. no. . equisetum or horse-tail, with ornamental accompaniments formed of the seeds of the shep- herd's purse. nos. and . hanging and scrolled florets. no. . open pea-pods and tendrils, for painting on a dark ground. plate . no. . the maple with seed-vessels arranged symmetrically. no. . flower with bulbous roots, scroll stems, and ivy-form leaves. - no. . group of outline sprigs for painting: hemlock, &c. no. . tubular flower with plaited leaf. no. . opening leaves or bud-form. many valu- able suggestions may be obtained by observing plants while expanding their leaves and flowers. no. . central leaf-bud with partially opened leaves, springing from plant-form. no. . arrangement of scrolled leafage with pine or seed, for carving in low relief. no. . maize ornamentally treated for carving. no. . ivy-leaves arranged on a fig-leaf for painting. plate . no. . conventional flower and leafage. no. . st. john's wort, with pinnate leaves and ornamental root. no. . leafage and flowers conventionalized for painting. nos. and . polyanthus arranged as centres for painting on panels. no. . tulip conventionalized. no. . orchid treated symmetrically for painting or flat carving. no. . leaves arranged upon leaves for colour or woven fabric. nos. and . foliated scrolls. sugges/ions in /design. no. . seven-lobed leaf with raised eyes and split interlaced stem for carving out of surface. no. . horse-chestnut leaves on ivy, and— no. . maple on ivy: symmetrical sprigs for centres or diapers. plate . no. . acorns and oak with leaf-galls and orna- mental root for carving. no. . conventional scroll and fruit for painting or illumination. no. . leaves of tormentilla and conventional flowers for painting. no. . bulbous plant (leek) with seeds and scrolled root, arranged for carving out of the surface with raised ground in cavo-relievo. no. . vine scroll, with grapes and tendrils orna- mentally treated. no. . scroll of heart-form leaves and flower for painting. no. . sprig of raspberry. no. . foliated cross for gold and colour. no. . fruit sprig. no. . scroll of passion-flower entwining stick. no. . strawberry sprig, with simplified leaves. no. . leaf upon leaf with enlaced stem. white upon gold. plate . no. . grass-form plant with seeds, arranged symmetrically for carving in panel. no. . fir-cone and conventional leafage. no. . sprig with radiating leaves. the two halves varied. no. . scroll of fuchsia, growing from stick. no. . arum. no. . honeysuckle and trefoil leaves. no. . scroll sprig–lily. no. . arrangement of common garden pea, with leafage and tendrils, carved out of the surface. the tendrils on the ground incised in double lines. nos. , , , . ornamental sprigs. no. . frieze-panel of oak and acorns for stone carving, the light and shade of the leaves being increased by leaf-galls. plate . no. . central sprig with seeds of pomegranates. nos. and . sprigs arranged from nature for painted decoration. nos. and . foliated forms for carving. no. . dock leaves and hart's-tongue fern, arranged for carving out of the surface, and dec- orated by gold and colour. nos. and . sprigs. no. . geometrically arranged sprig with plaited leaves. no. . strawberry plant with fruit and flowers. no. . ferns, grass, and may-fly ornamentally treated. opening fronds of hard-fern and polypody. no. . symmetrically arranged flower-sprig for decoration or woven fabric. wild sage. no. . conventional rose for black-and-gold decoration. plate (miscellaneous). the designs on the following plates are arranged for various decorative purposes: in the flat for paint- ing, inlay, or carving; in the form of centres, borders, or for the enrichment of surfaces. many of the examples may also be applied to other purposes, such as encaustic tiles, stained glass, stamped leather- work, paper-hangings, calico-printing, and also to the ornamentation of the products of the loom and the printing-press. no. . upright border or panel of double flowing wave-line, interlaced with broken line, and filled in with ivy and other foliage. for painted decor- ation. no. . conventional triangular centre figure with foliage, for marble or other inlay. no. . symmetrical palm-leaf flower on eight- pointed irregular star-form, for wood inlay. no. . upright and alternately inverted flower border, for woven fabric. no. . bindweed leaf pattern upright border growing on ribbon. painted decoration. no. . border carved in low relief. ivy with interrupted central stem and curved branches set out upon interlacing vesicas. no. . interlaced geometrical form on diagonal square filled in with ivy leaves and berries. no. . cruciform arrangement of flowers in a pointed quatrefoil. no. . symmetrical flower growing from a whorl of eight leaves, for painted arched panel. no. . cruciform treatment of the passion- figures, anima/s, chimeras, and ro//ies. flower, for mosaic inlay with gold ground. the leaves, flower, and buds being bordered with a white line. no. . moresque forms alternating with a diagonal arrangement of fig-leaves on a gold ground. plate (miscellaneous). no. . flowing scroll border with buds and flowers. no. . triangled trefoil filled in with flowing foliage. no. . curved hexagonal star in a circle with interlacing lines and filled in with foliage. no. . pansy, flower and leaf border for woven fabric or decoration on gold ground. no. . leaf and twig border with berries, for calico or other printed work. ivy-leaved toad-flax. no. . decoration. no. . upright flowing border. no. . symmetrical ornament for border or other purposes. no. . white and black alternating leaf border growing from wave-line stem. no. . holly scroll border with berries, for decoration on a gold ground. nos. and . upright arranged geometrically formed borders filled in with flowers, for decoration or inlay. no. . lemon plant with flowers and fruit, for chintz pattern or other printed decoration. no. . bell-flower border, in upright divisions. horse-chestnut border for coloured no. . border, upright divisions of flowers, alternating with mushrooms and five-pointed stars, for decoration on gold ground. plate (miscellaneous). no. . interlacing circles and square, on a quatre- foil filled in with heart-form leaf foliage. for inlay. nos. and . borders for inlay or decoration. nos. and . diamond panels filled in with geometrical lines and foliage, for stamped leather or other purposes. - no. . geometrically arranged flowing diaper, filled in with foliated and eight-pointed star forms. for carpet. no. . circle divided into curved triangular compartments and filled in with acorns, &c. no. . hexagonal arrangement curved triangles filled in with ivy leaves and star centre, for inlay. no. . diaper formed by squares with interlaced diagonal lines, filled in with four-petalled flower in the centre and fir-cones placed diagonally. other divisions filled in with crosses and eight-petalled flowers at the angles. encaustic tiles. no. . flowing scroll, flower, and leaf border for decoration. no. . geometrical border for tiles or inlay. no. . zigzag alternating flower border, for painted decoration or paper-hanging. no. . upright acorn border alternating with bud. no. . leaf-form border for decoration or incised work. - c h a pte r. x. x. v. figures, animals, chimeras, and trophies. *†culptured art, in the repre- # sentation of the human form, is the highest and the most ele- # vated species of architectural decoration. whether by statues or by works of sculpture in relievo, the beauties of the human figure, portraying its actions, its various passions and emotions, have occupied the highest artistic intellects for many ages. since the time of phidias, sugges/ſouls in esign. when marble and bronze were first endowed with the semblance of life and action, artists have gone on producing that highest and most beautiful of all created forms, until we are in possession of a perfect world of sculpture, the treasures of almost every age and country. to this higher class of sculpture the following plates do not pretend to approach. but there are numerous instances where the living form may be judiciously introduced among other decorative features, to give these a higher tone and object; or to work out some symbolical or allegorical meaning, by which to create a more important and direct interest in ornamentation than can be obtained by the use of foliated forms alone. for this purpose, and to give the decorative artist a more extended aim for his ornamen- tation, the following plates have been designed, in the hope that they will offer suggestions in furtherance of these objects. they have, therefore, been arranged in a conventional mode applicable to decoration, with various meanings and intentions, which will be seen on examining them, and which the description of the plates will more fully point out." the greeks introduced the human figure in their works in an ornamental and purely decorative manner as well as in a sculptur- esque one, and in combination with scroll foliage. fig. is an elegant example of this, taken from an antique greek terra cotta, pro- bably used in connection with roofing tiles. the romans also adopted the same practice, but carried the intermixture of foliage and figures even further, by combining the figure with the foliage itself, "see also plates , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . as in the boy or cupid, fig. , in which the extremities are finished in leafage and º ºlº º ſ º *srū, º % º -- __ — - - t - scroll work. this example is from an antique roman altar executed in white marble. a somewhat si- fig . milar figure is found in an antique frieze, with the remains also of a portion of an animal among the foliage, fig. . griffins facing each other, with a vase or torch between them, formed a very fig. . usual arrangement, as in the example fig. , which is taken from a marble statue of aigures, animals, chimeras, and roß/hies. a roman emperor at rome, and formed a part of the ornamentation upon the breast- plate. this subject is also found frequently arranged in the frieze of an antique temple. festoons of flowers hanging from the horns of bullocks' heads, with masks between, was a common arrangement for antique altars, as in fig. , and which is found again applied to the friezes of temples. this practice of amalgamating animals, birds, and even insects, as well as all kinds of monstrous and chimerical forms, in order to give life and variety to ornamentation, has been a common one in most styles of architecture. in the byzantine, the moorish, and some other styles, however, nothing of the kind is found, but that arises from a law which prevailed a- gainst us- ing animal form. with these exceptions the practice has become almost universal, and in the modern italian and in the french and english renaissance" such combinations occur constantly and in great profusion. an italian example of a centaur terminating in foliage, and accom- *see plates , , , . panied by birds, is given in fig. , page , from a frieze upon the tomb of st. apollonio, in the cathedral at brescia. another example, fig. , on the same page—the lion of st. mark, with the tail running into foliage—is from venice. the celtic ornamentation, as found upon the ancient irish crosses and in the anglo- saxon manuscripts, exhibits another form of animal combination of the most extra- ordinary character. wholly devoid of vegetable form, it consists almost entirely of strange monstrous animals and nonde- script birds interlaced and woven together with the utmost intricacy. somewhat of this character are the designs on plate . in the anglo-norman, foliage was added to these strange animal forms, as in no. , plate . when figures depart very much from nature they are more properly distinguished as chimeras, and in the formation of these the designer, like the poet, is allowed a consider- able license. a mere natural improbability, where natural imitation is in no degree essential, is the privilege of the fancy; but mechanical disproportions and impossibil- ities, violations of the most palpable laws of gravity, cannot be otherwise than offensive. nothing can bring them within the range of good taste, as they are essentially obnoxious to aesthetic sensibility, which is the truest test of propriety in art, the effect being analogous to a discord in music. we may be extremely grotesque or fanciful without being ridiculous. there need be no limit to the formation and designing of chimeras. for nature is not their test; but if we com- bine monsters in our scrolls, or place animals upon the tendrils of plants, it is absolutely necessary to proportion them in suggestions in design. | size to the strength of the tendril or stem upon which they are placed. besides figures, chimeras, and every kind fig. . of fantastic form, many other objects have been pressed into service as aids to decoration and ornamentation. of these the sculp- tured representa- tions of armour, arranged as tro- phies as if taken in war, are conspicuous in the roman and renaissance styles. the romans frequently formed groups of armour, with swords, pikes, and other warlike imple- ments, into compositions for bas-reliefs for the enrichment of panels and other portions of their structures. this practice was re- vived by the italians of the sixteenth century, and the fashion was followed very much in france during the reign of louis xiv., even to the studied imitation of roman armour, as in the example fig. , which is from the palace of versailles. the insatiate craving after novelty, more especially in france during the eighteenth century, in the decoration of the walls of apartments, led to the formation of pastoral fig. . trophies formed of shepherds' crooks, spades, and garden rakes, hung up by garlands of flowers; hunting trophies, consisting of bows, arrows, quivers, and horns; as well as musical trophies (fig. ), and many others. buffets and side-boards for dining-rooms, in modern times, have been covered by carved trophies referring to the food brought to table, such as those given on plate . grinling gibbons in his carvings introduced dead game, all kinds of fish, shell-fish such as crabs and lobsters, as well as nets and other implements belonging to sport. this cannot be considered a very high-class mode of decoration, but it can have this said in its favour, that it has a direct meaning which is easily understood, and it is far preferable to the literal copying of roman trophies of armour shown in fig. . the blind adherence to any species of ornamentation peculiar to a period which has long passed away, whether it be that of rome or any other country, is highly objectionable. mere imitation is not true art. it should be the aim of the ornamen- tist to rise above puerile copying, and to endeavour to give by the aid of whatever objects he introduces an emblematical or an allegorical meaning to his decoration. this mode of representation has been carried to the fullest extent in ecclesiastical decoration, where sacred symbols are often used which have a twofold or emblematical meaning. these when skilfully adapted cannot fail to give an intelligence and character to such work which greatly enhance its value. plate (figures). no. . design for clock panel, with dial of twenty- four hours and allegorical figures of day and night. nos. , , , . decorative panel paintings of morning (sunrise and cock-crow), noon (the mid- day meal), evening (twilight and repose from labour), night (sleep and rest). a certain amount of poet- ical feeling and the adoption of conventional forms are necessary in the treatment of commonplace subjects for decoration. plate (figures). no. . the consolation of the cross, by the side of which springs the lily as the emblem of purity. sugges/ſouls in /)esign. plate (figures). no. . sport. ornamental decorative panel, painted on gold ground. nos. and . snowdrop and rosebud. might be applied as carved arm-rests for chairs or stalls. no. . composition emblematical of the ocean. no. . love swung by cupid in a bower of roses. centre for panel decoration. no. . muse with lyre, for sculpture. supporting figure on one side of shield. nos. and . ornamental centres for panels. sage being instructed by water-sprite, and the midnight tale, tete-d-tête. plate (figures). no. . masks of tragedy and comedy. orna- mental spandrel for placing between arches, with vine foliage, &c. nos. and . medallions containing male and female heads—youth and age. nos. and . figures for supporting lamps. nos. and . sun and moon. decorative centres. no. . triple shell trefoil panel. no. . cupids and goat, with ivy-leaf scroll. border for decoration. no. . bracket. pink of love. no. . bracket. cupid reposing. no. . wine, with scroll of vine foliage. dec- orative border or frieze. plate animals (centres). no. . trefoil for inlay. triply united bats. no. . circle containing running hares united by the ears, forming a triangle. the arms of the isle of man consist of three legs following each other after the same manner. no. . triply-united foxes, with fowls and nests. no. . triangular combination of dragon-flies, for inlay or flat sculpture. no. . three dog's-heads united. no. . pentagonal bird centre. no. . triply-united cranes with interlaced wings, after the manner of celtic ornamentation. for sculpture in low relief. no. . circle containing a triangular combination of fish. for painted decoration. no. . centre for decorative panel. pentagonal arrangement of cranes and snakes. no. . three skates in a whirlpool. no. . hexagonal combination of three pelicans and three fishes. centre for inlay. plate (animals). no. . pelican and eel among bulrushes. for painted decoration. no. . arrangement of bulrushes, eel, toad, dragon-flies, &c. no. . foliage with birds and nests. natural- esque treatment for printed fabric. no. . border with a conventional representation of water, out of which grow the water-lily and bulrushes, alternating with dragon-flies. printed border for woven fabric or earthenware. no. . panel for painting or mosaic inlay with gold ground. foliated scroll in colour with pheasant and fox-head centre. no. . composition of swan, fish, arum, and bulrushes. no. . united flamingos on a fish. no. . snail and star border, for porcelain decoration. no. . ornamentation for printed or woven fabric. grass stem and seeds, with caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterfly, on foliated ground. plate (chimeras). no. . dragon and pine. sculpture in bas-relief. no. . toad-stool and snake, with head of despair flanked by nondescript imps. for carving. no. . mirth and melancholy, or tragedy and comedy, under the wings of a harpy. carved head over doorway in alto-relievo. no. . dolphins devouring human bodies. composition for pedestal. no. . monogram and chimerical figure. no. . grasshopper-bird dragons, symmetrically arranged with foliage. for carving out of surface. no. . poppy and bats with moon, indicative of sleep. for printed chintz. no. . border for decoration. fight among nondescript dragons. plate (trophies, &c.). no. . wine, with scroll of vine. no. . beer, with hop and barley growing out of barrel. zeffers and monograms. no. . tobacco, growing out of pipe. these are for painting or carving in low relief. no. . fish. net and shell with trident, &c. no. . fowl. turkey, goose, and cock, sur- mounted by feathers and dish, with motto. no. . flesh. beef, mutton, pork, venison, and hare, with spear and bow, the whole surmounted by a boiling pot upon the fire. these three last trophies are for carving on panels of dining-room buffet. c h a p t e r xxvi. letters and monograms. ong ages before the invention # of printing, even from the early w # period when writing was first prac- £º tised up to the present time, it has been customary to embellish manuscripts with pictures, ornament, and polychromatic decoration. the ancient egyptians wrote thus upon rolls of papyri, and their hiero- glyphics were almost invariably painted with the liveliest tints. the extraordinary dexterity which they acquired in the mode of expressing complicated forms by a few rapid touches, and the life and spirit with which ornaments were executed in these papyri, are truly remarkable. the precise extent to which the greeks and romans, from whom we obtain our letters, were in- debted to the egyptians for the origin and use of alphabetical symbols is not deter- mined; but of one thing we may be certain, that all modern letters have been originally suggested by hieroglyphical forms. rude but rapidly made drawings or pictures of na- tural objects were, in the first instance, used as the readiest means of indicating the name of the thing, as a head for a head, a mouth for a mouth, an owl for an owl, &c. but the egyptians found that these pictures would not express thoughts or feelings, the names of persons or countries; and the first step towards overcoming this difficulty was to use the picture, not for the object itself, but for a sound or syllable, as a head became the syllable pe, a mouth ro, an owl mo; and the next step was to use these characters for letters. the hebrew letters were formed upon the same principle, each letter being also a word indicating some object; thus, jod or j signified a hand; daleth or d, a door; beth or b, a house; gimel or g, a camel, and so on. when once forms were thus adopted to express sounds instead of objects their pictorial character was abandoned, they became simplified, and formed what we call letters. the obvious utility of this practice soon effected a wonderful advance in written language, the knowledge of it spread rapidly, and was at length imparted to the greeks and romans. letters were further simplified and perfected by them, reduced in number according to the sounds which were ascribed to each, and formed into an alphabet. sugges/ions an z)esign. the scrolls used for writing upon by the egyptians were made of the leaves of the papyrus, the common flowering-rush of the nile. two leaves of the rush were pasted together with the fibres of one leaf at right angles to the other, and after being cut square, about twenty of these pieces were glued together, end to end, to form a roll. the greeks and romans used the same material for writing, and large quantities of the leaves of the papyrus were imported yearly into greece and rome from egypt for that purpose. it was not until the time of the roman empire that parchment was substituted for the papyrus, in consequence of the supply of the latter substance falling short. it is said that julius caesar was the first person who divided books into pages, and after his time they began to assume the modern form. paper, which is supposed to have been invented in china, is of comparatively modern introduction. it was first made on the continent about the beginning of the fourteenth century, and great quantities of it had to be imported into this country. it was not made in england, except a coarse brown sort, until the french refugees intro- duced the manufacture of white paper in the year . the purest of the classical manuscripts were written in regularly-formed capital letters. one of the most important latin illuminated manuscripts which is known to exist is the square virgil of the vatican. this originally contained fifty paintings, five of which are now almost entirely effaced. the text is written throughout with con- siderable regularity in capital letters in black ink, and its only ornaments are paintings of subjects derived from the aemeid. another variety of writing in capital letters was that known as the uncial style, which was the first approximation to a cursive or running hand. the letters in this style generally resemble capitals, but instead of being angular are to a great extent com- posed of rounded forms. specimens of the uncial character may be traced in the fourth century, and it appears to have changed little until the seventh. st. jerome, writing in the fourth century, exclaims in a well- known passage, “let those who will have old books written in gold and silver on purple parchments, or, as they are commonly called, in uncial letters—rather ponderous loads than books,—so long as they permit me and mine to have poor copies, and rather correct than beautiful books.” the uncial character, or rounded capital, was a transition to the minuscule or “lower- case” letters, which at length became distinct characters from the capitals, the latter being generally known as maguscule, in contra- distinction to the minuscule. the principal volumes still existing written in uncial characters are the celebrated “codex argenteus” of ulphilus, written in gold and silver letters on a purple ground, in the fourth century; the psalter of st. germain de pres; a fragment of the new testament in the cottonian library; and a copy of the book of genesis in the imperial library at vienna. the three latter are believed to have been executed during the fifth and sixth centuries. the libraries of the vatican, as well as those of paris, oxford, and london, contain other specimens of brilliant ancient manuscripts, written in gold and silver letters, for the most part no doubt at byzantium previous and immediately subsequent to the leffers and monograms. age of justinian. there can be very little question that an important modification in the character of illuminated manuscripts, and indeed of all decorative art, took place during the impulse given to the arts by the important works carried on by command of this emperor during the middle of the sixth century. so far as ancient texts are concerned, some of the most valuable now extant are those which belong to the peculiar class of books known as palimpsests, that is, books which have been written twice over, the original writing having been as far as possible expunged, in order to provide a fresh surface for receiving later transcripts. cardinal angelo mai, the celebrated librarian of the vatican, who was born in , prosecuted the work of deciphering the original writing on such manuscripts with so much zeal and ability as to give back to the world many writings that had hitherto been considered hopelessly lost. while all was dark in europe, with the exception of the flickering light still casting an occasional ray from constantinople, a new light was springing up in the islands of the west. it is not certain when ireland was first christianized, but it is generally admitted to have been at a very early period. the irish were in possession of some of the most ancient versions of the gospels, dating as early as the sixth century, and these works were elaborately executed in that peculiar kind of ornamentation called the celtic, which has been before noticed, consisting of interlacing lines or bands, and interweaved birds and animals. many of the irish saints were distinguished scribes, and their schools became so famous throughout europe that they were resorted to by students from distant lands. in the school of finian, which is said to have included no less than three thousand scholars, the great st. columba or co- lumkill, who was born in ireland a.d. , was instructed in many arts, and in that of illumination he became specially and justly famous. about the middle of the sixth century st. columba founded the celebrated mon- astery in the island of iona, which was afterwards removed to lindisfarne on the coast of durham. from this spot the arts taught in the schools of ireland were communicated, by st. cuthbert and his learned associates, to various monastic institutions, more particularly to that of glastonbury. how identical the practice of the scribes who exercised their art at lindisfarne was with that of ireland may be seen by a comparison of manuscripts known to have been illuminated in ireland, with such works as the durham book or gospels of st. cuthbert and others, which we cannot doubt were executed in this country." the remarkable diffusion of manuscripts written by irish scribes is accounted for by the exemplary efforts of the irish and early anglo-saxon missionaries. thus st. boni- face, the apostle of germany (born in devon- shire about the year ), carried with him to that country his precious book of the gospels, still preserved as a highly-prized relic at fulda. st. kilian took with him to franconia books still preserved at wurtzburg. the public library of st. gall in switzerland contains records of the labours of the irish saint who gives his * see professor westwood's elegant work, the miniatures and ornaments of anglo-saxon and irish manuscripts, reproduced in exact facsimile, large folio. london, . sugges/ions in z esign. not only did these interesting volumes help to form the schools of caligraphy which after- wards became celebrated in germany and elsewhere, but in the monasteries which they founded the saints themselves educated scribes to imitate the writings originally brought from ireland. distracted by the invasion and final ascendency of the danes, and afterwards by the conquest of the normans, the art of saxon illumination almost entirely died out in this country. in the year , ingul- phus, in alluding to the fire which destroyed the noble library of his abbey at croyland, states that the juniors in his monastery were unable to decipher the saxon character, that letter having been, as he says, “for a long while despised and neglected by reason of the normans, and now known only to a few of the more aged.” the development of a new style in place of the extinguished saxon was slow. with the accession of the plan- tagenets, however, in , and the marriage of henry ii, with eleanor of guienne, french influence acquired a marked pre- name to the town and the canton. dominance in english illumination, and for nearly a hundred years after this the pro- gress in england and france was parallel and almost identical. in the purely gothic manuscripts, in which pictures were freely introduced, from to , extreme fineness in execution, tenderness of colour, gentleness of expression, piquancy of ornament, and elegance of composition may be regarded as almost invariable attributes of french productions. in england, on the other hand, the style was not so harmonious, but more vigorous, the colouring was fuller and deeper, the action of the figures more intense, the power of expression more concentrated, and reaching occasionally in its energy almost to caricature. the sense of humour was always freely developed, and a more generally active sentiment of life impressed upon design not only in figure subjects, but in ornament. in the english examples monkeys and other animals, dragons, and comic incidents were very frequently intermingled with graceful foliage and heraldic embellishments. a vast number of illuminated manuscripts exist, extending down to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. they are executed in many and various styles, which cannot be here entered upon; some are enriched with flowers most naturally and beautifully finished upon gold grounds. one of the most perfect productions of the english school is the celebrated book known as queen mary's psalter, which appears to have been executed about the year for a member of the willoughby family. it con- tains leaves, and is filled throughout with beautiful illuminations. in the later manu- scripts we find that the painter began to usurp the office of the scribe, and the farther we proceed the more does the legitimate object of illumination seem to be departed from. in the earlier stages a geometrical arrangement is obtained with conventional ornament inclosing gold panels, on which are painted groups of flowers slightly conventionalized; in the later, where the painter has full sway, flowers and insects are represented casting their shadows on the page, to the total neglect of the true principles of the art of illumination. the invention of printing put an end to the work of the scribe. the credit of the discovery of printing by the aid of movable metal types is attributed to the german zeffers and monograms. john gutenberg, about ; and in or about the year a press was set up in westminster abbey by william caxton, who is said to be the first who introduced printing into this country. the previous attempts at printing were by means of wooden blocks engraved with the characters in relief, each page of the book of course requiring a separate block to be engraved. gutenberg adopted the ancient custom, as in illuminated manuscripts, of using a large ornamental letter at the commence- ment of books ornamented with and chapters, flowers richly and foliage, animals and birds, and sometimes printed in a different colour from the other parts of the page. this mode of decoration was largely followed by others, and many examples of elegantly designed letters by albert durer, hans holbein, and the best artists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are still in existence. these were drawn engraved on wood, and introduced into the type in the same manner as they are at the present day; and they were sometimes coloured by hand. it is said that the initial letter spaces were in some cases left blank by the early printers, to be afterwards filled in with ornamental letters by the illuminator. and ornamental letters for the commencement of chapters were very little used during the eighteenth or the beginning of this century, but of late years the custom, which is a good one, has again been revived, and an example of it is seen in the present work. such initials, however, are not often now used of the size or prominence, or designed with so much care, as they were for the more important books that were issued during the latter part of the sixteenth cen- tury. in the writing of manuscripts in early times it was a common practice, in order to save labour, to run letters together by one stroke of the pen. this practice gave rise to the combining of two or more letters, usually those of a person's name, in an ornamental form. these combinations were called monograms, from their being arranged or woven together as one letter; and out of this again arose, in mediaeval times, the rebus, as noticed in a previous chapter. a very early monogram, perhaps the earliest, is that which was used by constan- tine as the sacred monogram for the name christ, formed by the combination of the greek letters p (ro) and x (chi), as in fig. , and standing for the greek word christos and also fig. . forming a cross. another sacred monogram, with which we are more familiar, is the latin one i.h.s. this is supposed to form the first three letters of the greek word for jesus, but the more common acceptation is that it stands for the initials of the latin words jesus hominum salvator, “jesus the saviour of men”—although this is probably a later appli- cation. in many mediaeval examples of this monogram a c is substituted for the s. this was the soft c, which stood for s, and it appears to have been adopted simply because it balanced the i better than the s. the mark of contraction, a thick oblong stroke, so often used in manuscripts, was added across the head of the h, as in fig. , where it stands as the mark for contraction and also forms the sign of the monograms were also occasionally arranged in the form of the cross to indicate a man's christian faith, as in the i.b. of ci’oss. fig. , for “john baret,” from his tomb suggestions in zesign. in st. mary's church, bury st. edmund's. monograms of the holy virgin combining the letters m.a.r.i.a. are sometimes found fig. . it. remaining in churches, as in fig. , from ufford church, suffolk. carved monograms are frequent among fig. . fig. . ). architectural decorations, as in fig. for fig. . fig. . “hugo oldham,” the monogram of bishop oldham, from his chapel in exeter cathedral; also g.f.t., in fig. , for “george flaccett,” abbot of west- minster, carved upon his tomb in westminster abbey. several of the kings and queens of england introduced their monograms upon their coins. some of the farthings of queen elizabeth have her monogram upon them surmounted by the crown; and charles ii. introduced a triple arrangement of c's on a fourpenny piece, interlaced as in the three crescents in no. , plate . on other coins of the same king two c's back to back, sur- mounted by a crown, are met with. on the half-crown of william and mary a combin- ation of w and m are found, and the same combination is also met with upon some of the keystones of the window heads at hamp- ton court palace. many other examples of monogram work might be given; but these are perhaps sufficient to show that it has always been a favourite practice, and one that may well be taken advantage of by the ornamentist. plate . nos. , , , . letters b, o, e, a, ornamented after the manner of various manuscripts. no. . shield containing the sacred monogram i. h. s. on a red cross. no. . initial letter i, in the celtic or irish style. no. . letter g, enriched with foliage and ribbon. no. . cross with crown of thorns and i. h. s. no. . letter h, formed with rope and inter- | laced with foliage. no. no. no. no. no. no. no. no. no. no. . . . . . . . . . . initial letter a, irish or anglo-saxon. rustic letter s on wood work. crest, locomotive engine rampant. letter w in relief in panel. shield with letters a. d. j. letter n, interlaced lines. letter s formed with ribbon and foliage. shield containing monogram j. k. c. strap or ribbon letter n. letter y inlaid with foliage. plate . no. . monogram b. g on a shield. no. . letter s with interlaced lines. no. . letter q filled in with lilies on ground divided into gold and blue. no. . monogram v. a on a shield with oak foliage. no. . letter m. no. . hollow initial letter i interlaced with narwhal on wave ground. no. . letter k, enriched with foliage and flowers. no. . initial word as. no. . letter f with sportsman and owl entwined by foliage. no. . illuminated letter o. no. . letter w, monk and wine in a cellar, with vine foliage. no. . letter r, with strawberry. no. . monogram o. e, with hart and dart. no. . letter z, zany with sun-flowers. no. . letter k, formed with oak branches and acorns. no. . no. . no. . no. . no. . monogram b. e. i. monogram i. a. on shield. monogram t. r on a leaf. monogram on a shield, j. p. n. monogram i. s. miscellaneous. misce lilan e o u s. #he three plates which placed under this heading, al’e consist of designs of varied --- § character, which did not come within the scope of any of the foregoing divisions, or were omitted for want of suffi- cient space. some useful suggestions, although they mostly do not belong to any particular style. their purposes and motifs are indicated in the following description. they will be found to contain plate . no. . angel issuing from the sun, the emblem of light, with entwined ribbon or scroll, containing the motto, son art em. diew, “his art is from god.” no. . griffin support for a pedestal. in stone. no. . sitting leopard: support or bracket for a console table. no. . panel containing a shield charged with an ancient ship with a sail, having, on a canton, a fleur- de-lis (arms of paris). the shield hung on a con- ventional oak-tree, bearing acorns and leaves with leaf-galls. no. . jupiter typified by the eagle, grasping the thunderbolt and fed by cupid. composition for painting. for carving no. . ornamental central form, suggesting an animal's head with horns. for inlay. no. . leaf-sprig with cupids disturbing a nest of young birds. no. . ivy-buds treated symmetrically. no. . lunette for painting, containing the head of an ancient soldier, with leather casque and cowvre- muque, on a decorated ground. no. . triangular fret for ornamental band. no. . band or frieze formed of flowing triple leaves, on plain leaf-forms. plate . no. . ribbon star or centre interlaced with scroll work of two kinds. no. . the passion-flower treated symmetrically. no. . ornamental shield, with arrow. sable, and chief or. the whole surmounted by the interlaced double l, for louis or lewis. no. . scroll foliage and flowers arranged geo- metrically and counterchanged for inlay. no. . eccentrically formed panel containing an arrangement of the pansy and spiral seed-vessels. the centre flower charged with the shamrock and fleur-de-lis. no. . irregular hexagonal panel with interlaced foliage. no. . circle divided hexagonally by flowing wheel-like curves, filled with scroll foliage counter- changed. no. . one division of an ornamental cresting for engraving on metal. no. . symmetrical arrangement of rose and round-lobed foliage for the centre of a panel. no. . foliated and scrolled centre for carving in cavo-relievo. no. . frieze enrichment divided by diagonal squares, and interlaced by eccentrically designed foliage. - no. . a variation upon the moorish fret as given at fig. . plate . no. . ornamental squares for painted diaper work, or to be used alternately for a string-course or band. no. . palette charged with the initial p in inter- laced lines, with foliage, maul-stick, and brushes. no. . ornamental mask. old age. no. . raffaelesque painting for pilaster or panel. no. . date-plate with the monogram “i. l.” no. . ornamental cross for metal work. no. . harp-formed bracket, consisting of a female bust terminating in an animal's claw. suggestions in design. no. . a bronze vase-shaped tripod lamp, entwined by a serpent. - no. . diaper for a dado for painting or wall- paper. no. . triangularly divided border filled in with foliage. no. . a supporting dolphin for a pedestal. no. . a bracket or support formed by a com- bination of foliage and the leg of a lion. frontispiece. . centre. the artist and artisan having pro- duced a vase or cup, which has been suggested by the form of the lily, are comparing it with the plant—both having been influenced by the same feeling or mutual understanding, as indicated by the union of the hands in the window above. . geometry. the compass, with a flower and a newt (plant and animal life). the circle divided into semicircle and quadrant. the circle containing the double triangle or hexagonal star. the circle with the square and octagon. these primary figures when united to the curves found in plant and animal life are the basis of all beautiful forms in art. . the star and ivy diaper—suggested by viewing external nature through the casement. . conventionalism necessary in the highest art— as shown by the antique and mediaeval modes of rendering the lily and the honeysuckle. . opposite forms united by art—beauty of one kind blended with that of another, as that of the fish with the human female form. . symmetrical imitative representations for dec- oration or ornament should be taken directly from nature. . the infinity of form, as exhibited in twenty- four varieties of natural leaves. , , , . the architecture of all ages, as repre- sented by columns. . the egyptian ( b.c.) majestic, massive, and enduring. conventionalized from the papyrus plant. . the assyrian ( b.c.) as exemplified by one of the columns from persepolis (destroyed b.c.), and supposed to be similar to those which supported the upper stories of the palaces at nimroud and khorsabãd. it bears an affinity to the indian columns with bracket capi- tals, and was the precursor of the greek ionic. . grecian ionic from the erechtheum at athens ( b.c.). the doric, however, is more characteristic of athenian art, as seen in the parthenon; but the ionic is considered coeval with the doric, and was much used at an early period in the grecian states of asia minor. . the gothic, the type of the mediaeval art of europe (a.d. ). the column consisted of small shafts clustered round a centre core, and was not limited to height as in the antique examples. the columns supported pointed arches, and the main lines of gothic architecture were vertical, with great height and extreme lightness of construction. the columns of antiquity, usually distinguished as classic, carried horizontal beams, pro- ducing solidity and grandeur without extreme height. - - . tribus s.a. u v a ges. s.a. v.a. g e tribes. wilde stamme. | t | n-i. " { ( | "i' " - "m- avºy m º; %n sº º mºanº. º º nº. nº. wn wº & wn º § /n º-/n-º "ſº n *]. | ºſ- . º m º º /n wh. º º :n wa*- | by john leight on, f.s.a. suggestions in design blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh ** . eg y pti e n. e g y ft i a n. i-i -iii–iiie hº %n- | | ſ º *tººl º - their es$ º- iſ <s- su ggestions in design a e g y ptis c. h. Øwºwt. × sº nº-n l/ |miſſ | ſº - - º ºs º t º º | º º º \º §§§ ##### |- tºm miniſmlinſºn milliºn mºmi hmil hºmº ** || ||nº|| ||nº|| ||nº|| || || o o o o | illllllllllllllllllllllll-iii iiilllllll by john l e i ght on, f.s.a. blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh, . eg y ptie n. e g y pt i a n. a e g y ptis c. h. sn |n º ||||}|†sº § . º ſ º º/ is ©. n ||||||im na . | n § illy : | ºfº) - º, a. || jºiſº º sº in-t | t ſº ift sº pºlyiii iiiwº | § . ſº lº Šºć | imº & k! tº º \ º º º º º yº º *nº. º yº k . º § | * . º . º s ug g e sti o n s in design by john lei ght on, f,s.a. blackie * n : london, gla gow, and edinburgh, . eg y pt i e. n. eg y pt i a n. a e g y pt is c. h. º sº § º º ſº ** nº. º % #n º } ºr - º rwv - | | lºº-ºº-ºº: | †-i-º-hi aº | nw, . % | fºllº || || lſº º º ºff e- zº -- º < º % % º º - sr % sº mes -- n # e lºw wºw/ # *nºv. º # : yººha jºliº | # %l; |= .É. hº suggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. * a ssy rie n. - a ss y ria n. a ssy risc h. º | º Ü g- §§ q Ölji (jjī Şāºj suggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. - ? g. f. e.c. g riech isc h. - º hº- ºr tº htº --- == – - tº —- httt * … *e=n º ſhºt - – tº , ′w - "...ºlſ: |i l º nº º ſ t - - ilti- - l t rºſººsº wººlllllllin. illus. º fº hºs - º | º' ºn lſº #. - -- - § . av t -- - --- | -- - - - . sº º º: *::::::::: * … . . . . . . . . . . io h h = h = , = h sug ge's tions in design by john leighton, f.s.a. blacklf & son: london, glasgow. and edinburgh. g rec. g f e e k. - g riec hsch. _- _ _ = <！--* ee！！！ ！！ ！！ ！！ ！！！！！！！！！ ！= -=== ___- - - - - -）， ± ---- …！！！！-- - -º g rec. griechisch. º titiii yº | |v ; - º ...ſº º sº ºlºs º |||||| º | || ||º "ºº - - | º d º º - -- º º |ſº wº -- º - º º - & |||}|| ſ º ºſſilſ a wa mºſº |st: ºn'ſ --- - º nº|| } \|||||| º º * a ||||| m ºw v. º ſ | wº) |im |n | º w |, n - n. n. all ſ | ||||| | | º º v- º | lºſillſ l suggestions in design by john leight on, f,s.a. ± − × … g r e c. g r i ech is c. h. ilºilºuiiliull iiii | tÉ iiliiii includill º minumlılı unuſuul iiitilitiiilliſti iiit iiillllllllllll -i [littulutuſ iii/iiitiliiilliiilli sº iiihilliiilliiiliiii º iittttttt milm ſtullulºlliſ ilā'īlīſ nwwiii.iii tºlltºlltilllllllllllimº tw by john lel ght on, f.s.a. su ggest! o n s | n desi gn blackle & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh, g rec. g r e e p . g riech isch. | | ||w suggestions in design by john leight on, . grec et etrusque. greek & etruscan. griechisch u. etruskisch. §ſº § y §g () % º §e - su ggest i o n s in design by john lei ght on, f.s.a. blackle a son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . po mp e en. p o m p e i a n. po m p e jisc h. : ſ % % ; i § ; § i ; ; ºw º } : a- º É § \ º hº hº ----- - : * } }. qi . . * º | * - ----- . . . * - h * / = = - - - - - | - i - :- ==/ełº 'h'....!, sº - *i - i -.” . * - ~ in a - * - a - - - º - - ~ - . * w wº # m == - - - - r}_ † *ii" a "wº- s. ſº º ºf n - - . - _/ * * - w -> º §º º - - nhº s - - , a – ºs- lºs - == = : ſimulºſiºnſhū.º | º mil," º º suggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. blackle a son: london, gu asgow, and edinburgh. . ro ma in. röm isc h. \º º --- º - - -ſwº-ºº-ºº-ºº-ºº-ººlſ # § § ºº :| n.-**--- s É * =- *** ſº nº. % º }% aº suggestions in design by john lei g hto n, f s.a. blackle & son: london, glasgow. and edinburgh. ro ma in. röm isc h. º º Ç | Čí yºs º - º vºxy Š su ggestions in design by john lel ght on, f.s.a. blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. ro ma in rö misc h. | t º, | ! a sº !) %tſº tºº | lº * sº r º | y | | it. º º wº, |ſº lºſſº º ºiſºnſ: | | r ri º suggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. eu-ackie a son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . ro ma in. - f o m a. n. rö misc h. ºrimº i- --- su g gestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. black e a son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. - - - rom ain. . - - f o m a. n. rö misc h. ºnnºiſſºt . alº º º ºś ºf º º º #| É ul # = - t, tº f - É. e. *h, º ~ ºne-tº- ºn tº | º |º: |||||||||||||whº sºlº \lº \s w º su g gestions in design by john leight on, f,s.a., bu aoxie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . chino is. chine se. chines isc h. orre - - t- a - - -- - - - s ss nn s n º-n ¿ ɺ. , = \ eé º # n # % ¿ ¿ %) ¿r¿ ¿a su ggestons in des. gn b y jo hn lel ght on, f.s.a. blackie a son: london glasgow, and edin burgh. - - . j a pon a is. - j a p a n e s e. j a p a n is c. h. n º lºº º º ºſlim § nsºº º º v. sº º: º- º º su g gestions in desi gn by john lei ght on, f.s.a. blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. *- ‘ - - - - 'v's”- “no.lh o i = t n h oſ a n e is = o n t s n o i.ls ) e) ns e-z º - º báš. fº z ºlºſ º . §[º . | cl \l l i in º .* @" º |||| ºlºº ºlºſ, º |jºli tºº =º º §§ = | |. | º t *h os in v ch v ſt ‘gh s gi n v civ ſº - - - - ‘siv no cł vf "heunanica onw ‘waopswºme "noonoºn : nos ºf a lxiovis - ‘ī z - * > 'w's's 'nolhel at n h of a a nel isa o n t s noi.lsse ens ºzº-ſº : ** * - ºftºff - º *{{tn | *h os in v civ ſº 'gis (h n v giv ſt - -- - ‘s iv n ociv f ‘houſmanica qnw 'mopswºld 'noonoºn : nos v . x ow" . . in die n. i n d i a n. in disc h. * * ſº all iii * * * * * * º ºrs | fºullilillum-iii jitvº ſº § º ºſſ * º * su ggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. blackie & son: london. gl-asgow, and edinburgh. - . p e f s a. n. p e f s i a n. p e r s is c. h. §§§ s ug g est i o n s i n design by john l e i ght on, f.s.a. . m o res que. m o of is h. m-o h r is c. h. | !} ** -- - [[iiitititiaer ſ ſºlº qjº º ey c º º ||||||| º º | wy º snq%: ()| 㺠| sº º §§§ nº nº. n § §§ § § --~~ §§ s s' u ggestions in design - *- by john lel ght on, f.s.a. * * . - m o res que. m o of is h. mo h. r.i.s.c h. - -- #|| : }{ º=l |||ſº, § sº | --- nºyººk pºll, lºuiſ iii ~gºmmiſſiº l º ſº ſ *cº. s. rst Ç º . »º % ſ! º |kiſſ: ) º º ſ ; suggestions in design by john lei ght on, f.s.a. blackie & son: london, glasgow. and edinburg h. - . m o res que. m o of is h. mo h r is c. h. suggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. . e y z a nt in e. by zant in isc h. by john le ght on, f.s.a, byz ant in. su ggestions in des ign bulackie a son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . ey zant in. b y z a nt in e. byzant in isc h. غ º ſ | n |\#. º º i º § % º suggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. . by zant in. e y z a n t in e. by zant in isc h. qº . - . ſº su s mt-lz nº. º - 㺠tji=tº | suggestions in design by john lel ght on, f.s.a. buackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . go thiq u e. - -- g o t h i c. go t h is c. h. su ggestions in design by john lei ght on, f.s.a. black! e & son: london. glasgow. an d edinburgh. . go t h is c. h. g o t h i c. go th iq u e. ſae， suggestions in design by john le | ght on. f.s.a. . go t h iq u e. g o t h i c. go this c. h. % 's n ſºlº suggestions in design by john lel ght on, f.s.a. º eu.ackle a son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. : - . go thiq u gothic (superficial). go t h is c. h. ; º º lº º º #%jºš a º - n | | ſh ſº zssn nº ſ mxº | º | €. * º º sº : e. º : º* : - /* º - % suggestions in des i gn by john lei ght on, f, s.a., blackie a son: london, gu asgow, and edinburgh. . ouv rages metal liques. metal vvo rpk. metal lische vver ke. su g gestions in design by john lel g ht on, f.s.a. 'ſ i . geo metrique. g e o m et f i c. - geom et risc h. |º - - º bºž e . º: ns w. -- à º É e ea - º º ſº * := *s, ^^ º = wh/ e. wº ^ º a. d º l- edº * sº ^ * |- iº e º sº Éa ^ſº su g gestions in des | gn by jo hn leight on, f.s.a. blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . laby fin ths & inlays. mosa i k e n. mosa fo ues. zŘÍzszrÝznÝ №ºn sÝzŠĶzrÁz， laev №ae， p ， |-， pae， Ķ >$$$$ §§§§ by john leight on, f.s.a. suggestions in design blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburg.h. a . mosa'ſ ques. inlays & dia pers. mosa i k e n. iºnſ ºf *º { - *sº in gº º | n § s. xºlily; % n § % % % ; . º z § nº - : § º q% gºś )} sº Ǻ º nº º n - i. h* * ſ n º x. % & . $ × \{ imiº = º | su ggest i o n s i n design by john l e i ght on, f.s.a. blackle & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. a . mosa ſq u es. inlays & dia pers. mosai k e n. |||||w hilit ſ --------------- ſ | - | - | - - | - | - | - suggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. blackle & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. - º - . b l a so n. e l a z o n r y. h e r a l di k. % º % º § suggestions in design by john lel ght on, f.s.a. blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. - . b l a so n. e l a z o n r y. h e r a l di k. %; = e. tº f. ſº. - ºſ) sº e. hº º ºgºſ. º, mſllºlºlu º º * º º sº &º nº. / £º: º s - º § ſ 'º - | |ſ suggestions in design by john le ght on, f.s.a. buackle & son: london, glasgow, and edineung h. . b l a son. b l a z o n r y. h e fr. a l dik. sugg esti ons in design by john lei ght on, f.s.a. b-ackie - son: london. gu asgow. and edinburtor. . b l a so n. e l a z o n r y. h e fr. a l di k. nº. §§ su g g estions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. blackie a son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . blason, insignes. elazonfy & eadges. heraldik, zeichen. º § s ſº su ggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. blackle & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . b l a son, &c. elazonfy & reeuses. h e r a ld i k, u.s.v. -ºs º fº - & -º - º º' wn wºn " . º \ *_*. - - == | -f: - º fa--º- º º |lſº sugg est! o n s i n design by john le | ght on, f.s.a. blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. .# . r e n a issa n c e. r e n a iss a n c e. ren a issan ce. lº-ºl suggestions in design by john leight on, f,s.a, blackle a son london, guasgow, and edinburgh. - - . ... - - renaissa nce. f e n a is s a n c e. re n a issan ce. ll. - ill ſºſºlſ|| - ºft. ºlº º 㺠§ suggest i o n s i n design by john leight on, f.s.a. blackle & son: london, guasgow, and edinburgh. . aß** issance. ©(x^ º º § º§ º * - § º w - - * ſº º ſ ( r e n a is s a n c e. ren a issan ce. ©ox® suggestions in design by john leight on, f s.a. eu-ackle a son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . ren a issa nce. r e n a is s a n c e. re n a issan ce. suggestions in design by john lel ght on, f.s.a. blackle a son: london, glasgow. and edinburgh. *…！！！ ، . r e n a is s a n c e. r e n a iss.a. n. c. e. : fº !}º* .-- =-i-- -º-- ºº :- ! allillºr : e. f e n a issan ce. su ggestions in design by john lei ght on, f s.a. blackle a son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. - . r e n a issance. r e n a issa n c e. " re n a issan ce. s º § / ſº =(e)º <- su ggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. blackle & son: london, glasgow. and edinburgh. . ren a issa nce. r e n a is s a n c e. re n a issa n c e. º ſºlº su ggestions in design by john lel ght on, f.s.a. blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . r en a issan ce. renaissance (superficial). ren aissan ce. suggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. blackle & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . renaissance renaissance (superficial). ren a issa nc e. - - º º Ø sº º sººn ºx & § n. -- imal illinºiſºſº. mºtº s ug g e sti o n s | n design by john le i ght on, f.s.a. blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . ren a issan ce. renaissance (superficial). f en a issan ce. suggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. bu.ackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . r e n a issa n c e. renaissance (superficial). ren a issan ce. !)\ /) su ggestions in design by john lei ght on, f.s.a. black e & son: londºn, glasgow, and edinburgh. . f e n a is s a n c e. ren a issan ce. (elizabeth an and jaco bia n.) ren a issan ce. su ggest | ons in design by john lei ght on, f.s.a. | . ren a issa n c e. ren a issa n c e. ( louis xiv. and louis xv.) ren a issa n c e. su ggestions in design by john leight on, f,s.a. blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . . brins flo rau x. - flo ral sprigs. blüthenzw eiglein. su ggestions in design by john lei ght on, f.s.a. black e & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . b r ins f l of a u x. floral sprigs. blüthenzw eigle in. suggestions in design by john lel ght on, f.s.a. ====== = . ==+==~ … * . e rins flo rau x. flo fal sp frigs. b l uthenzveig lein. gº º Ø%x º º º º º su g g est i o n s in design by john leight on, f.s.a. buackſ e & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . e f ins fl of a u x. flo fal sprigs. blüthenzw eiglein. ºš's - nº wº Žºsº ſº \jº ºyºay- - £s º-º-e--------->-º º c º º º - º º: º - | º l º º © & º º º- s -- ºil. * / }º jº §§ º su ggest i o n s in design by john le | ght on, f.s.a., glackle a son: london. glasgow. and edinburgh. . brins flo rau x. floral sprig.s. b lüthenzveigl ein. suggestions in design by john lel ght on, f.s.a. buackie & s >n: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . fig u r e s. fig u r en. ) x: | w. wº ! | w/ y. | º sº n *a | º | º - | º fig u r e ſº ſº \{ºy x-> ſt - -n mºs º º - - - *--> º nº. - - == º - - - n §º.sº ºn n |- ==== -n º --- º -- | §§ nº. =tº: º eſſ" matin. m o r n in g. morge n. º n. su g g e sti o n s i n design by john leight on, f.s.a. blackle a son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . fig u. res. fig u f. e. s. fig u r e n. su ggestions in design by john lei g ht on, f s.a. buackie a son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . fig u r e.s. fig u r e s. fig u r e n. . k. . nºssº sºº nº.º ſ , q . t----- -- | suggestions in design by john leight on, f.s.a. blackle & son: london, glasgow, and edinburg h. - - . -- • » — ！ . fig u r e n. fig u r e s. fig u r e s. za % •，， ， f. ！ |- ~ by john lei ght on f.s.a. su g g e s t | o n s i n design black c & son: london, glasgow. and edinburg h. - . fig u r e s. fig u r e s. - - fig u r e n. º ---. w sº-sº "at -- . | . w / v. º 'ſ - - !-' ~ * ~~ º - - ſº º - - * - - - - ` zºº º ºf . -- wºº. . . . ~ &º - º . . . -" \ \ t ~ - - - - º - º . *_ - - - * , su ggest i o n s i n design by john lei ght on, f.s.a. el-ack-e a son: london, glasgow. and edinburgh. . a n i m a. l s. thi e r e. a nim a u x. suggestions in d'es gn by john le i ght on, f.s.a. eu. ack e & son: london glasgow. amu edinburg++. , m is c e l l a n e o u s. ºw º º º htcthº htºiſºnifºliº§ish su ggestions in design - by john leight on, f.s.a. dlackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. - - : • … --~~~~***~~~~… • • • •*…*…***************************** ~~~~ -…- .--- - ：:: ~~~~ ~~~~）--º-….… :~~~~::::::--： --~~~~. :-）--~~~~ ... ：~~~~-！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！----* ：） --•••••••••••••••••• •|- square plan diamond circles . plav hexagon plan csquares set x plan squiarellan angle-wise) reversed "scale"ory/ circles on diamond plan the anatomy of pattern lewis foreman day vandens | tracery patterns : wvave polo lewis f. dan (plate . text books of ornamental design. the anatomy of pattern. by lewis f. day, \ author of 'some principles of every-day art,' 'the planning of ornament,' 'the applica- tion of ornament,' 'nature in ornament,' etc. third edition, revised (sixth thousand), with thirty-five full page illustrations. london: b. t. batsford, high holborn. . ,? %. % %, preface to the third edition. there is not much more to say by way of preface to a third edition than has been said already on the publication of the first and second—much less indeed; for when a book reaches its fifth thousand it may be supposed to justify itself, and to stand no longer in need of excuse. it can do no harm, however, to state once more the aim of these text books of orna- mental design. throughout the series i have assumed no particular knowledge on the part of the student, but only that he is a student, that he wants to know, and that what he wants to know is what i would have liked some one to tell me when i was a beginner. no pains of mine, of course, will save him the pains of study; but it would be hard if a man's experience during a quarter of a century could benefit none but himself; and here, in as few words as possible, is the sum of my experience—for what that may be worth at second hand. mecklenburg square, london, w.c. march th, . (recap) p^jt / descriptive list of plates. . the construction of gothic tracery patterns— showing the square, diamond, hexagon, circular, or other plan on which elaborate tracery is built. . the square—checks and other diapers built on cross- lines. . the lattice and the diamond—plaids, zigzags, &c., built on cross-lines. . frets, &c.—showing their construction on a network of cross-lines. . all-over pattern—showing the cross-lines upon which it is planned. . the triangle—diapers of star, hexagon, and lozenge shapes, built up on the lines of the equilateral triangle, . the triangle—diapers composed of the equilateral triangle and its compounds. . the hexagon—honeycomb and other diapers based upon the hexagon and its compound. . the octagon—simple octagon diapers and the lines of their construction. . arab lattice pattern—dissected, and their anatomy laid bare. . curvilinear patterns—showing the construction of the wave, the ogee, the net, &c. i list of plates. xi . map—showing three plans, on either of which the same simple pattern may be produced. . various drop-patterns—showing the effect of the drop according to its length, &c. . diagonal damask pattern—showing its construc- tion on the diamond, which is not apparent. А. diagram—how to prove a drop design. . arab tile and lattice patterns—showing the simple means by which intricacy is produced. . design—exemplifying the intentional confusion of forms. . wall-paper design—showing a "drop" in the ornamental scroll, whilst the grotesque creatures in- troduced follow the lines of the square block. . persian textile—showing the lines of the double square on which the pattern is constructed, as distinct from the lines it takes. . foliated scroll—a design made on square lines, yet assuming an ogee shape. . italian silk—showing ogee, hexagon, or diamond plan. . set pattern—explanatory of economy in weaving. . damask—on the plan of waved upright lines, crossed by horizontal bands of rosettes. the anatomy of pattern. i. introductory. the dictionary scarcely helps us to a defini- tion of the word pattern, in the somewhat technical sense in which it is used by the designer. inasmuch as a pattern signifies a "speci- men," one might argue that repetition is im- plied in ornamental pattern. but inasmuch as any "shape or model for imitation" is quite as strictly speaking a pattern, one cannot exactly define pattern as repeating ornament. nevertheless, pattern mostly comes of re- petition. many a pattern bears on the very face of it the evidence that it grew directly out of the necessity of repetition. it is more than probable that some me- chanical necessity gave rise to all geometric в the anatomy of pattern. pattern; certainly it is impossible to plait, net, knit, weave, or otherwise mechanically make, without producing pattern. it may be infinitesimally small, as in weaving, where the warp and weft are often invisible to the naked eye; but it is there; and all that re- mains for us to do is, to efface it as far as we can, or to make the best of it. out of the determination to make the best of it has grown much of the most beautiful pattern-work. to neglect this source of in- spiration, therefore, to say nothing of the attempt to suppress it, would seem to be wasteful of opportunity to the very last degree. so certainly will the repetition of parts result in some sort of pattern, that one may say, wherever there is ordered repetition there is pattern. take any form you please, and repeat it at regular intervals, and you have, whether you want it or no, a pattern, as surely as the recurrence of sounds will pro- duce rhythm or cadence. the distribution of the parts need not even be regular. the wave marks on the sand, the veins of marble, the grain of wood, the crystallisation of the breath upon the window- introductory. panes, the curls of the hair, the very features of the human face—resolve themselves into pattern. so distinctly is this last the case, that the ornamentist finds himself con- tinually devising, malgri lui, patterns that remind one of faces. there is even room for speculation whether it may not have been with a view to escaping this danger, or anticipating it rather, that the designer first took to the deliberate use of those masks and grotesque heads, which form so prominent a feature in certain styles of ornament. the popular idea of the process of orna- mental design is, that the artist has only to let his hand crawl over a piece of paper, and, like a spider, spin out the fancies that may crowd his fertile imagination. indeed, there is scope in design for all his fancy; but he is no zeus, that ornament should spring, athena-like, full-grown from his brain. ornament is constructed, patiently (i will not say laboriously, for the artist loves the labour), patiently built up on lines inevitable to its consistency—lines so simple, that to the expert it is not difficult to lay bare its very skeleton; and just as the physiologist divides the animal world, according to anatomy, into b the a natomy of pattern. families and classes, so the ornamentist is able to classify all pattern-work according to its structure. like the scientist, he is able even to show the affinity between groups to all first appearances dissimilar; and, indeed, to point out how few are the varieties of skeleton upon which all this variety of effect is framed. before enumerating those varieties, let us suppose for a moment a man to imagine (and this is by no means an imaginary case) that he will make to himself a repeating pattern without regard to its logical construction—as though in his domain there should be no skeletons. that would be, from my point of view, a profoundly foolish thing to do; but, more than that, it is impossible. he may design a unit in which there is no repetition, and no formality; but the moment he repeats that unit, the very order of its repetition proves to be, if i may call it so, the cupboard in which the skeleton will be found. it might be imagined that by designing in some such haphazard fashion as i have just supposed, the artist would secure to his design a freedom of line, an absence of formality, not read;.ly to be obtained by adopting the more syst« matic method. but this is not by any the anatomy of pattern. lines, which thus asserted themselves. it was much more likely, the result of not working upon definite lines at all. a designer who knew the a b c of his business, would make sure of lines not in themselves offensive; he would counteract a tendency to stripes in one direction by features directing the atten- tion otherwards; and he would so clothe any doubtful line that there would be no fear of its unduly asserting itself, as in its naked- ness it might. he foresees the danger (it is a danger even to the most experienced) and he is fore-armed against it. the mighty man of valour who disdains to be trammelled by principles, or any such encumbrance, is with- out defence against contingencies practically certain to arrive. it is only by a miracle, or a fluke, that he can escape failure. the over- whelming odds are, that the petty considera- tions he has despised will be quite enough to wreck any venture he has dared in defiance of them. since, then, it is practically inevitable that there shall be definite lines in ornamental design—seeing that if you don't arrange for them they arrange themselves—it is the merest common sense to lay down those lines to begin introductory. with, and, in fact, to make them the skeleton or framework upon which you build up your pattern. you will see, when they are laid bare for you, that these skeletons are after all very few. the anatomy of pattern. ii. pattern dissection. repeated pattern may be classified ac- cording to its structure, i said. first in order of obviousness comes the stripe. it comes also very early in order of invention: the loom must from the begin- ning have suggested the stripe-pattern, which practically grows out of it. the stripe, however, carries us only a very short distance in the direction of design. for as soon as you make any break in the re- peated line, the recurrence of that break gives other lines in the cross direction. suppose a series of horizontal bands broken at equal intervals by a series of rosettes. it is clear, that if the rosettes fall one under the other, they give upright lines; or if they are shifted you get diagonal cross lines. if the line itself is broken, as in the case of a series of waved lines, or, still more plainly, in a i Ф аТе . dis-pers formet) or> asa' » яв _ Ïkôq.ijv. гТ Г Г Г км «g яв±?а П' ««!■ ■■»■ « ■Щ »»»j щваЯ ai ф Г ВТ s- ЗГ i i i i ■ к-к va- p ■ ■ ■ ■ i i ii ^ <? ate l"i_q_rd"l fsi rsh rsh io the anatomy of pattern. which, for the sake of clearness, i will call the diamond. this plays a very important part in the next order of patterns, at which, however, we have not yet arrived. various plaids, diamond patterns, and other develop- ments of the lattice are exemplified in plate . in the case of a regular network of cross- lines there is no particular reason why they should always be filled in alternately a la chess-board. they may just as well be grouped in twos, threes, fives, and so on, re- solving themselves into patterns of great variety and even of intricacy, as may be seen in plate . this theory, however, must not be pressed too hard, or you may squeeze something very like a false idea out of it. it might be contended that all patterns are formed on the square, or all patterns, at least, that can be woven, the threads forming the squares on which the design is laid. this is obviously absurd. the only patterns which can fairly be described as built on the square are those in which the artist (consciously or not) worked upon square lines. the actual squares apparent in a coarsely-woven scroll, or in the old-fashioned sampler, belong, not pattern dissection. to the pattern, but to its translation into a textile fabric. if instead of the chess-board we take the lines of the lattice, and work upon them, we get, without departing from those lines (only intermitting them) a wonderful range of inter- lacements and the like; some of them of ex- ceeding intricacy, as in the case of the "fret." a number of these are shown on plate . there seems no limit to the ever-increasing range of pattern-work thus disclosed, all built upon the same constructional scaffolding. from the intermission of the lines results a kind of spot pattern, more or less free, which might be mistaken for a distinct order of design. but it is only a variety. in a certain sense it matters little whether a design is constructed on geometric lines, or only arranged so that it falls within them. the skeleton, when you come to dissect the two, is the same in either case. our theory of construction, therefore, applies quite as much to sprigs, spots, and all so-called free patterns, as to those in which the constructional lines actually occur as lines. you have not done away with construction when you have suc- ceeded in keeping the scaffolding out of the anatomy of pattern. sight. again, the use of the broken line in- stead of the straight, or of the curved (which we shall have to consider more particularly further on), makes no difference except in effect. the skeleton is the same, though you show no lines at all, as in the "all over" pattern on plate , which is planned on the parallelogram given by lattice lines. so far we have had to do only with the simplest of all possible schemes, in which at most two series of lines intersect one another. the introduction of a third series of cross lines constitutes a new departure, and a most important one. cross the square lattice by a series of diagonal lines bisecting the right angles—cut- ting the squares in half, that is to say—and we have a new form to work upon, the triangle. if instead of the square lattice, one starts with a lattice of diamond shape, a third series of cross lines bisecting the angles of the diamond produces equally a diaper of triangles. and if the diamonds of the lattice be of a certain proportion—if, that is to say, the two sharp angles be together equal to one of the blunter angles, you have only to bisect <pla.re . ww*a* a a a a a a a jl~ /, aiua^a <trjr*a a a i iaaaaaaaaa aaaaa kr, hexagon j-^enfiesba-ra^f ▼ ▼ ▼ »a aaaaa aaaaa a a a a aaaaaaaaaaa a a aaaa iaaaaaaaaaaaa aaa*' tgunn aaaaaaa j. (plate . pattern dissection. the blunt angle of the diamonds by this third series of cross lines to arrive at the equilateral triangle, which of all triangles is far away the most useful in design. by merely grouping the equilateral triangles, as in plate , we get the hexagon (a group of six triangles), the star (a group of twelve), and other shapes, such as that on plate , which is made up of seven triangles (i. e. three diamonds and a triangle); or that on plate , which is composed of eighteen triangles (i. e. three hexagons.) a glance at the three plates , , , will show how immensely the designer's scope is now widened. we have already the basis of all that in- finity of geometric pattern which we find in byzantine mosaic, and in the moresque tile-work derived from it. it will be seen that the hexagon, the star, and other compound shapes, themselves form exactly-fitting diapers. by the use of a fourth series of cross lines another new shape is evolved. returning once again to the square lattice, if we cross it diagonally both ways, cross it by itself, that is, so that each square is cut up into the anatomy of pattern. four, we get out of those lines the octagon (plate ); but not an equal-sided octagon; that is, built on a cross lattice of different proportions. the octagon, however, is not a unit which will of itself form a diaper, as the hexagon will. it is only in connection with a square, diamond, or other four-sided figure, that it will "repeat." place side by side a series of octagons, and there will appear four-sided gaps between (plate ). nevertheless, this new series of lines gives us new varieties of radi- ated pattern: witness once more the elaborate interlacings of the arabs; all of which, even the most magnificent, are closely related to the pattern so familiar in the seat of a common cane-bottomed chair. it is possible to carry the principle of radia- tion further still. you may, for example, cross this more elaborate lattice by a lattice like itself; but you get by that means rather intricacy than variety—especially when the intersecting lines are in part interrupted. in certain arab patterns, where this ultra-elabora- tion of lines is employed, it appears almost as if a new principle had been introduced (plate ); but upon analysis the designs i - à 'plate . pattern dissection. resolve themselves into the elements with which we have already had to deal—so few are the plans upon which pattern is con- structed. already we have come to the end of the straight-lined family. why, it may be asked, can you not make a diaper on other lines, on the lines of the pentagon for example? well, you may put together so many pentagons—and a very re- spectable diaper they form—especially if you further enrich the , however, i had only to dissect it, to discover that it was our old friend the diamond in disguise; but so artfully made up as at first sight to deceive. there it is. it consists of pentagons with five-pointed stars. not long since i came upon just such a diaper, which, for a mo- ment, promised to upset all my neatly arranged theories on the subject of pat- tern anatomy. pentagon diaper and its skeleton. the anatomy of pattern. pentagons put side by side, the interstices between them ingeniously filled with stars and triangles, much as the pentagons them- selves are filled—so that one does not readily distinguish the main divisions. it wants no telling that shapes of any kind may be put together to form a pattern; but that does not alter the fact that the lines on which they are arranged, or into which they fall, must be those i have already laid down; which are indeed the base of all possible pattern. for further variety in design, we must resort to the use of the circle. the circle itself has, indeed, to be arranged on one or other of the foregoing plans. it must be struck, that is to say, from centres corresponding to the points of intersection of lines, such as have already been described. in so far it is only one of the innumerable arbitrary shapes that may be so arranged. but the circle is so important a feature in itself, it so entirely alters the scope of geometric pattern, that it deserves to be considered apart. one cannot lightly pass over the element of curvilinear design in ornament. whether or not the idea of flowing patterns originated in the circle, is of no great conse- ^late . i * (plate the anatomy of pattern. by a very different road, we reach always, in this maze of pattern-work, the same point, which is, the limited variety of skeleton on which pattern is built. from the combination of straight lines with curved (plates and ) result all manner of new diaper forms; which, however, present nothing very new in the way of skeleton. you might start a scroll pattern, such as that given in plate (a type common -in the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries), on the lines either of the hexagon or of the ogee, or of a mixture of curved and straight lines which i may call the broken ogee; and in the end it would not be very clear which of them you had taken for a groundwork; or even whether you had not founded your design upon the diamond—such close kindred do those various skeletons betray. i have dwelt at some length upon rudi- mentary diaper forms, for reasons quite apart from anything intrinsically interesting or beautiful in them, although they may be both the one and the other. more especially is this likely if tender colours be employed to soften f?late. . pattern dissection. ogee, or of waved lines, or simply of the pro- cess of netting. on plate are shown six different ways in which one and the same simple star pattern may be arrived at. . by the juxtaposition of stars and the addition of cross-lines. . by the juxtaposition of diamonds and the addition of cross-lines. . by the juxtaposition of right-angled diamonds, each occupied by a star. . by the interlacing of two series of octagons, and the addition of cross-lines. . by the crossing of two series of zigzag lines, and the addition of cross-lines. . by the crossing of two series of diamonds or lozenges, and the addition of cross-lines. and this does not by any means exhaust the number of ways in which the same result might have been reached. to take another instance, of a very dif- ferent kind, you know how common it is to see a waved line with leaves alternating on each side of it. this appears on the face of it, a quite mechanical and arbitrary arrangement; but you have only to note how, in nature, the alternate leaves on a slender stem, pull the anatomy of pattern. though the printer make use of the roller instead of the block, the conditions of design remain unaltered; for the roller is, for all practical purposes of design, only a block bent round in the shape of a cylinder. ¿.ven the bookbinder of earlier days, who was comparatively free to do what he liked in the way of "tooling," was led, whether by instinct or by his tools, to adopt a rectangular repeat, as in plate ; in which also is exemplified what may be done in the way of reversing, and again reversing, the unit of design—so as with comparatively little drawing to produce the effect of an extensive pattern. we have, ordinarily, to reconsider the pos- sible lines of pattern construction in their rela- tion to the rectangular figure, that being the repeat determined for us by the conditions of nearly all modern manufacture. the base of our operations is, then, usually a parallelogram. furthermore, this parallelogram is in all cases restricted in size, and in most cases of more or less arbitrary proportions. for example—in the case of wall-paper printing, it is practically determined for us plate. o.f. hu, pmoto-utho.«.fu««iv*l «t hol obh.i c the anatomy of pattern. to return to the subject—the upshot of it is, that the designer has habitually to shape his design according to a rectangular plan, and that of limited, if not fixed, dimensions. it becomes, then, a very serious question with him how far he can avail himself of any other basis. the student might with advantage set himself to tabulate the possibilities in the way of adapting the various units of repeat to repetition, within the square. it would then be seen that, though all things are possible, there are schemes the artist would like to adopt, which, in order to be brought into the repeat permitted, would need to be worked out upon so small a scale as to become quite too insignificant for use. one instance of this it may be worth while to give. suppose a square block of inches, and you wish to adapt a hexagonal design to it. only those who have tried the experi- ment have any notion how small the hexa- gons would come. if you made your hexa- gons io£ inches wide, so as to get two in width, they would not come true in the length ; they would be too long. if you made practical pattern planning. them true, they would not fill the square, but only a space of inches by about . three and a half hexagons in the width would work, but only as a "drop" pattern: that would give hexa- gons of six inches across. in order to occupy the square with true hexagons repeating without a " drop," they would need to be re- duced to half that size; that is to say, there would have to be seven hexagons to the width, measuring each only three inches across. it will be seen at once, in this instance, how very strictly the artist is bound by considerations which scarcely occur to the the anatomy of pattern. uninitiated, considerations which have always had a great deal to do with the design of pattern-work. fashion has had her say in the matter, too, no doubt—it is a wicked way she has; but though certain lines have been generally adopted at certain periods and in certain countries, i think it will invariably be found that there was some technical or prac- tical reason for their adoption in the first instance. out of the conditions of weaving came, for example, the adoption of upright patterns and cross colouring (as in the silks of byzantine, sicilian, and early italian design), as well as the turning over of the design on the two sides of an upright stem, or purely imaginary central line; examples of which are shown in plates and , the one taken from an old sicilian silk, the other from a coarse woollen fabric of the th century. in plate may further be seen what great influence material may exercise upon pattern. there was a whole class of pat- terns of this kind schemed in the th and th centuries, with the obvious purpose of disturbing as little as possible of the fplate . practical pattern planning. rich pile of the velvet for which they were designed.* the turning over of the pattern is essen- tially a weaver's device. in a pattern similarly planned for printing there is no occasion for that same rigid symmetry of the two sides. on the contrary, it is desirable rather to introduce some variations, such as occur in the design on plate . * see 'the application of ornament,' page . d the anatomy of pattern. iv. the "drop" pattern. the most useful skeleton to work upon, all things considered, is the diamond. for it is on the basis of the diamond that "drop" patterns are most readily designed. the "drop " is a device by means of which the designer is enabled, without reducing the scale of his work, to minimise the danger of unforeseen horizontal stripes in his design, a danger which is imminent when the repeats occur always side by side on the same level. the printer's block, we will say, is a square; or the roller is its equivalent; or the cards take that form. in the printed or woven strip, whether paper, cretonne, silk, or what not, the end of one repeat must tally with the beginning of the next, in order that the pattern may be continuous throughout the piece. equally of course the design must be so schemed that the right side of one fplate e f kill phato-intlo.b.fuhkrval st » io«",£ c the anatomy of pattern. and make with them the diamond; or, if you disposed them differently, you might produce the oblique shape ; which last would amount to the same thing as though you had cut off only two corners and transposed them (diagram page ). nevertheless, it makes practically all the difference in the world which plan you adopt. your design must be influenced to a very considerable degree by the shape you set yourself to fill. it would never occur to you, for instance, to stretch a festoon, or wreath, across a width of space you did not see before you. so it may be fairly said, that such extension of the design beyond the width of the material, is the direct result of working on the lines of the diamond: whilst you are designing within the lines of the square, you have naturally no impulse to go beyond its limits. in designing for tiles and such like, where the material is not continuous, the conditions are somewhat different, and the possibilities accordingly. where the unit of design can conveniently be turned round, or half-way round, or three-quarters of the way, the scope of the designer is increased — in four \ л i « jk the "drop " pattern. repeats of a six-inch tile he can get, for example, a design which includes a circle inches in diameter. so again, the book- binder, with a comparatively limited set of tools, has very considerable scope in design; but even then the lines he can work upon are always the same—although more of them may be open to him than to another. the anatomy of pattern. v. skeleton plans. the designer finds it ordinarily more con- venient to design at once upon the diamond lines, because their simplicity enables him better to keep in view the effect of his pat- tern in its repeated form than any other lines (there are others) on which the "drop" can be worked. even though one may have no intention of taking advantage of the full width of a block, it may still be found convenient to design within the diamond, if only in order to economise design: and, mind you, economy is an absolute necessity of the case. but for economic reasons there would be no weaving, printing, stamping, and so on; we should confine ourselves to embroidery, tapestry, painting, and other work of our own hands. if you begin by dividing the width of i inches into two, and make your pattern a "drop," i inches long by ioj wide, it is the same as though you had worked upon a skeleton plans. diamond inches from point to point, as may be seen at b in plate ; although, as i said before, the same pattern would probably not have suggested itself to you in either case. designing on the diamond such a pattern as the last-mentioned might very likely occur to one; on the lines of the dropped parallelo- gram, more likely such a one as b on plate . again, if you divide the width of inches into three (a, plate ) and on those lines set out a diamond pattern inches long by inches wide, so that the block contains one unit and a half in the width, this will work as a drop, to fall one-half its depth. it is clear that the half diamond on the one side of the block (a) and the two quarter diamonds on the other side (a a) must together form a complete unit, and the two half diamonds (b b) another, or the block would not work. with that proviso, the diamonds need not all be filled alike—that is to say, the three diamonds (a b c) comprised in the repeat may be variously filled. if you still divide your inches into three the anatomy of pattern. and institute a series of stripes or panels of seven inches wide, each of which drops at the same interval (whatever it may be), it is likely to result in a diagonal stripe more or less pro- nounced; which might, of course, equally have been designed upon diagonal lines. (d, plate .) if of the three stripes only one were dropped, the design would also hang as a drop, revealing very likely a zigzag line on the principle already laid down. (c, plate .) further explanation of the ways in which a given space may be subdivided (what is said of the supposed inches applies equally to any given parallelogram) would be superfluous. enough has been said to show how by such subdivision the utmost variety of scale may be obtained. although, however you start, you come back always to the same few schemes; and although in any case your pattern might, as i said, equally have been designed upon other lines, working on those lines it never would have occurred to you. the diagonal stripe pattern on plate resolves itself into a diamond repeat, but it is tolerably certain that the designer did notwork aplate a С f kill.. ГИОТС-utmo.e.fwhhlvai. st hot-io«n.c.c fíate е./.нш, rkvto-utho.a.rumiivai вт hoviohh.i с plate . pbíto iiht" vv.j.mro alnnnni. london w Г «• the anatomy of pattern. simple patterns on plates , , and are at first sight very puzzling. again, the lines may be interrupted so that you lose the thread of the design. or, further, two or more schemes of ornament may be, so to speak, interwoven, the one asserting itself here, the other there, so that neither thread of idea is too conspicuous. the effect of this is to be seen in plate , a drop pattern, in which the attention is diverted from the formal lines of the scroll by a con- ventional growth of much freer character over- running it. furthermore, features may be introduced of such importance in the design that the eye is drawn to them, and fails to perceive the connecting lines between. in plate the strongly marked bird- forms counteract to some extent the simple ogee or diamond lines on which the pattern is set out. in fact, the birds emphasise the actual repeat of the block, just as the scroll reveals the real construction of the design; and out of the two contrasting schemes arises a certain confusion, which is of some artistic account in design. obviously, however, the most effective way of disguising the skeleton is to clothe it, as ? ate . appropriate pattern. oriental ornament is due. so also with us, the proportions of the square tile have resulted in a distinctly characteristic form of ornament. i do not pretend to say whether the turning over of the design which prevails in early silks, was suggested by the fact that such turning over could be so readily done in weaving; but it looks, at all events, as though the sicilians, and, in fact, weavers generally, until comparatively recent times, adopted that plan of design, because by means of it they could without more ado double the scale of their pattern. in the renaissance silk, figured on plate , and in all such turned-over designs planned upon the diamond, hexagon, or ogee, one- half the labour of designing and card-cutting is saved. naturally, the nineteenth century manufacturer has not been slow to adopt a plan so obviously economical. it has been said, that the idea of reversing a pattern owes its origin to the circumstance that you may double a sheet of paper, and so, with one action, cut out the two sides of it. if that is not so, it well might be—except that, pro- bably, reversed patterns were common long before paper was. very possibly it is derived e ate . .jf v.j appropriate pattern. old piece of many-coloured silk damask to see the changes of the shuttle very plainly marked. the aim of the designer is usually to disguise them more or less in his pattern. but in the early days of silk weaving the unso- phisticated artist had no fear of a horizontal line. in such a pattern as the sicilian silk in plate , he would boldly make the various bands of animals in various colours. he would sometimes even carry bands of colour straight across the animals, regardless of their shape. and the effect of this rough-and- ready proceeding, in the silk itself, certainly justifies him.* in early examples of weaving both the turning over of the pattern, and the banded arrangement of the colour are very frequent; indeed, so much so, as to form quite marked features in the design of the eleventh and fol- lowing centuries, whether sicilian or italian. (it was from sicily, you know, that the art of weaving was introduced into italy.) designers would be the more ready to adopt, and to adhere to, the plan suggested by the loom, in that the horizontal line, due to * 'the application of ornament,' plate . works on decorative art published by b. t. batsfokd, high holborn, london. mr. day's text books of ornamental design. approved by the science and art department some principles of every-day art: introductory chapters on the arts not fine. in great part re-written from 'every- day art,' and containing nearly all the original illustrations; forming a prefatory volume to the series. crown vo, cloth, y. d. the anatomy of pattern. third edition. with full-page illustrations. crown vo, cloth, y. d. the planning of ornament. third edition. with full-page illustrations. crown vo, cloth, j. (sd. the application of ornament. second edition. with full-page illustrations. crown vo, cloth, /. d. ornamental design; comprising the above three works. handsomely bound in one volume. cloth gilt, gilt top, icr. d. nature in ornament. with plates, and illustrations in the text. thick crown vo, cloth gilt, \ s. d. just published. renaissance architecture and ornament in spain. a series of examples selected from the purest executed between the years - . by andrew n. prentice, architect. plates, reproduced by photo-lithography and photo process from the drawings made by the author during recent visits to spain. with the exception of five or six perspective views, the plates consist of geometrical drawings carefully prepared on the spot from measurements, including details of facades, patios, staircases, doors, windows, ceilings, brackets, capitals, and other details in stone and wood, together with examples of iron screens, balconies, and other specimens of metal work, &c, &c. a short descriptive text is added. folio, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt, /. ioj. net, /. s. a handbook of ornament systematically arranged for the use of all classes of art designers, schools of art, architects, &c, as well as for amateurs. edited by f. s. meyer, professor in the art school at karlsruhe. translated into english from the fourth edition, with pages of illustrations, numbering three thousand examples. vo, cloth, lis. the handbook of ornament is of a practical kind. it shows a great deal of research, and contains a collection of most useful ornaments for nearly all kinds of subjects, including the most common objects of every- day use. it also clearly shows the principles of design. another marked feature is the giving the source from which each example is derived. approved by the science and art department. the details and ornaments of the italian renaissance. drawn by j. g. oakeshott, architect, "building news" and "aldwinckle" travelling student. plates, royal folio, strongly bound in cloth, j. princeton university library Л/К * с .ЪР i i i ‘princ§t nuniveréi y lima ‘ ‘_h_“___fl h{“\||hr| ‘d‘p"",ii “"i.‘ ‘ y __ ifiihraml nf i» uh ilunmm jflrincctnn k dher§itg. firwenfeb lrg <@><..ulq-om. "l i “!!! ‘ . _ ~._ . \ h _ _ _____m___ *- text books of ornamental design by lewis f day. - ' iii. the application of ornament text books of ornamental design by lewis f day. price three-and-sixpence each, bound in cloth i the anatomy of pattern. with thirty-five full page illustrations ii the planning of ornament. with thirty-eight full page.illustrations iii. the application of ornament with forty-two full page illustrations. j < ‘g i ck "w t )>%@j,f‘ ‘“\'w .= ." *§*-‘ni?u %§§ is ;;!g>_< g . ; %% baa)‘ §%?§v!= i %n“nmiq ‘€ gmfflfi *%%%% éééwfi :‘m%;%\.i~§ %»£€~ & j§€€?h!~ as é i §i;% "“’<»%z;@ gm i‘~i_;-*l§‘%-if‘; "'""m"'“"'m ?%“w@%~? i-ki > ’ @‘*<mi%i% § % ~§~ ~ i q jiq‘u ‘° \u. , . ... c n j.j "“) o u oo q o q ) \.)oo q o ) ‘q qu ) o u o : j j ))jj) ) ) j)): ‘j i qqoc j i oc\g osqj g qc i-‘lflu iq .“) u : $-. . : -s ’-j l no -*_, )): : soiu u oi old!’ o i .”; - oi) ‘ j - cuiv n o o o v , i j.! . ‘ :" )i -d . j e: ))»: ) >> , ))))) )) -»): . j )')n preface the former text-books of this series con- cerned themselves with the rudimentary lines on which ornament may be designed and distributed. it is only in theory, however, that orna- ment can be independently discussed. prac- tically it exists only relatively to its applica- tion. apart from its place and purpose and the process of its doing, there is no such thing as ornament. the necessity of adapting design to its position and use is as obvious as it is abso- lute. the need of conforming to the more technical conditions imposed by material, and the means of working it, is not so generally understood. it takes, perhaps, a craftsman thoroughly to appreciate its urgency. these few chapters go to demonstrate how essential to évrnament is its strict subordina- ) g\ . \"%gy\$ iarfii/n@ s;z?s vi p refaw. tion to practical conditions ; how in all times and in all crafts good workmen have cheer- fully accepted them ; and how the very forms of historic detail handed down to us grew out of obedience to them. in the genesis of ornament will be found the strongest argu- ment for the study of technique the consideration of natural form and its adaptation to ornamental design is reserved for a separate volume. lewis f. day. i , mzrklenburg square, london, i/v.c. odober / , i i -v j. . . q. io. ii. i . descriptive list of plates stencil—the ties breaking up the broad masses of colour ornamental figure compos "r on—identical figures reversed. animals and arabesque—varied creatures sym- metrically disposed. a tree of jesse— figures ornamentally valuable among the foliage. nursery wall paper——fl i li‘l design animals and arabesque—va ‘lo s creatures enliven- ing the ornament. pattern with grotesques-—tl e creatures them- selves reduced to ornament. various vessels--characteristic of the way of their making \vood carving—sh wing the marks of the chisel. african basket work—a typical example of plaiting carved leati-ier—preservlng the quality of‘ the material. persian fa ence—direct potter’s work. letterxng—si owing its relation to the pen, &c. b x list of p/ates i . i . i . i . i i . . . . = . :. egyptian sculp'i"ure—basa t. greek sculpture—marble. renaissance sculpture—marb e renaissance sculpture—sandstone. wool damask—br a( surfaces calculated to exhibit the quality of the material lyons silk—trivia design, disguised by the sheen and colour of the material. byzantine silk—-c lol red according to the weft. arabian patterns-—ix cis€d in soft plaster. ironwori<—characteristic similarity of motif in work of quite different periods. ironw rk—characteristica y different types of wrought iron. needlework—characteristic quality of line embossed panel—design suggested by the process. filagree-—characteristic design common to work of different periods greek lacin:—ana ogous to filagree on straight lines javanese orna vien' ‘—inspired by the way of working. fretwork—in wood and metal. sawn work—ingeni us patterns produced by very simple means stencil pattern-—and the way of producing it. - - s~ . . list of p/ates. xi bookbinder’s 'r oln~:<;--and the tools usell. mosaic pavement—workman ike thrift rigid design—i need of the softening influence of accidental colour. niello-—severity of pattern calculated to be mitigated by the brilliancy of the metal. marble inlay--practically a fret pattem. arab lattices—characteristic wood-turning enamel—showing the difference of outline in cloironné and cbanzp/evé stained gla s—the glazing lines for the most part the outlines. ,qpp _ qz/ ‘ embroidery—tl € joints masked by a corded outline. utl ne—defining the forms. outline—softening the forms the application of ornament. i. the rationale of the conventional concerning all questions of art, the diffi- culty of coming to any clear understanding is greatly increased by the totally different meanings attached to the terms, more or less technical, one cannot avoid using to begin with definitions does not greatly help us. we no sooner commence to define than we find ourselves stumbling against other words equally in need of explana- tion. what a flood of light would be let in upon the question of decorative design, could we but agree amongst ourselves as to what is meant by the term “ conventional ” ! a an english ornamentist understands by conventional treatment, such a rendering of natural forms as may be consistent with the b t /ze applz.catz.on of ornamenl. decorative character of the work in hand. it implies to him that self-restraint, that intelli- gent selection, that recognition of material and its characteristics, that strict regard for the purpose and position of design, without which ornament does not so much as deserve the name of ornament. to a frenchman, on the other hand, it stands for all that is helpless and hopeless in art. “ c ’est de la l‘ fl j£izli fl, ga," is the expression of his supremest contempt of course it is not merely a matter of country. not all britons are agreed as to what they mean by the word conventional, nor all frenchmen; but there is in the national interpretation of the term an expla- nation of the respect, as of the contempt, in which conventionality is held the continental use of the word is perhaps the more exact. the conventional is literally that which has come to be accepted ; and, as a matter of experience, we find that, even in a world of progress, little or nothing is ever universally accepted until it is already toler- ably stale. the accepted thing becomes, therefore, identified with all that is most deadly dull and tedious in modern art. t no rationale of tlze conventional. there seems to be no hope or promise in it ; it stands for stagnation. yet there is another side to the question. we find in the best work of nearly all periods, and of nearly all nations, certain principles which appear to have been generally obeyed ; so universally obeyed, indeed, as to warrant us in calling them the principles of decorative art in endeavouring to explain those principles, concerning which we have come to some sort of general understanding or agreement, the advocates of due restraint in ornament adopted in an evil hour the term conventional, to ex- press that kind of treatment which, whatever it might be, was adapted to the purposes of decoration. but it proved less easy to grasp the elusive spirit of design than to take pos- session of the forms in which it was embodied. and the cut-and-dried character of the ex- amples of design adduced by way of illustra- tion, led to the supposition that the conven- tional was neither more nor less than the trite ; the literal meaning of the word lending itself to the confusion. one may take it that the artistic verdict on convention will be mainly according to the b t /ze rationale of the c z?/entional. cannot conveniently ignore the word by which it is currently known, and we find the word “ conventional ” in possession. one can scarcely conceive of ornament which is not, in a manner, more or less modi- fied by considerations altogether apart from the natural forms on which it may have been founded. even the human form, which is our highest type, and with which liberty may less safely be taken than with any other of nature’s works—even the human form is not ready-made to the hand of the sculptor the works of the great masters, to which we accord the title of “monumental,” are so in virtue of a something which was not in the model of the sculptor, but in his art call this subtle quality what you will—con- ventional, traditional, monumental, ideal, indi- vidual——s mething there is in all applied art (in all art for that matter, but our concern is just now more especially with decorative and ornamental art), something which is, let us not say contrary to nature, for it belongs in- herently to human nature, but non-natural, in the sense that it is not directly borrowed from natural forms. conventionality in ornament is another t/ze a jfiplicatzon of ornament term for reticence or self-restraint. the artist who exercises no restraint upon himself will hardly command the full sympathy or admira- tion of englishmen. apart from the natural, or national, desire for some reserve in art, as in everything else, restraint is forced upon the ornamentist by all the conditions of his work, by its purpose, place, and means of execution, no less than by that necessity for repetition which, in these days more than ever, is a con- dition of its very existence what is implied by repelzfiou ii what is implied by repetition. the very purpose and position of ornament, the method of its execution, and even its construction, insist upon some treatment of natural forms which, for want of a better word, we call “conventional.” first, in reference to the construction of ornament.“ its mere repetition, which in a former text—book (‘the anatomy of pattern’) was shown to be inevitable, would of itself render such treatment necessary; and even without the inducement of economy, which calls for the use of a machine, we should still resort to repetition, if only because the human brain cannot go on inventing without inter- mission, but needs the comparative rest of repeating itself, even in hand work in the artist’s repetition of himself (unless the fatal pressure of the times have made him also a machine), there will always be a certain degree of variety, which there could t /ze a pptzkatzbn of ornament. not be in mere mechanical reproduction. but he cannot afford to dispense with repetition ; nor need he wish to dispense with it. it is in itself an element in decorative design; it is a preventive against loose and rambling ornament ; it exhibits order, and gives scale. the only question is, where and to what extent we should avail ourselves of it. in proportion to the naturalism of a design, and the point of realism to which it is carried, it becomes unsuited to multiplication. to put it the other way about, the oftener it is proposed to repeat a form, the more impera- tive it is that it should be removed from the imitation of nature, and the further it should be removed. it needs, in short, adaptation to the purpose of repetition. such adaptation is strictly in proportion to what one may call its reticence a highly elaborate and attractive feature—anything, certainly, that is in the least self-assertive- will not bear so much as reduplication; where- as an insignificant device may be multiplied ad infinitum. in anything of the nature of a background (and so many manufactures are intended to serve only as backgrounds) repe- w fiat is [mptied y repetition. tition is of the utmost service, and repetition implies modification. it follows from what has already been said as to the danger of tampering with the human figure, and the prominence it naturally as- sumes, that there is great difficulty in repeat- ing it without offence. the interest of a pattern is enhanced, no doubt, by the re- currence at stated intervals of appropriate figures. but it is desirable that there shall be always some difference in them; for with every repetition of the same figure its charm is discounted. there is something exaspera- ting in the reversing of identical figures in a pattern (plate ), when it is so simple a thing by the careful disposition of various creatures to retain the symmetry of effect desired (plate ) presumably the reason for introducing figures into ornamental design, is for the sake of some added interest there may be in them. but you cannot get up any absorbing interest in a series of figures all identically of one pattern. they suggest only the mechanism employed in producing them. the multipli- cation of the figure, far from multiplying its interest, diminishes it in proportion to the t /ze application of ornament. number of times it is repeated. and though it be a very good thing that is repeated, the case is not greatly mended—it is so easy to have too much of a good thing. the only safety is in toning down the re- peated form until its recurrence ceases to be very obvious. this may be effected in various ways. in certain embossed leather, and such like designs, it is brought about partly by the low relief of the stamping, partly by the soft- ness of the colouring, and partly by a more or less cunning complication of the figures with the rest of the design, so that they do not thrust themselves into notice. that variety in the creatures, were it possible, would be desirable no one can doubt. the consideration which occurs in the case of figure design which it is so necessary to re- duce to comparative insignificance is, whether it was then worth doing perhaps not. except that ornament has a way of being a trifle too ornamental, or, more strictly speaking, too monotonously ornamental ; and the introduc- tion of any bold mass, such as the figure very readily gives, is one obvious way out of the besetting danger. apart from the symbolic intention of the q ’ l‘u\ _b=wu £%_ $ ea r_ ? s_ cé>___ ow? \_\‘(_tuuq‘c km'__q c __o t: by j alnrmnn queen squ-re w c n t__ o t o i p i t /ze application of ornament. portions are given on plate , clearly gives point to the ornament ; and they are rendered with a certain conventionality which makes them one with it. to reconcile us to the repetition of these creatures would be a feat indeed. the grotesques introduced into the cretonne design on plate may perhaps be excused on the plea of their remoteness from nature in the first place, and further on ac- count of the minuteness of the scale on which they are drawn : they are scarcely apparent at first sight. but their real justification is that they are a joke alas, it is not often that the conditions of manufacture allow us that relief the advisability of introducing animal forms into mechanically repeated manufac- ture depends entirely upon the possibility of keeping them in appropriate subjection—in their place, in fact—which, in turn, depends upon the art of the artist. there is a lesson for us in the artful way in which the designers of the renaissance contrived to keep down the creatures, graceful or fantastic, with which they peopled their scrolls, subduing them to the decorative key. where the forms which first take the eye are the bold lines of the leafage, among which the live things are more or less i: eibji . i ‘ ll i. ll |-l‘ u i! n ‘w ‘ ‘ l \ m w tl .? ‘ ‘-.f r \ - y.}r l‘ .y -t . hq‘/$iul t:-t‘;-:_—.=%*- _~_ ‘ t l i- -nrrs pi u fimffl i- $ - - x- - _\_~_§“_- " q hilg t /-lter (‘r n cn v o noliorn i ino.l.o-litno i furn val k ill ! ‘ w/zat is fmpliea’ ly repetition. hidden, so that it is only by degrees that one becomes fully conscious of them all, scarcely the ‘purist can find cause of complaint. some sort of mystery in design is always delight- ful. the perfection of art is reached when, however attractive at first sight, it continues to grow upon you, and the more you contem- plate it, the more you see in it. natural forms, to be admissible in ornament, must be decoratively treated. natural though they be, they must be at the same time orna- mental. a lion, as landseer modelled it, is not fit for any decorative purpose. an egyptian or assyrian lion, on the other hand, dona- tello’s lion at florence, or stevens’s outside the british museum, are adm_irably decorative. the objection to naturalism, or perhaps it would be more exact to say literalism, in forms repeated, applies not only to animal but even to floral forms it exists in a less degree, inasmuch as they are of less prominent interest ; but for all that it exists. the charm of the simplest flower is lost when we see, side by side, so many copies of it -—not varieties, as they would be in nature, but stereotyped repetitions of the same thing the designer is exposed, by his very artistic i the a p_filz.calz. n f omamem‘. ability, to the temptation of aiming at natural effects, a temptation all the stronger because, few persons having knowledge enough to appreciate design, whilst all are more or less familiar with natural forms, there is nothing in the shape of public opinion to keep him in check. every artist likes, of course, to make a good drawing, and to carry it as far as he can but that is not at all the vital point in de- corative design: the all-important thing is the effect of the work in execution and in its place. any one who thinks twice about it must realise that in very self-defence he is bound to consider the repetition of his design, and all else that concerns its use. if he is really a designer, he will know how to make capital out of the very poverty of the condi- tions to which he submits. submit he must —better do it, then, with a good grace some adaptation of natural forms, some simplification in fact, is demanded, not only to fit them for repetition, but, further, by the position and purpose of the work; sometimes in order that the detail may not assert itself too much, sometimes in order to give it the emphasis that is needed. $ . x "i; combination of.scroit s(-huntin£;_sccne - incised on stone r w/zat is [mp/ied éy repetz.tz. n. i for example, it is quite a common thing to see an infinity of elaborate and laborious work misspent upon details of domestic furni- ture, which not only pass unnoticed, but which ought never to attract notice. it often seems as if the workman had set himself to show how far it was possible to go in the direction of minuteness of detail it is quite possible to show that, and at the same time illustrate the futility of going anything like so far. in proposing to carry execution to a point beyond what has hitherto been attempted, it is as well to ask oneself, whether there may not be good reason why the attempt has never been made our forerunners were not all of them fools, we may be sure as a tour de force, once and again, most things may be ad- missible; but a wise workman rarely indulges of his own accord in that kind of “brag” (there is no better word for it) which exhibi- tions, international and other, have done so much to encourage. a master is loth to waste labour, and he knows how to make his work hold its own without shouting at you. he deliberately does less than an inexperienced person would have thought necessary, with a view to making t /ze application of ornament his design tell in its place. in wall decoration, for example, to be seen from some distance, a merely natural representation of natural forms would often go for very little. by the omission of multitudinous detail, he manages to emphasise what he is anxious to preserve. or (since decorative treatment by no means consists in omission only) he exaggerates, perhaps, features in his design which, in the position assigned to it, would otherwise be lost. according to his purpose, he makes no scruple about modifying natural forms and colours: he enforces his effect, indeed, by every conventional—-that is to say, every workman- like—expedient at his command. i t he applieation of ornament. fined may seem at first sight rash enough. but with regard at all events to things of common everyday use, there clearly is a point at which the line of decoration must be drawn. and, more than this, just as the object itself, its use, its material, and the manner of its making, indicate plainly enough the fit method of its decoration, so also they give the hint as to the measure thereof. it would seem, in short, as though the point at which a material or a. process failed were the point at which we might most conveniently stop, rather than bring in some supplementary process, which, under pretence of helping it out, ends more likely in supplanting it. this will be made clearer by an example,— let us say pottery, in aid of which so many of the applied arts are called in, that we shall necessarily have to branch out by the way into discussion of the wider subject of applied ornament, with which this text-book is con- cerned. the primitive way of making a pot is by what is known as “throwing,” that is to say, shaping the lump of wet clay with the hands as it revolves on the wheel before the potter. this, it should be observed, is at the same ~;,¢,,- - -. --q--a|- !i"~%."uis--‘jr o'~‘¥$i¢-“iii ‘ ...-.' ' ':- .-' :_,.a ‘.-._... -.. .. ti i - i. i-fl if ''__'_ .' _ _ i‘;-... -sa.-re --;. is-‘wt.nv.~o..“'.-; - fl:"k~r\- il l i . ‘l ' ‘ i pvkere to stop in ornament. i time the way most directly conducive to artistic results (plate ) bigotry alone would seek to narrow the scope of a workman to any single process of making. one is fain to own that in the hands of an artist the lathe too may have its use (plate ). the so-called etruscan vases (plate ) were turned on the lathe, the artist probably caring more about the painting of his vessel than its shape. ‘ but whilst you watch the potter at his wheel, it appears to you that no supple- mentary process can be necessary almost from the moment he begins to hollow with his hands the revolving lump of plastic clay before him, it begins to take suave and beautiful shapes, gliding the one into the other, as the wheel goes round, with an ease which it is delightful to see. it all seems to go so easily that your fingers itch to try a tu-m at it. seeing the potter at his work, you see how the typical pottery forms grew out of his fingers; you realise how it is that ugly forms are so rare in‘ primitive pottery; and you are inclined to think that the ugliest pot ever made on the wheel must have passed in the making through several stages of c o c _ > if i ‘w ‘ .... .pnovo-tm-r, by j-ak.rmnn, queen squ-.-o,w c i ‘n i \ . ‘y l, “ w/zere to slop in ornament. the hand if any such final shaving is to take place there is, artistically, small reason for the preparatory process of throwing. the thing might just as well be cast, or otherwise mecha- nically made from the commencement, since there is to be nothing but what is mechanical in the result. there is this against after- processes generally. they are apt to undo a great deal of what has been done. how fatally the final process of glass-papering wipes all character out of our modern wood- carving; whereas one great charm about old work (plate ) is in that crispness of touch which tells of the carver’s chisel the excuse in the particular instance of earthenware (there is always an excuse ready for unworkmanlikeness) is in some supposed advantages of lightness and so-called elegance the answer to this is that lightness is not the quality most characteristic of, or especially desirable in, pottery. if it is elegance we want we had better employ glass (plate ), the convenient and conventional treatment of which is all in the direction of grace and airi- ness. a bubble, whether blown in molten glass or soap and water, is a bubble. in earthenware we had best be content with t/ze a ¢plz.mz’z. n of ornament artist and a delusion to the buyer. the sales- man has a way of excusing the high price of a thing on the score of the difficulty there was in making it but was it worth while ? that is the question. apart from its superiority in design, there is not much to choose between the portland vase and the marvellously cut glass or crystal of modern bohemia. they are the very extravagance of workmanship, and as such merit the praise due to all patient labour, and no more. the simplicity and appropriate breadth of treatment of the crystal cup on plate is vastly more workmanlike than either patience does not rank, outside the copybook, as the virtue of virtues. with- out some share of it genius falls short; never- theless the power of taking pains does not constitute genius, nor will it even enable one to design so much as a good pattern. but this is straying rather from the point, which is, that material and process may be trusted to suggest the character of de- coration and the point at which it should be restrained. the lavish and unintelligent use of ornament about us is enough to reduce one to despair. in our longing for palat- able ornament we seem sometimes to see t /ze a _;§plz'eatz. n of ornament in which here and there one competent may be permitted to indulge, growing as it does naturally out of a natural process of work it is a sort of fine-gentleman cousin of the process that is easy and obvious enough for the decoration of ware for common use—that more rough and ready painting, namely, in clay or “slip,” as it is called, where the touches of the brush are left to tell their own tale. it is strange that the public should have to learn that the tale of the tool—brush, chisel, hammer, or whatever it may be--is never discreditable, and always interesting. there is a something very direct and work- manlike in the way “ slip ” is used in modern indiangpottery. the dark—coloured clay is first patterned over in whitish slip, and then the whole is dipped in transparent glaze. it results from the very method of execution that the relief is so slight as not in any way to interfere with the form of the thing it enriches, nor yet in any way to hinder its usefulness the necessarily restricted relief of repoussé metal is accounted for in a similar manner; whereas ornament in relief applied to a vase usually presents the appear- ance of so much excrescence upon it the l \ i a ‘: q§_",' ___;__“ __ q) e, __ “rw_\ %é~_ fim \ ' , i my ; __. . _’|+.j_ ~ ,_‘_‘%_~“_‘ i’ ”‘: r q_,t" ‘p \~-(-qm square wc ‘pnoto -tint’; b_vj i\kormnng queen w/zere to stop in ornament modelling you get with a brush is not likely ever to be in too bold relief, nor that which you get by punching too sharp. a very suggestive illustration of appropriate flatness of relief resulting from a workmanlike proceeding, is given in plate ii, representing an old german book-cover in carved leather. the flatness is such that itlis not unsuited for its purpose, and the quality of the material is retained. it looks like leather. sgraflitto, or the art of scratching, is another of those direct methods plainly appropriate to the decoration of earthenware. just as the italian decorator covered his tinted plaster with a layer of white plaster, and while it was yet soft scratched out his design (which thus appeared in the dark colour of the under- ground), so the potter dips his vessel of dark- toned clay into a paste of white, and on this outer coating proceeds to scratch his design or, of course, he may scratch on the moist body of the vessel itself, and rub colour into the incised lines. these simple processes in a manner suggest themselves by their very easiness; and the blunt line produced by the point on the damp clay, has an ornamental character of its own o the a pplication of ornament. well worth keeping. the delicate diaper lines, simply picked out of the painted ground (plate i ), have a different character of their own. the objection there is to obtaining relief by the application of cast ornament applies only in a less degree to rude and rough and less assuming work, such as german stone- ware or gres rte flandres (plate ) stamps or punches for impressing coarse patternwork, need to be used with judgment within certain limits one may employ in ornament, especially of the ruder ‘kind, devices which would not be endurable in work of more lofty pretensions; still there is always a danger of hardness resulting from mecha- nical and perfunctory ways of working, even though, as in stoneware, the glaze may help to soften the forms the important thing is that the end of beauty be gained without sacrifice of use, and without greater ex- penditure of time and labour than is justified by the purpose in view the truly con- ventional way is the workmanlike way. l one would not by any means exclude human or animal figures from the sphere of ornamental design; but it should be of the u w/zere to stop in ornament. to do. in any case, if he is discreet, he will limit his ambition to the range of his appli- ances. the china painter, that is to say, will think out a scheme of colour which, if not suggested by the oxides employed in ceramic painting, is not in any way opposed to them this will, indeed, deprive him of some pos- sible indulgence in naturalistic effect, but in the main it will lead him to more perfect achievement than would the pursuit of mere difficulties, without regard to the nature of vitreous colours and the action of the kiln upon them. one appreciates more fully the colour of the persian or damascus pottery when one realises that the painter’s palette was set by the circumstances it is only when we respect our materials that we get so much out of them. the uncertainty of all colour which has to pass through the fire renders it most unwise to entertain a scheme which (whether founded upon nature or not) depends upon absolute accuracy of tint. the certain thing about vitreous colours is their uncertainty in the kiln. the potter is working always more or less in the dark, since the value of his work is not d the application of ornament. the circumstances is not only safest but most directly conducive to success; and there is a further charm in the evidence of directness itself in all applied art, and in every stage of it, the work in hand points out the appropriate treatment; it suggests the degree as well as the kind of conventionality to adopt; you have but to heed its prompting and it will tell you what to do, and where to stop. style ana’ handz.eraft. iv. style and handicraft. the purpose and position of ornament belong to the wider subject of decoration, at which we have not yet arrived, and come only incidentally under our consideration on the method of its execution depends, as already said, the very conception of ornamental design. one cannot properly discuss style without reference to material and tools. the style peculiar to each particular kind of work is, indeed, so strongly marked, that it would be quite feasible to classify ornament according to its evolution. mr wornum’s analogy between “style” in ornament and “hand” in writing, holds absolutely good. there never was a tool or process but it wrote its character on the work done. it was so in a simple practical matter like lettering the cuneiform character of the assyrian inscrip- tions was developed chisel in hand. it was the chisel shaped the hieroglyphs pf egypt t/ze a pplieation of ornament. in a certain bluntness of the early greek character the influence of the stylus is ap- parent. chinese and japanese writing must first have been done with the brush. the various shapes of letters on plate i are instructive. the simple form of the roman capitals a b c might, like the greek, first have been indented on a soft substance with a point the later form of lettering, d e f, with its varying thickness of line and its spurred extremities, was better calculated for engraving on hard stone. the use of the thick and thin lines (the down-stroke and the up-stroke) comes of the use of the pen, and so, plainly, does the characteristic thickening of the backs of certain gothic capitals such as the g. the smaller roman letters, h i j, and still more plainly the italics k i m, are unmis- takably related to the “round-hand” n p but it is in the medieval “ black letter" that penmanship is most plainly pronounced, as in the letters q t s, in the capitals eli g u, and in the more fantastically flourishing {lee on the same plate. that our own printed type does not more distinctly reveal the intervention of the metal worker, is accounted for by our following the style and handz.erafl. historic, pen-born, fashion of lettering—i would say, too closely, but that history and senti- ment must be allowed to count for something ; and it would be hard to set a limit on their just influence. in our day we are given to the cultivation of “_a good business hand,” which is just a little characterless and monotonous, as are indeed the lives of some of us who accomplish that modest end. time was when the pen of the ready writer indulged in occasional flourishes. there is no time for such frivolity nowadays ; and what little character there is left in our handwriting seems likely to be sacrificed to the convenience of the stylographic pen—even if we do not give up penmanship altogether in favour of the “ type-writer.” style, then, is not so much a thing of dates and countries as of materials and tools. whenever the development of ornament is discussed, it is the custom to begin with the savage. how the aboriginal developed into the assyrian is not very clearly shown. but from assyrian art is traced egyptian, and from that again greek art, and its roman imitation—all very plausibly. the foun- dation of byzantine art upon the ruins of the application of ornament. classic, the growth of gothic, the reaction of the renaissance, its transplanting, and its degradation, follow in accustomed order. it is easier to jog along this well-beaten road, though it be a trifle tedious, than to explain how, all the while, parallel with this, oriental art was pursuing a course of its own, infringing, nevertheless, at times upon western art, and whenever that was the case, leaving the imprint of its touch upon it. this would be well worth doing; but it would take volumes to do it in, and would demand, besides, historical knowledge far greater than i can pretend to—a knowledge perhaps scarcely compatible with the neces- sary knowledge of art one feels always how hard it is for the artist to equip himself with the necessary scientific and historic knowledge ; as for the man of learning and research to cultivate that susceptibility to art necessary to any profitable discussion of the subject still more to the purpose would it be to classify ornament according as it was plaited, notched, scratched, turned, modelled, carved, inlaid, printed, woven, embroidered, or what not (see plates io, o, i , , i, , , , , , respectively). l e af t .‘! \‘ i \ v-r l' f i‘ ‘ i i‘ ‘~ ‘photo-tiiti by j akermnn ,quecn squ-re ,wc ‘g’ ll {i r -i u u n %‘ ‘’ _ puoto -tint: by j akormnn, ,quoen squ-re wc u l _‘_’ ‘ ! | ' _‘ the application of ornament. greek, gothic, or renaissance sculpture. but if we compare for a. moment the carving of egypt, of greece, and of medieval and renaissance europe, we shall see at once that the styles are not more distinctly of a place and of a period than they are markedly granite, marble, and soft stone styles. the monumental simplicity of the graven obelisk, the refinement of the panathenaic frieze, the rude grandeur of the gothic portal, the delicate elaboration of the italian ara- besque, were but the natural development of resources at hand. working in porphyry, basalt, or granite, severe simplicity was in- evitable, and the egyptian (plate i ) was severe with a vengeance. there was no temptation to him to fritter away all breadth in the accumulation of petty detail. on the other hand, the even textured but less obsti- nate marble encouraged the greek sculptor and his fifteenth century successor (plates i and i ) to greater and ever greater subtlety of execution; which again would have been quite out of the question in working the more friable sandstone native to northern europe (plate i ). we associate the coarser treatment with ‘ _‘ ‘ ‘l ‘ _ . .‘___‘ i “vii l g_il§ g i z ,que.n squ-re ,w_c puoro-tinr, by -l alm mnn the application of ornament. directly due to, some particular manufacture or method of work. so it is with the details of ornamental design. the exquisite simplicity of certain cha- racteristic patterns familiar in the figured velvets of the i th century, is cleverly calcu- lated to disturb the least possible amount of the sumptuous pile, so that the full value of the rich texture is preserved in the old-fashioned damask patterns the big broad leaves and scrolls are planned (like a turkey carpet or an indian rug) with a view, before all things, of getting a broken effect of colour. the designer relied upon the quality of the silk with its varying sheen to alleviate the exceeding flatness of the pattern. no treatment less broad would have done justice to the quality of the stuff, which in those days was worth consideration. compare even the comparatively debased specimen of woollen damask on plate i , with the current designs in linen damask, and it will be seen how well advised were our grandfathers. nineteenth century manufacturers who desire equally to exhibit the quality of their woof, can think of no other way of doing it than by leaving the ground for the most part empty they the application zy‘ ornament. charm in monochrome. it is hard to realise that forms like those on plate i can ever pass for beautiful; but it is wonderful what colour and texture will reconcile us to in the way of design. that is no reason why the artist should leave us to reconcile ourselves with ugly forms, still less why we should accept such models without attempting to improve upon them. the byzantine colouring, in bands, accord- ing to the weft (plate ) is almost brutal in its outspoken acceptance of the limitations of weaving?‘ it speaks volumes for the safety with which such limitations may be accepted, that the contradiction between the forms of the design and the scheme of colour does not in the least offend one in the silk. the same kind of thing occurs sometimes in japanese stuffs. until recently, the conventional treatment of foliated forms always and everywhere con- fessed quite frankly the way it was done. the so-called honeysuckle of the greeks i have shown elsewheret to be directly trace- able to the use of the brush, as was the case * see ‘anatomy of pattern,’ pp. , . ' see ‘ everyday art,’ pp. - . /as??? /cz/or/q '-»\ ‘< ,@v\@.'<>>.\;\'<c_ 'pnn-o-tnw'l by jalnrmnns,qnlln squn-wc style and ha idz.eraft. with other familiar forms of painted greek ornament the corinthian capital and the acanthus scroll, even when they most nearly approach nature (which is never very closely), are always modified according to the conditions of sculpture. in the byzantine version of the classic leafage, in which the sculptors made abun- dant use of the drill, the drill-holes form an element in the design. the same thing occurs in much of the later gothic foliage, more especially in german work?“ the arabian borders on plate leave no possible doubt as to their having been traced on the plastic stucco with the modelling tool. the workman did what was simplest for him to do. we may be sure, too, that it was the ease with which the plaster could be manipu- lated, which led to the extraordinary elabora- tion characterising the impressed diapers on the walls of the alhambra. the somewhat savage enrichment of our own norman buildings forcibly recalls the rude way it was done. it is more properly speaking chopped than carved. * see ‘the planning of ornament,’ plate . the application of ornament. to refer to a specific material, you cannot look at the ironwork of any early period without seeing how directly the forge affected its design. it was the obvious thing to do to beat out the metal into a bar, and equally obvious to beat out the bar into the familiar spirals. and the very difficulty of forging a perfectly even bar was the surest preventive against mechanical results, such as we see in the handiwork of the modern smith, whose bars are made for him by machine the forms on plate belong more dis- tinctly to the forge than to france of the th century or italy of the i th. the metal-workers in different parts of medieval germany give different expression to their work (plate ). if a man had anything to say he expressed himself. a strong man would found a school. but it is smith’s work everywhere. even in the decadence of the art, when it bursts out into an uncomfortably bristling form of foliage, it breathes always the atmosphere of the forge if nature in- spired it, it was the hammer and the pincers that shaped it. it is precisely for this reason that similar forms in cast iron are so singularly ill-judged. . _ _ plate / /ypes of a/\/rouq_l ’r z ironwork \/ te ‘q \/ german '“ fix . --- .‘ eunu\. "|-i!%ii!- ‘gu‘u-nua iiiiil-. ii i- ‘i -: i i~"“"““- n, ii\_‘ ‘l - )- __ _____|_.\ “egg ‘__-“ii i iuuuumu “. i _. i.‘ v_‘_‘ .:£ii ii- . .. .-v::::::: . ...... .. .-‘-.‘ il.-g \i\: n.- | u \==.\‘[“ -.:u!u . ..... ..... ,,'-‘,‘ ajr nlili n "-u-an - -- . .-...... :::. ........._ ..-. ......... ‘- ... . . . ii . . . . i _?_ i i‘“" un- .. - . ll-----il- "i::u: !=:- -r uunun- -v - on --- ‘- - -- iu-v --v n: - - nun- i ! ear nun- unuu nun: u--u u-" ‘' iii ‘ iii‘ ""“"mi_ i iii iunuufll ‘ii . sin‘:- inn.nl- ilixilllu -nv \iiiiliili\ iii uuilllll -unnu- ‘jnn-. - - ii- ii {‘.e- --=--.- - -‘.- ‘iii .:- . -.- ‘- . iu ii ‘ .-. - “_ii . iii‘ . i iii!‘ r_fi “ii ii- . __" '_ i i .‘_ "iii-ii_i'___ i n .... ._ i ‘ i"“““““:i i-i‘ t‘ iliiii_li iiiii :ii __ n lnmmmmmmwnun “mmmmm““mmmmmmi __i_ nuunu __ii _“ iiiiiii iiiii‘ ‘:- ___m_“ ‘ = nil -um w-n lu-u iiii lulu i ‘-i- i. i iiiii " -h ‘: - --\-- ‘'- --\---- - \ -- iiiii .n-.. ...... ‘-. e . .. ..... ..... .... -.. -.. . ‘. .... ‘-.- ‘.-‘ ..n. - -:: e.u i _“num_“m“_mmi_ i n i “m_“__imii"mmmmm_h :.i . ii‘ =. -- .- . "u u\ :ii ; ki .: ?'!' :iiuuu -j i i_ ll _i ifl“fi“'- ‘ ii“mim"""“ ii.:‘ ' iwiul v (iii! llfillln i u ne--u \u \-!l§i!' vs illnl unnu- illhu -nun i.. “"“"_ _ u ‘nun-ti-v‘ by . alum... s q“... sqim wc the teaching of the tool. i v. the ‘teaching or the toot diflicult as it may be for any but a work- man quite to appreciate the influence of tools and treatment upon ornamental design, and so to trace the origin of time-honoured forms to their first cause—it is certain that nearly all forms of ornament may be followed back to a_ beginning in technique. take any tool in hand and proceed to design with it, and see what comes of the experiment. it will be something quite different from what you would have drawn with a pencil on paper, and something much less literally like any natural object: and according to the tool employed will be the character of your design. the process of reponssé work or embossing will serve for an example. you lay a sheet of brass or copper, with its face downwards, on a bed or cushion of pitch, and proceed with tools of various shapes and sizes to e ' i |, l‘ 'i‘ \ ’’ ' ;w eta §i/ ; r i s bl “a ‘a i nm q _ va.n(esel,l ?\'* _ . at ornamen-t .r>spirecl by way ofwork" c i ntu rr ot -lflnn fulv<|val s‘ nolioin c the t eaching of the tool. it cannot be insisted upon too strongly that, in designing for ornament, it is abso- lutely essential always to have those con- ditions in mind, as clearly as though you were yourself working under them. - in beaten work you descend from the mass to the minutiae; in filagree, on the contrary, you would work from the minutiae to the mass. commencing with wiry lines, you would perhaps clothe them with more com- pact spirals, clustering these together where you wished to concentrate the effect the design of the byzantine artist of a thousand years ago is not, you will see (plate ), very different from that of the medieval silver- smith, nor yet from that of the genoese and maltese artificer of to-day. this is the type of all ornament in deli- cately elaborate line, as, for instance, damas- cening, embroidery in gold or silken outline, and, on a larger scale, hammered ironwork substituting straight lines for curved, it has its parallel in certain kinds of lacework, such as the so-called “ greek lace.” (plate .) a very curious instance of design directly inspired by the way of working occurs in the javanese work on plate . some plastic the application of ornament. substance, paper or gutta-percha, is rolled out into the thickness of stout wire, curled round into spirals, and laid on papier-maché the ground is then partly fretted away and the whole gilded there is something delight- fully naive in the result. fret cutting affords another homely illus- tration. the very neccssities of the saw suggest the nature of the design. you are led to devise some form of pierced ornament not unlike stencilling ; or, if you prefer to cut away the ground instead of the pattern, you are compelled to hold the design together by ties - unless these ties were from the first taken into account, they would be sure to mar the effect the artist, accordingly, finds himself, as if by instinct, evolving a kind of strap- work, which reminds one of the typical elizabethan ornament—which very possibly originated in some such device as fret carving, although the forms show also the influence of types more proper to metal. the likeness of the strip of low-relief pattern- work, on plate , to fret cutting, is too striking to be merely accidental. the rela- tionship challenges recognition plate z i i q flnbo s e cl (rel /"\ etal ( erman llll w ill ] ii" m)? €t ' a ???? all llll s cllwan stl.c\p-\aloluk\ ‘wv l ' iii . i ~_ g'e *€- ° _ ' ‘. _ ! a r—n'~| a et ». l —r- llllllllllll llllll i ‘ ' ' nu! {“-mt -n_ l'\ ' ll ‘ pi w" to no mill illlllllll o - ll i mm ow lg " l~-.autn " the application of ornament. through which the design is rubbed in, the plate protecting the ground. stencilling is very properly used in decora- tion as a means of laying in a first painting only, in which case one may do with it what one will, or what one can one may even, by the use of a succession of plates, produce most elaborate designs. an ordinary italian house decorator will manage to stencil a wall surface with a gorgeously rich damask pat- tern, at a cost not exceeding that of equally effective wall- paper. a stencil pattern proper should, however, be designed to be stencilled right off, without needing to be made good at all by hand. this principle is illustrated in plate i, which by its construction owns to being stencilled it is a bastard kind of design that is ashamed of its origin. ties, it will be seen, may well be turned to account to form a pattern on the pattern, to give detail, such as the veining of large leaves, or otherwise to break up the broader masses of the design. the geometric diaper on plate is ob- viously produced by means of two stencils, the outline being formed by the .portion of __,- ~ i aw'“l-if t “till i-l"'“"' w {wt __l it in "ml a um etc will‘ ai * a ( the f q l a r-*@'+'* up a-‘y -a er , ' >"- ;* ~ _ fg- -_-‘-e -frr-$ ? see —-if ;- --q §_ flag gr q , § ‘é "t? $ ’ is w .=. g ii. ?"= e : ’ = x § ' = at r? e .. i i ‘=.~j. e j ea s ' e s era, ~ __§ %-i . _.- ' % i _- .-e *- --: " e--_ : |. .nt ll-l, fniitq-lltn il.ulnlval s‘ koligin ejj k f-"lyd ,‘_ +'_‘.,\ _+'_q feel?‘ * ; ¢+'- $: first stencil m ‘j o t he a pplz.mtz. n of ornament. tainty of shape, and gives an air of mystery to what would otherwise be only so much mechanism. the rigid forms of the diaper on plate are plainly in need of some such softening influence of colour. again, in geometric ornament like the “niello” on plate , the silvery brilliancy of the metal glorifies, so to speak, the nakedness of the design. s in the ornamental glass mosaic so often used in italy about giotto’s time in connec- tion with white marble, the shimmer of the surface, more especially as it was never absolutely even, put all contingency of harsh- ness out of the question. such a thing was barely possible with all those little facets of glass catching the light at all manner of angles, and glittering each according to its own bright will. in marble inlay of strongly contrasted colour there is no such excuse for severity of form; some of the old pavement patterns, that for example in the baptistry at florence (plate ), are exceedingly graceful in design even there you see the influence of the material the desirability of maintaining the solidity of the white slabs into which the blackish-green plate clgqsu\ m> .|om c,l_‘q]pul uocuwo: ! |h=!‘*, n w) sphq j vyvvvvvv "vvvvvvy wvyyvyyy "yvvyyyvy iwvvvvvvyv yyvvvvyvvv \\ q \§ iv %’<<<<<<<<<</<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< >>/>\>\>>\>>>\>/>>>>>>>>/>\%»> ‘vi - the teaching of the tool. i is inlaid, has led to a kind of network of white enclosing the darker tints, by which means the contrast between light and dark is most judiciously softened. these patterns would stencil perfectly. they are, in fact, fretted in marble. here it may be as well to remark that, though a stencil is a kind of fret, a fret is not exactly the same as a stencil. in designing a stencil the ties are the main consideration. in designing a fret, the connection of the openings is an important point. one must as much as possible avoid the hindrance of perpetually removing and refixing the saw, which, in fretting a stencil pattern such as that on plate i, would take almost as much time as the actual cutting. long, smooth, sweep- ing lines are also suggested by the saw, the backward and forward action involved in following jagged lines, such as the serrated edges of leaves, resulting in some waste of labour very characteristic design occurs in the wooden lattice work which has lately been imported from cairo, and freely used (not always with discretion) in the decoration and furniture of english houses (plate ). better % . ._' ¥ z m” 'm_g‘ my ‘ at -%ua w- 'mw mph ‘q - . '__. a: \ . v a _ ' ‘ ' ‘)a@_v)l\&€¢ “aw - - _* ”’‘v""“ if - t/ze teaching qf the tool. until there is now little dilference between the picture and its copy in wool, except that the copy costs ever so much more than the original. already in the comparatively early tapestries of raffaelle, you can see at dresden or beauvais what inferior and characterless hangings his famous cartoons make, as com- pared with the neighbouring designs of earlier, unknown, and less accomplished draughtsmen, who knew their trade. that raffaelle either knew little or cared little about tapestry, is clear. and in his failure there is some con- solation for the least of us. if we only love our trade, and know it (as only those can who love it) we may succeed where a raffaelle would fail, though we be anything but raffaelles. it is easier said than done, for a great painter to step down to mastery in the minor arts. all trades want learning. the crowning point of ignorance and incon- sistency in design is reached where the con- vention peculiar to and characteristic of some quite different material is affected, as in the bulbous forms of beaten metal reproduced in i th century gothic stonework, or the facets of brobdingnag jewels in elizabethan wood- carving. the application of ornament. the modern frenchman seems to have no conscience at all in this respect. he will copy anything in any material, and be proud of himself. he is not to be persuaded that the characteristic lines of darning for example (plate ), when reproduced in wall paper are simply broken lines, as meaningless as they are awkward affectation of that kind seems to throw into stronger relief the fitness of fit ornament. l r r j i \ i’ l ' l e plate |u-my %? '|l| llll - i\“* ‘ \ ‘n / \“ m’! \( \ // , ’ z \ ‘alkali iéfliiccs ¢ wae ¢.i. .¢ \/\/ool-l'uf'o-ll‘) _. _ v . a e nu h t -litnoifuililval :t uoumm : o some superstitions. vi some superstitions. out of the practical conditions of work have arisen elements of design so distinctly decorative that they are sometimes taken to be inseparable from ornament and essential to it. flatness of effect, symmetry of dis- tribution, firmness of outline, and other such useful devices, have been adopted as articles of a rather too credulous faith that is a proud position to which they are by no means entitled. they are at the best work- ing rules, a sort of recipe, not without use, but useful mainly to those who are not much in need of such help. let us inquire into one of these supersti- tions—outline. it is of such use in ornament, and so often useful, that it has come to be accepted by certain theorists as a necessity of the case; with them it is the passport to “the decorative” useful as an outline is in decoration, it is not, however, inevitable. nor f the application of ornament i is it so easy to say just where an outline should be used. in very many cases, the material and its workmanlike employment necessitate an out- line. they may even determine its colour, as in the case of the metal lines marking the cells in which the paste of enamel is laid and it is curious to notice how, in champlevé enamel, where the cells for the paste are dug out of the metal ground, the outlines are of varying thickness; whilst in cloisonne’ work the even section of the wire soldered on to form the cells, necessitates an absolutely even strength of line. you have only to look at the quality of the outline, to tell at once whether enamel is champleoé (a sort of niello in colours instead of black) or cloisonné. the evangelistic emblem on plate combines the two pro- cesses. you can distinguish the solid metal from the wire-work quite plainly. you find that when the more laborious process of cutting out the ground is used, the artist adopts a larger treatment, and is altogether more chary of his lines, omitting them even, and blending one colour into another the method invites the use of broad late m k,_§ mg d i‘ iv; \‘ s ~ _-‘')_ w ’.‘&‘o ;‘ ") po- t turr, b_yj aklrmnn queen squ-re wc o the application of ornament. the hard shapes drawn for the damask weaver are redeemed by the sheen of silk or linen,- and so on. in such cases the artist who has been equal to the emergency will often find again in the executed work something of the delicacy belonging to his original. even in autograph work, where the artist executes his own design, he still avails him- self of a soft outline. decorative art is a kind of shorthand. its very existence seems to depend upon its being done with readiness, quickness, and certainty—so that he who runs may read. the art which only careful scrutiny reveals to us will, for the most part, fail to win appreciation. whatever its merits, if it hide them, no wonder that men pass them by. even poetry of the over-subtle order is not popular; and decorative art (unpopular though it be) is essentially popular art. the effectiveness so much to be desired in decorative art, has to be obtained without many of the resources of which the painter is free to avail himself. it is not often that the ornamentist can indulge in extremes of light and shade, nor yet in very strong model- ling. under these circumstances, an outline ‘ ate ill w _ _ _- l _ ___ ‘f _j_____ , _.____= _.v____'___ ___ _ g __________._ ' : ______ ______'''~_'__________ ___ ~*==v : ? :_______;__::¥_ __:__ pg w gr, _______ _ _____ __ _'__ w ______ _________ __________:_ e % e: __im__§_ q j e ____ g ‘ _ * l iu z _ g m _ __ v_ mfiw_:§mgm ___ _ ________ ‘_ __ _w_:___ “il __ »_ : _____.= _ __ ____ ____: '______ ______ ___ ___ _ _____<_‘_____~______“'_____ e __ ~m___e_" ___~_ ______g _ ~ g__n_““_g pg _pw___ é __“_% __ le _ p _ _w_w_‘_*____ §_% ___§, __:____m____ __;m_?__*w _ n, mm? . _ :_ __ :_ _&_ lag‘ = i ” f “ * _ : __ v___ _ :_:____:_,: cflline wlovcla clcfmes the for n»(fi~.-fi~c- e _ : o plate -z - l ~fll\i. -- d ~mhw |||lilli m* i : illlllll nu w ou ".ne which soften-asthe l:°""°'* l-“‘”"'u‘“'*. = r mur-<om-uu<nnru-uuvn. . ununnun n www ' ‘- the library of the university of california architecture lib. mrs. charles sumner greene and nathaniel greene from the library of charles sumner greene the birth and development of ornament. --º-º-º- ------------------------- cox * cºco the birth and development ()f ornament by f. edward hulme, f.l.s., f.s.a. awthor of “suggestions in floral design,” “familiar wild flowers,” “mythland,” “plants, their natural growth and ornamental treatment,” “principles of ornamental art,” “history, principles, and practice of heraldry, “history, principles, and practice of symbolism,” etc. “all common and useful things may be refined into objects of beauty, and all that is beautiful or high in art is merely an elaboration and refinement of what is fundamentally a useful and a necessary art.”—ferguson. mbon : swan sonnen sche in & co. new york : macmillan & co. (ibe elntiquarian library. ~ . monumental brasses. by the rev. herbert w. macklin, b.a., late hon. sec. cambridge university association of brass collectors. with illustra- tions. s. d. . the history, principles, and practice of symbolism in christian art. by f. edward hulme, f.l.s., f.s.a. with illustrations. s. d. . the history, principles, and practice of heraldry. by f. edward hulme, f.l.s., f.s.a. with illustrations. s. d. . the stone, bronze, and iron ages. a popular treatise on early archaeology. by joh n hunter- duvar. with illustrations. s. d. . the birth and development of ornament. by f. edward hulme, f.l.s., f.s.a. with illustrations. s. d. [other volumes to follow.] architecture add " gift /// s //? arch. lhbrary table of contents. “order gave each thing view.”—shakespeare. chapter i. the birth of ornament—distinction between pictorial and decorative art—impossible to draw a sharp line between them—what styles of ornament are—all changes gradual and continual— walue of a knowledge of the ornament of the past—sir joshua reynolds and guizot thereupon—the study of principles—art at second-hand—decoration a necessity—utility the first con- sideration—difference between design and decoration—differ- ence between symbolic and aesthetic ornament—the limitation imposed by imperfect means—the appropriate use of materials pp. – . chapter ii. the antiquity and commercial greatness of egypt—chronological details and sketch of history—royal jealousy of the fame of past sovereigns—the ruins of karnak, thebes, and luxor— the mural paintings—authorities to consult—general spirit of egyptian art—its religious character—archaic and archeistic work—domination of the priesthood over art—repetition and alternation of simple units—the lotus—deification of the nile —the indian lotus or sacred bean—the papyrus—columns simulating bundles of stems—colossal figure-columns – caryatides —sacred animals—the winged globe—sun-worship—massive character of egyptian work—obelisks—cleopatra's needle—rise of the babylonian empire — the assyrians — discoveries of layard and others—assyrian art—arrowhead inscriptions— colour—the sacred tree—colossal bulls—the phoenicians — influence of commerce and war upon art . . pp. – . vi contents. chapter iii. greek art—its birth–doric work—the ionic order—the corinthian order—the fret, wave scroll, guilloche, patera, and other typical forms of greek ornament — the zigzag — honeysuckle or anthemion ornament —- naturalism and conventionalism — application and adaptation — ruskin, wilkinson, and others thereon—historical and artistic value of the study of greek coinage—gems—greek vase-painting—etruria—signed vases— working in bronze—the romans not an artistic race—use of the arch—the augustan age—roman luxury—the tuscan order—no fixed law of proportion and detail in the classic orders — the acanthus — pompeii—wall-paintings—arabesques —mosaic–eastern influences on roman art . pp. – . chapter iv. division of the roman empire—introduction of christianity— byzantine and romanesque art — authorities to consult – ravenna—the modified acanthus—symbolic art—re-intro- duction of classic forms—the dome—use of colour–fine mosaic work—immense art value of these mosaics—modern revival of mosaic—st. mark's, venice—commercial greatness of the queen of the adriatic—lombardic work—interlacing— celtic ornament—spirals and frets—books of gospels—the book of kells—saxon work—norman carvings—the use of animal forms in ornament—reasons of their introduction— mythical forms—the bull in art—the elephant—ganesa— characteristic norman mouldings—early english gothic—the dog-tooth—diapering—decorated gothic—naturalistic treat- ment—tiles—the grotesque in art—perpendicular gothic— panelling—great use of heraldry—stained glass—chronology of english gothic . - - - - . pp. – . chapter v. causes of decay of gothic art—elizabethan ornament—strap-work — cartouches — authorities to consult — the renaissance — revival of aestheticism—its origin in italy—florentine, vene- tian, and roman modifications—italian computation of dates— list of illustrations. “look here, upon this picture, and on this.”—shakespeare. frontispiece–wall treatment, alhambra. fig. . portion of assyrian tile. british museum lotus springing from lake: egyptian treatment egyptian hieroglyphic : cartouche of amunothph ii. assyrian arrowhead or cuneiform inscriptions . guilloche, from renaissance wood carving • - - guilloche, from spanish pottery. south kensington museum - - - - - greek figure treatment . - - - - mosaic : roman. baths of agrippa. - - - mosaic : roman. woodmanchester, gloucestershire . group of indian metal-work . fret, from roman pavement . fret pattern: indian - - , . frets, from roman pavements , . irregular frets, from chinese work . chinese continuous fret to . irregular frets: chinese , . celtic interlacing. - - - . interlacing branches : majolica. museum - - - . interlacing, from roman mosaic . moorish interlacing. alhambra . interlacing circles: byzantine . - - . interlacing, from romanesque carving . - - • to . celtic interlacings . - - - - : page south kensington . speira or plait: roman mosaic - - - . . ix x list of illustrations. fig. . interlacing pattern . - - - - - - - . celtic interlacing - - - - - - - - . speira or plait: roman mosaic - - - - - . the tree of life : assyrian sculpture - - - . group of phoenician pottery . - - - - - . ionic capital, from the erechtheum . . frieze, from the erechtheum . - - - to . examples of interlacing, from celtic work to . natural symmetry: snow crystals . natural symmetry: snow crystals . - - . natural symmetry: snow crystals . - - - - . anthemion frieze . - - - - - - - . ornamental treatment of the hawthorn . - - - . panel, based on maple foliage and fruit . spandrel : early english treatment. . heraldic lions: the arms of england . marine forms: greek patera. british museum . hunting dog: 'gothic tile. - - - - . foliated dragon: initial letter . - - - - - . naturalistic treatment : palissy ware. south kensington museum - - - - - - - - - . dragons, from renaissance pottery. south kensington museum - - - - - - - - - . shells and fish : greek patera. british museum . - . scroll pattern : roman mosaic. cirencester . stags: roman mosaic • - - . arabesque : pompeian mural decoration . cock: coin of carystus . - - - . stork: pompeian mural decoration . . . . - . conflict of lion and dragon - - - - - . conflict of lion and bull . - - - - - - page . . crocodile as symbol of egypt . - - - . goose, from border of the bayeux tapestr - . swan : pompeian mural decoration . - - - - . key, renaissance, with cipher-head . - - - . sculptured stone at aberlemno. - - - - . st. patrick's bell-case. royal irish academy . - . norman grotesque capital. - - - . frieze of elephants. indian museum, south kensington . 'ag: list of illustrations. . elephant panel. indian museum, south kensington . mythical monsters: majolica. south kensington museum . examples from mexican ms. . pelicans, from egyptian painting . grotesques: renaissance panel - - e - - . pins found in the witham. british museum . . dragon: chinese wood-carving. - • - - - . bird panel, from the natural history museum, south kensington . º º - - e e - - . bird panel, from the natural history museum, south kensington . º - - - - e e - . doorway. ely cathedral. - - e - º - to . characteristic norman mouldings . - - , , . characteristic norman mouldings . e . early english foliage. ely cathedral . • e . capital: early english. ely cathedral . - - . wild boar, from greek coin - - - - - - . animal forms on greek coin . º • - • . conventional birds and foliage: gothic tile . º - . marine forms on greek coin . - - - . horse: greek coin . - º • - - - - . foliated mark: renaissance wood-carving . dog: greek coin - - - - • - - e . chained hart: heraldic badge. westminster hall . . eagle, as symbol of st. john : stained glass. south ken- sington museum . e - - - - • . head of ram : greek coin . e - - - - . lion rampant: gothic tile - º - - - . from sculptured stone. st. madocs - - - - . from sculptured stone. st. madocs . roman lamp . e - • s - - - e . reynard discoursing on the evils of gluttony . º • . pig and bear pots: english pottery . - . . - . a toby-fill-pot: english pottery , - - - - . grotesque letter - º º s - - - - . napkin ornament, late gothic panelling . . grotesque, from pompeian ornament e • xi pa ge , . the involuntary grotesque : old needlewor - • . grotesque, from norman carving xii, list of illustrations. fig. , . ancient peruvian pottery. british museum . . . . from vase in ancient tomb, chirique, isthmus of darien. indian basket-work, north america. british museum architectural construction, used as ornament: gothic. south kensington museum . - - - - - architectural construction, used as ornament: gothic. south kensington museum . - - , . modern illustrations of arabesque treatment . the grotesque: renaissance work to . from norman doorway, st. margaret's, york . . . . key: renaissance metal-work . - - - grille : english iron-work. south kensington museum. stained glass: pictorial treatment . - - - - bronze tray, of mohammedan workmanship. british museum - - - - - to . japanese treatments of animals . initial letter, from illuminated ms. . . indian carving : architectural details . indian brass lota . • - - - - - - . bidri water vessel, from bedar . . carved lattice: indian work . - - • to . frets from ancient mexican and peruvian pottery. . british museum - e - - - - fret on shield, solomon islands. british museum . page the the illāh hal that tiºn in t Çbt #irth and jebelopment of ()rmament. “by your gracious patience i will a round unvarnish'd tale deliver.” —othello. chapter i. the birth of ornament—distinction between pictorial and decorative art—impossible to draw a sharp line between them—what styles of ornament are—all changes gradual and continual— value of a knowledge of the ornament of the past—sir joshua reynolds and guizot thereupon-the study of principles— art at second hand—decoration a necessity—utility the first consideration—difference between design and decoration— difference between symbolic and aesthetic ornament—the limitation imposed by imperfect means—the appropriate use of materials. the birth of ornament' countless centuries before man appeared upon the earth, the creator of the universe had gazed upon the works of his hands, and declared that all had reached his lofty ideal. some people hold the mistaken idea that ornament is all very well perhaps for those who like it, but that what they want is some- - b the birth and development of ornament. thing practical; but the works of nature gently rebuke this cold utilitarian spirit, and afford us countless illus- trations of beauty wedded to use. the painting of the petals of the commonest wayside weed, the exquisite markings on shells so minute that only the microscope enables us to appreciate their beauty, the gorgeous colouring of the peacock's feathers, the rich markings on the wings of the butterfly, the splendour of colour of the ruby and topaz, the graceful forms of the evanescent snow crystals, are but a few instances that at once rise to our minds. man made in the image of god shows in some degree his attributes, and appreciates in some measure the per- fection of his work. hence the cannibal savage and fetish worshipper of central africa who carves his weapons or weaves his basket work into bands and chequers, the ancient greek who decorated with such refinement of art the funereal urn or the water vessel of daily use, and the mediaeval workman who wreathed his capitals and mouldings with sculpture of hawthorn and maple, all alike testify that man liveth not by bread alone, all alike, consciously or unconsciously, working under the influence of the spirit breathed into them as children of the great father of all. hence we claim for our subject nothing short of infinite antiquity, nothing less than divine authority. as in the biography of some famous man two lines may suffice to give all needful particulars of his birth and parentage, while a volume of a thousand pages may scarcely do full justice to his after career, so a couple of fine art and decorative art. paragraphs have sufficed to give us our starting point, while the after development of ornament in all its ramifications would need more volumes for its elucida- tion than we can at present give pages. in these latter days a distinction has been made be- tween fine and decorative art, the man who paints a picture esteeming himself an altogether superior person to a designer of ornament. there is no sharp line that can possibly be drawn between decorative art and fine art, though in many cases one finds no difficulty in assigning to one or the other a given example ; hence it is an utter mistake to regard decorative art as mecessarily on a lower footing. much harm has of course been done to the latter by many who in the present day call them- selves “decorators,” but this is a disadvantage that almost all callings are liable to, and we do not ordinarily judge any body of men by the worst examples. decorative art and fine art merge imperceptibly into each other, and the same thing may receive one or the other name according to circumstances. if, for example, we see a group of lilies painted on canvas, put into a gold frame and hung on the wall, we call the result a picture, an example of fine art, the work of an artist; but if the same flowers, equally well painted, are placed in the panel of a door, the result is a decorative design. when we come to figure subjects the distinction is still more diffi- cult. in rome, paris, and elsewhere in the large public galleries and government buildings, we find the work of the first artists adapted to fill certain recognised spaces in the architectural construction, and they are thus far the birth and development of ornament, decorative, though one would never dare to question their claim to be considered works of fine art as well.] many an old altar piece and fresco that was essentially deco- rative art in its original home becomes a choice example, of this, that, or the other old master when put into a gold frame and hung in some national picture gallery. throughout the preceding centuries we find mo such dividing line, the choicest work of phidias or of michael angelo being frankly decorative in character. the grandest sculptures of the finest period of greek art were units in the magnificent decoration of the parthenon, and the work of the great florentine sculptor and painter in the sistine chapel and elsewhere fills its allotted space, in the grand general scheme of decoration * of the build- * perhaps the happiest effort to draw a clear line of distinction, will be found in the following definitions by palgrave :- “in pictorial art we have the representation of natural objects selected and combined, supplemented by the imagination and in- vention of the artist; for without this imagination—this ideap within himself—the artist would only produce a dead mechanical, copy, more or less accurate according to his technical skill. “in ornamental or inventive art as applied to decoration and industry, we have the adaptation of the representation of natural objects selected and combined, applied in geometric proportions, and in some styles based on geometry only, the specific application being governed by application to some useful object, or given space, and controlled by the material in which the design is to be wrought out, and the means, handicraft or mechanical, by which it is to be produced.” * the word decorative is derived from the latin word decorous, a root that also supplies us with our english word decorum. decorative art is therefore primarily what may be used in a certain position with propriety; that which is seemly, becoming, and fitting. that such work should naturally be pleasing and attractive to the a far-reaching sympathy essential. ing it ennobled. in the same way the artists of egypt carved with wonderful power the long avenues of sphinxes, or drew with rich profusion countless incidents of the daily life of the people on the walls of the temples and the tombs. the triumphs in war or in the chase of the monarchs of assyria were recorded in the mural decoration of the palaces of khorsabad and kyonjik. hence, therefore, we must enter upon our subject with no narrow prepossessions or prejudices. to understand any phase of art requires a far wider study than appears on the surface, and a far-reaching sympathy--a sympathy that can at least teach respect even where it cannot mature into appreciation. the history of ornamental art covers an immense area, and it is impossible to satisfac- torily isolate any section of it. even if a man would desire to confine his attention to some one style or period, as for example greek or gothic, he would speedily find that to comprehend its motif he must go back possibly for centuries, and see its beginnings developing in countries far remote. the fall of rome, the rise of byzantium, and the eastern influence that then arose may all be recorded, to those who can read the signs aright, in a capital in the cathedral of lincoln, and the art of greece was no merely local growth, but a develop- ment and outcome of many foreign influences that thebes and memphis, tyre and sidon may be taken as illustra- tions of. - eye follows almost as a matter of course; but this we see was not the fundamental idea, and no matter how charming a thing may be in itself, if it be not fitted to its position, it is not truly decorative. the birth and development of ornament. persons often speak of styles of ornament as though each had a distinct individuality, or quite definite be- ginning and ending; as if they sprang into existence in full development, and then, for some reason or other, ceased to be, and were at once supplanted by something else. books on ornament are largely responsible for this, as they naturally, in dealing with any period of art, deal with its leading characteristics, but they omit to show us those transitional forms and modifications of type that are continually changing it and developing it into some- thing else. hence we are taken, for example, at once from early english or thirteenth-century gothic to four- teenth-century or decorated, and the turning over of a page lands us in an entirely new set of forms. we do undoubtedly find in almost every age and in every nation a certain type of ornament that is more or less local and individual, and which for the time being may be called a style, as it contains certain characteristic developments and broad distinctive features, and it may hence very conveniently be given a distinctive title; but, after all, in this world nothing continueth long in one stay, and everything that has healthy life in it has also growth, and growth is change. the rainbow has its seven distinctive bands of colour, all easily recognisable and capable of being exactly mamed, yet each merges imperceptibly into its neighbour, and all blend together into one glorious whole ; and in like manner each period of art has its rise, its period of splendour, and its passing away, when, phoenix-like, another rises from its decay. ornamental art is not like primary and sub-styles. a series of isolated and more or less stagnant lakes, but as it comes down through the centuries is rather a flowing river that gathers contributory streams from either side, and is ever changing, ever growing. all the so-called styles are not of equal importance; thus the roman is little more than a modification of the greek. in egypt the art of the pharaohs was for cen- turies magnificent, while the admixture of greek elements under the ptolemies sullied its purity, and its degradation became complete under the sway of rome. gothic art, again, as a primary style, has its distinctive and secondary modifications in england, france, germany, and spain. mohammedan art, though it has a very distinct character, has no less distinctly marked phases in spain, in persia, and in india; while the renaissance period of art has its equally clearly marked local developments in italy, france, and england. hence it is impossible to draw sharp dividing lines, and the study of any one period necessitates, as we have said, a far-reaching investigation that quickly takes us in ever-widening circles far from our starting point. - soon after thorwaldsen had sent some of his sculptures from rome to copenhagen, the meadows round the north- ern city were gay with strange italian wild flowers that sprang from seeds in the hay that had been used as a packing. when the industrious coral insects have reared another island amidst the waves of the pacific, the new creation rapidly grows verdant with the palms and other vegetation from seeds that are drifted, blown, or trans- ported by birds to its shores. so in less visible and the birth and development of ornament. material fashion are ideas conveyed into new soil ready for their reception ; and we shall see, later on, how great an influence the two potent factors of war and commerce have had in this dissemination. nothing short of chinese exclusiveness can suffice to isolate a style from external influences. * a knowledge of the ornament of the past is of great value, historically and artistically. historically, because it often by its character furnishes us with the date of that whereon it is found, and tells us of the incursion of various races, a piece of samian ware dug up in kent or sussex being practically as good a proof of roman occupation as a confirmatory passage in the writings of caesar. artistically, because even though now-a-days we are little likely to re-introduce egyptian or assyrian designs into modern work, there has been a considerable revival of other styles, such as greek and the various periods of gothic ; and it seems but reasonable that if we go in for the reproduction of this past art, it should. be done thoroughly and with knowledge. hence the modern designer should be a good archaeologist, a man of wide reading, of keen observation, a lover of all that is beautiful -—alike in the whole realm of nature and in the wide field of art. the specialist should be a man whose knowledge and powers far exceed his speciality, and whose sym- pathies extend beyond its routine. for the requirements of the designer are so diverse that occasions will fre- quently arise to test his versatility, and his knowledge should be both deep and wide. it is the first test of a true artist that he should sympathise with all art. sir joshua reynolds on art study. sir joshua reynolds, in his various “discourses on art,” is very emphatic on this point; thus in his second discourse he asserts that “it is indisputably evident that a great part of every man's life must be employed in collecting materials for the exercise of genius. in- vention, strictly speaking, is little more than a new combination of those images which have been previously gathered and deposited in the memory:—nothing can come of nothing ; he who has laid up no materials can produce no combinations. the more extensive, therefore, your acquaintance is with the works of those who have excelled, the more extensive will be your powers of invention, and, what may appear still more like a para- dox, the more original will be your conceptions.” in the sixth discourse he reverts to the matter in the following words: “the greatest natural genius cannot subsist on its own stock. he who resolves never to ransack any mind but his own, will be soon reduced from mere barrenness to the poorest of all imitation ; he will be obliged to imitate himself, and to repeat what he has before often repeated. when we know the subject designed by such men, it will never be difficult to guess what kind of work is to be produced.” while not to needlessly multiply illustrations we may conclude our extracts with the following quotation from his seventh discourse : “those who, either from their own engage- ments and hurry of business, or from indolence, or from conceit and vanity, have neglected looking out of them- selves, as far as my experience and observation reaches, have from that time not only ceased to advance and - io the birth and development of ornament. improve in their performances, but have gone backward. they may be compared to men who have lived upon their principal till they are reduced to beggary and left. without resources.” in all these extracts alike it will be seen that the urgent necessity of the study of past art is most powerfully and persistently dwelt upon. it is painful to see the hurrying crowds of people who are utterly bored in our museums and galleries in the midst of things of surpassing interest, but which from a want of knowledge on their part convey no meaning to them. thousands hurry past the nineveh bas-reliefs, the halicarnassus sculptures, or the rosetta stone in the british museum, ignorant of the wealth of interest they are missing; and in the south kensington museum the great majority of people merely peep into a certain big room full of casts and then hurry out again, though this court contains the whole history of greek art, from the archaic examples through all the intermediate steps to those masterpieces of art that make the sculpture of hellas a wonder and delight throughout all time, and supplies superabundant material for hours of study. the venerable stones of westminster abbey again speak to us of the whole history of architecture in england for many centuries; but while they speak in a language clear enough to those who have studied the subject, to many it is evidently an unknown tongue, and lack of knowledge necessarily results in lack of interest." * “the study of art possesses this great and peculiar charm, that it is absolutely unconnected with the struggles and contests of ordinary life. by private interests, by political questions, men are deeply the letter killeth the spirit givet/. life. i i past art should be studied for its principles; the mere copying of old work is entirely useless. it is invalu- able for analysis, for criticism, a spur to emulation, a guide to success, and sometimes for warning; but its adaptation as a substitute for thought is an entirely false use of it. thus the greeks rarely if ever made two series of capitals alike, those of any one temple differing somewhat from those of all others; while modern writers, selecting some one beautiful example of an order, have measured it carefully into so many modules and parts, and to these a slavish and most prosaic compliance has been given; thus all originality has been crushed out, and in striving for the letter they have lost the spirit. art at second hand is already art in its decay. art that is unreal goes the way of all other shams, and history affords us many examples of this. greek art was as noble in its simplicity as any that the world has ever seen ; while roman art, inferior as it was, had yet a certain virile strength; but the debased graeco-roman is feeble, unreal, hastening to its fall. hence each healthy period of art has asserted its own individuality. local peculiarities and all specialities, such as the influence of a particular form of religious divided and set at variance; but beyond and above all such strifes, they are attracted and united by a taste for the beautiful in art. it is a taste at once engrossing and unselfish, which may be indulged without effort, and yet has the power of exciting the deepest emotions —a taste able to exercise and to gratify both the nobler and softer parts of our nature—the imagination and the judgment, love of emotion and power of reflection, the enthusiasm and the critical faculty, the senses and the reason.”—guizot. the birth and development of ornament. belief, die out; and if these causes cannot be recalled, the revival of any ancient style must be to a great extent a sham ; but all that is founded on abstract principles of art and beauty is enduring, and can never really grow old and out of date. decoration has at all times been felt to be a necessity. man liveth not by bread alone, and there is a hunger of the mind as truly as there is a hunger of the body. it is the first essential that utility be not sacrificed," but this point once secured it is a matural instinct and propensity to add to this crude material form the re- finement of decoration. wherever there is an opening for handiwork there is room also for brainwork, and this brainwork should assert itself in two different directions—first in the determination of the absolute fitness of the form to its purpose, and then in the ad- dition of such adornment as may make it attractive to the eye and the mind.” the veriest savage who carves his club or paddle is not oblivious to these two great considerations. even to him beauty of form and colour “the primary consideratioh of construction is so necessary to pure design that it almost follows that, whenever style and ornament are debased, construction will be found to have been first disre- garded ; and that those styles which are considered the purest, and the best periods of those styles, are just those wherein constructive utility has been rightly understood and most thoroughly attended to.”—redgrave. “the useful is a vehicle for the beautiful.”—owen jones. “decoration is not a substantive, but an adjective. it does not stand alone. it is not a thing of itself ; it decorates something else. it follows; it does not lead the way. it enhances; it does not originate. this is its restricted province.”—john bell. w design and decoration not equivalent terms. i is an attraction, but the stern necessities of warfare will effectually prevent his so carving his club or paddle that they will break in his hands in the stress of fight. the shield of achilles in all the beauty of its work- manship and art was not the less an effective defence against the javelins of his foes. the tempered blades of toledo or of damascus were not one whit the less keen and trenchant for the exquisite inlays that adorned them. utility without adornment is too barbarous even for south sea islanders, but in all true work we see that decoration is but the adjunct to utility. design and decoration are terms often employed as though they were equivalent, but it will be seen on a moment's reflection that the first of these covers a much greater area than the second, and may indeed include it. design is the consideration of all the necessities of the case, utilitarian and decorative, and the man who devises a more practical form of fork or spoon is as much a designer as the man who chases its surface with flowing curves and graceful ornament. hence the necessary limitation of our title. had we substituted design for ornament, our labours would have been a thousandfold increased, and stephenson, brunel, and wren would have claimed as rightfully a place as cellini or grinling gibbons. we should have found that the construction of the forth bridge had as full a right to our consideration as the mosaics of byzantium or the pottery of greece. having thus limited our field, what is left to us? to this we may at once reply, that what still remains. §º { ſ º ſº; | * )º. . tſ º: º º *] Ø %:li { º º ſ º . º ſºlº a. º º Ş. º ºl. º–|| º nº sºs nº (º º - ºſmº º º * º º! ~. º º º º º * º n *; * º º º yº. the wide field open to study. i is practically inexhaustible; and while we can but hope in so narrow a compass to deal but superficially with the fringe of the subject, we may at least enumerate some of the points that open out when we turn our thoughts to its broad consideration. the wide field of prehistoric art, the finds in the lake dwellings and burial mounds of these ancient peoples, the bizarre pottery and textile fabrics, the quaint architecture and mural decoration of ancient mexico and peru, and of ‘central america, and of the various savage tribes of the new world... the rock-hewn temples of india, the art of the followers of buddha, brahma, and siva. the art of ancient egypt and of assyria, of babylonia and of persia. the art of greece, etruria, and rome, the tomanesque and byzantine outgrowth from classic art, with their derivatives, lombardic, norman, and gothic. the renaissance. the works of the chinese, japanese, and persians, and the influence of mohammedanism in spain. and this artistic outcome, too, modified in every direction by the forms in which it is encountered in the grandest architecture and the noblest sculpture, or worked in elaborate mosaic, glowing in glorious stained glass, wrought in bronze and iron, woven at the loom, turned on the potter's wheel, carved in ivory or in marble, in wood and stone; the result of the patient labour of the lifetime of the monkish illuminator, the deft handiwork of the lace-worker, or the embroiderer, or the medallist, or the goldsmith. in all times and in all places, the love of art | in some of its manifestations delightful and in others distasteful to us, but always full of interest. – ‘i nºſitivºſi l ſiſi noi i xii?i?i$) （ l : oiſ w. symbolic and Æsthetic art, all decorative art falls naturally into one or other of two great divisions, the symbolic and the aesthetic. in the first of these the forms have been chosen primarily for their significance, while in the second they have been selected solely for their beauty; and we cannot adequately judge of any work until we clearly realize whether we must regard it as an appeal to our knowledge and understanding, or as an appeal to our taste. we must bear in mind, too, that imperfect means or in- adequate knowledge may make a given work more or less grotesque to us where the designer intended no such suggestion, and in such a case we must endeavour to realize rather what he intended to convey than to dwell upon his shortcomings. much norman figure carving, for instance, is almost laughably quaint; but the old carver had in most cases a very serious end in view, and nothing was further from his thoughts than that the ultimate result of his work would be that it should raise a smile. over the ecole des beaux arts in paris is placed the inscription—“la critique est aisée, mais l'art est difficile;” and it is in such spirit of appreciation that even the rudest work should be judged. - means are rarely imperfect, after all, when a master hand deals with them, as such an one knows what is possible with them and does not attempt to pass beyond the legitimate limits imposed. a designer, for instance, who is required to produce work that will only be printed in one or two colours will eschew a naturalistic treat- ment; and while, much of the noblest work owes much to its suggestion of nature, this natural beauty must c the birth and development of ornament. beforegone when the circumstances of the case necessarily show that the result must be a failure, for in that case the goodness of the intention does not excuse the imperfection of the result. imperfection of means, what- ever form this may take, must be frankly recognised together with the limitation it imposes. in greek art, for example, this conventionalism of treat- ment arising from imperfect means is very frankly accepted; hence in the one or two flat tints that were available in their vases—red, buff, or black—we find no attempt to absolutely reproduce nature. the figure subjects in the centres of the pateras or upon the vases are treated in a bold and flat manner, as in fig. , and the floral bands are suggestive, not imitative. the result is infinitely preferable to any laboured attempt to give a naturalistic representation with imperfect means, such as we often see in the floral groups printed in one colour on the lower class of some modern pottery goods. the materials in which a design is worked have an im- portant influence for good or evil. any one, for instance, on looking at fig. , will feel at once that “the human form divine” cannot be adequately rendered with the coarse tesserae that nevertheless serve well enough for the less ambitious aim represented by fig. . both these examples are from roman mosaic pavements. any one studying any of the numerous examples available in our museums or as seen at brading or elsewhere will, we think, feel with us that while the figure subjects intro- duced are deeply interesting they are artistically weak, and that the little cubes that have so admirably served fitness of means to end. i for the fretwork or the guilloches and other minor details are not equal to the demands upon them in the more am- bitious attempt to pourtray the wheat-crowned ceres, • rosy-rayed aurora, or great jove himself. of course it may be said that with smaller tesserae the work could be quite adequately done, but in this case the amount of tabour involved would be extreme, and it is better to recognise the fact that the means are imperfect, and not to strain them beyond just requirements. artistic work should bring out the distinctive character of the material employed, and one should never labor- iously do in an intractable material what can be much more readily performed in another. “if,” to quote o the birth and development of ornament. ruskin, one of our greatest writers, “you don't want the qualities of the substance you use, you ought to use some other substance: it can be only affectation, and desire to display your skill that lead you to employ a refractory substance, and therefore your art will all be base. glass, for instance, is eminently, in its nature, transparent. if you don't want transparency, let the glass alone. do not try to make a window look like an opaque picture, but take an opaque ground to begin with. again, marble is. eminently a solid and massive substance. unless you want mass and solidity, don’t work in marble. if you wish for lightness, take wood; if for freedom, take stucco; if for ductility, take glass. don’t try to carve feathers, or trees, or nets, or foam, out of marble. carve white limbs and broad breasts only out of that. so again, iron is eminently a ductile and tenacious substance— tenacious above all things, ductile more than most. when you want tenacity, therefore, and involved form, take iron. it is eminently made for that. it is the material given to the sculptor as the companion of marble, with a message, as plain as it can well be spoken, from the lips of the earth-mother, ‘here's for you to cut, and here's for you to hammer. shape this, and twist that. what is solid and simple, carve out; what is thin and entangled, beat out. i give you all kinds of forms to be delighted in :—fluttering leaves as well as fair bodies; twisted branches as well as open brows. the leaf and the branch you may beat and drag into their imagery: the body and brow you shall reverently touch into their imagery. and if you choose rightly and work rightly, ruskin on fit use of materials. . . what you do shall be safe afterwards. your slender leaves shall not break off in my tenacious iron, though they may be rusted a little with an iron autumn. your broad surfaces shall not be unsmoothed in my pure crystalline marble—no decay shall touch them. but if you carve in the marble what will break with a touch, or mould in the nº. & º *\ º fº - º - ºiſºlº º - - **** t ºfflº º i-t- fig. . metal what a stain of rust or verdigris will spoil, it is your fault—not mine.’” many other general principles might be brought for- ward were we writing a treatise on the practice of de- sign, but as our aim at present is somewhat different—a consideration of the ornament of the past rather than a the birth and development of ornament. guide to the future—we now forbear, and we do so the more willingly because, knowing their value and interest, we shall have opportunity from time to time to elucidate all necessary points by reference to the art of the past. centuries. while therefore the reader escapes for the time being any further preamble, and finds himself at last fairly launched on the consideration of the art of egypt, assyria, or greece, we shall not ourselves be con- tent to merely enumerate the various features as they come before us, but shall also indicate in what way they appear to us to illustrate and elucidate the leading laws. that underlie all sound work, not resting content with being pleased, but endeavouring to find out how it is that certain forms give this pleasure, and therefore appear and reappear almost throughout the whole field of study. * chapter ii. the antiquity and commercial greatness of egypt—chronological details and sketch of history—royal jealousy of the fame of past sovereigns—the ruins of karnak, thebes, and luxor— the mural paintings—authorities to consult—general spirit of egyptian art—its religious character—archaic and archeistic work—domination of the priesthood over art—repetition and alternation of simple units—the lotus—deification of the nile —the indian lotus or sacred bean—the papyrus—columns simulating bundles of stems—colossal figure columns—carya- tides—sacred animals — the winged globe – sun-worship — massive character of egyptian work—obelisks—cleopatra's needle—rise of the babylonian empire—the assyrians—dis- coveries of layard and others—assyrian art—arrowhead in- scriptions — colour — the sacred tree — colossal bulls—the phoenicians—influence of commerce and war upon art. from the earliest period of which we have any record, egypt was far in advance of the rest of the world in civilization, and a thousand years before the christian era it was a prosperous state, trafficking with all the then known world," of great commercial influence and warlike * in the book of proverbs we read of the “fine linen of egypt,” and in ezekiel again of “fine linen with broidered work” from the same source. daniel writes of “the precious things of egypt,” and many other allusions to the great commercial prosperity and skill of the people may readily be found in the bible and in other writings of ancient authors. some mummy cloth before us as we write is of excellent texture, and as sound in fabric as the day it was made in the far-off past. the birth and development of ornament. power, and the seat of knowledge of all kinds. the city of heliopolis was the great university of the ancient world, and thither flocked the scholars of all the surrounding peoples." in architecture and in art egypt was no less distinguished. our knowledge of egyptian ornament is almost en- tirely derived from the architecture of the land. mummy cases, pottery, glass and beadwork, furniture, and some few other means of information on the subject are open to us; but these are strictly subordinate sources, and even many of these are of architectural type, the pendant of a necklace being often of the form of a temple, while in the british museum may be seen several small vases that are direct imitations in form and ornament of the columns, lotus or palm-crowned, so characteristic of egyptian architecture. abundant examples of grand architectural work may be found throughout the valley of the nile for a distance of more than a thousand miles. it is foreign to our present purpose to give anything like the history of egypt, but all the temples bear the names of their builders, and by this means much valuable chronological knowledge is gained, and it is manifest that the study of the art of this ancient people is rendered immensely more interesting by this knowledge. we may therefore indicate some few salient points. the so that the writer of the book of kings ( kings iv. ) could give no more graphic idea of the wisdom of solomon than to say that it excelled “all the wisdom of egypt”; while moses, the great leader of israel, we are specially told “was learned in all the wisdom of the egyptians.” the great egyptian temple-builders. history of egypt can be traced back for over four thousand years before the dawn of our era." from about b.c. to the seat of government was chiefly at memphis, from to , the period of egypt's greatest splendour, it was generally at thebes, though in •each period the extension of the kingdom, revolution, or disaster in war, led to various changes in the seat of government. the magnificent temples at thebes, karnak, and luxor were chiefly built by the monarchs of the eighteenth dynasty, b.c. to , ahmes, amen- hotep, and others. rameses i. (b.c. to ) was also a great temple-builder at karnak, memphis, and else- where—an example that was followed by his son rameses ii, otherwise rameses the great, though we must not accept his cartouche upon these great buildings as an ‘entirely sufficient proof, as he was not above the mean- ness of erasing from older structures the names of their founders and substituting his own.” the great rock- hewn temple of abou-simbel in nubia is of this period. this pharaoh was the oppressor of the captive children of israel, and their labours were largely utilised in his great * we naturally associate abraham in our minds with a very early period, yet at the time of his sojourn in the land egypt had been a great nation over a thousand years. * from the same feeling of jealousy of the grandeur and powers of his predecessors, the chinese emperor tsin-chi-hoang-ti demolished, a.d. , every building of importance, so that practically nothing now remains in that ancient land of any higher antiquity. we can perhaps realize this better if we imagine a decree going forth next month that windsor castle, westminster abbey, all our old cathedrals, and everything in fact of any historic value was to be ruthlessly de- stroyed. the birth and development of ornament. works. shishak, who is also referred to in the bible, was an alien, and from this period, b.c. , egypt was almost entirely under foreign sway, ethiopian or assyrian, until psammetichus, b.c. , came to the throne, and achieved the independence of the land from the foreigner. the ancient cities were restored, and much excellent artistic. work was produced. in b.c. the persians subdued the country, and for more than a century egypt was but a province of persia. the persians in turn were van- quished, b.c. , by alexander the great, and the once mighty egypt again exchanged masters. later on it. became a roman province, and on the break up of the roman state was overrun by the arabs, then passed into the hands of the turks, a.d. , and is now garrisoned by british soldiers. an altogether wonderful history, full of striking pictures and contrasts." the great temples of egypt grew for centuries, and by the labours of generations of monarchs were made what they ultimately became. the magnificent temple at karnak was thus growing for two thousand years. its erection had already commenced when joseph was sold into egypt, and thereafter all that wealth, skill, art, and the sovereign will of successive monarchs could command was lavished upon it.” . as for instance, but two out of hundreds, the little ark bearing the infant moses on the bosom of the nile, and the same current. bearing on its surface the canadian voyageurs speeding to khartoum. * “from the time of joseph to the christian era, through the whole period of the jewish history and of the ancient world, the splendour of the earth kept pouring into that space for years.” —stanley. in one of its halls, a very small portion of the immense > egyptian mural decoration. in close proximity to karnak, and, like it, within the area once covered by “hundred-gated ”’’ thebes, are the almost equally grand ruins of luxor. all early art deals with profile only, the figures of men or animals being always rendered in side view, whatever the action may be. we may see this very well shown in the greek example already given in fig. , and it is equally char- acteristic of egyptian, assyrian, and other early work. all the walls and columns of these temples are covered with brilliantly coloured figure subjects, figures of the gods or of the pharaoh who built the monument in ques- tion, with representations of his warlike prowess and other incidents that redounded to his glory, the monarch, as in most early work, being represented by a figure much larger than any of the subordinate actors in the various scenes depicted. the hieroglyphics again, though pri- marily inscriptions, greatly aid in the general decorative effect from their quaint animal or other forms and from the richness of their colouring, a richness that yet re- mains practically unimpaired in the dry climate of egypt. on these and other monuments, and especially in the tombs, we get a wonderfully interesting series of illustra- tions of the whole life of the people, their religious cere- monies, their daily work and play. we see the potter shaping the clay, the musicians with harp and pipe, the shoemaker sewing his work together, the mason dressing: fabric, there is ample space to deposit the cathedral of our lady of paris. * “thebes, where through each her hundred portals wide two hundred charioteers their coursers guide.”—homer. the birth and development of ornament. the block of stone, the progress of the banquet, the game of ball, the fisherman with his net, barbed spear, or rod and line, and all the labours of the husbandman, such as -sowing, ploughing, reaping, treading out the corn with oxen, plucking the figs, watering the vines, and gathering in the vintage. elsewhere we see the glass-blower at the furnace, the conſectioner making sweetmeats, or the brickmaker at work, while standing by the latter is the taskmaster with formidable whip. all these and many more may be seen in rosellini's magnificent work on the monuments of egypt, published in three folio volumes at pisa in – . the first deals with the monuments of the pharaohs, the second with the civil monuments, and the third with the religious worship of the egyptians. this may be seen in the library at south kensington museum, and elsewhere; but to those who find any diffi- culty in seeing it, wilkinson’s “ancient egyptians' will prove a very good substitute, as it is very freely and excellently illustrated.” - “i monumenti dell'egitto e della nubia, disegnati della spedi- zione scientificolitteraria toscana in egitto: distribuiti in ordine di materie, interpretati ed illustrati dal dottore ippolito rosellini.” the text is published separately in an octavo volume, and is in italian; but the illustrations are themselves so graphic, that it is a imatter of very little moment whether one's knowledge of the language is up to full standard or not; the subjects tell their own story by whatever name they are called. * wilkinson, sir j. g., “the manners and customs of the ancient egyptians, including their private life, government, laws, arts, manufactures, religion, agriculture, and early history, derived from a comparison of the paintings, sculptures, and monuments still -existing, with the accounts of ancient authors.” the following may influence of religion upon art. , the general spirit of egyptian art was profoundly religious and symbolic. all was under the dominion of the priesthood, and was bound with rigour to adhere to certain orthodox requirements. the influence of religion upon art, pictorial and decorative, must not be overlooked. throughout egyptian work its claims are paramount. its influence in greece was most potent; in all the peoples of islam its power was supreme ; the symbolism of the . also be consulted:—gau’s “antiquités de la nubie, ou monumens inédits des bords du nil, situés entre la première et la seconde cata- racte, dessinés et mesurés en . ouvrage faisant suite au grand ouvrage de la commission d'egypte.” large folio. paris.—“de- scription de l'egypte, ou recueil des observations et des recherches, qui ont été faites en egypte pendant l'expédition de l'armée fran- çaise. publié parles ordres de sa majesté l'empereur napoléon le. grand.” the great work of the french expedition, treating of the antiquities, arts, natural history, and modern state of egypt. vols. folio, atlas folio, and elephant. paris.-canina's “l’archi- tettura antica, descritta e dimostrata coi monumenti,” vols., royal folio, containing engraved plates of the famous monuments and edifices of greece, rome, and egypt.—fergusson’s “history of archi- tecture in all countries, from the earliest times to the present day,” gives most interesting material, and may be consulted freely for all periods of art, as may also the excellent “grammar of ornament’’ of owen jones. the great book of prisse d’avennes should also be seen. this valuable work was published under the auspices of the french government. its title is as follows: “ histoire de l'art egyptien, d'après les monuments, depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'a la domination romaine.” there are two folio volumes, con- taining plates, a large number of which are executed in chromo- lithography. these treat of the architecture, sculpture, paintings, designs, and industrial arts of egypt. the to volume of text, with numerous woodcuts interspersed, forms a complete history of egyptian art. the price of the book was originally £ , a sum that. indicates that no expense was spared in making it as perfect as possible by the enlightened government that honours itself by the production of such a work. - the birth and development of ornament. mediaeval glass painter and carver is based almost entirely upon it. one cannot understand the art of any people without a recognition of this fact, and a knowledge of how much or how little they allowed their lives and actions to be swayed by their belief." all the grandest work that has ever been done springs from man's sense of the need to propitiate some greater power outside him- self; hence the glorious temple of athene parthenos, in which all that was noblest in art was dedicated to the virgin goddess, hence the glorious minsters of mediaeval days that speak so eloquently of the piety of our fore- fathers, hence the splendour of the temple of solomon and the grandeur of luxor and karnak. it may be pointed out that in these latter the exploits of the earthly monarch occupy a very prominent position; but we must remember that the belief in the divinity that was held to hedge about a king and that made him the lord's anointed was emphatically held in ancient egypt, where the monarch was deemed to be specially beloved of the gods and their vicegerent on earth. great osiris, therefore, was honoured in the person of his pontiff and earthly representative. this domination of the priesthood, however, cramped the artistic faculty, as certain types were alone permiss- ible under this religious censorship, and it was penal and * benham's dictionary of religion may very advantageously, be :studied by the student, as it gives a sufficient account of each cult to enable the reader to see a meaning in what otherwise would in lmany cases be obscure, without overburdening him with theological refinements. simple character of egyptian decoration. heretic to deviate from them. hence even in the period of highest culture the archaic treatment was adhered to, though doubtless those who did such noble work under these hard limitations would have produced still finer had they not thus been fettered. one point, slight in itself, but characteristic, may be mentioned in illustration of this rigid conservatism—the prescribed position for the representation of walking was that the left leg should be the forward one. amongst all the hundreds of statues and paintings, no example has ever yet been seen of a man advancing with his right foot in advance of the left | on the mummy wrappings, cartonnage, or coffins, the ornament, apart from various religious emblems, is or- dinarily of a very simple character, being chiefly bands, an inch or so wide, of simple floral forms, each row or band being quite independent in treatment of those adjacent to it. this continuous repetition of simple units is a very marked characteristic of egyptian ornament. the lotus flower, or its bud, or its fruit, or detached petals of it, are the most favourite forms. repetition as a principle in design is very freely met with in the ornament of all peoples, as there is a certain charm in the regular sequence of units, even though these units in themselves have very little to commend them. one sees this even in the commonest wall paper or chintz of to-day, and it may be equally well seen in the diapering * archaic work is the early and imperfect work, the immature production of beginners. the deliberate imitation of this early work, with all its shortcomings, should be distinguished by the term archeistic. - the birth and development of ornament. of gothic work, the egg-and-tongue and other mouldings. in classic work, and, in fact, throughout the art of every period. fig. is a very good illustration of this, as the richness of effect in the indian things therein represented is entirely produced by the repetition over their surfaces of a few very simple forms. other characteristic instances may be seen in figs. , , , , , , . though ordinarily it is only the simpler forms that submit happily to this repetition, the egyptians, in their colossal figures of the king and their avenues of sphinxes, did not scruple to avail themselves of it, and, it must be admitted, with grand effect. alternation is an agreeable variation on the absolute repetition of a single form. the greeks were well aware of this, and we see examples of it in much of their work, as, for example, in the anthemion patterns, figs. , , and we may see other good illustrations of it in fig. , an assyrian tile design, and figs. and . the egyptians made a considerable use of diaper pat- terms, but they were always based on a very simple geo- metrical foundation, ordinarily in chequers, like a chess- board, and are quite wanting in the richness of treatment that many later styles have developed. z the dull mechanical uniformity of machine repetition is hostile to the best art, and we must here point out that all the egyptian examples we have ever seen illustrated in any books on the subject are drawn far too carefully and regularly. in real egyptian work, as any one may satisfy themselves by a visit to the british museum, the repetition of the forms is ordinarily not at all exact. % * - z/ º ºr- &º - - % - - // /// zºº ^ -- -- --~~ %| ºº § % % wº sº- | % º - º % ºil. sº % º § wº º/n} º º :^* | ||| | - | | | - | c | r- | # ſ - - |// % - % --- % | | | % %| | - wº-wº / - % | | d ! the birth and development of ornament. the lotus, the beautiful lily of the nile, is one of the most characteristic forms in egyptian ornament. it was dedicated to isis and osiris, and was also an emblem of fertility from its association with the great river that, by its annual overflow, brought plenty to the land, and made egypt the granary of the ancient world. this mysterious and life-sustaining river, flowing they knew not from whence, they deified as hapi, the hidden one, and worshipped as the giver of all good. at the period of inundation great festival was made, sacrifices offered, and hymns of praise chanted to the beneficent being who poured in rich abundance his blessing on the thirsty land. the following lines are a portion of one of these poems of rejoicing :- “hail to thee, o nile ! - coming in peace, giving life unto egypt, and, without ceasing, watering the land. lover of good, bestower of corn, offerings are made to thee, oxen are slain to thee, - shine forth in glory, o nile !” thus the lotus, from its beauty and its intimate con- nection with the nile, became the symbol of hapi, the life-giver, and entered freely into the decoration of almost everything. the columns of the temples had ordinarily their capitals in the form of the lotus bud or of the fully expanded flower, and we find the same beautiful symbol again in the pottery, jewellery, and, in fact, everything susceptible of decoration." we learn from various old writers that the lotus was also an article of food. “the egyptians,” says herodotus, for example, “who * the birth and development of ornament. parison becomes very easy. botanically, the egyptian plant is the nymphaea lotus, and the sacred bean the nelumbium speciosum. the paper reed or papyrus, the cyperus papyrus of science, is also freely introduced in egyptian work. it may be seen growing luxuriantly at kew in the same house as the lotus and sacred bean. as the lotus sym- bolised the satisfaction of bodily wants, so the papyrus was an emblem of the provision of sustenance for the mind, since it supplied the paper upon which all records were made. many of these mss. still exist in almost perfect condition. strabo, pliny, and other old writers give a full description of the method of preparing the paper from the plant. - in the great hall of the temple of karmak column forty-two feet high and nine feet in diameter are copied from the papyrus, and their capitals are the unopened bud, while at their bases are conventionalised representations of the scales met with in that position in the real plant. the stem of the papyrus is three-angled, in order that it may resist the pressure of the current, and in all papyrus columns the egyptians always carefully preserved the three lines down their shafts that represented these edges. often the columns are composed of eight or more of these reeds bound together,' and in this case a series of hori- zontal bands just below the capital represent the cord that binds them together. wood of any considerable size * a very good example of one of these clustered columns may be seen in the british museum. it is from the temple of luxor. * ii z º º º ºg á º º % * º “… jº – lº zºº. % Ø % | º % * % & % % º % º º º z % º Ø º º º Ø £ % ; Ø zººzºº ºw. º zºº - º % º º º º º . º º º % % |-- % #:= | % % Ø - % Ø f º z | º Ż % warious fortms of fret-patterns. the birth and / levelopment of ornament. and strength was very rare in egypt, so that bundles of papyrus tied together were often used instead, and these makeshift posts were gravely copied in stone, and became the support of the massive architrave reared upon them." the columns of the central avenue in this hall at karnak are yet more gigantic, being sixty-six feet high and twelve feet in diameter; and as these may be considered to be still finer and more mature plants than those in the side avenues, the architect has quaintly indicated the fact by representing the capitals, not as buds, but as fully ex- panded. in the ptolemaic period we find a considerable use of the palm leaf on the capitals and elsewhere. another marked characteristic of egyptian work was the great use made of human and animal forms. the façade of the hall of columns already referred to shows us colossal figures thirty feet high represented rameses as osiris, holding the flail and crook as emblems of his power to punish the evil, and to protect and guide the good. the whole weight of the architrave is supported on the square pillars immediately behind these figures. in greek architecture the caryatid figures actually sup- port on their heads the superstructure, but the egyptian architect shrank from suggesting such a duty for his figures at once royal and divine. the best example of these anthropomorphic pillars is one of the horizontal blocks over a doorway at karnak is over forty feet long and five feet square. the great quarries of syene, from whence the materials for thebes and memphis were brought, were one hundred and thirty miles from the former city, and almost. seven hundred from the latter! - human and animal forms. seen in the erechtheum at athens. when male figures' are introduced, they are ordinarily shown as bearing their burden at the expense of considerable muscular effort. such figures are termed atlantes or telamones." female figures, termed caryatides, are represented as tranquil and quiescent, bearing their burden with ease and quiet dignity. as our field of study is a very large one, we can scarcely stay to explain the various technical terms that arise; but students will find either fairholt's “dic- tionary of art” or gwilt’s “encyclopædia of architec- ture "excellent books of reference. both are freely illus- trated. the latter has over fifteen hundred figures. the isis-headed columns of the temples at dendera, edfou, and elsewhere may also be referred to. the various deities represented are almost invariably given the heads of animals; thus anubis has the head of a jackal, thoth that of the ibis, khnum that of the ram, ra that of the hawk.” we also find figures with the heads of the ape, lion, wolf, dog, cat, and many other creatures. it is impossible to assign any precedence of power or dignity amongst these, as each principal city had its local group of divinities. several other animals, such as the bull, cow, shrew-mouse, goose, crocodile, beetle, and eel, were sacred as the incarnations of various * “if the end of art is to please, the impression produced by figures standing in uncomfortable positions, supporting weights which would crush them in reality, is, to say the least, very unpleasing, and therefore must be artistically untrue.”—mayeux’s “decorative com- position,” a book from which the student may derive some useful hints. * ra being the sun-god, bears on his head the circular solar disk. sun-worship. i shadow is death.” the rig-veda is of unknown anti- quity. hindu tradition gives b.c., or nearly , years ago, as the date of its composition. the vedic cult was in force long before the rise of buddhism in the sixth century b.c. professor max muller, an authority of immense weight on such matters, thinks it cannot well be more modern than b.c. the israelites, who came much beneath the influence of the egyptians, were repeatedly warned against this form of idolatry. manasseh, we read in kings xxi. , “wor- shipped all the host of heaven,” and in chapter xxiii. we read of the idolatrous priests of judah “that burned incense unto baal, to the sun, and to the moon.” other interesting confirmatory passages may be found in kings xvii. and xxiii. , jeremiah viii. and xix. , zephaniah i. , and acts vii. . one of the most marked features of egyptian art is massiveness. the figure of rameses the great prostrate before his royal palace-temple is twenty-two feet from shoulder to shoulder, and a toe is three feet long; the pyramid of khufu’ covers over thirteen acres of ground. herodotus tells us that its construction necessitated the continuous labour of a hundred thousand men for twenty years, while the obelisks carved from one solid block of stone are in their degree as wonderful. there are no less than twelve of these egyptian obelisks in rome, the as for example—“lest thou lift up thine eyes unto heaven, and when thou seest the sun and the moon and the stars, even all the lost of heaven, should be driven to worship them.” b.c. – . the birth and development of ornament. largest being a gigantic monolith of red granite one hundred and six feet high. it originally stood in front of the temple of the sun at thebes, but was removed to rome by the emperor constantius. another of these was brought by augustus caesar after his victory at actium. it came from the temple of the sun at helio- polis. the well-known obelisk in the centre of the piazza. of st. peter's cathedral was brought to rome by cali- gula. our cwn so-called cleopatra's needle was one of a pair that were set up by the great temple builder thothmes iii. about b.c. at on, or the city of the sun, better known perhaps under its greek name of like significance, heliopolis. the hieroglyphics upon it point to its consecration to solar worship, and to these, two centuries later, rameses added others commemorative of some of his victories. its association with cleopatra is a comparatively modern affair, as it was not removed by her to her royal capital at alexandria till some sixteen centuries afterwards. some eighteen centuries again after this, a.d. , it was again removed to grace the capital of another royal lady. sic transit gloria mundi. the companion obelisk, after a similar break of the jour- ney for centuries at alexandria, has travelled from helio- polis to new york. when the assyrian kings came into contact with egypt, they seem to have been greatly im- pressed with these obelisks; so that when ashur-bani-pal, the sardanapalus of the greek historians, invaded egypt, he carried away two of these massive monoliths from thebes to nineveh. no traces of them have been found, and it was probable that they were broken up during one rise of the babylonian state. . of the sieges of nineveh, though it is quite possible that they may yet be found, as much excavating still remains to be done. it is recorded in the ninevite inscriptions that they were covered with hieroglyphs, and were es- teemed as very curious and valuable works of art. cleo- patra's needle is sixty-nine feet high, while that of luxor in the place de la concorde, in paris, is a little over seventy-two. - this feature of massive bulk is characteristic of much. early work: in illustration of this we need only refer to the great chryselephantine statue of zeus, the colossus of rhodes, or in our own land to the mysterious stone circles of avebury and stonehenge. egyptian art, after a duration of centuries, finally declined on the accession of the ptolemies, the greek influences then introduced being altogether alien in spirit. to those that had hitherto ruled supreme. in some work of this period the style is wholly greek; while in one example that has come under our notice, the capital is a strange compound of the lotus and the acanthus. all knowledge of the rise of the babylonian empire is. lost in the mists of far-reaching antiquity. the earliest kings of babylon that are mentioned in the inscriptions. are entenna, who reigned about b.c. , and sargon i., who dates approximately b.c. . this kingdom gra- dually extended northwards along the tigris, and ashur, nineveh," and other cities were built; but about b.c. . “out of that land went forth asshur and builded nineveh ‘’ (gen. x. ). the birth and development of ornament. this northern extension of the old babylonian empire re- volted, and not only secured its independence as the king- dom of assyria, but turned its arms against babylonia and subdued it. almost constant conflicts were waged, thowever, with varying success; but into these details it is foreign to our present purpose to go, as the assyrians were for centuries victorious, and became the great domi- nant race of western asia. in the year b.c., ashur- nasir-pal, one of the greatest of the assyrian monarchs, ascended the throne, and under the reign of this great warrior and law-giver the arts greatly flourished. sargon ii., b.c. - , built the great palace of khorsabad, of which so many interesting relics have been brought to the british museum, while his son sennacherib erected a still grander palace at kyonjik. his son, again, esarhaddon, was a great builder, and the excavations at nimroud and nineveh have revealed much of his work. about b.c. the medes and babylonians invaded assyria, and after a two years' siege of the capital, nineveh was destroyed, and the once mighty empire was divided amongst its many adversaries and passed out of existence. the assyrians were ruthless conquerors," and in their sculp- tures we see abundant proof of their prowess and their cruelty. the measure that they had meted out to the men of babylon, of judah, of israel, of syria, egypt, in the prophecy of nahum we read, “woe to the bloody city " hence after his declaration that the city shall be destroyed by fire, he adds that all that hear of the final downfall of nineveh shall clap their hands in glad rejoicing, “for upon whom hath not thy wicked- ness passed continually ” ” } the fall of wineveh. , media, and phoenicia, at last became their own lot, and nineveh disappeared in blood and flame and righteous, vengeance, and was for centuries but a name. - “to my soul the days of old return : i breathe the air of the young world: i see her giant sons like to a gorgeous pageant in the sky of summer's evening, cloud on fiery cloud thronging unheaped : before me rise the walls of the titanic city: brazen gates, towers, temples, palaces, enormous piled; imperial nineveh, the earthly queen in all her golden pomp i see her now ; her swarming streets; her splendid festivals; her sprightly damsels to the timbrels' sound airily bounding, and their anklets chime; her lusty sons, like summer morning gay; her warriors stern ; her rich robed rulers grave; i see her halls brightly at midnight shine, i hear the music of her banquetings. again i look: and lo! before the walls unnumber'd hosts in flaming panoply; chariots like fire, horsemen with flashing arms ' i hear the shouts of battle—like the waves of a tumultuous sea they roll and dash! in flame and smoke the imperial city sinks : her walls are gone : her palaces are dust: within and around her lies the desert: oh, how like shadows have all passed away!” the entire disappearance of nineveh arose from the materials employed. while the egyptians and greeks built their temples of granite, marble, and such-like durable material, the assyrians built with sun-dried brick, and only used alabaster, marble, and kiln-burnt. * atherstone. the birth and development of ornament. tiles to a slight extent as ornamental details. the roofs and pillars were of wood; and when the place was given to the flames, the upper walls soon fell in and buried everything. the imperfectly burnt bricks reverted in time to their natural clay, and for something like two thousand years these mounds and heaps have grown grass and corn, and been the sites of peasant dwellings, while the palaces of mighty kings were buried beneath. “those golden pallaces, those gorgeous halles, with fourniture superflouslie faire, those statlie courts, those sky-encountring walles evanish all like vapours in the aire.” " in the year , m. botta, a frenchman, made several excavations on the site of the ancient city and at khor- sabad, a few miles north of nineveh; while a year or two later layard began investigations in a great mound at nimroud, some miles to the south. m. botta was suc- cessful in finding the palace of sargon, and sent off many interesting sculptures to paris ; while our countryman, layard, discovered at nimroud the palaces of ashur- nasir-pal, of shalmaneser ii., and of esarhaddon, and dispatched a goodly store of material of great historic and artistic interest to the british museum. later on, at kyonjik, the site of ancient nineveh, many other most interesting discoveries, associated with sennacherib, ashur-bani-pal, and other monarchs, were made. of the palace of sennacherib, “no less than seventy-one halls, chambers, and passages were explored, whose walls, almost without an exception, were panelled with slabs of * stirling, . : the fall of babylon. sculptured alabaster, recording the wars, the triumphs, and other great deeds of the assyrian king.” thus wrote layard, and he adds that in this vast and magnificent building the bas-reliefs would, if placed in one line, have reached nearly two miles. though the biblical account itself gives many details that indicate a marked similarity between the great buildings of solomon and those of the sovereigns of nineveh, josephus adds a very character- istic feature when he states that solomon built some of these with stones of ten cubits in length, and wainscotted the walls with other stones that were sawn. this latter clause at once recalls to our minds the marble slabs on the palace walls of nineveh. in , rawlinson com- menced excavations at babylon, some three hundred miles to the south, and in the great mound at birs nimroud found the remains of the palace of king nebuchadnezzar. since this period several other explorers have been busily at work, and sculptures, tiles, and written records of immense interest have been unearthed. after the destruction of nineveh the babylonian em- pire lasted some seventy years, but in the reign of belshazzar, cyrus, b.c. , conquered the country, and it remained beneath the persian sway until alexander the great destroyed the persian empire and brought all beneath the dominion of greece. the persians succeeded to the arts as well as the empire of the babylonians, and their sovereigns maintained palaces in babylon, though their capital city was at first passargadae. this was later on supplanted by the far more magnificent perse- polis, the regal residence of darius, xerxes, and other the birth and development of ornament. monarchs. the british museum has acquired by the labours of mr. cecil smith an excellent series of examples from the magnificent sculptures of persepolis, most in- teresting artistically, and also as illustrating many pas- sages in the bible and in the writings of hercdotus. egyptian art, we have seen, quickly reached a point when no further progress in it was possible. it became bound in the iron fetters of a rigid conventionalism im- posed upon it by the priesthood, and certain canons were laid down and adhered to for many centuries from which neither the representations of gods nor men might differ. no healthy art growth, therefore, was possible to them within these limitations, though we see by their repre- sentations of the lower animals—of dogs, birds, and the like—that there was a greater artistic power in them than the tyranny under which they were held would ever allow them scope for. in the art of assyria, on the con- trary, there was abundant life and liberty; and though we rarely, if ever, find it except as ministering to the pomp of the monarch, so far as it goes it is full of power. the king plunges with vengeful cruelty his javelin into the eyes of his suppliant foe, pours out libations to his gods, or engages with fierce energy in the chase, and in every case the story is admirably told. in the lion hunts we see the great savage animals creeping with stealthy steps for the final spring, dragging their wounded bodies, arr; …transfixed, along the ground, or clutching at the chariot wheels in intensity of despairing rage; while in others the relaxed limbs testify that death has ended their sufferings. a lioness that drags herself slowly characteristics of assyrian art. along, her hinder limbs paralysed by an arrow, while she snarls defiance at her foes, lives especially in our memory. the attitudes of the animals are varied in the extreme. the huge hunting dogs are also finely por- trayed, animals of most ferocious aspect. no bear hunt of snyders or stag hunt of landseer could give more fully the spirit and resolution of the animals than we find them rendered in these ancient slabs, the sculptured decorations of the long buried palaces of ancient assyria, and no other antique remains can at all compare with them for vigour and power. the representations of the chase of the wild bull or the antelope are equally graphic, the expression of art free to do its uttermost, and ever seeking its inspiration where alone it should be sought— not in rules and formulae, but in the presence of living nature. the egyptian artists undoubtedly attained to a certain stately dignity of repose; while the assyrians, in trying for much more than this, naturally made some failures, but they were the failures of honest endeavour; and while the art of thebes was art-death, that of kyonjik was art-life. it has been held that the art of assyria was merely an off-shoot of that of egypt; but while the assyrians undoubtedly borrowed some ideas from the valley of the nile, the architecture, sculpture, and decoration of the palace-temples of nineveh and babylon had a strong in- dividuality of its own. the assyrians, like the romans later on, were not themselves an artistic people, but they were prompt in utilising the art of others, and they largely employed foreign artists in their buildings, much e the birt/, and development of ornament. of the assyrian work being produced by phoenicians or egyptians, sometimes as honoured guests, but more fre- quently as captives of war. some of the ivory carvings found at nimroud have distinctly egyptian ornamen- tation—a proof of an intimate connection between egypt and assyria at a very early period—while others bore phoenician inscriptions. these may be seen in the british museum. one interesting evidence of the intimate political inter- course between egypt and assyria is that amongst the collection of clay seals found by layard at kyonjik is one with two impressions of royal signets, one being that of sennacherib and the other that of sabaco. the treaty of peace or other state document to which this attestation was attached has perished ages ago, but the clay seal still remains to testify to this association of the two monarchs. this sabaco is the “so, king of egypt,” of the bible record. from the earliest ages of which we possess any records, the employment of inscriptions has been a conspicuous feature—a feature extending chronologically from the childhood of the world throughout the intervening cen- turies to the present day; and geographically from the mysterious buildings of bygone races in mexico and peru, to the work of the teeming millions of hindustan, and yet more distant china. such inscriptions are found not alone on the stately monuments reared at the command of some ambitious ruler, or on the massive tomb that marks his resting-place, but on all the multiplicity of objects that come beneath the hand of the art-worker. º º º º ºº hº: º º º t º º º º ºft ºf: ººzºº º: asºn. º sº &º §: º º n º º º ſº º xºlºſ º : ; º | : f º - º: |ſº º c º º §§ | - º: i º | | º º º sº§ º º * º º jº s º: º eº.É? º: £& * nterlacings from warious sources. the bir//, and development of ornament. all inscriptions for our present purpose may be divided into two broad and distinct classes—those that are primarily decorative, and those that are not. a great many of the inscriptions that we come across, we need scarcely point out, are thoroughly and exclusively utili- tarian in their character and motive, mere statements of facts that it is held desirable that the reader should be made acquainted with, but neither possessing nor pro- fessing artistic merit. as an instance of these, we may quote one from a well-known building in the metropolis. the style of the building is classic, and in the pediment, where in a greek temple the noblest sculpture would be placed, we read, “corn exchange, erected , pursuant. to act of parliament, th geo. iv. cap. .” the long lines of arrowhead characters, rich and quaint in effect as they are, that run across the sculptures of rhorsabad and kyonjik belong to the former of our two. classes; for decorative in appearance as the characters. appear to us, the inscriptions, when translated, are the matter-of-fact 'records of victories won, catalogues of besieged and conquered cities, enumerations of van- quished peoples, details of the spoil of war, or per- chance the marrative of the successes of the royal hunter, whose achievements in the battle-field, or in pursuit of the wild beasts, are represented in the sculptured slab. across which the long lines of cuneiform writing are thrown. our illustration, fig. , gives the name and titles of king darius, from a cylinder in the british museum. in the same way the hieroglyphic inscriptions sir thomas herbert, in his book entitled “some yeares travels. ' "Điji |- . ae -，----|×ſae; §§§§§§ |- · the birtſ, and development of ornament. on the temples of egypt were not primarily decorative in motive, however decorative they are actually in effect. their distinct intention was to inform the reader, and to appeal to the mind rather than to the eye, though to the great bulk of mankind nowadays the forms convey no meaning, and only impress us from their quaintness of form and the brilliancy of their colouring, and one might therefore very maturally, but erroneously, regard them as being essentially decorative in intention. fig. , the name and titles of amunothph ii., affords us a good idea of their general character. - the assyrians made a very great use of colour in their - architecture, sculpture, and wherever else in decoration it was practicable to employ it, and from the remains of gold leaf abundantly found amongst the ruins it is evident that a profuse use of gilding was also made. the jews had much intercourse with assyria, and any one read- ing carefully the description of the temple of solomon— a building contemporary with the best period of assyrian art—will really derive a very good idea of much of the into africa and asia,” the edition of being before us as we write, says of the arrowhead : “how inconceivable soever these characters. be to us, yet doubtless in the age these were engraven they were both legible and intelligible, and not to be imagined that they were there placed either to amuse or to delude the spectators. i have thought fit to insert a few of these for better demonstration, which, neverthe- less, whiles they cannot be read, will in all probability, like the mene tekel, without the help of a daniel hardly be interpreted; ” a sur- mise that the skill of many learned scholars has since rendered entirely out of date. for centuries the world has evidently been on the verge of the discoveries that the excavations of layard, botta, and others have only in these latter days brought to light. the temple built by solomon. detail of the palaces of nineveh. solomon too, like the assyrian monarchs, availed himself of phoenician aid ; the men of hiram, king of tyre, cutting cedar trees in abun- dance, and providing a man “skilful to work in gold, and in silver, in brass, in iron, in stone, and in timber, in purple, in blue, and in fine linem, and in crimson; also to grave any manner of graving.” portions of charred cedar beams from the roofs of the palaces are abundantly found in the excavations in assyria, and in the ninevite inscriptions the king is described as going, as the men of tyre did for solomon, to the forests of lebanon for the cedar required for his palace. solomon, we read, ceiled his temple with cedar, and “overlaid also the house, the beams, the posts, and the walls thereof with gold *; and the beams had “set thereon palm trees and chains.” these palm trees were doubtless the radiate form that is termed the anthemion; while the chains would be the interlacing circle pattern known as the guilloche. both these forms may be very well seen in fig. , a piece of pure assyrian work from a tile now in the british museum. the cherubim have been described by com- mentators as mystic figures having the head of a man conjoined to the body of an ox or lion, and having the wings of an eagle; and therefore of the same mature as the colossal figures so abundantly met with in the palaces of assyria. “the molten sea,” supported on figures of bulls, and the brim of it adorned “with flowers of lilies,” is another illustration, and that these flowers of lilies were doubtless the conventional lotus we may very reason- ably conclude. the birth and development of ornament. the colours found in the ruins of the assyrian temples are blue, red, yellow, white, green, and black. all these are pigments having a mineral base. if they employed others having a vegetable origin, the more fugitive nature of these has led to their entire decay. one con- spicuous feature in assyrian ornament is the very strong black outline: this may be seen very well in fig. . the assyrians delighted in strong contrasts, the colours in the tile referred to being pure white and dense black on a buff ground; and they were also very partial, as here, to confining themselves to two colours in a piece of ornament, often even in an elaborate design combining them very happily and producing a very rich effect. the geometrical patterns seen in pavements, metal- work patterns, and so forth, are of a considerably richer character in assyrian than in egyptian work. the form known as the sacred tree (fig. ) is abun- dantly met with ; and it is always accompanied by winged deities, standing or kneeling, one on either side. it probably represents the tree of life, a mysterious symbol that is found in many religious systems. in primaeval eden stood the tree of life, and in the paradise of god it re-appears; and it is not improbable that the impor- ! “in this pleasant soil his far more pleasant garden god ordained ; out of the fertile ground he caused to grow all trees of noblest kind, for sight, smell, taste. and all amid them stood the tree of life, high, eminent, blooming, with ambrosial fruit of vegetable gold.” —milton. . the birth and development of ornament. tance thus given to this mysterious form subsequently developed into tree worship." the oak under which abraham received his celestial guests was for centuries regarded with veneration, while the jews were constantly being rebuked by the prophets for their idolatrous wor- ship in groves. one need only name, too, the great oracle of the oak of dodona, and the sanctity of the oak with the druids. the peepul, or bo-tree (ficus religiosa), is in the east associated with buddha; * and in africa the fetish-tree is an object of much veneration and awe.” the colossal human-headed and eagle-winged bulls are another very marked characteristic of assyrian art. they were ordinarily placed as though guarding the entrances, they were doubtless emblematic figures—the human head signifying wisdom, the body of the bull power, and the wings of the eagle ubiquity. the prophet ezekiel saw in his wondrous vision living creatures, winged, and having respectively the heads of * “with all their poetry and all their usefulness, we can hardly feel astonished that the primitive races of mankind should have con- sidered trees as the choicest gifts of god to man, and should have believed that their spirits still delighted to dwell among their branches, or spoke oracles through their rustling leaves.”—dr. ferguson : “tree and serpent worship.” * see knighton's book on “forest life in ceylon,” for much interesting matter thereon. * the word coomassie means “the town round the tree,” the houses being (all built around this fetish. on the day, during the war with ashanti, that sir garnet wolseley sent his ultimatum to the king, a bird of ill-omen was seen to perch upon this tree; and half an hour afterwards a violent gale sprang up, and the fetish was levelled to the ground. this caused a profound sensation among the ashantees. merchant princes of phanicia. . a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle—the four sacred types of the assyrians. his auditors could well realize the imagery, as both he and they had been carried away captive by shalmaneser, and must have been very familiar with these typical forms in assyrian symbolism. the magnificent ruins of persepolis, the capital of the ancient kingdom of persia, recall at once to us the well- known types of assyrian work, though it is not necessary to assume that they were copied from them. nineveh was already but a heap of forgotten ruins when persepolis arose. the influence of commerce on the one hand, and war on the other, had largely affected the individuality of the various nationalities; and though we find certain characteristic and localised forms, there is no doubt but that there was a general art tradition that influenced all, and a continuous passing to and fro of cunning workmen that more or less blended into one the art of the egyptians, jews, assyrians, babylonians, phoenicians, medes, and persians. the phoenicians were a great mercantile people, and their vessels traversed every sea of the then known world. the shores of the mediterranean were studded thickly with their colonies." the woad-stained celts of britain exchanged their tin for the productions of the east, and long before the christian era they had circumnavigated africa. their merchants were equally at home in the markets of egypt and ethiopia, of persia and india, and the riches of the world were poured into tyre and * carthage, founded about b.c. , being the most important. the birtſ, and development of ornament. sidon.' they were distributors perhaps rather than producers, though homer frequently refers to their artistic skill. thus we read of the queen of troy in- tending to offer a mantle or robe to pallas :— “herself, the while, her chamber, ever sweet with burning odours, sought. there stored she kept her mantles of all hues, accomplished works of fair sidonians, wafted o'er the deep by god-like paris, when the galleys brought the high-born helen to the shores of troy. from these the widest and of brightest dyes she chose for pallas : radiant as a star it glittered.” achilles at the funeral games for patroclus offers as a prize— “a silver goblet, of six measures: earth own'd not its like for elegance of form. skilful sidonian artists had around embellish’d it: and o'er the sable deep, phoenician merchants unto lemnos' port had borne it, and the boon to thaos given.” in the odyssey we meet— “a fair phoenician, tall, full-sized, and skilled in works of elegance,” who on interrogation by the wanderers, affirms— “i am of sidon, famous for her wealth, by dyeing earn'd.” when telemachus expressed his surprise and delight at the art treasures of gold and silver, brass and ivory * - - - - - * “tyre, the crowning city, whose merchants are princes, whose traffickers are the honourable of the earth.”—isaiah xxiii. . samian ware. i that he saw in the palace of menelaus, his host informed him that they were gathered from cyprus, phoenicia, and egypt. much of the phoenician work, as in the ex- amples of pottery in fig. , is quaint and bizarre, and one finds in it little of the dignity and beauty of that of the nations—the egyptians, assyrians, and persians—from whom they freely borrowed. the greeks, later on—a people as emergetic and far more artistic—supplanted them, and took from them their mercantile supremacy. thus, to take but one instance, the prosperity of the ancient greek colony of samos arose almost entirely from its pottery. the samians carried on a most important trade in this, and their beautiful productions are found everywhere amongst the débris of the great cities of greece, rome, and other centres of ancient civilization. its merchants became princes, and this little island of the mediterranean, in thus directing its energies to the cultivation of the arts, attained mercantile and political pre-eminence and undying fame." the world of art is curiously knit together. one strik- ing example of the curious distribution that has always been going on may be seen in the antiquities found in a tomb near volci, in etruria. these—terra-cotta vases and * “art-knowledge is of value to the individual and to the country at large. take, for example, clay as a natural material: in the hands of one man this becomes flower-pots, worth eighteen pence a cast (a number varying from sixty to twelve, according to size); in the hands of another it becomes a tazza or a vase, worth five pounds, or perhaps fifty. it is the art which gives the value, and not the material.”—dresser. the birtſ, and development of ornament. figures, etc.—may be seen in the british museum, and amongst them may be observed an egyptian porcelain scarab bearing the name and titles of psammeticus i. ( – b.c.). how that got there it would be very interesting and instructive to know. many of the things found at etruria, a district in north-west italy, are very assyrian in character. with the romans, as we shall see more fully later on, art was practically an exotic, and they drew their sup- plies in a great measure from the foreigner. in our own country the influence of commerce has been most marked, as, like the phoenicians of old, our merchants have supplied the markets of the world, exporting in some directions, importing in others, and thus distributing and circulating art, good, bad, and indifferent, the wide world over." by means of this commerce we have gone far to vitiate the wonderful art instinct of the millions of india and japan, and through its aid we have brought to our- selves the choicest examples of all kinds of art products from every art centre, north, south, east, and west. —y political events have also had their influence in this circulation of art. thus persecution in a land has driven out thence many capable workers who have enriched by their skill the countries to which they wandered; we remember, when going over a large warehouse in manchester, seeing thousands of coarse white plates for the african trade. each had one splash of bright red colour and one of crude blue on it, these ragged blotches of raw colour falling anyhow and anywhere on the plates. we also saw there an immense variety of beads for use amongst the various tribes. all things to all men, so long as money could be made—a very phoenician view the influence of the foreigner. and in france, italy, britain, and elsewhere, powerful monarchs and wealthy nobles have invited men accom- plished in the various arts to take up their abode with them. thus jean de mabuse came at the invitation of henry vii.; and during the reign of charles i., again, many distinguished foreigners took service in our midst. france in like manner invited many famous italians, and primaticcio, cellini, and many others accepted the call. royal marriages have in like manner spread art know- ledge. when edward i. married his spanish queen, spanish pottery and many other articles from the home of the bride were first largely seen ; and oriental carpets a luxury borrowed from the moors in that country— were introduced. through this introduction of foreign consorts, many of the accomplishments of other countries became known to englishmen, and were practised either by foreigners or native craftsmen. the moorish influence in western and southern europe was also a notable factor. sicily, from the ninth to the thirteenth century a mohammedan country, was a great centre of artistic industry, the metal work, ivory carving, and weaving being all of the choicest description. hence, in looking through any collection of objects, or represen- tations of them in books, we are at once struck by their oriental character. all italy felt the influence, and the fabrics produced at lucca and elsewhere are just such as were being woven in bagdad or cairo. the great com- merce of venice also and her outlying colonies brought her into close intimacy with the choicest oriental art, and she cordially invited the craftsmen of the east to make their the birth and development of ornament. abode with her. few countries have a sea-coast so ex- tended in proportion to the size of the country as italy, hence commerce with other lands touched her shores at almost every point, and left its mark everywhere. hence italy was nearly as greek as greece, and as arab as alexandria or damascus. to persia we in is ºok for the origin of the brilliant golden or ruby lustres which, passing with the arabs into spain and italy, make the majolica ware of gubbio so resplendent. even in the far east, amongst peoples that we have deemed most conservative, commercial intercourse has influenced the arts; and though the art of japan has travelled in excellence far beyond its parentage in china, this relationship is undoubted. it is curious that the “i stood in venice, on the bridge of sighs; a palace and a prison on each hand: i saw from out the wave her structures rise as from the stroke of the enchanter's wand : a thousand years their cloudy wings expand around me, and a dying glory smiles o'er the far times, when many a subject land look'd to the winged lion's marble piles, where venice sate in state, throned on her hundred isles | she looks a sea cybele, fresh from ocean, rising with her tiara of proud towers at airy distance, with majestic motion, a ruler of the waters and their powers: and such she was ; her daughters had their dowers from spoils of nations, and the exhaustless east pour'd in her lap all gems in sparkling showers. in purple was she robed, and of her feast monarchs partook, and deem'd their dignity increased.” —byron. influence of commerce and war on art. chinese work of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries much more nearly resembles the freedom of japanese design than does that of later date, when a purely con- ventional style has reigned supreme. hence, starting from a common standpoint, one has become more and more maturalistic, the other more and more conventional, till at last it is hard to realize that both were once under the same influence. our great-grandfathers were highly appreciative of the work of the celestials, and tried to imitate it; while we, on the other hand, have found in the art of japan a power and character that has largely influenced for good our designs and manufactures. the english potters had for many years but little higher ambition than to produce work of similar character to that on the chinese pottery. on the doubling of the cape of good hope by the portuguese in , chinese porcelain began to find its way to europe freely. the early productions of worcester were chiefly imitations of chinese things, and they went so far as to place on them counterfeit imitations of the marks found on the real thing. many pieces thus falsely marked may be seen in collections of ceramic ware. the porcelain works at bow were originally called new canton. much of the early dutch pottery shows this strong chinese influence, and our readers will doubtless remember the popular old “willow pattern" that has survived amongst ourselves in all its foolish hideousness till almost the present day. the influence of war has been another potent factor in the dissemination of art ideas. into the historical details on such a point it is foreign to our present aim to go f the birth and development of ornament. at any length, interesting as it would be to do so; but we may just glance at the almost continuous struggles for supremacy that have been going on. about b.c. we find the armies of egypt under thothmes cross- ing the asiatic frontier, and presently returning home with the spoil and tribute of a victorious campaign; while his warriors, after a reign of over fifty years of almost ceaseless war, subdued syria and assyria. a little later on we find rameses i. at war with the syrians again, and victorious over the phoenicians and libyans. in the year we see the victorious assyrians under esar- haddon masters of the whole land of egypt, and the pharaoh a fugitive fleeing for his life to nubia. b.c. we find the persians under cambyses overrunning the delta and egypt again under the rule of the conqueror. in assyria we have shalmaneser master of the whole of western asia; jehu, king of israel, being one of those whom we find paying tribute. the reign of sargon again was one long series of foreign campaigns, and in fact the same thing may be said of monarch after monarch, egypt, assyria, babylonia, media, phoenicia, persia, and the kingdoms of judah and israel being almost continuously seething in fierce and barbarous conflict. on one side or other we find the sovereign and his people carried away captive into the land of the enemy, and it is inevitable that in such constantly recurring experiences the know- ledge of the sciences and arts of their conquerors must have borne fruit. the thousands of exiles that toiled for years beneath the lash of the taskmaster in rearing the temples of the conqueror had at least "a very good educational value of roman triumph. lesson in architecture, however unwillingly they may have imbibed it. later on we find the states of greece in almost constant conflict with each other or with the persians and other powers; while the romans have left us in their wide- spreading empire many proofs of their influence over the conquered peoples. the custom of decreeing a triumph on the return of the victor was itself an art education as well as a great patriotic festival,' as the conqueror paraded through the streets of rome the choicest art treasures of the conquered race. the triumph of paulus emilius, b.c. , on his victory over perseus, king of macedonia, has been very fully described by plutarch. it was the first of those magnificent spectacles with which rome was afterwards familiar. the triumph lasted three days, and every variety of costly “loot.” was displayed to the citi- zens, including the richest armour, vases, and other art treasures. “the first day,” we read, “was scarcely suffi- cient to see the passing by of the images and pictures and statues of wonderful size, all won and gotten of their enemies, and drawn in the show upon two hundred and fifty chariots.” the second day, to quote the quaint trans- ". lation of sir thomas north, “there was carried upon a number of carts all the fairest and richest armour of the macedonians, as well of copper as also of iron and steel, all glistering bright, being newly furbished, and artifici- * it was also a valuable object lesson in science, as the natural products of the conquered territory, including possibly elephants, crocodiles, apes, giraffes, and ostriches, were made a feature of the show. the birtſ, and development of ornament. ally laid in order (and yet in such sort as if they had been cast in heaps, one upon another, without taking any care otherwise for the ordering and laying of them), fair burganets upon targets; habergions, or brigantines and corslets, upon greaves; round targets of the cretans, and javelins of the thracians, and arrows amongst the armed pikes; all this armour and carriage being bound one to another so trimly (neither being too loose nor too straight) that one hitting against another as they drew them upon the carts through the city, they made such a sound and noise as it was fearful to hear it: so that the only sight of these spoils of the captives being overcome made the sight so much more terrible to behold. after these carts, laden with armour, there followed three thousand men. which carried the ready money in seven hundred and fifty vessels, which weighed about three talents a-piece, and every one of them were carried by four men ; and there were other that carried great bowls of silver, cups and goblets fashioned like pitchers, and other pots to drink in, goodly to behold, as well for their bigness, as for their great and singular imbossed works about them. the third day, early in the morning, the trumpets began to sound and set forwards, sounding no march, nor sweet note to beautifie the triumph withall; but they blew out the brave alarum they sound at an assault to give the soldiers courage for to fight. after them followed six- score goodly fat oxen, having all their horns gilt, and garlands of flowers and nosegays about their heads, and there went by them certain young men, with aprons of needlework, girt about their middle, who led them to the educational value of roman triumph. sacrifice, and young boys with them also, that carried goodly basons of gold and silver, to cast and sprinkle the blood of the sacrifices about. and after these followed those that carried all coins of gold, devided by basons and vessels, and every one of them weighing three talents as they did before, that carried the great holy cup which emylius had caused to be made of massive gold, set full of precious stones, weighing the weight of ten talents, to make an offering unto the gods. and next unto them went other that carried plate made and wrought after antique fashion, and notable cups of the ancient kings of macedon ; as the cup called antigonus, and another seleucus; and, to be short, all the whole cupboard of plate of gold and silver of king perseus.” another feature in the show was the procession of four hundred representatives of various cities of greece, each bearing a golden crown of honour for presentation to the victorious general. emilius was not only a successful soldier but a great admirer of art. the triumph of metellus, b.c. , was another great reducational opportunity, as many of the choicest and most famous examples of greek art, by lysippus and other renowned artists and sculptors, were brought over to grace the festival. pliny in his writings refers to the influence that such displays had upon his countrymen, in some cases apparently inciting to covetousness, while the language elsewhere suggests a worthier appreciation of these treasures. “caesar, when dictator, consecrated, in the temple of venus genitrix, six cabinets or caskets of rings and jewels; and marcellus, son to octavia, dedi- o the birth and development of ornament. cated one in the temple palatine of apollo. finally, this is to be observed, that the said victorie of pompeius, which he atchieved over k. mithridates, set men's teeth at rome a watering after pearls and precious stones; like as the conquest obtained by l. scipio and cn. manlius brought them into love with silver plate curiously en- chased and embossed : also with rich hanging of cloth of gold, silver, and tissue; together with beds and tables of brass; even as the brasen statues and vessels of corin- thian brass, and the curious painted tables, came in re- quest upon the victory that l. mummius gained over achaea.” verres, when governor of sicily, was accused of plum- dering the island of many choice works of art, as he was also said to have done in achaia, pontus, and other places that had the misfortune to find themselves under his domination. the carthaginians, persians, mace- donians, and assyrians had in their victories all carried off such things as lawful prize of war, so that the romans did not act without full precedent. napoleon i. and his generals at a considerably later date stripped all the picture galleries of their numerous foes, and trans- ported all manner of art-treasures to paris; while the louvre and the south kensington museum contain many choice examples of chinese art that fell into their hands during an expedition that the soldiers of england and france made to pekin. the influence of war on art has nevertheless on the whole been distinctly more destructive than conservative. war does not create new objects of beauty; at the most the goths, vandals, and iconoclasts. it can but transfer their ownership, while per contra it presents unbounded facilities for their destruction. up to the year , for instance, the buildings and sculp- tures of the acropolis were in almost perfect condition, when the venetians must needs come and besiege the men of athens; and the explosion of a magazine of gun- powder reduced in an instant to ruin what centuries of time had spared." as it would probably be considered by most of our readers to be as bad, artistically, to be a goth or a vandal as a philistine, it is pleasant to put on record that these hordes, the savages that some would have us believe them to have been, were by no means all of them insensible to the claims of art. when rome fell into the possession of odoacer, in the year , he exerted himself to the utmost for the preservation of the artistic treasure of the city; and his successor, theodoric, fol- lowed the same policy, and erected at rome, ravenna, and elsewhere many fine buildings. later on, in , there is no doubt that totila made a very clean sweep indeed of everything plunderable or capable of being smashed up. the iconoclasts rose into power in . so enthusiastic were they for the suppression of all religious images and pictures, that during the century the sect was of influ- ence, innumerable works of art were destroyed. the period of the reformation in england was marked by a very similar zeal, which, however it may be defended * the parthenon was commenced b. c. , and finished b. c. . the birth and development of ornament. from the theological point of view, wrought dire destruc- tion of much that was of immense artistic interest. the crusades were a fruitful source of art develop- ment, as the western nations then came in touch with another civilization. we find eudes de montreuil, a famous french architect of the thirteenth century, sum- moned to the holy land to superintend the erection of fortifications; but whatever the saracens may have learnt from laborious and painful study of his emergies in this direction, we may be well assured that they in turn opened his mind to a good many new ideas that bore fruit on his return. crusaders and pilgrims visited in thousands the holy places, and returned home with the expansion of sympathy that is always very rightly credited to foreign travel. on the capture of majorca by the pisans in the year , the moorish tiles and salvers were held in such high esteem that they were built into the churches and palaces of italy, not alone as trophies of victory, but from their decorative beauty;” while the moors in southern * for a good book of reference the reader may turn to the “de- scriptive catalogue of the hispano-moresque, persian, damascus, and rhodian wares in the south kensington museum,” by c. d. fortnum, a book that gives a good historical notice, and the marks and monograms of the potters, and is freely illustrated both by chromo-lithographs and wood engravings. jacquemart’s “history of the ceramic art, a descriptive and philosophical study of the pottery of all ages and of all nations,” containing woodcuts and , marks and monograms, may also be consulted. “majorca was valiantly defended for a whole year, but was taken about easter, , notwithstanding the energetic resistance of the saracens, assisted by their numerous allies. the king was killed, patriotism, . art treasures. spain have left behind them work of the highest in- terest and value. one evil result of war upon art has been that, at the call of patriotism and in the stress of national cala- mity, no sacrifice that can be made is deemed too great. art, like everything else, must then give place. the costliest plate is melted down to provide the sinews of war, the choicest heirlooms are broken up if by their destruction the cause can be at all supported or the evil averted." hezekiah stripping the gold from the doors of the temple, and from the pillars which he had overlaid, his successor was made prisoner and conducted to pisa, and spoils and booty of immense value freighted the pisan galleys in their triumphant return to their native city. that the painted moorish pottery, an article of great value and supposed to have been almost unknown at that time in italy, formed part of these spoils, appears probable from the fact of plates of apparently moorish pattern and origin being found incrusted in the walls of the most ancient churches of pisa, as well as in those of many other towns in italy.” —marryat, “pottery and porcelain.” “after having returned to the conservatore the keys of the campo santo, he was kind enough to walk and show me several specimens of plates from majorca, embedded in the walls of sundry churches of the city, to which they form singular ornaments. it was a custom at pisa with the warriors returning from the crusades and stopping at majorca, to bring home this peculiar earthenware by way at once of testimony and trophy. they are accordingly only to be found in the oldest buildings of the style that we in england should call norman. in san sisto and sta. apollonica they are on the west front, and a row of them is also to be seen running along the sides under the cornice. in san francesco are some near the top of the campanile ; i afterwards observed others in the walls of two churches of about the same date at pavia.”—dawson turner. * “clay, wood, iron, stone are materials which may well be fashioned into beautiful forms; but beware of silver, and of gold, and of precious stones. the most fragile material often endures for the birth and development of ornament. with the piteous cry to the great sennacherib, “that which thou puttest upon me will i bear’”; louis quatorze melting down the silver furniture of versailles; charles i. and his cavaliers turning their gold and silver into siege pieces, are but illustrations that at once rise to our minds out of multitudinous instances that might be brought forward. - having dealt with the art of the great ancient monar- chies, and endeavoured to show how, alike in peaceful commerce or in the fierce passions of sanguinary war, each was influencing all the others, and that in art as in all else it is most true that no man liveth unto himself, we turn now to a consideration of the noble art of greece. a long period of time, while the almost incorrosible silver and gold rarely escape the ruthless hand of the destroyer.”—dresser. “beautiful though silver and gold are, and worthy, even though they were the commonest of things, to be fashioned into the most exquisite devices, their money value makes them a perilous material for works of art. how many of the choicest relics of antiquity are lost to us, because they tempted the thief to steal them, and then to hide his theft by melting them . how many unique designs in gold and silver have the vicissitudes of war reduced in fierce haste into money-changers' nuggets | where are benvenuto cellini's vases, lorenzo ghiberti's cups, or the silver lamps of ghirlandajoz gone almost as completely as aaron's golden pot of manna, of which, for another reason than that which kept st. paul silent, ‘we cannot now speak particularly.” nor is it only because this is a world ‘where thieves break through and steal ' that the fine gold becomes dim and the silver perishes. this, too, is a world where “love is strong as death '; and what has not love—love of family, love of brother, love of child, love of lover—prompted man and woman to do with the costliest things, when they could be exchanged or were bullion for the lives of those who were beloved ?”—wilson. chapter iii. greek art—its birth–doric work—the ionic order—the corinthian order—the fret, wave scroll, guilloche, patera, and other typical forms of greek ornament—the zigzag-honeysuckle or anthe- mion ornament—naturalism and conventionalism—application and adaptation—ruskin, wilkinson, and others thereon— historical and artistic value of the study of greek coinage— gems—greek vase-painting—etruria—signed vases—working in bronze—the romans not an artistic race—use of the arch— the augustan age—roman luxury—the tuscan order–no fixed law of proportion and detail in the classic orders—the acanthus–pompeii—wall-paintings — arabesques — mosaic — eastern influences on roman art. the early ornament of greece shows strongly the in- fluence of egyptian and asiatic art in its architectural decoration, jewellery, textile fabrics, and metal work; but, whereas in the older countries everything had been bound by stern convention and fettered by rules that had their source entirely outside the requirements and limita- tions of art, the greeks opened to themselves and posterity an entirely new world wherein the human mind had free development. even here, however, art. was influenced by religion. their creed was a deification of the human faculties and the passions and affections of mankind, and though this involved at times a weakness of moral fibre akin to that of common mortals, it also the birtſ, and development of ornament. placed before them a lofty ideal, and man, no longer a cowering slave, looked upward to beneficent zeus, and claimed to be the offspring of god and the object of his immediate care. “with zeus begin we—let no mortal voice leave zeus unpraised. zeus fills the haunts of men, the streets, the marts—zeus fills the sea, the shores, the harbours—everywhere we live in zeus. we are his offspring too; friendly to man, he gives prognostics; sets men to their toil by need of daily bread ; tells when the land must be upturned by ploughshare or by spade— what time to plant the olive or the vine— what time to fling on earth the golden grain. for he it was who scattered o'er the sky the shining stars, and fixed them where they are— provided constellations through the year, to mark the seasons in their changeless course. wherefore men worship him—the first—the last— their father—wonderful—their help and shield.” " this freedom from the old thraldom gave an impulse that, in a comparatively short time, placed greece in the foremost rank—a position that she has never lost. the architecture of her temples in its stately beauty has * “as certain also of your own poets have said, for we are also his offspring.” in the “phaenomena” of aratus will be found the beauti- ful lines we have quoted, and it was doubtless these that the scholarly paul had in his thoughts. we find them re-echoed in the lines of johnson :- “from thee, great god, we spring, to thee we tend, path, motive, guide, original and end.” “father of all! in every age, in every clime adored by saint, by savage and by sage, jehovah, jove, or lord.”—pope. the rise of greek art. never been surpassed, her sculpture has been an ideal for all future ages, her poets and philosophers have been the models and guides of all subsequent periods. . at the fall of nineveh, b.c. , greek art was in its infancy, though amongst the ionians the arts were far in advance of the other states, owing to their greater proxi- mity to assyria and persia. the earlier ideas of the greeks in art matters, and in most other things as well, came from egypt, and the primitive greek statues show those foreign influences very distinctly. the bas-reliefs. upon the monument from xanthus in lycia, now in the british museum, are amongst the earliest remains of greek art, and, like the egyptian and assyrian sculp- tures, the faces are in profile, while the eye is given as if in full view. even in this very early work, almost agree- ing with the destruction of nineveh, we see abundant promise : the muscles have not that exaggerated develop- ment which we see in assyrian art, and, while such care is not bestowed on fringes and such small details, the draperies hang in bolder and freer folds. the faces. have the expressionless look that is common to all early art. the gradual progress from this archaic work to the glorious masterpieces of phidias and scopas can readily be traced, though it would take up far too much space to give the history in detail. the greeks confined them- selves almost entirely to the representation of humanity or to ideal figures of the gods and goddesses clothed in human form, though occasionally, as in the horses on the frieze of the parthenom, they give lower forms of animal life with much truth and spirit. in the earliest greek the birth and development of ornament. sculptures the deities were in animal forms. the dis- coveries of dr. schliemann afford numerous illustrations of this. egyptian art has its cat-headed goddess, and anubis with the head of the jackal. hindu art and mythology has its ganesa with the head of an elephant, while the savage falls down before grotesque and horrible monstrosities; but the later greek clothed his conception of deity in the form of man, his noblest work. where grosser ideas strove to give the idea of strength by the semblance of the lion, or worshipped wisdom in the form of a serpent, the greeks realized that the true power was no mere animal force, the true wisdom no cunning of creeping thing. - the greeks were familiar with previous civilizations, and the arts and institutions of earlier lands. these, as * thus gladstone, in a paper on “archaic greece and the east,” has some interesting remarks on particulars in the homeric text which appear to betray an assyrian source. thus—“ . homer gives us the great encircling river okeanos as the origin, not only of rivers and fountains, but of gods and men. compare a citation made by dr. driver from the tablets concerning heaven and earth : — “the august ocean was their generator, the singing deep was she that bare them all.” . thalassa, the greek name for the sea, is of chaldean origin. . poseidon has a marked correspondence with the hea of the assyrian triad or trinity, in certain respects. neither of them was an ele- mental god, but each was ruler of the sea. poseidon was dark in line; and hea was the creator of the black race. . deification is found on the tablets in the case of izdubar. the only instance of absolute and pure deification given by homer is that of leucothea, and she belongs to the phoenician or eastern circle. . babylonia records the gigantic size and strength of primitive man, and so poseidon has relations with the giauts in various forms. . the ishtar of the tablets appears to correspond with the aphroditë of the rise of greek art. they appropriated them, they recreated by their genius and refined by their taste, transfiguring all they touched; so that while the germ of the doric order may be found possibly at beni-hassan, centuries before the earliest days of greece or the ionic in the bizarre capitals of per- sepolis, the greek etherealised all previous efforts, and so transmuted the works of other peoples that they became essentially their own. “not merely myths are the stories of cecrops and danaus, and the introduction of the arts and learning of egypt into attica and argos. the archi- tecture of greece is the architecture of egypt, refined and glorified. can we grasp and realize the truth of it? to structural principles which are those of the savage and the child, the greek has brought a delicacy of porcep- homer, the passage of whose worship into greece we can trace by her association chiefly with paphos, and next with cythera or cerigo. . aidoneus, the greek pluto, has among his other epithets in homer that of tru)\áptns, the gate-fastener. the term receives little or no illustration from the homeric text. but the assyrian under-world has no fewer than seven gates; and its leading idea is not that of receiving the dead, but of shutting in the dead. . the relation of sonship, and of a conformity of will attending it, between the god merodach and his father is represented in a peculiar and most striking manner by the conformity of will between the apollo of the iliad and his father zeus. . the babylonian triad of anu, bel, and hea is the possible or probable source of the homeric triad of zeus, poseidon, and aidoneus. . wherever there is any particu- lar notice of stars in homer it is always in phoenician association, as if based upon accounts of the chaldean astrology. . heptaism, or the systematic and significant use of the number seven, is pecu- liarly chaldean. the only marked use of this number in homer is for the seven gates of thebes. now thebes was the only one of the achaian cities distinctly traceable in homer to an eastern origin.” several other illustrations are given, but it is needless to add them to those already brought forward. the birtſ, and development of ornament. tion, has given a grace of line, has invented an appropri- ateness of detail, not only unequalled, but unapproached. in the whole history of human mind and brain there is nothing to be found more wonderful than this—this sud- den attainment of a perfection which seems too marvellous. to be believed possible even while we gaze upon it. gifted as the race was in almost all things, it was gifted most of all in art.” " - the rise of the doric, the ionic, and the corinthian. orders dominated not only the architecture, but the sculp- ture and the decorative details, since in the doric we have a noble and almost austere simplicity, “the very emblem of severe and simple majesty, of conscious, unen- cumbered dignity, of compressed energy, of immovable. resolution,”*—while in the corinthian we have great richness and sensuousness of character, and the ionic may be taken as a mean between these two opposites. noble doric temples may be seen at samos, aegina, paestum, and elsewhere, and in crowning beauty in the glorious parthenon.” it was formerly the custom to speak of these orders as if each in itself was reduced to a bishop, from the “pictorial architecture of greece and italy.” this and the companion volume, the “pictorial architecture of the british isles,” should be on every student's bookshelf. they are very inexpensive, and are freely illustrated with very reliable examples. holmden. - * “the finest edifice on the finest site in the world.”—dr. wordsworth. - - “earth proudly wears the parthenon as the best gem upon her zone.”—dmerson. variation of detail in classic orders. i rigid standard of uniformity;' but while all buildings of a common order agree in general type, no two are alike, fig. . the doric of the paestum temples, for instance, being dis- tinctly different in detail from that of the parthenon. the * this bondage to lifeless rules is carried to absurd lengths. if we turn, for instance, to the “mirror of architecture " of scamozzi, we find such passages as the following: “here is shown how the columns follow each other, and how high each must be; ” “the doric must be twelve modules and fifty-three minutes and a half high ; ” and “the tuscan arch must be three modules and fifty-two minutes wide.” this “must be " of pedantry runs through every- thing. g. the birth and development of ornament. cushion-like capital, the concave channels of the column, the triglyphs and metopes of the frieze are all very characteristic points. - in the ionic order the feature that at once strikes the eye is the volute or spiral of the capital. see fig. . the shaft, too, does not rise directly from the ground as in the doric, but has a ring of mouldings at its base, and it is of more slender proportions. the erechtheum at athens is perhaps the best known example, and our illustration of the ionic capital is taken from this source. though found comparatively late in greece itself, the ionic order was fully established in asia minor in the sixth century b.c. the grand temple of diana at ephesus was ionic, and this it is known was built by croesus, king of lydia, who died b.c. , and destroyed by herostratos, b.c. , and rebuilt during the reign of alexander the great. this later temple was discovered by wood a mile from modern ephesus, amongst cornfields, beneath. level ground that did not present the slightest sign of any ruin, the remains being discovered some twenty feet. below the ground level during excavations extending, from to . many interesting remains from this. temple, from its magnificence one of the seven wonders. of the ancient world, may be seen in the british museum. . the order known as corinthian was so called from its: reputed introduction by callimachus of corinth. its. capital, with volutes above and a ring of acanthus leaves below, must be well known to all our readers; but though it originated with the greeks, it was not received by them with any great favour, while its mass of ornamentation greek use of colour. made it especially attractive to the pride and pomp of imperial rome. it is a singular fact that no examples of it are found at corinth." the greeks, like the egyptians and assyrians, made a great use of colour, though the lapse of time has in fig. . many cases removed all traces of it. enough, however, has been found to make the fact undeniable. to us the * mauch's treatise on the greek and roman orders, “die archi- tektonischen ordnungen der greichen und romer,” containing engraved plates, of details and measurements of the five orders, may be consulted. leeds on the “classic orders” is also a very useful little manual. there are, of course, other good books that deal with the subject; a full list of these would run over many pages, the birth and development of ornament. beautiful granite of syenae or the pure white pentelic marble may seem sufficient, but the egyptians and greeks only saw in these materials substances of great durability and adaptability to art requirements, and amongst these requirements decoration by colour held a prominent place. certain ornamental forms are very characteristic of greek work, such as the zigzag, wave scroll, the fret, the echinus, guilloche, patera, and anthemion. most of these had already appeared in earlier work, and most of them have remained acceptable forms to the present day; we may therefore conclude that they owe their lasting value to some one or more fundamental principles. in the zigzag we have an arrangement of lines of the sim- plest nature, while the various forms of fret are ingenious variations of simple right-line forms. these fret forms (see figs. to ) we find of world-wide service, the ancient mexicans and peruvians, the chinese and japa- nese, no less than the polished greeks, freely introducing them. figs. , , and on plate ii. are greek frets. fig. is from an indian source; while the remaining examples on the plate are chinese and japanese. the wave scroll and the guilloche are based on a series of simple curved lines, while the patera and the anthemion both owe their charm to the beauty of radiating forms. in the echinus, the moulding marked a in fig. , we get sharp alternation of light and shade, as well as strong contrast of form in the broad egg-like shapes and the thin spear-head forms between them. —the zigzag is found largely in egyptian work, but is ſillº, fºll º § º º ſº º miłł ſº riº º º º l º | º - ||||}."lºſº" * | -- - \ iº lºl | ||| º º nº | t º § - º | i. h. º, § i.º. i º º tº - º sº - º "lili tºº itht ſºn, ſº º: § | º º & *º unrº | . º º º hil jºjº tº § º aulº º sº n º - nº. §§§ { º i. wall ºº & §§ º: ſ | |lutiºn § mºjº ; º º º º º º º º º º º º tºº ºn tº º' tº § º º º º º t lºſº º | | tº ſº. ul ſ § examples of celtic interlacing. the birth and development of ornament. there ordinarily typical of water. a good example of this may be seen in fig. , where we have a somewhat formal tank in which a lotus is supposed to be growing, though as a matter of fact it will be seen that the flowers and buds are not really issuing from the water at all. both in assyrian and egyptian art we get exceedingly conventional representations of water, while the plants, fish, etc., in it are often very true to nature. the zigzag reappears in art from time to time : one finds it a good deal, for instance, in early italian work, and it is an especially characteristic moulding in norman architec- ture. we may see it in the upper illustration (fig. ) of the various norman mouldings. the scroll form is sometimes merely a series of spirals, and may then be considered a type of sea-waves; but it is more often a continuous undulating line, having simple foliate forms thrown off on either side. the echinus, or horse-chestnut, is also called the egg- and-tongue or egg-and-dart moulding—a variety of names that may be taken as conclusive of the fact that it bears no great resemblance to anything at all, but is a purely arbitrary form. it is the second moulding from the top in fig. . the guilloche, of which we have examples in figs. , , , is a very characteristic greek form ; but it is found on egyptian work that dates two thousand years before the christian era. it is also a very favourite ornament in roman and renaissance work, and, simple as it is in character, is capable of a considerable amount of varia- tion. this repetition of simple elements is a very fig. . % % É % n § n sn w n & fig. . n § n fig. . / & §§ % % % º % % / | | % % fig. . º % % w fig. . the birth and development of ornament. marked feature in greek work. it is a very common principle in decorative work; and nature, the designer's great ultimate court of appeal, supplies numerous examples. one of the most characteristic instances of this repetition of simple parts is seen in the various forms fig. . of snow crystals, of which figs. and furnish us with good illustrations. a greater richness is produced by the alternation of one form with another in regular sequence. we may see this very well in the snow crys. tals, figs. , , , , . the patera, or rosette, is a flower-like form, composed the patera and anthemion forms. . of parts radiating from one centre, while we occasion- ally meet with it in greek ornament, it is more especially common in assyrian and roman work. the anthemion, of which fig. is a good greek example, and we may see other illustrations of the form in figs. , , , owes. % º ſº Ø º |al § º º & % º/ % n s $ n nº. sº غž wºº Ž . º % % fig. . much of its beauty to this principle of radiation from a common starting-point. in the patera the forms all spring from a central point, and, like the petals of the wild rose, produce a multi-symmetrical form; while in the case of the anthemion this springing point is at the base, and the units range themselves on either side of a central the birth and development of ornament. member, and form a bi-symmetrical figure. this anthe- mion type of form is met with in almost every style and period of art. we have already, in fig. , given a good assyrian example, and we have seen another, scarcely less typical, scratched on an african calabash. the anthemion is sometimes called the honeysuckle pattern. - it is an old dogma that the decorative form was sug- gested by this plant; but its more or less remote resem- blance to the buds of the honeysuckle is accidental, not incidental; and the charm, both in nature and in art, is the inherent beauty of a mass of radiating and upspring- ing forms, instinct with the suggestion of vitality and growth. though no two greek anthemions are absolutely alike, the form, under slight variations of form and arrange- ment, is found so freely that one must confess to a slight feeling of weariness of it. probably all who are at all conversant with the works of various designers will bear us out when we say that in many cases a strong tinge of monotony runs through the work of most men. the first design of theirs that we see we admire im- mensely; the second strikes us perhaps as being almost equally good, but rather like number one; and when we have come across designs three, four, and five, we have already a shrewd idea what six, seven, and eight will be like. the study of nature on the part of the designer is a great corrective of this, as the man who feeds on his own imagination comes quickly to the boundary line of his powers, and loses all that infinity of variety that an intelligent observation of nature would afford. both in awature in ornament. . i egyptian and greek art, we feel that though the work is good, and indeed often excellent, it palls somewhat upon one, just because the ground covered is too circumscribed. the egyptians fully felt the beauty of natural forms, yet they give us little beyond the lotus, the papyrus, or the palm ; while the greeks scarcely utilise anything beyond the acanthus. it is perhaps not saying too much º º: º **allºlº. fig. . if we suggest the probability of there being in the fertile delta of the nile and the sunny land of greece at least fifty other plants almost or quite equally available for the purposes of design. one feels the same monotony in the geometric designs of the greeks. when we consider the infinity of design possible, the half-dozen frets and the three or four types of spirals and guilloches seem a application and adaptation. cation of natural forms to the purposes of decoration. is there any right or wrong in the matter? is there any canon or principle that we can invoke, and say that this or that is better or worse according to the measure of its approach to, or departure from, this law? to ourselves it appears that the pith of the whole matter lies between the terms application and adapta- tion. it is impossible to lay down one iron rule, or to formulate an ordinance as unyielding as the laws of the medes and persians; but putting the matter briefly, we would say that to merely apply natural forms, while it is a homage to the beauty of nature, is ordinarily a mistake. it is at best an imitative reproduction, and even then an imperfect one. one may admire roses very much, and yet not care to see them strewn in counterfeit presentment all over the walls of one's room; one may appreciate to the full the grace of the lily, and yet not care to sit on it in the guise of a chair-covering; and, in- fact, the greater one's appreciation of the loveliness of nature, the less will such attempts at its representation please. on the other hand, nature is the great store- house of beauty and suggestion for the designer, and the man who wilfully shuts his eyes to it in petty com- placency at his own imaginings and ideals, deprives him- self of a power that would give life and strength to his work." the via media of safety lies between these two extremes. * “the pride which delights in self-contemplation, the indolence which rests in unquestioned forms, the ignorance that despises what is fairest amongst god's creatures, the dulness that denies what is awature in ornament. his work must be applied, takes a different view, not because he appreciates nature less, but because appre- ciating it so much he cannot bring himself to do it dis- credit by inadequate representation. “art is the child of nature; yes, her darling child, in whom we trace the features of the mother's face, her aspect and her attitude. all her majestic loveliness chastened and softened and subdued into a more attractive grace, and with a human sense imbued.” " we need scarcely say that any one attempting natural- istic work should have a good working knowledge of plant-structure, and even if he would hesitate to call himself a botanist, should be well acquainted with the leading laws of plant-growth. a wild rose spray, in all its picturesque beauty, is 's much constructed according to law as the designer himself; the spiral growth of its foliage, and the beautiful foreshortening, therefore, of the parts that result from this rigid law, is as marked as, any other law of nature; and it is no more permissible. to add a sixth to the ring of five fragrant petals in each of its beautiful flowers, than to consider it immaterial whether we put four, five, or six toes to the human foot. “ornament,” ruskin observes, “should be natural; that is to say, should in some degree express or adopt the beauty of natural objects. observe, it does not hence. follow that it should be an exact imitation of, or en- * longfellow, “keramos.” the birth and development of ornament. deavour in anywise to supersede god's work. it may consist only in a part adoption of, and compliance with, the usual forms of natural things, without at all going to the point of imitation, and it is possible that the point of imitation may be closely reached by ornaments which, nevertheless, are entirely unfit for their place, and are the signs only of a degraded ambition and an ignorant dexterity. bad decorators err as easily on the side of imitating nature as of forgetting her, and the question of the exact degree in which imitation should be at- tempted under given circumstances is one of the most subtle and difficult in the whole range of criticism.” it is curious and characteristic that those who would desire to bespeak our goodwill, even for the lower forms of the greek art that we have been considering, do so by trying to ally them with some suggestion of nature, that the dentils are at least suggestive of teeth, that the egg-and-tongue moulding and the honeysuckle ornament were in some degree a tribute to natural forms, and hence have these propitiatory titles appended to them. how far they really resemble any natural form may be seen in the fact that what one calls egg-and-tongue another regards as the opening fruit of the horse-chestnut. sir gardner wilkinson, in his work on “colour and taste,” writes: “the imitation of natural objects for merely ornamental purposes usually disagrees both with the materials used and the place where they are intro- duced. it is also an indication of poverty of invention, and a deficiency of taste for design. in a carpet, where roses, and other flowers are figured, the very best rose awaturalism and conventionalism. is always unlike the reality, while the imagination is diverted from the general effect by the comparison of this imperfect copy with the natural flower. to obtain ideas for ornamental art, nature should be carefully studied, and the beauties she presents should be fully understood, but she should not be directly copied in an unsuitable material.” wornum, in his “analysis of ornament,” affirms: “you frustrate the very principle of nature when you represent a natural form in a natural manner and yet apply it to uses with which it has in nature no affinity whatever.” elsewhere he writes: “the details of all great styles are largely derived from nature, but are for the most part conventionally treated, and theory and experience seem to show this to be the true system.” on turning to owen jones, another great authority on the subject, we read: “in all the best periods of art, all ornament was rather based upon an observation of the principles which regulate the arrangements of form in nature than on an attempt to imitate the absolute forms of those works, and that wherever this limit was exceeded in any art it was one of the strongest symptoms of decline.” jackson, in his “lessons on decorative design,” in the same way declares that “some people in their one- sided admiration of nature, imagine that natural forms, being beautiful if copied, must necessarily be beautiful however applied. they regard nature as a storehouse of ready-made ornament, instead of a book of reference for ideas and principles to be thought out with diligence, and applied with care. ready-made ornaments are too h the birth and development of ornament. often, like ready-made clothes, badly fitting and ill-suited to the subject.” lewis day, whose excellent text-books on ornament should be on the bookshelf of every student of the subject, sums up the whole matter very clearly and well in qwan |, |\| º &vº wºº. -n (/º % fº \º º wny! ſ g j ׺ nº. sny. n nº. º - º ſ º hº º º w | | y fig. . the following words: “experience proves that the fitting opportunity for realistic ornament very seldom occurs. it is for the most part contrary to the purpose or position of the object, ill-adapted to the material and the method of working it, and most especially it is calculated to draw undue attention to the object, or, which is worse, maturalism and conventionalism. to itself. a more subdued and reticent and altogether simpler style of design is almost invariably found to be ſº advisable, either in the shape of pure ornament or in some adaptation of natural forms.” this conventionalism may ioo the birth and development of ornament. be of varying degree. an ornamental treatment may be very suggestive of mature, and yet be purely decorative in feeling. figs. and , designs of our own, may be taken, we think, as very fair examples of this, as while the one is clearly based on the beautiful foliage of the hawthorn, the other no less evidently was inspired by the maple; they are not simply branches of these plants copied directly from nature, but are adapted to the decorative purpose of filling the panels, in the one case by branching from the spiral stem, and in the other by the symmetry and balance of the several parts. a natural treatment implies direct imitation of the plant in its form, mode of growth, and so forth; while an ornamental treatment does not necessarily, as we see in these examples, exclude natural forms in the details. thus, on many of the greek vases we see foliage strongly suggestive of the laurel, ivy, and other plants; but as these are almost invariably ar- ranged in a positively straight line or a regularly waving one, they are still decorative and not merely imitative. the term naturalistic is itself a happy one, and conjures up pleasant pictures to the mind; while on the other hand the word conventional is of somewhat ill-omen, and we associate with it something of the chilling influence of mrs. grundy. it suggests stiffness, formalism, and re- straint, and one could heartily wish that some other equally expressive word that was free from these external suggestions could be substituted for it." i shakespeare's question as to “what's in a name " might be readily answered in the words “a good deal.” in the political world, the study of greek art. ioi it will possibly be noticed by our readers that we speak of nature as though it consisted of nothing but floral forms. we have not by any means forgotten the various animal forms that also appear so freely in decoration, but these we propose to deal with when we are considering celtic work, since this is so distinctly zoomorphic in character that they will most naturally come before us for consideration then. - greek art is many-sided and always excellent. we have already to some extent referred to architecture and sculpture, and their grandeur must be evident to all; but in the minor arts, the designing and execution of their coins, the beautiful work seen in gems and bronzes, and in the work of the potter, the wonderful art-feeling of the greeks is fully as clearly seen. all these alike are worthy of careful study, though we shall run some little risk of de- terring our readers if we call the pursuit, as an enthusiast some two centuries ago did, epigrammatonumismatobiblio- glyptoiconotoreumatoangeiography. with the opening portion of this, the study of greek inscriptions, we have here no concern, but the numismatic portion we must deal with. bibliography and iconography also are outside our present programme. the toreumatic section deals with metal objects, wrought or chased; while the closing “angeio " refers to the study of vases. for instance, whatever view of parties our readers may hold, they will readily admit that the term liberal conjures up on its own merits a pleasant picture of free-handed bonhommie that no doubt carries weight, though clearly both in matters political and decorative it is not what a thing is called, but what it is, that gives it its value. io the birth and development of ornament. the study of greek coinage is of the greatest archaeo- logical value, as we have in coins a series of the most interesting illustrations of the successive phases of art, and by the aid of these one is enabled to accurately trace its progress from the most archaic examples, through its period of finest development, and thence to its decline and fall—a period of some seven hundred years. from these we see the conceptions of the gods worshipped, and are enabled to note in which localities each was held in especial esteem; we often find on them, too, representa- tions of famous statues and buildings of antiquity,” of which we have now no other trace, and we also get a series of portraits of the sovereigns and other rulers of the various states. geographically we derive an idea, too, of the extent, position, and comparative importance of the various colonies, and often get much local information from them; while to the artist and designer they are of the greatest value, as in them the whole spirit and genius of greek art is admirably exemplified. from about to b.c. the work is very archaic, though towards the close of this period great improvement is visible ; while from to about b.c. the work is magnificent in its power and beauty. thence onward to the opening of the christian era the art was a declining one ; the land was under foreign domination, and the the reader will find this phase of the subject worked out in pro- fessor donaldson’s “architectura numismatica,” the architectural medals of classic antiquity illustrated and explained by comparison with the monuments and the descriptions of ancient writers. the book is freely illustrated. animal forms in ornament. io . the birth and development of ornament. grand art traditions of the former days had lost their power in the general decay of the national spirit under the yoke of all-conquering rome. - on the coinage of athens we get on the obverse th head of athene, the tutelary goddess of the city, and on the reverse the owl, sacred to her, and the olive branch, in allusion to her gift of the olive-tree to the greeks. the tetradrachms of syracuse bear the heads of pallas and arethusa, those of croton the figure of herakles. on the coins of aegina we find the sea-tortoise, emblem of aphrodite; while the money of metapontum bears an ear of corn in reference to the worship of demeter. the coins of ephesus often have a bee upon them, the symbol of the ephesian goddess artemis; while the coins of rhodes generally bear the rayed head of helios, the sun- god. other coins, as we have already pointed out, are valuable from giving us representations of famous statues or buildings. thus many of the coins of ephesus have a representation of the famous temple of artemis upon them; while the coinage of cnidus has stamped upon it the aphrodite of praxiteles, one of the most renowned statues of the ancient world. the coins of cnossus have on one side the minotaur, and on the other the famous labyrinth constructed by daedalus for its abode. the designs are generally allusive to some legend associated with the state, or are the accepted symbols of it. at other times they are the records of victories won; while in some few cases it is not now possible to pronounce on the motive that influenced the selection of some particular device. greek coins, gems, and vases. io a very beautiful and common design is a biga or quadriga, the horses attached being either represented as tripping along or as in full gallop. the devices during the finest period—a space of one hundred and fifty years or more— are characterised by great vigour and freedom of action, perfect finish of execution, and great decorative richness; in every way, in fact, showing a complete mastery of technical skill and of great artistic power, many beauti- ful examples may be seen in the coin room in the british museum, and those who think our encomiums excessive will, we doubt not, return from a visit to this gallery with a feeling somewhat akin to that of the queen of sheba as she realized how inadequately all the beauty that she at last saw with her own eyes had been pictured to her. in greek gems, again, we have a wide field of study and artistic development, and, as in the case of the coins, we find in them a rich store of mythological and symbolic lore. the designs may be either in intaglio, a term em- ployed when the device is sunk below the general surface, or in cameo, where it is in relief. they date from about the seventh century b.c. to the third century a.d., and are worked in steatite, sard, jasper, rock-crystal, and such-like materials. the engraving of gems is termed the glyptic art, and it is marvellous to note how in a space so small and with materials so intractable such beautiful work could be produced. of these, again, there is a fine collection in our great national treasure- house. • * greek vases are to be met with in abundance. there the birth and development of ornament. are thousands of examples in the british museum, thou- sands more in the museum at naples, and countless others in the national and other large collections in paris, berlin, athens, and elsewhere. they have been found in almost every site where excavation has been made, not in greece only, but in sicily, etruria, and south italy, and wherever a greek colony was established, so that the study at all events is not likely to fail for want of material to work on. the painting on these vases is full of value and interest, and in them, as in all else that is greek, we can readily trace the transition from archaic quaintness. to the full tide of perfection, and thence to the ebb in the decadent examples of the closing chapters of greek art.” for some considerable period these vases were known * the collection, already rich in illustrations of the earliest and purest styles of greek art, received on the purchase by the nation of the musée blacas some additional examples, and these of the later and more ornate period which had previously been imperfectly represented. there are also numerous excellent examples in the fine. collection of all styles and ages of ceramic art in the museum of economic geology in london. the material, clay, of which they are: made, is of course their justification for being found in a geological collection. * those who care to pursue the subject thoroughly will find the following books very helpful:— hamilton, sir. w.-collection of engravings from ancient wases, mostly of pure greek workmanship, discovered in sepulchres in the kingdom of the two sicilies, but chiefly in the neighbour- hood of naples, during the course of the years – , now in the possession of sir w. hamilton; with remarks on each vase. by the collector, vols. large to. naples. millingen, j.-ancient unedited monuments. painted greek wases,. from collections in various countries, principally in great britain, illustrated and explained, to. london. the vase-painters and their subjects. as etruscan, as this state was where they were first dis- covered in any abundance. an enormous store of them was found in etruria in the year , and it was not un- naturally concluded that this must have been the seat of manufacture." closer examination and study of them soon revealed the fact that they were essentially greek in spirit, and that they were exported to the etruscans as an article of commerce. as a rule these vases have been found in tombs,” being associated with the funeral rites, and thereafter buried with the deceased. the vase-painters never lost sight of the technical con- ditions of ceramic work, and while faithfully recognising these limitations, produced designs which for decorative beauty and fitness have never been surpassed. the sub- jects, where human figures are introduced, were chiefly mythological,” or, not uncommonly, incidents of war or of * it is very interesting to note that wedgwood, whose beautiful reproductions and adaptations of these classic forms are so well known and so highly valued, when he established his manufactory on the staffordshire moorland, called the place etruria, and etruria the district is to this day. the works were opened on june th, , and wedgwood himself made the first start by “throwing” on the wheel six vases. three of these are still extant. they are of black body, and have as subjects upon them scenes in the life of herakles, while on a thin band at the base are the words “artes etruriae. remascuntur.” * “wases, and urns, and bas-reliefs, memorials of forgotten griefs, or records of heroic deeds, of demi-gods and mighty chiefs.” —longfellow, “keramos.” * thus on one we get the contest of herakles with the river-god acheloos, on another the birth of athene from the head of zeus, on a third herakles killing the centaur nessos. elsewhere we find. io the birth and development of ornament. the chase, or other scenes of real life, and, naturally, a considerable section dealing with funereal rites and the sad associations of the tomb. in the best examples the designs are depicted in monochrome, being simple in character and of great dignity of treatment, while the vases themselves are pure in form. from the time of alexander decay set in ; the shapes of the vessels were less refined, they were often made of great size, and the figures were crowded together without due regard to the relation between the form of the vase and the design to be introduced on it. polychromy and gilding also make their appearance, and the drawing becomes careless. for convenience of study the fictile art of greece may 'be divided into three very definite periods—the archaic, extending from the earliest days of greek civilization to about b.c.; the period of finest work, from to b.c.; and the period of gradual decadence, from to b.c. the vases vary in form at different periods; hence not only the treatment of the subject, but the shape of the vessel upon which it is painted, assist us to deter- mine its date. - the greek alphabet changed a good deal from time to time by the addition or suppression of letters, and in the forms of the characters employed. as many of the vases have inscriptions on them, or the principal divinities or heroes have their names given, this affords another means of determining the age of the vase. represented the exploits of theseus, the pursuit of daphne by apollo, and many other mythological and legendary subjects. the periods of greek vase-painting. io . in archaic work the designs are chiefly various simple geometrical forms, chequers, waved lines, patera forms, rough renderings of guilloches, and such like, arranged in concentric bands. occasionally we find animal forms, but these are but sparingly introduced, and are ordinarily very rude in draughtsmanship : representations of the human figure very rarely occur, and if seen at all are of most inartistic character. after these came the style that is now generally termed the asiatic, as it is believed that it was developed under assyrian inspiration. in this a great use is made of zones or bands of animals encircling the vessel, and a little later on the human figure appears, and often with considerable power of drawing and ex- pression of action. in the early greek vases the subjects ordinarily deal with war and the chase. later on these still occur, and also representations of various myths met with in classic literature; later still, scenes where death and mourning occur are common, and there is also a preference for sentimental and effeminate subjects. during the finest period of greek ceramic art the figures are ordinarily in red on a black ground. the drawing is severe and pure, and the designs very simple and good in composition. many of the works of this period are signed by the artists who produced them: thus in the british museum we see on various vases the names of pamphaios, euxitheos, polygnotus, meidias, douris, epictetos, and many others. we occasionally find, as in all periods and styles of ceramic work, greek pottery in the form of men or of animals; but this ordinarily arises from that love of the i io the birth and development of ornament. grotesque that seems inherent in humanity, and to which we shall presently have to refer at some little length. the artistic element in these is generally not a strong feature. bronze, an alloy of copper with a small quantity of tin, or more rarely of lead or silver, was largely used by the ancients, the egyptians, assyrians, phoenicians, romans, and others; but it was reserved for the etruscans and greeks to develop its art possibilities to the full. it was used for statuary, the prows of the war galleys, orna- ments of the temples, mirrors, vases, candelabra, and many other purposes. most of the examples now extant have been found either in tombs in etruria or have come from pompeii and herculaneum; but purely greek examples are extremely rare, and it is impossible to define their date in the way that can quite readily be done with the temples or the vases and coins and statuary in marble. homer notices that “the egyptians excel in the manu- facture of arms, rich vases, and other objects inlaid and ornamented with metal”; and herodotus tells us that “the egyptians drank out of bronze goblets.” the copper was found in egypt, while the tin was brought by the phoenicians from india, spain, and britain. herodotus the etruscans made bronze statues before the foundation of rome, b.c., and on the foundation of the infant city we are told that romulus commissioned from etruria a statue of himself; and his successor, numa pompilius, according to pliny, established a guild of workers in bronze, so that they might be independent of foreign aid, not only in their statuary, but in all the needs of daily life, door sockets, tools, weapons, and so forth. ancient bronge-work. iii describes the grand metal doors of the temple of belus at babylon; while the description of the various bronze articles used in the temple of solomon, a thousand years before the christian era, gives us an excellent idea of the value of the work and the progress that the art had by that time attained to. nebuchadnezzar, b.c. , on his capture of the holy land, broke up the pillars, the molten sea, and other metal of the temple, and had the pieces conveyed to babylon; so that it is very possible that many of the articles from nineveh that we may see in the british museum are made from the bronze of the jewish temple, and that cornish tin is one of the con- stituents of the material. the island of delos was very famous for its bronze founding, and that of Ægina was scarcely less so. the fame of both these rivals was however afterwards eclipsed by that of corinth, pliny affirms that the material em- ployed “consisted of gold, silver, and copper, and was con- sidered more precious than silver, and little less valuable than gold"; and in the syriac version of the scriptures it is stated that hiram made the various vessels of solomon's temple of corinthian brass. rhodes, in the height of its prosperity, was adorned, we are told, with over , statues of bronze, one of these, the colossus, being one of the wonders of antiquity. it was erected b.c., but was overthrown about * the wealth and dignity of a state or city were to some degree indicated in this way amongst this art-loving people ; athens, delphos, and other cities, like rhodes, were adorned with some thousands of statues. ii the birth and development of ornament. b.c. by an earthquake, and lay in ruins upon the ground for nine centuries. the etruscans amongst the early latin races were especially distinguished for their love of art and the successful prosecution of it. their territory had a con- siderable coast-line, and in the early ages of the world it was the land, with its impassable forests and marshes, rugged mountains and fierce beasts of prey, that divided nations, while the sea, even in those early days of navi- gation, brought them together. thanks to this commercial intercourse with egypt and phoenicia, the men of etruria were very familiar with the art of the then known world, and they themselves had a great reputation for working in bronze and for their skill in terra-cotta. they were skilful architects, as their city walls and massive tombs testify, and the etruscan gem engraving and jewellery was of the highest artistic merit. the animals and other forms introduced often show a strongly marked assyrian or persian influence, but after a while this asiatic bias gives place to the rising art power of greece. they lacked the inspiration of the greeks, and were to a great extent copyists, but they at least had the power to appre- ciate what was excellent. their territory was close to that of rome, and the rising state, jealous of the influence and power of etruria, did not rest until after prolonged and considerable resistance it lay at her feet, and was absorbed under the roman sway. the romans, though a great people, were not an artistic race. to the greeks it was given in an especial degree to develop all that was grand and beautiful in literature the sway of the romans. ii and in art, while to the romans was assigned the task of jurisprudence and the reign of law and order, and each has exercised an immense influence on the world. in unbroken advance rome became mistress from the shores of the caspian to the storm-beaten coasts of the atlantic, and included in her mighty empire cities as distant as alexandria and york. hundreds of cities were the garrisons of her troops, and her wealth gave even to remote provincial towns no mean imitation of the baths, amphitheatres, and other features of imperial rome. the strong and far-reaching arm of her government gave a universal repose, and the remains of magnificent aque- ducts and roads testify to the well-directed energy of her rulers. with prosperity and domination came luxury: at first the just pride in grand public buildings, and noble and beautiful things for all; and then, after a virile career of twelve centuries, general enervation, followed by irre- mediable decay and ruin. the romans derived their art in the first place from etruria, and afterwards from greece. they did little or nothing artistic themselves, but depended almost entirely upon the foreigner for all art refinements. from to b.c. may be termed the etruscan period. later on the conquest of greece brought a change of ideas and a new art influence. the celebrated wolf of the capitol is a piece of etruscan work of archaic style, but pliny and others mention works of etruscan origin to which they give high commendation. the see inghirami’s “monumenti etruschi o di etruscho nome.” i i i . the birth and development of ornament. etruscans made a great use of the arch," and the romans seized upon this feature, and made it very characteris- tically their own. very good examples of this may be seen in the triumphal arches, such as that decreed to titus on the capture of judaea, or that of constantine, and again in the colosseum, and the aqueducts. in the case of the monumental arches and the colosseum, the main structure is based upon the arch, the columns that are added to the designs carrying no weight, but being in each instance a merely decorative feature. this is a marked change from greek procedure, for if we dislodge the columns of a greek temple, the whole edifice comes at once to the ground, while we may strip away all the columns from the colosseum, and we have but removed a surface veneer that is no sense really constructive. the splendour of the city of rome must be dated from the days of augustus ( b.c. to a.d.). he was able with justice to boast that the city which he had found of brick he had left of marble. vespasian, titus, and trajan too had a passion for architecture, and the public works with which hadrian adorned every province of his empire were executed not only by his orders, but under his immediate inspection. in the prosecution of these works the emperors were eagerly imitated by their principal subjects; for the opulent senators of rome deemed it an honour, and almost an obligation, to contribute to the brought by them from asia minor on their migration, and originally derived from assyria. it is a very marked feature in the temple façades of nineveh and babylon. the luxury and magnificence of rome. i splendour of their age and country. the provinces were embellished by the same liberal spirit of public magnifi- cence, and were filled with amphitheatres, temples, baths, aqueducts, and whatever else was conducive to the health, the pleasure, or the devotion of the meanest citizen. the romans inherited the arts of the earlier peoples, and of the nations that one by one fell beneath their sway, adapting from them whatever could administer to their luxury and magnificence, in their early days un- ceasing struggle for dominion left little time or oppor- tunity for this luxury; but by the time of augustus the romans were masters of the world, and the sterner and simpler life of the earlier ages gave place to an era of indulgence in all kinds of pleasures, and the great capital of the world absorbed to itself all that could tend to its gratification, artistic, gastronomical, and so forth, while the abounding wealth enabled every taste to be satisfied to the full. the greek orders were considerably modified by the roman architects, and the doric and ionic, being too severe in style, were soon abandoned. vitruvius and other ancient writers make mention of an order which they term tuscan, but no authentic examples of it have been found; but so far as their description of it goes, it * martial, seneca, and other writers give us vivid pictures of the luxury and ostentation of the latter days in rome; the former's description of the man charinus, for example. it is too long to quote ; but one item, the fact of the wearing of sixty rings on his hand at the same time, is enough. as geologists from a bone can recreate some antediluvian saurian, so from this one item we can reconstruct charinus and his fellows. i the birth and development of ornament. would appear to have been little more than a spurious and debased doric. roman ionic may be seen in the temple of concord, the temple of fortuna virilis, the colosseum, and theatre of marcellus, besides numerous smaller remains. a con- siderable variation of form is seen, and many of the versions are not unpleasing, though they lack the refined taste of greek work. one marked difference between greek and roman work is that the mouldings in the former are of much more subtle curve than the latter; in the roman, in fact, they are always made portions of circles. while the corinthian order took but little hold in greece, the romans adopted it most freely, and made many modifications of it, almost all in the direction of still greater richness. one of these variations, in which the volutes at the angles are enlarged almost to the size of the spirals in an ionic capital, was termed the com- posite, but there is very slender justification for bestowing a special name upon it. it is only one variation the more, and at most a little more marked than some of the others. perhaps the best examples of the corinthian are seen in the temple of jupiter stator and the pantheon; while the so-called composite is exemplified in the arch of titus, the arch of septimus severus, and the thermae of diocletian. palladio, scamozzi, vignola, and other writers have endeavoured to prescribe for each of these so-called “five orders ” a positive and unchangeable standard, and for each portion of entablature and column have given certain art of rome not indigenous. i fixed measurements; but actual study of the ancient examples will show that no two of them are alike, and that the same general name covers very marked differ- ences when we try and formulate a definition. to establish a fixed and uniform canon is a fatal mistake, as it at once reduces all to a dead level, thereby giving an unjust idea of the ancient practice, and in modern pro- cedure substituting the letter of bondage for the spirit of liberty. .. - while with the greeks the aim was dignified simplicity, with the romans the object was florid enrichment and magnificence. roman art was not really original, it simply exuberantly elaborated elements already to hand;" and while most of the architects and artists were greeks, they had come to rome, the capital of the world, to seek employment or at the special call of the emperor, and their interest and mission was not to please themselves, but to meet the wishes of their employers.” * as, for instance, the use of a gigantic column to commemorate a victorious campaign of the emperor trajan, the shaft not being plain or simply fluted, but sculptured throughout its length with a spiral band of sculpture, illustrating incidents in the war. a very good cast of it may be seen in the south kensington museum. see pollen's book, “the trajan column as reproduced in the south kensington museum.” see also the folio volume of bellorius, entitled “colonna trajana,” or the book “de columna trajani" of fabretti. * any one desiring to work up roman art thoroughly will find any or all of the following books very useful :—wisconti's folio volume on the buildings of ancient rome, entitled “raccolta delle più insigni fabbriche di roma antica e sue adjacenze. misurate nuovamente e dichiarate dall' architetto giuseppe valadier, illustrate con osser- vazioni antiquarie da filippo aurelio visconti, ed incise da vincenzo feoli.” the four volumes of plates and nine of text of canina, on i . the birtſ, and development of ornament. one marked feature in roman ornament is the very free use of the scroll. we have seen it already in fig. , and fig. is another illustration of it. in greek work the scroll is often simply a curved line, but in roman examples this curved line is a stem from which foliage is freely given off. the acanthus leaf is another element of constant recurrence in roman decoration : we find it not only on the capitals, but also forming rosettes of foliage; and the scroll line, already referred to, is generally enriched with masses of acanthus that often from their richness almost entirely cover and conceal the stem. in our present example (fig. ) the illustration is taken from a mosaic, and therefore a simpler type of foliage was necessary. the acanthus foliations are not all of the same character, as in some examples we find the sub- divisions of the leaf much more cut up into lobes than in others. both greeks and romans introduced mythical crea- tures, such as the chimaera, sphinx, griffin, and triton, in “ancient architecture, explained by its monuments: greek, roman, etc. l’architettura antica descritta e demostrata coi monumenti.” the two folio volumes of taylor and cressy on “the architectural antiquities of rome.” piranesi's magnificent twenty-nine volumes on greek and roman antiquities, and albertolli's work on the friezes from the forum of trajan and others in rome and else- where—“fregi trovati negli scavi del foro trajano, con altriesistenti in roma ed in diverse altre città ; disegnati e misurati sul luogo da ferdinando albertolli.” to these may be added lübke's “history of art,” and the excellent “history of architecture” of ferguson. vaux, “handbook to the antiquities of the british museum.” müller, “archäologie der kunst.” pistolesi's eight folio volumes of “il vaticano.” desgodetz, “edifices antiques de rome.” the destruction of pompeii. ii ornament, but such forms are far more characteristic of roman work. in the baths of titus, and elsewhere in the excavated portions of ancient rome, we get numerous examples of decoration; but our great storehouse of information on this head is found in the ruins of pompeii, a compara- tively unimportant provincial town, and therefore to some extent wanting possibly in some of the refinements of fig. . life in the capital, but nevertheless a perfect treasure- house to the historian, archaeologist, and all who would desire to realize the daily life, amusements, and occu- pations of the roman people. after remaining quiescent for hundreds of years, vesuvius, in the year a.d., burst into tremendous volcanic energy, overwhelming with sudden destruction herculaneum, pompeii, and other smaller towns and hamlets. herculaneum, from its closer proximity to the i o the birth and development of ornament. burning mountain, was buried beneath successive lava streams, that from their hardness and great depth, being seventy to a hundred feet in thickness, have made exca- vation most difficult; whereas pompeii was covered by showers of ashes and stones that form a comparatively loose and friable mass that is rarely more than ten or fifteen feet in depth, and can therefore be easily removed. for over sixteen centuries pompeii remained thus buried, as the excavations did not commence till the year . it is remarkable that so long a time should have elapsed, as dominico fontana, an eminent architect and engineer, in the year , in bringing the water of the river sarno to the town of torre dell’ annunziata, tunnelled through a portion of the ground upon which pompeii was standing, and several times found portions of the basements of buildings. beyond a passing curio- sity at the discovery, no interest in the matter seems to have been excited, and pompeii slept on undisturbed for another century. - pompeii was a greek colony long before its subjugation by the romans, and even in the later days of its incor- poration in the empire the taste was still more or less greek, and the artistic work done to meet the wishes of its wealthy inhabitants was the work of greek artists and artizans. the result was naturally somewhat hybrid, as the artistic feeling had to subordinate itself to the whims of a wealthy patron whose art knowledge was possibly small. the greater number of the pompeian houses are decor- ated by means of horizontal bands of colour, the lowest mural decorations of pompeii. i i being ordinarily the darkest. this has generally a more or loss conventional bordering, and we see much the same arrangement in a lighter key of colour as an upper frieze. the large intermediate space is generally set out in bold panelling, and in the centres of these panels are figure- subjects, sometimes groups, but more commonly single figures. these are very gracefully and powerfully drawn. in one instance we have the picture of a lady artist, palette in hand, copying on a slab before her a statue that stands in the corner of her studio. in another the artist is a man who is engaged on the portrait of a distinguished sitter, while his colour-grinder is preparing him his pigments. two friends come in, and, standing behind the easel, exchange comments on the progress of the work. elsewhere we find a chariot-race of cupids, a domestic supper party, diana surprised by actaeon, a group of dancing fauns, the parting of achilles and briseis, a battle of amazons, the sacrifice of iphigenia, perseus and andromeda, a winged cupid milking a goat, and many other subjects, mythological, historic, social, and fanciful. occasionally we find landscape subjects, and the introduction of buildings in the scene is a marked characteristic: the perspective of these is generally some- what deficient and exaggerated. occasionally the subjects are treated grotesquely, and we sometimes have pictures of still life, fish, game, and fruit. the magnificent folio of zahn, giving the best examples of the ornaments and mural paintings of pompeii, should be seen by every student. it was published in berlin, so all references are in german ; but the illustrations are º º º . lº - s. º º º º |alyºs º Žº ſº . Ø -- - animal forms in decoration. the birth and development of ornament. found at pompeii. it is scarcely likely that the artists who worked for titus would seek employment in a small provincial town, but the painters of the arabesques at rome and at pompeii were at all events contemporaries. the baths of titus were discovered in the sixteenth cen- tury, and rafaelle, struck with the decorations, largely introduced them and others of the like spirit in orna- mental work in the vatican. this arabesque treatment thereupon grew very popular, and was a good deal employed in panels, pottery," and elsewhere. the term arabesque is not a particularly happy one, it implies that such decoration is arab in character— an inference that is entirely untrue, as the religion of mohammed forbids the representation of any natural object, whether animal or floral, so that such arabesques as those of pompeii are entirely impossible in the art of the arabs. one of the most characteristic forms of roman decora- tion is mosaic. wherever between the tyne and the euphrates a roman settlement, or even an isolated villa, is unearthed, there we may almost invariably find ex- amples of this work; and whether they are discovered in the city of london or the city of carthage, in york or alexandria, they are all of very similar style, and have a strong family likeness. if then we would desire to get * “maestro giorgio shines with madre-perl and golden lines of arabesques, and interweaves his birds and fruits and flowers and leaves.” —longfellow, “keramos.” the introduction of mosaic. i an idea of what a roman mosaic at ephesus, utica, or halicarnassus was like, we may readily do so by an inspection of those discovered at brading, horkstow, cirencester, silchester, littlecote, bignor, and many other localities in england. many good illustrations of these latter will be found in morgan’s “romano-british mosaic pavements,” where a history of their discovery and an interpretation of the designs is duly set forth, and the more important examples figured in colours. some- times these mosaics take the form of mural decoration, but it is as pavements that we most freely encounter them. the use of mosaic is derived from the earliest periods, and may be traced through the practice of egypt and assyria to greece, and thence swept into the all-gath- ering met of rome. christian byzantium, on the fall of pagan rome, made a great use of it, and its introduction in ecclesiastical and other buildings has continued to the present day. we read incidentally in the book of esther, in the description of a feast in the palace at shushan (susa) of king ahasuerus, of a pavement of red, blue, white, and black marble, or according to the reading in the margin, of porphyry, and marble, and alabaster, and stone of blue colour. the egyptians some three thousand years ago practised a curious kind of mosaic, wherein the pattern was produced by a number of very small rods of opaque- coloured glass arranged in rows perpendicularly to the surface of the design, so that if any number of sections were made horizontally through the glass, éach would have exactly the same pattern. winckelman mentions a the birth and development of ornament. specimen of this minute egyptian work where, in a space one inch long and the third of an inch in breadth, a bird resembling a duck is given. he adds that the most delicate pencil of the miniature painter could not have traced with greater clearness the circle of the eye-ball or the feathers on the neck." in the reign of alexander the great mosaic pavements were common throughout greece, not only of a geometric character, but also of more elaborate design. the early pavements were composed of small pieces of matural stone or marble cemented on an underlying bed into geometric patterns, figure subjects, floral borders, but later on a greater variety of colour was more easily obtained by using coloured clays, and this in time gave place to glass. until the end of the third century we find little or no mention of the use of mosaic as a wall decoration. the ordinary arrangement was to cut up the floor space into very definite geometrical forms, emphasized by borders of geometric character, such as chequers, guilloches, plaits, or frets, and then to place in the centres of these spaces mythological figures, historic incidents, scenes of the chase, symbolic figures of the seasons, and so forth, marine subjects often occur; thus, in an example from halicarnassus in the british museum, * another famous example is that known as the “doves of the capitol.” it was found in the villa of hadrian at tivoli, and secured for the capitoline museum by clement xiii. one gets some idea of its extreme minuteness of workmanship on learning that in one square inch of it one hundred and sixty distinct pieces of marble have been counted. this, of course, was equivalent to a picture, and not by any means to be trodden under foot. subjects introduced in mosaics. we see amphitrite amidst dolphins and other fish, and on either side of her a triton. in one from carthage we see a fish-basket turned over, and strewn around are numerous fish and other sea creatures; amongst them we can identify sea-perch, mullet, prawns, wrass, eels, and lobsters. in a hunting scene we find the following animals introduced: wild boar, stag, ostrich, fox, and panther; while in another we see peacocks, guinea-fowls, and several other kinds of birds. the tesserae used were generally cubes of about three-quarters of an inch side. from the writings of pliny it would appear that this mosaic-work first became prevalent in rome about b.c., though it had been gradually growing into favour for some considerable time. he gives the name of several eminent workers in mosaic, and writes of it as a thing well established." amongst wall mosaics one of the most famous and best known is that representing the battle between alexander and darius at issus. it is about twenty feet long and ten feet high, and was discovered at pompeii in the year , in the building that, on its excavation, was entitled the house of the fawn. in composition, general attitude, foreshortening, treatment of drapery, and all else that goes to the making of a picture, it is excellent, as the conquests in asia introduced a taste for orna- mental display that vitiated the old greek refinement and * the student may advantageously refer to the “universal art inventory.” part i.-mosaics and stained glass. part ii.--gold- smiths' work, enamels, ivories. part iii.-bronze, iron, and other metal-work. part iv.-wood-work and sculpture. the birth and development of ornament. substituted richness and excess of decoration, so in like manner the simplicity of early rome developed ultimately into boundless luxury and indiscriminate extravagance. vitruvius exclaims, “what our forefathers accomplished by art we attempt to affect by gaudy colouring.” pliny complains that “a man now cares nothing for art, pro- vided he has his walls covered with purple.” “during the first four ages,” says gibbon, “the romans, in the laborious school of poverty, had acquired the virtues of war and government; by the vigorous exertion of these virtues, and by the assistance of fortune, they had ob- tained in the course of the three succeeding centuries an absolute empire over many countries of europe, asia, and africa. the last three centuries had been consumed in apparent prosperity and internal decline.” philosophers and satirists inveighed against the unbounded luxury that was so conspicuous in every direction; but all such warning was unheeded, and the nation hastened to its fall. “thou stranger which for rome in rome here seekest, and nought of rome in rome perceiv'st at all, these same old walls, old arches, which thou seest, old palaces, is that which rome men call. behold what wreck, what ruin, and what waste, and how that she which with her mighty powre tam’d all the world, hath tam’d herself at last, the prey of time, which all things doth devoure. rome now of rome is th’ only funerall, and only rome, of rome hath victory; ne ought save tyber, hast’ning to his fall remains of all: o world's inconstancy that which is firm, doth flit and fall away; and that is flitting, doth abide and stay.” " * spenser's “ruines of rome.” the transfer from rome to byzantium. on the transfer of the seat of government to byzantium, a.d. , and the introduction of christianity, entirely new influences arose. amongst these influences the greater proximity to the schools of art of the east, with their great love for colour, and the change of creed powerfully affected the arts, and we may well make the consideration of the new state of things that sprang up a fresh departure. chapter iv. division of the roman empire—introduction of christianity— byzantine and romanesque art — authorities to consult — ravenna—the modified acanthus—symbolic art—re-intro- duction of classic forms—the dome—use of colour–fine mosaic work—immense art value of these mosaics—modern revival of mosaic—st. mark's, venice—commercial greatness of the queen of the adriatic—lombardic work—interlacing—celtic ornament—spirals and frets—books of gospels—the book of kells—saxon work—norman carvings—the use of animal forms in ornament—reasons of their introduction—mythical forms— the bull in art—the elephant—ganesa—characteristic norman mouldings—early english gothic—the dog-tooth—diapering— decorated gothic—naturalistic treatment—tiles—the grotesque in art—perpendicular gothic—-panelling—great use of heraldry -—stained glass—chronology of english gothic. on the general break-up of the roman or western empire we find the artistic and intellectual influences shifting their centres from rome to constantinopolis, the city of constantine, the modern constantinople, the ancient byzantium. with the inroads of the men of the north upon rome—a thing that in the purer days of roman life would have been impossible, but for which roman luxury and enervation and the division of the empire had now paved the way—chacs for a while ruled * “history is little more than the history of capital cities. “paris the break-up of pagan art. i i 'supreme, the old classic forms of art sank into abeyance, and from them ultimately arose forms that were no longer roman, though largely suggested by them, and hence termed romanesque. architecture, and the arts generally, had broken from the old moorings, and were drifting hither and thither without rudder or compass. from this confusion, while men were feeling their way, arose a variety of young and vigorous offshoots, and it is very difficult, and, in the small space at our disposal, impossible, to follow these through their various modifications. on the introduction of christianity into italy many of the old courts of law or basilicas were used as churches, and the form and arrangement of these being found very suit- able for the purpose, these were copied in the new build- ings; hence, in what was termed lombardic, the basilican type of construction, with its old classic forms, was a. good deal in evidence. the noble basilica of st. john de lateran, together with those of st. laurentius, st. agnes, st. peter, and st. paul at rome, were some of the first- fruits of the zeal of constantine, the first christian emperor. - very similar results were working out at byzantium, though the causes were different. in rome the old state of things perished in flame and bloodshed, while in con- is france.” blot out from english annals all that was originated or consummated in london, and what have you left rome was the ultimate focus of vital force in the ancient world. no people ever successfully organized and maintained itself with a plurality of capitals. a second capital rent the roman empire in twain. babylon culminated on the ruins of nineveh.”—conant. - i the birth and development of ornament. stantinople the introduction of christianity caused a mental reaction against everything associated with the old pagan beliefs, and made the corinthian capital of jupiter's temple almost as abhorrent as jupiter himself. at the same time art came much more under oriental influence, and to the new capital flocked men who brought with them new canons of art. byzantime work was itself in- fluenced by, and in turn influenced, persic and saracenic : and though on the fall of byzantium, on its capture by the turks, the new religion produced new modifications, byzantine art has in russia, the great seat of the greek church, survived to the present day. byzantine art made its appearance in ravenna' in the first half of the sixth century, and later on in venice. the romanesque, or basilican, or lombardic, call it which we will, travel- ling mainly north and south, affecting the buildings in sicily, and markedly seen at hildesheim and bonn, had several points of contact with the byzantine, travelling mainly east and west, through ravenna and venice to the south of france, to angoulême and perigeux. from the blending that arose from contact sprang norman and * the goths on the conquest of italy established their capital, not in rome, but at ravenna. theodoric, a great lover of the arts, embraced the new religion and erected several churches. the city is of immense interest, from its very ancient buildings and the mosaics within them dating mostly from the fifth and sixth centu- ries. the magnificent basilica of san vitale, a circular church, built in the reign of justinian, is very rich in mosaic-work. other famous churches are the basilica of s. giovanni evangelista, built in the year ; s. giovanni battista, ; sta maria in cosmedin, s. appollinare, s. francesco, and ss. nazario e celso, the mausoleum. of galla placidia, daughter of theodosius the great. byzantine architecture. i gothic art, and we may in paris, caen, canterbury, lincoln, or durham, see capitals that can be distinctly traced back to the acanthus form developed by the greeks four centuries before the christian era." one of the most characteristic of byzantine buildings is the cathedral of santa sophia—the heavenly and eternal wisdom—at constantinople, for centuries the noblest shrine of christian worship. constantine transferred, about a.d., his capital to constantinople, and built, amongst many stately edifices, a cathedral dedicated to the eternal wisdom; but this building and another that succeeded it each perished by fire, and the structure we now see was erected in the reign of justinian, being com- menced about the year a.d., and finished in the short period of six years. the architect was anthemius, a greek. st. mark’s, venice, is another very characteristic byzantine building. this also was executed under greek influence. all students of the subject should take an opportunity of studying the noble and richly illustrated work of salzenburg on santa sophia. other works on this period of art that may be profitably consulted are the following: rnight’s “saracenic and norman architecture”; quast's book on ravenna; texier and pullan's fine work on byzantine architecture; bunsen’s “basilicas of christian rome’; heideloff's book on byzantine architectural * reference may here be made to the work of hubsch, “monu- ments de l'architecture chretienne depuis constantine jusqu'a charlemagne,” a finely illustrated book that shows the widely ex- tending influence of the new ideas. the birth and development of ornament. details, capitals, panels, and the like; osten's book on “les monuments de la lombardie”; wyatt's mosaics; ruskin’s “stones of venice”; verneilh’s “l’architecture byzantine en france”; and kreutz's book, “la basilica di san marco in venezia.” the acanthus is still freely found in byzantine work, but it assumes a quite different character, the forms being much more angular than those of classic date. while the flowing curves of the earlier form are to a great extent lost, the new treatment is full of vigour, and is perhaps quite as pleasing. the great feature, however, of byzantine art is its essentially symbolic character. during the first and second centuries of the christian era these symbols were only secondarily of decorative service, the chief motive for their introduction being as exhortations to faith, and as teachers of religious dogma. where a form is primarily introduced from the meaning it conveys it may have little or no beauty, and while the mind is instructed there may be very little decorative charm. it is palpably a mere chance if there is. as time went on, and the fear of paganism declined, the scroll form, the anthemion, and some few other classic features were admitted, and, decoratively, the style developed into one of much greater interest. all forms employed were very conventional in character, even the animal forms and human figures that were so freely introduced were, in their proportions and angularity of treatment, very unlike nature. the later byzantine designs, where the symbolism is less obtrusive, are often very beautiful. byzantine architecture. i in architecture great use is made of the dome," a symbol of the vault of heaven, and the cross, circle, and other symbolic types constantly recur; but into the symbolic significance of the various forms introduced we need not here enter, as we have already, in another volume of this series, gone fully into the history, prin- ciples, and practice of symbolism as exemplified in christian art, and to that volume we would, rather than here repeat ourselves, refer the student. the subject is one of immense interest and value. - the influence of byzantine art was very great through- out most of europe for more than five hundred years, while its power over the conquering arabs was equally marked, as we may see in the buildings erected in cairo, alexandria, jerusalem, and sicily. a good deal of persian work is also very byzantine in feeling, though in this case probably the influence was mutual, as many persian workmen were employed in byzantium, and the result, in homely phrase, was “give and take.” whatever the objection on religious grounds to the use of pagan forms, no such difficulty could arise in the case of colour; hence one very strong feature in byzantine art is its lavish use of this potent element in decoration. the influence of the sunny east was here exercised with very marked effect, and in addition to this the luxury of the court and the gorgeous ritual of the church led to the introduction of the most costly materials, marble of the rarest and most varied beauty, an abundant use of gold, we may still see this feature very markedly in the russian churches. i the birth and development of ornament. silver, and precious stones, richly embroidered hangings, and whatever else tended to the glorification of the state or the state creed. magnificent mosaics and richly tesselated pavements were one very characteristic feature in this wealth of ornament. though we have seen in classic work a great use of mosaic, the art did not attain to its full splendour until the period now under consideration; and though many excellent early examples may be seen, its chief development was after the spread of christianity. the byzantine mosaics were ordinarily of glass, and the back- grounds of the subjects nearly always of gold. the original use of mosaic as a pavement naturally suggested the employment of variously coloured stones, materials that after all did not give a very extended or varied scale of colour; but the principal use of mosaic in this early christian art was for mural decoration, and in this position, out of harm's way, the brilliant tints obtainable in glass were at the service of the artist. the designs are almost always figure subjects, though in subordinate positions we may get conventional foliage, geometric or other decorative treatments. the figures have the stiff- of the geometric type, digby wyatt's book on “geometric mosaics” affords many characteristic examples. it contains some twenty plates of illustrations printed in gold and colours. it is a book to be seen by any one desirous of understanding the character and possibilities of this geometric work. in tyrwhitt's excellent book on the “art teaching of the primitive church'' will be found a very interesting chapter on the mosaics of rome, ravenna, etc., where the whole subject is treated with an elaboration that is here im- possible. the value of fresco in architecture. i ness and elongated proportions that are so characteristic. of byzantine work, but they are ordinarily very noble in their dignity. the domes and apses are covered with figures of angels and archangels, saints and prophets, con- fessors and martyrs, the central figure being the saviour of the world. the eternal glory of christ and of his followers is alone represented, sorrow and sighing are for sever gone. “i am he that liveth and was dead, and behold i am alive for evermore.” the effect of these mosaics, their brilliancy partly subdued by the dim light and the dust and stain of time, is very grand. for nearly a thousand years, from the fourth century after christ to the time of giotto, mosaic was almost exclusively employed for wall decoration, and for four centuries was absolutely so employed. hence they are of the greatest possible interest and value: links in the long chain of art that we could not possibly spare. on the re-introduction of fresco-painting, the more laborious art gave way to the new-comer, though it has never entirely died out. successive popes have employed mosaic in the decoration of st. peter's at rome, and many of the celebrated and perishing works of the great masters, rafaelle, da vinci, and others, have been trans- lated, after, in some cases, twenty years of labour, into a material that no length of time will have power to affect, and which, so long as the fabric endures within which it is placed, may be justly deemed imperishable. amongst modern illustrations of its revived use we may instance the frieze that runs round the albert hall at south kensington, where an area of over five thousand st. mark's cathedral, venice. i empire fall, and the ferocious mussulmans rise on its ruins.” the venetians, originally fugitives before alaric and his goths, in the year sought shelter in the islands of the lagoon; but ere long they rose to greatness, and, as merchant princes, carried on extensive commerce with the then known world. in the magnificence of their operations and all that contributed to power, they rivalled ancient tyre. we read that in their mercantile navy consisted of over three thousand sail, and the piazza of st. mark was the great market-place of christendom." “once did she hold the gorgeous east in fee, and was the safeguard of the west ; the worth of venice did not fall below her birth, venice, the eldest child of liberty,+ she was a maiden city, bright and free : no guile seduced, no force could violate; and when she took unto herself a mate, she must espouse the everlästing sea.” ” the cathedral of st. mark was commenced in the year , and for more than five hundred years the wealth of venice was freely lavished upon its adornment. the floor is inlaid with jasper, porphyry, alabaster, and precious marbles, the walls are encrusted with magnificent mosaics. the wealth of the world flowed through venice, and venetian princes gathered from everywhere * “there,” says coryate, who saw it more than two hundred years ago, “you may see many polonians, slavonians, persians, grecians, turks, jews, christians, of all the famousest regions of christendom, and each nation distinguished from another by their proper and peculiar habits—a singular show, and by many degrees the worthiest. of all the european countries.” - wordsworth. st. mark's cathedral, venice. i f broad archivolts, a côntinuous chain of language and of life—angels and the signs of heaven and the labours of men, each in its appointed season upon the earth ; and above these another range of glittering pinnacles mixed with white arches, edged with scarlet flowers, a confusion of delight, amidst which the breasts of the greek horses. are seen blazing in their breadth of golden strength, and the st. mark's lion, lifted on a blue field covered with alombardic work. i trilithons while they discussed cold fowl and salad; but the eye sees no more than the mind will allow it to see, and bodily vision must be supplemented by mental to be of any real value. lombardic work, rude and archaic as it is, is full of 'dignity and power. the subjects introduced are often biblical or legendary, at other times deal with war or fig. . incidents of the chase. these are often mixed up with grotesque animals or convolutions of acanthus or other foliage, while elsewhere the dragons and other monsters are themselves knotted together and interlaced with great ingenuity and complexity of treatment. with ourselves the development of the romanesque became the norman or round arch gothic style, and this in turn gave place l · ， ! ----， !|-||- ſ.l.ſ' ！- . r - Ķ” → -? №sºſ ș№ № jn \ ~s（ - § < - the birth and development of ornament. mate rise and fall of the interlacing as the forms cross and recross, may be taken as a symbol of the woven warp and woof of fate and human life. in fig. , a key of the renaissance period, this inter- lacing of the cipher is almost the sole decorative feature; while the celtic and anglo-saxon examples (figs. , ), with the exception of a few bosses or studs, owe their decorative effect entirely to this very characteristic treatment. celtic ornament, whether we find it on metal-work, on the wayside cross, or in the magnificently illuminated mss. of the period, is of almost identical nature, so that a piece of ornament from any one of these sources could be at once transferred to either of the other two without any sense of incongruity. it has three marked elements of design in it. these are not characteristic of special localities or periods, but all occur together, and very often on the same piece of work. these are—firstly, de- signs based on the spiral line; secondly, fret or key patterns, differing from greek and most other types of fret in having their lines thrown obliquely instead of parallel with the sides of the panels that enclose them ; thirdly, interlacing, either of pure line or of serpentine, draconic or other animal forms." the form to be decor- ated is invariably marked off into panels or other quite definite spaces that are separated from each other by a “in one of the pages in the gospels of st. chad, which we have . taken the trouble to copy, there are not fewer than one hundred and twenty of the most fantastic animals.”—owen jones. º - º - º º -- --- - - º º º º º -> - - - - - - w º º - - - - n b º º - l-º-º-º- ºr i- t titli riºtt in it tº t º | - s nº n ºniº - º ºš nº nºhºº animal forms in ornament. i the birth and development of ornament. distinct band or plain margin, and the ornament in each of these spaces is complete in itself, and is frequently not repeated in what one may term the opposite or balancing space in any composition, each panel being not only self- contained, but individual and special. on the deaths of the somewhat numerous celtic saints, their books, crosier, bell, the chalice they used, and other belongings became treasured relics, and were enshrined with great reverence, as they were held to be of potent efficacy as pledges of victory in the day of battle, to heal the sick, to sustain the dying, and in multitudinous other emergencies where a little spiritual help would be very acceptable. in the museum of the royal irish academy in dublin are preserved several copies of the gospels that belonged to notable irish saints, each of these being en- shrined in a costly and elaborately ornamented casket. fig. is the shrine or outer covering containing a bell that belonged to st. patrick. this also is in the dublin collection. the bell itself is referred to as a relic in a ms, dating from the year , but the bell-cover illus- trated was made about the year . to meet a possible objection we may point out that the bell itself is not of modern circular form, but taperingly quadrangular." another fine bell-shrine, enclosing the bell of st. culan, may be seen in the british museum. brooches and other articles of personal adornment are a common swiss cow-bell on our table as we write is the very thing, made out of a sheet of metal roughly bent up into this shape and then rivetted down the sides to keep it together. such were the bells of the early celtic church. 'f ‘di i the art of the anglo-saxons. i i st. columba, under whose direction the book was very possibly executed, was born in the year . he was a great missionary in the western isles and north of scot- land, and was so continuously employed until his decease in the year that it is impossible that he could have written either this book, which is itself the task of a long life, or numerous others that have been accredited to him. - of saxon art we have but few remains, either in archi- tecture, manuscripts, or elsewhere. the execution is crude, and the forms, either of intention or inability, are often grotesque. at sompting church, sussex, one of the capitals has a rude resemblance to corinthian, while another has curved volutes that are very suggestive of ionic. the period, however, was not by any means an artistic one. the churches were often built of wood and thatched with reeds. bede in his “historia ecclesiastica” tells us that when st. augustine came to britain, a.d. , he found many of the roman temples still standing. these had in turn been utilized by the saxons for their pagan worship, and those which were substantially built st. augustine consecrated and converted to christian service. it was not until the seventh century that the art of building in stone was revived. bishop hiscop collected together masons, makers of glass, and other valuable helpers in france, and these instructed the saxons in many useful arts. we are expressly told by an old chronicler that the numerous ecclesiastical buildings that sprung up from the seventh to the tenth centuries were built “after the roman manner,” debased copies of the birth and development of ornament. work itself debased, but a fact sufficient to account for the sompting capitals and such-like suggestions of classic influence. the examples that are extant of norman art are almost entirely architectural in their origin, and such as we find in wall-paintings, the capitals, and occasionally the shafts, of columns, and the archivolts of arches. a considerable use of human figures and other animal forms is made in the decoration of fonts, tympana, etc. these are often very grotesque in character—a result that, as in the saxon work referred to, is frequently not by any means intended. rude as they are in execution, they ordinarily convey some spiritual lesson if one can only interpret it. the agnus dei is often introduced in what appears to be a very incongruous way with other animals—wild boars, stags, and so forth; but these boars are symbolic of the wicked compared in the bible to a wild boar of the wood rooting up and destroying right and left, while the stags are typical of the righteous that strive after holiness as the hart panteth after the water-brooks. the agnus dei is represented as fighting with the dragon on a capital at st. lawrence church, york, and may be seen again on the arch mould- ings of doorways at barton-le-street, bishop wilton, brayton, dalmeny, and elsewhere. one great difficulty in dealing with the early sculptures is to identify the different animals at all, apart from any question of their symbolic significance, as the representations of them are often very unlike the real creatures. the use of animal forms seems especially character- animal forms in art. i istic of certain periods, and these periods are ordinarily, though by no means invariably, when the art-power is not fully equal to the art-intention. the child will en- deavour to draw a man or a horse on its slate rather than a rose or a lily, and is by no means dissatisfied with attempts that strike the elders as being atrociously bad. in art matters we can tolerate work of very varying de- grees of merit of execution. hence we accept thankfully the magnificent horses on the parthenon frieze, the de- lightfully rendered birds and fish of the japanese, or the impossibly powerful dragons of the chinese, with all their wealth of scaly horror. failing these, we can enjoy the most archaic and bizarre results so long as they are a genuine testimony to the delight felt by the artist in the creatures that he attempts to portray. hence from this sympathy with the wild creatures around him, the esquimaux carves from the tusk of the walrus the walrus itself, the reindeer or the seal; while the north american indian models his pipe-bowl into the form of the beaver and the alligator, or daubs with rude art his tent with representations of the moose-deer, the grizzly bear, and the deadly rattle-snake. though all departments of organic nature have from time to time been laid under contribution in the service of design, the animal kingdom has nevertheless been far less employed than the vegetable. several reasons suggest themselves to the mind why this should be so. the very fact of animals being far higher in the scale of creation than acanthus leaves in itself unfits them for many positions where some decorative treatment is the birth and development of ornament. required, for the eye that is not offended by seeing a symmetrical grouping of foliage would feel the incon- gruity of placing animals, creatures having volition, under like rigid conditions. another potent reason doubtless is that while mediocrity can carve out tudor roses or lotus buds by the score or the thousand, it cannot grapple adequately with higher forms. the repetition that is so marked a feature in all work produced under the influence of machinery is also greatly against the use of these higher forms. incongruity again is felt when in a wall-paper or damask, for example, fifty butterflies, all spaced out at equal distances, are all soaring upward at the same angle; or fifty stags, all tripping with the same measured gait, advance with a perfection of dis- cipline that suggests the monotonous drill of the barrack- yard rather than the glorious freedom of the ferny glades of the forest, or the wide expanse of purple moorland. animal forms in the ornament of the past will ordinarily be found to owe their introduction either to their con- nection with some mythological incident, as in much of the art of ancient times; or to some symbolic meaning that has been attributed to them, as in many examples. to be met with in early christian art, such as fig. , the eagle symbol of st. john, from old stained glass in the south kensington museum; or to the requirements. of heraldry," as illustrated by numerous examples in * we have in another volume of the series dealt with the history, principles, and practice of heraldry at considerable fulness, and would therefore refer our readers to numerous examples that are: there duly set forth. animal forms in art. i mediaeval or modern work, of which figs. , , , may be taken as illustrations. as the language of heraldry, at least in the earlier times, is frequently as symbolic as that of religion, the two might very reason- ably be here classed together as one influence, the symbolic, though practically it is convenient to subdivide it into two classes—the religious symbolism, that advances truth and dwells on the glory of god; the heraldic, that deals rather with earthly glory and ministers to the pride of man. when animal forms are found in the work of those peoples whose art level is somewhat low, they are gener- ally as naturalistic as imperfect means and powers permit, and in most cases probably owe their introduction to plea- sure and interest found in the creatures. later on the forms become symbolic and more or less conventional, and the choice is guided by the inner life rather than by the outward form. hence it is rather the cunning of the fox in this latter case that influences the selection than the delight in its lithe suppleness of bodily form, the courage of the lion, the greed and rapacity of the wolf, the gluttony of the pig, the vigilance of the cock, rather than an appreciation of the mere outward appearance of these creatures that has led to their introduction. our readers will readily recall many other such examples in illustration of the feeling that has thus influenced the choice. where we fail to grasp the idea involved, it will in many cases arise from our inability to enter into the state of mind of some far-distant people, remote either in time or locality, or else that the special historical or legen- the birth and development of ornament. dary associations connected with the forms are unknown to us. thus a maori getting hold of an english sovereign bearing the device of a man on horseback killing some strange monster, while he admired the vigour of action, could not penetrate into the motive of adoption; for to him, we may assume, the legend of st. george and the dragon would be wholly unknown. reasoning from this, if we find certain devices—say, for example, on early greek coinage—that, rude as they are, clearly point to some religious belief, are the at- tributes of some deity, commemorate some event in the national history, or are the recognised badge of some state or colony, we may not unreasonably assume that other devices, to us meaningless, possess no less some inner significance, could we but pierce beneath the sur- face. though the number of mythical forms introduced in art is very great, and naturally so, when we consider the ex- tent of the field and the great variety of beliefs extending throughout the mythologies of mexico and peru in the new world, the more refined imaginings of the classic nations of antiquity, or the quaint beliefs of the eastern nations, as exemplified in the paintings and sculptures of india, china, and japan, those that we find most freely recurring in art examples are comparatively few in num- ber. in some cases the forms introduced are too seldom employed to have received a distinguishing name, and in many cases are probably, as in some of the forms seen at pompeii, but the individual fancies of some one mind; but in many other cases the particular form has been | | | º º hºss ºil. . º - º - º º n | - | | -- the birth and development of ornament. freely adopted and frankly accepted. various examples of these mythical forms will be found in figs. , , , , , , . of this class the sphinx, sea-horse sea-lion, phoenix, cockatrice, griffin, dragon, chimaera, mermaid, wyvern, centaur, unicorn, hydra, harpy, basi- lisk, or salamander, may be accepted as types; for though none of these creatures have, or ever had, any real existence, being wholly the creations of fancy, they have received a certain precision of treatment that makes any of them as clearly recognisable as any strictly natural form. we may, in passing, point out the curious fact that the wit of man seems to have almost wholly failed to create a really original form. perhaps the dragon of the chinese, as we may see in fig. , is as nearly purely fanciful as any; but practically these various monstrous forms are not creations at all: they are merely combinations and adaptations of natural forms, types familiar enough to us in themselves. thus a mermaid is but a human being terminating in the body and tail of a fish; the centaur is partly human, partly equine; the harpy is the union of the head of a woman with the body and feet of a bird. the illus- trations on plate x, are curious norman examples of various monstrous forms. the bull, ram, stag, lion, horse, dog, goat, boar, wolf, fox, and many other quadrupeds are found in art. it would be impossible and, in any case, needless to dwell at any length upon each of these creatures. we will con- tent ourselves, therefore, with giving some few details of the bull, the first in our catalogue. this animal is fre- /ke bu// , a . i quently introduced in early art. amongst the egyptians the bull apis was worshipped as a god, as the earthly type, manifestation, and representative of great osiris. this sacred animal therefore naturally occurs throughout the art of this ancient people." fore parts of bulls joined together at the centre of the body form the commonest type of the capitals of the columns found in the palaces of persepolis and susa, and the animal figures again very largely in the assyrian remains. it is, however, always human-headed, and bears therefore probably considerable analogy to the egyptian sphinx, the union of material strength with intellectual power. the sphinx is always represented as recumbent, while the assyrian figures of like character are invariably standing, and are ordinarily in pairs, one on either side of a doorway. in classic art, representations of the bull are freely found. it is a very common device on ancient coinage; we see it on that of chalcedon in bythinia, on that of sybaris, samos, and many other places. . a considerable variety of treatment may be found. on the coins of gelas and of neapolis the bull is human-headed; on those of * thirty tombs of these bulls, who lived one after the other for a space of some six hundred years, have been discovered at memphis, the chief seat of apis worship. it will be remembered how this apis cult that had been so familiar to the children of israel while in bond- age in egypt fascinated them and turned them aside over and over again from the worship of jehovah, as for example:— “when their borrowed gold composed the calf in oreb; and the rebel king doubled that sin in bethel and in dan, likening his maker to the grazing ox.” i o the birth and development of ornament. phocis we get the animal's head alone, and given in front view ; on those of thurium and tauromenium the bull is represented as charging; while in the coins of eretria the animal is in repose. the coins of metapontum, a greek colony in sicily, have on the obverse the river god archelous, a river of that part of greece from which the colony sprang. the deity is represented in human form, leaning on a reed, and having the head of a bull. the figure of a bull was often used to symbolise a stream. homer, in narrating the combat between the river god scamander and achilles, says of the former that he roared like a bull—an idea afterwards employed by other poets. in the fable of the conflict of hercules with the river- deity archelous, the latter is represented as actually changing himself into a bull, the deep roar of the bull being no doubt suggested by the sound of the torrent, while the impetuosity of the attack not inaptly symbolises the rush of the stream as it carries all before it. on the coins of camarina, a syracusan colony, we find the same idea treated with great beauty and refinement, the centre of the coin being filled with a youthful human head, full face, having the budding horns of a bull just rising from the hair, while the whole is surrounded by the wave scroll, the well-known symbol for water. a not unfrequent treatment on early coinage is the con- flict between a lion and a bull. we may see an illustration of this in fig. , from a beautiful coin of acanthus in macedonia. various theories have been broached in expla- nation of this device. by some it is held to symbolise the triumph of the ruler or the state over external or domestic the bu// in art. i i foes—a not improbable motive for its adoption. by others the lion is held to typify the sun, and the bull, as the symbol of a river, to represent the unwholesome vapours and exhalations of earth; being thus, like the dragon device on our modern english sovereigns, one symbolic rendering the more of the great struggle between the good and the evil that in one form or another—as in fig. , again a lion and dragon in conflict—is so often the subject of art. in the etruscan gallery of the british museum may be seen an embossed relief repre- senting a frieze of lions, bulls, and winged ibexes. it is a very early example of etruscan art. the capture of the cretan bull by hercules, and afterwards of the cattle of geryon, figure with the other famous labours of the demi-god; and the slaying of the minotaur, a monster having a human body and bull's head, by theseus is another favourite subject in classic art. europa, beloved of zeus, who transformed himself into a white bull, was by him borne over the sea to crete. there she gave birth to three sons, who each became the founder of an illustrious line. the people of crete, proud of their descent from so noble an ancestry, represented this incident in many ways. sometimes the bull alone figures upon their coins, at others he is bearing the fair europa to their shores. the abduction of europa was a very favourite subject, not only with the cretans, but throughout the whole realm of classic art. the goddess silene is sometimes represented as riding in a chariot drawn by bulls. what are termed bucrania — sculptured ornaments m the birth and development of ormament. representing ox-skulls wreathed with flowers—were em- ployed to adorn the frieze of the entablature in the ionic and corinthian orders of architecture. as the allusion was to the sacrificial rites that took place within the temple it is evident that they cannot be legitimately employed in the decoration of modern churches, though they are sometimes introduced when the features of classic archi- tecture are slavishly adhered to, without due thought of their significance. the ram's head (fig. ) appears on a coin of delphis, while the greyhound (fig. ) is from a coin of segesta, and the boar (fig. ) is a device found on the money of salapia. we not unfrequently find in art examples of animals terminating in scroll-work. it is a common feature in classic decoration, as, for example, the horse from pompeii (fig. ). we therefore find it freely again in renaissance work, as in fig. , a piece of wood-carving, where the central mask is elaborately foliated. other good examples are fig. , from a piece of pottery in the south kensington museum; fig. , where the dolphin is certainly a very considerable departure from nature; and in the panel, fig. , where the suggestion of animal forms is present, but so disguised as to be scarcely recog- misable. though a characteristic piece of renaissance design, we would venture to say that the ribbons coming out of the eyes of the mask, the absurdly floral bird forms in the upper part of the composition, and the creatures below, with one leg ending in a paw and the other in a leaf, make altogether a most unsatisfactory result. the elephant in eastern work. i the lions of england (fig. ) and the isolated lion (fig. ), from a tile, are good examples of heraldic treatment, as is also the chained hart (fig. ), from westminster hall. fig. is a curious little stag panel from a roman mosaic. the elephant, though maturally a creature rather to be looked for in the art of the east than in that of these . western regions, must not on that account be overlooked, since it figures so very freely in the art of india and of other oriental nations with whom we are brought in con- tact. the elephant is occasionally seen in japanese art, but it is only as a buddhism emblem, and is copied more or less imperfectly from indian work, as the elephant not being found in japan, the artists have ordinarily had no opportunity of studying the beast from the life. the wonderful sagacity of the elephant is the subject of too many stories to need enforcing here, and we are not therefore surprised to find that ganesa, the god of wis- dom, one of the most important members of the hindu mythology, has the head of an elephant. all sacrifices and religious ceremonies are commenced by an invocation to him." figs. , are illustrations of the use of the * the original bestowal of the elephant's head would appear, how- ever, to have been very much of the nature of a chance. we read that ganesa, the eldest son of siva and parvati, was so unfortunate as to get embroiled with vishnu, one of the three superior gods, and that siva was so incensed that he cut his son's head off. his mother, parvati, greatly grieved at the loss of her child, was so terribly afflicted and practised such austerities, that siva, at the earnest re- quest of the other deities, would have restored him to life again had it not unfortunately happened that the severed head could not be found. the birth and development of ornament. elephant in oriental art; they are from illustrations in the south kensington museum. the first of these is a small portion of a long band or frieze made up of nothing but these elephant forms, all in some way varying from each other. fig. would appear to be a representation of an elephant seeking amidst the welcome foliage, cool beneath his feet and sheltering overhead, a refuge from the heat, or, it may be, from the plague of insect life that doubtless finds some vulnerable points even in the mighty elephant. we find the elephant again very freely in siamese work, on coinage and elsewhere, as it is one of the national emblems of siam. china again affords illustrations of its use. in the great cemetery at nankin, the resting-place of the bones of the emperors of the ming dynasty, we find, for example, two avenues of colossal stone figures of animals, such as elephants, lions, camels, bears, and others, which were deemed emblematic of the monarch there interred. a lamp found at pompeii had two elephants' heads pro- jecting from its sides; and in the bronze room devoted to greek and roman antiquities in the british museum may be seen a figure of africa, on her left side a lion, on her right an elephant's tusk—a sufficient indication that the animal was known to western artists. it was the custom of victorious generals on their return to rome to bring in this emergency, the case being urgent, there was nothing for it but to appropriate the first head that came to hand, and this happened to be an elephant's. all the deities, to appease and con- sole parvati on this very partial restoration of her son, consented that on all occasions he should be first invoked. the employment of birds in decoration. with them, as part of the spoils, any curious animals of the countries that had been the scene of their victories; and we know from the ancient writers that elephants were amongst the creatures so introduced to the citizens of rome. - an elephant carved by bishop bruère, an oriental traveller, may be seen on a misericord in exeter cathe- dral. this is earlier even than the famous picture in one of the cottonian mss. of the first elephant brought to england, an event that happened a.d. . those of our readers who are familiar with the albert memorial in kensington gardens will readily recall the four groups representing the four quarters of the world, that, together with the band of sculpture running round the podium, form so noble a base to the monument. the four animals that form the centres of the groups of typical figures are the camel, bull, elephant, and bison. various bird-forms are very freely introduced into decorative art, such as the eagle, dove, owl, pelican, swan, swallow, stork, and peacock. examples of this decorative use of birds may be seen in several of the illustrations on plate xi., all from japanese sources. fig. is from the quaint bordering of the bayeux tapestry.' figs. and * the bayeux tapestry has, by permanent photography, been re- produced of the same size as the original work. as its cost, coloured in fac-simile, is £ , those of our readers who are not maniacs or millionaires will probably elect to see it in the libraries at south kensington or the british museum. the centre of the strip is occupied by the representation of the various incidents that relate to the landing of william the conqueror, while above and below run continuous borders or strips that are filled with various grotesque forms that have no connection with the historical scenes. japanese renderings of fish. the norman period, is, however, an illustration. the japanese draw fish admirably. some examples will be seen in plate xi. the lithe forms and simple contours fig. . and the graceful and pleasing motions are easily produced by the somewhat dashing sweep of the brush that is so characteristic of the work of this artistic race. the birth and development of ormament. serpents, lizards, butterflies, and many other forms are found in art. the palissy ware, of which fig. is an example, makes great use of various animal forms, such as snakes, lizards, toads, and the like ; and in various fig. . museums we may see examples of old english pottery, where a frog or toad is placed within the cup or mug. this of course is not intended to be decorative. it was supposed to be humorous, the point of the joke being the disgust and surprise of the drinker on finding, as he animal forms in decoration. emptied the vessel, this creature apparently ready to jump down his throat. in literature we find repeated references to this use of animal forms in art. thus herodotus describes a linen corslet that amasis, king of egypt, sent to the lacedae- monians, as having a vast number of animals interwoven in its fabric. in the “odyssey” we read that in the robe of ulysses— “in the rich woof a hound, mosaic drawn, bore on full stretch, and siezed a dappled fawn; deep in the neck his fangs indent their hold: they pant and struggle in the moving gold.” quintus curtius again, in describing the dress of dar- ius, says that “the waist part of the royal tunic was woven in white, and upon his mantle of cloth of gold were figured two golden hawks, as if pecking at one another with their beaks.” many other most interesting refer- ences might be given; it will suffice to instance but one more, and that from chaucer, who describes in one of his poems the dress of a maiden, who sat— “in a robe ryght ryall bowne of a red syclatowne be hur fader syde; a coronell on, hur hedd set, hur clothys with bestes and byrdes wer bete all abowte for pryde.” those who care to pursue this side of our subject further may find abundance of references in the old chronicles, heraldic treatises, and church and cathedral inventories. the birth and development of ornament. - beads, and the broader intermediate parts are carved into deep hollows. the billet (fig. ) is another character- istic moulding, as is also the cable, a form like a twisted fig. . rope, and the mail-head. other common forms are shown in figs. , , , . fig. is what is termed the beak-head. the capitals are very simple in form, and evamples of good worman woré. i their shafts are either plain or cut into zigzags, cables, and other enrichments. good norman work may be seen in the cathedrals of winchester, canterbury, durham, ely, peterborough, lincoln, and worcester; waltham abbey, malmesbury abbey, romsey abbey; the tower of london; st. bartholomew's, smithfield; st. mary's, marl- fig. . borough, in wiltshire; at iffley church, in oxfordshire. south ockenden, in essex; castle rising, in norfolk; st. peter's, northampton ; shoreham church, in sussex; barfreston, kent; brinsop, in herefordshire; wootton, in gloucestershire; stourbridge, in cambridgeshire; christchurch, hampshire; st. mary's church, por- chester; ketton, in rutlandshire; and many other local- the birth and development of ornament. ities. through a period of transition which has been termed semi-norman, which is contemporary with henry ii. and richard i., and which was distinguished by the arches in many cases becoming pointed and of greater span, the shafts lighter, a greater use of a rude type of foliage, and the mouldings of less massive character, we gradually pass to the first pointed gothic style, generally termed the thirteenth-century or early english period. there are many interesting remains of the transitional period, perhaps the finest example being the beautiful chapel of st. joseph at glastonbury. we remember in the small and somewhat poverty-stricken-looking church of ogbourne, in wiltshire, noticing that two doors, one on the south and the other on the north side, were almost identical in the zigzags and other mouldings; but while one was semicircular, the other was distinctly pointed. the elongated or lancet windows, the slender shafts, the lofty spires, the high-pitched roofs, and many other architectural features mark a striking difference between the thirteenth-century work and that which preceded it; but as our present business is rather with the decoration than with the purely constructional details, we need not here dwell upon these. perhaps the most striking orna- mental feature is that the zigzags, cables, billets, beak- heads, etc., utterly vanish, and their place is taken by the moulding known as the dog-tooth, a form that is found only in early english gothic, but which is there found in profusion. the simple mouldings round arches, windows, doorways, and so forth, are few in number, but they consist of rounds alternating with deeply cut hollows, so | foliage of early english gothic. i that they throw a very strong light and shade, and are very effective. the foliage introduced has great boldness of effect, and is freely used in the capitals, spandrels, bosses, and so forth. it is very deeply under-cut, as in fig. , and is generally treated with great flexibility and beauty of curve. the ornament, whether painted or carved, is often based on the scroll. the form of foliage employed is a conventional one, somewhat resembling a trefoil. the spandrel shown in fig. is a very characteristic example. when used in the capitals, as in fig. , it always grows boldly from the base-mould- ing or necking. it is not, as we shall find to be the case in the next century, wreathed horizontally round the birth and development of ornament. the capital, but suggests the idea of upward and vigorous growth. the shafts of the columns in windows, porches, pulpits, fonts, and elsewhere, stand boldly out from the general surface, so that the hand could be passed right round them ; and these shafts are often made of various marbles. a great use of arcading is very characteristic of early english. one may see this very well at westminster, fig. . wells, peterborough, and salisbury, and in fact in any good example of the period. these arcades are filled with statues of prophets, apostles, martyrs, virgins, confessors, kings, and bishops. the figures are often very dignified and beautiful in treatment, and have a very fine effect. fine as the architecture is, the sculpture is fully worthy of it, when we bear in mind the limitations under which it was produced. the greeks had, beneath their sunny skies, and in the public games, countless opportunities of the birth and development of ornament. doorways, that would otherwise look bare, a considerable use is made of circles containing trefoils or quatrefoils, but in rich examples of the style these spaces are filled with diapers. these are almost always based on the square, and these squares are usually filled by foliate forms in fours or eights that radiate from the centre and fill up the figure. these squares are ordinarily placed close together like those of a chessboard, but we occa- sionally find them separated by a band, more or less broad, of plain surface. diapers were also largely used in the decorated or fourteenth-century gothic, and in the perpendicular or fifteenth-century period. during these two latter it is often a painted instead of a carved en- richment, and probably was so in the thirteenth century, though no examples of this application of it are now forth- coming. we must bear in mind that grey and dingy as many of our cathedrals and churches look now, they were in mediaeval times richly adorned with colour. we must not therefore divide diapers into two classes, the painted and the carved. there is no such division: in most cases probably they were both at once. the term diaper is applied to any small repeat of geometric character that evenly covers a space, and such treatment may of course be found not only in architectural work but in illumination, textile fabrics and the like; and as a matter of fact we do throughout the middle ages find these diaper arrangements a very popular form of decora- tion, and often referred to as such. thus chaucer, in his “knight's tale,” describes how— o the birth and development of ornament. gradual transition entirely lost its original features, and merged into the fourteenth-century or decorated gothic. in this latter the windows were no longer of the simple character of the preceding century, but by degrees became more and more filled with tracery, at first of a strictly geo- metrical character, but afterwards of the most freely flow- ing forms. the dog-tooth entirely disappeared, being supplanted by an ornament almost as popular, known as the ball-flower. this was of globular form, and had numerous examples from the cathedrals of bristol, canterbury, exeter, gloucester, hereford, lichfield, norwich, oxford, peter- borough, salisbury, wells, winchester, worcester, and york. “brandon's analysis of gothic architecture,” illustrated by upwards of examples of doorways, windows, etc. plates. colling’s “examples of mediaeval foliage and coloured decora- tion,” taken from buildings of the twelfth to the fifteenth century, and giving about illustrations. colling's “gothic ornaments,” being a series of examples of enriched details and accessories of the architecture of great britain, taken from the structures of the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. plates. also, by the same author, two. volumes entitled “details of gothic architecture,” measured and drawn from existing examples of the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. plates. rickman's excellent book, modestly termed “an attempt to discriminate the styles of architecture in england, from the con- quest to the reformation, with a sketch of the grecian and roman orders.” another good book to see is waring’s “illustrations of archi- tecture and sculpture,” upwards of figures, comprising choice examples of mediaeval sculpture, metal work, architectural orna- ment, etc. in conclusion we may mention labarte's “handbook of the arts of the middle ages and the renaissance as applied to the decoration of furniture, arms, jewels, etc.” a book containing a large number of good illustrations. animal forms in ornament. the birth and development of ornament. three or four leaf-like portions that turn back sufficiently to enable a ball inside to be seen, the outer part being a sort of enclosing husk to the fruit-like form within. examples of it are abundant in work of this period. they are often placed in hollow mouldings by themselves, and the intervals between them made about equal to the spheres. at other times we find them further apart, and represented as growing from a spiral line. another very favourite form is a four-leaved flower of very square character that is placed at intervals in hollow mouldings, and associated with this are often other leaves, or human heads, these latter being generally of grotesque character. the capitals are very seldom two alike, and the foliage wreaths the bells of the capitals horizontally, instead of growing upwards from the necking mouldings. in early english work the foliated scrolls or other ornaments always appear, as in fig. , to spring from the mould- ing itself, and to be an inherent part of it, so that if we removed them it could only be by making a visible fracture, whereas the decorated ornaments suggest the idea that they are merely adherent, and that five minutes’ vigorous chiselling would entirely remove them, and leave the rest of the work unaffected by their absence. the foliage is no longer of the conventional type that is so characteristic of the thirteenth century. in the period now under consideration this is exchanged for an excess of naturalism, and the capitals and string courses become wreathed with all the treasures of the hedgerow—the richly cut leaves of the buttercup, the sprays of the wild rose, the sturdy growth of the acorn-laden oak, the beauti- misplaced naturalism. i ful leaves of the maple or the hawthorn or the bryony, the spiny foliage of the thistle, and many others. the lines of scott, in his description of the cloister garden, recur to our minds, where he dwells on how the— “spreading herbs and flowrets bright glistened with the dew of night, nor herb nor flowret glistened there but was carved in the cloister arches as fair.” at first sight one might say that this love of nature must be a decided step in advance, but on reflection we do not feel it to be so. the grand simplicity and sugges- tiveness of the earlier work is gone, and all the elaboration and intricate detail of the later carving fail to do justice to the grace of nature. beautiful as it is in intention and in appreciation of natural forms, the delicacy and grace of the wild denizens of the hedge-bank and the forest cannot be adequately expressed in stone-work, nor would it be desirable, on other grounds, that they should be. hence it would appear that we have arrived at this unhappy state of things: that we blame the old carvers because their work does not express the lightness of nature, while we add that if it did we should censure them no less, because then the sense of solidity and support so essential in a capital or other architectural feature would be lost, since a constructional detail must be not only actually strong enough for its work, but must give that sense of strength to the eye. but the moral clearly is that in any case in such a position the direct imitation of the natural forms is a mistake, and the blame is not that the carver made his maple leaves too light or the birth and development of ornament. too solid, but that he put maple leaves there at all, since he was bound in doing so to transfix himself on one horn or the other of the dilemma. the diapers of the fourteenth century are of more elaborate type than those they succeeded, being based not only on the square, but on the equilateral triangle, hexagon, and other geometrical forms. paving tiles are largely employed throughout the gothic period. they appear to have come into use about the end of the twelfth century, and they continued in use for over four hundred years. the designs on the thirteenth- century tiles bear the very characteristic form of foliage that we have already seen in the capitals and elsewhere; a very good example of these may be seen in the pave- ment of the chapter house, westminster abbey. in like manner the tiles of the fourteenth century bear the im- press of the prevailing taste, and are often composed of designs based on the oak, ivy, vine, and other foliage. apart from such patterns a great variety of designs may be seen. religious monograms are not uncommon, and at other times tiles bearing a single letter may be seen, and these were arranged in orderly sequence to spell out any required inscription. a great use is also made of animal forms (figs. , , ), and of various heraldic devices and badges, crosses, and other religious symbols, figures of mounted knights, of kings and queens and bishops, geometrical patterns, and so forth. in many cases the pattern on the tile is complete in itself, but in some instances each tile only bears a portion of the whole device, and it requires four, nine, sixteen, the manufacture of tiles. or more, to be arranged together before the figure is complete. the tiles are ordinarily red and yellow, but other colours are also introduced. the red and yellow are easily produced by natural clays, while other tints call for the intervention of the chemist; thus green, for example, was produced by the addition of oxide of copper. fig. . various methods of manufacture were adopted. in - some cases we find the pattern in relief, the whole tile being of one uniform colour. it was soon found that such tiles were very ill-adapted for pavements, as they readily chipped. this not only mutilated the pattern, but was otherwise unsightly, as the chipping removed the glazed the manufacture of tiles. filled in with white clay, and then the whole being covered over with a yellow glaze, the result was that the ordinary clay, on firing in the kiln, turned red, and the pattern upon it being yellow a good sharp contrast of colour was obtained, and the whole tile, ground-work and device, was one level surface. there were no sharp edges to be worn away, and the tile being in two colours instead of one, was much more effective. as the patterns were stamped upon the raw clay by a mould, it will be seen that identity of pattern was at once attainable. in addition to these, some few examples are found where the pattern was produced by painting the design with thin white clay upon the ground, and then glazing and firing it; but the process was not a particularly good one, and took no great hold. these were chiefly made in spain and flanders, and did not appear till about the sixteenth century." - - - the gothic carvers delighted both in nature and in the grotesque, some of their designs being of the most homely character. in one of the capitals, for instance, at wells cathedral, we find amongst the foliage an old woman the following extract from memoranda of expenses incurred by henry viii. in his building operations is of interest in this association :- “to jo norton for xxvi c. paving tiles of yellow and green for the new hall at iijs. viijd. the hundred vil. xvid.” “item, of mmmm flemyshe pavynge tiles of greene and youllow at vs. the hundythe.” “pavynge tiles anneled for the kynges new hall at xxvis. viiid. the m.” “wi thousand and fourscore of pavynge tiles delivered at hampton court, for to pave the kinges new hall at xxvis. viijd. the thousand.” the birth and development of ornament. freeing her foot from a thorn. there are some other capitals in the same cathedral all equally homely in tone, and passing almost imperceptibly from the picturesque to the ludicrous; a good example of the former may be seen in a woodman proceeding to his labours. over his shoulder he carries his axe and provision wallet, while his costume, heavy boots, and thick gloves all give character and truth to the figure. animals are also sometimes introduced : the bird upon her nest, the coiled snake, the squirrel cracking his nuts amongst the hazel leaves. in estimating the ludicrous or grotesque, we must be careful to discriminate between what is deliberately in- tended and that which merely results from the inability of the designer to compass that one step which we are told alone separates the sublime from the ridiculous. we are of course all of us well aware from our own experi- ence of life that a person is sometimes never so funny as when he has not the slightest intention of being so. the love of the grotesque is a very marked art feature, especially amongst some races, and our readers will readily discriminate between the intentionally and the unintentionally humorous by a reference to plate ix. the man, a peruvian, who devised the owl-like jar (fig. ) was seized with a quaint idea, and meant it to amuse us; while the old cottage woman, from whose needlework we become possessed of the peacock and pigeon (figs, , ) had not the slightest intention of being comic, and her work is grotesque without meaning to be so. she might possibly say that from the necessity of working in squares on the material it would be impossible to pro- /e birth and development of ornament. be discriminated. they are both of the same period and of like honest intention. in fig. the animals seizing upon each other are grotesque of deliberate intention, and as it pleased the sculptor so to have them ; while in fig. the three horsemen raise a smile as we note the riders actually imbedded in their horses, and mark the especially attenuated proportions of the lowest of them. here the sculptor had no intention at all of being funny, and was doubtless heartily vexed when he saw how unfortunately he had judged his spaces. another good example of the accidental grotesque arises from the anachronisms that are so freely seen in a good deal of thoroughly well-intentioned work. as an illustration of this we may refer to the schreyer monu- ment at st. sebald’s, nuremburg, the work of the famous adam krafft." the memorial is in three divisions: in the right-hand compartment we see christ falling beneath the weight of his cross, while urged forward by blows and taunts; in the central panel his dead body is carried to the sepulchre; while the third or left-hand recess represents the resurrection. the whole of the costumes, weapons, and accessories are those of the sculptor's own “in the church of sainted lawrence stands a pix of sculpture rare, like the foamy sheaf of fountains, rising through the painted air.” thus sings longfellow in his poem on nuremburg. the pix in question is carved in white stone and is some sixty feet high or more. the painted air is caused by the sunlight streaming through the richly stained glass of the church. this noble pix or tabernacle for the sacramental vessels is also the work of adam krafft. love of the marvellous and grotesque. i time and country, and the fortified walls of jerusalem are recognisable as those of nuremburg. the small figures kneeling in the foreground represent various members of the schreyer family and the highly respect- able burghers connected with them by marriage—a fact which may be readily recognised by the bearings on the various shields. the love of the marvellous is deeply engrained in human nature. we may see abundant proof of this in such classic myths as that of the sirens, in the monstrous forms carved or depicted in the temples of mexico, on the canoes of the south sea islander, in the popularity of such books as the arabian nights tales, or the adventures of gulliver, down to the fearful joy of the youngsters in the nursery in the sanguinary giant whose food was the blood of englishmen— “far away in the twilight time of every people, in every clime, dragons and griffins and monsters dire, born of water or air or fire, crawl and wriggle and foam with rage through dark tradition and ballad age; ”— and they certainly crawl and wriggle no less through the whole domain of art. of these monsters dire the fell harpies, the death-dealing basilisk, the monstrous roc, the deadly cockatrice, the kraken, the firedrake, the ghastly wehr-wolves, are but a few examples that at once occur to one's thoughts. the grotesque in art may take several distinctly different forms. it may, for instance, be the morbidly the birth and development of ornament. horrible and blood-curdling, or it may be the broad joke, or any point between these two extremes. it may also be a teacher; thus in that most popular mediaeval sub- ject—the dance of death—the ghastly theme is generally treated in the most grotesque way, and yet with high moral aim. though the thing it expressed had been in use some few hundreds of years before, the term grotesque was first employed in art towards the end of the fifteenth fig. . century, when the “grottos” or baths of ancient rome were brought again to daylight and the quaint and whimsical designs they contained attracted the attention of the artists of the day. the lamp, fig. , is of roman work; and on the walls of pompeii many ex- amples of the grotesque may be seen. in one example that we recall, a parrot is gravely standing in a chariot and driving his steeds, two grasshoppers. in fig. we have a satirical design of mediaeval date, where the saintly reynard preaches a discourse /ie birth and development of ornament. highly artistic and refined greeks could not altogether resist the temptation; while in the two peruvian illus- trations (figs. , ) it is rampant. in collections of ceramic ware vessels of brown glazed earthenware, called “sussex pigs,” may often be found. they are made in the form of a pig, and have a removable head that can be used as a cup, in order that at every filling— such is rustic humour—each drinker may be said to imbibe a hogshead at a draught ! one of these is shown in fig. ; when full it is of course sat up on end. another of these earthenware monstrosities is placed alongside it—a jug, also with a removable head, in the form of a bear. we have also seen an owl-pot that is employable under the like conditions. fig. , tech- nically known as a “toby fill-pot,” is another of the grotesque vagaries of the potter's art. the illuminators were not above this little weakness, and often somewhere in the borderings or initial letters of their most magnificent pages or in the representation of some sacred scene give some quaint detail that moves to risibility. fig. , an initial letter, is compounded, it will be seen, of two human figures, minstrels. a reference assyrian, greek, etruscan and roman.—waring’s “ceramic art in remote ages,” with essays on the symbols of the circle, the cross and circle, the circle and ray of ornament, the fylfot and the serpent, showing their relation to the primitive forms of solar and nature worship. plates.—jewitt's book, “the ceramic art of great britain, from prehistoric times down to the present time,” being a history of the ancient and modern pottery and porcelain works of the kingdom, and of their productions of every class, illustrated with nearly two thousand engravings. satirica/ a 't. i the stern satirist chastises the follies and vices of the world; and in one of the beautiful initial letters we find the centre taken up by the representation of a monk who has found his way to the cellar, or has maybe gone there in the course of his duty, but who at all fig. . events, while he holds the jug to the tap of the barrel with one hand, raises a capacious bowl to his mouth with the other. here again, as in so many other cases during mediaeval days, an opportunity is deliberately made to fling a satire at the ecclesiastics. the birth and development of ornament. the grotesque is a very marked feature of chinese work, while with the japanese, with all their graphic power, it frequently seems entirely irresistible, as they often appear to find pure mature scarcely sufficiently fig. . piquant, but deal in the most exaggerated action and the most bizarre forms. in the third period of gothic, that of the fifteenth century, or, as it is often called, the perpendicular, the - º t | h. | | º l t º º -- º º | - -- ſº i | | examples of the grotesque in decoration. the birth and development of ornament. foliate forms become very arbitrary, and there is often little or no suggestion of nature in them, being, in most cases, such as a man could most readily and effectively produce by gouge and chisel, unfettered by any idea of imitation of any matural form. within certain limits and exceptional examples allowed for, one may say that the fall from the previous work was very marked. the first period of gothic was in every way excellent in its ornament; the second showed great appreciation of nature, but failed from having a mistaken though high ambition; the third failed from having little or no such appreciation at all. there is a great sameness in perpendicular work wherever we see it, and this want of variety is con- spicuous, not only when we compare different buildings with each other, but when we study any special example. the houses of parliament are as good an example of this period as one may see anywhere, and the general effect of them is rich and picturesque; but if we analyse their work at all, we find that the thought expended in one bay, say roughly a space twelve feet wide, suffices for a whole façade, and that all the rest is mere repe- tition of this strip. a great use is made of panelling, the whole surface being cut up and divided and sub- divided by these horizontal and vertical lines, and one very popular filling for these is what is termed the napkin ornament. of this, of course, many varieties may be met with, but fig. is a good typical example. it is abundantly found, carved in wood, as a wainscotting in the more stately halls and dwelling-houses of this the birth and development of ornament. to be very absurd, as there seems no special charm in surrounding one's self with carvings that suggest no- thing so much as a monotomous array of brown towels. as a general principle in the decline of taste everything is frittered and cut up into so-called ornament, and no beauty is seen in the noble breadth and simplicity that is ordinarily characteristic of earlier work. thus henry vii.'s chapel is what an old writer calls all “cut-work and crinkle-crankle.” ornament needs a foil and a resting-place for the eye; when everything is equally covered, all repose is lost. angelic forms are very often introduced in perpendicu- lar buildings. they may be seen, for instance, supporting brackets in henry vii.'s chapel at westminster; often in capitals, as at stoke-in-teignhead church, devonshire; at the ends of the hammer beams of the roof, as at trunch or wymondham churches, in norfolk. these are but a few illustrative examples; their use is so persistent that the slightest personal investigation will readily supply a much longer list. these angels are almost invariably bearing shields. the use of heraldic devices, carved, painted, in the stained glass, on the hangings, in the designs of the flooring tiles, everywhere in fact where it was possible to introduce it, is a very marked feature of the work * a very elaborate and reliable monograph on this typical specimen of perpendicular work will be found in the folio volume of cottingham, giving plans, elevations, sections and detail, both exterior and interior, of the chapel. these illustrations extend over seventy-two large plates. decorative use of architectural forms. of this period. another very characteristic point is the great use of architectural forms merely as ornaments and fig. . apart from all constructive necessity. thus in the coffer shown in fig. we find shafts and pinnacles, and in o . the birth and development of ornament. the panel given in fig. the whole of the filling in simulates window-tracery. we have even seen a cup- board or dressoir surmounted by a sloping roof with rows of minute fictitious dormer windows in it. the mouldings in perpendicular work are much shallower than in the preceding periods, and all the ornaments are far less deeply cut; but a very great use is made of gold and colour, and the rich polychromatic effect produced by its use everywhere, in the mural painting, the brilliant tinctures of the herald, the magnificent stained glass, is a very marked feature. it is convenient to speak of these various periods of gothic as the styles of the thirteenth, fourteenth, or fifteenth century; but these dates are, after all, only approximate, and the student must not be deceived into believing that all went with the regularity of clockwork, and that at the close of each century, as the clock struck twelve, a new era opened. norman work was in vogue for some hundred and thirty years, and lasted during the reigns of william i., william ii., henry i., and stephen. during the reign of henry ii, the old forms were giving place to the new ; and by the time richard i. came to the throne, in , the so-called early english had developed, and held its ground during the reigns of john and henry iii. edward i.'s reign was again a period of architectural transition, and after a duration of about a century early english was abandoned in favour of the decorated style. this, though it had two very distinct phases, the geometric and the florid sub-styles, only lasted some seventy or eighty years, english and continental gothic. and may be taken as synchronous with edward ii. and edward iii. matters then again, during the reign of richard ii., to , were in a transitional state; and finally the perpendicular was evolved, and held its ground for something like one hundred and seventy years, right through the reigns of henry iv., henry v., henry vi., edward iv., edward v., richard iii., henry vii., and henry viii. while it is naturally easier, in dealing with old gothic work, to make reference to the architectural stone carving, as this is the most enduring and most readily accessible, we must remember that a great use was also made of wood-work, such as church stalls, screens, and noble roofs, that metal-work also was freely employed in memorial brasses, hinges, supports for lights, and many other ser- vices, that the art of the herald, the illuminator, and the painter was on all sides called into employment, and that stained glass, the most glorious development perhaps of decorative art, was everywhere adding its beauty to the whole. - when our readers have mastered the intricacies of this, very considerable study, we may further remind them that we have dealt, after all, only with gothic as we find it in england. even the gothic of scotland has its distinct individuality; and when we cross the channel, the very beautiful gothic of france abounds in details that differ from those in english buildings. german gothic, again, has a very marked character of its own, and so has italian. all differ from each other; and any one who has studied the subject should be able, on seeing any- gothic painted glass. o the draperies and other details are given. we occa- sionally get the whole window en grisaille, everything being expressed in a delicate silvery grey. in the perpendicular work the figures are often more richly habited, are placed under very elaborate canopies, and a very great use is made of heraldic devices. chapter v. causes of decay of gothic art—elizabethan ornament—strap-work —cartouches—authorities to consult—the renaissance – re- vival of aestheticism—its origin in italy—florentine, venetian, and roman modifications — italian computation of dates — trecento—interlacing and scroll-work—quattrocento–cinque- cento–the most perfect development — ancient arabesques— necessity for good drawing — literature of the subject — the classic revival in france—the louis quatorze—louis quinze. — rococo—the classic revival in england—famous english workers — the decoration of ceilings — chippendale — the brothers adam — sheraton — grinling gibbons — wedgwood— art of the period many-sided—metal-work—the iron-work of huntingdon shaw —tarsiatura — boule-work — bookbinding— enamelling—stained glass. gothic art, after some three hundred years of healthy life, passed away; why it died out so utterly has been variously accounted for. some theorists tell us that the break-up of the old order of things at the reformation was the main cause, that the dissolution of the monas- teries and the confiscation of their estates at once put an end to the erection of new buildings, or the maintenance in their pristine splendour of the older foundations, and that, apart from the diversion of funds, the new ideas were hostile to the art that was associated with the ancient creed;—that, in fact, the men of this new period the decay of gothic art. could not erect such buildings if they would, for they had not the means; that they would not build them if they could, as they had no longer the desire to do so. others tell us that the general spread of learning and literature, which had long before made itself felt in italy, and that had speedily dethroned gothic in that country in favour of classic models, in due course in- fluenced england. others, again, tell us that gothic died of its own weakness, that the life in it was extinct, that a mechanical precision, an exaggerated splendour of gold and colour on petty details frittered out of all grandeur and dignity," and the complacency in such tours-de-force as the fan-vaultings finally destroyed its vitality. those who imagine that the first two of these explana- tions—the difficulty of providing funds, and the disinclina- tion to persevere with work so intimately associated with the discarded beliefs—were the cause of its downfall, can at all events point, in support of this theory, to the fact that we do find the style continued for some considerable time afterwards, when these conditions do not affect it, in the noble halls and manor-houses where individual resources allowed of their erection, and where their en- tirely civil character called for no appeal to religious. prejudices. * “the process could be carried no further; complication had reached its limit. the richness of the expiring gothic differed from the richness of all previous styles. it was not real ornament, not artistic, or deriving its value from the amount of thought embodied. it was only a sham richness produced by endless repetition of the same features.”—garbett. p io the birth and development of ornament. had it been that the style perished from faults inherent in itself, we should naturally have expected that what succeeded it would be a return to pristine simplicity of work and a purer style, whereas the facts are that in elizabethan and jacobean work it is bathos rather than a new birth that takes its place. it was not till these in turn had held their ground for some time that the field was so evidently vacant that the importation of entirely new ideas became an art necessity. the real truth would appear to be that while some weight must be attached to these reasons, the greatest cause doubtless arose from the fact that during the tudor period englishmen were travelling abroad much more freely than they had done previously, and thus came under continental influences. foreigners," too, were passing and repassing between england and france and germany, and a new leaven was working in many ways. men were learning to think for themselves, not only in religious matters, but, consequently to this, in many others. the mediaeval period was at an end; feudal domination was gone for ever; the renascence of the finest literature of * “the first introduction of the revival into england dates from the year , when torrigiano was employed by henry viii. to design a monument in memory of henry vii., which still exists in westminster abbey, and which is almost a pure example of the italian school at that period. in the same style and of about the same date is the monument of the countess of richmond at west- minster. torrigiano designed this also, and very shortly afterwards went to spain, leaving, however, behind him several italians attached to the service of henry, by whom a taste for this same style could not but be propagated.”—waring. elisabet/ian architecture and decoration. ii the classic authors burst as a flood of light upon the land," and in the first glow of the new enthusiasm it was held that tyranny and superstition had vanished before the rising beams, and that henceforth the great examples of ancient civic virtue and eloquence, poetry and art, were to regenerate the world. the first steps in the new direction were necessarily tentative ; much that was good in the old work was re- tained, while with it was blended more or less successfully an entirely new series of forms. into any analysis of elizabethan work, from the point of view of the archi- tect, we are not here called upon to enter. it suffices to say that while some of the examples strike us as sufficiently bizarre both in stone and timber construction, many of the mansions of the mobility had much that was pleasing and picturesque in effect; * but when we limit our view, as our title naturally suggests that we should do, to the decoration of these sumptuous homes, there remains but little that can be heartily commended. - the classic orders are freely introduced, though both dante, in the thirteenth century, modelled his noble verse on the style of virgil, and was a profound scholar in all classical learn- ing. in the following century boccaccio and petrarch, best known to us by their own works, laboured incessantly in the preservation and restoration to the world of the writings of the authors of greece and rome. the ancient roman laws were revived and adopted by learned commentators and jurists. men of wealth and culture ac- cumulated in their libraries ancient texts. * good examples may be seen in holland house, kensington; longford, wilts; wollaton hall, notts; audley end, essex; crewe hall, cheshire; hatfield, hardwick, burleigh, bramshill, penshurst, knowle, and many others. the birth and development of ornament. in proportions and in details great liberties are taken, and the columns, pilasters, and piers are continually broken by broad bands of square blocks. these blocks ordinarily have their vertical surfaces cut into diamond- shaped projections or facets: a most characteristic feature of elizabethan work. the ceilings of the principal rooms are very elaborately panelled or covered with flowing scroll-work, and the effect is often extremely grand. very little foliage is seen, but an enormous use is made of strap-work and cartouche forms, often of very ingenious and complex design, but even at their best not very satisfactory. during the reign of queen elizabeth england was bound both politically and by strong re- ligious sympathy with holland, and there was conse- quently a considerable dutch influence on art. in the time of henry viii. the italian influence was supreme, while amidst the inroad of foreigners englishmen too were endeavouring to hold their ground. it can scarcely be wondered, then, that a strange medley should result. the student in quest of full information may very advan- tageously consult the following works: shaw’s “details. of elizabethan architecture,” richardson’s “architec- tural remains,” and his “studies from old english mansions,” the excellent book of s. c. hall on “the baronial halls of england,” clayton's “ancient timber homes in england,” britton’s “architectural antiquities. of great britain,” and nash’s “mansions of england of the olden time.” the renaissance period has three marked styles, known respectively, from their dates, as the trecento, quattro- gothic art in italy. i cento, and the cinquecento. it will be seen that these periods approximately correspond in time with our english gothic," and it was only at the close of this gothic period that the art of italy affected that of our own country. it is natural that a student should suppose that renais- sance was subsequent to gothic ; but this misconception arises' from taking too narrow a view of the subject, in limiting the observation to our insular art. though it was not till well into the fifteenth century that the art reached its full maturity and beauty, as a matter of fact italian art was building itself on classic models all through the centuries that with us were exclusively devoted to gothic in one or other of its forms. “the material monuments of the ancient romans, scattered thickly over the soil of italy, were so substantial and majestic that it was impossible to live under their shadow and forget them. fragments of exquisite beauty, in stone, bronze, and marble, were to be had for the trouble of turning up the soil that scarcely covered them. hence the gothic style was at once slow to take root in italy, and destined to bloom brilliantly but for a short season. almost concurrently with the introduction of the pointed arch, early in the thirteenth century, a protest was com- menced in favour of the ancients and their arts by that great reviver of antique sculpture, niccola pisano.” ” this * the student must add a century to each of these periods to bring them into line with english ideas. the italians call all the years, for instance, that have fourteen hundred in them, such as , or , the fourteenth century, while we call it the fifteenth. * digby wyatt. the birth and development of ornament. change from gothic to classic gradually, through various. types of transition, spread throughout almost every euro- pean country, under certain modifications of temperament, climate, and other affecting causes, and this foothold it has more or less retained to the present day. amongst the great names associated with the renais- sance may be mentioned niccola pisano, giotto, orcagna, luca della robbia, lorenzo ghiberti, raffaelle, benvenuto cellini, palissy, palladio, holbein, inigo jones, and sir christopher wren, and to these might readily be added many others who in one direction or another, in one country or another, or one period or another, took part in this great art movement. as in the earlier ages symbolic egyptian art gradually developed, as we have seen, into greek aesthetic art, so the art that up till this period, in its various stages and modifications of byzantine, romanesque, gothic, had been largely symbolic, was now supplanted by a new set of ideas, or rather the new-birth of very old ones, in which the prime aim and consideration was beauty, the artists of the renaissance being entirely in sympathy with the sentiment expressed by ralph waldo emerson— * some of his more notable buildings are the cathedral of st. paul, chelsea college, greenwich hospital, the monument to com- memorate the great fire of london, and temple bar. he also built some fifty parochial churches in london—st. mary-le-bow, st. bride's, st. vedast's, christ church in newgate street, st. clement dane's. a scarce old book, originally published in the year – , and entitled “witruvius britannicus,” illustrates the work of the leading english- men, inigo jones, wren, sir j. vanbrugh, and others, very thoroughly. it was began by campbell, and continued by woolfe and gandon ; its five folio volumes containing five hundred plates. characteristics of the renaissance. “if eyes were made for seeing, then beauty is its own excuse for being.” art and religion parted company, and though, as in the great cathedrals of st. peter at rome, or st. paul's in london, or the numerous churches built by wren, renais- sance architecture is the medium employed, they differ but little really from the great italian palaces, or the louvre, and other buildings erected under the same inspiration. by our knowledge of their use and association of ideas we entirely accept them as buildings devoted to sacred purposes, but there is little or nothing especially ecclesi- astical in them. so much rectangular fenestration, rus- tication of stone-work, more or less classic columns, balustrading, and so forth, in one case is a palace, in another a cathedral. from the fact of the renaissance having arisen in italy, it is often called italian as an alternative title, but it is evident that this is a somewhat awkward limitation of the matter. each nation that has adopted the style has in some degree modified it (thus the french is marked by the great use of the lofty mansard roof), and even in italy we can trace considerable differences of procedure. in the florentine buildings, for instance, we have great breadth of treatment, strongly marked recesses, an equally strongly marked cornice surmounting the whole, very little use of ornament, a noble doric simplicity. of this the strozzi palace may be taken as an excellent type. this was commenced in the year . another characteristic example is the pandolfini balace, commenced in . in the venetian examples the birth and development of ornament. we have, instead of this severity of treatment, a great use of ornament, arches, domes, columns, introduced at the great risk of belittling and frittering away the whole; and as we have compared the florentine in its massive grandeur to the doric, so the art of venice of this period in its self-display and luxury may be compared to the corinthian. the roman school varied again from either of these, and may, in fact, be considered as intermediate, some buildings inclining towards one extreme, others to the other, and therefore less easily defined as a whole. in the florentine very little use is made of columns; in the venetian several series of these are sometimes super- imposed in one building; while in roman work there is ordinarily one line alone, and this often rises from near the ground, and is continued right up the edifice, irre- spective of the number of storeys that the building may have. hence, therefore, the arch is but little used in florence, greatly used in venice, and occupies an inter- mediate position in roman work. the conspicuous feature of trecento ornament is a great use of interlacing and of delicate scroll-work. these scroll forms bear foliage of a more or less conventional character. the works of giotto and of niccola pisano are the most beautiful illustrations of its capabilities, and its best examples will be found in florence and assisi. in the quattrocento the names of lorenzo ghiberti, pietro perugino, francia, and luini are perhaps the most famous amongst many others scarcely less so. ghiberti is best known by the noble gates of the baptistery of san giovanni at florence. in this period of art the forms employed quattrocento maturalistic treatment. are very naturalistic; and though their arrangement in bands, panels, or festoons is conventional, the flowers, fruit, birds, and other accessories are in detail entirely derived : from nature. in the ghibertigates, for instance, we find the squirrel sitting amongst the nut foliage, clusters of pomegranate fruits and leaves, pears, and many other is the birtſ, and development of ornament. matural forms that are at once recognisable. the car- touche also appears very freely, and for the first time in modern art grotesque arabesques, similar to those found in ancient rome and pompeii, are introduced. in the cinquecento we get the most perfect art de- velopment of the re-birth of classicalism. amongst its greatest masters were such giants in art as michael angelo and raffaelle. rome, venice, and verona are full of choice examples. the anthemion, fret, guilloche, and other classic forms are freely introduced, but the most marked feature of the period is the arabesque scroll- work. this combines together griffins, sphinx forms, birds, dolphins, shells, vases, instruments of music, acanthus leaves, fruit, and any rendering, in fact, natu- ? ralistic or conventional, of any forms whatever in the animal or vegetable kingdoms. these scrolls are ordi- marily arranged on either side of a central upright line, and are either absolutely identical on either side. or have a general similarity and balance of masses. the loggie of the vatican, the work of raffaelle and his scholars, is the finest illustration. the classic forms were more severe in character than those we find in the resuscitation. as the taste for this style of work travelled northward, its freedom from classic restrictions. became more marked, and in the hands of the northern races, with their greater love for whimsical design, in- vention ran riot. both pliny and vitruvius made their protest even against the ancient arabesques on the ground of false and incongruous taste, and it is evident on reflection that the mere antiquity of a thing does. cinquecento the ideal renaissance. iq not necessarily make it a model for imitation. many beautiful pieces of carved work of this period" may be seen in the south kensington museum on tombs, monu- ments, and the like, and the fine collection of italian majolica should also not be overlooked. arms, armour, jewellery, and bookbinding afford many excellent illustrations. when these arabesques were painted in mural decoration the colour was ordinarily admirably applied, the favourite tints being orange, purple, and green, strengthened and accentuated occasionally by touches of primary colour. these tints are excellently blended and harmonised. the trecento and quattrocento were stepping-stones, tentative attempts, in which in- congruous elements were admitted through want of know- ledge; but in the cinquecento the various discoveries of antique work bore fruit, and the result was more truly a renascence of the ancient art. figs. , , are very pleasing modern designs of arabesque character. renaissance decoration requires on the part of the designer considerable knowledge, both with the kingdoms of nature and with the arts of antiquity, and calls be- sides for a perfect intimacy with the anatomy of the human figure and a general mastery and power of draw- ing, plus a feeling for grace and a play of fancy that does not fall to the lot of all designers. the student should cultivate the beauties as carefully as he should avoid the * see robinson’s “italian sculpture of the middle ages and period of the revival of art.” a descriptive and illustrated catalogue of the leading works in the above section of the south kensington museum. the birth and development of ornament. t extravagances of this style of design, and the abundant liberty of choice open to him entails a corresponding responsibility in its correct use. the literature of the subject is very extensive. the following are but a few of the books that deal with one or other phase of it, but they are all works that the fig. . student may advantageously consult. the “collection of antique ornaments” of antonelli; the “recueil d'ornaments de la renaissance" of bernard; the “his- tory of art by its monuments,” by d'agincourt; “col- lection of ornaments of the renaissance period,” by clerget; “les monuments de la france,” by de laborde; \ ſº 
 | º º w º il º º | # || | alº the grotesque in ornament. the birtſ, and development of ornament. “la renaissance,” by lacroix; “les arts au moyen age,” by sommerard; “the vatican described and illustrated,” by pistolesi; “the tombs and monuments of italy,” of bettoni, and “the buildings and monuments of venice,” by cicognara ; the “edifices of modern rome,” by letarouilly. gruner's “specimens of orna- mental art,” selected from the best models of the clas- sical epochs, eighty beautiful plates, comprising the most beautiful specimens of paintings, carvings, friezes, ceilings, ornaments, and decorations, of the thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, executed in the palaces and churches of rome, verona, mantua, milan, otc., by jacoba della turrita, bramante, luini, giulio romano, rafaelle d’urbino, etc.; and by the same author, “fresco decorations and stuccoes '' of the churches and palaces in italy during the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- turies, fifty-six large and elaborate engravings, after the original paintings of raphael, giulio romano, giovanni da undine, baldassare peruzzi, sebastiano del piombo, correggio, moretta, ambrogio da fossana, bramantio, bernardino, luini, pinturicchio. “das ornament der italienischen kunst des xv. jahrhunderts; ” this is a splendid collection of the choicest examples of the ornament of the early italian renaissance, selected by professor nicolai, of the royal academy of arts, dres- den, and contains one hundred folio plates. the two volumes of schoy’s “l’art architectural, decoratif, industriel et somptuaire, de l'epoque louis xvi.,” a fine collection of illustrations of ceilings, panels, borders, friezes, and every variety of ornament, repro- authorities on renaissance work. duced from the works of lasinio, albertolli, adam, la londe, de la fosse, neufforge, cauvet, piranesi, and other masters, the whole forming three hundred large plates of ornament. the excellent book of violet le duc, “dictionnaire du mobilier français de l'epogue carlo- vingienne à la renaissance,” six volumes, containing nearly two thousand four hundred steel and chromo- lithographic plates and woodcuts. this embraces furni- ture, pottery, jewellery, musical instruments, costumes, vestments, arms, armour, etc. berty’s “la renaissance monumentale en france, specimens de composition et d'ornamentation architectonique, depuis le regne de charles viii. jusqu'a celui de louis xiv.,” containing one hundred fine plates. daly’s “motifs historiques d’architecture, de sculpture et d'ornement pour la composition et la décoration: commencement de la renaissance a la fin de louis xvi.” this gives two hundred and four plates, exhibiting examples of door- ways, windows, panels, balustrades, cornices, vases, fountains, and every variety of sculptural detail, in two volumes folio. oakeshott's forty folio plates of “ornament of the italian renaissance,” comprising examples of panels, pilasters, spandrils, corbels, trusses, brackets, balusters, pedestals, columns, capitals, cornices and architraves, iron gates, palustrading, grilles, bronze candelabra and brackets, intarsia and niello work. the book by kinross, “details from italian buildings, chiefly renaissance,” consisting of a selection of fifty folio plates. the work of von schutz on “die renaisance in italien,” containing three hundred and thirty-two folio the bigarre chaos of rococo. of all art work. under the influence of louis xiv. an attempt at revival was made, but ostentation and vulgar display were more conspicuous than taste or refinement. a great use was made of gilded stucco work to the ex- clusion of colour, and scroll and shell forms were very freely introduced. the louis quatorze was succeeded by the louis quinze, dating from about the year to . it differs from the preceding work in being some- what thinner in character, but more especially in its almost complete abandonment of symmetry, and at last the whole becomes a mere mass of aimless forms without any plan or definite arrangement. this state of bizarre chaos is known as the rococo," and it may be taken as marking the lowest ebb of ornamental art. two italians, bernini and bor- romini, exercised a most unfortunate influence on french art at this period. they became “the mode,” and used the position tyrannously. “from his fervid imagination and rare facility as a draughtsman and designer, bor- romini soon obtained ample employment, and in his capricious vagaries every tendency to extravagance that bernini's style possessed borromini contrived to cari- cature. until near his death in , he continued sedulously occupied in subverting all known principles of order and symmetry, not only to his own enrichment, but to the admiration of the leaders of fashion of the day. the anomalies he introduced into design, the dispro- portionate mouldings, broken, contrasted, and re-entering curves, interrupted and crooked lines and surfaces be- * so called from rocaille coquille, rock and shell work. q the birth and development of ornament. came the mode of the day, and all europe was speedily busy in devising similar enormities. in france the fever raged.” i)uring the reign of louis xvi. there was to some extent a revival of ornament, the forms introduced being of the graceful though thin and liny type that in our country we find in the work of the brothers adam. after the great revolution severe simplicity was the mode; but when the empire succeeded the republic, the best artists were employed by napoleon i. in the development of a more ornate style of work. it is, however, needless and hopeless to attempt to follow these various and rapid changes, since taste, after all, had less to do with them than the whims of fashion and the influence of political feeling. italian architecture and ornament finally and com- pletely took root in england in the early part of the seventeenth century during the reign of james i. this was largely owing to the work of one distinguished man, inigo jones, who after a couple of visits to italy and a careful study of the works of palladio and other great authorities, erected many noble buildings that led to a general appreciation and adoption of this style of art. the banqueting house at whitehall is the work of inigo jones, and an excellent illustration of his genius. sir christopher wren and his pupil hawksmoor, gibbs, stuart, chambers, and other notable englishmen were all workers in the same field of art. stuart, and a fellow-architect, revett, less known to digby wyatt. englis/. artists of the renaissance. fame, were the joint authors of a well-known work “the antiquities of athens,” a publication that exercised an immense influence. the book originally appeared in the year , and its four imperial folio volumes were adorned with three hundred and eighty-four excellent illustrations of hellenic art. up till that time roman and italian models had been the sole source of renais- sance inspiration, and the insight into greek work that this book afforded was a revelation. unfortunately, hellenic forms at once became the fashion, and greek temples pure and simple became the vogue, until the in- congruous absurdity that often resulted became so patent that the error of judgment rectified itself, and zeal with- out discretion gave place to wiser counsels. much good decorative work was done by chippendale, cipriani, robert and john adam, sheraton, grinling gibbons, wedgwood, and many others. the first of these, chippendale, was a great designer of furniture, such as wardrobes, cabinets, mirror frames, and the like. he published a book of designs in . this is now very scarce; it is entitled somewhat awkwardly, “the gentleman and cabinet-maker's director.” it is of folio size, and contains one hundred and sixty plates. when a third edition of the book appeared in , two hundred plates were given; but this edition contains really over one hundred plates that did not appear in the first and second editions, as he cancelled more than sixty plates that were in these earlier copies and substituted others in his later and happier style. the brothers adam built many houses in the adelphi, hanover square, portland the birtſ, and development of ornament. place, and other parts of london, and all the accessories, such as door frames, the designs upon the ceilings,' and other decorative details are very pure and good in style. many of their original drawings are carefully preserved in the soane museum. the forms are based on classical types, capitals, mouldings, shell flutings, light garlands. and wreaths all carefully and tastefully introduced. one charles compiled a volume of the decorative designs of robert adam from the drawings in the soane museum ; and another writer, akerman, has made a happy selection of some twenty-six folio plates of the work of r. and j. adam. the brothers adam themselves issued a book in three volumes of their designs, but this is now only to be met with very rarely, and the reproduction of akerman gives the cream of it, and is therefore a public benefac- tion. sheraton more especially designed furniture. sheraton also, like chippendale and the adams, pub- lished a series of designs. this work he termed “the cabinet-maker and ulpholsterer's drawing book.” as new ideas flowed in, he also published “an accompanyment’” and “an appendix" thereto. all are now exceedingly scarce, as they have gone through two very trying periods, decorative rather than pictorial design is the more suitable for the decoration of a ceiling. in the sistine chapel, for instance, the main subjects are all so placed that to see them correctly it is neces- sary to face the altar, and from all other points of view they are seen, sideways or upside down. this in a decorative composition would be immaterial, as the designer, foreseeing the difficulty, would so. arrange his scheme as to make his work equally effective from all standpoints. noble pictorial work is not done justice to under such limitations, and such work should be placed on the walls, where it. can be studied without difficulty, rather than overhead on a ceiling. the carvings of grimling gibbons. —the first being when the work of this period went out of fashion and nobody wanted either it or any illustrations of it, and the second being when this same fickle fashion set strongly in that direction again, and all the old lumber-rooms and book-shelves were diligently searched and lucky finds run up to fabulous prices. the cabinets, mantelpieces, and other available articles of this period were often decorated by the insertion of decorative or pictorial panels by angelica kauffmann, cipriani, and other designers, or by the plaques of wedgwood. grin- ling gibbons, born in the year , was introduced by evelyn to the king, and was largely employed at windsor and whitehall in carving in marble and wood. his fame rests so greatly upon his exquisite carvings in lime, pear, and other white woods, that his work in other materials is almost forgotten." at windsor, gibbons carved the pedestal in marble for the equestrian statue of the king in the principal court. another notable work of his is the * in the accounts still preserved for work done at whitehall we find the following items: “the said grinlin gibbons and arnold quellin, for making and carving the great altar-piece of white marble, veined, wrought according to a design and contract, they finding all materials and workmanship, with two marble columns under the throne, fluted, with capitals and bases, £ , s. d.” this was afterwards re- moved to hampton court, as the following entry will show: “to grinling gibbons, master-carver, for taking down the marble altar- piece, with the columns, ornaments, and figures thereto belonging, in the late king james ii.'s chapel at whitehall, and loading the same into barges, and delivery thereof at hampton court, according to contract, £ . more to him for carving cornishes, mouldings, and other picture-frames, for architrave, frese, subbase, and other carver's work by him done in and about the said buildings, £ s. d.” the birth and development of ornament. white marble font in st. james's church, piccadilly. it is supported by the tree of life, and has sculptured upon it the temptation in eden, the baptism of the saviour by john, and other scriptural subjects. he is also known to have worked in ivory. fine specimens of the wood carving of grimling gibbons may be seen in the choir of st. paul's cathedral, the reredos of the church of st. nicholas, abchurch lane, in st. james's church, piccadilly, and other churches; but the finest examples of his skill are at petworth house in sussex, and at chatsworth. in the library at trinity college, cambridge, are various coats of arms embedded by gibbons in masses of fruits and flowers; and at lyme hall, near disley, are some fine examples of his work. amongst the accounts of work done at windsor, we find frequent reference to the carvings of gibbons, as for example: “grimling gibbons, carver, for carving work done and laid upon twenty-eight seats and stalls, carved with fruit, flowers, palms, laurels, pelicans, pigeons; five foot of cornice that has two members, enriched with leaves between each seat; twenty foot of framing to every seat, according to contract, £ . more to him for carving the six vases with the thistle, roses, and two boys, laurels, palms, etc., in the front and upon the top of the king's seat, with drapery, fruit, etc., etc.; several other ornaments of carving about the altar pews, and other places in and about the king's chapel, he finding timber and workmanship, according to contract, £ s. d.-É s. d.” “grimling gibbons, carver, for an extraordinary fine piece of carved work, made and carved the spirit in which wedgwood worked. by him for his ma", and sent by his ma" as a present to the duke of florence, £ . and more to him for his pension after the rate of £ per annum, according to his mat's warrant, and due to him for half a year ended at midsummer , £ .” this latter piece of carving is still preserved at modena. his foliage, birds, flowers, and other details are in groups, festoons, pendants, garlands, panels, or other arrangements that suit the position, but are themselves entirely naturalistic in character. much of his work, owing to the ravages of insects, has entirely decayed. wedgwood, the potter, in his noble reproductions from the antique, or the production of work inspired by classic influence, notably contributed to the english renaissance. the spirit in which he worked may be excellently seen in the remarks with which he concluded a trade cata- logue that he issued in : “a competition for cheap- ness, and not for excellence of workmanship, is the most frequent and certain cause of the rapid decay and entire destruction of arts and manufactures. the desire of selling much in a little time, without respect to the taste or quality of the goods, leads manufacturers and merchants to ruin the reputation of the articles which they make and deal in ; and whilst those who buy, for the sake of a fallacious saving, prefer mediocrity to excellence, it will be impossible for them, either to improve or keep up the quality of their works. all works of art must bear a price in proportion to the skill, the taste, the time, the expense, and the risk attending the invention and execu- tion of them. those pieces that for these reasons bear the birth and development of ornament. the highest price, and which those who are not accus- tomed to consider the real difficulty and expense of making fine things are apt to call dear, are, when justly estimated, the cheapest articles that can be purchased, and such are generally attended with much less profit to the artist than those that everybody calls cheap. beautiful forms and compositions are not to be made by chance; and they never were made, nor can be made in any kind at a small expense; but the proprietors of this manu- factory have the satisfaction of knowing, by a careful comparison, that the prices of many of their ornaments are much lower, and all of them as low as those of any other ornamental works in europe of equal quality and risk, notwithstanding the high price of labour in eng- land; and they are determined rather to give up the making of any article than to degrade it.” wedgwood died on saturday, jan. rd, . on the following saturday the staffordshire advertiser contained an eulogium upon him, of which we gladly quote a few passages, as they indicate the esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries and neighbours. “we feel,” the writer says, “more than common regret in recording the death of josiah wedgwood, esq., f.r.s., potter to the queen, etc., at etruria in the potteries, and we would wish to say something that might embalm his memory in the hearts of englishmen. . . . possessed of great public spirit and unremitting perseverance, with a mind fraught with general intelligence, and particularly with philosophical and chemical knowledge united to a most refined taste, he raised the manufactures of earthenware . the birtſ, and development of ornament. and many others whom we naturally think of as painters, were also workers in gold and designers of jewellery of exquisite taste. raffaelle, one of the greatest artists of all time, the painter of the madonna di san sisto, a work that alone would secure him immortal fame, did not dis- dain to paint decorative panels or to supply designs for the pottery painter. whatever was of art had their fullest sympathy. the renaissance metal-work is often of excellent de- sign, and many of the examples are amongst the priceless treasures of the various museums of europe. the italians excelled in this; for many years lombardy was the great armoury of europe, and the art that was primarily be- stowed upon weapons of war found abundant exercise also on lanterns, candelabra, keys (as in fig. ), cressets, hinges, knockers, coffers, jewel caskets, the fronts of balconies, and the like. the variation' in design is almost infinite, and many fine specimens still remain in venice, verona, and other cities. in our own country much excellent work of the same kind may be seen; as, for instance, the grilles and gates of the choir of st. paul's cathedral, and several other london churches have very good iron-work; of these we may mention st. mary-at-hill, all hallows, barking, st. mary woolnoth, and st. andrew undershaft. a good deal weapons of war seem at all times to have been the medium for the exhibition of elaborate art; the ancient greek, the savage of the south sea islands, the skilful craftsman of india, the armourer of mediaeval and renaissance days, all alike count no time or labour excessive spent in beautifying instruments of warfare. the birth and development of ornament. suburbs of london, such as hampstead, stoke newington, chelsea, stratford-le-bow, and clapham, have very fine entrance gates. a great deal of fine italian metal-work may be seen in the south kensington museum, and there, too, are now preserved the gates that formerly adorned the gardens of hampton court palace. these magnificent specimens of iron-work are the creation of huntingdon shaw, a nottingham man, and date from about the year . these most admirable examples of english wrought iron were, after some hundred and fifty years of service, perishing from exposure to the weather, and were there- fore securely housed, where from henceforth every pos- sible care will be taken of them. fig. is an illustra- tion of one of them. the workmanship is excellent, and each gate or grille is of different design in its details; one has the rose of england as a centre, another the thistle, while the figure shown has the irish harp. others have the initials of william of orange and of his consort. the capabilities of the material are well under- stood, the structural, necessity of forming a barrier and a security is well provided for, and yet the structure is not unnecessarily ponderous; while the necessary strength once obtained, the accessory ornament grows most natu- rally from the leading and essential forms. the king commissioned the work, but very unfortunately died be- fore remunerating shaw, and the parliament repudiated all obligation to pay for it—a fact that gives it a some- what tragic interest, as the artist died at the comparatively early age of fifty-one, his end being hastened by the dis- the birtſ, and development of ornament. appointment and injustice he had met with. practically, therefore, as we admire this collection—twelve of these screens being produced by shaw, and each thirteen feet wide and over ten feet high—we are regarding the results of thus much time, labour, and taste that were practically stolen from him. shaw was buried at hampton church, and he is described on a mural tablet there as “an artist in his own way,” a somewhat depreciatory way of imply- ing that as he neither painted pictures nor sculptured statues, his claim to any sort of recognition as an art- worker was rather dubious, but that they would in all charity give him the benefit of the doubt. many excellent books on decorative metal-work have been published in england, france, germany, belgium, and italy. of these we need here but mention, as an aid to the student, the following: hefner alteneck's work on the metal-work of the middle ages and the renaissance, entitled “eisenwerke oder ornamentik der schmiedekunst des mittelalters und der renaissance,” containing eighty- four engraved plates of examples; wyatt's “ornamental metal work ’’ in gold, silver, iron, brass, etc., from the twelfth to the nineteenth centuries, with a history of the art in italy, england, france, germany, and spain—a folio volume with fifty large plates in gold and colours of the choicest examples; king’s “orfevrerie et ouvrages en metal du moyen age,” giving in two volumes of folio size two hundred plates of measured drawings, and . details of every variety of ecclesiastical and domestic metal-work. ebbetts' folio volume, “examples of the decorative wrought-iron work of the seventeenth and tarsiatura and boule-work. eighteenth centuries,” containing seventy examples of measured drawings of large and small gates, screens, grilles, panels, balustrading, etc., including the great gates and screens from hampton court palace, and speci- mens - from st. paul's cathedral, westminster abbey, carshalton, and loughton halls, together with a large number of gates from london and its suburbs; and burty’s “chefs-d'oeuvre of the industrial arts,” includ- ing pottery, glass, metal-work, gold and silver work, tapestry, etc., and having some two hundred and twenty illustrations. tarsia-work, or tarsiatura—designs worked in inlaid wood, either stained or of different natural colours—was at one time much used in decoration. it originated in florence, but soon spread through italy and france. in this latter country it was termed marqueterie. in the sixteenth century cologne was very famous for its tarsia- work, and in england we have numerous examples of it in old furniture, on clock fronts, the flaps of bureaux, the doors of cabinets, and such-like available flat surfaces. it was scarcely indigenous art, and only came into fashion with divers other dutch things in the reign of william and mary. many of the designs consist of more or less maturalistic representations of birds and flowers, and occasionally we find landscapes or scroll-work. in germany and italy simple designs of a geometrical cha- racter in ebony" and ivory were much in vogue. boule- * ebony was first introduced into europe in any considerable quantity after the year , on the settlement of ceylon by the o the birth and development of ornament. work' is a modification of this, in which metal is employed. the work derives its name from andré charles boule, a frenchman, born in the year , who if not the abso- lute originator of it—a point on which some little doubt exists—at all events greatly developed its possibilities. boule executed a great deal of work under the direction of louis xiv. for the rising splendour of versailles, and, maturally, the work that was sealed with the approval of the monarch was in demand by all the grand seigneurs of the court. the great colbert, the king's minister of finance, amongst many other services to the state and to art, founded the famous gobelins tapestry works, and established an academy” under the royal patronage, where painting, sculpture, and decorative art were studied, and encouraged to serve the state, and boule was placed in a responsible position herein, quartered in the louvre, and made director of the royal furniture department. he dutch, and the subsequent appearance of the wood as an article of commerce. prior to this the supplies were small and intermittent. riesner, a famous maker of furniture, derives his title of ébéniste. from this, a favourite material of his, though he also used rose-wood, holly, tulip tree, and other woods in the beautiful marquetry pro- duced by him. often called buhl-work. at the period in which the artist lived, orthography was not by any means one of the exact sciences, and in, various old books we may find such variations as buhl, boulle, boul, and boule. the balance of evidence from various official documents, leans towards the last of these. * in negotiating a treaty between france and morocco, he insisted. that the latter state should supply yearly a certain number of skins. of the famous morocco leather for the binding of the books in the royal library. this is but one characteristic instance of the way in. which he was ever alert to utilise all things and all men for the honour and dignity of france and the monarch whom he served. boule-work and book-binding. i had great talent as a designer in several directions; but the work with which his name is specially identified consists of arabesques and other decorative forms cut out of one material and inserted in another, these two materials being ordinarily tortoise-shell and brass. in the earlier examples the shell was used simply as it was, but in later examples we find that the bed upon which it was placed was either painted scarlet or was gilt, thus giving to the translucent tortoise-shell a richer effect. the forms were produced by placing three or four thicknesses of each material together and then sawing through the whole mass, so that the forms on the brass or on the shell were the same, and each was interchangeable with the other, the solids of one fitting to the openings of the other. the brass portion of the design when made up was often elaborately chased. gold, silver, the red brass that results from a large proportion of copper, yellow brass, or the pale silvery brass that other alloys create, horn, ivory, mother-of-pearl, have all been employed. given taste in design, a good eye for colour, and perfect execution, it will be seen that excellent results may be achieved with such materials, but the omission of any of these three qualifications is fatal. the splendour and artistic character of the book-binding of the renaissance epoch was another marked feature. during the whole of the sixteenth century we find books gorgeously bound, and popes, cardinals, princes, and nobles vying with each other in the richness and beauty of their collections of books and bindings. one often hears of the grolier bindings, and many of the beautiful volumes r choice evamples of book-binding. officium beatae mariae virginis. antwerp, . in binding of olive morocco; the back and sides ornamented with gilt tooling, fastened with silver clasps. - lutheran bible, printed at jena, . binding covered with gold tooling, a coat of arms emblazoned on either side ; the edges gilt and gauffré, with birds and flowers, and the same coat of arms. dated . mar. fabii quintiliani declamationes. lyons, . in binding of dark brown calf; on each side a medallion of charles v., his shield, device, and motto. “questio de distinctione attributorum dei.” in red calf binding, with gold tooling; shield of arms in colours on the centre of each side, the edges gilt and gauffré. sixteenth century. arme (andrea dall’) emblemi e sonetti. oblong small quarto. in the original binding, the sides covered with gold tooling; fan pattern in corners. sixteenth century. manuscript, on vellum, in italian, relating to the riario family, in morocco leather binding, executed at rome, with the arms of a cardinal as the centre ornament on either side. date of ms., . martyrologium romanum. venice, . bound in crimson morocco, with gilt tooling, fan pattern in corners; gilt metal clasps. psalmorum davidis translatio. r. stephens, . grolier binding in morocco of different colours, with gilt leaves, gauffré. missale romanum. antwerp, . in brown calf binding, with gilt tooling and coloured strap-work in the grolier style. the birth and development of ornament. psalmorum liber. lyons, . in brown calf bind- ing in the grolier style, with strap-work of coloured leather, the edges gilt and stamped. l’office de la vierge marie. paris, . mo. bound in olive morocco, tooled and gilt with devices of marguerite de valois. enamelling on metal has had a wide range of applica- tion. though several processes have been employed, the central idea in all enamel-work is the adornment of a. metal surface by means of vitreous colours fused upon it. by means of great heat. the two broad divisions are as follows: translucent colours that enable us to see the metal beneath, and those that from their opacity entirely conceal it. in the first of these the metal itself enters largely into the decorative effect, being engraved or in bas-relief, and the transparent enamel merely gives an added rich- ness to what is already an artistic production ; this is termed translucid on relief. in the second it is the colour itself that gives the decorative effect, the metal . beneath being merely the supporting surface. this latter system of enamelling is again subdivided. when the spaces to receive the vitreous material are cut into the surface of the metal, the process is termed champlevé; but when the surface is undisturbed, and the cells to contain the colouring matter are formed upon it by narrow bands of metal, it is known as cloisonné. enamelling as a decorative process was in use by the gauls, britons, and celts,' and many good examples of its use by these in a treatise by a greek writer, philostratus, he refers to this in a way that shows that the art was unknown to the greeks and enamuel as an art-medium. peoples have been recovered and preserved. it was also a favourite art-medium in byzantine work, the process used being the cloisonné ; and limoges, in the west of france, was a great centre for works in champlevé. these were chiefly employed in the service of the church, in the decoration of shrines and reliquaries, crosses, pas- toral staves, and other objects of ecclesiastical use. later on limoges became famous for its painted enamels. in these the whole plate of metal was covered with black enamel, and then the design was painted in opaque white and grey upon it; such portions as were to be coloured were glazed over with transparent enamel, and the lights were often emphasized with touches of gold. a great taste for work in “grisaille ‘’ sprang up, when strong colour was either very sparingly used or entirely absent, the whole design being worked in a neutral grey. the effect was very delicate and refined. it will be seen that, except in the common ground of vitreous material on metal, these various methods widely differ, as while some of them entail a good deal of metal working and the inlay of small masses of colour, this last process is as distinctly painting as though it were worked on a sheet of paper or a piece of canvas. the enamel-painters of limoges were producing excellent work for over three hundred years, and many examples may be met with in various museums in england and on the continent. - the stained glass of the renaissance period was ordi- romans, and tells his readers that “the barbarians living near the ocean " were able to “pour colours on hot brass so that these adhere and become like stone, and preserve the design represented.” the birth and development of ornament. marily too pictorial in treatment to be decoratively sound. donatello, ghiberti, and perugino amongst others de- signed for glass-work. it is labour misplaced and genius misapplied when a stained-glass window loses its distinc- tive idiosyncrasy and has no other ambition than to emu- late an oil picture. in the subject of any fresco or oil picture we can arrange the lights and shades to fall in any required direction, but in a painting on glass the light must necessarily come immediately from the rear in a way that entirely falsifies any light and shade that is therein represented. moreover the function of a window is essentially to give light, and this primary aim is thwarted when the heavy shadows and dark backgrounds that would be strictly in place in a picture are trans- ferred to this transparent medium. beauty of form and richness of luminous colour are open to the glass painter, and these give an ample field for beautiful results, as the magnificent windows of the gothic of the thirteenth cen- tury abundantly testify. the resources of glass painting are more limited than those of oil, and in endeavouring unsuccessfully to compete with this medium of expression it loses at the same time much of its distinctive charm." * the following works may advantageously be consulted : warring- ton's “history of stained glass, from the earliest period of the art. to the present time,” containing twenty-six coloured plates, with, text, imperial folio. westlake's “history of design in stained glass,” in three volumes. vol. i. comprising from the earliest times to the thirteenth century; vol. ii., fourteenth-century work in england, france, germany, and italy; vol. iii., fifteenth-century work ditto, heraldry, monograms, quarries, etc. the book contains nearly three hundred illustrations. the work of franks on “orma- false treatment of stained g/ass. another failing in these pictorial renderings is that the composition is often taken across a whole window, irre- spective of any necessary architectural members, no painter or sculptor would so treat a subject extending over a series of distinct spaces, but would always arrange that each panel should be complete in itself, even though forming only a portion of the illustration of some legend or other subject. this is natural and reasonable, and there is no justification for a departure from it in glass painting. by so doing we seem, as in fig. , to be regarding the event depicted through the bars of a cage, the dog cut in half by the mullion bar being a notable illustration of this false style of working. such an elaborate use of perspective is a mistake also, as the representation is correct only from one point of view, and mental glazing quarries, collected and arranged from ancient ex- amples,” gives over one hundred interesting illustrations. the three following works it will be seen do not deal exclusively with stained glass, but they are books that should be seen : gail- habaud’s “l’architecture du v. au xvii. siecle, et les arts quien dependent, la sculpture, la peinture sur verre, la mosaique, etc.,” four hundred fine plates, folio. it illustrates the gems of archi- tecture and its dependent arts, not only in france, but also in italy, england, spain, flanders, germany, arabia, etc. the examples comprise ecclesiastical, monastic, civil, municipal, and military edifices; details in stone, wood, metal, ivory, etc.; many plates of mural painting, stained glass, mosaics, etc., printed in colours; ecclesiastical and domestic furniture, etc. waring's book on “the arts connected with architecture,” illustrated by examples in cen- tral italy of stained glass, fresco ornament, marble and enamel inlay, wood inlay, etc., from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century; and shaw's “decorative arts of the middle ages,” giving good examples of ancient enamel, metal-work, wood-carving, stained glass, etc. it is well illustrated. the birth and development of ornament. it is alien to the stern simplicity of treatment that best becomes designs for glass-work. the subject represented in fig. is the driving of the money-changers from the temple, a subject capable of excellent treatment as a fresco, but scarcely capable of satisfactory introduction in a stained-glass window. it is unfortunate that our closing comments on the renaissance should be of an unfavour- able nature, as it may leave a false impression on the chapter vi. the art of islam—the prohibitory influence of religion—ruskin, wornum, and owen jones on the alhambra—the desert liberty —the teaching of mohammed—carlyle and arnold on the arab. teacher—the religion of the sword—richness and variety of decorative forms—brilliancy of colour—great use of inscrip- tions—general use of inscriptions in design—on buildings, bells, rings, coinage, etc.—illumination—the occasional intro- duction of natural forms — court of lions—sicilian work— great use of geometric tile patterns—counterchange—persian art—indian art—buddhism—chinese ornament—japanese art —great love of nature—bigotry in art—spurious and trade japanese—break-up of feudal system and consequent dispersal of art treasures—love of the grotesque—the creed of japan— books to consult—mexican and peruvian art—serpent-worship. —the north american indians—tattooing—art amongst even the most primitive savages—conclusion. w - we turn our attention, in conclusion, to art that has been produced under entirely different limitations, the off- spring of different creeds, the result of different processes of work, the outcome of other art-traditions, and com- mence with the art of islam. we must here at once point out, what on a moment's reflection is evident enough, that this is a term of wide comprehension. if we deal with the art that has been executed under the influence of christianity, we at once find ourselves con- the birth and development of ornament. john ruskin, one of the greatest of art critics, calls, in one of his books, the art of the alhambra detestable." the word is a strong one, and we would venture to say wholly misplaced. whatever we may think of the mohammedan religion, it has most potent sway over its followers. doubtless the designers of the beautiful moorish, persian, and indian work that we may see in our museums and elsewhere could have, under different influences, produced work as fine on other lines; the limitation is not of their own seeking, but is laid upon them by religious obligation. even, however, where we cannot help considering that strong feeling has led to exaggeration of statement, such statements from men of influence and thought have at least this good in them, that they compel thought in others. it is so much the custom to accept ideas at second-hand, and to allow our thinking to be done for us by other people, so much the habit to bow down before precedent, that a writer who arouses our antagonism by the strength of his assertions, though he may compel our dissent, does us an inconceivable service. the great plain of arabia, lying beyond roman influ- ence and its persecuting orthodoxy, became in the sixth century a refuge for men of all opinions, political or religious, who found themselves out of touch with * wornum, in his “analysis of ornament,” writes: “a more beau- tiful simply ornamental style than perhaps any that had preceded it.” owen jones, in his “grammar of ornament,” writes: “the alhambra is at the very summit of perfection of moorish art, as is the parthenon of greek art.” - the birth and influence of mohammed. dominant ideas. a considerable emigration of jews from palestine, nestorians, manicheans, gnostics, magian followers of zoroaster, and others found in this no-man's land a refuge highly favourable to religious liberty. the arabs recognised with pleasure the descent from abraham common to themselves, the jews, and the christians in their midst, and many of them accepted one or other of the newly introduced faiths. but the bitterness of religious strife from which the strangers in their wilds thought to have fled broke out anew, divisions and sub- divisions cleft them apart, abstruse arguments as to the mature of angels, the power of evil, the incarnation, and the like formed ground for interminable wrangling; and the arab, turning aside from a spectacle so unedifying, returned to his simple idol-worship. in the midst of this unrest was born mohammed, a man of good family, and a traveller who mixed freely with men of all opinions, a man of intense thoughtfulness and earnestness. for years it was his custom to retire each year for a month to a mountain cave for rest and meditation. here, apart from warring strifes and the petty life of man, the great book of nature was spread before him, the truths that he had gathered from the hebrew scriptures fed his hungry spirit, and conscious of the living soul within him and the necessity to teach a better way to his idolatrous fellow-countrymen, he brushed aside the tangled maze of theological subtleties that the warring christians had reared and proclaimed the central truth, the greatness and unity of god. “mahomet was in his fortieth year when, having the birth and development of ornament. withdrawn to a cavern in mount hara, near mecca, during this ramadhan, to pass the month in prayer, and meditation on those great questions, he one day told his wife kadijah, who with his household was with him or near him this year, that by the unspeakable special favour of heaven he had now found it all out ; was in doubt and darkness no longer, but saw it all. that all these idols and formulas were nothing—miserable bits of wood; that there was one god in and over all; and we must leave all idols and look to him. that god is great; and that there is nothing else great ' he is the reality. wooden idols are not real; he is real. he made us at first ; sustains us yet; we and all things are but the shadow of him; a transitory garment veiling the eternal splendour. “allah akbar, god is great; ' and then also ‘islam,' that we must submit to god. that our whole strength lies in resigned sub- mission to him, whatsoever he do to us. for this world and for the other' “such light had come, as it could, to illuminate the darkness of this wild arab soul. a confused dazzling splendour as of life and heaven, in the great darkness which threatened to be death; he called it revelation and the angel gabriel;-who of us yet can know what to call it? that mahomet's whole soul, set in flame with this grand truth vouchsafed to him, should feel as if it were important, and the only important thing, was very natural. that providence had unspeakably honoured him by revealing it, saving him from death and darkness; that he therefore was bound to make arnold on the influence of mohammed. known the same to all creatures: this is what was meant by ‘mahomet is the prophet of god.’” " to get men thus to believe on him was the initial difficulty, yet in this alone lay success. it meant faith that the preacher was a true man—“a man who,” to quote arnold's graphic words, “had really communed with the supreme, and undoubtingly believed, not that fact only, but also that heaven had selected him as its instrument in raising and reforming his fellow-men. this being granted, this condition fulfilled, faith was easy and natural to those enthusiastic children of the sun. here was a man who said that god visited him through the intervention of angels, and told him this or that ; this man's life was plainly, according to arab standards, virtuous and noble; it was consistently ruled by some powerful spirit within; he refused no respon- sibility; shrank from no depth or height of trust re- posed in him ; was ready to lead if they would follow; to teach authoritatively if they would listen: was it very wonderful if they took him at his word, hailed the voice of god as speaking by his mouth, and rapturously bade him lead them whither he would he has read carelessly the annals of mankind who does not know that when the passion of loyalty comes to be transfigured in the light of religious faith, no enterprise is too great for those under its potent influence, no form of suffering or death can deter, no human sagacity can calculate the consequences of the resulting movements.” * carlyle. the birth and development of ornament. for some considerable time, nevertheless, belief in the new religion was of slow growth. persecution was brought to bear against it; attempts to assassinate mohammed were made, and he withdrew for awhile to medina, where he had several devoted followers. this is the hegira," or flight from mecca, that forms the recog- mised era of all mohammedan countries. it marks the turning-point, when mohammed, finding persuasion in vain, drew the sword, and placed himself at the head of his adherents. we need scarcely pause to say that we are no apolo- gists for islamism. in its cruelty and sensuality, any comparison with christianity becomes impossible. but what we have desired to do is not to dwell upon it as it impresses ourselves, but as we should imagine it. impresses its followers. it is the influence of the creed of islam upon those who accept it that now concerns us, and of course more especially its influence upon art. the success of the movement in its rapidity and far- reaching thoroughness must in great measure be ascribed to the fact that the utter corruption, religious and political, of the expiring eastern empire could offer no resistance to an attack that we may not uncharitably say carried with it not only the zeal of the followers of the new creed, but also promised an easy transfer of untold wealth from the effeminate hands that were powerless to defend it, to those that were quite ready in arabic, el hijrah ; literally, the going forth, which it will be noted is not quite the same thing as flight. the religion of the sword. to appropriate it as lawful spoil of the infidel, while death had no terror, since it was but the gate to paradise, a bliss that, apart from all previous shortcomings, was the inalienable right of all who fell in strife against the enemies of islam. as the influence spread, those who came beneath it in turn sent forth their hosts, and in a very short space of time syria, persia, and northern africa were all as mohammedan as arabia. scarcely a hundred years had elapsed from the first promulgation before we find the new creed in firm possession from spain to the banks of the ganges. the arabs themselves, a warlike and nomadic race, children of the desert, had no national art of their own. hence in their conquests they at first adopted with little change the buildings they found to hand, but erased from them all maturalistic representations. later on new am- bitions arose with increased power, and the byzantine artists and architects were pressed into the service of the conquerors, and required to accommodate their skill to the new requirements and limitations. thus, for instance, the mosque teyloum at cairo, built in , was the work of a christian architect whom the sultan clapped into prison to enable him to pre- pare his designs under the advantage of strict retire- ment, plus the stimulus of knowing that a considerably worse fate would befall him if he did not rise to the occasion. in the mosques of cairo and in some of the sicilian remains this greek influence is very evident, the fret, anthemion, and other classic types under some s the birth and development of ornament. degree of modification being clearly recognisable, while the decorations of the alhambra are almost purely saracenic. it must be borne in mind that while the great mosques of the east are mostly of the seventh or eighth centuries, the alhambra is of the fourteenth, a sufficiently long interval to allow of a full development and individuality of style. the mosque of omar at jerusalem dates from the year ; of amrou at cairo, ; of damascus, . in these early buildings a great use was made of the columns and other wreckage and plunder from old classic and christian temples and churches, and in the mosque teyloum a good deal even of the new work executed by arab workmen or im- pressed christian artisans is very classic in feeling, the greek architect probably not being able to clear his mind of old traditions of work. on the site of the mosque of damascus was originally a roman temple, but this was afterwards converted into a christian church, dedicated to st. john the baptist. the mo- hammedans pulled it down and rebuilt it to suit their own requirements," the result being that it is now a * the all-important condition was the kibleh that indicated the direction of mecca. this once fixed, all that was needed was an enclosed space and an outer court for ablution. as the christian churches were built on an axis due east and west, it was but rarely that they met the kibleh requirement, and no european building could do so, since all are considerably north of mecca, though an exception was made at constantinople, where the magnificent church of santa sophia was spared, and a compromise arranged. in a mosque the axis of the building is not a fixed east and west, but may vary greatly from this, as the one essential is that it should the decorative art of islam. strange blend of roman, christian, and arabic details. of the hundreds of pillars in the mosque at cordova, by far the greater number have roman or byzantine capitals. the decorative art of islam is chiefly a rich surface decoration," and of this the frontispiece gives an excel- lent idea. the walls are covered with diaper-like forms in an inexhaustible variety of conventional pat- terns, the general constructive lines of the design being of geometric character and the filling-in consisting of very conventional foliate and floral forms. the scheme of colour is very rich and harmonious, a great use being made also of gold. such architectural features as doorways, windows, and niches are emphasized, as our frontispiece clearly shows, by broad bands of ornament, and amidst all are inscribed with great ingenuity and decorative charm numerous sentences from the koran point to mecca; it may therefore be due north and south, or any other of the possibilities of the compass. * for excellent examples see “architecture arabe " of coste; girault de prangey’s “monumens arabes d'egypte,” and his “essai :sur l'architecture des arabes en espagne, en sicile, et en barbarie”; gally knight's “saracenic remains in sicily’’; laborde's “voyage, pittoresque et historique de l'espagne"; caveda's “geschichte der baukunst in spanien"; the charming three volumes of goury and owen jones on the alhambra; coste et flandin’s “voyage en perse ’’; murphy’s “arabian antiquities of spain,” a folio volume richly illustrated ; hessemer's “arabische bau-verzierungen "; bisson’s “choix d'ornaments arabes de l'alhambra"; parvillec's “architecture et decoration turques,” a folio volume, with many illustrations, mostly printed in colours; the “espana artistica y monumental " of perez de villa-amil, three grand volumes, folio ; prisse d'avenne’s “l’art arabe”; bourgoin’s “les arts arabes,” a finely illustrated folio volume. the birth and development of ornament. or the poets. these inscriptions are a very characteristic feature in mohammedan art." the cufic or arabic letters lend themselves readily to graceful treatment, and we find these texts from the sacred writings of the mohammedans or passages from other authors very freely introduced, not only in mural decoration, but in metal-work, as in fig. , on textile fabrics, tile-work and pottery, arms, and in fact wherever any opportunity for their introduc- tion occurs. if we turn to the alhambra, which may be considered as a typical example of mohammedan art at its finest, we find these inscriptions most freely introduced. they at once please the eye by their beauty of form, and reward the mind by their beauty of sentiment. they are either extracts from the koran, or sentences of elevated thought from other writers, or poems in praise of the build- ing itself or of its owners. one of the most freely used is the well-known “there is no conqueror but god,” the reply of ibnu l’-ahmar to the acclamation of his subjects when they saluted him as conqueror on the surrender of seville. others of like nature are the following:— “god is the best of protectors; he is the most compas- sionate of the compassionate.” “praise be given to god the only one.” “praise be given to god. there is no power or strength but in god.” in the book of sir thomas herbert, “some yeares travels into africa and asia,” a book published in london in the year , the palace at spahawn, i.e. isphahan, is described as being “painted with blew and gold, imbroidered with posies of arabick, which after the grotesco manner makes it shew very pleasant.” arabic inscriptions. “there is no deity but allah; mohammed is his messenger.” fig. . “durability is god’s.” “o god! thine is the praise for ever; and thine are the thanks for ever.” the birtſ, and development of ornament. illustrations of inscriptions in praise of the building itself may be seen in the following sentences:— “look attentively at my elegance, thou wilt reap the benefit of a commentary on decoration.” “for, by allah! the elegant buildings by which i am surrounded surpass all other buildings in the propitious omen attending their foundation.” “apartments are there enfolding so many wonders, that the eyes of the spectator remain for ever fixed upon them ; provided he be gifted with a mind to estimate them.” “hów many delightful prospects—how many objects in the contemplation of which a highly gifted mind finds. the gratification of its utmost wishes.” - “markets they are where those provided with money are paid in beauty, and where the judge of elegance is perpetually sitting to pronounce sentence.” sentences, in conclusion, in praise of the earthly rulers may also be found. thus:– “brightly doth our sultan, like the full moon, shine in the high regions of the empire. may his praiseworthy deeds for ever last, and his radiant light never tarnish.” “glory to our lord, the warlike and just sultan abū- abdillah al-ghani-billah.” “may divine help, solidity of empire, and splendid victory over the enemy fall to the lot of our lord abū- l-hajāj, commander of the moslems '' “may power everlasting and imperishable glory be the lot of the owner of this palace.” we may here turn aside for awhile and dwell for a rºſſ º §: º m. . the birth and development of ornament. short space on this feature in design, the use of in- scriptions, of which mohammedan art is the most con- spicuous exemplar, but which is by no means uncommon in other systems of decoration. an inscription, as we have already pointed out in our remarks on the assyrian arrowhead, may be merely a most matter-of-fact state- ment, without the slightest pretence or intention of being of decorative value. all such—and the reader will find mo difficulty in identifying them—are at once placed outside our pale; but in many other instances, as in the notable illustrations that we have given from the alhambra, they are distinctly intended to enhance the beauty and interest of the work on which they occur. the roman letters in ordinary use, excellent as they are in their blunt straightforwardness, do not lend them- selves happily to decorative requirements, but many of the forms of gothic and lombardic alphabets do, and it is these that we most ordinarily find in use in illuminations, inscriptions on bells, and the like. apart from this, beyond and above it, is of course the sentiment set forth. it does not suffice to set forth a thing prettily, the thing itself must be worth the setting. - the ancients made a considerable decorative use of inscriptions, and many antique greek and roman rings and other trinkets are inscribed with kindly sentiments that made them doubtless the more valued. we may point out, too, that indirectly such inscriptions are of value, as they often, from the form of the letters or the presence of the letters themselves, assist to determine the age. thus in early greek we find no omega or eta, inscriptions on a'ings, etc. sively confined to these pledges of troth. such legends were ordinarily of a religious character. the following examples from old wedding rings will sufficiently illus- trate this, and also show the kindly, wholesome tone that is so characteristic of them: “in thee my choice i do rejoice; ” “let me in thee most happy be; ” “united heartes death only partes; ” “noe heart more true than mine to you; ” “where hearts agree there god will be; ” “true love is lyfe to man and wyfe; ” “in thee my choyce how i rejoyce.” in one hundred and ten examples before us as we write we find that eighty-five are thrown into this rhyming form. on one plain gold ring in our collection we find the inscription, “the gift of a faithfull frend’”; and while we would not for a moment imply that husband and wife may not be the best and most faithful of friends, such an inscription so far differs from the general character of those found as to call for notice. many of the devices adopted by the old printers were very quaint and ingenious. the famous j. daye, for example, in the sixteenth century, instead of merely affixing his name to his work, used an emblematical woodcut of the rising sun, and the motto, “arise, for it is day!” and the great love of the middle ages for these conceits, rebuses, plays upon words, and such-like devices. affords us many illustrations of like character. of these * on an old gold ring in our collection, that from its size and style, the traces of blue enamel upon it, and a diamond cut in the form of a heart, may be considered as equivalent to a modern “engagement” ring, we find the propitiatory motto, “i am sent to salute.” the birth and development of ornament. mrs. bury palliser's book on “historic devices and badges’ gives hundreds of interesting examples, and we cannot do better than refer those of our readers who are interested in the subject to its pages. inscriptions as an element in the design may fre- quently be met with on our coinage, giving some interest- ing historical allusions or other source of interest beyond the bare enumeration of such more or less necessary facts as names, titles, dates, or values as one ordinarily expects to find on coins. queen elizabeth's motto, “rosa sine spina,” was, for instance, a happy reference to the cessation of civil strife and the blending of york and lancaster into the house of tudor, and its occurrence on the money in circulation was a constant reminder to all of the welcome fact. “posui deum adjutorem meum,”—i have taken god for my helper, was an especially favourite inscription, as we find it on the coinage of edward iii., richard ii, henry iv. and v., edward iv., richard iii., henry vii. and viii., elizabeth and edward vi., and in the plural form on the money of philip and mary. other examples are the “auxilium meum a domino” on the rose-nobles of richard ii., the “christus vincit, christus signat, christus imperat” of henry v., and the “sit nomen domine benedictum ” on the groats of henry vi. charles i., a man of culture, artistic taste, and refine- ment, placed, amongst others, the following mottos on his coinage: “cultores sui deus protegit,”—god will protect his worshippers; “amor populi praesidium regis,”—the love of the people is the defence of the king; “floreat con- the value of personal observation. i cordia regna,”—with concord kingdoms flourish; “justitia thronum firmat,”—justice strengthens the throne. on divers medals, seals, and coins we find an orna- mental arrangement based on the initials or letters of the king's name, or of the place where the coin was struck. thus, on some of the coins of alfred the great we find a monogrammatic arrangement based on the word londinia, crude enough in arrangement, but distinctly decorative in intention. the custom of introducing inscriptions on their work was largely in vogue with the earlier english potters, and any one visiting such collections of ceramic ware as that in the museum of practical geology, or the excellent willett collection in the corporation museum, brighton, will find abundant store of illustrations. “to observations which ourselves we make, we grow more partial for the observer's sake.” —pope. failing this personal hunting up of examples, the reader may turn advantageously to such an excellent work as that of solon, “the art of the old english potter,” where many interesting examples will be found and much valuable information on the whole subject of early english ceramic art very pleasantly picked up. as we have just given a quotation in support of the value of personal observation, we may for the consolation of those who are denied this great advantage refer them to the equally true words of johnson: “knowledge is of two kinds: we know a subject ourselves, or we know where we can find information on it.” consideration of mohammedan art resumed. etc., direct transcripts of the natural form, and yet twining amongst them the most conventional scroll-work. these are often painted upon a golden ground, and this gives great richness; but they are often depicted with their shadows thrown upon it, an effect which cannot be defended as a wholesome decorative treatment. in a great deal of the modern amateur illuminated work that one sees, the student is in woeful need of the knowledge that study of past work should give. had the well-intentioned but too easily satisfied beginner seen something of the glorious work of his mediaeval prede- cessors in the field, though the shock to self-esteem might be considerable, the after-result would be most valuable. most beginners fail in almost all directions where failure is possible to them—bad spacing, bad proportion, bad design, bad colour, bad drawing. one very common fail- ing is to so wrap everything up in feeble ornament that legibility is lost sight of. the old illuminators never fell into this error; the text itself was the primary considera- tion, and its adornment a secondary matter. note, for instance, in fig. , how clearly, in the midst of all its enrichment, the letter itself tells out, and this we should see yet more distinctly if instead of the black and white of our illustration we had the potent aid of colour to give still more emphasis to the forms. interesting as the whole subject of illumination would be, had we space to pursue it, it is impossible here to do more than make the baldest reference to it. we resume, therefore, the consideration of mohammedan art that these parenthetic references to the general use of inscriptions /ke birtſ, and development of ornament. in art have for a space interrupted. the noblest examples of mohammedan art are found in spain. granada was for seven centuries a moorish kingdom, and during that long period many noble buildings were erected, notably the magnificent mosques at cordova and seville, and the fortress-palace of the alhambra. “poets, historians, travellers, and artists, of all degrees of competence,” says hannay, “have laboured on this wondrous moorish ornamentation, and have done their best to convey some idea of it to readers who have never seen it, by pen, by brush, and by pencil. at the end, however, one sees it all very dimly indeed. owen jones explains with care how by drawing straight lines, to cut one another in this. or in that way, the basis of the moorish ornamentation. can be laid bare. one knows that he is right; but for all that his explanation leaves one with a general im- pression of chess-boards gone mad. he gives drawings which a mole could see to be admirable of their kind; but he had to leave the sun and air and the space of granada behind, and without them the form of the decoration is caput mortuum. ford comments with ex- cellent sagacity on the good fortune of a people who could use an alphabet which is itself an ornament. the motto. of ibnu-l-ahmar, the founder, “ila la ghāliba illa allah' (there is no conqueror but god), which is everywhere. written up, makes in itself a fine decoration. one notes the fact, and one agrees with spanish ford; but it is in a languid sort of way, and one remains nearly as far as. ever from realizing what the thing is really like. you may talk about intersecting straight lines and the use. enemies of the a//amóra. of primary colours, and the advantage of having a cuſic alphabet to write inscriptions with; but you will never enable any one of us who has not seen it to realize what the ornamentation of the alhambra is, nor will you show fig. . men of another race, brought up under another'sun, to reproduce it.” - it is a subject of immense thankfulness that we have any alhambra at all. charles v. had part of it pulled away to make room for a palace of his own, a palace that animal forms in moorish art. the sunnites being entirely opposed to images, while that of the shiites admits them. one of the inner courts of the alhambra, the court of lions, derives its name from a fountain in the centre, the basin being supported by a ring of lions, not of a very natural character certainly, but still sufficiently so to bring them within the religious prohibition; while the inscription round the fountain betrays the fact that it was want of power, not want of will, nor the restraint imposed by mohammedan precepts, that prevented their being more lifelike than they really are, as the portion of the inscription relating to them runs as follows: “truly what else is this fountain but a beneficent cloud pouring out its abundant supplies over the lions beneath like the hands of the caliph when he rises betimes to distribute amongst his soldiers, the lions of war, their bounteous reward. o, thou who beholdest here these crouching lions, fear not, for life is lacking to enable them to show their fury!” a suffi- ciently needless caution, as all will agree who have seen the originals in the casa real, or the casts of them in the alhambra court in the crystal palace at sydenham. the sicilian moors made a very notable use of animal forms in their ornament. these invaders brought with them from africa and asia a knowledge of many creatures, such as the giraffe, gazelle, elephant, cheetah, and parrot, and all these appear freely, together with the dog, eagle, swan, and other more familiar forms, in their textiles and other art products. in the tenth century one of the moorish kings of sicily captured corinth and athens, and brought back with him to palermo greek the art of mohammedan persia. i we not come upon the following use of it in a poem of tennyson, where he speaks of l “witch elms that counterchange the floor of this flat lawn with dusk and bright.” this term is applied to a pattern in which the unit of repeat and the ground are of the same form, and eastern ingenuity has developed a surprising variety of patterns that fulfil this requirement. very beautiful wall tiles from damascus, with floral patterns upon them, may be seen in the south kensington museum and in other collections. - the persians belong to the shiite section,' and in their various decorations the forms employed are of consider- ably more naturalistic character than is the case in typical mohammedan work, and one readily recognises on the pottery, embroideries, and arabesques many natural forms, such as the hyacinth, iris, and rose. the founders and original supporters of the mohammedan creed were but rude bedouins, who gradually imbibed some ideas of culture from the more artistic countries that came beneath their sway; and while the arabs subdued the persians by force of arms, the art culture of the latter was not crushed out by the limitations of the new creed. the relationship between the two peoples seems to have * “now concerning their religion (if such i may term it, being as one says rather a confused hotch-potch or mass of superstition) at this day it varies not from the turks in any particle of the alcoran: yet account they one the other hereticks, being no less divided in their profession than we and the papalins,” says herbert in his account of the persians in his “some yeares travels into africa and asia the great.” - - - the birth and development of ornament. been similar to that of rome and greece, where on the one side we get the conquering physical form and little or no artistic ability, while on the other we have the intellectual gifts that the conquerors gladly availed them- selves of. it is known that during the moorish occupa- tion of spain there was a very considerable persian colony in that country, the city of rioja being assigned to them as a place of residence, and the alhambra and other so-called moorish work owed doubtless much of its beauty and refinement to this persian influence. a reference to such books as texier’s “arménie et la perse,” or flandin and coste’s “voyage en perse,” both beautifully illus- trated works, will at once show how artistic a people the persians were; while such buildings as the mosque at tabreez, the tomb of the sultan khodabendah at sultanieh, the palace of sultan husein at isphahan, all figured in these works, are most interesting, both from the beauty and richness of their decoration, and from its marked resemblance to that of the alhambra, allowance being made for the fact that the persians in spain were foreigners more or less working out the behests of their employers, and of necessity under various religious and the student may also advantageously see collinot and beamont's. book, “ornements de la perse ’’; while amongst the “portfolios of industrial art,” published by the south kensington museum people, will be found one dealing with persian art, and giving examples of pottery, carpets, damasks, etc. other good sets in the series that. we may take this opportunity of referring to are those on indian, italian, sicilian, flemish, and saracenic art. all the sheets are of imperial quarto size, and are reproduced from the original objects in the museum by photo-lithography. the decorative art of india. together of many kingdoms and peoples, it is under the influence of several forms of religious belief, and the examples of art scattered throughout its length and breadth are of very varying date. it is really no more fig. . reasonable to expect to find the art of india alike through- out its vast area, than to expect the art of london and constantinople, or madrid and moscow, to be identical. in many works distinctly mohammedan hindu forms, both decorative and structural, are introduced; and hindu profusion of decoration. “compared with this venerable religion, which has in it the eternity of a universal hope, the immortality of a boundless love, an indestructiblé element of faith in final good. the extravagances which disfigure the record and practice of buddhism are to be referred to that inevit- able degradation which priesthoods always inflict upon great ideas committed to their charge. the power and sublimity of gautama's original doctrines should be estimated by their influence, not by their interpreters.” one of the most marked peculiarities of hindu work is the profusion of decoration. of this, fig. may be taken as a fair illustration. every surface is so lavishly carved with conventional floral forms, with animals, or the representations of the many deities, that one often feels that the very amount is a drawback, and that the whole would gain greatly in effect if the value of contrast in the form of occasional bands of plain surface had been more appreciated. in architectural work one especially feels the need of a more massive and simpler treatment. the modus operamdi that does well enough for an ivory or sandal-wood box is deficient in dignity when applied to a temple. in an egyptian or greek temple the strength and solidity of the mass is the chief character, and to this essential all enrichment is subservient. in india the leading forms are too often lost in the perplexity and multiplicity of the decorative details, the sense of scale is destroyed, and what should be distinctly an accessory .goes far to become a principal. the attributes of the gods are often so peculiar that their representations are necessarily very conventional, as we may see very well in u the birth and development of ornament. fig. ; but the animal forms introduced, such as elephants, are generally very well expressed. indian art often owes much of its effect to the repetition of units that are themselves of a very simple character. we have seen this already in fig. —a group of vases—and we may note the same thing equally well in fig. . this complexity of effect, produced by such simplicity of means, sometimes gives place to a great intricacy and elaboration of line. many of the indian embroideries are conspicuous illustrations of this richness of treatment, and other good examples arise in stone carving, from the necessity of admitting air and light and yet preserving privacy, as in the window opening shown in fig. . the india museum at south kensington is a mag- mificent collection of examples of every kind of decorative work, stone and wood carving, jewellery, pottery, metal- work, woven fabrics, embroidery, ivory-work, etc., and to this the student will turn, sketch-book in hand, to attempt to note something at least of the wealth of beauty that hundreds of hours of study will still leave apparently as inexhaustible as ever.' * chinese and japanese ornament is of great antiquity. the singularly conservative character of the celestials amongst the excellent handbooks published by the science and art department, will be found one by sir george birdwood, c.s.i., on “the industrial arts of india,” a book that the reader in search of fuller information than is here possible may very advantageously refer to. other admirable volumes in this series are those on textile fabrics, ivories, majolica, japanese pottery, tapestry, the industrial arts in spain, the saracens in egypt, and that on persian art. all are most reasonable in cost and freely illustrated. the birth and development of ornament. line in a very arbitrary and capricious way. examples. of these may be seen in figs. , , , , , . in these, as in almost everything else, we find that they will resort to almost any irregularity rather than get. symmetry and an even balance of parts. there is no more pleasing feature in the works of the japanese artists than their evident enjoyment of naturº —an enjoyment that appears continually. in such work consists the true strength of the japanese draughtsman; and the invariable truth of drawing and colour proves that this small and, until lately, isolated nation possesses an artistic power that no nation on earth, with all the aid of museums, schools of art, government grants, and all the rest of it, can excel. it is the intense appreciation of the life-habits of the creatures, and his evident delight in his work, which gives the japanese this high position and pre-eminent skill. all is admirably suited to deco- ration in the way it is treated. the force and freedom, and the absolute fidelity to nature in the whole, is a constant delight; and the simplest japanese object shows. this enjoyment of nature in its degree as thoroughly as the most profusely ornamented and costly. these people can draw; they have both the observant and appreciative eye and the ready hand; no complexity of structure, no sharp foreshortening is shirked by them, and all the beauty that their eyes delight in, their hands transfer unfailingly to paper. in looking over a collection of japanese drawings in our possession, we are at, once struck by the closeness of observation, and the wonderful facility with which a the birth and development of ornament. the stream. we can therefore only say that our admira- tion is a thing of no recent date. it must be borne in mind, too, that this popular applause, though in some cases of little or no critical value, in this case springs from the true estimation first expressed by those whose opinions were really worth regarding, and this esteem will remain when the votaries of mere fashion will have deserted japan and all its ways, and raised another idol on the empty throne: for the art of these people is no dead thing, but a vital force. - the decorative art of the japanese shows the same general characteristics as the pictorial,—in fact, there is no broad line of distinction. the due amount of conven- tionalism or naturalism that a decorative composition calls for under varying circumstances has been, and still remains, one of the most difficult problems of the designer. tokio has one set of principles, and south kensington another; and instead of endeavouring to conform to the practice of japan, or requiring the japanese to conform to ours, we may well endeavour to derive what is good from each, and find, it may be, an equal pleasure from results so diverse. when owen jones prepared his excellent “grammar of ornament,”—which, however, is much less a grammar than a goodly store of illustrations,—japanese art was practically unknown in england, and finds no place in his book. since then the country has been opened up to europeans, and the west has been delighted with an art so fresh and striking; the result has been that some enthusiasts would have us in matters decora- tive all turn japanese, turn our backs once for all upon eastern taste for irregular spacing. the teachings of the past, and burn all text-books that do not support this view." - english art training has been deficient in the power of seizing on the salient points and expressing them with the charming freedom and unlaboured grace shown by the japanese. the englishman trusts to precedent and con- vention, while the japanese goes direct to nature, and embodies in his resulting work the delight he has himself felt, and the principles he has there learnt. hus the orientals, possessing little knowledge of sº and much experience of artistic handworks having found out the charm that springs from the re- - petition of some simple stellate or floral form, at once give freedom and life to sir tesigns by producing this vº -- t. ." - - unit at irregular intervalsº over the ground, instead of. adhering to a methodical and geometrical arrangemen -- -- - . . .” º estern system appeals to our lov cision, exactness, order; and is - * --- - eastern, the art of india, persia, japan, is no less typical. when we look on a meadow in spring strewn over with its countless buttercups, a sea of waving gold, or gaze on some clear night into the deep vault of heaven and see * “a narrow-minded man would never do anything noble; he would also be narrow in his work and actions. they must remember that there was such a thing as bigotry in art, as well as in other things. the bigot in art was the one-sided man who could see beauty in only one particular phase of art. some pinned their faith to the classical expression, and others to the mediaeval expression of ideas, each ignoring the beautiful in whatever did not tally exactly with his own peculiar views. they should avoid such a pit-fall as this.”— rawle, address to students, nottingham school of art. excellence of japanese draughtsmanship. ornamental art has its canons, no doubt, though the whole subject is full of difficulty, and matters have not reached the cut-and-dried stage that some authorities would have us believe. it is no doubt true, that where the trumpet gives uncertain sound, men cannot prepare themselves for the battle; but the same treasure-house of wisdom that teaches us this warns us equally against crying “peace, peace,” where there is no peace. few, we fancy, of our multitudinous art students could give the beautiful sweep of flying birds, or the graceful foreshortening and variety of line-direction in a shoal of fish, as the japanese do. on plate xi. we have taken one section only of this nature-study—animal forms. most of our readers, we suppose, had in their younger days a fit of keeping rabbits; it comes as naturally as the idea of being a sailor or an engineer, and runs its course as regularly as the measles or other such incidents of our childhood; and all, we are sure, will at once feel how admirably true to nature are the two rabbits we have figured from a japanese source—all expressed, too, with the very minimum of labour in simple outline. how admirable, again, the groups of wading birds in the rippling water, either intently watching for their prey, swallowing it with that peculiar jerking and constriction of the neck that is so true to nature, or indulging in those lengthy fits of contemplation that appear so character- istic of these wading birds, and which, again, is so happily caught by the artist. the flying stork, again, with its head thrown well back and its outstretched legs, is capitally rendered; while the various studies of fish the birth and development of ornament. are equally admirable in their graceful undulations. the quaint-looking owl, too, that perches with his back to us, is thoroughly and sufficiently expressed by the simplest of lines; while the feeble, fluttering quail, and the grandly-plumed “rooster,” are full of expressive drawing and natural character. all these illustrations are from authentic sources, from books, fans, and similar articles in our collection. it is necessary to give this voucher for their accuracy, as a great deal of spurious japanese, manufactured in bir- mingham, paris, etc., is now flooding the market; while, on the other hand, the commercial instinct is playing havoc with a good deal of genuine japanese work—work, that is to say, done in japan and by japanese, but pro- duced in enormous quantities, and at a very low rate of payment, for the european market. any one who will take the trouble to compare the japanese work of a few years ago even with much of the present stuff turned out will realize readily enough that artistically their association with enterprising europeans and americans has not been by any means an unmixed blessing, what- ever it may have been commercially. many charming examples may be seen in the south kensington and british museums. they afford a marked contrast, indeed, with much that may be seen in the shop-windows. the same unfortunate influence we have seen is at work amongst the skilled art-workers of india. a few bold lines, a few vigorous sweeps of the brush, but those few put on with consummate knowledge and unfailing art-instinct, suffice to give the most life-like the birth and development of ornament. ordinary drawings and designs. where they will com- plete a thing, nothing can be completer; the microscope itself could find no flaw in the patient, faithful article turned out. when, again, they merely desire to arouse the imagination, one sweep of the brush, one turn of the dexterous wrist, and they have indicated twenty leagues of blue distance, or limned a bird's wing in the very act of beating.” - the love of art appears to be ingrained in the japanese- in that beautiful country, life passes under easier and more graceful conditions than in these islands of the west. the cruel tyranny of fashion and the senseless cry after novelty are unknown, and in their place is the changeless law of love and beauty for its own sake." “the government, sharing the national passion for beauty in nature and art, plants seats just at those spots in its public gardens and highways where the view, is perfect of fujiyama or of the sea, or of some range of wooded hills,” and it is common along the bye-roads to find “whether it be the coolie setting out minute maple trees on the slopes of a miniature fujiyama, the maiden setting gew-gews in her raven tresses, your ‘boy’ arranging flowers for your table, the journeymen painter daubing colour on the commonest fan, all alike know the mysterious secret, and act upon it. you cannot live a week in japan without noticing that it is deeply rooted in the people's instincts. i verily believe that, with some inclinings of the head and not a few soft interjaculatory reflexions, a japanese could put a postage'stamp on an envelope artistically.”—piggott. - - - ruskin very truly says: “beautiful art can only be produced by people who have beautiful things about them, and leisure to look at them; and unless you provide some elements of beauty for your workmen to be surrounded by, you will find that no elements of beauty can be invented by them.” - o . the birth and development of ornament. liberation of art from the trammels imposed in egypt and assyria and its development into the matchless work of the greeks. the strong individuality that we *...*.*.*.*.* from two potent — factors, isolation and feudalism. soon after the discovery of japan by the portuguese traveller mendez pinto in the year , jesuit mis- ºn isionaries entered the country, and by the converts & " " from buddhism to roman catholicism numbered some ix hundred thousand. at this time some spanish º monks appeared on the scene, and political and religious discord soon followed. the japanese ruler took alarm at the papal claim to universal sove- reignty, and the buddhist priesthood and the english and dutch protestant traders fanned the flame of suspicion and jealousy. this was done so effectually that in a proclamation was issued by the government against he missionaries, and, as this was contemptuously ig- - ored by the priests and their converts, a general and anguinary persecution began. this was met by armed esistance, and after a struggle of many years chris- ianity was absolutely stamped out, and all foreigners' ere banished from the country, the government im– posing in addition severe restrictions on their own people, as it was naturally deemed almost as important that the japanese should not visit the foreigner, as that the foreigner should not visit japan. hence all vessels of * *-*. except a few chinese and dutch merchants who were allowed to remain at certain points, on submitting to the most ignominious and humiliating restrictions. influence of japanese feudalism on art. sea-going capabilities were destroyed and a rigid limit of size imposed upon the ship-builder. this state of things lasted for over two centuries, and it was only in the year that japan was reopened to the foreigner. the mikados have ruled in uninterrupted succession for over two thousand years. in the third century of our era the conquest of corea by the japanese brought them into touch with the chinese, a nation at that time of more advanced culture than themselves, and to this they owe the introduction of buddhism and doubtless many other things, and presumably amongst these a com- siderable degree of art-influence. in the twelfth century." a powerful nobleman, the shogun yorimoto, usurped the governing power, and the mikado had but its semblance . . left to him. this dual system of government lasted until our own day, the mikado being a semi-sacred and almost mythical being to his subjects, while the actual power was wielded by the great nobles, or daimios. the power of these daimios has been broken within the recollection of most of our readers, and the sovereign of japan is now both nominally and actually ruler of his people. these political changes exercised great influence on the art of japan. v pº throughout the middle ages and down to the year , the principle of feudalism was supreme, and each feudal lord reigned a little potentate in his district, and having his vassals, and amongst these his art-craftsmen, living under his protection; and it was under these conditions, the amount of time and labour spent being immaterial, and sustenance assured, that the craftsmen x º the nature and use of the awetsukč. o natural forms we may instance some few as illustra- tions, though it must be borne in mind that the supply is inexhaustible. in one drawing, for example, we see a grand procession of grasshoppers, the king grasshopper being borne in state in a sedan-chair, and around him are carried the various insignia of rank ; in another example we have a similar procession, the actors in it being foxes. in the south kensington museum may be seen carvings of a monkey playing with a skull, two frogs playing leap-frog, a frog sitting on a large leaf and having an umbrella under his arm. the small carvings known as netsukés offer a great field for grotesque treatment. “until very recently a netsuké was a term which included, in the minds of all foreigners, every carving below a certain size, and it is only a comparatively small class who now know the contrary. in reality a netsuké is a toggle affixed by a cord to the tobacco pouch, or the pipe, or the inro, to prevent it from slipping through the sash or waistband. in early times it probably had little, if any, ornamentation, but gradually, as it was one of the few articles upon a japanese's dress which admitted of it, ornamentation was added. but so long as it was utilised as a toggle it never lost its original idea, or its form; so that whenever we see a netsuké without com- pactness, or with extraneous excrescences which would catch the folds of the dress, or break off, it may be taken for certain that it is of modern date and has been made for the outside market.” they are worked in huish. io the birtſ, and development of ornament. wood, ivory, horn, jade, metal, porcelain, onyx, and other suitable materials. many of them were the work of men whose success in this field made them famous, and though to most of us the names of tadatoshi, tomochika, shiuzan, or miwa convey no meaning, their work, and that of many others equally well known to collectors, is much sought after and prized. the artists tell their story with the greatest clearness and point, while nothing is too solemn or too trivial to be safe from humorous treatment. the creed of japan ennobles the people by its purity, and “the race has evolved a high form of natural reli- gion, known as ‘shinto '-' the way of the gods’—which teaches simplicity, courtesy in social life, and careful attention to the least detail in life's surroundings. shinto teaches the fundamental tenets of true politeness, in that it inculcates reverence to parents as one of the highest virtues, and the family circle fosters the germs of the great national trait of ceremonious politeness. there is mo oath or offensive word with which to express dissatis- faction in the japanese vocabulary, save recent acquisi- tions supplied by western civilization at the treaty ports. deference to age is universal with the young; and it is considered a privilege as well as an evidence of filial duty, to study the wants and wishes of the parents even before the necessities of the progeny of those who may have households of their own. ‘keep this mirror— my picture—and thy destiny will endure as long as heaven and earth,’ were the injunctions delivered to jimmu-tenno, the first mikado, the first head of the the religious beliefs of the japanese. ii shinto faith; and the shinto faith has survived both the introduction of buddhism in the third century, and roman catholicism in the sixteenth century; buddhism adapting itself and amalgamating itself with the indi- genous cult; roman catholicism being obliterated and swept away. the national social ‘tea ceremony,’ known as the ‘cha-no-ya,’ which specially cultivates hospitality, courtesy, purity, and tranquillity, comes of shinto origin, and largely influenced the applied arts, as the rigid ceremonious rules of the ‘cha-no-ya' make it compulsory on the part of every guest to bestow compli- mentary and minute inspection on each utensil used, and on each object and surrounding in the room.” + “in japan the two chief religions of the country, shintoism and buddhism, have been more completely fused together than in china, chiefly owing to the com- promise effected by kobo-daishi (in the ninth century), who proved that both religions were merely various reve- lations of the same deity. every one therefore adores the gods for whom he feels a special liking, without regard to their origin. idols are unknown to real shintoism. . the bare temple contains nothing but a simple altar with the sword, mirror, and the gohei. the first denotes the palladium of the nation, the sacred sword which the sun-goddess bestowed on her grandson. the second is an imitation of the mirror which the same goddess gave to her descendants, that they might always behold in it their mother's soul and find the truth. the * liberty. the birth and development of ornament. gohei, a collection of white strips of paper, folded in a peculiar manner, and attached to a wooden rod, was originally nothing but a mere dust-broom in the temple, afterwards used to clear the air of impurities during the prayers. finally it came to be placed upon the altar as a symbol of the godhead's purity.” " outside the definite religious teaching, even as in christian england, a large amount of superstitious belief in goblins, wraiths, and the like has grown up, and influ- ences the art and the life, though even here the sense of fun and incongruity finds abundant exercise. in one drawing we see the god of thunder rummaging in a basket for his storm-cloud. in another drawing in our possession we have the japanese god of the winds in mid-air directing a mighty blast from the distended wind-bag on his back; while in yet another instance another storm-god has in either hand a short staff with which he hammers away at a ring of tambourines and thus produces the rolling thunder, while an attendant with a big box of hail in his left hand plentifully disperses handsful around. “the favourites of the people and perpetual butt of their wanton wit,” writes christian bahnson, a danish authority on matters anthropological, “are especially the god of contentment, the ever-joyous hotei, with his fat paunch and his sack, and dai-koku, god of wealth, with his rice-sack and miner's pick-axe, with which he extracts riches from the bowels of the earth. the others are not spared. yebis, god of trade and fishing, the bahnson. authorities on japanese art. i cithern-playing ben-ten, and the reverend old dju-ro- djin with his stag, are often seen in situations little consistent with their divine dignity.” many of the representations of spirits that appear to various mortals are of the weirdest forms. japanese art has been so frequently dealt with of late years by various writers that the student may readily be bewildered amidst such a choice of guides. the few we mention are all worthy of attention. sir rutherford alcock’s “art and industries of japan,” audsley's “ornamental arts of japan,” and dr. dresser's work entitled “japan; its architecture, art, and art indus- tries,” should be referred to. audsley and bowes' “keramic art of japan,” containing sixty-three plates (thirty-five of which are in gold and colours), and nearly two hundred pages of text, with numerous wood engrav- ings printed in colours, the whole being produced from the original japanese works, should be seen ; as also should the excellent book of anderson on the “pictorial arts of japan,” a work illustrated by eighty plates executed by chromo-lithography, photogravure, and native engravings on wood and copper, and about one hundred and fifty figures printed with the text, reproducing works by representative artists, from the seventh century to the present day. the “grammar of japanese orna- ment and design,” illustrated by sixty-five plates, many in colours and gold, representing all classes of natural and conventional forms, drawn from the originals, with introductory, descriptive, and analytical text, by t. w. cutler, should also be referred to; and to these we may i /he birth and development of ornament. add “l’art japonais, ancien et moderne”; a history of the art of japan, comprising the arts of painting, architecture, sculpture in bronze, ivory, and wood, lacquer- work, metal-work, arms, fabrics, embroidery, engraving in black and colours, ceramics, etc., with letterpress in french, by m. louise gonse, directeur de la gazette des beaux arts, illustrated with sixty-four full-page engravings (thirty of which are in colours, thirteen etchings, twenty-one heliogravure), and over seven hun- dred engravings scattered through the text. in conclu- sion we may mention the “japanische vorbilder” of von h. dolmetsch, containing many plates, printed in gold and colours, of most careful reproductions of textiles, paintings, ceramic paintings, diaper and other patterns." the subject is one replete with interest, and the only painful side to it is that the japanese, in their desire to utilise to the full the benefits of western civilization, are allowing themselves to be influenced adversely in artistic matters, and endeavouring to engraft upon their indigenous art entirely alien methods and tradi- tions. fortunately some of their better men see this danger, and are now striving with zealous patriotism to * other books which deal with the country as a whole rather than dwell upon the artistic side alone may be read with interest and profit, as they often give an excellent insight into the character of the people, and enable us to see much that bears upon art, even though that be not the primary intention. amongst such books we may mention arnold's “seas and lands,” “japan and her people,” by steinmetz, “ unbeaten tracks in japan,” by miss bird, “japan, historical and descriptive,” by eden, “the manners and customs of japan,” by humbert, “tales of old japan,” by witford, and “japan, past. and present,” by buhicrosan, a japanese author. the bygone civilizations of mexico and peru. keep in the country the noble examples of native work- manship that were being disposed of as old-fashioned lumber, whatever may be the value of our western art, even its most devoted adherents surely would shudder at the notion of a japan south-kensingtonised, though the attempt to bring calcutta, bombay, and poonah into sympathy with stages a, b, and all the rest of the routine of the science and art department, is not a very hopeful symptom. in mexico and peru we find strange remains of a bygone civilization, the decoration being of the most bizarre description, and, to european taste, of most un- satisfactory type. it appears impossible to clear away the thick darkness that enshrouds the origin of these races. it is impossible, with our present materials, to say whether these are two independent civilizations, or whether one was derived from the other, and if so, which was the parent and which the offspring. it is equally impossible to say whether these civilizations were indigenous, or whether they owed anything to influences imported from the old world. no chrono- logical table of the various remains is yet possible, nor can it be said whether the works are those of one race, or whether successive waves of immigration have modified the type forms. it is distinctly curious that several of the typical forms of the old world, such as the scroll or the fret, are found under barbarous modifications in the art of mexico and peru, though the thousands of miles of ocean between assyria or greece and these lands of the far west at the character of mexican ornament. i on the clay tablets of ancient assyria, is found the story of a mighty deluge that overswept the earth, and in which one family alone escaped destruction, in the far-distant childhood of the world. columbus, pizarro, cortes, all set forth to the new world; but though it was new indeed to them, they found it the home of many civilized races, and of others whose mysterious monuments amidst the tangle of the tropical vegetation still remain an unsolved problem. nor need we see an impassable barrier to still earlier races in the three thousand miles of restless ocean that stretch between the old world and the new, since it was not necessary to cross the atlantic at all, as there was a very much easier route by way of siberia and the narrow strait (only thirty-six miles wide at the marrowest part), with its numerous island resting-places, that lies between asia and america. we maturally now-a-days associate with siberia the idea of a frost-bound penal settlement, but there are numerous geological indications that this was once a bright and fruitful land, as indeed it is much more nearly so to-day than popular belief credits. great crops of grain are gathered-in each year, and the vine ripens its fruit in the open air. the ancient mexican buildings are profusely covered with carved ornament, this ornament being ordinarily either very imperfectly rendered figures of men or animals, or, more commonly still, various rude geometric devices and scrolls. the circle often appears in mexican ornament, and it is very natural that this should be so, since adoration of the sun was one phase of the worship of these ancient o the birtſ, and development of ornament. find the love of decorative design. we have in our own collection some charming specimens of bead-work, the work of north american indians. other curious examples of indian skill will be seen in the pipes ex- humed from the grave-mounds of ohio. perhaps the best collection in england of these may be found in the black- more museum at salisbury. the figures of beasts, birds, and reptiles are carved with great skill and fidelity to nature, the attitudes assumed being very characteristic, and the habits of the various creatures admirably indicated. hundreds of examples may be seen in vari- ous ethnographical collections, and amongst the animals carved we remember noting the otter, puma, bear, wolf, beaver, squirrel, racoon, crow, swallow, hawk, heron, buzzard, toucan, turtle, seal, frog, and rattlesnake. amongst these pipe designs we also find human heads ; these are marked with flowing lines and patterns repre- senting either tattooed or painted designs. the indian cast of physiognomy is capitally given. tattooing is a custom of great antiquity; we see illus- trations of men thus adorned in some of the tombs at thebes, and caesar in his commentaries speaks of the britons as being tattooed. the effect is produced by puncturing the skin in the desired pattern, either the pointed instrument itself being rubbed with some permanent stain that at each puncture it carries into the tissues, or this colouring matter is rubbed in afterwards. captain cook, in his excellent account of his voyage to the south seas, thus describes the procedure in otaheite: “they stain their bodies by indenting or pricking the - tattooing as a decoration. i flesh with a small instrument made of bone, cut into short teeth; which indentings they fill up with a dark blue or blackish mixture prepared from the smoke of an oily nut. this operation is, exceedingly painful," and leaves an indelible mark.”? sir edwin arnold * is quite enthusiastic on the splendid designs that may be seen on the natives of japan. “the jinrikisha pullers in particular are sometimes gorgeously pictorial from nape to heel, and you may study for an hour the volutes, arabesques, flowers, gods, dragons, and poetical inscriptions on the back of your coolie as you bowl along, without exhausting the wealth of design and colouring upon the saffrom surface of his skin.” it is, however, to the countless islands of polynesia and to new zealand that we turn for the finest examples of this decorative treatment of the human body. the following * * john rutherford, an english sailor, captured by the new zealanders in , wrote an account of various experiences of his captivity. amongst other things he was tattooed, and so severe was the scarifying that he lost his sight for three days and did not fully recover for six weeks. * this indelible character has led to its use in england, though it is not regarded as an added charm by the tattooees who come under the following section of the mutiny act: “on the first and on every subsequent conviction for desertion, the court martial, in addition to any other punishment, may order the offender to be marked on the left side, two inches below the armpit, with the letter d: such letter not to be less than an inch long, and to be marked upon the skin with some ink, or gunpowder, or other preparation, so as to be visible and con- spicuous, and not liable to be obliterated.” notwithstanding its penal associations, many soldiers and sailors have a taste for being tattooed, and such markings are a useful means of identification in case of need. * “seas and lands.” tattooing of the new zealanders. esteemed, that i have seen many of his drawings ex- hibited even after death. a neighbour of mine very lately killed a chief who had been tattooed by aranghie, and, appreciating the artist's work so highly, he skinned the chieftain's thighs, and covered his cartouch-box with it ! i was astonished to see with what boldness and precision aranghie drew his designs upon the skin, and what beautiful ornaments he produced; no rule and com- passes could be more correct than the lines and circles he formed. so unrivalled is he in his profession, that a highly finished face of a chief from the hands of this artist is as greatly prized in new zealand as a head from the hands of sir thomas lawrence is amongst us. this professor was merely a slave; but by skill and industry he raised himself to an equality with the greatest men of his country; and as every chief who employed him always made him some handsome present, he soon be- came a man of wealth, and was constantly surrounded by important personages.” - the influence of civilization is now far reaching, and the picturesque individuality of the various peoples is ever growing less and less. the cantonal costumes of switzerland, the quaint dresses of the norwegian, spanish, and italian peasantry are dying out of use, and in the course of a few generations the chimney-pot hat will reign supreme over a conquered world. the sioux and the blackfoot indian don coat and trousers; the japanese forswears the picturesque costume of his fore- fathers in order that he may take his place in the dead level of tailordom. historical landmarks. “footprints on the sands of time.” in some cases, and especially in the earliest dates, the figures given are only approximate, as in these exceptional cases it has been impossible to obtain absolute certainty. menes, founder of memphis . . - - . b.c. entenna, king of babylon ** - s - ... n. sargon i. reigns - - -* - - c . . rhufu, builder of first pyrami . . b.c. to kha-f-ra, builder of the second pyramid . . b.c. men-kau-ra, builder of the third pyramid . . , usertsen iii., great builder, thebes, memphis, etc. , the founding of carthage - - - - . , assyria independent of babylon - . , thothmes iii. erected obelisk, now called cleo- patra's needle . e - - ,, amenophis iii., colossal statues at thebes . . , rameses i. reigned from . e - - b.c. to seti i. built great hall of columns at karnak, etc. b.c. rameses ii., great temple-builder, abu simbel, etc. , shalmaneser i. founded nimroud . - - . , ashur-nasir-pal came to the throne - - . .. ** built great palace of nimroud . .. sargon iii. came to the throne - - - . , built great palace at khorsabad . . , historical landmarks. i conquest of peru by pizarro . holbein, painter and designer, died . jean goujon, french sculptor, died. - e . bernard palissy died - . extirpation of christians in japan. • - . decree of expulsion against all foreigners in japan . grinling gibbons born . • - - e • . inigo jones, english architect, died - • - . first stone laid of new cathedral of st. paul, london. st. paul's cathedral finished . . grinling gibbons died . . sir christopher wren died . chelsea pottery established . worcester pottery established. . derby pottery established . excavations commenced at pompeii . lowestoft pottery established . . british museum opened january th . wedgwood established etruria works . bristol pottery established e . elgin marbles placed in british museum . botta exploring kyonjik and khorsabad . palaces of sennacherib, esarhaddon, and ashur-bani- pal discovered by layard . - - - e . welby pugin died . - - - • • . re-opening of japan to the rest of the world. . rawlinson excavating at babylon . . mausoleum of halicarnassus, remains . blacas collection bought for nation e - * - . wood's excavations at ephesus . . . . to castellani collection bought for nation . . rassam excavating in assyria . cleopatra's needle brought to london . inder. augustan age of rome, , . avebury, stone circle at, . aztec pottery, . babylon, excavations at, . babylonian empire, . ball flower, gothic, . banqueting house, whitehall, . “baronial halls of england,” hall, . basilican architecture, . basilisk in art, , . baths of titus, decorations of, , . bayeux tapestry, . beak-head moulding, . beautiful art requires beautiful sur- roundings, . beadwork, north american indian, bede, “historia ecclesiastica,” . beetle, sacred animal, . bell on decoration, . bell of st. patrick, . bellorius on trajan’s column, . hº inscriptions upon, , , bººm, & dictionary of religion,” beni-hassan, ruins of, . bernard, “ornaments de la renais- sance,” . bettoni, “tombs and monuments of italy,” . biblical references to egypt, . biga on coins, . billet moulding, . birch, “history of ancient pottery,” bird, “unbeaten tracks in japan,' birs nimroud, . [ , birth of ornament, . bishop bruère, his elephant, . bisymmetry, . blackmore museum, salisbury, . boar as a symbol, . bonn, romanesque work at, . bookbinding, , , , . bookbinding, books to consult, . book of kells, . botanic gardens, kew, . botta, excavations of m., . boule-work, , , . bow pottery, . brandon, “analysis of gothic architecture,” . [ . break-up of daimio power in japan, brighton corporation museum, . british museum, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . britons, enamelling known to, . britton, “architectural antiquities of great britain,” . britton, “cathedral antiquities,” bronzes, . [ . brooches, . bucrania, . buddha and buddhism, , , , . - buddhist lotus . - “buildings and monuments of venice,” cicognara, . bull, , , , . bunsen on basilicas, . byron, extract from, . byzantine art, , , . byzantium, , , . cable moulding, . callimachus of corinth, . camarina, coinage of, . cameo, . canina on ancient rome, ; on egypt, . cºś museum, . captain cook on tattooing, . carlyle, extract from, , . carthage, . cartouche forms, . caryatid figures, . casts of greek sculpture, . cat, sacred animal, , . cecil smith, discourses of, . ceiling treatment, . cellini, work of, , , . celtic art, , , , . celts, enamels used by the, . centaur in art, . “ceramic art,” waring, . ceramic mosaics, . chalcedon, coinage of, . champlevé enamels, . chapter house, westminster, . charity in matters of opinion, . chaucer, extract from, , . chevron moulding, . chimaera, . x chinese, , , . chinese destruction of antiquities, . chinese influence on art of japan, . chippendale, . choice bindings at south kensington museum, , . yale university library ^! w<' ^v>mmiiggs^g^sgglig:ggs^^ ^£, f-^^ti^^^^gj^^i^kgril -^,^a-" bi[fr«*fji;'' — a[ris.<e)t:ki:?-!f?/g(e'hj'&®ig„(©[r,t} i£,ah';ii the cabinet-maker and upholsterer's guide: being a complete drawing book; in which will be comprised treatises on geometry and perspective, as applicable to the above branches op mechanics ; the definitions and problems explained in the most plain and familiar terms, with much new matter introduced, and ihe diagrams rendered at once entertaining and practically useful. the whole illustrated by a series of instructive examples, and xvulmeeroirs engravings. to which is added, a complete series of new and original designs fob household furniture, and interior decoration, in the most approved, elegant,and modern taste, beautifully andcorrectly coloured, prom the original drawings ; and accompanied with vsi^nl and practical instructions for the manufacture of the same. incltding , pl. ns, profiles, and a scale to each, with the mouiidings eniiargbd, foh assisting the wokkman ; viz., drapekies, curtains, beds, canopies, cornices.-^chairs and spfas for drawing-rooms, parlodrs, libraries, halls, &c. — ottomans, seats, chaise-longue,— writing, wohkj dressing, library, and card tables. — side boards, celerets, book-cases, secretaires, commodes, wabcrobes. — vases, tripods, candelabras, lustres, girandoles, lamps, mirrors, pier glasses, chandeliers, cattiney ornaments, screens, &c. &c. comprising likewise, instructions and examples in the elementally principles op ornamental foliage, &c. enabling the student to draw with facility and correctness in this so generally useful branch of the att ; with numerous original compositions, adapted for tablets, friezes, &c. for the use of carvers— painters — modellers — masons — smiths, &c. and all the various workers in metals, &c. by george smith, vphouierer and furniture draughtsman to his majesty ; principal of the drawing academy, brewer street, golden square ; and author of various works on the arts of design and decoration. london: published by jones and co. temple of the muses (late lackington's), finsbury square; and may be had of all booksellers. . yale introduction historical view of the origin ofthe art in this country. — first specimens introduced iy the norman invasion. — ornaments derived from cathedrals and ancient edifices. — mr. cotman's work. — reign of richard ii. — the norman and saxon style superseded by the florid gothic during the reigns of henry i, ii, and iii. — distinguishing feature of the taste from this period to the reign of elizabeth. — progressive improvement continued. — age of louis xiv- — the old system super- sede/jl by the arabesque style. — importation into england. — continued to the early part of george iii. — messrs. chippendale's and ince's works. — a total revolution in taste, introduced by the messrs. adams. — improved by mr. james wyatt. — perfection in ornament, s^c. reserved for the present time. — effect produced by mons. denon's work. — the author's flrst work on furniture and design super seded by later improvements. — by what cause produced — intended object arid plan of the present work, in a w^ork treating wholly of domestic english furniture, it can scarcely be considered irrelevant, to precede it with a short historical view of the earliest style, variations, and progressive improvements that have taken place up to the present period. as far as research so remote, can enable us to form any judg ment on this subject, the norman invasion of our island appears to have afforded the earliest specimens of what constituted the domestic furniture of that warlike age. iv introduction. it is probable that in proportion as their manners were simple, and luxury was unknown, their domestic furniture would com prise utility, divested of ostentation. no doubt the conqueror and his nobles brought with them the taste of their country ; for in the very few specimens that time has spared of the style of that age, we can only distinguish the bold projecting mouldings on the legs supporting their tables and seats, and wherever ornament was adopted, it appears to have corresponded with those used in their cathedrals ; examples of which may be seen in mr. cotman's accurate drawings, made from the ancient edifices, and from which it is evident that their artists were not unacquainted with the grecian elegance of composition. from this period to the reign of richard ii, the baronial castle alone offers any example of domestic furniture. the same siniple style seems to have been followed, but withthe addition of more enrichment.—during the reigns of the three first henrys, the norman and saxon architecture gave place to the pointed and florid gothic, changing in a great degree the feature of domestic furniture. the taste of these times down to the reign of elizabeth, is distinguishable in the light spiral columns in the backs of chairs, the spiral twisted column in the legs of their tables, the variety and beauty of their turned mouldings, and in an excessive use of ornament, no way to be compared in ex cellence with what preceded. from this period, and during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, under louis xii, and francis i, of france, at which time some distinguished artists existed, and until the age of louis introduction. v xiv, the taste in decoration appears to have progressively improved. at this period, the whole system seems to have given place to a style completely arabesque, although blended with much grandeur peculiar to this taste, and brought to great perfection by the artists then employed in its manufacture. — the importation of it into england changed the whole feature of design, as it re lated to household furniture, in our houses and mansions. this taste continued almost unchanged through the reign of george ii, and the earlier part of george iii. the elder mr. chippendale, was, i believe, the first author who favored the public with a work consisting of designs drawn from this school, with great merit to himself, however defective the taste of the time might be. to this work succeeded that of mr. ince, in the same style. from this period to the time of messrs. r. and j. adams^ the same species of design continued, with little or no alteration, until the researches of these scientific gentlemen in architecture and orna ment, in rome, dalmatia, and other parts of italy and greece, were made public. a complete revolution in the taste of design imme diately followed ; the heavy pannelled wall, the deeply cofl'ered ceiling, although they oflfered an imposing and grand eflfect, gave way to the introduction of a light arabesque style, and an orna ment highly beautiful. but the period for the introduction of not only a chaste style in architecture, but likewise of ornament (and which extended itself to our domestic movables), was reserved for the late mr. james wyatt, whose classic designs will carry his name to posterity with unimpaired approbation. here it would appear almost unnecessary for invention to have gone further, but vi introduction. perfection, it appears, was reserved for the present period, in relation to ornament and domestic embelushment. in the year j mons. denons' grand publication, detailing the antiquities of egypt, becarae public. the novelty displayed throughout these fine specimens of art, cauing to recollection so distant a portion of ancient history, gave rise and life to a taste for this description of embelushment. at this period, the author was induced to lay before the public, a collection of designs for domestic furniture. this work, however highly appreciated at the time, has become wholly obsolete and inappucable to its intended purpose, by the change of taste and rapid improvements which a period of twenty years has introduced. the travels of scientific men — the publications within the last twenty years — ^the elgin marbles, all alike detailing the perfection of grecian archi tecture and ornament ; the beautiful specimens contained in sir william gell's work on the remains of pompeii — the inexhaustible resources for beautiful outline in the vases of sirwilliam hamilton, if no other causes had existed, would surely have been sufficient to account for the present elegant and refined taste. in this highly improved state of the fine arts, a work on domestic furniture, comprehending every iraprovement to the present day, may be considered necessary as well as acceptable to the tratle, and has induced the author to compile this volume, containing, not only a large cox,l,ection of original, designs, in the various schools of the art, but also to add to it instructions in drawing, suflbcient to make any one a draftsman in his own person. for this purpose, a portion of geometry is of the greatest introduction. vii consequence, and scarcely to be dispensed with ; the knowledge it gives of the power of lines is without limit, and the assistance it affords in the practice of perspective, great and extensive. — perspective drawing is of equal use to everyone, who would wish to place the object of his invention under the most intelligible and natural position before a spectator, and renders a treatise on it a necessary appendage to such a publication. some works on domestic embellishment have lately been published, wholly in outline; this kind of design may answer ex tremely well for the architect, but is of little use to those who cannot readily make out all the projectingpartsfromaplan; this, perspective will accomplish, and a design made out under its rules, will not only give a natural and pleasing representation of any object, but convey all its projecting and receding parts with clearness to the observer. ornamental drawing is ukewise an acquirement every artisan ought more or less to be acquainted with, and is of pecuuar advantage to the cabinet-maker and upholsterer, in the embel lishment of his designs. instructions, therefore, in this elegant branch of art, should forra a coraponent part of the drawing book, so as to become of general use. with an experience of forty years devoted to the study of these subjects, both in theory and practical application ; and having been honored with the patronage of his present majesty, as well as the most flattering testimonies from mr. thomas hope, and other individuals, distinguished by their researches, and liberal patronage of the arts ; the author trusts he may without presumption, promise to produce vm introduction. a work at once creditable to his own labors, and combining whatever is of real utility to those connected with the cabinet- making and upholstery trade — a work, in short, the most complete in itself, and superior to any that has hitherto appeared on the same subject. our vessel now launched, may she encounter prosperous gales during her voyage over the extensive tract she is destined to sail ; and that her freight may prove extensively useful, as well as beneficial, is the sincere wish of the author, george smith. , brewer street, golden square, london, april , . cabinet-maker and upholsterer's guide, §• . sj-c. geometry, should commence with the definition of terms, and first with that of points, proceeding next to define the nature of lines, angles, surfaces and solids. i cannot agree with some authors who conclude euclid's definition of the point to be useless, inasmuch as the thing in itself is self-evident. there are many reasons for adopting a different opinion ; first, a series of points constitute a line, a series of lines produce a surface, and a series of surfaces generate a solid. there are in perspective, points of intersection, points horizontal, station points, points of distance, and vanishing points, &c. each requiring explanation to render them familiar to the mind, as they pass under con sideration in practice. a point, is that which is without parts or magnitude — is the least part of matter, and thus called a physical point. for example : — such is the poiat made by the compasses, pencil or ink, as the point a, in geometry, plate . a scries of points put together, in length form right or curved lines, such are the lines figured aiv, jr. a line of points a b, tig. , supposed to move from a towards c, will in its course downwards, generate a plane abed. the mathematical point, is the least object possible to be conveyed to the imagination, and consequently invisible ; it is without dimension, but is the beginning of every invisible length. geometry. given point, is a point proposed to be set in some place, whether de noted by compasses or pin. for example: the point b, fig. a a, is a point given, for this reason, that on that spot is placed a pivot. point of intersection, is a point where many lines cross or meet each other. for example : the point g, fig. , is the point of intersection, because the walls h g d, e f c, meet together at the point g. horizontal points, are points equally distant from the centre of the earth ; such are the points h h h, fig. , and a series of such points constitute the entire surface of the globe. n.b. their use will be explained in de scribing the horizon in perspective. point of incidence, is a point where one line meets or touches another line or superfice, and there makes an angle. example : the point i, in fig. i a, is the point of incidence, because it is the point where the right line k i, meeting the right line l m, makes there an angle. point of contact, is where a right line touches a curved line, in such manner, that being produced or extended it will not cut the curve, or it is a point where two curved lines meet together vi^ithout cutting. exaraple : the point n, fig. , is the point of contact ; because it is the place where the right line o n touches the curve, and being prolonged or extended to p, it does not cut the curved line n q r ; for the same reason the point q is the point of contact. station point, is a point where we would place a staff, or the foot of any mathematical instrument in surveying. example : the point t, fig. , is a station point; because it is the place on which we would put the instrument o, n.b. this also will be further explained in the perspective. point of distance, or extent, is a point or any other mark observable in some part of an object to be measured. example : the crossed arrows in the building at v, fig. , serve as a point of distance ; because the mark, or point v, is one of the points necessary towards enabling us to ascertain the inaccessible height, x w. lines. a line, is a length without breadth. the mathematical or intellectual line, is that which we imagine to pass from one object to another without being visible. example : the line a b, pl i a (x a a b fip-^ : mg^ ti^ . fl^ . jv geometry i. definitions. of points tl.' r^ .x of lines b .a tig . kg . a ir r. d pig/(.. k l ¦s. h m drawn oy gsmiiti geometry. "fig. , or the line c d, fig. , are each mathematical lines ; because supposed to be invisible. the physical or visible line, is that made by the motion of a physical point, and which is drawn with the ink, pencil or any other material. example : the line e f, fig. , is a physical or material line ; because it is made by something rendering it visible. a right line, is that which is equally comprised between its extreme points. example : the line g h, fig, , is a right une, because its points are equally disposed betwixt the extremities g and h, neither rising nor descending one more than another ; so that if we view this line g h, from its extreme as at g, that first point g, shall cover all the other points which we suppose to be contained from g to h, for generating the right line g h. remark, that a right line is the shortest distance betwixt one point and another. the extremities of lines are points; example : the extremities of the line n, fig. , are the points i k. indefinite or indeterminate line, is a line drawn of any length we choose, being at liberty to make it more or less extended. example : the line l m, fig. , is an indefinite line, beeause it is supposed not to be deter mined, being at liberty to make it longer or shorter at pleasure. the definite or given line, is tbat contained in a certain length. ex ample : the line o p, fig. , geometry, plate , is a determinate line, because its limits are from o to p. perpendicular line, is a right line, which falling on another right line, makes the angles on each side equal. example : the line q r, fig. , is perpendicular upon the line s t, because falling on the line s t, it makes the angles r q s, r q t, both equal to right angles ; for the same reason the pillar a, fig. a, is said to be placed perpendicular or plumb to the horizon or ground b, because it makes right angles with the horizon ; remark also, that a line charged with a plummet at one of its extremities, as at n, fig. n, makes a perpendicular line, called by workmen a plumb line. inclined iine, is that which, falling on another line or on some plane, is neither perpendicular nor horizontal to the line or plane on which it falls ; but is slopwise. example : the line v u, fig. m, is inclined in respect to the line w x. geometry. parallel right lines, are such as being in the same plane, and drawn apart the one from the other indefinitely, will never meet. example : the right lines ab, c d, ef, fig. , are parallel lines, because, being in the same plane and drawn apart, they will never meet or cut each other. lines are in general called parallel lines, or simply parallels, being such as are equally distant from each other in their extent : thus the curved lines g h, i k, fig. , are called parallels, because the smaller curved line i k, is equally distant in its course with the longer line g h. ordinate lines, are lines parallel to another line serving as a base to a parabolic figure. example : the lines o o, y z,w x, v u, s t, fig. , are called ordinate lines, for this reason, that they are parallel to the line p q, the base of the parabola p q r. horizontal line, called likewise the line of apparent level, is that which touches or cuts at right angles, a line tending to the earth's centre. ex ample : the line n, n, fig. , is an horizontal line, because it cuts at right angles the line c d, tending to the earth's centre at d, and au lines which are parallel to the line n n, such as m m, l l, in the same figure, are called horizontal lines. level line, is that which is drawn horizontally, by an instrument called the level. example : the line q r, fig. , is termed a level line, inasmuch as it is level with the horizon, being drawn along the lengthened side, s t oi the level v, adjusted horizontally by the plumb line u. diagonal line, or simply a diagpnal, is a right line, which being drawn in a square or parallelogram, from one angle to the opposite, divides them into two equal parts. example : in the square w, x, z, y, fig. , the line w y is a diagonal, because it passes from the angle x, w; z, to the opposite angle x, y, z, and divides the square w, x, y, z, into two parts, or equal triangles. w, x, y, and w, z, y. the same applies to the parallelogram w, x, y, z in the same figure. line of sight or visual ray, is a line formed by the eye in viewing an object, either by means of stakes, the quadrant, or other instruments. for example: the line a b, geometry, plate , in fig. , is the line of sight or visual ray, because it is formed by the eye in viewing the object c, through the telescope d. n. b. this une is of great use in perspective. pl ml - fig. . hp tia . r b- q geometry ii definitions of lines. .t v picjm. w xj x a rep. a: -/ ^' fl& . tia . .x -h -jv na / - "[^ y i tjotidon. fublislicd by jones & c° apnl j.'j g pi.xuv: geometry iii hk^ lig^y n.. i -k ]^& cr lmnliin.piilmica bv jones t'-c°.iiil\ .?, ibm, geometry. angles. a plain angle, is the inclination of two lines, the one towards the other, and indirectly touching in a plane or surface. example : the two lines, cd, ed, fig. , plate , form an angle c d e, because the two lines, c d, e d, touch indirectly at the point d ; that is to say, the two lines which are drawn on the same plane do not form one right line, and therefore form the angle c d e. remark, that the middle letter in all triangles ex presses the angle ; d therefore is the angle forlned by the two lines c d, and d e, likewise the angle of any figure is generally expressed by a single letter, as d. right lined angle.— the angle, a, b, c, fig. , is a right lined angle, because it is formed by the two right lines, a b, a c. curvilineal angle, is an angle formed by two curved lines. example : the angle c d e, fig. , is curvilineal, because it is formed by the two curved lines, cd, ed. mixtilineal angle, is an angle formed by a curved and a straight line. thus : the angle f g h, fig. , is a mixed angle, being formed by the straight line, f g and the curved line h g. n. b. the lines forming any angle are called its legs. an angle is said to be less than another, wheu its legs are more inclined « to, or nearer each other ; let there be two lines, a b, a c, fig. , meeting in the point a. now ifyou imagine the legs a b, a c. to be moveable on a joint at a, it is easy to comprehend that the further they are opened or parted from each other, the greater will be the angle between them ; and, on the contrary, the nearer they are brought together, the more they will incline to each other, and so the angle betwixt them will be less, as d e. the angle of a polygon, or figure of many angles, is that formed by any two sides of the figure. example : the angle, k, fig. , is the angle of a polygon, because it is made hy the two sides i k, k l, of the pentjigon, iklmn. external angle, is that angle which has its point without the figure- ^x- ample : the angle, n m l, fig. , is an external angle, because its ppint is without the figure, iklmn. geometry. internal angle, is that which carries its point within the figure, such as the angle n o i, in the pentagon i k l m n, fig. . all angles are measured by an arc of a circle, containing a certain number of divisions or degrees of the whole circle. in order to have a clear idea of which, we shall proceed to lay down the divisions, as settled by geo meters, in dividing the circle's circumference, and at the same time furnish in structions for inaking such divisions, before we commence describing figures cf many angles. the circle by all geometers is divided into parts, otherwise termed degrees. thus the circumference of the circle, a b c d e f g h, fig. , plate , is supposed to be divided into sucli k number of parts or degrees. it is evident the divisions will be less in a small circle than in one more extended. thus the circle, abc defg h, though smaller, contains the same number of degrees as the larger circle, in consequence of both generating from the same central point s. the line a b, dividing the circle into two equal parts, the arc abc will necessarily contain degrees, the half of , and is called a semi circle. the line c d, perpendicular to a b, and passing through the circle's centre at s, will divide it into four equal parts, of degrees each, four times ninety making the whole number . if the arcs a c, c b, b d, d a, are subdivided at e, g, h, and f, the circle will then be divided into ?eight equal parts, of forty-five degrees each ; eight times forty-five, making the whole number , as before. the semicircle, abc, fig. , plate , represents the protractor in a case of instruments, (of the whole of which, with the latest improvements, and their proper uses, a description will be given in course of the work), the outermost line abc, being gradated from a to c, into ] equal parts or degrees. the angle a i d, is found to contain forty-five of these degrees, and is the side of an octagon. the angle e i f, is found to contain sixty degrees, and is hence the side of a sexagon. the angle g i h, is found to contain seventy-two degrees, and is therefore the side of a pentagon. the angle a i b, contains ninety degrees, and becomes the side of a square. the angle kil, contains degrees, and furnishes the side of a triangle and thus - may be laid down the angle of any figure, from ten degrees and upwards, to within one degree of , when it becomes a straight line. plate xlv. if. dcvison of- tae (ircle i k fc^. ? londati.fllbllslied br .fones fc c" ma ylfl. is.v geometry. to divide tke circle into parts or degrees. let the line a b, fig. , plate , be the proposed diameter of the circle, to be divided into two equal parts at s, and describe the circle a c b d, on a, with any opening of your compasses, greater than a s, as a a. describe two arcs at , then on b. with the same opening of the compasses, describe two other arcs k k, cutting the arcs at l l ; through their in tersection, draw the line c d, which passing through the centre s, will be perpendicular to a b, and the circle will then be divided into four equal parts ; on a and c, with any radius a i, more than half a c, describe two arcs, cutting each other at k ; and draw the line k s, indefinite to /; on b and c, describe two other arcs with the same radius, cutting each other at m, and draw m s, indefinite to o, which will then subdivide the arcs a c at e, c b at g, b d at h, and d a at f. the circle by this process becomes divided into eight equal parts. next proceed and divide any one of these eight parts, as a e, into three equal parts atjoja, and these three parts again into three other equal parts, and you then have nine divisions in an eighth part of the circle : divide the remaining parts into the same proportions, there will then be divisions round the circle, of five degrees each, equal in the whole to . to obtain the degrees, divide any one part, as m, into five parts, and each other part into a like division ; the whole circle will then be divided into equal parts or degrees. the use of the circle so divided, is to enable the student to lay down an angle of any number of degrees he may require, whether for the triangle, pentagon, sexagon, octagon, or any other figure of many sides. a right angle, is that which is made by a right line, falling perpen dicularly on another, or which contains in its opening the fourth part of the circumference of a circle, described from its point, or which contains degrees out of , the circle's whole circumference. example : the angle abc, fig. , plate , is a right angle, be cause the line a b, falls perpendicular on b c, at the point b ; or because the angle contains in its opening the fourth part of a circle, described from the point b of the angle abc. remark, the right angle is ordinarily called by workmen a square angle. geometry. for instance ; the angle def, fig. , is a square angle, because it is made by means of the square g. an obtuse angle is greater than' a right angle, or that which contains more in its opening than a quarter of a circle. example : the angle h i k, fig. , is obtuse, because it exceeds the right angle, l i k, or because it contains in its opening more than degrees, or more than a quarter of the circumference of a circle^ described frcftn the point i of the angle h i k. workmen call the obtuse angle, a full angle, because it is more open than the square angle v, an acute angle is less than a right, angle, or that which contains betwixt its lines less than the quarter of a circle, or less than ninety degrees. the angle mno, fig. , is acute, because it is less than the right angle p n o, as it contains between its two legs, less than degrees, or a quarter of the circumference of the circle described from its point n : the acute angle is termed by workmen, a lean angle, isecause it is less than the square angle x. "' .^ triangles. a triangle, is a plain figure bounded by three lines, and containing as many angles. example : the triangle abc, fig. , plate , is a plain triangle, because it is bounded by the lines a b, b c, and c a. the triangle abc, is likewise called a right lined triangle, because its lines are all right or straii. mixed triangle is that which has two of its sides curved, or sometiraes only one, such are e and f, fig. and . equilateraftriangle, is that which has its three sides equal ; thus g, fig. , is an equilateral triangle,- because its three sides hi k, are all equal. a right angled triangle, is that which has one right angle. the triangle l m n, fig. , is a right angled triangle, because m is a right angle of degrees. observe that in all right angled triangles, the line opposite the right angle, is called its hypothenuse ; the line l n, is the hypothenuse of the right angled triangle l m n. scalene triangle, fig. , is one which has its three sides unequal; the pl.xlvl geometry v. f,c r.r ''yl f i\ k \ miliial \ fief fig. fio rip,. fio, zonjmruuhub^y.ni.ig.a'lro-tr i . geometry triangle ghi, fig. , is a scalene triangle, because its three sides are of different lengths, the side o i, being longer than that of g h, and the side g h longer than h i. isoscele triangle, is that which has only two sides equal. the triangle def, fig. , is an isoscele triangle, because the two sides d f aad d e, are of the same length ; but it is possible for the side f e to be longer than either of the two sides d f, d e. figures. a square, is a figure in which the four sides are equal, and the four angles are right angles. the square a b c d, fig. , is termed a perfect square, because its four sides are equal, and the four angles equal. the square likewise, in practical geometry, is termed equilateral square, right angled square, and parallelogram, because it has its four sides equal or of the same length, its four angles are right angles, and its opposite sides parallel. the long square, has its four angles right angles, but all its sides are not equal. e f g h, fig. , is a long square, because its four angles are right angles, and its four sides are not equal, having two sides longer than the other two ; this long square is sometimes called oblong square, right angled parallelogram, or simply rectangle. rhomb, is a figure, having four equal sides, but not equal angles; klmn, fig, , is a rhomb, for the reason that the four sides are equal, and because its four angles are unequal^ jhavuig the two angles k l m and k n m obtuse, and the other two opposite angles n k l and n m l acute. the rhomb, is sometimes termed lozenge, and sometimes equilateral rhomb. rhomboid, is a figure wjiich has its angles, .gs likewise its opposite sides, equal betwixt themselves, being neither equilateral nor rectangular. o p q r, fig. , is a rhomboid, beca»se its twp opposite sides, o p q r, which are parallels, are longer than the other two sides p q, o r, which are equal and parallel betwixt themselves, and the four angles are not right angles. the opposite angles o p q and o r q are obtuse, ^d the two other oppo site angles por, p q r, are acute. geometry. trapezium, in general, is another square figure, besid^r" the preceding parallelogram. ab cd,, fig. , is a trapezium, because it is a square figure, or of four sides, and which has not all its sides parallel. polygonal, or many-sided figures, are such as are composed of more than four right lines ; the pentagon is a many-sided figure, being right lined, and having five sides and five angles, such is fig. a, plate . the hexagon, or sexagon, fig. b, the octagon fig. c, and all figures having their sides as well as their angles equal, are included under this term, as also all irregular figures of any number of sides whatever. arcs, and their summits an arc is a portion or part of the circumference of a circle, being neither one half nor one fourth of the whole ; the dotted part d e, fig. d, of the circle i f g h, is an arc, because it is less than the fourth, i f, of the circumfer ence ; the remaining part i h g f is also an arc, because that part is greater than the fourth or half of the circumference. summit of an arc, in general implies the central point of the arc ; such is k, fig. e, because it is in the middle of the arc l k m ; summit of an arc, is also the point where an arc would touch a line. as regards the line o p, the summit of the arc o k p is the point k, because it is the point where the arc touches the lirle o p. planes, and super/ices. a plane, in general signifies a space or superfices, bounded by one or more lines, such are the figures r, s, t. in relation to these figures the space included within their lines is called a plane. remark, that all figures having right lined or curved sides, whether regular or irregular, are planes when considered as possessing length and breadth without thickness. piatexlvh. (ge,omet]rx^tlo dcnniiwn's j'o&iffons ortnam/ sided j-lff wes . tto-ji. fwji. = fic/s, fiq.'i. fco.x. fhines . s=sii>^ismms //^.k . supertzci&s. j^^x, fiffy. .«>>¦¦ f^g^v. flcme or section/. mx londcm.hajshfa'bjaciiies & c" sep':ii '/ hjavm geometry vll. def i n i t i ons tiq.k .dtiwrud/bv ¦ ¦ s-rir}!. lonaaii.pnlij;.s|if-rf bv janrs fcc^jnlv,?': \^?.q. geometry. there are convex and concave superfices or planes, such are the figures v, being convex, and w; concave surfaces. parabolic superfice or plane, is a space terminated by a right line and by part of an oval, such is a c, fig. x. plane or section of a body, is a superfice or flat section, made by a line ; the section d, of the globe e, fig. y, by which we see the two super fices f, and g, is what is called a plane or section, because those two super fices are made by one and the sarae section, which is without thickness. surface, or superfice, the air, space, extent, &c. are all synonymous ; names serving to express the space contained within the boundaries of any figure. ellipsis or oval. an ellipsis or oval, is a plane figure bounded by a curved line, falling into itself, which is not uniform or circular in any part, but varying continually ; being described by two points, called its foci. the further' these points are asunder, on which the ellipsis is described, the more it is drawn out or lengthened. the periphery or circumference, is the curved line that bounds the ellip sis a "b c d, fig. x, plate . the centre of an ellipsis, is the point e, where any two diameters at a c, or b d, intersect or cross each other. diaraeter of an ellipsis, is any right line, as b d, or g f, passing through the centre, and terminated by the periphery^ transverse diameter, is the longest line, such is a c. conjugate diameter, is the shortest line, for example, b d. ordinates, are right lines drawn parallel to the conjugate of any diame ter, such are h i, and k l. plan or draught. a plan or draught, in general signifies a space or superfices, bounded hy one or raore right lines. in drawing and design we distinguish three kinds of plan or draught. st. the ichnographic plan (geometrical, or simple plan,) is that which represents by lines and angles, the space or figure, that is to contain geometry. some elevated body to be erected above the ground. example : the plan y, is an ichnographic plan, because it represents in plain lines the outline, or ground plot, occupied by the building z. nd. the orthographic draught or elevation, is the simple representa tion of the height of a body, building or other object, with its component parts, without reference to its substance. the figure z is the orthographic draught or elevation, from the plan of the church y, scenographic draught, is that which represents some object with all its parts entire; that is, the height, length and depth. the figure a is a scenographic representation of the church z, because it may be con sidered as showing an object complete in all its dimensions. practical geometry. problem . from a given point a, (fig. , plate ,) to let fall or draw a line a d, that shall be perpendicular to a given indefinite line b c. on a, with any opening of the compasses, for example, a e, describe an arc of a circle, cutting the line b c in e and f; on the two points e and f, with the same radius describe two other arcs, intersecting or cutting each other at g ; a line drawn from the point a to g, will be a perpendicular line to the given one b c, making on each side an angle of degrees at h and i. application. by the aid of this problem in geometry, the upholsterer, paper-hanger, decorater, &c. can obtain as many perpendicular lines on the walls of an apart ment, whether for the hanging of paper, silk, or the laying out in decorative pannelling ; in this example we suppose the workman is required to place an ornamental pilaster on the wall of a drawing room at a point a. beneath the point a, draw a line b c, at any distance on the wall, and parallel with the cornice or floor of the apartment ; with any radius a d ow. a, describe an arc of a circle, cutting the line b c ditd and e ; on rf and e with the radius d h and eg, more than half ^ e, describe two arcs intersecting each other at/, then a •late xirg. froi. . fiq. froi. . fi . ? jp ffi a € t i c ajl (ge omje t my, tiiii „ froh. . fif. fitf.l. f;. jtppiinztio.n fl.' fi,/. z ]> r-'
 \ ' \ a! ot y .l/>/>//<m//rii/i ol ' fio. . corjor t'llblishod b; .toaeh fc c" ^' .i "rh. , m^''b . practical geometry. line drawn from a . through /, will be a perpendicular to the line h c, to which all the other upright lines on the wall raust be made parallel. to prove if the line ha perpendicular, stick a pin or nail in the wall at the point a, to which attach a plumb line, suffering it to remain at rest at i ; if the line drawn on the wall be a true perpendicular, it will fall into the line or string a i, and be concealed by it. problem , plate . from a given point a, (fig. , plate ,) on a given line b c, to erect a perpendicular a f to that line. set off any measure from a, as a e and a rf on the line b c, then on rf and e, with any opening of the compasses more than half b c, describe two arcs intersecting each other at g ; a line drawn from a through the intersec tion at g, will be a perpendicular to the line b c. application. in a room having its end semicircular, or terminated by the arc of a circle, it is required to take the ground plan for a carpet, or the sweep of the wall at top for the window cornices. in that part of the room frora whence the bow coraraences or springs, draw a line frora a to b, which subdivide for a centre as at c, from c set off any space on each side, as c e, and c rf; next take any radius more than half rfe; then on the points rf and e describe two arcs intersecting at/,/; proceed next and draw a line from c through/ until it cuts the arc or sweep line of the bow at d, which will give the true depth, whether a semicircle or only the portion of one. problem . to raise a perpendicular b c, fig. , plate , at the end of a given line a b. set one foot of a pair of bow compasses any where above the line a b, as at d, and open them until they extend to the end of the line at b, and sweep the arc e b/at pleasure, cutting the given line a b, in e ; draw a line frora e through the central point d, and continue it at pleasure, until r' practical geometry. it cuts or intersects the arc b g, at/; draw a line from b through / towards c, which line will be a perpendicular to a b; the angle c b/in this case forming an angle of degrees. application. in drawing or design, this problem is extremely useful, either for laying down the ground plan of rooms or of buildings : for exaraple, the line w x, being the given width of a roora, suppose, fifteen feet, and the length w y, twenty-five feet, the walls being at right angles or perfectly square, a perpendicular niust be raised as before stated, at the point x, and a line drawn parallel to it from the point w, on each of which lines is to be put down twenty-five feet, the length of the room, as w y, and x z, then by drawing the line y z, the plan will be completed, the four angles w, x, y, z, making an angle of degrees each ; consequently each line will be perpendicular to that adjoining it ; this problem is of great use throughout the whole of geometrical or perspective drawing, and in whatever relates to cabinet work, wherein square angles are required. problem , fig. , plate ix. to raise a perpendiculai line, m b, fig. , at the end of a given line m a, by means of a scale of feet. rule : having made a scale df feet, as at a, take three of those feet in the compasses, and setting one foot of the in strument on the point m., of the given line m a, with this opening strike the arc rf rf; proceed next and take four feet from the same scale, and lay it down on the line m a, from mto o; lastly, take five -feet in the compasses from your scale, and setting one foot of the instrument on the point o, strike an arc intersecting the other arc in the point e, the intersection thus gained will give a point, through which to draw the perpendicular liue m b, from m as required. application. this mode of raising a perpendicular is very useful in the various branches of mechanics. the builder by this mode readily constructs a square, enabling \, i'l^v r e_i. p lla tc tl c ai. ck © me tjr y, jh^ , ^ .i ivei fj'otflem -/ fict. d e . j fuf.z. ^pp^^g^n/ . i x^-- •i iiissifji vt :?-^"r 'l ¦a reet u ' . fi.,. . .fi,,. . ^pp iea/ion . c fiy ^ j„ o ¦/ j /> tree/-. uippticiciioii , jri</ . -i . froh . . /'/-,¦/>. . \ '..ifiduri. i'ubllthimi b> .'" i i mi'rck;! , lil,'?s practical geometry. him to lay down his ground plan ; for by taking three rods, viz. one of three feet, another of four feet, and another of five feet, and fastening them together, as in the diagram. problem , fig. , a square will be readily constructed, by which any angle, that should he a right or square one may be proved. the paper-hanger, by this problem, is also able to construct an instrument which will enable him readily to rule all his perpendicular lines, without the use of the plumb line, excepting where it may be necessary to ascertain the true level on which the square is placed, in which case a plumb line may be attached to the upright edge of the square, as at p, fig. , problem , which will always regulate the true level of the square, the plumb line concealing the edge of the square when perpendicular. problem , fig. . to make an angle equal to any right lined plane angle given; bac, fig. , plate , is the given angle, and d e, fig. , the line given; it is re quired to makeat the point b, on the line d e, fig. , an angle equal to the angle bac. rule : with any radius or opening of the compasses at discretion, on aj fig. , the vertex or point of the given angle bac, describe the arc of a circle a b, cutting the legs, or two sides of the angle in the points a and b; proceed next to fig. , and on the given line d e, at the point d, place one leg of your compasses, having in them the sarae opening as in fig. , and describe the arc of a circle rfe; raake rf e equal to a b ; and lastly, draw d f> through the point e. the angle e d f, will then be equal to the angle bac. application. frora this problera we learn to lay down the angle of any room, &c. on paper, a plan of which may be required, whether the walls be right angled, that is to say square, or otherwise. again let it be required to measure the internal angle c b d, fig. : coraraence by setting off equal raeasures on the ground frora b to c, and from b to d, say five feet on each side, and draw the chord line ef, which will be found five feet nine inches in length, or otherwise, according to the measure first made use of; then having drawn practical geometry. b d, fig. , indefinite as to length, or at pleasure ; proceed to make a scale of equal parts, see e, under the diagram, fig. , which represents seven feet, from this scale take five divisions, or parts, in the opening of your compasses, and placing one foot of the instrument on the angular point b, fig. , describe the arc ef, cutting b d, in / then on / with an opening equal to five feet nine inches, taken from the scale, describe an arc cutting dc, at e , lastly, draw b c, and you will have an angle c b d, equal to the one measured, c b d, fig. . remark : the length of the sides or lines will not make any difference in the angle. problem . to bisect a right lined plane angle b ac, fig. . plate . rule : with any opening of the compasses, on the vertex or angular point a, describe an arc, rf c, at discretion, cutting both legs, a c and a b, of the angle bac in the points rf and c ; then on rf and c, with the same, or any other radius or opening in your compasses, describe two ares intersecting each other at e ; lastly, from a, draw the line a f through e, which will bisect the angle a b c as required. or a right angle may readily be divided into two parts after this raan ner : on the vertex b, of the right angle a b c, fig. , with any opening of the compasses, describe the arc a c, cutting the line a b in a and b c in c, on a and c ; with the same, or any other radius in the compasses, describe two arcs intersecting at d ; lastly,, draw the line d b, through e, which will divide the angle equally, as required. — by this problem the workman is enabled to find the true mitre for returning his moulding, either as a cabinet-maker, or joiner, &c. with truth and expedition, whether the angle be an internal or external one, for the right angle bisected is the true mitre, and by which all the mouldings will exactly meet and fit at the angles. problem . to trisect a right angle, abc, plate . rule : with any radius at dis cretion on the vertex b, of the right angle abc, describe the arc or quadrant. practical geometry. a d e c. then with the same radius in the compasses on a and c, describe the arcs b d, b e, cutting the quadrant ac at the points d and-e. lastly, draw the lines b d and b e, by which means the right angle abc, will be trisected. application. this problem is of great use in perspective, enabling us with ease and facility to lay down the vanishing point for the angle of a sexagon, on the horizontal line ; its use wul also be shown in laying down the line of chords, as on the sector, in a case of instruraents. pro^blem . to construct an equilateral triangle abc, plate , on a given line a b. rule : on a and b, with an opening of the compasses equal to the iine a b, describe two arcs intersecting each other at c, draw the lines a c and b c, and the equilateral triangle is then constructed. this problem is useful in finding the side of any polygonfeil or mahy-sided figure, and will be exemplified in the construction of a pentagon, hexagon, &c. &c. it is also of use in trisecting a right angle, as a b e in problem . problem , plate x. ona right line e f, fig. , plate , to make a triangle similar to another triangle bac, fig. , by means ofa scale of feet. let a scale of feet or equal parts be made as rf e, under fig. . now the sides b a and a c, fig. , may represent the walls of a room whose sides are not square, but of which a plan is required. begin and measure the space from a to b, which will be found to measure feet inches ; next proceed and measure the side a c, which will be found to contain feet ; then a chord line being drawn from b to c, it will contain feet inches, more or less as it may happen ; now to lay down a similar triangle for the purpose of making the plan required, draw the line e f, fig. , indefinite ; and from the scale of feet rf e, take six divisions which set off from e to f ; next take ^ divisions from the scale in the compasses, and, placing one leg h ts practical geometry. m the point e, describe an arc^; lastly, take ^ divisions from the scale, or feet inches, in the compasses, and placing one limb on f, describe an arc cutting the other arc ^r at d ; draw the lines f d and d e, and the triangle def, fig. , will be exactly similar to the one measured bac, fig. . for if the triangle def, fig. , was cut out, and the point e laid on the point a, fig. i, the one triangle would be found exactly covering the other. problem , fig. . to construct a square g h i k, on a given line g h, plate , fig. ; on either extremity of the line g h, as h, raise a perpendicular h i (by problem ), raake h i, equal g h ; then with a radius equal to g h, in the compasses, on g, describe an arc of circle, at pleasure, and on i, with the same radius, describe another arc intersecting it at k ; lastly, draw g k and k i, which will complete the square. case . another mode of constructing a square with equal truth may be used; let g h, fig. , be the line given on which to construct the square g h i k ; on g and h, with the radius g h in the compasses, describe two arcs inter secting each other at m ; next bisect or equally divide the arc g m (by problem ), that is by taking any opening in the compasses more than half the space g m, and placing one leg of the instrument in g, and again in m, describe two arcs intersecting each other at n and o; a line drawn through the intersecting points will divide g m into two equal parts at p ; then on m, with a radius in the compasses equal m p, describe two arcs inter secting h i, at i, and g k, at k, draw h i, g k, and k i, and the square will be completed. application. the construction of the square is of general use in drawing ; in a per fect square each side becoraes the tangent to a circle inscribed within it. an elegant and ready mode of constructing an octagon, is obtained by first plate li. geometry j^. fro. a fioj. m/.. / , ^ ^ — i i—e fro. jo. fip. . \ fr-o.n. s ~~~~~^~'^^-\^ q fro.jz. f>~o. ^^ i^ fiif.?. j jo ai ^o i g h -o.jj. ""¦'rm fumi* -. w .li.'.ne »¦ '"""'lovvijh, practical geometry. making a square, half of one of the diagonals of which, when laid down on the sides, frora each corner, will cut off the true sides of an octangular figure. problem . to bisect a given right line l m. rule : with any radius in the compasses, more than half the given line l m, plate , place one leg in the points l and m, and describe two arcs intersecting each other at n and o. through the two intersections n and o, draw the right line n o, which will divide the given line l m, into two equal parts at the point of intersection q ; after the same manner, the arc of a circle may be divided as l p m, in the point p. from this problem an elegant and certain mode is obtained for dividing any given line into two equal parts, without guess or reference to repeated trial by the compasses ; we have likewise by the same means, four lines per pendicular to each other, and consequently generating at the point q, four right angles, containing ninety degrees each, and forraing the centre of a circle to which l m, n o, become the diameters. problem . to trisect a given line q r, plate . with any radius at discretion in the compasses, on q and r, describe two arcs intersecting each other at s and t, draw the lines q t and r t, through the intersection at i, each of which bisect or divide (by problem ), into two parts, at v and u, draw s v and s u, cutting q r, in the points e and/; the line q r will then be truly trisected. application. the division of a line after this manner being the most correct, is at the same time elegant. it is useful in the construction of polygons, oi figures of more than four sides. practical geometry. problem . to find a right line that shall he equal to the circumference of a circle. a b c d is the given circumference of a circle, for which a line is re^ quired that shall be equal to it. rule : divide the diameter a c, of the circle a b c d into eight equal parts or divisions, prolong the diameter a c, towards e indefinite, and set six of the same parts from c to f, making in the whole fourteen parts from a to f. through the point c, and on the line a e, draw the right line g h, perpendicular to the right line a e at pleasure, it will then be parallel to the circle's diameter d b. from the point f, as a centre, with the dis tance f a in the compasses, describe the arc i a k, then the line i k, in respect to its length, will equal the circumference of the circle a b c d. to prove the truth of this problem, divide c d, which is one quarter of the whole circle, into sixteen equal parts, by subdivisions ; that is to say, divide the quarter c d first into two parts, next divide each of the parts so divided into two parts also, you have then the quarter or quadrant divided into four parts ; proceed and divide these four parts into two each, and you have eight parts ; and lastly, divide the eight parts into two each, and sixteen is the produce for the arc c d ; these divisions carried round the circle would divide it into sixty-four equal parts. take four of these divi sions in the compasses, which place on the line g h from c, aud continue it eight times, until you finish at k, making then thirty-two parts : c k being half the line, i k will give sixty-four parts for the whole, and thus the line i k shall equal the circumference of the circle a b c d. this problem is of use to all mechanics who desire to know the con tents of an exterior or interior spherical surface ; whether the same be a plain curved wall, the inside or outside of a dome. »i.a pmji. :i^ li (\ € 'ilmi (c a jj (ge! (omie tivy pr-oh.lff. -dpp-ucecti/in' . jjpphcaiiotii . frob. . jb a'  jfi^x 'z ^ -dppticatio v. f^. vl ml y -a-oi.j?. j-iff.z. application/. d tiv. a jyoh. , ' ~^^ •a -ivr ~f a.ppuf(it -on. . - s" london imbuslk-vl bv jones x- t'v.'npril ip \b,zl practical geometry. t,..;; problem - to find a right line that shall he equal to a determined curved line. d f e, fig. , plate , is the given curved line. take any small measure in your compasses, so that the curve contained in the portion thus takeu, shall not visibly vary from a straight line, carry this measure round the arc or curve d f e, from d unto e ; the curve in this diagram will be found to contain this measure thirty-two times, or otherways according to its extent. proceed and draw the right line g h, fig. , indefinite, and from g set off thirty-two such divisions towards h; by which raeans the line will equal the true length of the curve. this problem will be found of as great use as the one preceding it ; from it we can obtain the contents of the surface of a wall, being the seg ment of a circle ; also the raised ceilings of rooms or beds, partaking of the same form. problem . through a given point c, fig. , plate , to draw a une that shall be parallel to a given right line a b. a b is the given right line, c the given point. through the point c draw a right line at pleasure, of any inclination, cutting the given line a b in e ; take any opening in the compasses, and setting them on e, describe an arc ff; which is the opening or measure of the angle c e a, made by the line c e ; with the same opening of the com passes on c, describe an arc at pleasure g hj transfer the measure of the arc ff, on the arc g h, or make g h equal toff; by which means the two angles will be equal ; a line drawn from c, through the point g h, will be parallel to the given line a b. problem . plate u. where the parallel lines are very long, the following raethod is to be preferred., practical geometry. a b is the given line, and c the given point. take the distance from the given point c, to the given line a b, in the compasses as c a, and assuming any point e, towards the epd of the line a b ; describe with this radius, an arc as d ; apply a ruler from the point at c, to the top of the arc at d, and draw c d ; then shall that line be parallel to the given line a b. application. the use of these problems is general, and will be found essentially so in the practice of perspective; from them we have the construction of the parallel ruler; of great utility in the making of plans, when unprovided with a drawing board or t square, and in every instance wherein parallel lines are required. suppose two plain rulers, e f 'and gh, (fig. i, plate ii,) to be joined together by two upright pieces of metal, so as to forra four right angles, as at a, b, c, d, and consequently the raetal pieces be perpendicular ; then it follows that the four angles being equal, the two rulers must like wise be parallel. again ; admit these two upright pieces of metal d c,h a, fig. , to be so fixed, as to be capable of motion backward and forward by means of pivots, rivetted at the parts o, o, o, o, then it will easily be imagined, that these two rulers may be compressed, or divided the one from the other, continually at equal angles, as may be seen in the figure, wherein the angle a equals the angle c, the angle h equals the angle d, consequently the moveable rulers ef, g h, must be parallel. from the same problem we have the construction of the bevelled square n g, fig. , used by architects and others for drawing inclined lines, that are intended to be parallel one with the other ; in perspective also it is of the greatest use in laying down angles for points on the horizontal line, and for casting of shadows, whether from geometrical figures, or objects put into perspective, wherein all the shadows flow parallel. to the joiner and cabinet-maker its use is familiar for setting the mitres, whether full or acue. suppose abc, fig. , to be a plain t square, on the centre of which at n, a ruler or another t square e f g, be fixed by a thumb screw, so as to lie practical geometry. moveable at pleasure ; and conceive the fixed stock a b of the t square a b c to be placed on one edge of a perfectly square drawing board h, all the angles of which i, k, l, m, are right ones, and consequently the sides per pendicular the one to the other ; then the moveable square, which at first was parallel and exactly covering abc, may be inclined at any angle that maybe required, as at n. now imagine the square abc to be moved along the edge of the board as at i m, it will in its motion downwards, produce a series of lines r o, r p, r q, parallel the one to the other, every angle at r being equal. problem . any angle which is conta.ined in a semicircle is a right angle. abc, fig. , plate ii, is the semicircle given. from a draw the line a b of any inclination at pleasure, touching the circle's circumference at b ; from b draw the line b c, then the angle abc, thus formed is a right or square angle. so likewise a b and h c being drawn, produce a right angle a c ; for all angles standing on the diameter of a semicircle, and contained within the circumference, jwill be right angles, application. from this problem we have a practical way of raising a perpendicular at the end of a line, (see problem ,) fpr the line dca, fig. , being drawn from d, through thepentre c, where it cuts the semicircle as at a, will pro duce a point perpendic,ular over b, the comer of the line d b. mechanics also are furnished by this prpblem with a mode for ascertain ing the truth of their -squares; for having drawn a semicircle ahd, fig , with a radius equal to the length of one side. of the square as a h, and drawn the line ad, apply the corner of the square ahd, to any point in the circum ference of the circle as at b, and one side, on one end of the diameter as at a; ifthe square is a true one, the third point will fall on the opposite end of the diameter at d. • practical geometry. problem . to find the centre ofa circle, of which an arc only, or portion, is given a c b, fig. , plate , is the given arc. draw the chord lines a c and c d, which may be, as in this case, equal to half the segment a c b ; or one of the right lines might be made longer than the other; take rather more than half one chord line as c a, in your compasses as at/ and on a. and c, describe arcs intersecting each other at g and g ; with the same opening, and the compasses transferred to b, de scribe other arcs intersecting at g and g, draw right lines g g and g g, which continue until they meet or intersect each other at h. the point of inter section will be the centre of a circle, of which the given arc a c b is only a portion. application. by this problem a centre is obtained for describing the arc of a circle, of which wehave only three points through which it will pass, as a c b. let a c b be the bow end of a room, forming the segment of a circle : the real outline of which is required to be drawn. draw the chord a b on the floor, which may be done by a chalked line, fastened at the extremities a and, b, which being raised in the centre and then let fall, will give a correct right, line ; divide a b into two equal parts, and raise a perpendicular d c, cutting the segment at c, draw the chord lines c b and c a, by means of the chalked line as before, which also equally divide at e and i ; next proceed and measure (by a two or three foot rule), the chord line a c, likewise the chord c b, which note or mark down on paper ; mark also the distance from d to c ; then on the lines c b and c a, at the points e and i, apply your square, and draw lines perpendicular, until they unite in a centre, as at h ; which intersection gives a point that will be the centre of a circle, of which the arc or bow is only a part. in the upholstery and cabinet departments, this problem is not without its use, for by the above process, the plan of a room (having its end in the practical geometry. form of a bow, either as a semicircle, or part of one), may be taken in a rough draught, and from the measures thus noted down, a similar plan may easily be laid down; for instance, in london, although the measure should be taken in any part of the country distant frora it, and a carpet be required, it may be thus made up to fit exactly. the sweep of the wall is also obtained, by which the window cornices can be manufactured with out fear of want of alteration. it is to be observed that this process will alone answer in cases where the bow or arc forms the segment of a real circle ; in sorae cases the arc or sweep will partake of the section of a cone ; for instance, in that, of the parabola, or flattened oval ; recourse must then be had to means that will be explained hereafter. application, the square ab c d, fig. , plate , contains a figure representing a block forming part of the support for a pillar and claw table, used either for loo or dining table. the inclined corners a b c d, are parallel to the diagonals of the square, and are always occupied by the feet forming a support for the block on which the pillar is to be placed : to take away from the heavy effect a square block would produce, the sides are usually curved, and in most cases such curve becomes the segment of a circle; to obtain which, the practice before explained must be resorted to. for example : the corners or cants a b c d, being taken off the square, find the centre of each side, and draw a perpendicular line through each as l m and m n, &c. the depth of the sweep being given, place the same from e tof; draw^ / and hf, which bisect at i and i, by problem ., and through these intersections, draw the lines i, i, until they intersect the line l m, at l, which will then become a centre, from whence the curve line g f h may be described ; the line m n, being made equal to l m ; the point n likewise becomes a centre for striking the sweep on the side d c ; which practice made use of on the two other sides c b, and b a, completes the whole figure of the block. practical geometry. problem , plate . * three lines heing given to find a fourth, that shall hear the same proportion to the third that the second does to the first. m n, o p, and q r, are the three lines given, and to render the use of this problem clear and positive, the line m n may be considered in length, feet; the line o p, feet; the line q r, feet inches; now a fourth line is required that shall bear the same ratio or proportion to q r, that p bears to m n. rule : draw the line t v indefinite, and from t draw the inclined line t s of any angle at pleasure. on t v, from t to x, set the measure of the line m n ; and from t on the inclined line t s, set the measure of the line o p to y ; draw y x ; then from x towards v, set the raeasure of the third line q r, and from z draw a line parallel to x y, by problem , plate , (or more readily by a parallel ruler as described in plate ,) cutting t s in i ; then the space on the line t s, comprehended betwixt y and i is the measure of the fourth line sought. this problem, part of the sixth book of euclid, is one araongst the many, forming the foundation of arithmetic ; it is now introduced, as it may be of service to those, with whora arithmetic, or the rule of three, is not familiar, forasmuch as lines will answer the place of numbers : to elucidate which, in our application of its use, it will be stated both ways. for example : the line m n may be considered as the top of a sofa or occasional table, and represent a length of feet; the line o p considered as the width, may represent feet ; now another table is wanted whose length shall be feet inches, the width of which shall bear the same pro portion to such length, as exists in the table of feet by feet. this may be accomplished arithmetically, by the rule of three, thus: pi. lill geometry. ol j p _li ul a±. a it \^ iru?t€s e. _l£_ i^ i bbdb. . .f z^. *. prob ^i;*?- p p ¦p q / ' .-'-- n r m -'•'' \i \x "--. g h k r e . -.,.'i z . i a ¦ r . e fuhisteclij jones & c° aa,?'- . practical geometry. if inches produce inches, what will inches produce. pikst term. second term. third term. stated thus, : : : multiply by the second terra. c ) divide by or first term. < ( ) | inches product. or feet inches and a fraction. frora hence it appears that a table feet inches long would require to be inches and a fraction in width, to bear the same proportion as the one feet by feet. to the cabinet maker and upholsterer this problera may be of great use; it can be extended in various ways, in enlarging or re ducing designs, frora objects that are considered in good and harmonious proportion. to prove the truth of the above problem, we shall refer to the figure, wherein t x represents the length of the top m n, or feet; t y represents the width of the top o p, or feet; x z represents the length of another given top to be feet inches, for which a width is required that shall be in the same proportion to feet inches, as feet is to feet; and this we find to be y i, and which measured by the scale placed on m n, will be found to be rather more than feet inches, being the same as tbat found by the rule of three. this problem has been selected as of use to our present purpose ; pro portional lines extend not only to the foundation of nurabers, but afford ineans for laying down all the lines on the sector, proportional corapasses, &c. &c. problem . to inscribe a triangle abc within a circle g c h f,fig. . rule : draw the diameter g h of the circle through the centre s ; on s raise s i, perpendicular to g h ; on h, with the radius h g in the com- practical geometry. passes describe an arc, and on g, with the same radius describe another arc intersecting it at i ; draw the lines g i and i h, the equilateral tri angle g i h, will then be formed on the circle's diaraeter g h ; divide the semi-diameter s g into three equal parts, each of which will contain de grees. draw i a through the second division from the centre, and where it intersects the semi-circumference at a, degrees will then be cut off; from a draw a b parallel to g h, until it cuts the semi-circumference at b, then will a b form one side of the equilateral triangle. draw a c and c b and the equilateral triangle is compleated. we have often occasion to circumscribe the triangle in a circle, and particularly so in proportioning a triangular block, part of the support for a circular loo table, also for the same description of form in the blocks for screen standards, and for supports of work tables, &c. tc. polygonal figures. problem . to inscribe a pentagon or figure of five sides within a circle abc d,fig. . rule : draw the diameter a c, half of which divide into five equal parts at , , , , . on a and c, with a radius, or opening of compasses equal to a c, describe two arcs intersecting each other at e, draw the lines a e and e c, from e ; then from e, through the second division from the centre s, draw the line e/ and continue it until it cuts the semi-circum ference a d c, in the point g; draw g h parallel to the diameter, cutting the semi-circumference also at h, which line will pass five times round the circle at the points g, k, b, i, and h, it is here necessary to remark, that the intersection through the points /and g, on a c, at g and h, as they cut the circle, must be very carefully taken ; and further, that in passing them round the circle's circumference, the point must invariably fall in the line of circumference, and not the least out of it. this mode of dividing the diameter into as many parts as the figure possesses sides, will answer for every polygonal figure circumscribed by a circle; there are many other modes of dividing the circle's circumference, so practical geometry. as to obtain the sides of regular polygonal figures ; but as these figures seldom come under the attention of the upholsterer or cabinet-maker, we shall proceed only in giving the readiest rules for the formation of such of them as may be useful in those branches, and in the first instance proceed with the hexagon or figure containing six equal sides. the truth i df this problem may be thus explained ; every circle con taining degrees in its circumference, it follows that one half such circle must contain degrees, and such is a d c in fig. . an equilateral triangle, whose base is made by the diameter of a circle, being divided into any number of equal parts, if lines be drawn from the top or apex of the triangle, through the divisions on the base line, it will divide any line placed below it, proportionally, provided that line is under the same angle, and within the limbs of the triangle, if extended ; by the same rule, the semi- circumference of a circle, under the base of a triangle, will be divided into as many equal parts as are contained in the base line of such triangle. the diameter a c, of fig. , is divided into parts, each part con taining degrees, and numbered from the centre s; now as degrees are cut off from the centre, by a line passing from e, through the second division at/ and intersecting the circle's semi-circumference at g ; so will a like measure be cut off, on the other side the centre at h, by the line e g, cutting the semi-circumference at h ; making together degrees, which is the measure of a side of a pentagon. therefore drawing g h parallel to a c gives the side required. problem . the circle l m n , fig. , plate , is required to be divided into six equal parts, forming an hexagon. rule : to preserve a parallel form in the upper and lower parts of this figure, begin by taking l ^ in the compasses, (the circle's radius,) and placing one leg ofthe instrument in the point l, describe the arc qp; next proceed and place the compasses at the point j», and describe the arc l j; again, on s, with the compasses describe the arc t n ; and lastly, with the instrument on the point n, describe the arc t r. you will then have six points, l, q, r, l practical geometry. n, s, p, which being joined together by right lines as l q, &c. completes the hexagon. remark, that great care must be taken to note the intersection of each arc on the circle's circumference, as the least variation may occasion the trouble of going repeatedly over the same ground, to make the sides agree ; for let it be noted, that although the operation in this case is me chanical, the calculation is raathematical, and depends entirely on a point considered in itself indivisible. this figure is of frequent use, and will often come before the mechanic's observation. the bow end of many apartments in country houses partake of one half of this form, particularly where the gothic style is adopted ; in hall lamps, the marble tops of tables, and various other instances it falls into use. the hexagon has this singular property over all other polygonal figures, that it will join and come together without any loss of roora ; the cell ofthe industrious bee is thus constructed. problem . to construct an octagon from a given side. rule : let kj, fig. , plate , be the side given ; on k and/ with a radius equal to the given side, describe two arcs intersecting at n ; draw the line a c, through n, perpendicular to kj ; next proceed and divide the arc k n into six equal parts, and on n, with the radius n m, equal to two parts de scribe the arc m o, cutting the perpendicular a c, at o, then will the point o become a centre for describing the circle a b c d, round which kj will pass eight times at the points efg h ij k i. the octagon, is a figure in such general use, that it will be needless to say more respecting it than we have in describing the hexagon. problem . tn a given square e f g h, fig. , plate , tp construct an octagon. rule : draw the diagonals g e and h f, whose intersection at i will give the centre of the square ; then on the points e, f, g, h, with the opening practical geometry. in the corapasses e i, (equal to one half the diagonal line e g,) describe arcs cutting the side of the square e h in q and r ; the side e f in p and o ; the side f g in n and m ; and lastly, the side g h in k and l : draw the lines q p, p , &c. &c. and the octagon is compleated. this manner of constructing an octagon is considered by geometers the most elegant. problem . the diameter of an octagon being given to find the sides. rule : let s t, fig. , plate , be the diameter given ; bisect it at the point o, and divide each half into six equal parts, numbered from the centre o ; on raise a perpendicular to s t, at pleasure, and set the distance o t, on the perpendicular from o to z ; then through t, draw the line v v in definite, but parallel to s t : proceed, from the points w and x, (which are betwixt the second and third divisions right and left of the centre o,) and raise the perpendiculars w w and x u, cutting the line v v at w and u. on t and s, with a radius in the compasses equal to two divisions and a half, describe two arcs, cutting the perpendicular s v at x, and t v at the point y. join u y and w x, and the half octagon is completed. this problem will be found very useful in taking the plan of any octan gular bow end of a room, where the figure forms half of a regular octagon ; which may be readily known, first by measuring the width or span of the bow s t ; and next, measuring the depth o z ; then if o z measures one half the whole width s t, you may be assured the octangular form is that of a regular one, being included in one half of a square s v, t v. this problem will also be found of use in the practice of perspective, and by wnicn the trouble of making a geometrical plan may be avoided. practical geometry. problem . ellipsis or oval. ttie transverse or longest diameter a b, fig. , plate , being given, to find the centres c and d ; and the centres e and f, on the conjugate or shortest diameter g h ; % which to construct the ellipsis. rule : divide the line a b into three equal parts, and construct on the central division c d, two equilateral triangles c e d and d f c ; the points or apex of the triangles will then become the centres for describing the curved lines g h and i k; continue the sides of the triangles indefinite ; namely, e c to i; e d to a; f c to ^; and lastly, f d to ^. on c, as a centre with the radius c a, describe an arc inter secting the lines f i and e o, at the points g and i; on d, with the same radius or opening in the compasses, describe another arc intersecting the lines f m at ^, and e w at ^. on the focus f, with the radius f g and on e, with the same radius, describe the arcs g h and i h, which will com pleat the ellipsis. remark, the length and breadtk of this kind of ellipsis, holds the proportion of three to four, or nine to twelve ; that is to say, if the longest diameter contains four parts, then the conjugate or shortest diameter will contain three parts, or if the longest diameter shall contain twelve parts, then the shortest will hold nine parts > problem . to find the foci of an ellipsis a b c d, fig. , plate , the longest diameter a c, and the shortest diameter b d being given. rule : take half the longest diameter a c in the compasses, and on the point b of the shortest diameter, with such radius describe an arc inter secting a c in the points e and g ; which points will become the foci for generating the ellipsis. by this problera we are enabled, with a string and pencil, to describe a true ellipsis ; for having found the foci on the longest diameter (e and 'i. liv &eom etry. fw * ¦i b < ^ ^ -v / \ .-) / > \ j, z \ i ^ ^ ^s ¦ ^-^ ^ ^ ai z i. d - #b fseitijzs b brcb.aa fi^.c/. london .-eublistiei h^ jones fc c? hm'^ i f practical geometry. g,) let two pins be fixed, then passing a packthread or line, of equal sub stance, round these two points, connect the two ends together, in such a manner, that they shall form a triangle, whose apex or point shall meet the shortest diameter, as at b; then with a pencil, chalk, or any other marking substance, held steadily in the hand to this point, proceed and move the string towards a; it will then in its progress pass through the point/ on wards to a, round to d and c, and finish at b, from whence it started. note : the further these foci are asunder from each other, the more oblong will be the ellipsis ; and the nearer they are towards each other, the nearer the ellipsis will approach to a circle, provided the same length of string be made use of; but ifthe foci coincide or meet in a point, then the string will be equally extended, and the curve so described will be a complete circle, whereof that point is the centre. all this is easily apprehended by a view of the figure, and may be tried by a string and two pins, as described above. problem . to describe an ellipsis by means of ordinates, the diameters being given as before. rule : let a c, fig. , plate , be the longest, and b d the shortest diameters given ; through the points b and d, draw lines parallel to the diameter a c, at pleasure, and through the points a and c, draw two other hnes parallel to b d, meeting at the points , , , ; divide each half diameter into four equal parts (or more if required), as figured , , , ; proceed and draw lines or ordinates, from b to a i, and from b to a , and from b to a , repeating the same in the other three quarters ; a curve so traced, that in its progress touches the lines , ; , ; , ; be twixt, or in the centre of each intersection, will forra the ellipsis required. for laying down working drawings, this mode of using ordinates is to be preferred. sections qf the cone. every grecian moulding owing its beautiful outline to some section of the cone, and such outline being regulated by the particular section made ; m practical geometry. whether it be perpendicular to the base, parallel to the cone's axis, more or less inclined to it, or lastly, if parallel to the sides ; it has been thought necessary to explain the same by a diagram, shewing the different forms made by such sections, as at fig. . first, if a cone be cut directly through its axis a, and perpendicular to its base b c, the section made will be that of an isoceles triangle as ab c, fig. . note : for the sake of elucidation, the base of the cone in this diagram is put into perspective. secondly, if a cone be cut by a line parallel to its base, such section will be a circle. thirdly, if a section be made by a line passing through the cone, in tersecting both its sides, and inclined more or less to the base, such as he ; then the section thus made, will form an ellipsis or oval. fourthly, if the section be made by a line parallel to one of its sides, as at d k, the figure formed by such section will be a parabola, as d ef. fifthly, ifa cone be cut by a right line as^ i, perpendicular to its base or parallel to its axis, the section made will be an hyperbola, such as g h i. we will now proceed to give the construction of each figure produced by the sections before raentioned, viz. that of the parabola, and hyperbola ; a description of the ellipsis being fully described in problems , , and , any thing further respecting it is here unnecessary, we shall therefore hasten to explain the construction ofthe parabola, by problem . to describe the parabola from the cone. suppose the section to be made at d k, fig. , plate : on k, with the radius a b, describe the semicircle b m c, which represents one half the base of the cone; proceed and drop a perpendicular from k, until it cuts the semi- circumference at m, which line will then measure half the width of the parabola. transfer this measure on a line from a ito d, and froin practical geometry. d to b (fig. ), the length of which line a b will be the width of the parabola; draw a e and b f, perpendicular to a b, which make equal to d k in fig. ; draw ef; on d draw d c perpendicular to a b, and divide each half, from d, into four parts as figured ; and from each division raise a perpendicular : next, divide the lines a e and b f, each into the same number of equal parts, numbering from the top downwards ; draw the lines c , c , and c , cutting the corresponding perpendiculars on the base; namely. no. on a e, to cut no. on a d ; no. on a e, to cut no. on a d, and so on for all the rest ; a line traced through these intersections will be the outline ofthe parabola. problem . to describe the hyperbola from the cone suppose the section to be made at g i, fig. , plate ; continue g i until it cuts the semi-circumference at n, represented by the dotted line i n, which will then measure half the base of the hyperbola, and g i will be its height; transfer this; measure twice on a b, fig. , that is, from a to d and from d to b; raise perpendiculars from a, d and b as before; then on d set up the height (^ /fig. ), from d to c, and through c draw e f parallel to ab ; divide a b, a e and b f as before; next set the whole height of the cone from d to g ; then lines drawn from the divisions on the base a b to this point, and intersecting the lines drawn to c from the corresponding divisions on the heights a e and b f, will give points through which the form of the hyperbola raay be traced. problem . to-describe an eliptical arch by means of two laths of wood. let efg h, fig. , plate , be a board or plane, on which the arch is required to be drawn. suppose a b the width of the arch, and c d its height at the centre ; at the central point nail down a slip of woody so that cne edge shall pass through practical geometry. it; take another slip, and size it to one half the length ofthe arch, ar.d from one end of this lath, as at i, place the height of the arch as at k ; through this point pierce a thin pivot, until its point come through the opposite side of the lath ; if then the slip i i be raoved along the edge of the board from d towards g, keeping the hand on the pivot at k, it will in its progress de scribe one half of the required arch as c i a; observe, likewise, that the end ofthe lath i, must be kept raoving up the edge ofthe perpendicular lath cm; the other half frora d to b raay be described after the sarae raanner. problem . to find the centre for describing a saxon arch. let , fig. , plate , be the width of the arch, which divide into four equal parts as numbered. on no. , with an opening in the compasses equal to , , describe an equilateral triangle, whose apex q, shall be below the line ; then drop perpendiculars from and indefinite, and continue the sides of the triangle until they intersect them at the points r and s, con tinuing the same upwards at pleasure ; on nos. and , with the radius o, describe the two haunches of the arch, stopping thera on the lines at the points * and v ; then on r and s, with the corapasses extended to /, describe the remaining arcs t p and p v, and the arch required will be completed. proble.m . to find the centres for describing a gothic arch. let a be the width given, which divide into eight equal parts, num bering one half, by , , , and , from the centre right and left, to a and h; draw c d perpendicular to ab; then on no. , with the compasses extended to b, describe the arc d b, and pursue the same raethod for the other -half a d, which will give the form of the arch. the two preceding problems are applicable to various purposes ; in laying down the lines for bed and window cornices, the diagonal ribs for dome teasters, also the heads for bookcase doors, and gothic blinds, &c. &c. ji,,. a -^• iti^.c q [] 'e ' m e tk c .\il ifi (& . jpl ate i m( )it]l] ])]i>''(.;;s, hvnuui oi'ole cavetto .bead, cyma recta or ogee scotia cre^je scotul. fiy. ./.,? ¦li-' > eupticeh echinm i-^.h q/ma ju'fitsa . \ a --,.ej ^' '' p f f-iy. i £/ifitic c'uiiiti jierta imhdii.l'uhlislic'dw joiics s: c° ,jum' , , ih:'(; practical geometry. geometrical figures. mouldings. plate . mouldings partake oftwo characters, the dne after the roman, the other after the greek; raouldings of the first character, have for their outline, the quadrant or quarter of a circle, whether such outline be concave or con vex. they are either simple in their forra, or corapounded. the outline of the roman scotia is an exception to this rule, its form being generated by the segments of a circle. grecian mouldings have for their outline a curve, formed by a section of the cone ; such section being either perpendicular to the cone's base, as is the hyperbola; inclined to it, but parallel to one of the sides, as is the parabola ; or inclined to the base, and cutting both sides of the cone, as is the ellipsis. in plate , of practical geometry, fig. , this has been fully explained; it is, perhaps, necessary to reraark, that the sweep, generated by a conic section, gives to the grecian raouldings, not only their graceful outline, but a decided preference as far as regards their use. sir williara chambers, ob serves, " that an assemblage of essential parts and mouldings is termed a profile ; and on the choice disposition and proportion of these, depends its beauty or deformity. the most perfect are such a.' are coraposed of few mouldings, varied both in forra and size, fitly applied with regard to their uses, and so disposed, that the strait and curved ones succeed each other alternately. in every profile, there should be a predominant member, lo which, all the others ought to be subservient, and seem made either to sup port, to fortify, or to shelter it frora the injury of the weather; as in a cornice, when the corona is the principal, the cyma or cavetto serves to cover it, and the modillions, dentals, ovolo, and talon to support it. when ornaments are employed to adorn the mouldings, some of them should be left plain, in order to form a proper repose ; for when all are enriched, the figure of the profile is lost. in cornices the square raerabers should not be ornaraented; neither should the different facies of architraves, or plinths of columns partake of any decoration ; for they are, generally speaking, either principal in the com position or used as boundaries to other parts ; in either of which cases their figure should be distinct, and unembarrassed. n practical geometry. these observations, correct, in themselves, are equally to be attended to, as well by the cabinet raaker as the builder, to whora they were originallv addressed. the outline of the roraan raouldings being forraed by segraents of a circle, the first object is to find the centres for describing their curves, whether simple or corapounded ; we shall, therefore, coraraence with the ovolo, as being the raost siraple. to find the centre by which to describe the ovolo or quarter round, fig. a. having the projection from the fillet, and the height of the raoulding given ; take the measure of the height in the compasses, and from the extrerae pro jection of the ovolo set back this measure by an arc as at a, which will then become a centre for striking the outline of the moulding. "' to describe the cavetto, fig. b. the projection and height of the raoulding being given, as before ; proceed and frora the upper fillet or projection, drop a perpendicular, and continue the bottora line of the raoulding, until it intersects at b; which point becoraes the centre for striking the cavetto. the astragal or bead c, toay be described by taking half its height ; and this measure set back frora the given projection will give a centre, by which to turn the online of this raoulding. to describe the cyma-recta, or ogee, fig. d. the projection ofthe upper fillet from the lower one, and the height of the moulding being given, join the extremities of both fillets by a right line, which divide into two equal parts, then proceed and subdivide one of these divisions into six equal parts, as nurabered in the figure; take five of these parts or divisions in the compasses, and from the extremity of each fillet, describe two arcs, the one right, and the other left ; and with the same radius on the central point, describe two other arcs intersecting the former at c and g, which points are the centres for striking the convex and concave curves, forming the outline ofthe moulding. practical geometry. to find tlie centres bywhich to describe the roman scotia, fig. e. let a b be the given height of the mbulding between the fillets, and e b its projection at the base; divide the height on a perpendicular line a b (drop ped frora the edge ofthe upper fillet) into seven equal parts frora a tob; on e, the edge ofthe lower fillet, raise a perpendicular indefinite ; and through the third division frora the top, draw a line c i, parallel to e b, intersecting this perpendicular at d : raake c?/equal to £?e, as shown in the figure by the dotted semicircle; from /through the third division draw the line f g at pleasure; the point on the third division will then become the centre for striking that portion of the arc contained betwixt the points a and yi; and / will be the centre for striking the reraaining portion from* h to e, which completes the outline of the scotia. to describe the greek scotia, fig. f, by means of ordinates. the height ofthe moulding being determined, let t be the projection ofthe upper fillet, y the projection ofthe lower fillet, and s the greatest depth of the hollow ; join t and v by a right line, which first divide into two equal parts, through which division draw a line, parallel to the upper and lower fillets, intersecting another line drawn parallel to f w at s; and let r be equally distant from the line t v as is s; divide each half oi t v into four equal parts, and the depth of the scotia into the same number of parts, top and bottom; from each of which divisions draw lines tending to *; frora r draw lines also through the divisions ontv intersecting the cor responding lines tending to s ; namely, the first division from the top to intersect the first division from t, the second from the top to intersect the second frora t, and so on for all the rest, the same to be observed below from v, through which points the outline of the moulding raay be drawn. to describe the greek echinus, fig. g, its outline being parabolic. let f c be the given height, and a f the utraost projection. draw the lines a b and b c, which raay be considered as two tangents to a parabolic^ practical geometry. curve, the one a b perpendicular to the line ofthe moulding; the other b c, inclined to it; which inclination raay be raade frora one half, one third, or one fourth of the whole height, of the raoulding from the base ; next divide a b into five equal parts, and leave one for the quirk of the raoulding at top ; through the reraaining four divisions draw lines tending to c; and frora a, draw a line parallel to b c, intersecting the perpendicular f c at e, which also divide into four equal parts : raake e f equal to e c, frora which point, draw lines through the divisions on a e, figured , , , , until they intersect each its corresponding line, drawn frora a b to c, as before described in the preceding figure. to find the two axes or diameters hy which to describe tke echinus moulding, fig. h, taking the form of an ellipsis for its outline; the point c being one of the extremities ofthe sjtortest axis. the height of the raoulding being given, let p be its utraost projection beyond the lower fillet ; frora this, drop a perpendicular at pleasure, and let a be any raeasure set frora the top you please, which is to form the quirk : let the distance b from the bottora be less than one half the whole height. join a c, which bisect at l, and draw b c ; frora c draw a line perpendi cular to b c at pleasure ; and frora b through l draw another line intersecting this perpendicular at m, which will then becorae the centre ofthe ellipsis tobe described; through the point m draw the line imp parallel to b c at plea sure, upon which line the longest diaraeter raust be placed. set the distance c m frora a to q, through which point frora a draw a line intersecting the perpendicular c m at n, the length of which frora a to n will raeasure one half the longest diameter, which must be set upon the line imp before drawn from the centre m equally right and left ; and lastly m c, will raeasure half the shortest diaraeter, which raust also be repeated to k. these diaraeter.< being found, the foci for striking the ellipsis raay likewise be found bv pro blera , practical geometry. practical geometry. to describe the cyma reversa, fig. i, or ogee, by means oj ordinates. the height and projection of the moulding being given as before, com mence by dividing the projection into two equal parts ; through which draw a perpendicular equal to the height, which also divide into two equal parts, as atz; and through this division draw a line of any inclination at pleasure, intersecting perpendiculars raised from the ends of the raoulding as at m m. the quirks at top and bottora being taken off; from these, draw lines parallel to m m, each terminated by the perpendicular line kk; then proceed and find the ordinates as before described, for the parabolic echinus, marked g to describe the cyma recta, fig. k, hy the same means. having the height and projection ofthe moulding given, as before, form the same into a parallelogram, the sides of which divide into two equal parts, each way; through which division draw lines, nn,pp, perpendicular to each other, intersecting in the point o; from whence the divisions must commence for finding the ordinates, and proceed as before directed ; q q being dividing points for those divisions placed along the line n n. all these mouldings have been selected as being in general use, and may be used either for the upper mouldings of cornices for windows, book cases, &c. as d and k, where they forra a finish ; in regard to mouldings for supporting table tops of raarble or wood, we may use in either case those marked g h or i ; the sarae raouldings reversed, may be adopted for bases. .,' ' geometrical figures, plate . in this plate are given five various ornamental pieces, intended for friezes, bands or raouldings, and which have been as variously used by the ancients. the fret or key moulding, has the highest claim to antiquity, existing frora the earliest period araongst the chinese and persians, frora whence it was carried into egypt, and from thence into greece, em bellishing their buildings, as well as their vases ; it was probably coraposed from the form of writing used araongst the persians, where a similar orna- practical geometry ment denotes a sentence. frora the nature of its construction as to forra or pattern, an endless variety raay be obtained, and which has been beauti fully practised by the etruscans on their fictile vases ; in cabinet-work the patterns, fig. and , in the present plate, executed in raetal of a mixture of ormolu or bronze, are proper for the friezes of cabinets, bookcases, or commodes ; in decoration their use is tastefully eraployed as bands, or in borders ; and in every case they will not fail of producing a chaste and pleasing effect the cabled moulding, fig. , as a base raoulding to cabinet work, either cast in raetal or carved in wood, will always produce a richness of effect, particulariy so if executed in ormolu, and has been thus happily appro priated on many occasions by our french neighbours. fig. and , pre sent two speciraens of the antique guiloche, used by the roraans at their happiest period ; forming the ornament for the bands in the division of their arched ceilings, and tastefully adopted in the torus raouldings of their co lumns ; these forms have also been greatly used by paper-hanging designers, and profusely so by the carpet manufacturers ; in patterns, therefore, of such general appropriation, rules for their construction cannot but prove acceptable. to f orin the greek fret, fig. i . the width of the pattern being determined, as a b, divide such space into thirteen equal parts, and draw lines parallel to a a and b b, from such divisions, the whole length of your intended pattern. take one division from the width, and repeat it on the lines a a or b b, and draw perpendiculars throughout the whole length ; you will then have divided your pattern wholly into small squares ; by retaining or rejecting more or less of these little squares, the pattern is forraed, and it will thus be dependant for its beauty in forra and use, according to the taste and ability of the designer ; in the present design, the pattern in its length is coraposed of two figures, the one half of the pattern occupying twelve of the squares, the other half pattern eight squares in length : observe, that the band, or what is called the fret, andthe spaces between, are always equal in size; thus the bands x, x, x, x, occupy the space each, of one of the divisions, and the dividing spaces the sarae measure likewise^ practical geometry. fig. is constructed entirely on the sarae principles, and, therefore, needs not a repetition ; a little practice in drawing these figures will render any difficulty sraall, and afford rauch arauseraent. to form the cable moulding, jig. . divide the width e f into three equal parts, as nurabered , , ; then subdivide the second division into two equal parts, for a central point, and describe the sraall circle i; this raay then be called the eye ; on the same centre, with an opening in the corapasses, equal half the width e f, describe two semicircles uniting at m; next proceed and set two of the divisions from o to n, and then n will again become another centre, frora whence to continue your circles; the whole length being gone through after this raanner, the lines or portions of the pattern not wanted to reraain, are to be rubbed out. figure . this pattern is divided exactly into the same proportion ; as is seen by the nurabers , and , on the width g h; only a band is added, which the figure shows ; the space betwixt the bands, adraits of being filled with various ornaments agreeable to the fancy of the artist. figure . this elegant specimen of ancient design in ornaraental decoration, is constructed on sirailar principles, to the two figures preceding it; only the width ofthe design or pattern i k, must be divided into five equal parts, the central one x, forming the eye, whose centre becomes the point by which to strike the larger and smaller circles; in this design one division is appropriated for the band, which again has two sraall fillets taken out of it ; this pattern, like the other two, is equal throughout, in its divisions, having three parts between centre and centre, as is seen in the figure ; of the highly beautiful raanner in which this pattern has been enriched by our forefathers in decoration, the present design will give sorae idea. practical geometry. geometrical figures, plate . let a b, fig. , be the given height for a greek or etruscan shaped vase, without including the base : in the present exaraple it is intended to shew one half only, as the other half raust be worked by the sarae process ; the line a b is, therefore, considered as a vertical one, and passing through the centre of the vase ; let this line be divided into three equal parts, from a to b, as numbered , , : next give two of these parts for the height of the belly or body of the vase, set up frora a to c ; and take one and a half of the same parts for one half the width of the vase from c to d, from which drop a perpendicular d e indefinite ; draw a line frora a, perpendicular to a b, until it intersects the line d e, at f. divide a f into eight equal parts, and number them, beginning with the first from the centre a ; divide f d also into the same number of equal parts, and number this line likewise, beginning at the first division above f. proceed and draw lines frora no. , above f, to no. , at a ; from no. , on f d, to no. , on a f ; frora no. , on f d, to no. , on f a, and so on for all the rest, for every number from to on the line f d ; which will produce an intersection of lines gene rating points as noted by the raarks x — x — x — x — x — x — x — ; through these points of intersection, which raust be very carefully noted, the parabolic curved line forming one half the body of the vase from d to a, may be faithfully traced. for the remaining height of the vase (or one part), frora c to b, let it be divided into five equal parts as numbered, and let two parts, form the turnover, and mouldings of the upper part, as g h. again, divide g h into three equal parts, and give one to i k, which will form the lipping. having given one and half parts, as c d, for the width of one half the body of the vase, give two thirds of the whole height, for the utmost pro jection of the lipping, as b l; the outline of which, as shown at l, forras an ellipsis; the hollow necking under it m n, makes also for its outline, the fourth ofa parabola, as shown by the nurabers ; the base a m, in height, is equal to the upper raouldings (b o), ofthe vase, taken together, which may be divided into five parts, and one part a x, given for the necking betwixt the bottora ofthe vase and the plinth x m, forming the base. the width p .i,>ca' the iiinniidriad .ucihdil .u.-ii-il hu ihc e ti-ksriins )!_- /ic'-/,.y. /cr niii'/iiia/i'/ .'//<//¦ /^'/•>¦(¦,^ fl, i . i ¦! . -f a"!./ ^ . h ¦fl jc se >ai-i" scr-lid'.'. mcj/icd fl,,.:', i ¦!> t'ui it c \ ? k m; i-;\ -a .-"-- ttf - l. n. /- - *'- \ j, i-i ' .i v. r- :'- j yi(- vl landon putjestledty jones &c?j\iag.i? . j^o practical geometry. of the base at top will be found to be twice x m, and the width at m below, may be raade a sraall portion more. the beautiful outline exhibited in all these fictile vases (valuable remains of antient art), has resulted from their artists' thorough knowledge of the conic sections, and of the rules of propor tion, by which one part is raade to suit with another, in harraonious accor dance ; an excellence only to be obtained by the sarae labour and research as used by these antient artists. fig. represents a vase, constructed on similar principles, but shewing a different outline, its height a h being given as before. divide the whole height a h into seven equal parts, as numbered on the line o, and set off four of these parts frora d to b, which must be numbered, beginning from d; make d e equal to three such parts, for one half the width of the body or cup. divide b r into the sarae number of parts, as is b d, which nuraber likewise progressively frora b : then divide the upper height of the vase frora d to a, into nine equal parts, and raake e d, or the shoulder of the vase, equal to four of the parts ; the reraainder (e a) of the height will then forra the neck : divide this height also into two equal parts at i, and make the width of the neck (i k) equal to the sarae raeasure; draw the line o i perpendicular to i k, and dividing / k into four equal parts, raake k o equal to three of such parts, and divide this also into four parts : draw the line i e ; and raake / m equal to i k ; dividing this raeasure also into four parts : next divide m e into four parts, also e d into the same nuraber. from these five divisional lines o k, k i, i m, m e, and e d, the ordinates as nurabered, are to be drawn as described in fig. ; and through their inter sections the curves forming the neck and shoulder of the vase may be traced. the sarae practice raust be used in regard to the lines d b and b r, which will produce an outline for thc belly or body of the figure. divide the height ofthe neck/^ into five equal parts, and give one-fifth for the lipping g h, which again divide into four, and give one for the upper fillet ; raake ^ n, which is half the raouth of the vase, in diaraeter equal to one and a half parts out of the seven, on the line o o, into which the whole height is divided. lastly, divide the whole height into fifteen equal parts, as on the \inep q, and make the height ofthe base r s equal to one of these parts ; divide r* into two parts. practical geometry. which will give t s, for the torus or base raoulding, the reraainder for the hollow; the width * w, is equal to one-fifth the whole height, or half s a:. these two exaraples have been selected out of raany of those beautiful speciraens of antient art now in existence ; the sarae principles are applicable to all of thera, and it is evident, that the change of numbers will produce, and does account for the endless variety in shape to be found in these objects. the principles exhibited in these speciraens were very little known, until coraraunicated to the late sir w. harailton, by an italian artist, whose great assiduity and toil enabled him to ascertain the systera on which these valu able reraains of the antients were constructed. figures , , and , are examples taken from the works of sebastian seriio, a celebrated italian architect that flourished in the sixteenth century ; they are here introduced to show the advantages resulting frora a knowledge of georaetry, and to prove how highly its rules are to be estimated, as they relate to the doctrine of proportion. in the exaraple, fig. , the propor tion (that is to say of width to height), is as to ; in fig. , as to , and in fig. the proportion is as to . we shall now proceed by giving serlio's rule for outlining these three last figures, and first as to fig. , which bears the proportion of to . begin by dividing its giyen height a b into ten equal parts, and draw a line indefinite through the seventh division at right angles to a b ; on which line set six divisions right and left frora the centre, each equal to those on a b, as at c and d : through the division no. , draw e g indefinite, and on , with a ra dius equal to one division and a half, describe an arc intersecting the line drawn through , at e and g, which will terrainate the outline of the vase at bottora. on d and c, with an opening in the compasses equal yi c or c g, describe the arcs e i and g k : draw a line through , at pleasure, and on r and s, with a radius equal to one division ( - ), describe two segments, cutting the line at z and m, which will form the shoulder of the vase ; divide the space - , into two equal parts, and give one for the upper member, or lipping, and make the whole width of this lipping equal to three divisions, as no; the curved line of the neck may then be drawn by hand ; the base/> q will be found nearly equal to four divisions, and its height equal to three- quarters of one ofthe same. practical geometry. figure . let a a be the given height of the vase, which divide into equal parts as nurabered ; through the fourth division draw the line d b indefinite, and at right angles to a k; then with a radius equal a e on e, describe the circle abed, one half of the circumference of which divide into eight equal parts ; draw lines frora thera, through the centre e, cutting the opposite senii-circuraference ; also draw ordinates or lines parallel to the diaraeter frora each of these points, as x. x. x. x. x. divide the diaraeter d b into six parts, and on e, with a radius equal to two parts, describe a smaller circle, as shown by the figures , , , ; this smaller circle will then be equally divided by the lines passing from the larger one, through the centre e; which lines will generate intersections or points in the sraaller circle at o, o, o, o, o, a. drop a perpendicular from each of these intersect tions cutting the ordinates , , , at p,p, p, p, p, p; through these points right and left, the curved outline, forming the bodyof the rase, maybe drawn. the lines - , and - , in their progress to the centre, cut the ordinate , , atfg; which intersection gives the widthof the neck : the hollow curve may then be drawn by hand; the upper raoulding may be raade one-fifth ofthe height frora rto ; the raoulding h, one-fourth the height from e to i; the base c k, in height is equal to one division, and may be divided into three parts for.its mouldings ; its width being soraething raore than its height figure . this vase although differing in shape, 'its- outline is obtained precisely on the sarae principles as fig. , which raakes it here unnecessary to go ovet the explanation again, further than to observe, that the bottora sweep of the vase is obtained by taking a radius of one division and a half in the corapasses, and setting it on the half space betwixt" and , as at g, which becomes a centre for striking the arc e i f ; the points c and d will likewise be corae centres for striking the arcs eh and f i ; the neck m n is equal in width to one division, the lipping o^^ to two of the sarae, which also gives the width ofthe base q r, and its height is equal to half its width. practical geometry. note : the divisions on a b are equal to those in fig. , but the vase having less of these parts in width than the other, its height becomes less in proportion, reaching no higher than the eighth division. geometrical figures, plate . the globe, jig. , plate , being given, to find the shape of the gores, so that when applied on its surface, ihey shall be found to join each other, and cover it exactly. divide one-fourth of the circle's circumference {k i, fig. ,) into three equal parts, and from these points, draw ordinates, or lines, parallel to the diameter lm,as oo, and ipp; raake q k, right and left of the centre, equal to half of a division, and draw the lines q e, q e : produce the line k n, indefi nite, on which set the measure a , a , a , on the quadrant frora a towards n; and through each ofthese describe arcs, as at a; and ; proceed and take the raeasure pp frora the triangle within the circle, and transfer it on the sweep line k n, as raarked ^jo; next take the measure o o frora the sarae triangle, and transfer it on the arc at , raarked oo; then lines being traced frora the apex , through these points on both sides, will give the outline or figure of the gore, raaking a twenty-fourth part of the covering requisite for the whole surface of the globe. case . another raethod raay be adopted, thus : proceed and draw a right line e f, at pleasure, which may be considered as a parallel section through the globe, and answering to the line ofthe equator; draw another line a c, at right angles to this line, and set the three divisions as nurabered on the quadrant, fig. , from e fo a, and frora e to c ; draw a b and c d, at pleasure, each parallel to e f, and raake the length of the line e f double a c, which will then equal the whole circumference of the globe, fig. ; through f draw d b, parallel to a c ; next divide the line e f -into twelve equal parts, and nuraber them as marked; and, lastly, take an opening in the compasses equal to nine of these divisions, and setting one foot in e, tl.lvn. 't:;i;o vn'it.uii fai, i^'igtzke^ . iii / "v
 london. rubhstlcd by janes & c°aud"^ ,\?-z . practical geometry. describe an arc cutting the parallelogram a b c d, at the points g and h; and witb the same opening on no. , describe another arc through no. ; then on no. , describe a sirailar arc through no. , and on describe the arc passing through no. . to produce all the remaining arcs, the line e f will require to be extended both ways, to receive as many of the sarae divisions as will be found necessary to strike the arcs right and left; the outline of all these gores will be found exactly of the same size and shape as that in fig. , as is plain by a reference to the letters in each figure. remarks. the line e f, fig. , is equal to the whole circumference of the globe, fig. , raeasured round the line /m, and raay be called the equatorial line, dividing the globe into two equal parts : the curved lines in the parallelogram a b c d, are each, equal in length to one half the globe's surface, frora north to south, or frora east to west, and are called raeridians, or lines of longitude ; the line e f, and all lines drawn on the globe parallel to it are called lines of latitude. these problems are useful to the cabinet-maker, upholsterer, and raore so to the decorative artist. in bedsteads having dorae teasters, the upholsterer, by these, finds the lines for shaping a pattern or gore, enabling hira to cut out his covering, either for the exterior or interior surface, with out loss or waste. the cabinet-raaker is also enabled to get out his veneers for covering a dome from the base to its surarait. the decorator is readily able, by the sarae raeans to shape the mould on which to draw his design, and which, when applied to the part required, will be found to fit exactly. to find the true curve or outline for the ribs of an elliptical dome. fig. , is the half plan of an elliptical dome for a bedstead ; da exq- presenting one quarter, and e d, e c, e b, e a, four of the ribs. to find the outline of the rib e a, set its length on a line from y to x (fig. a), and the given height of the dorae, on another line at right angles to it, as from x to w ; next^ divide each of these line" into four equal parts, as nurabered, and q practical geometry. draw the lines , , &c. as ordinates, whose intersections will give points through which to draw the curved line ofthe rib required. fig. b represents the curve line for the rib e in the plan, and is obtained by the sarae process. the outlines for the two other ribs e c and e d, are got in a sirailar manner. these four moulds will answer for all the rest. in fig. , a b c d represents half the teaster of a regular four post bedstead, and d h c half the plan of an elliptical dome ; e h, e g, e f and e c, the plan of the four ribs contained in one quarter; x w, fig. c, is the height of the dorae above the teaster, and becomes the sarae for every rib ; xx is the length of the rib e c ; the length of the rib e g, is shown in fig. d ; the length and height of each are to be divided, as in fig. , and the intersecting lines will give points, through which the different curves may be traced as before. in groined teasters, where the ribs pass from corner to corner, the moulds raay be obtained, after the sarae raanner. to find the outline of the face moulding for a raking pediment and its returning mitre. a b, fig. , is the profile of the level raoulding, c, the rake of the pe- diraent. divide the face ofthe raoulding a b into any nuraber of parts; in this case it is divided into four, and those equal ; then frora these points on the outline, draw lines parallel to the fillet a c, such as , and ; next draw the line d e on any part of the rake, and perpendicular to the line b f ; then take the measure on the rake marked ( - ), and transfer it frora to , beyond the line e d ; transfer the raking lines - , - , - , on a b, to , , and - , frora the sarae line ; then through these points of intersection , , , , the outline, making the face of the raoulding, raay be traced. for the return, or raitre of this raoulding, if an open pediraent as at c, raise a line on the lower fillet, perpendicular to the level raoulding, as at f g. frora the points , , , , in the level raoulding at a b, draw lines parallel to b h, intersecting the perpendicular line b i, at , , &c. next set the raeasures , , , , from the level moulding, on the raking lines , , , , frora f g, as , , &c. through which points the outline (c p) may be drawn. pi lm geometrical h -. figures plate. . a ¦/ parts . n •n fig.:!. b x ; v '- jt- l-l '^.i. \ ,l „ //).«•/¦.¦ r; "h d '" london, riihii'.tiefl by .jonrs m- {'" vin.','), li'),;(s' ^ i practical geometry. to find the face mould of a circular pediment. let a b, fig. , be the outline of the level raoulding, which divide into four parts, as nurabered ; frora these points describe arcs, parallel to the cir cular fillets b b and a a : then on b, no. , raise a perpendicular, cutting the upper fillet in c; and draw c d parallel to the line of thelevel mouldingno. , which make equal to the projection at a ; and from the divisions , , , , draw lines parallel to b c, until they intersect the line c d in the points g,f, e: next on any part ofthe pediraent, as at no. , draw a line (b c) per pendicular to the curve, cutting the curve lines at o o, o o, frora which draw tangents to each sweep, such as o a, o , o and o . make c d, no. , equal to c d, no. ; c e. no. , equal to c e. no. , and so on for the other divisions, pointed out by the letters : frora these points at no. , draw lines parallel to b c, and where they intersect the tangents, as at , , , , will give the outline for the face raoulding. geometrical figures, plate . the diameter of a circular loo table being given to find the proportion of a triangular block, bearing the supports for the top. let i g, fig. , be the diaraeter of the top, and equal to four feet four inches taken frora a scale of feet and inches; proceed and coraplete the square abc d, within which frora the centre c, describe the circle f g h i, which will then be the plan of the top. in a circular table of this diaraeter, naraely, four feet four inches, the circle circurascribing a triangle of a fit proportion for the block, would require a radius of twenty-two and a half inches, which raust be taken from the scale, of which only a portion is here shown by the dotted line k n p o. to form a triangle within this circle, divide the half diaraeter n c into three equal parts, as nurabered frora n to c; and forra an equila teral triangle, equal to the whole diaraeter n q, having its apex, or point, at e; frora e draw the line e p through the first division, cutting the arc k n po at p; frora p draw a line parallel to the diaraeter, cutting the op posite portion ofthe arc at o; which line will becorae the length of one side b practical geometry. ofthe triangle, ana by the scale be found to raeasure three feet three inches; next draw the lines k p and k o, which will complete the remaining sides of the triangle required. the width of the canted corners of the block under which the supports are placed being deterrained, such width must be set frora the apex of each angle on the sides, as frora p to k, and p to / &c. lines drawn frora k tof, h to h, e tog, will give the three canted corners required, and which will be found to be one thirteenth part of thc diaraeter of the top. to produce the curved line frora angle to angle of each cant, bisect the line/e at n, and through this point draw a perpendicular to such line indefinite, passing through the centre c ; then on this line, frora n, set three inches by the scale for the depth of the sweep to p, and draw the line^ e, which bisect also at r ,• and continue the line until it intersects c n at d, which will becorae the centre for striking the curve e pf; the distance of which, frora the centre c, raust be set off upon perpendiculars drawn through the centres of the other two sides. note, that the depth of the sweep (three inches), is equal to nearly one- seventeenth of the whole diameter of the top ; but it may be raade one- eighteenth or raore, at pleasure. remark, likewise, that the pillar, or sup port of the top, frora the block, in its lower diaraeter, exclusive of its ornaraental raouldings, raust not exceed an eighth of the whole diaraeter of the top, and will, therefore, in this instance be six and a half inches. this mode of proportion will hold good for all tables, either of a larger )r smaller diameter, and reference may then be made to the rule of three, as raentioned in problera , relating to the occasional table. to find the outline for a console or truss bracket, by means of proportional numbers. this elegant support in the corinthian entablature, having been adopted {n sorae raeasure, as an ornaraental support for pier tables, coramodes, side boards, &c. in household furniture, the raode of finding its outline raay not, '.n this instance be deemed unacceptable. in fig. , the console bears a proportion as regards the length to the height, as i to ; that is, if the height be i foot the length would be . practical geometry. divide a c into eight equal parts, four of which set frora a to e for the centre or eye of the volute ; next bisect the division ^ , on the height a c, as at f; through which draw a line intersecting another line dropped frora e^ (equal four parts), which will then be the centre for the eye of the volute : this being obtained, raake the circle or eye equal to one division, and construct the lozenge square abed: bisect each side of this square ; then begin with no. , and strike the arc ef; frora no. , strike the arc fg ; next, from no. , describe the arc g h, which gives the greatest width of the volute ; and from no. , strike the arc h i, completing the fourth evolution : the remaining evolutions are gained by the inner divisions on the diagonal lines at , , and , which process, may be seen more at large, in architectural works, describing the raethod for working the volute of the ionic capital. for the sraaller volute, divide the line b d into s.even equal parts, and give four of these parts to the sraall volute for its height ; which again divide into eight other parts as at x x, four of which set back from b ; draw a line parallel to b d, on which line set four and a half parts frora the top, for the centre of the eye, and proceed by the same principles as laid down for the larger volute. the two volutes being thus obtained, draw a right line frora the bottom of the larger one at e, to the extremity of the fourth evolution in the sraaller one at k; bisect this line, as at g, frora which point raise a perpendicular at pleasure : divide the half of this line e g, into nine equal parts, and set back one of thera frora g to h ; this deterraines the centre for the corapound curve, raaking the belly of the console. draw the lines e h and h k, bi secting each at v and w ; and from these points draw perpendiculars. maks w y equal to one-ninth of the line e g, and v z equal to one-seventh of the line m k; the two curves, e y h and h z *, raay then be drawn by hand, which will coraplete the outline of the console. this system of proportion is applicable in making any working drawing frora a design having this figure, where there is an opportunity of allowing a bold projection. suppose the height allowed for the support of a table, having this contour or outhne, to be thirty-one inches, the projec tion as a c, would then require to be ten inches and one-third ; this would answer in open pier tables, but not so for inclosed coraraodes, for in such case it would be found necessary to make the volute of an eliptical forra, in order to avoid too rauch projection. the elegant outline prevailing practical geometry. amongst the best reraains of antiquity, cannot be too attentively studied. it proves that the attainment of thera was raore the effort of study, than the effect of chance. it is to be observed, that the figure, as drawn here, ex hibits the console as it is placed in the eorinthian entablature; but, when re versed, raakes the truss supporting our present raoveables of taste and fashion to find the proportion, the top, the mouldings, and frieze of a sideboard should bear to the whole height. a b, fig. , represents the usual height of a sideboard ; this height divide into six equal parts, and give one for the thickness of the top, with the raouldings, and the frieze, as c d ; next divide c d into six equal parts, and give one for the square of the top, one and a half to the raoulding under it, and the reraainder for the frieze. this proportion answers for all sideboards, not having a plinth to support the legs. to find the proportion, the top, the mouldings, frieze, and plinth with base moulding of a sideboard should bear to the whole height. e f, fig. , is the given height of a sideboard having a plinth (f g) with mouldings, on which the supports would rest. divide e f into nine equal parts, and give one and a half of these parts as e h, to the top, with the raoulding and frieze. divide e h into five equal parts, and give one for the square of the top, one for the moulding under it, and the remaining three parts will belong to the frieze. for tbe base, give one division e g, for its whole height, which again divide into four, and let one make the raoulding, the remainder making the plinth. of mathematical instruments. having now brpught the geometry to a closcj it remains to give a list of such mathematical instrumerits a? are generally contained in the- larger or smaller cases, confining ourselves, however, to a description of , those oply, wl)o^e utility if le?ist,kno\yn amqpgst mechanics. pl. lviil . coi^structio:^ of scajljies &co a & i scale, of fe^^ & fnch&s. /\,f k v \-^ - - - ^ . /  «/ x? / \l x b i k /t cl f-y. . j&sf ^ ^ *: : scole. of tenths. h rri ? e zo ^ \ \ 'f \ \ \ \ \ \ .y \ \ -^ \ \ \ j ' f t t n. ? /*- j( jcafe of chords f^. . s — — — t— ^. -^ -^ - ^ _j. -^ -^ i>£? <fo jo zo j cu^—x l__j. l'?mto' fine. offeli/^ons. ir t o-n^n^ p"'^^usted by jones sc c°dec. , .? , practical geometry. these cases contain, first, a pair of corapasses, with a shifting leg ; thus made, to allow the placing a brass drawing pen, or pencil, with its brass holder, in place of the shifting leg : a pair of plain corapasses or dividers : the spaau bow corapasses : the drawing pen, having a steel pointer that screws in and out of it: a brass seraicircle or protractor: the ivory plain scale; a sector ; and parallel ruler. the corapasses with the shifting leg are used in drawing circles and arches of larger diraensions than can be performed with the sraall bow cora passes ; as well as to admit of changing, the brass pen for the pencil holder, as occasion may require. the drawing, or steel pen, is used for producing straight lines, by the edge of a ruler ; the shaft, or handle, containing the steel pointer or pin, is useful in making a fine point or dot upon paper when wanted, and is used likewise in perspective, to fix at the vanishing points or point of sight, where raany lines converge, and are required to be drawn. the protractor is a seraicircle of brass, divided into degrees, and numbered each way °, ", °, &c. for the convenience of taking off the divisions ; the external edge, or straight side of this instrument, is called the central line, and is chamfered down to the under side. the chief use of this instrument is to measure, or to lay down any angle required ; see its application in plate , fig. , of georaetry. construction op scales, &c. the scale of feet and inches, or plain scale, fig. . this scale is used in making drawings of pieces of furniture, or other objects, that require to be drawn sraaller than the objects themselves really are j or otherwise, for raaking a design on a sraall scale, that shall bear the same proportion in all its parts, as one on a larger ; for instance, one scale may have its divisions (representing feet), each one inch in length ; another may have it three quarters of an inch, another half an inch, and another one quarter of an inch ; each of these divisions are supposed to be alike, and divided into twelve equal parts ; therefore, by this scale it follows, that any object may be drawn to a larger or sraaller size, and hold the same proportion. practical geometry. to construct a scale of feet and inches. draw the line a b, fig. , on which set up six equal parts; frora b, draw the line b d, at right angles to a b, on which set off as raany equal divisions as you may think necessary ; which divisions may repre sent feet, or any other certain measure; from the points e f g h i a, as marked on the line a b, draw lines parallel to b d, and raise the perpen diculars k i, \ m, n, d c, numbering them progressively from k: the divi sion b k representing one foot, must be divided into twelve equal parts for the inches, after this manner ; divide a i into two equal parts, as at , and drav/ the lines b and ^ ; by this raeans each half will be accurately divided into six equal parts, as nurabered , , , , , , &c. in using this scale, ifyou require one foot one inch, set your compasses on the line above , as at x, and open thera to on the sarae line, in the inches ; you will then have a raeasure equal to one foot one inch, and so on for every increase up to ; and again for any measure beyond , extend the compasses to the points , , &c. marked on the line b, until you finish at , raaking the foot. the scale of tenths, and its construction, fig. . proceed and set up ten equal divisions on a perpendicular line/c, and through these draw lines, each parallel the one to the other; on the line/i set off any nuraber of divisions you raay require, which raay represent feet or any other raeasure ; frora these raise perpendiculars, as i k, i m, n o and hg; next divide e a into ten equal parts, and drop a perpendicular from each ; draw the inclined line i, and lines frora , , , , , , , and parallel to it: the parallelogram fe k i, will then be divided into equal parts, called tenths or hundredths. the divisions i n, nh, raay each be con sidered as a foot, an inch, or any other measure. in using this scale, suppose you required a measure of five feet and five tenths of a foot, begin by placing your compasses on , in the line i m (which is the fifth division), and extend thera to the fifth division on the sarae hne in the parallelograra/e k i; you will then have the raeasure required. ifthe divi- practical geometry. sions il,ln,nh were inches, then the divisions in/e k i, would be the tenths or hundredth of such inch. it is, therefore, evident by this scale, that the foot, inch, or yard, raay be divided into or equal parts. this scale is found on the plain scale. the scale of chords. this scale is found on the sector, an instruraent of ivory, its two limbs opening like the compasses, with corresponding divisions raarked on each limb, and marked c. it will be found essentially useful in laying down angles of any number of degrees, as well as to divide a circle into any number of equal parts to construct a scale of chords, fig. . draw a right line b c, and raake the line b a perpendicular, or at right angles to it; raake b c and b a each of equal raeasure, and draw the hypothenuse a c; this will then becorae the chord line, and is to be divided after the following raanner ; — on b, with the radius b c or b a, describe the arc a c ; divide this arc into nine equal parts, which number frora the first division over c, , , , and so on to ; the segraent, by this raeans, becomes divided into degrees ; each of which may again be subdivided for the halves. proceed and set one foot of the corapasses in c, and opening the other to the division , describe an arc cutting the line a c at ^^, this will then be the first division on the line of chords; in the same manner lay down all the other divisions from the segraent, on to the chord line, and likewise for the half divisions, as nurabered ^, ^^, &c. sec. be whole line will then be properly divided. draw a right line m i, fig. , and from i set off the first measure on the line a c, fig. , above c ; proceed and take all the remaining raeasures on a c, from c, and transfer them on the line i m, fig. , frora i, until the whole are put down, you will then have a regular scale o. chords to work from. practical geometry. application. suppose an angle of degrees is required to be laid down; take the measure frora the scale, in your compasses, which set from n to o, fig. ; and on n, with this radius, describe an arc of a circle op; next take the measure from the scale, and placing the corapasses in o, de scribe an arc intersecting the other at p, and draw n p; then will p n o he an angle of degrees. the nuraber of degrees contained in the side of any polygonal figure being given, the circle circurascribing it may, by this means, be accurately divided into as many equal parts as the figure contains sides, provided the radius of the circle equals the raea sure taken from your scale ; if an octagon having eight sides of degrees each is required, take from the scale, which line will then pass eight times round the circle, and so on for any other raany sided figure. lafte of lines. this line is also placed on the sector, and is denoted by the letter l on the end of each limb. in fig. , q r, q t may represent the limbs, which are each equally divided into ten equal parts ; its use is to divide any given line into an equal nuraber of parts, and is thus performed. let a a be a line that is to be divided into seven equal parts; take the raeasure of this line in the cora passes, and setting one foot on the sector, fig. &, at the division raarked , open the other lirab of the sector until the opposite point coincides with. the opening in your compasses, in which situation let the sector reraain ; then set one foot ofthe compasses on the division on the sector, and^close them until they meet at the opposite point ; this measure will then be one- seventh ofthe line a a. if a line of the sarae length ( b) is required to be divided ^into eight parts, then with such length in the corapasses, set one foot on the division raarked , and open the sector until the compasses reach the opposite division marked , as before described in dividing for ; practical geometry the opening at i, will be the raeasure required; in this way any right line may be divided by the sector. the line polygons. the division of this line is likewise to be found on the sector, and is denoted by the letters pol; half on each limb, as shown in fig. , where the limbs, l m and l n are divided by the figures to marked on each lirab. to divide a circle a b c d e, fig. , into five parts, or to construct a polygon, take the radius of the circle s a, fig. , in the compasses, and set one foot on the division raarked on the sector, and open it until the corapasses touch the point on the opposite lirab; thus let the sector re main; next proceed and set one foot of the compasses on the division marked , and contract or open thera until they reach the opposite point on the instrument ; this measure in the corapasses will be the side of a pentagon, passing five times round the circle, at the points a b c d e, as shown in the figure : any division of the circle from to may be obtained by the same raeans. the geometrical square may be constructed by the same process, for taking the raeasure , frora the sector, it will pass four times round the circle. the proportional compasses. these consist of two limbs or sides of ^brass lying flat on each other, and appearing as one piece when shut these sides are raade to turn or open upon a centre, (moveable in a grove cut through the greatest part of their length; to this centre, on each lirab is fixed a sliding piece of a short length, called an index, having a fine line drawn upon -it to be set against other lines or divisions placed on one lirab of the compasses, and sometiraes on both. there are the line of lines, the line of circles, or otherwise polygons to be inscribed in circles, on one lirab ; and a line of superficies or areas, and a line of solids on the other; it is thought necessary here, only to show the side of that lirab having the line of lines and of circles, as being the raost essential to our present purpose. these lines are all unequally divided. the line of lines practical geometry. from to , and the line of circles from to . their uses are as follow : — by the line of lines, a given one may be divided into any number of equal parts, by placing the index against i and screwing it fast by the nut ; if the compasses are opened, the distance between the points at each end will be equal. by placing the index against , and opening the corapasses, the distance between the points of the longer legs will then be twice the distance between those of the shorter ; and thus any line rnay be bisected or divided into two equal parts. if the index be placed against , and the corapasses opened, the distances between the points will be as three to one, and thus a line is divided into three equal parts, and proceed in the sarae raanner for any nuraber of parts under ten. the numbers raarked on the line of circles are the sides of polygons required to be inscribed in any given circle, or by which a circle may be divided into equal parts frora six to twenty. thus if the index be placed at , the points of the corapasses at either end, when opened to the radius of a given circle, will contain a side of an hexagon, or divide the circle into six equal parts. if the index be placed against , and the corapasses opened so that the longest points be equal to the radius of the circle, then the shorter points will divide the circle into seven equal parts, or raeasure the side of an heptagon; again by placing the index at , and opening the corapasses, the longest points will contain the radius, and the shortest points divide the circle in eight equal parts, and inscribe an octagon ; the sarae method raust be raade use of to obtain any other polygonal figure. the line of superficies, and line of solids being only of use in the higher branches of mathematics, renders the description of thera useless in this place, and for which reason, the corapasses are shown in the plate with the lines raarked only on one side. the parallel ruler has been fully described with its use in problera , plate ii, figure . perspective. introduction. perspective is the science or art of projecting all objects on a plane surface, giving thera the appearance of reality, or as they would appear to the eye of a spectator, placed at a certain distance, and in a certain position in regard to the object; and that by the aid of lines. perspective raay be regarded as the offspring of georaetry ; the princi ples on which it is founded being contained in the first, third, sixth and eleventh books of euclid ; containing the doctrine of angles, circles, propor tion and planes. this science raay be classed or coraprehended under two heads, naraely. theoretical and practical ; the first of which, deraonstrates the nature and truth of its propositions ; the second, applying thera to practice. it may likewise be divided into rectilinear and curvilinear, either parallel or inclined. the study of it is entertaining as well as useful, and of consider able importance to the painter, and much more so to the architect and rae chanic. to understand it theoretically, requires an intiraate acquaintance with georaetry, and matheraatics; but the practical part may be attained with a slight knowledge of euclid's elements; in which case the retention of its rules laid down, will depend entirely on the strength of meraory and continued practice. as the body acquires strength by the exertion of its powers, so it is with the faculties of the mind : the inquisitive student will not be satisfied but by demonstration, in which case he must have recourse to the theory; while others will rest contented with a knowledge of its rules by rote, taking them for granted, as they are laid down. in a work like the present, it is not our intention to enter into that part constituting the theory ; which would require an education, and a raind fitted for such a course of study : we shall therefore confine ourselves to the practical part alone, ' perspective. and consider it more as an art than a science without oraitting to mention and account for, in a farailiar way as occasion raay require, that which other wise would belong to the theory. neither is it intended to write a treatise for those conversant in raathematical knowledge, to confute opinions, or to improve a science so ably treated on, and brought to perfection by others. our only aim will be that of detailing inforraation in plain and farailiar terms, endeavouring to reduce a science, that has hitherto been considered difficult of attainment, easy in coraprehension. all raaterial objects become perceptible to us by rays of light continually passing in right lines from all parts of thera, entering the pupil of the eye ; and diverging under the sarae angle until they are seated on the retina, a raerabrane or net work covering the back part of it, and in a reversed position. how this impression is again conveyed to the sensoriura or brain, giving it its original representation, has eluded the researches and reasoning faculties ofthe most scientific men; every thing already advanced araounting only to conjecture. those who may be desirous of entering into the nature of vision, applicable to this sub ject, raay consult the works of newton, simpson, brook taylor, hamilton, malton, &c., where they will find the whole amply treated of and largely explained. the science of perspective has been ably and powerfully handled by learned men of alraost all countries ; but particularly so in italy, gerraany, france, england and holland. to render the subject as clear as possible to those unac quainted with other branches of science, we shall in this place have recourse to thesarae systera pursued by us in treating on georaetry; beginning our course with as many definitions as are necessary to a right understanding of all the terms used in this amusing and useful department of art : we shall therefore proceed in the first place, to define the point iri all its various acceptations ; in the next, explain all the properties attached to lines ; and in the third and last place, define the nature and doctrine of planes ; a very careful reading of which is strongly recomraended previous to entering on the prac tice ; as tending very materially to lessen the difficulties that present them selves to the student in the coraraenceraent of this study ; and raake that a matter of ease, which otherwise would be considered as one of difficulty. in our progress every pains will be taken to render the subject clear and famihar to the understanding, accompanied at the sarae tipie with such dia- perspective. grams and reraarks as are applicable and tend to the purpose. it would be possible to have written extensively on this our present subject ; but as our purpose is not to write so much for the initiated in science, or the clearing up of difficulties with the raatheraatician, as for the inforraation of the untaught, it would becorae foreign to the present purpose, and rendered in this trea tise unnecessary ; a great deal of the science being raore a raatter of specu lation than positive use. those who wish to enter fully into the theory raay consult the works of dr. brook taylor, harailton and malton. in order to a right understanding of the true principles of this art, all objects about to be represented should be considered as placed behind the picture or any transparent plane, such as glass; through which a distinct view of the object on the other side would present itself to the eye of the spectator : in this case it is evident that by keeping the eye steadily fixed to one point, such object or objects may be faithfully traced by the hand on the transparent plane : this, the rules of perspective enable us to realize by the aid of lines. the true principles of this art were very little known in this country, until taken up in a very scientific raanner by dr. brook taylor; who is supposed to have drawn his principles from a work written by one guide ubaldi, and printed at pesaro, in the beginning of the fifteenth century ; who first disco vered that all lines parallel to each other, but inclined to the plane of the picture, would converge to sorae point in the horizontal line ; such point being gained by imagining a plane to pass frora the eye of the spectator parallel to the side of an original object, until it cuts the picture. these principles have since been greatly iraproved upon by subsequent writers. having said thus much as to its use in general, we shall now say something how far it can be useful to those raechanics to whora our treatise is addressed. to these the knowledge of perspective is of the greatest iraportance, enabling thera to show by a slight but spirited sketch, a model of the article they design to raake. in taking orders, they will find in this, a real advantage over others that have not the sarae acquire- raent. that the subject has hitherto been too raatheraatically treated is well known, but no fault can be attributed to those who have written on it ; as few or none have thought it worth their while to treat it in a manner fitted to the coraprehension of humble capacities. a great advantage also arises perspective. from a knowledge of this art, insomuch that any design can be raade and forwarded into distant parts, either at ¦ horae or abroad, and have the sarae effect as would be produced by a raodel. the raaster cabinet-raaker, or foreraan, should on no account be uninformed in this science, or neglect ad vantaging themselves by it : they can convey their ideas better to the artizan by a true perspective sketch in many instances than by lines; and for the sarae reason the workraan should not be deficient, as in this instance he would he would raore readily enter into the designs of his employer. if therefore our explanations do not abound with technicals, but are confined to plain and siraple terras, it is so done to render the raatter clear to the student. thus much for introduction ; a considerable deal raore reraains to be said; but will come in with better effect, and more to the purpose, in de fining singly the three essential parts constituting the whole art of perspec tive ; namely. points, lines and planes. the greatest defect in all books written on this subject has arisen from placing several diagrams on the sarae sheet; the consequence has been a crossing or raixture of lines, quite sufficient to terrify any but a hardened student from entering into the sub ject ; much less to follow references so intermingled with those of another object. our plan will be different, giving the diagrams singly as the only means of avoiding confusion. it remains now to commence with the defini tions, and this we shall first do as regards the points. perspective, plate a. definitions. points. point op sight — is that point imagined to pass frora the eye of the spectator, in a direct line, and at right angles to any transparent plane, placed between hira and the object; intersecting such plane in the horizon : such is the point s, plate , diagrara : also s in diagram , and d in diagram , where d efg may be considered as the transparent plane, and de the horizon. this point is commonly called the centre of the picture, be cause the spectator's view is equally extended right and left ofit. pl- lxxxvil. peirspective. a definitions. loniioa fublistei ly jones &c° iiovvl, , perspective. station point — is a point on the ground plane, generated by a perpen dicular hne dropt frora the eye of a spectator to his foot; such is s, in dia grara , where the line d d raay be considered as the site of the transparent plane, and s the point of sight as explained above. also g in diagrara , where the point is shown as dropped frora the spectator's eye to his foot. point op distance — is a point placed on the horizontal line right or left frora the point of sight, denoting the distance frora the spectator to the centre of the picture or transparent plane : such is s s, diagrara , placed frora s to d, right and left : s d, diagrara , and s d, diagrara , where each represents the space frora the spectator to the plane ofthe picture. directing point — is a point generated by a line passing direct frora the side of any original figure, and intersecting the plane of the picture on th« ground. defg, (diagrara ,) and h k l m, (diagrara ,) are both original figures, with the line of the picture, placed above each of thera ; iu such case a line supposed to pass frora the side e f, (diagrara ), and the angular point l, (diagrara ,) would intersect each of these lines at the points i and i; such points would become directing points. a perpendicular line raised frora either of these points would constitute what is called the geometrical line ; as d i, (diagrara ). vanishing point-t-is a point passing in a direct line frora the eye of the spectator, parallel to any side of an original figure, and intersecting the plane of the picture in the horizon. in diagram , v- v, are the vanishing points of the sides l k and l m ; m h and h k, of the original figure hklm. in diagrara , s represents the station point, and s its distance set up frora the horizon. van, van, are the vanishing points of the sides l k and l m, of the figure in diagrara . dist, dist, denote the points of distance for the same sides, and which points are the distances from l to v on each side of the figure, set off from the vanishing points in diagram , as shown by the arcs. diagonal point — is a point imagined to pass from the eye of the spectator in a direct line, and cut by the plane of the picture; such line bisecting an angle of degrees, supposing the eye of the spectator to be the vertex. perspective. in parallel perspective the point of distance serves as a diagonal point, because it passes in a line frora the eye of the spectator at an angle of degrees. this point is used for obtaining the raitre lines for all right angled figures in perspective, whether parallel or inchned to the picture; diag, in diagram , denotes the diagonal point, bisecting the right angle a s b. having defined the different points made use of in perspective, and illustrated thera by diagrams ; the definition of lines and planes falls the next under consideration. in perspective there are- six lines chiefly to be considered ; namely, the ground line, the horizontal line, the vertical line, the original line, the station, and the vanishing line. ground or base line — is a right line passing under the foot of a spec tator, and drawn parallel in every respect to his horizon, or the line passing through his eye : it denotes that part of the surface upon which he is sup posed to be stationed, when looking at any object ; such is the line c d, fig. , plate b. on this line all geometrical or known measures are usually placed. horizontal line — is a perfect level line passing through the eye of the spectator and bounding his view on every side : it is that line or circle where the heavens and the earth appear to meet. a b, fig. , plate b, is the horizontal line of the spectator standing on the ground line c d. this is considered the principal line in perspective delineation ; as regu lating from its fixed and deterrained position, all other vanishing lines ; we shall, therefore, on this account, be raore particular in explaining it; the proper understanding of which will very much assist the student in comprehending the doctrine of planes ; a subject which has hitherto passed as a matter of difficulty. it may in the first place be necessary to inforra the reader that, from the convexity of the earth's surface, every point or place on it will have a different horizon, in regard to a spectator stationed on it. let efg, fig. , represent an arc or portion of the earth's surface, drawn on as large a scale as the limits of the paper will adrait: the space from f to h raay be considered as one meridian or twelfth part of its cir cumference, containing degrees or english railes. if a spectator be stationed at h, a tangent i m, drawn through this point will be his horizon: if placed at f, ojo will then becorae his horizon: a line drawn perspective b definitions. london rutjlishcd. jjv jones ^- ^- ' liovv !¦ lo.. . perspective. at right angles to any one of these tangents, would pass through the centre ofthe earth, and consequently becorae the centre of gravity to such tspectator. suppose the spaces i h and h k, each to represent the eighth part of this raeridional space; they will each raeasure the eighth part of degrees, or railes and furlongs. now although this space of ground is literally a curved line, the angle raade by the tangent or level line i m, passing through h, is so sraall in this nuraber of railes as to make the seg ment iraperceptible, and appear to a spectator travelling over the whole, or a part ofit, a straight line. if therefore the earth's curvature is iraperceptible even in railes, it must be less so in a sraaller portion, so that a traveller continually walking over its surface, would find hiraself everywhere on a level, and for this reason his horizon would be a straight line. the horizon is' either sensible, rational, or visible. the sensible horizon is a circle, the plane of which is supposed to touch the spherical surface of the earth in the place of the spectator, whose horizon it is, and frora thence continued to the sphere of the heavens : thus in fig. , if i iraa gine rayself placed at/ and the ground on which i stand to be extended every way until it reaches the sphere of the heavens, as shown in the figure by the perspective circle i ; this plane becomes my sensible horizon : if i travel onward to g, my sensible horizon will be the circle l. the rational horizon is a circle whose plane passes through the centre of the earth, parallel to the sensible horizon, and continued to the heavens : the circle k is the rational horizon of the figure placed at/^- likewise the circle m becomes the rational horizon of the figure at (g). the earth is so sraall in comparison to the raagnitude ofthe sphere ofthe heavens, that the planes of the sensible and rational horizon coincide ; that is, the distance betwixt them, when measured in the sphere of the heavens is' insensible ; not great enough to be discovered by observation. we raay, for the sake of coraparison iraagine the circle h, which in this diagrara represents the figure ofthe earth, to represent the sphere ofthe heavens; in which case the earth would be no larger than the point m, and consequently the distance between both horizons would be insensible, being denoted only by a single line. to illustrate the coincidence between the sensible and rational horizons, still farther, we have thought proper to introduce a diagrara, taken frora an eraineijt writer on astronoray, explaining it nearly in his own words. let perspective. g, in fig. , represent the earth, and h, the sphere of the heavens. if an inhabitant of the earth stand on the point a, his sensible horizon is a l and his rational horizon h o ; the distance between these two planes is g a, (equal the seraidiaraeter of the earth) which is raeasured in a great circle of the sphere oi the heaven, by the angle » g e, or by the arc i e. this arc in so sraall a circle as h i, &c. would araount to several degrees, and conse quently the difference between the two horizons would be great enough to be discovered by observation. but this circle h i e, representing the sphere of the heaven is too sraau in proportion to that, representing the magnitude of the earth. now let the sphere of the heaven be represented by the larger circle p k »j, &c.; here the seraidiaraeter of the earth g a, measured in this circle, would amount to fewer degrees : for the arc k m, measures a less nuraber of degrees in the circle p k m, than does ie, in the circle h i e, &c. thereby raaking the angle k g w», less than the angle i g e. but this angle raay araount also to raany degrees or rainutes, and consequently be large enough to be raeasured by observation.. if we imagine the sphere of the heaven to be still larger in proportion to the globe of the earth, so that the half of it may be represented by a semicircle of which p l is a portion, the distance between the planes of the sensible and rational horizons, as measured by the angle l g , or by the arc l o, is less, as containing fewer degrees than in the last supposition ; but may still be large enough to be observed. from a view of this scherae, it appears that the larger the circle representing the sphere of the heaven, is, in proportion to the globe of the earth, the less sensible will be the difference between the sensible and rational horizon ; as being raeasured by less angle. we may suppose the sphere of the heaven so large, that the angle which should measure the distance of the sensible frora the rational horizon would amount only to a few minutes, or perhaps not so rauch as one second of a rainute, and conse quently too small to be raeasured. this in fact is the case, as raentioned in the diagram, fig. ; therefore the difference between the two horizons is insensible : just as it would be if the earth was a point of ncsensible raagnitude. the visi|)le horizon is a circle, or plane, passing through the spectator's eye, parallel to his sensible and rational horizons. this in perspective is commonly called the horizontal line, in which all lines situate on the ground plane, or any plane parallel to it, appear to vanish and become impepc^tible. perspective. suppose the circle s, fig. , to represent the earth; if a spectator be stationed at n, the line c rf passing through his eye would be his visible horizon; a b his sensible, and z m his rational horizon. the sarae applies to thp figure placed at r, as denoted by the lines e / &c. thus rauch in explanation of the horizontal line. vertical line ; this is a right line drawn frora the spectator's eye to his foot, and at right angles with the horizontal and ground lines, dividing the picture into two equal parts; it is coraraonly caued the central line ofthe picture. in fig. , n o, represents the horizontal line, p q, the ground line ; a line r s, drawn perpendicular to these, through the centre of the picture, would becorae a vertical line. vanishing line — if a plane be imagined to pass through the eye, parallel to the ground plane or to any plane perpendicular or inclined to it, and continued to the picture, it will by its section thereon, generate a line. this line so produced is called a vanishing line. the horizontal is the vanishing line for all lines and planes that are parallel to the ground, situate either on or above it. the horizontal line, h ii, fig. , is the vanishing line, for the plane a b c d, because this plane being seated on the ground, there converges in a point, from hence called its vanishing point ; likewise the vertical line v v, would become the vanishing line for the inclined planes, abed, and c d ef; v v, their vanishing points being there seated. station line — is aline drawn from the foot of the spectator and continued to the plane of the picture, cutting it at right angles: it is generated by the intersection of the vertical with the ground plane. this line produces the point of sight or centre of the picture. suppose ; d e, fig. , to be the ground line ; a b, the line of the picture ; the point s produced to c would generate a line ; this line so produced is called the station une. if the picture be placed before the spectator at s, in the inclined position mb; ^ c, would then become the station line. pl.wes. a plane in perspective is an imaginary surface, perfectly even in itself; and bounded either by strait lines or circles. see this also explained in georaetry, page . t perspective. the picture in perspective is always considered as a plane. if you suppose a square of glass to be placed between the spectator and an object, and through which he views it; this would be called the plane of his picture. likewise the board or canvas upon which any subject i.s drawn raay be called the plane of the picture. a plane raay be of any figure, and is always imagined to be infinitely extended. in the practice of perspective, the understanding of imaginary planes is of considerable iraportance ; since the boundaries of all solid bodies, whether rectilineal or curvilineal, constitute planes. there are in perspective five eleraentary planes necessary to be understood : viz. . plane of the picture — which is always supposed to be perfectly upright, and placed at any distance between the spectator and the object; intersecting the horizontal and ground planes at right angles- this plane is always considered transparent, inasrauch as all rays from the object to the eye of tbe spectator, are supposed to pass through it, forming thereon the perspective representation of that figure. . ground plane, which is always considered as perfectly level and parallel in every respect to the horizontal plane : such is the floor or ground on which we stand. . horizontal plane. this is a plane imagined to pass through the eye of the spectator, extending itself to the reraotest line* of vision, and being in every respect parallel to the ground plane, it becomes the vanishing plane for all objects standing perpendicular on that plane ; whether they be rectihnear or curvilinear, parallel or inclined to the picture. . directing plane — is a plane perfectly upright ; iraagined to pass through the eye of the spectator, right and left, parallel to the plane of the picture ; and at right angles with the ground plane. in this plane all the geometrical heights of objects are supposed to be seated. * in this line, which terminates the plane ofthe horizon apparently to the eye, the vanishing points of all objects, bounded by horizontal and vertical planes are supposed to be seated, and where the objects themselves would appear to vanish and become invisible. this applies to vertical as well as horizontal planes, the height of one diminishing \yith the breadth ofthe other, in proportion as they recede from the eye and approach this line. pl, lxx vlll , perspective . c. derinitions fitf.ll fiff.l "' - b " rig.i " . ';^' ''"' c_:::: "-^^ ¦ f / ,f' ^ ( '. ' ' ^— -j f ^ lr^^-(. lonijt)npubli licc)by.roiiesbi.c°octolt)er , ? . perspective. . vertical plane. this plane is also perfectly upright, and iraagined to pass frora the spectator's eye, cutting the picture, and the three other planes, at right angles. all planes, standing perpendicular to the ground plane, become ver tical planes ; and raay be placed in any position with respect to each other, either parallel, perpendicular, or inclined. the vanishing points of all objects in the horizontal line are generated by these planes. examples. . g h e f; (figure , plate c,) represents the plane of the picture ; being the plane through which the spectator, (stationed in the directing plane, r s d c,) would view the object. . d e fc; in the same figure represents the ground plane; because it passes under the foot of the spectator at m; and is parallel to the horizontal plane a n b. . a b n o ; denotes the horizontal or vanishing plane ; as passing •through the spectator's eye at i, and by its intersection with the picture at p q, producing what is called the horizontal line. (see also definition of lines page .) -- . r s c d ; represents the directing plane, as passing through the spectator's eye, and parauel to the plane of the picture g h e f. . i k l m ; denotes the vertical plane ; caued likewise direct, as passing iraraediately from the spectator's eye, and continued to the plane of the picture, cutting it and the three other planes at right angles. besides these already mentioned, there are others called inclined planes ; which are neither parallel nor inclined to the picture : such are the sloping tops of desks; the revolving frames of cheval dressing glasses; the inclined roofs of houses, &c. these would vanish in a plane per pendicular to the horizon, or otherwise into a vertical plane. perspective. examples. fig. , represents a desk, the top of which i k lm, forms an inclined plane, vanishing into the vertical hne v s. it raay also be considered as the folding flap ofa writing table. fig. , represents a box, with the lid or cover as turning on its hinges or centre n o, generating thereby a plane, taking the forra of a quadrant, as denoted by the letters t p r u. according as the top is raore or less raised, so it would generate various inclined planes ; as shown by the letters p q n o, and r s n o. visual rays — are right hnes drawn frora the angular corners or extreraities of an object, to the spectator's eye ; cutting the plane of the picture, and forraing thereon its image or perspective representation. exaraple : x and w, (fig. ), are original objects, seen through the trans parent plane abed, by the spectator stationed at s t. lines drawn frora the base and apex of the pyramid x, as also from the square w, to the spectator's eye at s, are visual rays. these rays produce the repre sentation of the original objects, x and w, on the plane of the picture abc d, which are denoted by x and w; hh, raaking the horizontal line ; c d, the ground line, and i i, the vertical line. the appearances of all objects are conveyed to the eye by raeans of visual rays. the nearer any object is brought to the eye, the larger it will appear ; the further it is placed from the eye, the less it wih appear ; making the angle raore or less extended in proportion to its distance. this is shewn in the diagrara fig. — where the line f f, by the visuals raakes a larger angle than the line b c, as raeasured on the seraicircle d e. the other lines raarked f f, f f, &c. each show the variation of the angle, as they recede raore or less from the eye. pyramid of rays — are visuals drawn from every extreme point of a rectihneal solid to the eye ; thereby forraing a solid angle, composed of several plane angles ; raaking together the form of a pyramid : such are the rays drawn from the several extremities ofthe object y. fig. , to the eye at s, making a similar figure (y) on the plane z practical perspective. cone of rays — are visuals pr right lines drawn frora any globular or cylindrical object ; so called frora the rays passing from each extreme or tangent of its surface towards the eye, and forraing thereby a figure resera bling a cone : as is shown by fig. . practical perspective. previous to commencing the practical part of perspective, it may perhaps be necessary in this place to furnish a few observations, accom panied with certain rules, as regards the position of the picture, and the distance the most advisable to be reraoved frora it, so that the object .shall appear to the eye under the raost agreeable and natural point of view. there is a difference between the original object and its perspective representation, although the one is often raistaken for the other. if we wish to see an object in its truest and raost natural form, we must place ourselves in a line parallel to the front of it, or in other words directly facing it ; fbr the iraage forraed on the retina (a net work covering the bottom or back part of the eye,) from this position, will approach the nearest iu similarity to that of the object under view ; and according as this position is more or less in a parallel line to the object we contemplate, so the idea of its figure will be conveyed raore or less perfect to our senses. as the appearance of an object to the spectator's eye is formed on the retina, so its perspective representation would be drawn on the plane of the picture, and its appearance will depend on the position of this plane ; which position raay be infinitely varied. in reference to the shape and size of the picture no deterrained rule can he laid down, as this is always at the discretion of the artist, and regulated according to the extent of his view, and the nuraber of objects to be introduced ; the oblong rectangle is in most cases selected, as being practical perspective. ofa more agreeable and pleasing proportion than the square; such propor tion being as to ; that is, if the length be feet, the width would be feet, or otherwise as occasion may require. some objects whose altitude is great, as church towers, columns, &c. require it in an upright position ; whilst others, such as oblong figures, buildings, &c. require it more gene rally lengthways. with regard to the height ofthe eye, and consequently the height of the horizontal line, this also must be regulated according as circumstances may require. in general it is placed equal to the height of the spectator's eye, which never exceeds feet, or feet inches frora the ground, as in most cases he is supposed to be standing onthe ground plane. in many instances, it is necessary to adopt or raake use of a low horizon, when we would see the under side of some objects, or projecting raembers of others raore distinctly; such, for instance, as the inside of beds, the soffits of cornices in low rooras, &c. the low horizon is to be preferred in drawing of any article of furniture, and may judiciously be reduced to feet, par ticularly iu the representation of chairs, sofas, &c. as the high horizon would produce a distorted appearance in the seats. it must not be taken for granted that any position or distance of the picture, with regard to the spectator and the object is alike suitable ; per spective; representations becorae distorted by placing the station point too near the object ; although such "representations are equally as true, by the rules of (perspective, as those which approach nearer in reserablance to the original.' in pictures for general observation, such a position should be chosen as an indifferent spectator would take without straining his eye, and which raust always be regulated according to the size of the object. illustration. let a b c d, fig. , plate d, represent a plane ; either paper or canvas, upon which a subject is to be drawn ; and a spectator to be so placed, as to view the sarae to the best advantage: the question is, what position and distance he should take to view it advantao-eously under such circurastances. it is evident in this case that the picture a rc d, will be seen raost to advantage when the axis of the eye x pl. l xxix. perspective. d fig.l. h londoupjtl.shodbyjones.&c^ou,. ,> practical perspective. is perpendicular, or at right angles to it ; because the picture in this instance wiu be parallel to the retina or baok part of the eye boa. and again if the said axis x cuts the middle of the picture at s, all the extreme parts of the plane a b c d, equidistant frora the central point will be equally inclined to the eye ; that is, the rays e x and f x, pro ceeding from the points e and f, will enter the pupil of the eye at x under the same angle ; and the appearance of these rays will be the nearest in this instance to the centre of the retina at o ; and thus the whole picture will be seen to the most advantage, when the seat of the eye is placed in its centre s : see the diagram fig. . the seat of the eye being deterrained; its distance from the picture or object under view is next to be considered. if we place ourselves too near the object, the whole of it cannot be seen, and if too far removed from it, the raore rainute parts cannot be distinguished. let s, be the seat of the eye in the picture, abc d ; if the eye be reraoved frora it equal the distance s e, as at x ; a ray drawn from e, through the centre or pupil at x, will cut the axis or line s o, at an angle of degrees, which woukl be the greatest angle under which the object would be visible. for let the point be raised to h, the line h x, passing through the pupil of the eye would not be conveyed by the crystaline humour (tinctured blue in the diagram,) on to the retina, it being below it, as at v; as may be seen in the figure. the point e, fig. , although visible, cannot be seen distinctly; being too far removed from the centre of the retina ato. the points g and i, whose distance is g s or s i from the seat of the eye at s, is not two-thirds of the distance s x, and will therefore be a rauch better boundary for its limits, as seen at d and c in the eye ; because the rays g x and i x, cut the axis s x, at a less angle, and consequently bring the points d and c, nearer to the centre of the retina at o. again admit the extreme distance of the picture frora the eye not to exceed the distance k s or s l ; (half the distance s x,) the appearance then of such picture will occupy the space or diameter e f, which space would approach nearer to a plane surface, than the curves a o b, and cod: in this case, the figure on the picture and its iraage on the retina will be nearly similar. practical perspective. the shortest distance that can be allowed, is that, which the farthest point of the picture is frora its centre. let a b c d, fig. , represent a picture and s its centre; tbe distance s a, set on to x, is the shortest to be taken. instead therefore of raaking this the distance of the picture, it will be raore advisable to raake it twice this distance, namely the distance of s i • as such would be a distance any person would naturally choose in order, to see the whole without losing sight of the minuter parts ; and which is here laid down on the horizontal line from s to k. if the seat ofthe eye be directly inthe middle of the picture ab c d, as at s, the dis tance s i, equal s a, will be shorter than the distance s x; and which would in consequence make the distance s k, shorter than the distance s i ; it will therefore be raore advisable to place the eye at s, rather than at *. it raust here be reraarked that he who works with a short distance, will produce a picture greatly distorted; but if he use a long distance, or one not less than twice the distance, the farthest extreraity of the picture is from the seat of the eye, no deformity will arise : therefore a long distance is the most advisable to be used. examples. plate i. to delineate or find the representation of a square on the ground plane, the length of one side a h, being known, and placed parallel to the picture. let g g, fig. * , represent the line of the directing plane, (the plane supposed to pass through the spectator's eye, perpendicular to the horizon as before described ; and comraonly called the ground line.) let h h, represent the horizontal line ; (its height frora the ground line in this diagram being assuraed;) s, the centre or point of sight; and d d, the points of distance, taken at pleasure and set equally right and left frora s. thus far being arranged, suppose a h, to raeasure the side of a cubical or square figure : set the length of this on the base line, and from its extremities, a and b, draw lines or visuals tending to s ; a line frora a or b, drawn to the point of distance d, will intersect the visuals, a s, and b s, in the points d and c ; pl;xxx. london pubhshed ijy jones ssc april e . practical perspective. through these intersections draw a line d c, parallel to the base line. this will coraplete the perspective representation of the figure ab cd. the lines d, or a d, are coraraonly called diagonal lines ; because they pass through the opposite corners of the perspective square abed. figure , to represent a pavement of squares in perspective, two of their sides ocmg parallel to the picture. i et g g, represent the ground hne as before ; h h, the horizontal line ; s the point of sight ; and d, d, the points of distance. take the raeasure of one side of a square, and repeat it any nuraber of times on the ground hne from a ; in this diagrara seven are shewn : frora each of these divisions, draw visuals, tending to the point of sight, s ; a diagonal line drawn from a or b, to the distance d, will intersect these visuals in seven different points ; through these points draw lines parallel to the base line g g, and the paveraent will be corapleted; as shewn by the black and white chequers. flgulle . to represent a pavement of squares, hamng lozenges or rhombs, with a border between each square. first proceed and set off the width of the border on the ground line, frora a, (in this diagrara left. white :) next set off the side of a square, (here shadowed black ;) and again repeat the border, and so on for as raany squares and borders, as you raay require. in the present exaraple there are three squares, and four white spaces, raaking the borders; to obtain the perspective representation of these, and their distance frora each other, as j:hey recede frora the eye ; proceed as directed in fig. . for the lozenges z practical perspective. or rhombs, find the centre of each square on the ground line ; and from these points draw lines tending to s, which will intersect the parallel sides of all the distant squares and give their centres : lines drawn from these to the points of distance d and d, right and left, will give the sides of the lozenges. ^ it will be seen by the annexed fig. a, that the sides, making the lozenge b, are parallel to the diagonal lines a a and b, of the square a ; which diagonals would tend to the point of distance ; for which reason the sides ofthe lozenge would hkewise tend to the sarae points : for all hnes parallel the one to the other and araongst theraselves would vanish into one and the sarae point. ^ /^ > ^ /* x figure . to find the representation of squares placed at different distances from each other, their sides being parauel to the picture. the horizontal line h h, and ground line g g, &c. being assuraed as before, let k g, be one side ofthe square to be represented, the depth of which, k m, raay be obtained by the same process as that used in fig. . suppose another square, as o p q r, be required, situate at a distance equal to tbe width of one side of the square, g k l m : proceed and draw a diagonal line from m, to the distance d, cutting the visual line g s, in o ; a line p o, drawn through this intersection, parallel to m l, will represent its front or nearest line ; its depth p r, raay be obtained as before directed. another raethod raay be adopted for obtaining the side of a square, or the depth of any parallelograra. set the raeasure ofthe front side a b, upon the ground line g g : if the figure is to represent a square, then the raeasure of one side must be set from the nearest corner b, to c, upon the ground line ; a line drawn from this point to the distance d, will give its depth on the visual b s, at the point d; through which a parallel line d e, raust be drawn. if the depth ofthe figure be equal to twice its length ; the raeasure b c, raust be repeated frora c to f, and cut off on the visual b s, at f ; the depth in this cafee will be represented by the length b f : if three times its length. fl: lxx xix. perspective, i" practical perspective. the sarae measure may be repeated frora f to h, on the ground line, and cut off on the visual b s, at the point h, as before directed. this raethod raay likevv^ise be adopted for representing the distance of one figure from another, as shewn by the tinted squares ab d e, and f g h i ; likewise any given depth raay be obtained by this process. ° ' plate . figure . the diameter ofa circle being given or known, to find or draw the perspective representation of the same ; being situate on the ground plane, and placed parallel to the picture. suppose e g, fig, , to be the given diameter ; proceed and describe the circle e f g h ; next circumscribe this circle by the square a b c d ; frora the corners of which draw the diagonals ac, and b d, intersecting the circle's circuraference in the point abed; these with the four central points e f g h, (produced by the two diaraeter lines e g and f h,) will make eight divisions on the circle's circuraference, and becorae so raany points through which it would pass. it is necessary in order to obtain the perspective representation of the circle, to find the perspective situation ofthese points on the ground plane; for through such points the outline of the circle (forraing an elipsis) must be traced. the ground and horizontal lines; the points of sight, and distance being deterrained; transfer the circle's diameter e g, fig. , on to the ground line g g, fig. ; as denoted by the letters a and b ; and find the perspective representation of the square a b c d, (bounding the circle's circumference) bythe diagram,, fig. , plate . through the axis c, draw the lines ef, andg h; intersecting the sides of the square at the points e,f, g, and/i: these will becorae the four tangent points. the four other points on the diagonals a c and b d, may be obtained by transferring the points a and b. fig. , upon the line a b, fig. ; as denoted by the letters a and b; frora these points draw lines tending to s, which will intersect the diagonals practical perspective a c and b d, in i, k, i and m. through these eight points on the/ground plane, the outline ofthe circle raust be traced. / this raethod of obtaining the representation of a circle by eight points win answer for any circular figure of a raoderate size ; butfor circles of larger proportion, sixteen and soraetiraes twenty or raore points are raade use of, figure ., this diagram shews the same circle in perspective, with the addition of a triangle in the centre ; which may represent the plan ofa block for a tloo table ; the circle representing the top. in raaking the plan, first find the proportion the equilateral triangle e fg, (fig. ), should bear to the circle, by fig. , plate , georaetrical figures; and the mode of constructing it by prob. , practical *georaetry. this being done, proceed and draw the circle in perspective, by the raethod adopted in the preceding diagrara. for the triangle, transfer the distances f e and f /, in the plan, upon the line a b, at m and n, as shewn by the dotted curved lines ; and square these raeasures perpendicularly on to the line a b. fig. , at e and /. from these points draw lines tending to the point of distance d, until they intersect the central rajfg, at i and m. through the point m, draw a line parallel to a b, at pleasure. next transfer the points f and g, (fig. ,) perpendicularly on the hne a b, (fig. ,) at n and n ; fi-om which points draw visuals tending to the point of sight s, until they intersect the line drawn through m, at o and p; which will give the length of the parallel side : join i o and i p ; this will give the two other sides, and complete the triangle. the vanishing points of these two sides are found by continuing i o and ip, to the horizontal line intersecting it at v and v- the canted corners are found by transferring the distance f a in the plan, (fig. ,) on to the hne a b, from f to o; which raust be squared up perpendicular to a b, (fig. ;) as at h. from this point draw a line tending to d, until it intersects the visual/^ at * ; a line drawn through this point and terminated by the sides, i o and i p, will give the represen- itation of the canted corner h, in the plan ; for the corners » and k, draw pl.l.xxvi ferspective. tlate . pig. london. published bjr jones scc!" novf?. practical perspective. cl lines frora q and r, tending to v and v, until they intersect the side o p, in s and t; lines thrown back from these, by the vanishing points v and v, will give the other two canted corners, and complete the perspective repre sentation of the triangular block, as shown by the tinted figure. plate . to find the perspective representation ofa regular hexagon or six-sided figure ; one side being parallel to the picture it is necessary to observe that the inclined sides of a regular hexagon are parallel to those of an equilateral triangle ; for as there are six equilateral triangles coraprised in every hexagon, whose sides are equal ; each angle contained therein will raeasure sixty degrees ; it follows therefore that each of the inclined sides of such triangle would be coincident to the inclined sides of an hexagon. knowing thus rauch, the vanishing points in the horizon for the inclined sides of this figure, are easily laid down. operation. the horizontal line, the station point, and distance of the picture being deterrained, the following process for finding the vanishing points may be adopted. frora the station point s, (fig. ,) on the horizontal line h h, raise a perpendicular s i, which make equal to the distance of the picture. through i draw the line g k at pleasure ; and on i as a centre, with any radius at discretion, describe the semicircle xxx, which divide into equal arcs as numbered : each arc will then raeasure an angle of degrees, and consequently raeasure the side of an equilateral triangle. through the divisions i and , draw lines from i, until they intersect the horizontal line in the points v, v. these points are the vanishing points for the inclined sides of the hexagon. having constructed the plan of the hexagon abc def, hy problem , practical georaetry, coraraence by drawing the ground line g g, upon virhich transfer the parallel side e jrf, as at e d ; from e and d, draw a go practical perspective. visuals tending to s ; draw also the lines e b and d a, tending to v, v> and intersecting each other at l. through l, draw a line parallel to e d at plea- sure. next from e and d, draw lines tending to v, v, until they intersect the parallel line through l at f and c ; f e d c will then represent one-half of the figure. the other half is obtained by drawing lines from f and c, to the respective vanishing points, until they intersect the visuals e s and d s, at a and b. draw the line a b, which .will coraplete the perspective repre sentation of the original figure, as shown by the tint. fig. , is a diagrara which shows how the preceding example may be applied in various ways. it represents the interior of an apartraent, the floor of which is shown as covered with a carpet, having the pattern made out wholly of hexagons ; at the end is represented an hexagonal bow, making half the plan of the hexagon, fig. . frora the centre of the ceiling is sus pended a lantern of the sarae figure ; the vanishing points v, v, of this diagrara are laid down frora the centre s, at double the distance of those in fig. ; the points of distance after the sarae ratio. the spaces e d, edjcd, refer to the original raeasure of the side e d, fig. , being taken at one-fourth the size. the raode of representing this floor of hexagons will be shown more at large in the following diagrara. to represent a floor qf hexagons in parallel perspective. suppose g g, (fig. , plate ,) to be the gronnd line ; h h, the hori zontal line (the height of which, in this exaraple, is taken at pleasure); c the centre of the picture (or point of sight) ; and d, its distance. proceed and lay down the vanishing points for the inclined sides, as directed in the pre ceding exaraple. divide the diaraeter, df, ofthe hexagon into two equal parts, one of which will be the measure of one side. take this raeasure in the compasses, and repeat it along the line g g, right and left ofthe centre e, as often as the width or length ofthe floor will allow. frora these divi sions so placed, draw visuals tending to the point of sight c, as a c, b c, c c, &c. next, from a, b c, &c. draw lines tending to each vanishing point: the intersection ofthese lines with each other as at k, k, k, &c. will give the centre or axis of each hexagon, throughout the whole surface of the floor. el.lxxvh. perspecteve. flate /, london published by jones : c° hovft , . practical perspective. through these intersections, draw the lines i m, no, &c. parallel to the ground line : these will receive and limit the inclined sides of each hex agon, as atak,ck,kn,u p, &c. by this raeans the whole will be completed. the figure of each hexagon raust afterwards be denoted by stronger lines. to represent an octagon, fig. , in perspective, two of its opposite sides being parallel to the picture. as every octagon has four of its sides coincident to those of a square, andthe reraaining four parallel to the diagonals of such square; it follows, that if two of its sides are parallel to the picture, two would be at right angles with it, and the four other sides inclined to it at an angle of degrees : consequently the vanishing points of an octagon would be the centre and distance of the picture. the distance of the picture being deterrained, this raust be set on the horizontal line, right and left ofthe centre c, as at j) d. these then become the vanishing points for the inclined sides. having proceeded thus far and constructed the figure of the octagon ah cd, fg h, by problera , practical geometry, transfer the- diameter of the square containing it, on to the ground line g g, as at a b ; and find the perspective representation of this square as directed in the diagrara, fig. , plate . frora a and b, draw visuals tending to the centre c, and cutting the line d c, iny and e ; this will represent the side opposite to a b, in the plan. a line drawn frora the point a to the point of distance d, will, where it inter sects the visual a c, give the representation of the inclined side a h, in the plan. a line drawn frora b to the opposite point of distance d, where it cuts the visual b c, will give the other inclined side b c. aline thrown back frora the pointy bythe point of distance d, will give the representation ofthe opposite side to b c; also aline thrown back frora e, bythe opposite point of distance, will give the representation of the opposite side to « a ; and thus the perspective figure of the octagon will be completed. if an octagon be required to be represented in perspective, where no plan is given, the method used to obtain the raeasure of one side as directed in problem , practical georaetry, must be adopted; as shewn in the plan by the divided line x x. practical perspective. fig. , shews the raethod of representing one octagon within another by raeans of mitre lines. having obtained the perspective representation of the larger octagon as above directed, find the axis by drawing the diagonal lines a c and b d, which will intersect each other at e; to this point the raitre lines frora each corner of the octagon raust be drawn. to obtain the smaller octagon, square up its diaraeter from the plan upon the line g g, as at r s. from these points draw visuals to c, which wiu intersect the mitres from d, c, g, and h; at i:, m, p, and q; this will give the representation ofthe two sides, i m and qp, in the plan. the other sides are obtained by throwing lines from the points /, m, p, and q, by the points of distance terminating thera on the different mitre lines, as will be seen by inspection of the figure. to ¦jrepresent a square of octagons. fig. , in parallel perspective. having drawn the horizontal line h h, and laid down the points of distance as before directed, take the measure of the diaraeter of an octagon in the corapasses, as a ; and repeat it along the ground line g g, as often as occasion may require, frora these divisions a, b, c, d, e,f, so placed, draw visuals tending to the centre c. a line drawn frora « or y to the point of distance d, will intersect these visuals in the points xxx, &c ; through these points draw lines parallel to the ground line g g, and the whole square will be perspectively divided into sraaller squares. next find the centre of each square on the ground line, frora which set one-half the measure of the side of an octagon to be represented, as o o, o o, &c. which draw to the point of sight c. these will intersect the parallel lines g h, i k, &c. at the points pp>pp> i } sec* which wiugive the measure ofthe sides, oo, o o, &c. on all the distant squares. lines drawn frora these points to the points of distance, where they intersect the visuals a c, b c, and c c, &c. will give the repre sentation of the inclined sides of each .octagon throughout the whole surface ofthe square. 'i. i,y.\t:jj london. pubfahed by jonesife c°dec.^ , as. practical perspective. plate . the plan and elevation of a cube heing given, to represmt the same in parallel perspective. a b c d, no. , fig. , is the given plan of the cube : g g, the hne of the directing plane or ground line, h h, the horizontal line ; s the centre or point of sight ; and d, d, the points of distance. square up the side a b of the cube, on to the ground line at a and b : from these points draw visuals (a s and b s) tending to the centre s : likewise transfer the space b b, (the distance between the side a b, and the directing hne) frora to c. a line drawn frora c to the point of distance d, will intersect the visuals a s and s, at «? and e ; through these points draw the lines e g, and fd, which will give the perspective plan of the cube ; and likewise its distance frora the directing plane. frora the corners f, d, and g, raise perpendiculars at pleasure ; also from b, raise the perpendicular b h : this line being in the directing plane, is denominated an original or georaetrical line, and on which line all original heights raust be placed. on this line frora b, set up the height b i, of the cube (equal to its width,) and draw the visual i s ; its intersection with the perpendiculars d and g, will give the perspective height of the cube, at k and /. frora k draw the parallel k w, intersecting the perpendicular raised frora f, at w. frora w, draw the visual w n ; and frora i draw the parallel i m, terminated by the forraer at m : this will coraplete the representation ofthe cube. the parallellopiped or prisra opqv t s, being under the sarae visuals with the cubeyrf^ imw, but of greater height, its seat is obtained by set ting off its distance frora the directing plane, upon the ground line frora b to w: a line drawn frora this point will give the seat of the prisra at o p, and its depth by the intersection at r. parallels drawn from p and r, and terminated by the visuals, will complete the plan. frora o, p, and q, erect perpendiculars at pleasure. on the original line b h, place the intended height of the prism as at x ; from which, draw the visual x s : its inter- b practical perspective. section with the perpendiculars at t and v, will deterraine the height of the figure, which is completed by drawing a parallel from /, to the perpen dicular line *. to find the perspective representation of a cylindrical solid. let a b c d, no. , fig , be a square inscribing the circle e f g h, as making the plan of the cylinder. transfer the diameter a b of the square to the ground hne, as directed in the preceding figure ; and obtain the perspective plan of the square and cylinder, by the diagrara, plate . erect perpendiculars frora the points a and h, in the perspective square a bed ; and draw the original or directing line ik; on which set up the height of the solid as at l. a line drawn from l tothe point of distance d, will intersect the perpendicular raised from a, at i : this will determine the height of the upper square, in which to draw the perspective circle, nopq, equalto that on^the ground plane. frora % draw the parallel i k. prora i, and k, draw the visuals i m and k i, intersec ting the diagonal lines, i i, and k m, at i, and m ; through which, draw the parallel m i, which will coraplete the upper square. the diagonal points raay be obtained by squaring up the same points frora the lower square, on to the diagonals, in the upper one ; as shown by the dotted lines, , ; , ; , ; and , . frora the extreraities n and p, of the ellipsis, drop the perpendiculars n e, and p g ; this will complete the perspective represen tation of the cyhndrical solid. such figure is called the frustrum of a cylinder and sometimes a truncated coluran. the perspective representation of the column z, is obtained thus : — find the seat of the square y, on the ground plane, and the perspective circle contained in it, as before directed. from each corner of the square so obtained, raise perpendiculars : on the original line i k, set up its height from the ground, which draw to the dis tance d, and where it intersects the perpendicular r a.t s ; this will deterraine the height of the coluran. through *, draw a parallel, * v, terminated at v by the perpendicular frora t; and coraplete the square with the perspective circle contained in it as before described ; this being done, join the extre raities of the two ellipses, as in the cylindrical solid nlaced below it, which may be seen by inspection of the figure. practical perspective. this diagram is given, to show the perspective appearance of the circle when placed beneath or above the horizon. in chairs and tables, whose legs are below the horizon, the raouldings will have for their outline the curve ofthe elhpsis y, as seen in front. for bed pillars, cheval glass frames, standards, &c., where the upper mouldings are above the horizon ; these will take for their outline the curve of the elipsis at w- remark that the per spective representation of the circle, as it approaches nearer to the horizon tal hne, whether above or below it, will become raore and raore flattened, until it faus into the horizon itself; in which case it wih become a straight line ; as raay be seen in figure , wherein c d, the upperraost plane, is seen raore fully than the plane c e; and again c e, raore plainly than.cy which is so much nearer the horizontal line h. to find the perspective representation of an octangular solid. let a b c d, no. , fig. , be a geometrical square, inscribing the octagon efghiklm. transfer the side a b ofthe square on to the ground line g, g, as at y y ; also the side e f of the octagon, as at x x : from these draw visuals tending to s, as y s, x s, &c. next transfer the distance (a y) ofthe octagon frora the plane of the picture, frora y top; this drawn to the distance d will intersect the visual y s, at « ; draw the parallel a b, and coraplete the square ab c d, as before directed : next find the perspective plan of the octagon, by the diagrara, fig. , plate : frora each angle of the octagon so obtained, raise perpendiculars; also the georaetrical line y p, frora y, and the perpendicular line b n. upon the line y p, set up the height of the figure as at n. this draw to the centre s : its intersection with the line bn at o, will give the perspective height of the figure. a parallel drawn frora o and intersected by the perpendiculars eandy at q and jt), will give the parauel face of the upper octagon. the remaining faces are obtained by drawing their sides to the respective vanishing points, d d, terminated by the perpendiculars as before explained. the octagonal prisra v, being under the sarae visuals, naraely y s, &c. is obtained by the sarae process. its seat on the ground plane is practical perspective. governed by that of the cylinder (before explained). its height is deter rained by placing it on the original line y p, as at r, in the sarae manner as that of the preceding example. reraark, that this figure is likewise given to show the difference in the outline of the octagon, either above or below the horizon. if you wish to represent the interior of a bow window, peculiar to many of our old english raansions ; all the lines that are below the horizon will answer to the concave part ofthe ground plan at r, and all those above the horizon will answer to the concave part of the upper octagonal plane at t. in what relates to the circle, the sarae applies to the octagon ; for being circumscribed by a square, it is subject to the sarae diminution the nearer it approaches the horizon; and will, as the painters express it, become more and more foreshortened, until, like the circle, it would fall into a straight line. no. , fig. , represents a cubical object having a top, ( , . , ,) projecting equally over the four sides. let a b be the raeasure of one side of the cube to be represented ; and b c its distance frora the directing plane. proceed and coraplete the perspective plan a c rf, as in fig. , from which raise perpendiculars, as before. from a and b, set off the projection of the top as a d and b d, which draw to the point of sight s, intersecting the diagonals a c and h d, at the points , , , . on c erect a perpendicular c g; this will becorae the georaetrical line : on this line set up the height of the cube, also the thickness e f, of the projecting top, which draw to the point of distance d ; and where they intersect the perpendicular raised from , you will obtain the projection ofthe top at the point ; (the nearest to the spec tator.) frora draw visuals tending to the point of sight s, and where they intersect the perpendicular raised frora , you have the projection on the returning side, as at . frora and draw parallels, and where they inter sect the perpendiculars raised on and , as at and , you will have the farthest projection: draw the visual , , tending to the point of sight s, and the figure will then be completed. this diagrara is applicable to all objects of furniture that are under the horizon ; whether tables, commodes, &c, that have an equal projection of top, or mouldings round their sides. practical perspective. the upper figure represents the sarae cube, having the same projection over the top, but seen above the horizon; the geometrical line being differently placed ; namely on the nearest angle of the cube. to obtain (he projection in this exaraple, draw the diagonals y v and x z, which diagonals prolong at pleasure : on the diagonal at y, place the projection , which will be that nearest to the spectator ; and draw the visual o r, tending to the point of sight s, which will intersect the diagonal x z at r, and give the furthest projection jo r. frora o draw the parallel o g', which by its intersection with the diagonal x z at q, will give the opposite projection to o. next let the perpendicular line from q be continued at plea sure towards w; on which line set up the intended height ofthe pyramidal roof, frora y to v; which draw to the point of distance d, and where it intersects a perpendicular raised frora the centre or axis c, of the square x y z v, will deterraine the perspective height at t. lastly draw the hnes tp, t p, and t p, which wiu coraplete the figure. the cornices of rooras, and the projecting raerabers of all objects seen above the horizon raay be obtained frora this diagrara. the square figure u, raay be supposed to represent the body of a book-case, wardrobe or any other object ; and q o r, the projecting cornice. fig. , no. and . these cylindrical figures are the sarae, and ob tained by the same raeans as that of no. , fig. ; with the addition of a projecting meraber to each, as seen above and below the horizon. having constructed the cylinder w, by the process used in no. , fig. , prolong the diagonals, corresponding to those marked m k and i i, in the sarae figure ; also prolong the line i k, upon which, from i and k set off the given projection, as at e ; this convey on the diagonals by the point of sight s, at the intersections a b and c d, forming the larger square, as is shewn by the fiffure. next, take little more than l- th of the line a b ; that is, run the compasses along the hne until the l- th division extends a little beyond the end of it at the point b ; this being the proportion that the space a i, no. , fig. , bears to the whole line a b. set this measure frora a and b to x and x; which convey by the point of sight s, on to the diagonals a c and d, as nurabered , , , and . next draw the diaraeters, : , and : through these eight points the circle forraing the projection may be traced. the under curve is obtained first, by dropping perpen c practical perspective. diculars from a and h, equal to the giten thickness ; through which draw the parallel line o o, which line will receive the diagonal points x, x, at and ; also the central point , at : these draw to the point of sight s, and wliere they intersect perpendiculars dropt frora i, , , and , will give so raany points through which to trace the under curve. the pro jection over the cylinder no. , is obtained by the sarae process, as may be seen by inspection of the figure. the tinted planes in these figures, as also those in no. , fig. , show the squaring of the seventh points upon the diagonals of such squares as are of equal dimensions, placed one above another. fig.' is an octagonal prism, standing on an octagonal base, and supporting an octagonal top. first set off the width of the square, representing the top, upon the ground line g g, from i to k; also the width of the square making the block, frora i to m. frora i and m draw visuals to the point of sight s, and frora t draw a line to the point of distance d : its intersection with the visual drawn frora i, will give the seat of the front line of the block at o ; frora which draw a parallel line, intersecting the visual frora m, at p; this will give the perspective width of the square of the block. frora o and p, raise perpendiculars ; next set up the thickness of the block on the georaetrical line ix from itoq; this likewise draw to the point of distance d; and where it intersects the perpendicular raised from o, at a, will deterraine the thickness of the block. next draw the square abed, as in fig. ; and the octagon contained in it, as in fig. , which will compleat the block. for the prisra, draw raitre lines frora each angle, ( , , , , , , , ,) of the octagon, to the centre or axis c. next set the given diameter on the hne a j, at and (in this exaraple equal to one side of the octagonal block:) this draw to the centre s, until it intersects the raitres , , and , at , , , and , which wiu give the two sides parallel to those raarked , and , on the block : the reraaining sides are got by throwing lines back bythe points of distance d, d, frora , , , and , intersecting tbe corresponding mitres at , , , and ; from which intersections, the two sides parauel to - , and - , may be drawn, corapleting the perspective plan of the prism. frora each exterior angle visible to the eye, raise per pendiculars, as in the prisra v, fig. . next set up the height and thickness practical perspective. of the top upon the geometrical hne i x, as at e ; frora which draw parallels at pleasure. likewise square up the given width frora k (on the ground hne), intersecting the parauel drawn from e aty,- and complete the square e fg h, as before directed. lastly, set off the given measure of the canted side> from e to r* and frorayto * ,- which convey on the line above by perpen diculars. visuals drawn frora these to the centre s, wiu give the raeasure of each cant on the back line hg, (ofthe square,) at t and v. lines thrown back by the points of distance firom these intersections {t and v,) will give the four canted sides ofthe figure, as raay be seen by inspection. by 'this exaraple we are taught the raanner of obtaining the perspective repre sentation of loo tables with their pillars and bases, when of an octagonal forra; it is likewise applicable in gothic designs, whether for tables, candelabri, or any other object having, octagonal supports. we shall now coraraence with the application of these exaraples, by delineating the various articles of doraestic furniture in general use ; giving the perspective lines with each example. plate . to represent a library or rvriting table from a given plan and profile. no. , fig. , is the scale to plan and profile, drawn f of an inch to a foot. no. , shews one half of the plan of the writing table to be projected ; a b cd, raaking the top; ffo o, the frarae; and e, e, two ofthe legs. no. , shews the profile of part of one of the ends with its moul dings, &c. having drawn the ground hne g g, take feet from the scale, which measure set up from g g, for the horizontal line. next place the point of sight on this line at pleasure ; observing to place it neither too near, nor too far removed from the angle or nearest corner b. the point of distance raay be placed from the point of sight at pleasure, but not less than twice the length of the object to be represented ; as before remarked in page : in this instance it is raade longer, viz. feet inches ; the length ofthe table practical perspective. being feet. proceed and square up frora the plan on to the ground line the length a b, ofthe top, at e e; also the length yy ofthe frame at f f ; and the legs e, e, at m m : these draw to the point of sight s. next'set-off the width of the table from back to front, (equal feet inches,) from e to i ; which draw to the point of distance, as shewn by the dotted line raarked diag, the point being off the plate : its intersection with the visuals drawn frora e, f and m, will determine the perspective width of the top and frame ofthe table atk, and give the squares for the back legs at m; from which draw parallels, intersecting the corresponding visuals at the other end at k and m. for the front legs, draw a line frora the nearest corner e to the point of distance ; its intersection with the visual drawn frora m, will give the square ofthe leg at the corner nearest to the spectator ; which may be squared to the- opposite visuals drawn frora f and m : this wiu compleat the perspective plan. frora e, raise a perpendicular e at pleasure; on which line square all the original heights frora the profile, as denoted by the dotted lines. the height of the table being squared on to the original line e o, as at b, raust be drawn to the point of distance ; its intersection with a perpendicular raised frora the square of the frarae at f, will deter raine the parallel front of the top at x , which raust be continued to y, on the perpendicular raised frora the opposite corner f: visuals must then be drawn from x and y, to s, intersecting perpendiculars raised from k and k (the furthest squares,) at c and d ; draw the parallel d g, which will complete the top. next from z on e o draw a diagonal as before, tending to the point of distance, and where it intersects the perpendicular raised frora f as before ; this will be the perspective depth of the frarae ; which raust be squared to the corresponding perpendicular frora f at the furthest end, intersecting it an n; this will deterraine the length of the frame in front. frora z draw a visual to s, which by its in tersection with the perpendicular raised from the square at k, wiu give the returning side at r. . the top moulding being transferred to b ; as shewn by the dotted line, its projection is determined by the original line e o ; (it being in the directing plane ;) which raust be continued to the perpendi cular raised frora e, intersecting it at a : a visual drawn frora b and inter sected by the perpendicular from k, will give the return. the small raoulding at fhe bottom is found by carrying its thickness to z, and from feimsi-'iirt:ite ,i|^:i.,a'r:k;,orii , foinl or fl.iliiiiii- l:i.. i hi i the sml,. /iiiiii s. jsr.'i ¦:',. '^mi- "'-l fiq . li-a ini- jone, g- ("•'sc'a^s ia/? practical perspective. thence conveying it by a diagonal, to the corner line of the frarae ; this being on so sraau a scale, may in most instances be drawn by eye ; the bottom hne of the moulding being first obtained. having thus completed the frame, draw the legs at n, n, n, which is done by squaring them up frora the tinted squares in the perspective plan. the dirainishing of the leg being deterrained in the profile, lines raay be drawn frora the under part of the frarae, at t t, through the dirainished part at bottom at v v ; vvhich two hnes will unite and meet in a point on a hne drawn through the centre or axis, at p. next convey the point p, by a parallel, on to the original line h , at the point p. proceed and drop per pendiculars from the axes of the four squares, (m, m, m, m,) at pleasure. from p, draw a diagonal line, intersecting the axis of the nearest square (m e,) at the point o ; this will be the perspective seat of the point p, in the profile. from' o, draw a parallel, intersecting the axis of the farthest square f m, at n, which gives the opposite diminishing point to o. visuals drawn from o and n, until they intersect the axis lines of the back squares, wiu give the diminishing points for the back legs, at s and r. these foui points n, o, r, s, being obtained, proceed and raise perpendiculars from the perspective squares, f m, m e, &c. (in the plan), up to the bottom line of the frarae, as at w, z, r and d ; vvhich wiu give the squares of the legs at top : frora these, draw lines to the apex points, n, o, r and s, and you have the dirainishing lines for the legs. frora the points, , , , , cc. as conveyed frora the profile on to the original line, draw diagonals to the point of distance ;. their intersection with the diminishing line drawn from z, wiu give the heights of the respective raouldings and ornaraental parts of the leg z ; which raay be squared on to the leg w. those required on the leg r, may be obtained by visuals drawn from the corresponding heights on the leg z, to the point of sight; which again must be squared over to the leg d : all that remains is then to be done by hand ; reducing your draught as near as possible to the finished design, as shewn below at fig. . reraark that where the term diagonal is meutioned, it refers to those lines that are drawn to the point of distance. d practical perspective. plate . to represent a secretaire desk and bookcase in perspective^ from a given plan and profile. -, the figure marked b, represents the plan of the bookcase; where w w, w w, denotes the length and depth of the lower carcase, corresponding with the depth marked w w, in the profile c : y w, denotes the depth of the upper carcase, answering to y w, in the profile. the dotted line x x, shews the projection of the cornice round the top, being marked with the same letter in the profile. z, z, z, z, shews the pro jection of the base raoulding round the lower carcase, as shewn in the profile by the sarae letters. h h, is the horizontal line, g g, the ground line, and d the point of distance for the bookcase. fig. . the station or point of sight in this exaraple is placed feet and half an inch (by the scale) frora the distance d. the first thing to be considered, is the position of the figure about to be represented, in regard to the station or point of sight ; or in other words, the distance the nearest corner of it is from the point of view. in the present example the poii	 f on the ground line g g, has been chosen as the nearest corner of the object. the next thing to be perforraed is that of making the perspective plan (raarked e) beneath the ground line ; with all its parts and projections, the sarae as in the georaetrical plan raarked b. this raay be placed at any distance below the ground line, but in all cases the lower *uch plan is placed below the horizon, the raore distinct wiu be the different intersections. proceed and draw the line a a, under fig. , ^at pleasure ; upon which set the length w w, of the bookcase (in the iplan b,) from the nearest corner f ; as frora v to b, which wul make the 'front line of the lower carcase. frora b and v, draw visuals to the point of sight : next set off the depth (w w,) of the lower carcase, frora to c ; this draw to the point of distance d : its intersection with the visual from b at e, will deterraine the perspective depth of the lower carcase. a line squared from e toy parallel to v, will complete the plan of the lower part. next set off the measure w y, (in the 'j- id practical perspective. s plan b) from o to g, which draw to the distance as before ; its intersection with the visual b e at i, will determine the seat of the upper carcase : a parallel drawn from t to i, wiu represent the front hne. it then remains to find the perspective projection of the mouldings, in the lower and upper car cases ; which may be obtained as fouows : set off the projection of the plinth, (raarked w o, in the plan b,) from b to o, and v to y ; which draw to the point of sight : a line thrown back frora h, by the point of distance, wiu by its intersection with the visual drawn through o, give the projection of the plinth at i; and a line squared frora i, intersecting the visual drawn through y, at m, will give the projection of the plinth at the furthest point frora the spectator. the sarae process must be followed for finding the pro jection of the cornice in tho upper part ; observing to throw the raitre back from t; and thus the plan of the lower and upper carcases, with their pro jections and mouldings is found perspectively. next square up the corner h, perpendicularly at pleasure, as at i ; which line consider as the geometrical line, upon which all the original heights of the figure raust be placed : in this exaraple the heights are squared from the profile c, as numbered, , , , , , , , . frora all these heights on the original line, draw visuals to the point of sight ; not the whole length, but only as far as raay be necessary to receive the intersections of the perpendiculars raised frora the perspective plan. having proceeded thus far, commence by raising a perpendicular frora t, in the plan ; this will intersect the visuals drawn frora , , , , and , at the points o, o, o, o, o, and thereby, deterraine the heights of the cornice and frieze in the upper carcase. these heights squared to the perpendicular raised frora the point i, in the plan, wul coraplete the frieze; and also the bottora line of the cornice in front; giving likewise the base line of the upper carcase at k. the heights of the raembers on the lower carcase are determined on the original line itself at , , , and ; frora which visuals alone are required to be drawn ; and these, as weu as the visuals drawn from , , , and , in the upper carcase, are terminated by a perpendicular raised from e, in the plan : thus far the body of the bookcase is corapleted. the projecting raembers are found in the plan at the points / and m, for the plinth in the lower part ; and n and r, for the cornice in the upper part. it only remains to throw raitre lines by the point of distance, frora o, i, and f, which by their intersection with perpendiculars practical perspective. raised frora n and i, in the plan, will give the required height and projection of the cornice and plinth, as shewn by the letters s, s, s. parallels drawn from these intersections and terrainated by perpendiculars raised from m and r, wiu complete the figure. the profiling of the raouldings must be regulated by the georaetrical elevation, and drawn by hand, as shewn in the finished exaraple, fig. . the remainder of the finishings, viz. the pilasters, pannelling, fraraing the upper doors for glass, &c. wiu depend entirely on the taste of the designer. fig. , shews the sarae bookcase as finished in all its parts, with the addition of a secretaire drawer thrown open for writing; which it was thought proper to shew in this figure, instead of fig. i, for the purpose of keeping the latter diagrara distinct and free from too great a raixture of lines. in all these articles of furniture, the lower or hinged part of the fall down front is placed about feet inches frora the ground, and is generally about or inches in depth. to shew this drawn open and let down for the purpose of writing, commence and draw visuals by the point of sight, from c and d. next set off the height of the fall down front, with the depth of the drawer when out, from d toe; this measure throw from the point of distance ; its intersection with the visual d g, at g, will give the front of the writing flap. this squared to the visual from c, intersecting it at y wul deterraine the length of the flap. to obtain the place of the cheeks or sides, (x, x) of the drawer; set the raeasure of one of them (generally about inches), frora d to i; this raeasure thrown back by the point of distance d, upon the visual d g, at h, wiu give the seat of the nearest side x ; which being squared on to the opposite visual from c, will give the seat of the furthest one at m. perpendiculars raised from h and m, and cut by visuals frora a and b, will deterraine their height. the seat and height of the quadrants for supporting the fall down front, are found after the sarae manner, as raay be seen by inspection of the figure. reraark, that the point of sight in fig. , is shewn at s ; and the distance being the same frora it as that in fig. , namely feet and i an inch by the scale, could not be shewn in the picture ; but its tendency is shewn by the dotted line marked f. in like raanner the tendency of the point of sight in fig. , is shewn by the converging lines, making the top and bottom ofthe bookcase. practical perspective. plate . to represent a chiffonier commode (fig. \,) in parallel perspective, shewing the manner of representing a door open. let the profile marked a be first made, agreeable to the size and pro portion proper for such an article of furniture. from this construct the perspective plan marked b, after the sarae manner, and by the sarae process as that adopted for the bookcase in plate ; the horizontal line h h ; station point s ; ground line g g, and distance d, regulated as before. the tinted circles raarked a a, in the plan, denote the place of the columns supporting the frieze and marble top; the squares figured , , denote the capitals : e f, shews the front hne making the body of the comraode with the doors : a b c d, is the plan of the raarble top. the dotted lines bb, c c and d d, shew the front lines of the shelves in the upper part (raaking the chiffonier ;) which are got by setting off the breadth of each shelf in the profile, from h, (the back ofthe comraode,) and conveying them on the visual b c, by the point of distance ; as shewn by the lines e b, f c, and g d. the perspective plan being completed, proceed and draw the perpendicular line g h, from the corner b, in the plan ; which consider as the georaetrical line, upon which to receive all the original heights frora the profile. cora raence by squaring, first, the height and thickness of the top i i, which being in the plane of the picture, raust be continued direct to the perpendicular raised frora a in the plan : this will determine its length in front. next square along the height (top and bottom) of the frieze k k ; which convey by the point of distance to the perpendicular raised from the corner m in the plan b, intersecting it at o, o. parauels drawn from o, o, and continued to the perpendicular raised from /, wiu coraplete the frieze. the colurans, shelves, &c. raay be au obtained after the sarae raanner; as may be seen by reference to the plate, it being needless to repeat over the sarae process a second tirae, as such would occasion a raultitude of references which would only tend to perplex the figure. it is thought proper in this example tp shew one door of the commode open, and at the same tirae to de e practical perspective. raonstrate and lay down the principles by which it is performeo. it is evident that every door turning on its hinges, would by its revolution, generate a seraicircle equal in diaraeter to double the width of the opening. this seraicircle being found perspectively, the door raay be shewn open on any part of its seraicircuraference. suppose the djor to be hinged at p, and p n to be the width of the opening ; continue the line p n, out at pleasure, upon which set off the width of the opening p n, from ^ to q; and throw visuals by the point of sight frora n, p, and q : a line thrown frora p by the point of distance, will by its intersection with the visual thrown frora n, give the breadth of the half square, containing the seraicircle, at r ; a parallel drawn frora r to t will coraplete the half square. draw the seraidiagonal p t. next take little raore than one seventh of the line q n, which convey upon the semidiagonals p r, and p t, by the point of sight, at w and v. the seraicircle raust then coraraence from the point q, and be traced through the points w, s, v, terminating at n. the semicircle being thus obtained, take any point on its circumference as x, for the extent you raean the door to be thrown open ; a line drawn frora this point to p, will raake the bottora line of the door, which being continued to the horizontal line will there give the vanishing point for the door, as thrown open at this angle. a line thrown from q, by the vanishing point, and cut by a perpendicular raised frora x at y, will give the upper line of the door. the point q is found by squaring a line frora x until it cuts the perpendicular drawn frora p. the vanishing point for a door thrown open at any point upon the serai circuraference of the circle raay be found after the sarae inanner ; naraely, by joining such point with the centre where the door hinges by a line, and con tinuing it to the horizon. reraark, the distance of the vanishing point in this example is two feet two inches from the station point on the right hand, by the scale. to represent a fiight of bedsteps, fig. , in perspective. in this example the profile of the steps is shown parallel to the picture, and consequently would be geometrical ; save and except the projections of phnth and nosings. first set off the measure of each tread of the steps practical perspective. (being j inches) on the line a a, at a, b, c, and d ; which draw to the point of sight. next set off the width or front of the step (being inches) firora d to e ; this conveyed by the point of distance on tle visual drawn frora d, will give the perspective length of the front at f : a line squared frora f to g, wiu coraplete the plan of the steps the lines b h, c i, and d f, wiu in this case be the seat of each tread. the projection ofthe plinth and nosings being the sarae, both are found as follows : set off the raeasure of the projection from a to a, and from d to d, from which draw visuals to s : lines thrown from g and d, by the point of distance, where they in tersect these visuals at g and d, will give the projection at the corners g and d. lines squared frora g and d, and cut by the visuals before drawn, will give the projection of the two opposite corners at a andy ; this corapletes the plan. in raising the elevation, coraraence by drawing the perpendicular h i, frora a in the plan ; on which set up the height of each step frora the ground hue g g, as at k, i and o : these square to the perpendiculars raised frora b, c, and d, intersecting thera at x, n, t, m and u, which will coraplete the profile ofthe steps. visuals drawn frora o, x, n, t, m, and u, and cut by perpen diculars raised from h, i, and f, will represent the treads of the steps ; the perpendiculars cut by them at z p, v q, andw s, forraing the furthest extre mities of the risers. the thickness of the nosings are set below the top of each step, and their projections squared up from the plan : the plinth likewise after the same manner, as is shewn by the dotted lines. in this example, the top of the upper step is represented as thrown up ; the principle of per forraing which is applicable to all table tops or desks that have a sloping elevation. on o, as a centre, with a radius equal the width o x, describe the quadrant xb ; likewise on y, with the radius y z, describe the quadrant z c ; and draw the visual b c. if the hd or top be thrown up perpendicularly on its centre, its representation wul be the dotted plane bcoy. butin this instance it has been thought proper to show the top only partially open ; for which purpose any point in the quadrant b x, raay be chosen, as at c ; which being drawn to the centre o, will represent the nearest edge of the lid : this being continued until it intersects a perpendicular raised from the point of sight s, will give the vanishing point for the inclined position of the lid ; to which the opposite edge y e is drawn. a visual drawn from e, in the quadrant b x, to e, in the opposite quadrant c z, will represent ivk) practical perspective. the front edge ; the nosing drawn round may be measured by those of the other steps. it is necessary to observe, that the more or less the lid or top is elevated, so the seat of its vanishing point, in the perpendicular vanishing line, will raore or less vary. plate . to represent a chair in perspective, its side being seen in front, and its front being at right angles with the picture. the back of all chairs being less than the front, it follows that the two side rails will form inclined planes ; the one opposite in its direction to the other> which if continued would intersect each other soraewhere below the horizon, and terminate in the horizontal line; the one to the right hand of the station or point of sight ; the other to the left ; biit each equauy distant frora it ; this is to be understood of a chair seen front ways, that is, whose front is placed parallel to the plane of the picture. chairs as they are placed in apartments, generally have their bevelled sides opposite to the plane of the picture ; the vanishing points for such inclined sides would therefore be greatly beyond it, which sides if pro- ! duced, would intersect the horizon at so great a distance, as to render the ase in practice inconvenient ; which can be avoided by adopting a different practice. it is obvious then that there are two methods requisite for putting a chair into perspective ; the one as relates to the view when taken in front, or wnen the front of the chair is parallel with the plane of the picture ; the other when the chair is placed with its back and front at right angles with t ; or in other words, when the bevelled side of the chair is immediately oefore us. we shall give an example both ways, and coraraence with the side view in preference ; giving a plan and elevation, with a scale, by which the whole is proportioned. b x < -i iv k i^ ^ t -zn practical perspective. in the present exaraple the plan of the chair seat is represented at fig. : the letters aaaa, denoting the square in which the seat, with its bevelled sides a b and a b, is contained ; thus, a a denotes the front rail of the chair and b b, the back rad ; a b, and a b, are therefore the inclined sides of the seat rail coramon to all chairs : the spray of the front legs are denoted by the letters bb ; those of the back by c c. the plan, fig. , being corapleted, and the profile c, fig. , constructed, proceed and transfer the depth (a a,) of the bevelled side of the chair in the plan, frora a to b, on the ground line, fig. . next set off the raeasure or spray of the back foot (b c,) frora a to r : from r, a and b raise three perpendiculars ; b i, to receive the heights for the front rail ofthe chair, and a i for those of the back rail ; also r g to receive the height of the top yoak, the spray, or any other division of the back. transfer, or square from the elevation c, the different heights (d d d,) of the rau and stulfing, at d d d, on the line r g ; at , , b, on the line a i ; and at c, c, c, on the line b i ; and transfer the spray b b, of the front seat in the plan, frora b to g. from r, a and b, draw visuals to the point of sight : next set off the width of the chair, (a a in the plan) from b to e ; this convey to the visual b s, by the point of distance d, intersecting it aty frora f draw a line parallel to the ground line, intersecting the visual a s atg; this will cora plete the square containing the seat of the chair. for the bevel of the sides, set off the raeasure b a, in the plan, frora b to g, and frora e to g, on the ground line ; which measures convey on the visual b s, by the point of distance d, intersecting it at n and n. from n and n, square lines across to o and o, as shewn in fig. . join b o, and fo, which wul give the two bevelled sides, and complete the perspective plan of the seat. these lines continued wiu receive the spray of the back legs. next from b, b, b, on a i, draw visuals at pleasure tending to s ; and frora o and , in the perspective plan raise perpendiculars until they intersect the visuals drawn frora b, h, h, at o, o, o, and o, o, o ; likewise frora c, c, c, on b i, draw visuals to s, which terrainate by a perpendicular frora yat c, c, c ; draw the lines co, co, co, and c o, c o, c o ; which wul raake the hnes of the side raus and stuffing. to obtain the height of the back, first raise perpendiculars frora x and y, on the visual r s ; as a; a, and y m. from k in the profile c, square the f practical perspective. height of the back to the perpendicular r g, at l ; this draw to the point of sight s : its intersection with the perpendiculars x k and y m, att and m, wul give the height of the back. the sweep of the back may be found by dividing the height t k (in the profile, fig. ,) into any nuraber of parts ; as at l, l, l, l : frora these divisions draw lines until they intersect the out line of the mould at m, m, m, m. from m, m, m, m, drop perpendiculars, intersecting the ground line t v, at a, a, a, a. next square the divisions l, l, l, l, to the perpendicular line r g, as at l, l, l, l; and draw visuals tending to s, untu they intersect the lines x k and y m at p, p, p, p, and p, p, p, p. transfer the measures a, a, a, a, (in the profile,) to the ground line fig. , from r to a, a, a, a, as lettered ; these convey on the bevelled lines b x and n y by the point of sight s ; frora these intersections, perpendiculars raust be raised until they raeet, each its corresponding line, squared frora p, p, p, p ; by this means points will be produced, through which to draw the outline ma king the sweep of the back : these lines form, the one an outside sweep, and the other an inward. for the inside of the back foot, set the measure t t, (in the profile fig. ,) from r to r, fig. ; this draw to the station s, intersecting b ar at , and n y at : perpendiculars raised from these points will give the springing for the inside of the back leg, on the rail at , and on the opposite rail at ; the two sweeps raay then be drawn by hand ; the thickness ofthese legs may be drawn near enough by the eye in small examples. for the front legs, the sweeps are contained within the space z z, in tbe profile : this raea sure is then tansferred frora b to x, and conveyed by the point of sight on the opposite side at x. perpendiculars raised frora these points and intersected by a line squared frora z z, (in the profile) at z z; and by visuals drawn frora z z at zz, will give points through which the sweeps may be drawn. to give every point and line necessary to the perspective construction of such an ex ample, would only perplex the student; raore lines are now given than has hitherto been atterapted in other works of this kind , but we have chosen to be thus particular in this and the following exaraple, convinced that those who wish to learn and know the reason for that which is laid before them, wdl not be discouraged to go through the references, although apparently numerous. fig. , is introduced for the purpose of shewing the manner of finding the perspective representation of the seat on a larger scale. practical perspective. plate . to represent an dhow chair in perspective, the front being placed parallel to th picture.. \ having constructed the plan and profile by scale as before, and deter mined on the points of sight and distance ; coraraence by setting the raeasure of the front rail of the chair (from the plan a,) on the ground line g g, as a b ; from which draw visuals to s. next set off the depth of the side rau from a to g ; this conveyed on the visual a s, by the point of distance, will give the perspective depth of the rail at c ; from which draw a parallel line, terminating it on the opposite visual at d. next proceed and take half the raeasure ofthe back rail, and set it right and left frora the centre x of the front line a b ; this convey on the back line c d, by the point of sight, intersecting it at c andd; the line erf wiu then represent the width ofthe back rail. set the width of the square a (in the plan) frora a to a, and from b to ,* these draw to the point of sight s ; a line drawn from a to the point of distance, where it intersects the visual from a, will give the depth of the square ; this transferred to the visuals frora a, b, and b, will coraplete the two' squares containing the front legs : join b c and q d, which lines wul raake the two bevelled sides, and these continued to the horizontal line h h, wiu there give the vanishing points for the bevelled sides at v , and v . from a, a, b, b, i and m, raise perpendiculars ; and consider the perpendicular a h as a geometrical line, upon which to receive the heights from the profile b. first square or transfer the heights (x, x, x,) of the rail and stuffing to the georaetrical line a h, at , , and , which continued across to the perpendiculars raised frora a, h, and b, wul give the front y ofthe stuffing, with the two knees x, x, of the front legs. lines drawn frora , , , to the point of sight s, and received by the perpendicular frora i, at x, x, x, will make the return of the knee x, and give the plane for the scroll of the arra at the nearest corner : lines drawn frora x, x, x, to the vanishing point v , and received bythe perpendicular raised from c, wul give the re presentation ofthe bevelled side of the rau and stuffing : likewise a line drawn practical perspective frora y, to tbe vanishing point v , and terminated by a parallel squared frora w, will coraplete the seat of the chair. to obtain the place of the elbows, setoff the distance they recede from the front line y x, (ofthe profile,) frora a to e ; this convey on the visual a s, by the point of distance : its intersection at r, wiu deterraine thc place of the elbows, which raust be squared across to the lines ic, ot, pv, and q d, intersecting thera at o o, and oo ; o o and o o will then becorae the front lines for the upper scrolls. the depth w w, in the profile raust next be set frora e tof; conveyed on the visual a s, and be squared across as before raentioned; being denoted by the tinted planes. frora , o, o, and o, o, o, raise perpendiculars; next square the height y of the elbow, and thickness z of the scroll, to the georaetrical line a h, at and : lines drawn from and , to the point of sight, received by the perpen dicular , and frora thence conveyed by the vanishing point v, to the per pendicular x, will give the perspective height of the elbow, and thickness of the scroll at n and m ; and its return at g, g. lines squared across from n and m, and received by perpendiculars from o, o, and o, o, at n, m ; n, m, and n, m, will give the planes for turning in the scrolls. having thus obtained the planes for the top and bottom scrolls ofthe two elbows, the sweeps c, c, may then be drawn by hand. it were possible to give lines and points, whereby the sweeps c, c, raight have been found; but this would have occasioned rauch coraplexity of lines, and taken up rauch ofthe student's time to very little purpose. the elbows being drawn in, proceed next with the back ofthe chair ; first by finding its seat z z, in the perspective plan below, as before directed ; the distance of which from the frontline ofthe chair is denoted in the plan a, by a z, and set on the ground line from a to k. the height and thickness of the scroll of the back, raust next be squared frora the profile b to the georaetrical line a h, at and ; this convey first on the perpendicular , by the point of sight at k, k, and thence by the vanishing point v , on the perpendicular z y at y; this wdl deterraine its perspective height; which must be squared across to x : the outline sweep of the back raay then be drawn by hand. the directions given in the pre ceding plate for finding points to obtain the outhne of the back, will also apply to this exaraple ; as likewise for the sweep of the elbows. the front legs are denoted on the perspective plan by the tinted circles contained in the squares / a a, and m b ; the diameters of which will regulate the i^ikklsim'^-i- j^'l'.; _xl!a dfsttunr u j-'t. 'ff in ,iroffi pfiiil or shfht %.l>t/ t/it scti/e . lnnrlnn, l- .ibutl-n-<j l-.\- jmfn ^ c"mtii'rh.?t its ¦^ practical perspective. projections of all the upper raouldings, whose heights raust be squared from the profile as before. the taper of the legs may be found by adopting the process as described in plate , for those ofthe table: to repeat the process here would be needless. for the back legs set off the raeasure a x, (in the plan) from a to i, which convey on the visual a s, by the point of distance, and square it to the bevel lines / z and q z, as before ; which will be seen by reference to the figure. plate . to represent a grecian chaise tongue, or sofa in parallel perspective. in order to render this lesson explanatory and easy of comprehension, it is thought necessary here to lay down the plan. a, by a scale suited to the size the object is intended to appear. thus, e f f e, denotes the frame or seat of the sofa. " the dotted lines c and d, shew the head and foot scrolls ; b, b, b, and b, shews the situation ofthe four legs ; the squares of which are denoted by the letters e e and e e ; thus far, all will be ready for practice. next determine your ground line g g; also your horizontal hne h; likewise the point of sight s, and the point of distance (here out of the pic ture) on such hne. let l, (on the ground line g g,) as squared up from the line d in the plan, be that end of the object, nearest to the spectator. on l raise the perpendicular line l k ; next square up the line c upon the ground line at n, and raise the perpendicular ni ; these two perpen diculars (l k and n i,) will receive all the original heights, (or geometrical measures :) for this object being placed parallel to the plane of the picture, and the front side in the directing plane, (or plane passing through the eye of the spectator, as explained in page ) such side would in this case be georaetrical. proceed and square up the points f and f frora the plan, upon the ground line at e and e; also the squares e e, and e e, ofthe legs, at e e and e e. on the extrerae ends, e and e, raise the perpendiculars e k and e i, at pleasure ; these lines lirait the georaetrical length of the frarae, and deterraine the place of the legs or feet. being thus far advanced, proceed and make a profile of the leg as at m ; the raouldings of which raust be g practical perspective. squared to the perpendicular ef, as shewn by the dotted lines. on n i set up the heights n i and - , ofthe under and upper parts ofthe rail; which square across to the lines ei and e k, at the points y-y and g — a. on the sarae lines set up the thickness of the stuffing at i, and draw the line i h. next set up the height you intend the head scroll to be. it wul then be necessary to draw the scroll agreeable to such outline as you mean it to take ; which must be geometrical, and is here marked by the letters o, o, o, o, o. the foot scroll raust also be drawn geometrical after the same raanner, as denoted by the letters h, q, q, q. for the purpose of obtaining the scrolls on the opposite side, which are perspectively reduced at o and p, it will be necessary to divide the scrolls at i and k, each into a certain nuraber of parts : the scroll i at , , , , and ; the scroll k at and . onl draw the lines — o, — o, - — o, and — o, intersecting this larger scroll at o, o, , : the sarae is to be perforraed as regards the lesser scrou, by squaring the points and , to q and q. the inside outline of both scrolls raust next be drawn ; that at i, through the points p,p,p, p, terrainating with the seat at i : that of the sraaller scroll atk, is to be drawn through r, finishing with the seat at k : so far the georaetrical figure will be completed. the next point is to obtain the width e f, (ofthe chaise longue in the plan.) proceed and draw visuals from n, e, e, e, e, and l on the ground line, to the point of sight s. next set the depth e f, of the chaise longue, frora l to q, which convey on the visual l s by the point of distance, intersecting it at r. this raeasure raust be squared to the visual n s at the point t, intersecting the visuals e s and e s, at v and v. ou r, v, v, and t, raise perpendiculars : viz. t o to receive the divisions , , , and , (on n i,) by visuals, at i j , , , , , and ; r p, to receive the divisions , , , and q, on (l k) at , , , and g- ; v and v to receive those marked i, o, on e, and k h, on e, at s s, and x h. lines squared frora the divisions , , and , on t o, untu they intersect visuals drawn frora p, p, p andp, on the front scroll, will give points through which to draw the outline of the back scrou frora o to * ; likewise hnes squared frora the divisions , , and , on r p, until they intersect visuals drawn from q, q, q, on the foot scroll, will givw points through which the outline ofthe footscrou p, may be drawn. to obtain the thickness of the two scrolls, set such thickness frora l to n j nhiclt draw to the point of distance, intersecting l s at t; which must practical perspective. be squared across to the visuals e s, e s and n s, at d, x and v. on v raise a perpendicular, intersecting the visuals drawn frora , , and , at y, y, y, and y. draw visuals from p, p, p, and p : lines squared from y, y, y, and y, will intersect these visuals at z, z, z, and z; through which points, the outhne raaking the thickness raust be drawn. vi^hat has been thus performed for the head scrou, may be done for the foot scroll ; as shewn by the planes gr w and q^ w. the thickness of the head and foot scrous at the opposite side is found by raising a perpendicular from a on the visual n s, and from b on the visual l s. visuals drawn frora , , &c. and , , &c. will intersect these two perpendiculars at a a, &c. and b b, &c. lines squared frora a, a, a, and a, — &, b, and b, and intersected by the visuals drawn from p, p, p, and p ; q, q, and q, will give so many points, through which to draw the outline making the thickness, as shewn by the tinted planes. for the legs b, b, b, and b, in the plan; their perspective appearance is obtained by forming perspective squares; as at e e and e e, v and v; the diagonals of which, will by their intersections, produce the four axes or centers. the directions given for drawing the turned legs of the chair in plate , will likewise apply to this, to which the student is referred to avoid repetition : what else is required in any design of this kind may be drawn by hand, near enough to answer every purpose. quite sufficient has been done in this example to enable the student to put any sofa or chaise longue into perspective, the same principle extending to all, however various in shape. plate . to represent an occasional table in perspective, its front being parallel to tne picture. construct the plan a a a, of the top, with the blocks b b, supporting it; likewise' the profile e, as directed in plate . make g g, the ground hne ; h, the horizontal line ; s, the station or point of sight ; and let the point of distance be placed on the horizontal line feet inches, (by the scale) from the station point s. thus far prepared, square up frora the plan, the length (a a,) of the top, to the ground line at the points a and g j practical perspective. likewise the seat of the blocks c c and c c, to c c and c c, on the same hne. raise a perpendicular from g, which consider as a geometrical line, on which to place all the original heights from the profile e; as shewn by the dotted lines. from a and g, (on the ground line) draw visuals to s ; as also frora c c, and e e. next set off the width d d, (of the top in the plan) from g to h, which convey on the visual ge, by the point of distance; this squared to the visual from a, will complete the perspective plan a b e g o£ the top. to obtain the situation of the frarae under the top, as shewn by the inside plane, the learner is referred to the table, plate , where he wul find the whole amply explained. divide g h into two equal parts as at x : a line drawn from x to the point of distance, will give the centre for each standard on the visual g e at x. from the centre x of the profile e, take all the different projections making the outline of the standard (as marked , , ,) and set thera from x, at , , , and , , , right and left on the ground line ; which measures convey on the visual g e, by the point of distance, as before ; these points squared to the visuals, drawn frora c c and c c, wiu deterraine the seat of the projections (raarked , , , in the profile,) in the perspective plan,, at o,o, o, , &c. • commence and square from the profile, the height ofthe top, and depth of the frame under it, to the georaetrical hne g g ; which draw to the point of distance ; and proceed with the rest, as described in the table, plate . the situation ofthe standardsj with au. their coraponent parts are thus obtained : square the heights (marked i, , , &c. in the profile,) to the geometrical line g g, as denoted by the figures , , , &c. to ; which convey on a perpendicular raised from o in the perspective plan (corresponding with o in the georaetrical plan), at the points t, t &c.; these square to ihe opposite perpendicular/) w. frora all these heights on the perpendiculars o v andp w, draw visuals to s, untu they intersect perpendiculars raised frora , &c. in the plan ; these will deterraine the different heights and projections for bothjstandards, by which to regulate the outline as shewn in the profile. the thickness of the standards at top and bottora is regulated by the planes r, r, r,&c. on both sides; which are likevpise squared up from the perspective plan. figures and , will give the situation for the stretcher f, or tye pf the table frame. for the rest the pupil is referred to the direc tions given in the preceding exaraples ; it is needless to go through a repe- '>k ir sfjt;c tive xui. disttmce f-l. j lu, th-im sta ffih %, bi/t/u- sisale. feet. j i ¦ ' ' ' ' i ¦-^-' london .pn'-'i' lied !; jone: i- l" .i,v^i' . s . practical perspective. tion of the process, as the student will in this example find all the necessary lines laid down, which by a little attention he will find to correspond with those at the opposite end, either by figures or letters. the projections being thus correctly obtained, the pattern ofthe standard, as shewn in the profile, is to be drawn by hand, as recoraraended in the preceding lessons. the sha dowed example below exhibits the same table divested of the perspective lines, to give the learner a more distinct idea ofthe pattern. plate . the plan and profile ofa circular loo table being given, to represent the same in parallel perspective ; having a turned column on a triangular block for its support. it will be necessary first to make a correct plan of the table ; viz. its circular top, which must be coraprised within a square equal to its dia meter, for the purpose of obtaining the diagonal points on the circle ; as mar ked x, x. within this circle is placed the block, whether triangular or of a square figure. if triangular as in the present instance, the raethod for obtaining such will be found amply detailed in plate georaetrical figures, page , to which the reader is referred. the seraicircle f x g x h, denotes one half the plan of the table top ; the sine circle within this, denotes the situation of the rail under the top ; the dotted seraicircle k l m, bounds the triangle, in which is forraed the block. : the seraicircle n u w p, inscribes the ornaraental raoulding h, in the profile, and the semicircle e, denotes the diameter of the pillar at g, in the same profile. having inscribed the circle in a square, draw the diagonals b e and d e, intersecting the circle at x and x : you have then four points out of eight for obtaining the perspective circle : that is, supposing the whole of the plan was shewn coraplete, of which arc half is only given in the plate before us, for want of roora. as all the other references relate to the operative part of the circle, to say any thing farther as regards thera in the plan would be needless : we shall therefore proceed to the operation. having as before, h no practical perspective. determined the ground hne and the height of the horizontal line, with .th«^ station or point of sight s ; as also the point of distance, (in this example out of the picture,) you must first make a perspective plan at any distance below the ground line : for the lower it is placed below the horizon, as has been before observed, the more distinct will be the intersections of the lines. in this species of table, the block of which is triangular, it may be necessary to say soraething as to the choice of the point of view. it will in all cases be raost advisable when the block is triangular, to regulate your view so as to have the apex of the triangle to appear in front, or directly in the centre ; by which raeans its figure will be better raade out, and convey a more distinct idea of its form. let the line o o, be placed any distance below the ground line at pleasure ; on which line lay down the width or diaraeter of the top of the table (as taken from the plan) from a to b ; taking care that the centre f of this line be placed perpendicularly under the station s. from a and b draw visuals to s, and coraplete the perspective square a b c d, as shewn in the diagrara, plate , page . draw the opposite diagonal a d ; also the lines f h and i g; you have then four points for turning in the elhpsis or perspective plan of the table top. take the distance d x, frora the plan in the corapasses, and set it on the line a b, from a to x, and from b to ary visuals drawn frora x and x, intersecting the diagonals a d and b c, at x, x, x, and x, wul produce four other points through' which the ellipsis may be described. the measure g i, in the plan; is next set off on the line a b from a to i, and from b to i, in the perspective plan. visuals drawn frora i and t, to s, wul intersect the diagonals a d and b c at ir, r, r, and r, and thereby produce a square circurascribing the ellipsis, making the frame under the top of the table. the raeasure d y in the plan, is next set off on the line a b, from a to y and from b to y; visuals drawn fromy and y, intersecting the diagonals a b and c d, at y, y, y, and y, will give the four diagonal points, through which to trace the inner circle :~the four central noints are seen by the intersection of the lines i g and f h, at w w, &c. to find the situation or place for the block grhh p, (in the plan,) transfer the measure i h, right and left of the centre f, on the line a b at the points and : from these draw visuals to s. likewise pl.cxii -^ hor- poi nt of distan c e is ll(' '" from ih e § _p o ] nt of sight by the scale^ hor. perspectiv e.xiii. profi le. - o 's. zg a ' ^' / if-i.r i, b <¦ feet. v d f london published bv jones t c? feb? practical perspective. ill transfer the measure f g, from f to and f to . next take the raeasures fy, b h, and h o, and set thera frora b to c, frora b to d, and frora d tof; these convey on the visual b d by the point of distance, intersecting it at m, i and b. lines squared frora m and / and intersected by the visuals drawn frora , , and , , wiu give the two canted sides h h and hh; also a line squared frora b, intersecting the visuals drawn frora and , will produce the canted corner e g. the points e h and g h, being joined, and continued to the horizontal line, will there produce the vanishing points for the inclined sides of the triangle, of which one is shewn in the plate at v, to which the canted side h h would tend ; the tendency of other vanishing points being shewn by the dotted lines v and v. the square q r s t, and the one within raarked e are found by setting the corresponding raeasures e o. &c. in the plan, frora f to , frora f to , and from f to , which measures are conveyed on the diagonals a d and b c by visuals as before. the intersection of the visuals and , with the diagonals, will give the points r and q; likewise the intersection ofthe visual from f, with the line squared from i, will produce the point p, answering to p in the plan : through these points, r, q and p, the sweep sines ofthe block may be traced. for the pillar, the circle contained in the square q r s t answers to the circle n o w p, &c. in the plan, and denotes the situation of the raoulding h in the profile, making the base of the pillar: the inside circle e, also answers to that marked e in the plan, and determines the greatest diameter of the pillar in the profile at g. we have thus been particular in describing the process for obtaining the per spective plan for a table of this kind, which being well understood, will render other objects less difficult of comprehension. the next step is that of putting the profile or elevation into perspective; in doing of which, the perspective plan wul be found of considerable service. first raise a perpendicular from the point b in the perspective plan : this becomes a geometrical line upon which to receive all the original heights frora the profile, and is here raarked g g. commence and transfer the heights , and from the profile, to , and , on the georaetrical line g g. frora on the georaetrical line, square the line - , which make equal to a b in the plan below : frora and draw visuals tending to s ; lines drawn frora and to the points of distance, will intersect these visuals at and , and practical perspective. complete the perspective square ofthe top. the eight points through whi to draw the ellipsis, are squared up from the corresponding points in the p« spective plan. for obtaining the thickness ofthe top, a line must be squar from to ; and for the depth of the rail, a line must be drawn frora the point of distance, intersecting a perpendicular squared frora r in t plan; frora thence squared across, and terrainated by a perpendicular squar up from r on the opposite corner, intersecting it at a. the planes produei the points, through which to describe the two ellipses making the thickne of the top and depth of the rail, are squared up from the points x, x and y in the plan ; for further instruction, the student is referred to plate , fig. no. and , page . to obtain the representation of the block, proce and raise a perpendicular frora b, in the plan up to the ground line at upon which to receive all the perspective heights forming the thickness the block, and place for the front foot. square from the profile to t line g g, the heights and ; these convey on the perpendicular fn x by the point of sight s, at h, b and h ; lines squared from these poii determine the perspective height of the front foot, likewise the thickness of block at the canted corner eg. lines squared up frora e g, in the ph will intersect these lines so squared, at o o, o o, and produce the cant corner as seen in front, and give the situation of the front foot at e g. fn eg, , and o o, draw lines tending to the vanishing points v and v; a square up the points h h and h h frora the plan, until they intersect th( vanishing lines at the points p p,p p; this wul deterraine the extremities the block at the furthest corners ; lines drawn from o and o, to the t vanishing points, and intersecting lines drawn frora p and p, to the sa points, will give the two canted corners of the block at q and q. it n reraains to find the seat of the square q r s t (in the plan below,) on the of the block above ; to obtain which, draw a line frora to the point distance, which line intersected by a perpendicular squared up from r the ground plan, will give the front of the square at r. a line squared fr r and intersected by a perpendicular squared up from q, will give the pc q above, and deterraine one side ofthe square; visuals drawn frora q and r i terrainated by the diagonals at t and s, will give the two returning sides the same square ; which is completed by drawing a parallel from t t within this square, the circle regulating the base moulding of the pi practical perspective must be drawn, answering to h in the profile. lastly, square the heights marked , and in the profile, to the geometrical line at , and . lines drawn frora and to the point of distance, and intersected by perpendiculars squared from u and a in the plan, will determine the perspective height of the mouldings at u and a, answering to those marked and in the |.rofile. the diminution of the pillar at is found after the same manner. the sweeps on each side of the block are drawn by hand from q, through p to q; from p, through g to oy and from p, through r to o, on the opposite side. the sweeps making the thickness of the block are drawn after the same manner; the centres of which are found by dropping perpendiculars from q and r ; intersecting r, by a line drawn frora to the point of distance at w, which raust be squared across to the perpendicular from q, at x. the paw feet are likewise to be drawn by hand, which must depend entirely on the taste of the draughftsman ; the guiding lines at p and p pointing out their situation : the same may be said as to the outline of the pillar. au circular objects, and particularly tables, are best represented perspec tively with the eye placed in the centre, or equauy betwixt its two extremes ; answering to what is terraed a central view : this has been adopted in the present exaraple. in all cases where a circular object, as the one before us, comes urider practice, the central point of view is recoraraended in preference to that of a side one ; for unless the spectator places himself or takes his station at a very considerable distance on one side of the circle, and also takes a long point of distance, the circle wiu become very much elongated at the furthest extreraity from him ; and vice versa, tbe nearest end will becorae very rauch foreshortened : thus, although the block be placed exactly in the centre, the top of the table will appear to hang over raore on one side than the other, producing thereby a distorted appearance. these obser vations have been deeraed necessary in order that the learner may avoid adopting that point of view ever found to produce a bad effect. practical perspective. plate . the perspective representation ofa cheval dressing glass, the front heing placed parallel to the picture ; shewing the mode and manner of finding per spective by the inclination of the swing frame, thrown hack in any im lined position. fig. a, shews one half the elevation of the cheval frarae and glass, as seen in front. fig. b, shews the profile of one of the standards, with the inclined position of the swing frarae, as raarked by the letters x x. the ground line is denoted by the letters g g ; the horizontal hne by the letters h h, and in this example is placed feet inches frora the ground. the points of sight and distance are both placed out of the picture; the point of sight being feet inches by the scale frora d on the right hand ; the point of distance being the sarae raeasure frora d on the left hand : this is done for the sake of shewing the object to the best advantage ; for in all cases the further the point of view is placed frora the nearest side of the object, and the further the point of distance is reraoved back frora the front of it, the greater similarity wiu its appearance bear to the original. it will be necessary first to make a perspective plan as before directed in the preceding examples : for which purpose, the measure c a, in the front elevation, is first set off on the ground line g g from c to a, right and left ; likewise the measure c b, in the sarae elevation, is set frora c to h, right and left, on the sarae line. these measures, a a and b b, are then conveyed to the point of sight by visuals. the measure o o, in the profile b, must next be taken and set off from a to o ; this measure being conveyed to the point of distance, wul intersect the visual a datd; a line squared frora d, and intersecting the visuals drawn frora b, b, and a, at e, e, and d, will determine by those intersections the utmost stretch of the claws of both standards perspectively ; as also their thickness in front. the tinted planes raarked ////and gggg, denote the front and depth of the two blocks which receive the claws, and answer to the measure marked pp in the profile : this raeasure is set right and left of the centre x at the points p and p, and conveyed by the point of distance on the visual a d as before, intersecting it at g and g. {\ — t ^ i | ^^^^-^-^ v "tr~- -(== trr «iu> s'- - vf.^ f v*- i i ' i '^ v-k _^ ^ m ^ =>¦ sh if g. v co_ fe •! s: yi\ ^ k> ^ t; ju _, yi ^- ^ w © ^ = ¦i\ u- // @; <^ ,/ practical perspective. the tinted plane raarked k k shews the situation and perspective width of the glass frarae : this is found by taking frora the front elevation the mea sure c c, and setting it right and left of the centre c, as at c c, frora which visuals raust be drawn as before, intersecting a line squared frora q, at k and k. for the reraainder, the student is referred to the exaraple itself, where he will find in the perspective plan, all the hnes laid down, necessary for work ing his draught. so rauch having already been detailed in the preceding lessons as to raising the elevation from the perspective plan, as also for obtaining the perspective heights of all objects, we have only to state that the heights in this exaraple are all transferred as usual frora the profile and front elevation upon the two original lines raarked f and g ; as denoted by the figures , , , &c. and , , , &c. and carried frora thence by visuals to the point of sight, intersecting perpendiculars raised from the corres ponding places in the perspective plan, as wiu be seen by inspection; g being the geometrical line for the standard at the nearest end, and f, that of the standard at the farthest end. it now remains to lay down the process for obtedning, perspectively, the inchned position of the glass frarae, its swing being thrown back at any supposed inclination. let x x, in the profile b, be the supposed inclination of the swing frarae : frora x and x drop perpendiculars, intersecting the ground line at x and x. take half the raeasure x x, and set it .right and left of the centre x, as at x and x ; these points convey by the point of distance onthe visual a d at m and m; lines squared frora m and m, intersecting the visuals drawn frora c and c wul give the seat of the top line y x, of the glass frame at / and i ; the seat of the bottora line y x,atn and n. from c and c on the ground line raise the perpendiculars e and e, upon which lines transfer frora the profile, the height of the central point or pivot upon which the glass revolves, at z and z ; these heights being con veyed to the point of sight, will intersect the perpendiculars raised from k and k, at z and z, and deterraine the height of each centre or pivot per spectively. next transfer from the profile b, the upper and lower heights, x and x upon the perpendiculars e and e at w and w, y and y : these heights convey by the point of sight on the perpendiculars raised from i and i; n and n, intersecting them at y and j;, y and x: lines drawn from x through z to x, and frora y through z to y, will represent the inclined position practical perspective. of the glass frarae, which is completed by squaring lines from x ana x, top and bottom. the banding forraing the face of the frarae, is placed on the perpendicular e, as at v, and conveyed frora thence bythe point of sight on the inclined line x x ; the sarae raeasure wiu answer for the three other sides. the divisions comprising the ornaraental parts of the stretcher, are taken frora the front elevation, and placed on the ground hne, right and left of the centre c, at r r and s s; frora thence conveyed on the hue k k, by visuals drawn to the point of sight, and then carried by perpendiculars upon the line of the stretcher, as raay be seen by inspection. the vanishing point of all inclined planes, supposing such planes to be placed in front of the spectator, as in the present example, is seated in a perpendicular raised upon the horizontal line from the station point ; and is found by a line drawn frora the point of distance parallel to the inclined position of the glass frarae, and continued until it intersects such perpen dicular : in this instance the vanishing point for the inchned plane of the glass would be at a considerable distance above the horizontal line, being feet by the scale ; and therefore the present process is adopted as saving rauch trouble and inconvenience to the learner. the inchned hne frora d, is drawn parallel to the inclined position of the glass frame x x, and would, if continued, intersect a perpendicular raised on the station point, at a distance of feet above the horizontal line, which would be one half the required distance of the vanishing point ; the point d being only half the real distance frora the point of sight, as before observed. every object moveable on a centre, will by its evolution round its own axis, describe a circle: it follows therefore that the inclined position of au doors and box-lids thrown open ; dressing-glass fraraes, wheel-spokes, &c. may be found perspectively on the circumference of an ellipsis, such being the perspective representation of a circle ; but this would be attended with more trouble and time than the process adopted in the present instance. to elucidate the foregoing observations, two diagrams are added, the one geometrical and the other perspective ; shewing the method of finding the position of an inclined surface perspectively, as observed above. practical perspective. ll fig ^ .tf fig. the learner raay suppose a b, fig. , to represent the edge of a glass frame, or any other object, as raoveable on its pivot or axis c, round which it revolves. it is therefore evident, that if the frarae be turned on its centre, it win by its evolution describe the dotted circle a e b f. if the same frame be removed from its perpendicular position a, to the points, its position will then be inclined, as shewn at h g ; for being revolved on its centre or pivot c, the bottom edge of the frarae would rest atg, and make the angle g- c b, equal the angle a c /«; therefore let the frame be moved into any position; whether perpendicular, inclined, or horizontal, it would still describe a circle : consequently its top and bottora edges would be liraited by the periphery of a circle. fig. . shews the circle a e b f, fig. , as represented perspec tively, the sarae forraing the ellipsisaftcrf: parallel with it, is shewn another elhpsis efg h, as produced frora the sarae circle. in both these euipses the lines k k and represent the two upright edges of the glass frame, as placed in the inclined position h g, fig. i . it will be seen in this diagram that the sides of the glass frarae converge frora the bottom to the top edge, which being continued, would fall into a point situated in a plane perpendicular to the horizon ; which perpendicular, as we have before observed, would be raised on the point of sight. the student has now before him three different modes of effecting the same end, viz. the mode laid down in the example, plate ; secondly, the method of finding a vanishing point into which the sides of the glass would k ug practical perspective. converge, by a line drawn from the point of distance, parallel to the inclined position of the frame, whatever such may be, until it intersects the per pendicular raised from the point of sight ; and, lastly, the mode as here shewn in fig. . we shall conclude the present treatise with some prehminary observa tions on angular perspective, as applicable to objects of furniture ; and explain its principles by an example, shewing a four post bedstead as placed in an inclined position with respect to the plane of the picture; giving at the same tirae instructions for laying down the hnes, vanishing points, &c. for the same. angular perspective. preliminary observations. hitherto the practical part of perspective in this treatise has been confined to a parallel view of the f bject with re pect to the plane of the picture ; this being considered the most eligible position as regards house hold furniture in general ; first, as conveying a more lively and correct representation of the object to the individual to whom the design is offered ; and secondly, by the addition of a plan and profile, accorapanied with a scale of feet and inches, enabling the workman to ascertain correctly, every geometrical raeasure, as regards height, depth, and projection of breaks and mouldings. there is no method in practice, that can be applied with more success than parallel perspective for the delineation of furniture designs ; which therefore in this instance is strongly recommended. inclined per- practical perspective. spective, which is raore generally practised amongst architects, is chiefly applicable in delineating views of detached buildings with their surrounding scenery; colonnades, porticoes, &c. and all subjects wherein picturesque effect is required ; and which parallel perspective would fail to produce. we have nevertheless, in order to render the present treatise complete and generauy useful, given one exaraple in this branch of the art; with instructions, showing how far angular perspective may in some cases be successfully applied in delineating objects of household furniture. the difference between parallel and inclined perspective, consists in the position of the object under view, with respect to the plane of the picture ; as is exemplified and iuustrated in the annexed diagrara. let the line p p, re present the plane of the pic ture ; s, the station point, or spot where the spectator is supposed to stand to view the objects a and b. the object a is said to be placed parallel to the picture and to the spectator; as having its front face a b parallel to the plane pp, and its side face be at right angles to it ; the va nishing point of such side would in this instance be in the centre of the picture, or that point immediately opposite the eye ofthe spectator ; as shewn at c. the figure b is said to be inclined to the picture ; its sides d a and d c being neither parallel to the plane p p, nor at right angles to it: the vanishing points for the sides d a and d c, as produced by the lines s v and s v, would cut the picture at angles equal to the angles which the sides d a and dc would make with the plane pp; as shewn bythe arcs eyand^a; ef being equal to a b, and g h equal to c c. the figures d and e, are perspective representations of the objects a and b, as both would appear to the eye of a spectator stationed at s practical perspective. shewing the difference in appearance betwixt a parallel and inclined position of the object : s becomes the vanishing point for the return side t, of fig d, as squared up from the centre c : v and v are the vanishing points for the sides o and x, fig. e, as squared up from the points v and v. when one face of the object, as a h, is coincident with the plane of the picture ; that is, directly in the line of it, such face would be drawn geometrically, and conse quently may be raeasured by scale. this branch of perspective may be generally apphed to all objects, approaching in their dimension and form to that ofa square ; that is, iu any figure wherein one side does not raaterially exceed the other ; as in chairs, bedsteads, pedestals for sideboards, &c.: it raay also be successfully applied to all articles of furniture, taking either a triangular, octagonal, or circular form ; such as tripod stands, candelabra, loo-tables, &c. when the object is required to be shown in angular perspective, it is always advisable to place the station point at a much greater distance than perhaps would be requisite in parallel perspective; for by placing the station point too near the object, the vanishing points for its sides will be brought proportionally near also, and cause them to converge too suddenly ; giving the object a distorted appearance, and consequently conveying an incorrect idea of it to the spectator. in the example now given, a very distant station is made choice of; which producing vanishing points proportionally distant, tend to give the object a more natural and agreeable appearance to the eye, but which would be found nevertheless very inconvenient in raost instances for drawing articles of furniture ; such vanishing points being so far removed out of the picture or off the paper, as to require boards of larger diraen sions to be made use of, in order to receive them. having said thus much, we shall now proceed to explain the principles of this branch of perspective, and iuustrate the foregoing observations by the fouowing example; (representing a four-post bedstead, as such would appear to the eye when inclined to the picture). ? /pop jvmq.lhimishcd \-iif iotki v c°»iiiv ,ia? practical perspective. plate . to represent a four post bedstead and furniture in inclined perspective, the sarr.e being placed in any angular position. in the delineation of an object in angular perspective, it is requisite in the first instance to find the vanishing points in the horizon to which the sides of the object would converge ; also to lay down the points of distance, the same serving to cut off all original measures on the vanishing lines, as respects length or breadth ; it will therefore be necessary before we commence with our instructions in the present example, to lay before the student the method and process of finding these different points, frora any angular position of the object; which being well understood in the first instance, will render this branch of perspective less difficult of attainment. as the vanishing points, and points of distance, made use of in this exaraple of the bedstead, could not be shewn in the plate for want of roora, the method for laying thera down is shewn in the diagram, fig. ; where h h, denotes the horizontal line ; c s the distance of the picture, as set up per pendicularly from c to s ; the sarae being one sixth ofthe original distance of the station point for the bedstead, as set up frora c on the horizontal line below. let abed, be the plan of an original figure, as inclined to the parallel line g g; its inclination being shewn by the angles ech and fc d. frora the station point s, lay down the angle g s h, equal to the angle eeb in the original figure a ; also from s, lay down the angle i s h, equal to the angle fed, in the same figure. from s, through h and k, draw the lines s v and s v : v and v, wiu then become the vanishing points for the sides a b, d c, and a d,b c. bisect the angle k^ hatl ; a line drawn from s through i, will produce the diagonal point at m. the distance — s, laid down on the horizontal line frora v, will produce the right hand point of distance at e; the distance s, laid down from v, will produce the point of distance . on the left hand. the picture is then prepared for practice ; having the two vanishing points, \ and - for the sides of the object, with the two points of distance " and .f, for the purpose of cutting off on the vanishing lines l practical perspective. e— i and c~ , any original raeasure of length or breadth. the diagonal point m, serves as a vanishing point for any diagonal or raitre line in the plan a, and by raeans of which, all mitres are projected. transfer frora c on the hne g g, the side c b of the fig. a, at e; likewise the side cdatf, on the same line; these measures conveyed on the vanishing lines c — i and c — by the points of distance, will give the perspective length and breadth of the figure, at o and p : lines drawn frora o and p to the points vand v, intersecting each other at r, will produce the plane c o r p, which plane will be the perspective representation of the plan a. from c, o, p and r, raise perpendiculars at pleasure: on the perpendicular raised from e, set up the intended height of the object, as at g ; which draw to the yanishing points as , before, intersecting the perpendiculars from o and p^ at s and t : the figure is then completed. we shall now coraraence with the application of this diagram in the example of the bedstead. having laid down the vanishing points, &c. agreeable to the inclined position of the bedstead, proceed and raise a perpendicular o g, frora the point o, which consider as a geometrical line. on this line set up all the original heights ; viz. the height of the rail at and ; the height of the foot board and bedding, at ; the height of the bolster, at ; the height of the bedpillars and teaster frarae, at and ; aqd that of the risers on the laths at . frora o, and , draw lines to the respective vanishing points : next take six feet frora the scale, which set off from o to , on the right hand of the georaetrical line ; and set off feet frora o to , on the left hand of the sarae line : these raeasures being conveyed on to the vanishing lines o v and o v by the points of distance, will deterraine the length and width ofthe bedstead at a and b. from a and b, draw lines to the vanishing points, intersecting each other ate; and from a and i, raise up perpendiculars until they meet the vanishing lines v and v at e and f; a e and bf wiu then represent the two extreme corners of the bedstead. the situation of each post on the ground is thus found : take j inches from the scale for the diameter, which set off on the ground hne from o to/>,right and left from to p, and frora to p : these raeasures convey on the vanishing lines o v and o v by the points of distance, at y, y, y, and-y. lines drawn frora y, y, &c. to the vanishing points, intersecting each other at z, s, &c. will produce the perspective squares ayz, yo y z. zyb, and dzyc. thus much practical perspective. ' being done, proceed next with the teaster.; first by drawing the line tt through the point , upon which line, set off the breadth of the teaster lath, viz. ^ inches, from to r, right and left ; from t to r and from t to r ; these measures convey on to the vanishing lines e and f by the points of distance at s, s, s, and s; and square them down on the lines v and v at u, u, &c. liues drawn from u, u, &c. as also frome, *; s, s ; and s,f, to the respective vanishing points, intersecting each other at t and w, will complete the teaster frarae of the bedstead ; and perpendiculars squared up frora the planes a y z, y o y z, slc. terrainating with the plane of the teaster, wiu give the representation of each post, considered as a square body. for the side and foot rails of the bedstead, the ornaraental parts of the pillars, &c. the learner is referred to the plate. the bolster is found by setting off the measure of its diameter ( inches) from p to m, which must be conveyed on the vanishing line atg, as before, by the point of distance, and from thence drawn to the right hand vanishing point, intersecting the line c b at h: lines squared up from g and h, and cut by the lines drawn from and , will give the planes a and b, in which to draw the two ellipsis forming the ends of the bolster ; which raust be joined by lines drawn to the right hand vanishing point. the bedstead being thus completed, the furniture may be designed and drawn in according to fancy ; which in this example is shewn on one side only ; the other side, shewing the frame of the bedstead, with the pattern of the bed pillars. the inside vallance is shewn on one side at f—t. fig. , shews the plan of the bedstead, drawn to a scale reduced, j 'the size ofthe perspective example. the distance of each vanishing point, and point of distance in this example, as set off on tbe horizontal line from the centre c, is as follows. ft. in. station point upwards frora c right hand vanishing point . "\ heft hand ditto ... f the horizontal line right hand point of distance . t from the centre c left hand ditto ... ) in concluding this portion of the drawing book, it may be proper to furnish such hints and observations as wiu assist the learner, uot only in his studies, but atthe sarae time point out to hira the course he may persue with practical perspective. the greatest advantage to himself my chief aim in compiling this treatise has been, to render the practice of perspective familiar and comprehensive to those for whose use this work is designed ; to comprise theresult of many years study and practice in as small a compass as the subject would possibly admit of; lo illustrate its principles by the most easy and simple examples ; and to convey the instructions given with each example in the plainest language. this i have endeavoured to do to the best of my abilities ; how far i have succeeded in the undertaking, raust be left to the 'udg ment of the reader. the science of geometry is made the corner stone ol my structure : the principles of this science the student is strongly advised to make hiraself acquainted with ; and first with the definitions ; not contenting himself with a mere reading, but to use every endeavour and all possible raeans to imprint thera on his meraory; so as to have them present at all times, as occasion may call thera into use. although this raay appear dry, and be attended with sorae difficulty in the first instance, yet once obtained, will render the practical part of geometry not only more pleasant, but much more easy in the attainment. throughout the whole of this treatise, every endeavour on the author's part has been used to render the science easy of coraprehension, and at the sarae time amusing, as far as the nature of the subject would allow. much original matter has been given in this treatise, especially in the practical part; and every information afforded which the author's many years expe rience and reading have enabled him to offer, he who would cultivate his vineyard, must labour i he wno would reap the fruits of an harvest, raust sow ! and he who would seek to gain diamonds, must be content to search and dig for thera ! the sarae reasoning apphes to all those who wish to acquire knowledge ; they raust not only read, but digest what they peruse, and enure themselves to private study if they wish to learn and excel in any science ; unattainable without such resolutions. a slight reading will answer well in the first outset : a closer reading is recomiriended for the second, and a still closer reading for the third. if the student can be prevailed upon to make use of this exertion, the reward he will ultimately receive, will be more than commensurate to the anxiety, pain, and trouble experienced in the trial. the pupil in this case is recommended to copy each diagram on a larger scale, and if he can be practical perspective. reconciled to encounter the trouble of writing out the instructions on paper, he will find an advantage more than equal to the time bestowed on the labour; as this will tend to imprint them more firmly on his meraory: in addition to w^hich, the written instructions being thus before the student, will render a reference to the work less irksorae, and where the references are raany, less perplexing. this practice is recoraraended by the author, frora the advantages it has afforded to his pupils in their tuition ; and inasmuch as it has been observed and followed, so have his scholars improved and benefited by it. in the study of perspective, the same course raust be pursued as is here recommended with regard to the geometry ; the pupd commencing first with the definitions, which should be well imprinted on his memory; proceeding next with the practical diagrams, which will then be the easier understood; and having made himself thorough master of these, together with their use, he will be enabled the better to apply them in working the practical examples which follow. he whose disposition would lead him not only to learn, but to excel or attain preeminence in any art or science, must first raake himself master of the principles on which that art or science is founded ; without which, either his failure in the knowledge of it must follow, or his progress in the study of it be greatly retarded. perspective as an art, is the offspring of geometry; its principles depending on, and entirely to be drawn from it. to expatiate and enlarge on the utility of these two sciences, with the connection and relation they bear to each other, would occupy and require more room than can be allowed in this place : it only remains to observe, that the doctrine of angles, as laid down in the first part of the geometrical treatise, (see pages and ) if weu digested and understood in the first instance, will be found of essential service in facilitating the knowledge of this most useful department of mechanical drawing perspective. by the doctrine of angles we are enabled to find the trae place of any vanishing point to which the side of an object would tend ; either in the horizontal, or on a perpendicular plane. in the geometrical definitions, the learner will find that frequent refer ence is made to their use in perspective: (see pages , , , &c.) all lines tending to the point of distance, either in parallel or inchned perspective, answer to the diagonal hnes of a square in geometry : this is quite m practical perspective. sufficient to shew the accordance and relation, existing between the two sciences. in fraraing the perspective exaraples, as applicable to objects of furniture, attention has been paid to give such only as would be really useful, and at the sarae time pleasing and interesting ; being fuuy aware, that in most in stances, it is necessary to lead the mind, and encourage it in the pursuit of science, by a judicious selection of objects. we shall conclude this treatise with offering to the student the following directions, as regards the utensils necessary for his practice. in commencing with the study of geometry or perspective, it is neces sary that the learner provide himself with a case of raathematical instruments, a drawing board, a t square and a parallel ruler. the case of instruments should consist of a pair of dividing compasses ; a pair of corapasses with shifting limbs, the one for a pencil, the other for ink; a drawing pen with steel point, and a pair of bow corapasses for the purpose of striking sraaller circles ; and these also adapted to receive a shifting limb for pencil or ink, as occasion raay require : ' in addition to these, raay be added a plain scale, as described in geometry, page . these instruraents are all that are necessary for the student in this departraent of drawing ; the sector, pro portional compasses, &c. being more in use ainongst those who practice in the higher branches of mathematics. the drawing board should be made with a shifting pannel, to receive on it the drawing paper, whicn is first damped over with a wet sponge. it is necessary to be observed, that one side of the drawing paper is to be pre ferred to the other, as being less defective. in the manufacture of all drawing paper, that side destined by the maker, for receiving the artist's performance, has on it a covering of size, which the other side does not possess ; and which therefore may be found defective : this is known by holding the paper before the hght, in which case, the water-mark with the maker's name, raust invari ably read backward ; this is the side to be wetted and placed next to the shifting pannel ; after which the paper should be notched at the four corners, and, with the pannel, placed in the frarae ; the whole being secured by two shifting battens : the fair side of the paper will then offer itself, and when dry, be ready for use. the structure of the drawing board for this purpose practical perspective. fig.f. a wiubeeasie* understood, by reference to the annexed wood-cut, (fig.l,) which represents it with its front face upwards ; shewing a fraraing all round, equal to two inches. figure , shows a section of the sarae board ; the upper face a, fig. , being denoted at b ; by which may be seen, the manner in which the loose pannel is made to fit into the frame. the size ofthe board for general use, should mea sure inches by feet, in cluding the outside frame. the t square having a stock, into which is affixed the blade or staff, fitted exactly at right angles to it, should be raade of a length proportionable to that of the board in use. fn many of these squares, the stock is raade to consist of two parls ; the one attached to the blade as a fixture, the other moveable on a centre or pivot ; and both secured by a thumb screw in such manner, that when the raoveable part of the stock is placed at the edge of the drawing board, the other half with the blade attached to it, becoraes moveable ; and may be adapted to any inclination, or set to any angle at the discretion of the stu dent. (see its use further explained in pages and .) the parallel ruler is also of indispensable utuity in the practice of geometrical and perspective drawing : its length should not be less than inches for general use. its construction aid use has been already described and demonstrated : (seepage , practical jeoraetry.) il . jr iti. ji ¦¦¦ill fig. . b. ornamental drawing. elements of ornament, drawing in general. preliminary observations. ornamental drawingeonstitutes a very essential part in the qualification of those artisans for whose use this work has been composed ; viz. that of the upholsterer and cabinet-raaker : and as no design can be considered complete in which this elegant and useful branch of drawing is wanting, so the present work could not be considered as complete in' itself, or as a whole, without a treatise on the subject ; combining every information which such a branch of art would require. it has therefore been thought neces sary by the author to lay down such rules and precepts, as are really necessary and useful for this purpose, offering the result of raany years prac tice and experience. this part of our work opens a wide field for great and continued grati fication ; for without ornamental embellishraent, the two sister arts (geometry and perspective) appear undressed ; but with the assistance of ornamental drawing, what is taught in the two former branches, is heightened, realized and brought to perfection by the latter. it is quite possible to delineate a design correctly in perspective ; but how often, for want of practice in the ornamental branch, are such designs deficient in good drawing : it is on this ground, that he who would perfect himself and become a correct draughtsman, should make himself proficient in this fascinating, elegant, and useful depart raent of drawing. it remains now to point out the direct road in which the student raay travel ; not only with advantage to himself, but with a promise of reward at the end of his journey. ornamental drawing. it is a usual practice with many parents to send their sons to be taught perspective drawing only, whilst they are totally ignorant and unacquainted with that which should precede such instruction : nothing in this instance can be more erroneous in principle, and nothing worse in practice : it would be quite as consistent to put a youth to the learning of matheraatics without a previous instruction in geometry ; and to teach him the science of algebra, without a previous knowledge of the four fundamental rules in arithmetic. the author from many years practice in teaching, has invariably found it of the greatest advantage to the pupil, to perfect him previously in ornamental drawing. the first object of the pupd is to gain a freedora of hand for sketching, and to attain a thorough acquaintance with every line in all its circuravo- lutions and bearings; and this can only be achieved by continual practice. this mode has all along been considered as the raost conducive in the end towards producing perfection of outline in drawing ; added to which, a double advantage is obtained ; naraely, that of designing ornaraent tastefully, and drawing that ornament more correctly when subject to the laws of per spective. taking this view of the subject, a treatise on ornamental drawing wul not be considered as an unnecessary appendage to this work. what we have to detail on the subject will be laid down in a plain and farailiar raanner, such as will meet the comprehension of the learner. it would be a loss of time to give a youth an ornamental lesson to copy, without first instructing him in the leading principles by which it is produced . for without proper attention be paid in this instance, he will produce a faulty drawing, and in raost cases a very imperfect copy ofthe original. as ornaraental drawing therefore forras an essential qualification both to the upholsterer and the cabinet-raaker, it should be practised and be well understood previous to the study of perspective. perspective as applicable to furniture drawing, differs in sorae raeasure frora the practice of it in architecture ; the one being alraost wholly confined to straight lines ; whereas the other is in a great raeasure coupled with lines that are curved, or on the sweep. by the rules of perspective, the planes which inscribe all euiptical curve lines are produced; and by the sarae rules, certain points are found in those planes, through which the outline of such curves may be traced ; but without a previous practice in n ornamental drawing. ornamental drawing, these lines will ever be at variance with truth. to obviate this difficulty, the system of drawing various curved lines is here recomraended; and which may be practised jointly with the study of geometry : our system therefore coraraences with a series of siraple and corapound outlines, as coraprised in plates cx. and cxi. the same having been carefully studied and wholly adapted to ornaraental composition ; and to which reference will occasionally be made in the subsequent examples. it is here necessary to advise the practitioner to make use of a soft lead pencil, with which the outlines now given should be lightly sketched in. as a great degree of fluency in this department, depends on the wrist, the author would recommend the following system. let a common slate be made, use of as a drawing board, on which with a piece of prepared pipe clay inserted in a port crayon (sold at au colour shops), let the pupil practice the examples given ; supporting his wrist on a bridge, (constructed as shewn in the wood cut,) so that the point ofhis crayon will only touch the slate. this may feel some what irksome at the first, but the practitioner will soon be reconciled to it; and the advantage obtained by it, will be experienced, when using the pencil or pen without aid of the bridge : the freedom also with which the crayon of pipe clay will pass over the slate, will intui tively and imperceptibly give a freedora to his hand ; and of this he can only be convinced bythe trial. we shau now commence with the series of exam ples given in this treatise. , eilemewts of f/tt uo-s. \ i '\ '< ''\ '-. h i fic/j. i i /> \ ,,. ¦'"'"" ""^"^ v \ ^^--.__ \ .y f '¦"n| i \ i i ..-¦^ ^i y . ^'' \ ¦- \)) '-i»„,-i.»'*' london, fuitalied bv jones i- c° march . . ^ . ornamental drawing. plate cx. the outlines in this plate, as well as in those which follow in plates cxi, xx, cxxi, and xxi, are properly termed elementary; consisting of outlines simple, and compound; in theraselves, the foundation of every speciesof orna mental composition. these outlines, varied in their form, must be practised by the learner, until he finds his hand capable of drawing thera fluently and with freedom. this will be greatly facilitated by copying thera on an enlarged scale, whether on the slate with the pipe clay crayon as before noticed, or otherwise with a piece of common chalk on a flat board, as the learner may find the most agreeable to hiraself the outunes contained in the present plate, have been selected as the most essential for the learner's practice in the ornamental department, but may nevertheless become useful in other branches of drawing. fig. and , partake of the outline, coraraon to the head and foot scrolls of every grecian couch. fig. and , exhibit the same species of outline reversed ; and here introduced for the purpose of educating the hand to the practice of drawing the same outline both ways. fig. and , may also be considered as elementary, being the first sweep hnes of all continued scrous; and therefore drawn right and left also. fig. , is the first elementary outline in a foliage leaf; being that part where the leaf makes a folding over at its extremity : the learner should also exercise his hand in drawing this outline both ways, viz. right and left. fig. , exhibits the outline for one half ofthe tulip flower; and fig. , is the two halves put together. this species of ornament is much used for the ends of cornice poles. i fig. , shows the outline for a scroll which is commonly adapted to thfe same use. fig. , exhibits the outhne of the archer's bow ; is often used as an ornamental finish in its simple forra, but more frequently adorned with foliage. ornamental drawing. this outline has been rauch used forthe cornices of windows, as also in those of bedsteads : it has likewise been much used as an ornamental back for side- boards, &c. fig. , is the outline of fig. , reversed. fig. , is what is comraonly called in architecture the vitruvian scroll: this ornaraent is chiefly applicable to the decoration of friezes or borders, and is sometimes used as an ornamental gallery for cabinet work. fig. , exhibits the outhne of a portion of the circle, when drawn per spectively. the exterrial face of all circular objects, such as colurans. sec. when seen below the eye, partake of this outline. fig. , shows the outhne of a portion of the perspective circle, when viewed sideways, or removed to the right or left hand ofthe spectator. fig. , pourtrays that portion of the perspective circle, as being the most distant from the spectator. fig. , exhibits the outune of the upper part ofthe perspective circle, when drawn in a perpendicular position. fig , is the outline of the perspective circle when coraplete : the flat surfaces of all circular objects partake of this outline when seen below the eye. these various outlines of the circle are here given, as being considered raost essential for the pupil's practice ; so that in exercising his hand, he may draw such outhnes with more truth and facility, as they occur in the practice of perspective drawing. these five simple forras being well studied and practised by the hand, wul save the student rauch trouble, and enable him to draw many of his sweep lines in perspective, without the aid and necessity of finding the points for the same in a perspective plane, whether above or below the horizon. plate cxi. the outlines in this plate are compounded more or less from those given in the preceding plate : for instance, fig. , will be seen to partake of the outlines raarked and in the preceding plate. it is chiefly used in ornamental work to fill up the vacant space betwixt two scrolls as rising one out ofthe other: thus, as in the wood cut. pl .cxi eliemettts of (d)mm^a:i^ "e.'>'tal, bkatfli^t^ o .v" ? .x •'m i i / \' hi ~'^... , ? / i i / / . i i // /-•^ / f / \x\ \ui// z' 'x--^i ^ f ¦'.. "-...,.. .....^ ^'" / ¦¦;¦ .........i /¦¦' -' / „¦¦' "x i ,,,¦¦'"' ) '/ -\, '-'-" "'%. -••-... "— -- y''' '¦¦'¦¦-„ '¦...,... ,„„,..-- ^_ .• — " ^v \ - i " j -\ \-,.,^^ _ \ / i v ) / ? -j k ,* \ .-¦^'¦—-.s. ^ \. ^^' ly " ,/¦-!¦¦¦¦' lojillon.piibllsllpdliv- joaes ^ c m.-i rrli la^ ornamental drawing. fig. : — the sarae ornament reversed. fig. : is compounded of the outhnes numbered , , and in pl-ito cx. this combination of leaves is greatly used in the composition of foliage. fig. , exhibits a portion of what is commonly called in ornamental decoration a foliage leaf; and where five of these are combined together, it is called a palm ofthe leaf, as bearing a similitude to the palm ofthe hand, which has five fingers. this species of leaf is tastefully adopted in the decoration of the corinthian capital. fig. , is the same outline drawn the reverse way. fig. , may be considered as denoting the three principal fibres con tained in the palm of a leaf : and partakes nearly of the outlines, and . fig. : — this spiral outline is chiefly used as a model for the truss bracket : it admits of being ornamented in various ways. fig. , is a palm of leaves corapounded of figs. and . the projecting part, separating each leaf is termed a pipe, and its upper part (or hollow) is termed its eye. this leaf is greatly used amongst carvers in the composition of foliage. fig. , is a combination of fig. and a portion of fig. . this composition oi outhne when cloathed with fohage, is applicable to the pur poses of decoration in various ways ; it is sometimes made use of as the outiine ofa supporting bracket for the upper shelves of a chiffonier. fig. , is denominated the honeysuckle fan ornament ; and is com pounded of a portion of figs. and . fig. , forms the outline of all truss supports, whether for sideboards, commodes, ste.; admitting of great enrichment. the straight lines drawn through figures , , , and , plate cx ; as also through figures , , &c. cxi, are intended to guide the student in drawing the respective outlines ; the inclination ofj«which must be regulated accordingly. in copying these figures, the pupil should commence from the top, as in fig. , and complete the upperraost sweep, in which he will be guided by the space it occupies upon the straight line : he will then proceed to draw the bottom sweep in continuation, from the point where the upper one terminates, until it crosses the straight line at bottom, which must be his guide also in this instance : his eye enabling him to judge of the proportion. o ornamental drawing the two curves bear to the staight line, which a httle practice will make him master of what has thus been said of fig. , will also apply to the rest of the outlines on these two plates. it is here necessary to remark, that as all varied outline owes its birth and perfection to simple outline, so the first cannot be too much considered. by a correct knowledge of outline, we are enabled to give elegance to those forms to which they are intended to be applied ; whether as objects of furniture or ornamental decoration. in plate cxi, almost every variation which outline is capable of receiving, is given ; at least as much as is neces sary to the present purpose. plate xx. consists of a collection of leaves in outline, ranged into four divisions : in the first or uppermost range, the leaf is drawn as a simple outhne only, in regard to its width and height. the leaf adjoining, being produced from the preceding outline, is divided into nineteen parts, forming so raany smauer divisions of the leaf; and these are pointed at their extremities. the third leaf partakes of the sarae form, but divided only into thirteen parts, being rounded instead of pointed at their extremities. the fourth leaf in this range is of the same species as the preceding, but divided into seventeen parts, and rounded at each extremity, vrith the addition of an inner band partaking of the same form. the second range contains, first, a leaf in simple outline ; the adjoining leaf has the same outline, but is varied by an inner line being drawn, which forms a band. the two remaining leaves in this row are ofthe same contour, or outline as the preceding, having nine divisions within each ; the fourth being varied by a hollow separation between each division. , the third row in this plate consists of outlines for such leaves as are principally adapted for the enrichment of mouldings ; having the ovolo, grecian echinus, cima recta, cima or reversa, for their contour or outline. the fourth and last series in this plate consists, first, of a leaf, having twenty-one divisions for its detail ; tbe leaf adjoining has the same number '^^ p :xx. l :ii: .a v £ c? elaih-nt.s of ornament, exanplmcd itv the forms and method of drairiiu> divers jcinds of leaves, e/nploi/ed ill tliat braneh of art. lfl)ndon, publiflied \>-.- jones s- q? \.vi\ ^ ornamental drawing. of parts, but is varied by having a division or space between each part, with the addition of a fold over at the end of every division ; forming what is termed amongst carvers, a lipping. the third leaf in this range is the same in contour as the preceding, being divided into nine parts, with a division between each part. the nine principal parts represent the honej'suckle when in bud; the space betwixt each part denotes the flower when in blossom. the reraaining leaf offers the sarae outline, but is varied in its detail ; having eleven divisions, inwardly scrolling at their several terrainations. this species of leaf is universally termed, the greek honeysuckle. plate cxxi. in this plate are given examples of three different species of leaf; consisting, first, ofthe simple outhne of each leaf; and secondly, the same outline filled up with the detail; forming altogether what is termed a foliage leaf. it will readily be seen that these leaves are compounded from similar forms given in plates cx and cxi. these different species of leaf enter more or less into au ornamental composition, and are here purposely intro duced, as being es.sential to the student's practice. the ornaraental speciraens given in this plate are variously used in de corating tbe corinthian and composite capitals in architecture ; and are frequently adopted for decorating the friezes of rooms, &c. : and they often form the principal embellishment of enriched mouldings, pateras, &c. it must be observed that these leaves, and all ofa similar kind, are subject to a par ticular system, as regards the arrangement of their parts ; each leaf, consisting of seven divisions; three forming the leafage on each side, right and left, the seventh or uppermost raaking the turn over. in the two first examples, each division of the leaf consists of five smaller divisions, and beingdivided after this raanner itis then calledahand or palra of the leaf. the third exaraple in this plate consists also of seven principal divi sions, each of which are again subdivided variously ; the two lowerraost hands consisting of seven parts, the next of nine parts, and the two above these of six parts; four of which only are seen distinct. the turnovers in the three .% ornamental drawing. examples are divided, each alike into nine parts. it now reraains to furnish the practitioner with sorae instruction as to the raanner in which he must proceed, in copying the examples given in the two foregoing plates, with correctness and ease to hiraself coraraencing with the first figure in plate xx, let him proceed and draw a line across his board as a base line ; on which line a perpendicular raust be raised, and which may answer for the centre or stem of the leaf let hira next proceed and lay down half the width of the leaf, right and left ; after which let the height of the leaf be set up on the perpendicular line, before drawn : the sweeped outline denoting the form of the leaf, may then be carefully drawn by the hand ; the eye correcting any irregularity that may occur in the drawing. the outside form being correctly drawn in, will serve as a guide for drawing the inside band. the perpendicular dotted line wiu then serve as a guide for drawing in the stem. the learner will next proceed to copy the same outline as regards the second figure, observing to draw the inner sweep line but faintly with the pencil ; in the leaf before us, it is dotted. upon this dotted line, right and left, must be noted as raany smaller divisions, whether equal or unequal, as it is proposed the whole leaf shall consist of; marking each division by a dot on the faint line : curved lines must then be drawn from these respective points in gradation towards the base and stem of the leaf; and again joined by a reversed sweep from the point of each curve. the third leaf exhibits the same outline in its contour, but varied in its divisions. in this species of leaf each division is rounded • and it is thus called a reeded leaf. the instructions given for copying the preceding leaf, will apply to this also. the fourth leaf in this series, takes a similar outline, and is divided nearly after the same raanner ; the variation consists in the terminations being raore rounded, with the addition of a houow or flute within each division : it is drawn after the sarae manner as those precedng it. in the second range of leaves, the second example is produced from the first ; the third is produced from the second, and the fourth frora the third. these leaves are all subject to one and the sarae outline as to their outside forra ; being varied in their detail at the pleasure of the artist. pl. cxxi. omiojmnbn tajl idjr.a^wjlk'g .e al^te s ^ ii , l'ablulicd vy jones ;¦ c?/\pr-i: . ?e ornamental drawing. > the third range in this plate shows the inanner of drawing the outline lor the strap leaf the dotted lines point out how the leaf is divided, when a repetition is required : these divisions form the centre and extremity of each leaf^ and are repeated on the base hne for as many leaves as are required. in the fourth range, the two first leaves are both under one outline, the secondbeing a slight deviation from the first; the same is to be observed ofthe two last. what has been said before, as to the drawing of them, renders any further directions unnecessary. the student by repeated practice in copying, wdl soon findhimself in a capacity to overcome every difficulty, as to producing a correct imitation of any example which may be placed before him. it may however be necessary to advise the practitioner to commence filling in the detail of each example from the lowermost point, and to proceed upwards; carefully copying one side of the leaf first. the different heights may then be transferred to the opposite side by the aid of a t square,, admitting that the paper be laid down on a drawings board. whatever can be achieved by the eye without having resource to the aid of compasses and square- is- rather to be recommended) as accustoming the pupil to copy more readily from the- original : nevertheless the usage of these helps is not altogether to be denied ; particularly when more than ordinary ac curacy is required. it may also be necessary to remark, that a soft le&,d pencil should always be used, and that with great lightness when sketching in the rough outline, so that any raistake may the more easily be rubbed out, and a cleaner and better surface be retained on the paper. if we have been somewhat particular in this first part of our treatise, it is with a view of rendering directions less necessary in what is to follow. in fig. , plate cxxi, which represents in simple outline, fig. ; the base line should first be drawn ;. afterwards the centre or perpendicular line : thc' base, line will i^eceive all the widths, the perpendicular the heights, the outside sweep line, with the turn over ofthe leaf must then be drawn i afterwards, the distance of each' pipe frora the centre line in fig. , must be set off right. and left from the centre ia fig. ; as also the termination o a of the first palm at bottom,, together with the width of the stem. next proceed and set up the height of the first palm of leaves on the perpendicular line ; then the second, and lastly the third. the height and width of each palra or hand of leaves being thus denoted, the outline com- p ornamental drawing. prising them maybe drawn after the manner shown in the example : this completes the orthographic elevation of the leaf in simple outline. the mode of procedure now laid down, should be pursued by the practitioner in copy ing from any original object which may be placed before hira ; inscribing such object, first in siraple outline ; dividing such outhne afterwards into parts or sections, and such sections to contain the detail of the smaller parts. plate xxi. in this plate are given five different examples, intended as designs for pateras ; shewing the manner of dividing them into simple outline, and the mode by which they may be varied. the pupu in reference to the first figure, must commence and draw a line across his board cr paper, which may be considered as the central line of the patera. upon any part of this line as a centre, he wiu then with hi.^ compasses describe the circular outline which is to form the utmost boundary of his figure, as shown by a dotted semicircle in the example. this semicir cular iine may then be divided into eight equal parts: lines drawn from these points to the apex, wiu determine the centre or stera of each leaf another seraicircle raust then be described within the first, which will regulate the extent of the intermediate leaves, generally called the tongue leaf. within this is inscribed a third circular line, comprising the outline of what is termed the rose of the patera; and wilhin this again is described a fourth circle, regulating the turning, or eye of each leaf in this portion of the figure a smaller circle is then described, comprising that part ofthe ornament called the eye of the patera. it will bo seen that one half the range of leaves in this patera are drawn quite plain, forming a mere outhne. tbe variation of the above outline is exhibited in the lower half, each exterior leaf having a band or list around it, with the central line formed into a stem. for drawing in the foliage, the pupil must be guided by his eye and hand. with respect to the second figure, it is subject to the same law as regards the drawing of the first ; its extreme outline being first defined, and then that of the smauer circles within it; hut instead of eight parts, this eili ie i\ie?^"'_rs of (.)iii^^a,;^je^tt« ¦ •»*•«*'.?£ k. ' - iij::>di zji:s>^ 'luul.s- of leavis in torimiu/ rosa-, futirtis , ki ive ornamental drawing. patera has its half or semicircle divided into four only. having been fully explicit and particular in describing the first figure, it becomes unnecessary to go over the same ground again ; we shall therefore leave the student to his own exertions, with the copy to guide him in the progress of his work. the third or centre patera, in this series, from its pattern, is termed spirally involved ; inasmuch as the stems of the leaves composing its foliage, have a tendency, one tp follow the curve of the other, from the centre or apex. the whole circmnference of this patera is divided into eight parts, four of which regulate the eyes dividing each leaf, and the remaining four their stems. this species of patera is freqaently termed a bosse, and is greatly used in our cathedrals, as forming a finish for supporting the extremities of several arches when joined together ; or rather the crowning to a centre in which they would terminate. they are as varied as they are richly deco rated. in this example four circles only are necessary, for limiting the outhne of the foliage and its component parts. the outermost circle serves for the outline of the patera and the extreme limits of each leaf; the second, for the eyes and the turn overs of fhe leafage ; the third, for the eyes in the lower range of palms, and the fourth for the rosette or centre. after what has been before said, the student is supposed to be capable of following the example placed before hira, raaking use of his own judgraent, taste, and perseverance in drawing the details. — the two remaining pateras are alike subject to the same rule for drawing them ; the principal lines defining their parts, being laid down in the examples, will afford sufficient assistance to the pupil in copying them with correctness. plate cxxii. in this plate are given four different designs for ornamental com position, combining every description of sweep and variation of outline that can be introduced into ornamental decoration. the two first examples are compositions, displaying the manner in which leaves are capable of being decorated, and that in various ways. the third example exhibits an assem blage of ornament adapted as a centre ; frora whence a continuation is ornamental drawing. supposed to be madie, both from the right and the left hand. the fourti exaniple is a compiotdition from various oi^tiamental fragments discovered at porapeii ; intended likewise as the central part of a frieze ornament. all theste eiibiples are here given solefy" for the purpose of practice in copying, and shoiild be drawn on an enlarged scale ; observing the sarae rules as to dividing them into p'arlls for theif simple outhne, as is detailed in th p^e'c^ding plates. with these examples we shall conclude au we have to offer on the sddre ef outline ih oi'namental draw'ing, convinced that enough has already been given for the practice of the learner ; at least as much as is sufficient fof the present purpose. if the student can so far perfect himself in drawing, as to copy corfectiy all the eiampfes here given in this treatise, there is every promise of his sacceeding, w'hen th'ose of a more difficult nature are pkced before him. - .) j; '^.a ;vi k a",i ';\ ;i , ;!¦' ,i-; a ('.:\.i k:a' t s . -^->- \ "' ' / / \ ^-\ih \-\{\ )'¦ n\ \-j -y^ l' -\ \ ^ ^ ^ ^-"-' (-/^~"c-><--- --py:^ •®s '=v. 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'•/^f q y^:^:^^ ^lak. ^ . ^' -as>c ^a ' ' j- m a; f^ji. shadowing. shadowing. previous to entering upon the practical part of this section of the work. it wiu becorae necessary to say something as to those laws which regulate the various gradations of light and shade. without perplexing the mind of the reader with the theory, or the various opinions of writers on this subject, it wiu be quite sufficient to our present purpose, simply to consider light as being subject to, and capable of being reflected from other bodies, or refracted by the interposition of other mediuras ; the raateriality or immateriality of its nature appertaining more to the inquiring mind of the philosopher, than to the tasteful genius of the artist. to explain the progress nf hght, and the effect of it as pro ducing shade frora solid bodies, is au that is needful or can be any way useful in this work. the rays oi light as proceeding frora the sun, the great luminary of our system, are universally in their passage through space projected in straight lines ; but these straight lines in their passage are subject to interruption, and are broken or divided frora their regular course, by the rarity and density of the different mediums, or atmospheres through which they have to pass : this in raatheraatics is what is termed refraction of light ; the theory and demonstration of which belongs exclusively to optics. • it raay however be necessary to state, that this refraction of rays pro duces what is comraonly termed daylight ; that is, the light we experience wheu the sun is concealed frora our view by the density of the atraosphere. in this case the shadows from solid objects, are mellowed and rauch penum- brated ; being scarce definable at their extremities, and in opposition to those as cast from objects opposed to the direct rays of the luminary ; the shadows of which are determined and opaque. we shall here consider the rays of light as proceeding direct from the luminary, uninterrupted by any interme diate mediura ; and thus fauing with their full brilliancy on such objects as are intended for shade, or from which shadows are to be cast. q shadowing. it raust hkewise be observed, that as the diaraeter of the sun's body greatly exceeds that of the earth, and his distance frora us bemg so imraense ; the shadows of all solid bodies wiu be found to flow in a parallel direction : this raay be seen by any observer under a clear sunshine, when the shadows, as cast frora the iron railings before a dwelling house, wiu be projected from each bar, the one perfectly parauel to the other. the rays of hght fauing on solid objects, such as are opaque, or whose surfaces are not penetrable by light ; such rays are diverted frora their direct course, and fly off in other directions ; in which case they are termed reflected rays ; and this reflection of rays, as they illuminate objects already m shadow, come more especially under our notice. this win be understood more fully by reference to the annexed diagram, where we may suppose a to represent the luminary ; b, a ray of light issuing frora it ; c, the point on the solid body, (d) where this ray would fall ; which ray would in this case be interrupted in its progress and fly off in the direction, e. now we say, the angle of reflection (e c g,) is equal to the angle of incidence (b c f) ; that is, the angle made by the falling ray b, with a perpendicular dropt from the luminary at a, will equal the angle the reflected ray would make with a perpendicular raised from the point c : this serves to explain the reason why objects in shadow are illuminated by means of light reflected fi-ora other bodies opposed to them. suppose i to represent the ceiling of a room : b, the direction of the light issuing through a window ; impinging on the floor at c, and from thence reflected in the direction e : it is eviden" that this reflected ray, or couection of rays, would illuminate the ceiling at h ; it would again be reflected from h at an equal angle (as shewn by the hne h «) untu interrupted again by the floor or sorae other adjacent object ; and this reflection would be carried on incessantly, until darkness succeeded to light. from this cause is to be attributed, the floating light existing in all apartments ; and from being weu conceived and understood, has been sometimes ably and beautifully managed by painters both in oil and water shadowing. colors. from the same cause, that side of a solid object, the most in shade, would be illumi nated and rendered less dense, by the light reflected from the illurainated side of sorae other object opposed to it. the an nexed diagram will serve to explain what we have now said, suppose s to represent the lu minary; a, a solid body, having its side g, in shade, frora whence the shadow h, on the ground is projected. suppose b to represent another solid body, having its front or illuminated side opposed to the shadowed side g, of the solid a ; now the ray of light frora s would irapinge, or strike on the block b at the point c, frora thence be reflected downward by an equal angle to the ground at d, and again be reflected from d by an equal angle, until it impinges or strikes upon the side (g) at e ; which portion ofthe face would instantly become illuminated, losing part of its shade, and leave the shadow cast from it on the ground„the darkest. the shadow on the ground in its turn, would be again iuuminated at its extreraities by raeans of the reflected light from c ; leaving that part of the shadow which is nearest the solid, the darkest. we have thus been minute and particular in explaining this interesting branch of painting, being a subject little treated of, in works of this kind ; the theory of which may be found in the th, th, and th propositions of the st book of euclid. the author would recommend those who wish for further information on this head, to a work recently pubhshed, entitled " sciography, or examples fot shadows, with rules for their projection, by joseph gwilt;" and also to the works of sir joshua reynolds, fuseli, and others. projection of shadows. projection of shadows. plate cxxih. shadows, as they are projected by the sun, vary in their length according as the luminary changes its situation in the heavens at the different hours of the day. those shadows which are projected the soonest after sun rising, or just before the time of his setting, will become the most lengthened ; and be gra dually foreshortened, each in proportion as the sun appears to approach or recede frora the meridian; or in proportion as. the surface of our planet would be opposed to him in her diurnal revolution round her own axis. shadows as projected from the sun, will vary also in their length according to the particular raonth of the year in which the earth's surface may be opposed to the luminary in her annual revolution. for the sun as seen from ouf earth will appear to rise and set in different points of the horizon at different periods ofthe year ; hence it is that his height at noon, is so much higher in summer than in winter this also accounts for the difference we find in the length of the day at the different periods of the year. the first exaraple in plate cxxiii. wiu serve to elucidate what we have to say by way of explanation on this subject. in the exaraple now before us, we have here supposed the tirae of the sun's rising to take place at a little before five o'clock in the raorning ; that is, at the time when his light would become perceptible to us above the eastern point of the horizon. the figure of a man is here represented as placed under the centre of a semicircle, or immediately under the angle of a quadrant ; which is elevated above him at pleasure, and is divided into six equal parts, answering to so many hours of the natural day. now supposing this half, or quarter circle to denote the sun's daily path in the heavens, the figure as opposed to it will then appear to receive the effect of light from the luminary, casting his own shadow on the ground ; which, supposing tbe figure tobe stationary ^vte cxxin. shajdows fjxutjp. j '^ j\i?l ' ih«t. l.oqdoii. rubljshfid hy jones t- c? sept.'' , i' . projection of shadows. will vary in length as the sun appears to travel onward towards its meridian at the point in the semicircle. at five o'clock in the morning the sun will have arrived at the point v ; in this case, a line drawn from , being prolonged and passed over the head of the figure, will extend to the point v on the ground : the line a v will then denote the length of the shadow, as cast from the figure at that period of the day. a line drawn from the point on the quadrant, and continued over the head of the figure, until it intersects with a line drawn from his foot, at the point , will give the length (a ) of the figure's shadow at six o'clock in the morning ; and so on for all the rest, until the sun attains its meridian or greatest height at twelve o'clock, when it would be situated directly over his head, and in that case cast no shadow. the quadrant on the other side, if divided after the same manner, will enable us to obtain the length ofthe shadows, as they would be projected by the sun in the opposite direction, at the corresponding hours after raid-day. it will be necessary to observe that the lines from the foot ofthe figure, as denoting the length of his shadow at the different hours ofthe day, and numbered , , &c. are here drawn in different directions, for the purpose of shewing the length of each shadow distinct ; which if represented by perfect horizontal lines, would be confounded and run one into the other, and present one uniform line in length. it now remains to lay down such rules as are necessary for the casting of shadows, previous '>^ which it may be useful to say something as to the material to be made v-^i of in tinting, generally termed china or indian ink, which is of various q*%lities. the best is that which is found to rub smoothly w'ithout grittiness, and is strongly scented with musk, the same giving a brown and mellow colour to the ink. the pupil must here observe that a tint produced from indian ink alone, will always appear lighter when dry than when wet, and therefore deceive the student as to the effect he wishes to pro duce in his drawing ; in this case it will require to be often repeated, until the proper depth of tint is obtained. this inconvenience may in some measure be obviated by making use ofa raixture of sepia, (an article to be procured at any of the wtour shops) which partakes of a rich brown tint, and wiu give a decided tone, retaining the same force when dry as when wet ; this will tend to reraove the defect experienced in the use of indian ink alone, and give at the sarae time a soft and mellow effect to the drawing. e projection of shadows. the brushes necessary for use are of two kinds, the one commonly termed the camel's hair pencil, the hairs of which are of a soft nature, and generauy of ablack colour; the other is termed the sable pencil, as being manufactured frora the hair of the sable, the hairs being of a firmer texture, and generally of a red colour. the camel's hair pencil is sold from one penny and upwards, according to the size and quality; the sable hair pencil sells from eight pence and upwards : of the two, the sable is to be preferred, being ofa more durable nature than that of the camel's hair. in choosing the one or the other, the brush should be first dipped into water, then drawn through the mouth without much pressure, no more than wiu just conduce to bring the hairs all to one point ; if when thus drawn to a point, the brush be applied to paper and gently moved backward and forward, the hairs not dividing but adhering closely to each other, the brush may then be considered as one of a good quality. hair pencils are manufactured of various sizes, beginning with one small enough for the finest, enamel painting, and finishing with a size sufficient for the largest pictures. as far as concerns our present purpose, brushes, such as are confined within the duck or goose quill, will be found to be quite as large as wiu ever be required; especially for single objects of furniture. in shadowing the interior of rooms, wherein a large body of tint is required, a brush confined within a swan quill may be of use. the rubstone is an article also necessary in drawing, as used for the mixing of indian ink tint ; it has three hollow reet ^tacles for tint, besides a shelving groove, in which the ink is generally rubbv . the three hollow receptacles serve for mixing up three different degrees of tint from the same co(our, before the process of tinting is comraenced upon. to elucidate what we now recoraraend, the student is referred to the exaraple marked a, in plate cxxiii. no. , exhibits a tint coraposed of indian ink and a sraall portion of sepia, which being raixed very light, is termed a first tint. no. , exhibits the first tint as strengthened or made deeper, by the addition of a little more ink and sepia; it is then denorainatei the second tint. no. , exhibits the second tint as strengthened still further by a larger addition of the two colours before raentioned, and is then terraed the third projection of shadows. gradation of tint. these three gradations of tint are almost au that are necessary for general effect of shade : but where a strong and decided effect is required, a fourth tint may be used by deepening no. , with a stronger proportion of indian ink and sepia ; this we shau have occasion to notice in the fourth exaraple. having thus given araple instruction as to the raixing of tint in all its variety of tones, we now proceed to practice j referring our student to the second example, which represents a cubical block a b c d e f g. in this example the lurainary is supposed to be inclined to the front face (a d ef) of the figure ; in which case the shadow cast from it on the ground, would fly off at some angle, more or less as the sun is inclined in regard to the object which it illuminates ; this inclination or seat of the luminary is denoted by the angle k fi, as raeasured by the arc p q. the next point to be attended to, is the sun's declination ; or rather its precise situation in the heavens in its daily course from east to west, as explained in the first example ; which in the present example is denoted by the angle c g i, measured by the arc m n. the student must first deterraine the sun's inclination as fk, which being done, lines raay be drawn parallel to this from g and h, at pleasure; the sun's declination being next determined by the angle m c n, lines parallel to such raust be drawn from the points d arid c, where the rays of the luminary would strike the object; their intersection with the inchned lines y a and g i, at the points k and z,will determine the utmost projection ofthe shadow at kl. a line drawn from i parauel to e f, until it cuts the inclined line from h, at , will give the shadow of the side opposite to a de f all the inclined hnes, denoting the sun's inclination and declination, may be drawn as to their parallelism by raeans of the t square with its moveable haunch or shoulder. the outline ofthe shadow being denoted by faint pencil lines, the pupil will commence his tinting by washing over the whole figure and cast shadow with the tint no. , exaraple a. next, with the tint no. , he will proceed and wash over the return side def g, and also the cast shadow; leaving the front face ade fand the upper surface abed in the first tint. thirdly, with the tint no. , he must observe to wash over the cast shadow only. he may next with the same tint wash over a portion ofthe shadowed side of his object, commencing upwards from d c, and soften it into the original tint by passing his brush shghtly into pure water, and then as quickly projection of shadows. as possible, proceed and draw the tint downwards. he must again dilute his tint in water and draw the last degree of shade downwards, until it gradually mellows into the tint originally laid on : this is what is called in painting, softening off, or rather penurabration of shadow; that is, allowing sorae reflection of light, either directly or indirectly, to fall on your object in shade, by which the uniforraity and flatness is counteracted. it will be sufficient to say that the shadow on the ground is to be managed after the same raanner, observing to keep the darkest part of the shadow close to the bottom edge of the object ; by which raeans a brilliancy and force will be given to the object which it wou.ld not attain without. example . this object has a capping or projection acd; the sarae casting a shadow b e on the cubical block underneath it. the depth of this shadow is regulated by the sun's elevation, and would be deeper raore or less, according to the tirae of day in which it is projected. the sun's elevation (or declination) is denoted by the dotted hne a b, and determines the depth of the shadow as projected frora the capping a c, atb ; which must then be squared across to e. the whole of the figure raay then be washed over with the first tint no. , as before directed; after which with no. , pass over the cast shadow b e, with the soffit or under part ofthe projecting cap acd; and also the return side f. then proceed with the third tint, and pass over the cast shadow b e with the soffit of the projection a c, leaving that of the projection g d. again with the sarae tint, pass it under the projection on the solid at g h, and soften off as shewn in the example. lastly, with the third tint, made a small degree darker, pass over the shadow b e, and again over the return side at g h: the figure will then have attained its proper effect. these two examples although slight in themselves, will be sufficient to give the student an insight into the raanner in which shadowing is raanaged and effected; and enable hira to comprehend more clearly what will be offered to hira in the next plate. a coraplete and coraprehensive dissertation on the laws of shadow raight have been here given, with the whole process laid down for projecting them ; but as this is a matter of more concern to the architect, we have only retained and explained so much as could be of real use to those, interested in perusing or studying the present work. example . exhibits four truncated columns, and shews the process projection of shadows. of shadowing all objects that are round or cylindrical. in this example are displayed the different gradations of tint, necessary for giving to a cylindrical body the full effect of rotundity. all turned legs of tables, supporting piuars, bedposts, pedestals, &c. as partaking more or less ofa cylindrical forra, will require to be shadowed after the raanner here laid down. having prepared a tint equal to the tone of no. , (exaraple a,) cora raence with the column no , and with this tint in your brush pass it down the shaft, in width equal to a? a? j turning it suddenly off at a until it reaches the base at b : the tint so passed down must then be immediately softened off at both edges, right and left. the same tint must then be passed over the base raoulding and the return side of the plinth, as likewise over the shadow cast on the ground. you will next proceed and strengthen your tint to the tone of no. , and with a sufficient quantity in your brush, pass it down .the shaft of the column over the preceding tint, as before, and likewise over the base raoulding ; only not so broad as a: ^r : this must again be softened off at both edges ; observing not to cover the tint first laid on entirely, but to leave a portion reraaining : your coluran will then be brought to the effect of no . you will then with a tint equal to no. , pass over the shaft and base of the coluran direct frora the right hand edge, keeping it to the breadth of c d; which must be softened off towards the left hand, leaving a portion of the second tint uncovered : your coluran will then be brought up to the effect of no. . this will be found sufficient for most subjects of a cylindrical forra ; but where a greater strength of effect is required, the tint no. , a little strengthened, raay again be passed down from the right hand edge of the shaft to the breadth ofcf, and softened off as before ; which wiu bring it to the effect of no. . the»student will remark, that a weak tint is passed down from the left hand edge of the column, and softened off; leaving a small portion of light on that part ofthe column where the sun's rays are supposed to strike direct : by this raeans a greater effect of rotundity will be produced. s projection of shadows. plate cxxiv. in this plate are given four different objects of furniture; shewing the raode and raanner of projecting the cast shadows from the same on a horizontal plane, and also on one perpendicular. example . let a represent the general plan ofa pedestal sideboard, the same shewing the situation of the four console supports of the pedestals at a b, c, and d. fig. b "represents the sideboard as shewn perspectively, and fig. c the georaetrical profile of its depth. it is required to give to this object its proper proportion of light and shade, and to project the shadows as cast frbm it on the wall and ground ; and hkewise to project the shadows from the console supports on the front faces of the pedestals, so as to give to the whole an embodied effect, and convey to the eye a lively representation of what the original piece of furniture would be when executed. to cast the shadows by exact rule from every part of this figure, would require the aid of a great nuraoer of lines, and tend to render the process perplexing ; to avoid which, we have chose to confine ourselves to a few only of the principal lines, as being sufficient for the purpose required, and all that are necessary for general use. the student, by the aid of these lixamples, will be enabled to project the cast shadows for alraost any piece of furniture ; the same being applicable to every case that may occur, either to the upholsterer or cabinet-maker, as a draughtsman. the first thing to determine on, is the sun's inclination, or seat on the ground with regard to the object as opposed to it : this raust be laid down in the plan, as shewn by the parallel line k%n, i i and eg. frora the intersection of these lines at m, i and g, on the wau line w w, perpen diculars are raised to the base or ground hne g g, on which the sideboard or original object is placed; as ats, v, and u. from these points, radial lines are drawn to the station or point of sight s ; which give the sarae points perspectively on the wau line at w, and w. the next thing to be considered is the sun's declination ; or otherwise its particular ascension or descension at some precise period of the day: in design this is entirely arbitrary, depending on the judgment ofthe artist. it would argue want of taste to fl,. cxxiv. smais ows , f.vttmp. j . -t tt '' ." a i fjcamp . tf. [c i e '"tf" j^xcanp. . _lon on. f\i>bshe "by jones &: c''a-qdi . l' . projection of shadows. , represent the shadows of too great a length, as supposing the sun to be elevated very little above the horizon ; as well as to raake thera too narrow, by considering the sun as near its meridian, or point directly over our head. in these examples, the middle course is adopted; the sun's declination being deterrained by the hne x y in the profile c. the point where the ray would strike the wall at y, would be the geometrical depth of the shadow as cast from the overhanging ofthe sideboard top and rail : this must be squared across to the georaetrical line x at o. frora this point a radial raust be drawn to s, intersecting the back line of the sideboard atp, and from thence squared across until intersected by a perpendicular raised from w at z. a radial must then be drawn from a on the frieze line, towards the point of sight, intersecting the back line of the pedestal at b. a line drawn frora h to z, will give the sun's declination perspectively ; to which all the lines projecting the shadows from the pedestals on the wall raust be drawn parallel; viz. those drawn frora the several projections of the top and rail ; these are intersected by a perpendicular raised frora w, as will be seen by inspection of the figure. the points and w, and w, being each joined by lines, will give the sun's inclination, or seat on the ground, perspectively ; which being continued to the horizontal line, will there raeet in the point v, v/hich then becoraes the vanishing point for all shadows cast on the ground by such inclination. the intersection of the line x y in the profile with the back line of the truss, at v, will give the shadows frora the over-hanging of the rail, upon the front faces of the pedestals. this being squared across to the geo metrical line x as before, and from thence conveyed by the point of sight on the back line ofthe truss at n, wdl give the depth of the shadow perspectively; which must again be squared across on the pedestals, until intersected by per pendiculars raised frora o and q in the plan. the outline ofthe shadows as pro duced by the truss supports, may then be drawn by band from the points already obtained. soraetimes in large subjects it is necessary to find a number of points for obtaining such outline ; but in the present instance this would be attended with a great loss of time, and is not requisite in designs on a small scale. example , exhibits a pier table in perspective, the plan of profile of which are here given as in the last example; — denoted by a and c. the inclination of the rays of light from the luminary are here denoted by the pa rallel lines a, b, c, d and e; which are marked by single letters only, to avoid projection of shadows. repetition where so rauch has already been said in the previous example. the declination of the rays of light is denoted in the profile c, by the line x y. having projected your shadows geometrically frora the plan and profile, proceed and transfer thera on to the perspective figure, as directed in the preceding example. as it is not necessary to repeat the process in this figure,. the learner is referred to the hnes as laid down in the same, which, with the instruction already given in the previous exaraple, will be quite sufficient for hira as a guide. example , is the perspective representation of a lady's escrutoire. the plan below shews part of the depth, of the carcase. a a shews the thickness ofthe two ends. b b denotes the depth of the secretaire drawer when fully drawn out. d denotes the fall down front of the drawer when in a horizontal position for writing. the shadows in this as iu the preceding examples are projected on the plan by the sun's supposed inclination, and those on the profile by the sun's declination. the sun's rays, passing frora the upper shelf would strike on the back surface of the object at , which would be the depth of the cast shadow. the same ray passing from the second shelf, will give the depth of its shadow on the back surface at . the shadow from the side of the secre taire drawer is shewn at . the shadow on the doors of the bookcase from the overhanging of the desk is shewn at . coraraence by squaring these dif ferent points ( , , , ,) across to the georaetrical line g. the shadow cast on the bookcase frora the overhanging of the desk in the perspective figure, would be equal to its georaetrical depth, inasrauch as it falls on the front face of the bookcase, which in itself is georaetrical. this shadow is intersected at d by a hne squared from the correspondent point c, in the plan. a line drawn frem e to d, will represent the declination of the sun perspectively. the shadows cast frora the shelves, would be conveyed per spectively frora the georaetrical line, to the back line of the figure by the point of sight, and from thence squared across, until intersected by hnes drawn parauel to e d, frora / and g. a line squared across from , until intersected by the inclined hne drawn frora h, will give the shadow as cast from the side of the secretaire drawer oii the frame containiug the pidgeon holes and small drawers. projection of shadows. for the rest the student is referred to the example. example . shews an upright ended chaise longue as drawn in per spective, of which the shadow from the cheek on the back is required. in the plan a, the places occupied by the pillow and bolster are denoted at b and c, from which are drawn lines parallel to the sun's supposed inclination or seat on the ground, untu they impinge on the back ; as will be seen by inspection of the figure. what has been already discussed in the previous examples, wiu render it unnecessary to say more as regards this ; we shall therefore refer the student to the figure, no way doubting but by this time he will be enabled to shadow such simple subjects without further aid or instruction. it wiu be sufficient in examples either of chairs or tables, to represent the shadow as cast frora the legs, by a mere touch of the brush as shewn in this example. plate cxxv- it wiu now be requisite to draw the pupu's attention to the nature of drapery in its outline, which consists of a composition of folds, either broken or forraing a continuity one over the other ; and this will arise more or less according to the material used. it is almost impossible to make the folds hang in a graceful form where callicoes are used, stiffened as they generally are by high glazing. this is in some measure remedied by the use of woollen of a slight texture, and next to this material, that of undressed moreen ; but the most perfect material that can be raade use of for producing gracefulness of folding drapery, and which is raostly used in france, is that of silk ; which, governed only by its own weight, will fall into those natural diversified folds, known amongst painters, as broken. we have in this plate brought the effect of drapery as near as possible, to the latter remark ; and such as wetted hnen when suspended would produce. this is done to give the student a freedom of hand in the shadowing of drapery. having premised thus much, we shall now proceed with the subjects given in this plate; referring to fig. a, as an outline, first to be drawn. fig. b, exhibits thesame outline as under the first degree of shadow or tint ; t projection of shadows. which tint, if in indian ink, must be mixed up with the addition of a little sepia, as before mentioned. fig. c represents the same drapery as under the second degree of tint, leaving a portion of the first tint uncovered ; and fig. is the same object under a slill stronger degree of tint, leaving a portion uncovered of both first and second tints : but should the pupil wish to give a more deterrained or higher effect to his drawing, he is at full liberty to darken this, his last tint ; taking care to place his darker touches only where the folds of his drapery are the closest collected together ; what has been thus far said as to tinting the drapery, will regulate also the tinting of the fringe. plate cxxvi. fig. , in this plate displays the outline of a foliage leaf, taken from an example ofthe corinthian capital, as existing in the remains of the arch of titus, at rome. the outline of the leaf must first be correctly drawn with a black lead pencil, agreeably to the directions given in page ; the same outline may afterwards be drawn in ink with a quill pen, omitting those lines which denote the principal fibres as issuing frora the stem. fig. , which represents the same leaf under its first tint, wul give the pupil an idea of the manner in which he must work in his shades. fig. , shews the leaf in its second stage of tinting. fig. , offers the same exaraple under its last gradation of tint, shewing out the leaf with its full effect. having prepared the three tints necessary for use as before directed, let the tint for figure , be laid on with a fuu brush, washing in the broad shade frora the turnover, together with the shadow cast frora the outside of the leaf the shades appertaining to the leaves, must then be laid on each sepa rately, as shewn in the example. proceeding next to figure , with your second degree of tint, pass over the broad shade at top, observing to omit tinting au the projecting parts, such as the stems and fibres of the leaves under this shadow ; this may be ob served in the parts marked , , , , sic, throughout the example. by this plate cxxn. smalj)fj)w';ln(&„ -^'^tint ^r, . hil^h.-aed "bv jonej i'v c? ep r -il r ^ projection of shadows. ns process we are taugnt to detach or raake such parts appear to project, as we know such to stand the one before the other. in passing over the other parts of the leaf, the pupil will place his second shade over the first equal only to one-third of its breadth, when he may proceed and soften or penurabrate it towards the edge of the first shade. the same is to be observed as regards the shadow cast frora the outside of the leaf, which raust be so shadowed as to leave a portion of the first tint remaining. with a moderate share of attention and perseverance the student will soon be convinced of the reason by which our practice is enforced. fig. , represents the leaf under its full effect of light and shade, as produced by the power of tint. it will be necessary to inform the pupil, that the third or last degree of tint raust be laid over that of the second, precisely after the same manner as directed above ; taking care throughout to leave a portion of the first and second tints visible. a spirit and bruliancy may be given to the drawing by a judicious use of dark and spirited touches, placed in such situation where we know thatlight would be totally obscured by projec tion ; or where one part (as is the case with ornament in general) would be deeply undercut, and so produce a powerful effect by the opposition of shade to light. we shall now leave the student to make use of his own abilities, merely stating, that without an active exertion he can expect to reap but little advantage. plate c. in this exaraple the pupil will observe that the general outline comprising the whole of the foliage is first drawn ; which outline is again divided into distinct parts, (here shewn by the dotted lines,) each comprising the detail of the foliage : and the whole to be raeasured from the perpendicular dotted line. what has already been said in the previous exaraple as regards light and shade in the shadowing of fohage, will likewise apply to this ; naraely that of. laying on the shades with the first tint generauy, as shewn in the second exaraple in this plate, observing that the pen lines in the outline exaraple be left out in all parts excepting in the outline forra of the leaves^ and the larger turn overs. projection of shadows. plate cvi. • the first subject in this plate exhibits the sarae ornament under its second gradation of tint, to effect which, the pupd is referred to the directions given with plate cxxvi. with respect to the finished example in this plate, the pupil is required to raake use of his own abilities, as he raust by this tirae have acquired sufficient knowledge to follow his copy without the necessity of any further direction. these examples are given, as tending to shew the power of light and shade, with respect to all subjects delineated on a plane surface, giving them the appearance of a positive projection. in leaving a portion of the three tints uncovered one under the other, consists the art of giving a softness of effect to the drawing, and of gaining a transparency, as has been before observed. plate xiv. the two subjects given in this plate shew in some raeasure, how far, by a judicious corabination of forms, a tasteful design in ornament raay be produced; this is what is terraed in art, composition ; that is, an assemblage of parts so arranged and put together, as to form a pleasing and agreeable whole. either of the two designs in this plate are well calculated for the decoration of friezes ; whether in those belonging to appartments, or in those of cabinet furniture. sufficient effect of light and shade is exhibited in these two subjects to enable the learner to shadow such, or similar designs, if what we have before enforced be well studied. we shall here close all we have to say, as relates to drawing, together with the effect produced by mechanism in the management of light and shade, and conclude our instructions with giving necessary direc tions for the choosing of colours, and for compounding the various tints produced from mixing one body with the other ; this branch of the art is comraonly termed colouring. .slhulii il) vvma' i i'irii-t tin/ jeilemjiln-ts of :r_r>'ai mwts.l. elements of foliage composition . desi^nm hi ¦ & smith, i-ojjdojm. pab^ b,- joses .tcmayfc -unaraved b^ neele^- strand. colouring. colouring. there are, properly speaking, but three priraitive colours ; viz. blue, yellow, and red. these colours by a mixture one with tlie other, will pro duce three other distinct colours ; viz. green, by the mixture of blue and yellow ; purple, by the mixture of red with blue ; and orange, by a mixture of red and yellow. these various hues will be seen by reference to fig. , in the diagram. plate cxxvii. red, blue and yellow, blended together, will produce more or less as the blue predominates, a dense black, but when mixed in a lighter degree, the tint so produced is called neutral : thatis, partaking of raany shades of colour, but exhibiting no one in particular. this tint is used for putting the general effect of light and shade into drawings intended for colour : it becomes a proper tint for shadowing all objects that are intended in themselves to appear white; viz. drapery or curtains of muslin, white silk or dimity, in furniture drawing; and lillies, white roses, &c. in flower painting. besides the three primitive colours, and those resulting from the mixture of them one with the other, there are other colours of a vegetable, mineral, or earthy origin, all useful of their kind ; such are the umbers and siennas (burnt and raw), the yeuow and roman ochres ; vei^iuion, venetian red, and carmine ; madder brown, indigo, &c. it is usual with many persons when purchasing colours to choose a box containing perhaps from twenty-four to. thirty cakes, each of a different tint; a practice not to be recomraended. those already enumerated are all that are likely to be brought into use in colouring either drapery, .or cabinet furniture , or any other subject confined to the two branches of upholsterer and u colouring. cabinet-maker. it remains therefore to give some instructions fo our pupil as to the art or raanner of mixing the different colours one with the other, so as to enable him to produce the different tints in all their variety of tone, such as may be requisite for his use. plate cxxvii. no. , is gamboge mixed up as a light wash, and is the first tint to be laid on in any subject intended to be coloured yellow ; whether drapery, or ornamental work when represented as gilt. no. , is the same colour (gamboge) worked deeper. no. , the same colour worked still deeper. no. , is gamboge in its full colour. no. , is prussian blue, washed in light, and answers for the first or ground tint, in any subject intended to be coloured blue. no. , the same colour made a slight degree darker. no. , ditto made still darker no. , ditto in full colour. no. , carmine worked hsrht. no. and ii, are tints from the same colour, but strengthened in mixing. no. , is carmine in its full colour. these being all primitive colours it remains next to proceed with the different tints produced by the mixing of one with the other. no. , is gamboge with a smau portion of carmine, and in this state becomes a shadowing tint for curtains or drapery, when tinted yellow ; as also the first shadowing tint for any thing intended to represent gold. no. , is gamboge with more carmine added. no. , ditto with a larger addition of carmine. no. , ditto with a still larger proportion of red. the three last tints are made use of, in working up the shadows of any subject that is coloured yellow. no. , is gamboge mixed up with a little prussian blue. no. , is gamboge with more blue added. < colouring. no. , is produced by the addition of more blue. no. , is the sarae, mixed up with a greater proportion of the blue ; and then becoraes a full grass green the manageraent of these tints in colouring raust be after the same man ner as those preceding. no. , is prussian blue, with a small portion of carmine, and makes when thus raixed, the first tint of purple, commonly called lilac. no. , is prussian blue with a further addition of the red. no. , is the same blue with a still further addition of the red. no. , is blue and carmine, each in its full mixture, producing the purple in its full colour. it now remains to point out such other mixture of tints as are necessary ; together with the different substances of which they are composed. no. , this tint is produced by washing over the part to be coloured, first with a tint of gamboge ; which, when dry, is glazed over with a tint of vermilion : the colour so produced is called scarlet. no. , is produced by a deeper wash of the gamboge first laid on, and glazed over with a deeper tint of vermulion. no. , is produced by a faint wash of crome in the first instance, and afterwards, when dry, glazed over with a faint wash of carmine. no, , is produced by a wash of the crome in its full colour; the same when dry being glazed over with carmine in its deepest tint. no. , is coraposed of a light mixture of burnt umber, and burnt terra de sienna, producing a warra drab colour. no. , is produced by a stronger mixture of the same colours ; raaking a rich and warm brown. this colour may be used in different degrees of strength for shadowing such objects as are tinted with no. . no. , is produced by a light mixture of yellow oker, with a little burnt terra de sienna added. no. , is yellow oker deepened in tone, with burnt sienna and umber. these two tints may be used in colouring any article of cabinet furniture intended to represent oak. no. , is indian ink, mixed up with a portion of carmine, producing a purplish tint, and will be found serviceable as a first wash for all cabinet work, intended to be coloured as in rosewood. l&o colouring. no. , is carmine mixed up with raw sienna, burnt sienna, and a small portion of blue ; this mixture produces a mellow warra tint, .approaching to a marone, and is used in the shadowing of objects coloured as rosewood. no. , is a mixture of carmine, gamboge, raw sienna, and burnt umber, and may be used for strengthening the shadows of au objects worked up, with the tints and . no. , is the same mixture with a larger portion of the< burnt umber, and is used in painting the shadows cast on any object coloured as gold ; and alsc for representing the deeper folds and recesses in yeuow drapery. no. , is produced by a slight wash of hght red : in this state it becomes the first or ground colour to be washed over any part of a design, intended to shew as mahogany. no. , is the same tint deepened with burnt umber, and in this degree of force is used as a shadowing tint for all objects coloured with no. , aud for giving the imitation ofthe curls and veining of the wood. no. , is used for heightening the deeper shadows ; and is composed of the preceding tint no. , with the addition of more umber and burnt sienna ; or the shadows may be strengthened by using the tint no. . no. , is produced by a mixture of carmine with burnt umber, and may be used as a ground tint for colouring rosewood objects, which may again be heightened by using the tint no. . no. , is venetian red with blue, and becomes, when the red prevails, a warm drab. this colour is useful as a ground for curtains, &c. whose trimmings are intended to be either blue or gold. no. , is venetian red with prussian blue, producing a grey tint; curtains, &c. when- coloured -with this tint, should have their trimmings of scarlet. no. , is a mixture of venetian red and blue; both colours being used strong in tint, but the red the most prevalent. this colour when used for curtains, may have its trimmings of gcld or blue. no. , is compounded of venetian red aud blue, the latter, being predominant; producing, by the mixture of the two colours, a deep grey. the mixture so produced may be used as a shadowing tint' for curtains or draperies whose ground tint is no. . colouring. no. , is a mixture of indigo, raw terra de sienna and carmine or lake, producing what is terraed a neutral tint. the neutral tint is rauch used amongst artists, in painting landscape scenery or subjects of architecture. in the former, this tint is varied in its raixture or tone according to that portion of the landscape over which any positive colour is to be placed. thus, this tint should partake raore of the blue or grey tone, for sorae portions of the clouds and distant objects in the landscape ; it should be raixed up with raore of the red where rocks and warra fore ground occupy a place in the picture, and again this tint should partake raore of the yellow when used as a shadowing tint for the green of trees. no. , exhibits this tint, the red being the prevailing colour. no. , the same mixture used light, the yellow being predominant. no. , the sarae tint lightly raixed, the blue holding the pre ference. no. , is a mixture of venetian red, crome and flake white. no. , is what raay be terraed a lavender tint, and is corapounded of flake white, carmine and indian ink. there are raany other tints to be produced in water colour painting by the raixture of one transparent colour with another ; and again there are others that can only be obtained by a mixture of body colour ; such are the peach blossom and salraon colours, as no. ; the lavender tint. no. , and raany varieties of the drab, but as these will fall more to the lot of the decorator, than to the artist or draughtsman, they are not insisted on in this work: to mix these colours in body, would require personal instruction and rauch experience ; they are subject to many difficulties in the mixing, as being affected either by the too great heat or coldness of the atmosphere. after having given such araple directions for the raixing of transparent colours, and producing all their variety of tint, it only reraains to offer instructions as to the raanner of disposing them in any drawing that is intended for colour. it raust be observed in the laying on of colour, or in colouring any par ticular subject, as drapery or curtains, that the brightest tint of each colour should be first laid on, and that very weak, scarcely exceeding the whiteness of the paper on which it is laid ; and let it be further observed that the tint so laid on is to answer for all the high lights of the projecting parts ; for exaraple, x colouring. in the component parts of drapery ana curtains, or the folds of such. as cer tain portions of such folds have their upper parts wholly exposed to the rays of light, and are generally ofa round figure, in such case, that part the most opposed to the light would offer a tint highly under illumination, and of course be fainter and brighter in its appearance than those parts receding from it; the full colour being alone exhibited by those parts the most under the influ ence of shade : upon this principle consists the necessity of gradation of tint in colouring; on the successful application of which, depends raore or less the realization of those appearances we see in nature. let it here be impressed upon the student's attention, that in laying on his tint, he be careful not to cover either the first, the second, the third or the fourth tint entirely, but to leave a portion of each visible, reserving hi.*- darkest tints for those parts the most removed from the effect of light ; which in the end will give life and spirit to his drawing. with this we shall conclude the instructive portion of our work, convinced of the aid it will afford in rendering the assistance of a raaster raore effective, which at all times cannot but be of service, inasmuch as explanation by word of raouth is often better understood than much reasoning on paper. with an earnest desire that his hmited knowledge raay prove of service to his friends and students, the author here consigns thera to their own studies, trusting the helps he has afforded thera throughout the whole of the work may be found real and beneficial. he has not withheld any thing however trivial, that could be of real service ; and he has studiously endeavoured in plain and distinct terms to elicit what he wished others to comprehend as well as himself having said thus much, the remaining portion wul henceforth consist in explanatory descriptions of the different designs of furniture introduced throughout the work, together with their uses, mode of raanufacture, &c. we shall first commence with those of decoration, as they are exhibited in the plate"., offering such remarks as the change of fashion and times have occasioned. interior decoration. interior decoration. in the earliest period of the anna-s of mankind we find sufficient proofs of the existence of a taste for architectural and ornamental erabelhshment. not to go further back than the period in which architectui-e flourished araongst the egyptians, we find in the ruins of their teraples, their catacombs and obelisks now existing, many exa,raples of ornaraental deco ration, evidently the work of hands, superior in talent to the coramon idea hitherto entertained of their knowledge in works of art. the variety and beauty displayed in the capital of the columns in the remains of the great temple now existing at apollonopolis magna (or edfou) in upper egypt, exhibit as much taste in their design, as excellence in their workmanship. whether the hindoos derived their taste for architecture and orna mental embellishment frora the egyptians, or the egyptians from the hindoos, can be but of little raoraent at this period : it is sufficient that we observe in tlie works of both nations an accordance and sirailarity as to the disposal of their parts into iraposing and gigantic masses. amongst the ancient greeks we find decorative painting and sculpture carried to a great degree of elegance in almost every instance ; as may be seen in the ornaments belonging to their teraples, their vases and other works of art. to these succeeded the decoration of the etruscans, a grecian colony, visible in the reraains of their public and private buildings, baths, &c. lately discovered at porapeu and herculaneum. frora the era of this people, we pass on to the time in which the arts of design flourished amongst the roraans, when decora tion raay be said to have reached its zenith ; and here we have abundant exam ples in their altars, vases and candelabri ; in the baths, of titus, nero, and dioclesian; and likewise on the walls of the catacombs at naples and its interior decoration. neighbourhood. passing from thence to modern times, we have to notice the style of decoration practised in the th and th centuries, in the times of leo x. and julius ii. when michael angiolo, raffaelle, and other eminent raen of genius flourished, whose works may be seen in the vatican and palaces of modern rome ; and likewise in raany of those in the neigh bouring states of italy, as also in various parts of france. however rauch we raay adraire and becorae prejudiced in favour ofthe light and airy style reigning throughout, and alraost peculiar to the whole of the grecian orna ment, we cannot but feel a sensation of pleasure and gratification in con templating the breadth, freedom and raanly boldness of effect displayed in the ornamental productions of this age. the works of jean le pautre, who flourished in the age of louis xiv. of france, (although this period was productive of a bad style) are distinguished by their variety and peculiar happiness of invention. it raay not be paying an exaggerated encoraiura to our neighbours the franks, when we assert the superiority of their inventive faculty in the ornamental parts of design. we have however in the present day many decorative artists, (natives of our own soil) of great merit, some of whora possess uncommon versatility of talent ; performing equally well both in oil and distemper colour, the three branches of deco rative art; viz. figure, landscape, and ornamental painting in all its variety; as the numerous works of mr. r. jones (who stands at the head of his profession) sufficiently testify. amongst the raany proficients in this departraent of art we must not omit to raention mr. r. nelson, whose abilities entitle him to great praise, and to whom the author feels hiraself indebted for raany valuable practical hints. several others raight be here enuraerated, but we shall close this article by raerely intiraating that the present work will contain speciraens of all the different styles of decoration, such as may be found useful to the decorative artist of the present day ; the same being selected from remains handed down to us, of the greek, etruscan, roraan and saracenic or gothic styles. speciraens wiu likewise be given of that of the franks in the age of louis xiv, together with the present prevauing taste now in vogue in our own island great britain ; all of which wul be noticed in the descriptive account accompanying each design. interior decoration. plate xxviii. in this plate are given four different designs for corner ornaraents in the grecian style, intended each as a finishing for the four angles of the com partments in a room where the walls are divided into panels. these ornaraents are worked in various ways ; soraetiraes carved and finished in gold ; on other occasions painted in oil or disteraper, as representing the effect of basso relievo ; and frequently executed by the french in a style which they terra rehauss^e d'or : which is done by a species of hatching in gold on a dark ground, where the gold itself forms the high light; or where such species of hatching in gold is relieved by dark shadows on a light ground. there is extant a print after one of the old masters, heightened in gold after this raanner on a brown ground, and which is comraonly called the golden print; it is now extreraely scarce. a very chaste style of decoration consists in making the ground or panels of the room of an even light colour ; for instance, a very pale drab, a peach blossora, a stone colour, &c. ; the storie colour decreasing in force to almost a white, and approaching nearly to a cream colour. in all these cases the style of the panel raay be of a sirailar colour as the ground, but worked darker for the purpose of giving the appearance of projection to the panel itself a gold raoulding placed round the walls under the cornice above, over the dado or plinth below, as well as up the angles, internal and external of the apartraent, will in this case make the finish. where the corner ornaraents are carved and gilt, the straight raouldings betwixt them forming the panels raust be of gold also. in cases where the ornaraents are painted, the raouldings apparently parting frora them should be painted also ; which may then be relieved from the ground by a dark line underneath, and a light one above : the sarae is to be observed in relieving the ornament. it is necessary to state, that this species of orna mental decoration is alone to be adopted in drawing rooras and boudoirs. the ornaraent in the middle of the plate wiu answer as a central ornament in decoration ; whether upright or horizontal, in carving or painting in relief y interior decoration. plate cxxxiil the four designs given in this plate, and nurabered , , and , are intended as corner pieces for the decorative panels of drawing rooms. the observations given in the description of plate xxviii. will render further explanation on the subject before us unnecessary : they are intro duced for the sake of variety, and to assist the decorator in selecting or choosing from the whole. it is not intended that the designs throughout this work should be copied or adopted precisely as they are here given ; if they afford hints and materials for composition to the artist, it is all the author has aimed at. nos. aud , are intended as designs for the decorating of friezes, either in painting, carving, or casting in metal. plate lxxxv. in this plate are given three designs for ornaraental puasters, intended to be painted in disteraper or oil, and subject as to colour, to the same rules as laid down in plate xxviii. it may be observed that the ornaments on these pilasters are often painted in a variety of colours, and thus called arabesque ; such are the pilasters in the vatican at rome. the situation which these pilasters generally occupy in apartments is the space between the ornamented panels. rooms when decorated with such an arrangeraent of ornament, will always present a pleasing and imposing effect; particularly when executed with taste by the artist, as regards light and shade. plate lxxxvl in this plate is exhibited a portion of that side of an apartment appro priated to the chimney ; the same shewing the chimney-piece, with its glass and ornaraented frarae above, which should be finished entirely in or, matt and burnished gold. on the external angles, marked a a of the chimney i'l .xwiil ll _a 'jl* e m i o ii d e € ((aik'i at i o a; s , crinci orihivniits lor panncl/inn liooms. k-c. fl,. c.vxxiii. ]lntelliiok, djkcokatiowo ' - . a,i - cv-*a- --<a\ -^ & '''^ --^..--^ - ^ -~f^ i-;^^.^'" ¦'-':,„. ,,,y^_' vxx , a^ v- ^-;i^t a=aaa^--i>^ ^ ^' '-^ ~ '^ " ^'^ ¦" '^¦)'^i -> -^ ;; ^ <. ^a^'vvy.^.'.a. :^^''^, '~~aa^' a ^^ v^/ot-;»^ , ) j r^ a^-v^" ' ¦ . ^'--^-. j a ^ ,/ a -v-- \ :\ ^l-,^ r'^] a - a ''-vv,^ v--'- ; a ,-¦ ¦'— , %^ , ^ ^a '^^:^>^cy ^^<^ de -v .r)k.\t]'\"e p l.a s te 'r -^ : ^m:m:'m&^:k^ ^^:^-i:f.r > -:<^^ iblistiel "bj-jones & c'^ ort.lfi^e^ pl lxxxvl. puwisiei w .tunes t c? oct b s , intfrior decoration. breast, are to be fixed gut mouldings. in handsome apartments, the base, and surbase raouldings of the dado, raarked a a, are frequently finished in gold. a gold moulding to suit, should be carried round the roora under the lower raeraber of the cornice at top ; and over the upper raember of the dado at bottom. the internal angles should have a double moulding, the reverse of those that are on the external angles ofthe chimney breast. a portion for the decoration of the panels, right and left of the chimney breast, with their ornamental corners is likewise shewn in this plate, together with the profile for the glass frarae. plate xxxix. four designs for raouldings fully enriched are given in this plate, which raay be used for various purposes : viz. for the cornices of windows, in which case they are intended to forra the upper raouldings, and should be carved and finished in gold ; or, where the expence becoraes an object, the ornaments may be procured in composition. these mouldings on a sraaller scale raay be accoraraodated for cabinet furniture, and raay be either cast in raetal or carved in wood. the greek frett, and italian gmlloche, of which we have given exaraples in plate xl. may be as variously applied in decoration : for example, the frett may be adopted to ornaraent the frieze of an entablature ; or it may form the border round the soffit or ceiling of an apartment, either in stucco or in painting. in many cases it forms a beautiful border surrounding panels. the guuloche is peculiarly adapted for soffit decoration, and raay when cast in metal be used with great advantage in cabinet work ; it may likewise be used with good effect in the ornamenting of glass frames. lb» interior decoration. plate cxlvii. egyptian decoration. this plate and the three that follow it, offer in theraselves specimens ofthe different styles of decoration in use araongst the antients, but adapted to our raoderii english apartraents. we shall coraraence with the style of the earliest known period in which painting was practised, viz. that of the egyptian ; and although there exists not at the present tirae a vestige of any of their private buildings or palaces, yet we have sufficient speciraens stul existing in their teraples, grottos, &c. frora whence a style after their raan- nier may be drawn: this has been successfully attempted by the elder piranese in his design for a coffee-room at rorae, as shewn in his works ; but it is too close a copy of a style and manner which in all its parts is raassive and colossal. we have in this plate endeavoured to preserve the character of the egyptian style without following its heaviness ; adopting the design for a library, of which the draught before us forras the entrance side. the casing for the doors is copied frora the doorway or entrance as seen in most ofthe egyptian temples, than which, no form can excel it for beauty. vitruvius has followed the same outline in most of his doors and windows, and we find the same form still existing in the remains of many of the grecian temples at athens. the colour for the walls of such a room may be that of a warm stone, or what is otherwise termed a drab colour ; round which may run a style or margin of a deep blue, the ornaraental decoration on which should be of raised gold : the frieze also should be worked after the sarae raanner. the four angles of the roora raay receive a raoulding in the form ofa palm tree stalk, and crowned with a palm foliage, spreading itself on each side the angle. over each door-way in this design are paintings, the subjects representing two out of the ten plagues of egypt ; the other two pictures raay represent the portraits of cleopatra and antony. the bookcase will be seen to partake of the general forra and character of the egyptian temple, before the puasters of which are placed bronzed figures interior decoration. ! of osiris and isis and other egyptian deities : all the other embellishments in this apartment should partake of a simuar character. the doors being deeply thrown back, may have their jambs fitted up for the reception of books ; and it would likewise be advisable to cover the doors themselves with sham books. under the hand of an intelligent and clever artist, a room might be fitted up after this manner, possessing a light, yet imposing effect ; although we are fully aware that this taste has been anathematized as barbarous, arising chiefly frora the very injudicious manner in which it has been adopted. plate cxlviii. greek decoration. notwithstanding the ruin and desolation which the grecian states have undergone during the lapse of . ages, and by the hands of bar barians, who have from time to tirae raade theraselves raasters of that part of the world; we have still sufficient proof left of their refined taste in what relates to architecture and ornamental sculpture, as seen in those chaste and raagnificent structures, their teraples. amongst the greek artists, we find their taste for design exhibited not only in their larger works, but extended even to the smallest vessels in domestic use ; and although we have no existing remains of any portion of what constituted their private buildings, yet it may be presumed that their princes and nobles resided in palaces and mansions suitable to their rank and taste. the nuraerous remains of sculpture in columns, pilasters, mouldings, panels and other portions of decoration, many of which have been brought over to this country, are the only grounds on which we can hazard a conjec ture as to what raay have formed the feature of the interior decoration of their houses. in the absence therefore of other information, we have ventured to give in this plate a design of what raay be terraed an apartment decorated after the grecian taste ; compiled from the raaterials already z interior decoration. style or border surrounding it, such style being painted in a deeper tone of the same colour. it is evident that these artists were not unacquainted with the science of perspective, whiih the effect produced in the original painting from whence this design has been composed fully proves, added to which, in the original, there reigns throughout the whole, a hghtness and a fantasy of design, highly pleasing to the eye. plate cl. oman decoration. as with the grecian states, so it fared with the roman capitol ; no mark or vestige being left remaining of any of the splendid palaces and mansions which existed during the augustan age, or that embellished rome under the reigns of her emperors. it is from the many fine sculptured candelabra, raarble vases, statues, consoles, puasters and panels found araongst their ruins that we are alone enabled to form any idea of the magnificent arrangement and decoration oi their apartments. the present design pourtrays one side of a large dining room, with its decoration ; the same consisting of corinthian pilasters, the spaces between which are raade out with ornamented panels. the centre of the side is occupied by a niche intended to receive either a single or a group of figures ; or otherwise a glass, having a side table under it; the whole of which arrangement of decoration with the candelabra placed between the pilasters, we mav venture to term after the manner ot the roman costume. plate cli. gothic decoration. with the destruction of the great western empire by the northern hordes, vanished all the remains of private grandeur, as raised bv the interior decoration. luxury and great wealth of the greek and roman princes and nobles. and here a long blank ! a dreary wilderness of space intervenes, under which every thing relating to art, learning and literature becarae dormant. what formed the style or character of the habitations, the palaces or resi dences of these barbarians we are unacquainted with. suffice it to say that from this general ruin, arose a species of architecture drawn from the intersection of the roraan arch, the one crossing the other at an angle of degrees ; this intersection when made by semicircles, was found to produce the pointed or lancet shaped arch. on the other hand, when the height of the arch became less than its span, then such diagonal arch becarae eliptical and rauch flattened ; this species of arch was the earhest in general use in england, and both the one and the other, viz. the lancet and ehptic forms were caued gothic, however improperly; which have nevertheless been brought to very great per fection, the proof of which maybe seen in many of our antient cathedrals. in this plate is offered a design after the gothic style ; a style well suited for country residences. it has been a great mistake with most persons who have supposed, that because the buuding partook of this peculiar style, that the furniture was designed after the same fashion ; the contrary of which is proved to be the case ; for in those days the furniture for domestic use was raassive and heavy, consisting chiefly of bold and highly relieved mouldings, with other members partaking ofthe round and cable form. many of the ornaments used about their meubles may be called arabesque, and in some cases they partook very much of the grotesque. interior decoration. plate clii. decoration of the age of louis xiv. the subject of this plate exhibits a speciraen of the taste that prevaued in the age of louis xiv. and displays the style of decoration used during that period, in the best houses -of the nobuity and gentry in france. we generally find the walls of most of their apartraents divided into corapartraents and ornaraented with pilasters, painted frequently in iraita- tion ofthe finest raarble; and sometiraes panelled out, and decorated with richly carved ornament. the mouldings around the panelling on the walls were usually of a very bold projecture, and wholly enriched. most of this species of decoration was executed in norraan oak, and would frequently be partially gilt ; and the interior panelling, if not left in the plain oak, w^as generally filled up with the finest coblentz tapestry. if we refer to the meubles or garniture of these apartraents, we shall find thera to partake of the sarae boldness of forra and enrichraent of detau, as displayed in the architectural erabellishraent of the rooras. in most of their tables, the tops were of the finest and variegated raarbles, around the edges of which would be fixed a bold projecting raoulding of brass, chased and gilt; and the frieze or rail under the raoulding was fre quently enriched with finely executed ornaraents in or molu. the pillars or supports to these tables were soraetiraes of a turned forra, and richly decorated ; at other times the supports would be composed of grotesque chimera figures and foliage ornaraent associated together : a plinth, either of fine raarble, or of wood, wholly carved and gilt, would form the base for this enriched table ; the back ground of which was universally fitted up with silvered glass. the chairs, sofas, candelabra, tripods, glass-fraraes, &c. each, and all partook of the same splendid style of enrichment ; and although there raight and did exist, a bad taste in fhe design and arrangeraent of raany of the parts coraposing the whole of this style of decoration, yet it has never been surpassed by any other taste for richness and splendour of effect. it is alike suitable to the kingly palace, as it is to the raansion of the nobleraan ; but is no ways answerable to the dwellings of persons of sraall fortune. this a interior decoration. style of decoration has lately been introduced by messrs. phuip and benjamin wyatt, in the building newly erected for mr. crockford in st. james's street ; in direct opposition to the chaste grecian taste of the late mr. jaraes wyatt, his late majesty's surveyor-general. as this raansion is solely appropriated to nightly purposes of pleasure, perhaps such a taste may be in unison wilh the wasteful transfer made of property in such esta- blishraents. from the extravagant expence attending it, such a style of decoration cannot be recomraended, except in instances wherein property would justify its adoption. plate cliii. the style of decoration exhibited in this plate raay properly be termed french, inasrauch as it was first introduced into this country by certain french artists, brought over frora france by messrs. g. and f. echardts ; who not only engaged in their service the raost erainent decorative painters, but also those excelling in the flower and landscape departments. these efforts, although aided at the tirae by english property, yet the expence in execution was found too great for general use; nevertheless the taste was not altogether lost on our native artists, who, iraproving upon the lessons of their' neighbours, have succeeded in producing a sirailar effect at a rauch less expence ; for what before was only effected by the hand, has now been accoraplished by the art of printing. a different style of decoration has lately been introduced from france by the raanufacture of a coraposition of paper into every species of ornaraent whether for the waus of an apartraent or interior decoration in general. this species of raanufacture has been called papier mach , which in fact is nothing raore than paper reduced to paste, and then forced into raoulds of the forra re quired. in this instance we now excel our inventive neighbours in the execu tion ofthe sarae article; the english raanufacture being raore durable as well as raore iraitative of real carved work, frora its sharpness of edge and depth in cast. but with respect to the elegance and phantasy of design in paper decoration, the french offer patterns very far superior to all others ; this may be accounted for frora the great inventive faculties of sorae of their first rate artists, being men who have acquired and possess a taste for the beautiful, and - a 'a > ^ t-l li i ll|pn ij ^ "to - n ^^n o ¦ , ^ s^ ^ l_j h >- ¦ ¦ 'o ^ o : f^ v" h i — j fn '^ household furniture. have been foremost in furnishing raaterials for all the inventive and orna mental decorations necessary to the erabelhshment of the houses of their principal nobility and gentry. these observations wul render it unnecessary to go into a lengthened explanation of the plate before us ; it wul be sufficient to observe that the whole of the decoration in this plate is supposed to be the effect produced by the hand of the artist, and executed either in oil or disteraper color, aided only by mouldings in gold where the pannel would require it. it will be easily seen by coraparison, how far the one style excels the other. the age of louis xiv. offers heaviness with grandeur ; but the present style, drawn from the greeks, although it offers only to our view a few but well chosen ornaraents (putting expence out of the question), wul always afford to the eye of taste a continued gratification. household furniture. window curtains. plate ii. no. . this plate contains two designs for window curtains for drawing-rooras : in both designs, the cornices supporting the drapery are intended to be carved and finished in gold. the curtains with their draperies are supposed to be made up, either in plain coloured sattin or daraask, of which there are two kinds ; the one being composed of silk altogether, the other being a mixture of silk and worsted; which last, although it raay happen to be cheaper than the other, it will when cleaned or dyed, shrink considerably more. in addition to these there is another material greatly in use, called merino damask, much of which is manufactured at norwich, and raakes up very beautifully, not requiring a lining.' drapery will ever give consequenee to an apartment, and although it raay for a time be in disuse from the caprice of fashion, it will always be adopted wherever a good household furniture. , taste prevaus ; economy may render the plain vauance necessary, but it never can be introduced with a view of producing abetter effect; and withal when the brass rods and large rings, &c. are added, the saving becomes very doubt ful. in alraost every design as apphcable to doraestic furniture, there arises a necessity for using a variety of colours, inasrauch as a gay and more lively effect is produced by the contrast ; but if we refer to a raore chaste style of colouring, and particulariy so as regards curtains, it will be found in the use of one colour alone, such tint predorainating throughout the whole : two other tints raay be used, but the three raust be of one stock, each varying from the other only by a darker or lighter gradation of the sarae tint. where drabs are entirely used, a modest or quaker-like appearance wiu ensue, but nevertheless the general effect will be pleasing and in true taste. plate xxxiil no. . the observations raade on the designs in the preceding plate , wul apply'likewise to the two designs exhibited in this ; which being likewise intended for drawing room decoration, what becoraes necessary in the one wiu be found equauy so in the other. plate xxxvii. no. .^ we have in this plate given a design for the decoration of a single win dow, wherein drapery hasbeen dispensed with; the sarae being intended for a drawing roora : as such, the raaterials should be of the sarae quality as before recomraended for such rooras. the cornice is carved and gilt, and in design after the style and raanner used in france during the lifetirae of louis xiv- the vallance or raantle is gathered into flutes, frora each of which raay be suspended a tassel. this style of curtain has soraething handsorae and rich in its appearance ; it is soraetimes termed petticoat, and at other times jiammercloth drapery, to the latter of which it carries a strong resemblance. [ a vallance of this kind suits better, when] used for the parlour, library, or bedchamber. household furniture. plate cxliv- this design is intended for the windows of a dining roora, in which case we would recoraraend the raaterial to be either of fine cloth. merino daraask, or of raoreen. it is obvious that with a slight addition of drapery for the pier, the present design may be well adapted for two windows, and would then forra a handsorae arrangeraent. plate xcv. the style of window decoration exhibited in this plate is sirauar in taste to that which prevaued in england about the period when queen elizabeth was on the throne ; the sarae continuing in use afterwards until superseded by a taste for drapery, first introduced into this country frora france. it is a style certainly well adapted for rooras that have but little blank space or dead light above the windows, and raay in such case be indiscrimi nately used for any apartment, changing the costly material for that which is less expensive. the valance in this design is supposed to be of buckram covered with velvet, and ornamented with a material of the sarae kind, but darker colour; cut into ornamental devices at pleasure, which are afterwards to be sewed or otherwise fixed on : tassels are suspended at equal distances throughout the whole extent of the valance; behind' which, a deep and rich buuion fringe is suspended from the lath. plate xcvi. a design, shewing the style and manner of fitting up the curtains and drapery to a circular headed window : its enrichments wul entirely depend on the apartraent it is appropriated to, for this window is equally to be b household furniture. found in the parlour as well as library. the valance behind the drapery is supposed to be gathered all over into puckers, such as we see used in the linings of jewel boxes, drawers, &c.; and when made with silk, pro duces not only a rich, but beautiful back ground for that purpose. when eantonier taus can be admitted, as in this design, a finish is theh made to the window, which raakes any other addition unnecessary. the taste or system of using bronzed raetal or its iraitation on a gold ground, is but a bad taste at best, and much on a par with the contrast of black against white. plate cxxix. the cornice in this design should be wholly in gold (that is to say, gilt,) and where carving cannot be afforded, coraposition raay be used. to this cornice is attached what is properly terraed a stone drapery, from its existing in raost of the antique feraale statues at rorae, and forming that portion of the vestment attached to each shoulder by a button, and which falls down on the breast into folds sirailar to those in the present design. this design is intended for a drawing roora, frora the enrichraent of the cornice and great depth of the drapery : but with a plain japanned or painted cornice, and less depth of drapery, the sarae design may be adapted for any other apartment, and its materials varied also. plate xii. no. . a design for the curtains and drapery of a venetian window. these windows are well adapted for the general |distribution of light into all apartments. a pole cornice is introduced in this design, which may be manufactured in metal, the ends and centre ornament being carved and gilt. the observations on the articles in plates ii. and xxxiii. in regard to the materials to be used, wul apply equally to this, and render further ob servation needless. household furniture. plate xix. no. . in this design the two windows are furnished with a drapery in conti nuation over the pier ; the central arrangement of the drapery being con siderably raised above that of the two ends. the cornice may be of metal ; the ends and centre ornaments being carved and finished in gold. this arrangement of drapery and curtains being intended for a drawing room, the observations on plates ii. , xxiii. &c., wul equally answer for this. plate cxi. this design exhibits a drapery adapted for two windows and a pier, to suit with that shewn in plate xxxviii, ; the cornice in this design may be of oak, and richly carved ; or it may be finished in gold. the curtains, &(*., may be of rich damask, with gold trimmings, and in this case, the design would be suitable for many parts of such a palace as windsor castle. plate xi. no. . displays an arrangement for curtains and drapery for three windows, the drapery being continued over the piers. the cornices are intended to be carved and gilt, that in the centre being the highest elevated. this design being intended for a drawing room, the drapery and curtains should be made of the material before noticed in plate ii. printed callicoes may answer extremely well for secondary apartments, or for those in houses of persons of small fortune; but they are not at all suitable for those of persons of rank and splendid income. muslin curtains are introduced in the present design, as well as many of those preceding ; they serve to break the strength of the light, without entirely secluding the cheering effect produced from the solar rays. z oo r ft - 'i z i o o i'j x\it . ¦ i ¦ ¦ i ¦ , s&ita^b&mil. i'l ' . - lmaon. pijhisl ei"bv jo-ies. & r-.'r.,hi . s s itatkcxj^iv; idii^ing moom wn^mo^v ctdrtajiw. > ¦< > >orn o o o v^.xc\ . .beafk! '^v ..anw ci-''kta :n' for circulajr headed -wmdow; e> ' /iet. . fublislied tw jones : cmj)nl . . pl.cxxjx. ]d)k.awi.t^(& ilioom curtain. borl-nh -^t-hgj^ ^ -ha' tuulsled - t c? july . pi:> p :xii. venetian window and curtain. i '- i -* ^ i-ii/n^. tiy ^ suath hed by jones ic" april . . pijxlx. drawing, room window curt a ins. i i i ' ^ ? fi , di^^mcd i, cls--h, london. pubhshed "by jones sn l'-"' may «s^^ e= drawing-room. window. curtains. =j rect tt fi o ^ household furniture. beds. under this article it may be requisite to make a few observations as regards the three kinds of bedsteads in general use : — st, that of the four post bedstead, comraonly so called. dly, the smaller four post or field bedstead ; and, dly, that of the canopy or french bedstead. with respect to the sofa bedsteads, &c. as they are no ways introduced or noticed in the present work, a description would only tend to lengthen this article, without adding any thing interesting to the work. in a cliraate so variable as that of britain, where the transitions are so sudden from cold to heat, and from wet to dry, &c. one uniform system, both as regards dress as well as the fitting up of our apartments, has been found the most beneficial and conducive to health ; and in point of comfort the old english four post bedstead with its curtains and drapery, will always be found to claim a preference before any other, although it does not follow from hence, that it is necessary to close the curtains so effectually as to exclude the free ingress and egress of fresh air ; — and no form of bed stead can offer so much comfort as to warmth. in very small rooms, such bedsteads may be found objectionable, but in apartments that are not less than fifteen feet square, they are in this climate to be preferred. the ad vantage this kind of bedstead possesses over all others, consists in its con struction, by which the curtains surrounding the whole may with facility be drawn back close to the head, leaving the front and sides open at pleasure. for general domestic use, this bedstead for the reasons above stated, stands the foremost. ' nd. the next species of bedstead which comes under the description of english furniture, is what is termed the field or tent bedstead ; the teasters of which partake of various forms, and in raany cases adraitting of much taste and elegance in design, accompanied with lightness of effect. formerly the curtains adapted to this kind of bedstead became in themselves too close a covering, excluding very much the free course of air; but they are now so adapted> that the curtains on each side can be c household furniture. partially drawn aside to the head and foot : — in general they are never used except in small apartments. theprincipal bedrooms in cottages, small villas, &c. raay be appropriately furnished with such beds. rd. a frequent intercourse of late years with our neighbours the french, has brought into general use the couch or rather canopy bedstead, over which is suspended a curtain, supported either by a single pole from the wall, or by a small teaster, otherwise termed a canopy — the same being variously ornamented. the furniture for this species of bedstead is in general thrown loosely over each end of the couch. a great degree of elegance may be pourtrayed in this kind of bedstead, inasmuch as the couch itself admits of a great display of decoration, together with the use of the finest woods in its manufacture. in state apartments as well as in large recesses in first rate rooms, this style of furniture may be used to great advantage ; and in dressing rooms, nurseries, as well as in apartments where one or more beds are required, this species of bedstead and hangings in its simplest form, is in general to be recommended. plate v. a design for a four post bedstead and furniture, suitable for a spacious sleeping apartment; its dimensions in width being six feet, its length seven feet, and its altitude adapted to a room of ten feet six inches in height. although the furniture is represented by a plain tint of colour in the present design, yet the material of which it is made, may be supposed to be of a chintz pattern, lined with a plain blue, this material being most congenial to english costume. the cornices supporting the valances may be of mahogany and enriched with carved ornaments. the footboard, headboard and foot pillars together with the rails, are intended to be manufactured of the same material ; the turned pillars and crowning of tbe foot and head boards may likewise be decorated with ornaments carved out of the solid wood. household furniture. plate lxx. this plate offers a design for a four post bedstead, &c, of similar dimen sions to the one before described, having its teaster covered inwardly, and surmounted by an oval dome ; and the cove surmounted by a moulding, and decorated with ornaments in gold. the pillars, whicb may be of mahogany, are surmounted on the front and sides by three enriched carved cornices, which support a drapery consisting of nine festoons, behind which a range of drapery in plain flutes serves as a back ground, as well as for an inside valance. the drapery and curtains may be raanufactured either of silk, of chintz, or merino daraask, and the whole will then form a bedstead and hangings suitable for a state apartment. plate cxvii. a design is here given for a four post bedstead with head and footboard ; from the teaster of which rises three semicircular cornices, all of which may he manufactured of mahogany, together with the ornaments attached to them. this bedstead has likewise an additional teaster rising from each angle, the same terminating in a small circular block in the centre; and thus forming by the intersection of its ribs, what in architecture would be termed a groined arch. the whole effect of this design in execution would no doubt look light and airy ; it is a design, suitable for the principal sleeping apartments in the mansions of our opulent gentry. the furniture, as in the article last described, may be either of silk. merino damask, or of printed calico, and may be triramed with fringe, tassels and rope. the circular pedestal in this design may be of mahogany : its use is for receiving une pot de chambre. on the other side ofthe bedstead a similar pedestal is placed, intended for une table de nuit ; and both pieces of furniture may have marble slabs for their tops. household furniturk plate cxxx. in this design, the expence of cornice with its ornaments, &c. has been dispensed with; the whole embellishraent consisting in the wreaths and shells necessary for supporting the festoons. these ornaraents may either be carved, or be substituted by those cast in metal. — the furniture may be of chintz or calico, and the bedstead of mahogany. the base valance in this design may be of buckram covered with plain calico or velvet, and decorated with velvet ornaments. the inside teaster valances, are also intended to be plain and of buckram, covered with calico after the same manner and to suit in shape the base valance, but ornamented with tassels tc. as fancy may dictate. plate xliii. this plate contains five various designs for the foot pillars of bedsteads ; in height they are rather more than feet. three of the patterns would require a scantling of mahogany, j inches square, the other two requiring a scantling of only i inches ; all these pillars are alone fitted for first rate bedsteads, and should be supported on french casters. it will be necessary that the wood should be carefully selected both as to quality and soundness, and the carving put into competent hands — the plain surfaces on the pedestals of the three first designs may be overlaid with veneers of a choice figure. plate xcvii. the field, or as they are sometimes terraed tent bedsteads, are so much in common use as to render a description of them alraost unnecessary; we shall therefore confine what we have to say in a small compass*, household furniture, the design offered in the present plate, and which is intended for an apartment of a superior kind where a display of show and dress becomes necessary, is more peculiarly calculated for the smaller apartment on the principal floor of a mansion. the ornamental cornices supporting the drapery, maybe executed in composition and japanned in colours to suit the pattern of the furniture, where expence is considered an object. in regard to the furniture, what has already been observed on the designs in the previous plates, will likewise answer for the one before us. this description of bedstead is generally intended for the use of single persons, but will very well supply the place of a four post bedstead in the principal sleeping apartment of the small villa or cottage orn . plate cxiii. a design is here given for a field bedstead and furniture, of a more simple construction than that last described; expence being altogether avoided in this coraposition, so far as relates to a bed somewhat above that in coramon use : — in an object so familiar, it would be needless to enter further on its description. — the more ornamental style of french bed will therefore close what we have to say on this article of doraestic comfort, and first with that numbered plate xiii. this description of bedstead and furniture, with its decorations, &c. is of foreign invention, and goes back to a period of very early date ; — it is nothing more than a refinement on the hurable bed of our ancestors, and its use is more prevalent in france and over the continent, than in this country. the frame of the bedstead in the present design is supposed to be manu factured of the finest mahogany and highly polished, and finished with or molu ornaments, when required. the curtain covering the whole at night, is suspended by a pole from the wall above, and again by poles placed over d household furniture. each end ofthe couch, so as to keep the curtains a sufficient distancefrom the party when sleeping ; as shewn in the plan below. the details given in the plate, render further description unnecessary, we shall therefore pass on to plate lx. which exhibits a design for the same species of bedstead and hangings, in its more expensive style. the dome or canopy, as an appendage to this bedstead, forms a principal feature ; and the whole thus arranged, is suit able for the principal or state apartment in the mansion of the nobleman or gentleman of fortune. the richest materials will of course be requisite to be used for such an article of elegance ; such as silk for the furniture, and the finest woods for the bedstead. cha irs, sofas, &c there is scarcely any article in the whole range of the upholstery branch, that admits of more variety in taste and design, than that of chairs and sofas. from the earliest periods of human civilization, and amongst various nations, they have been in use as an article of furniture. in the hiero glyphic paintings which have been discovered in the torabs of the kings, at thebes in egypt, representations may be seen of different superb ornamented elbow chairs, and the same of couches ; and designs drawn from these remains, and given by the author in a former work, have been successfully manufac tured at various periods. but for simplicity of form, beauty of outline, and delicacy as to substance, no chairs can be said to surpass those of the antient greeks, and which they could only have effected by the use of metal. the best speciraen of chair after this taste was one, designed some years back for furnishing of the drawing rooms of henry baring, esq., and manufactured for hira hy the author. a similar style of chair may likewise four-post. bedstead. & furniture. i. o pub^ by jongs i. co april . . fotck-o ip© st . b ® me . b e] i ' 'i ill i [i i i dee.et lcnicni, pu&listiej iiy jones & c s^*- groijf© teas thr. beb s tkattd » i ' i •'fatr. ^i lyr jones fc c?aptil , . f © ull'l jp o s t %eu§ r k ab „ ^,.-|-t-rl-r^-| , , i london, pubhshed bv jones ; c° julv,?!, n .xliii "ubiistrd liv jones » cmiilv t^.isns. pt.xcvn. fuel.© bbb< ,. . irifi h s /f<e rt saik . 'a,.£ed,£(ali b.melff?tt ff.sej^i u _ cj)'.^... mud mar. d. concave, lias ter. - eojiwex °. i i london. pttblishedtr jones «.- c? ajril ,ia . :k(xlll. tei^t jbejid^ el bv jonei sc c°. mm-cl . ik , tz _:v. !!^jhiewi'i|?l udomk jbeb .\.tiii- plan, of caiwpy and done . b, pfa/ ot tco..slei-. cplun of cd.slcad. london put>]i.'lit-a ^^rj acs &- c° aii^l \ p. household furnitrjre. be seen in the drawing rooms at the house of alexander copeland, esq., in great george street, westminster; manufactured some years since by messrs. oakley and evans. with respect to the style and fashion displayed in this article of furniture in england, and especially that of the present day, much cannot be said by way of praise or encomium ; the patterns which have lately been produced, offering in themselves rather a melange or mixture of all the different styles associated together : — for instance, it is not uncommon to find a parlour chair made with turned front feet, the back feet of which will be strictly grecian, and the yoke for the back partaking of the same style, but supported by roman columns. the necessity for economy urged by many at the present day, is in itself sufficient to check and weaken the spirit for design, and thus we see nothing but a monotony of character in this article of furniture. in some few instances we witness a lavish of expence displayed in the production ofthe furniture, designed in the style and after the manner of that which prevailed in the age of louis xiv. of france ; an example of which is given in plate cxlvi. (see the design marked french) : here we have magnificence, but not taste ; an elaborate display of ornament, but no beauty in general outline — those who possess a strength of fancy for this species or style of furnishing, may have his, or their taste amply gratified by a visit to crock- ford's gambling-house in st. james's street, which is wholly furnished after this manner. we now proceed with our descriptive catalogue ofthe chairs, contained in the present collection of designs, beginning with plate iit. the two designs contained in this plate are wholly fanciful ; the one oii the left hand being after that of the french school, and the other parjily grecian. they are both intended for furnishing the drawing room, the frames being manufactured in rosewood, vi'ith the ornamental parts finished in gold. the backs in both the designs are fitted with loose frames, which may be stuffed and covered with the same material as the seat ; a stuffed back will at all times give a consequence to the appearance of the chair, and at the same time adds to its comfort. household furniture. plate cxlvi. contains two designs for antique chairs ; the first being a french pattern, and after the taste of the age of louis xiv. of this design we have already spoken and made reference, which will render any additional observations unnecessary ; further than it is intended for the same apartment as those described in the preceding plate, and should be wholly of rose wood, or altogether gilt. the other design is copied from an original chair brought over from india and executed in ivory, being now in the possession of sir george talbot. — the whole of the ornament is exquisitely carved, and beautifully finished. this design is given to show the variation of style as regards the taste of different countries : — it is a chair not altogether adapted for ease on account of its form, nevertheless there is a considerable display of merit in the original composition. plate cxliii. in this plate are two designs for chairs, after the style of the florid gothic ; they are intended to be executed in oak, which at all times is the most suitable material for this style of work. gothic furniture should never be introduced but where the architectural style of the building is after the same taste :¦— in all other instances its adoption becomes an anomaly. plate lxviii. * two designs are here given for fauteuil or lounging chairs, intended eitheif for the drawing room, the dining parlor, or library ; their covering varying according to the apartment they are destined for. this description of chair has its frame of mahogany or rosewood ; — of mahogany when it is destined for the parlour or library, and of rosewood when appropriated for the drawing room. these chairs are calculated for indulgence, being adapted chiefly for the luxury of the wealthy, and comfort of the infirm. household furniture, plate xxxii. contains two designs for hall chairs ; the one on the left hand of the plate, to be executed in oak, and that on the right hand in mahogany. further observation on articles of such common usage would be needless in this place, the parts being plain by inspection. plate cxix. the two first designs, intended as patterns for the backs of chairs, and appropriated for the dining room, have the grecian outline for their back, finishing with a broad and hollow yoke. roth the backs are intended for stuffing, and covering with leather. the two designs underneath are intended as patterns for the backs of drawing room chairs, to be executed wholly in rosewood as before stated. the first design partakes of the grecian style, the central part being stuffed, the frarae enriched with carving, and the yoke orna mented to suit. the last design may properly be styled english, and is wholly fanciful as to the arrangement of its parts. plate xxxviii. this design for a sofa is intended for the library; the frarae tobe manu factured wholly of mahogany, and the ornamental parts carved out of the solid wood : — the back cushions, together with the two bolsters, pillows, and seat cushion, to be covered with green morocco leather. the ends of this sofa partake of the dolphin form for their outline, the whole of which figure is made out into carved foliage ornament. the graceful outline which this figure offers, has occasioned its introduction for this article of domestic use. e ] household furniture plate cxxxvii. a design for a sofa, intended for the drawing room ; the frame to be executed in rosewood, and all the enrichments carved out of the solid. the covering for the seat, the back cushions, bolsters, &c. may be raade up out of printed colico, merino damask, or silk, as occasion may require. plate lxxxi. two different designs for tete a tete seats. in france this description of seat is very common as an article of indulgence ; it takes its name from its being intended for the accommodation of two persons. this article of furniture is very useful in small apartments, where the recesses on each side of the chimney breast are generally too contracted in width, to admit either sofa or chaise longue. as to their material, their decoration, and covering, it will be the same as that of the sofas in the room for which they are intended to be placed. plate xciv. the first design in this plate represents a seat commonly termed a chancelier, from the resemblance it bears to the seat or cushion on which the chancellor of england is seated in the house of lords, which in its original form is made to imitate a wool sack. the present design in some measure differs from it, inasmuch as a bolster is made to run down the whole length of the middle, having cushions or pillows resting on each side. this description of seat is appropriated for occupying the central situation of spacious apartments, and should be covered en suite with tbe curtains, sofas, and chairs in the room. the second design represents an ottoman, which is a species of seat generally without ends or back ; but in this figure a deviation is made. the ottoman here given, is intended for occupying the left hand side of a chimney breast, having a framed household furniture. upright back to receive the cushions which are placed against it. being placed in a recess, the cushion at one end is supported by the wall, and the cushion at the other end, by the projecting breast of the chimney. the covering &c. should be regulated as described in the preceding articles : — for the rest, reference may be made to the plan underneath. plate x. exhibits two designs for chaise longnes, both of which are adapted either for the drawing room, dining parlour, or the library at pleasure ; the covering being suited to the apartment for which they are designed. if intended for the dining room or library, the covering may be of morocco leather, and the frames mahogany ; if used for the drawing room, the frames should then be manufactured of rosewood, and the materials intended for the covering, to accord with and be the same as that of the window curtains. plate cxxxvi. this elegant chaise longue as to its design, may be considered as wholly grecian, and is best adapted for the drawing room, or boudoir ; in which case, the frame may be wholly of rosewood, and the seat and ends covered either with silk. merino damask, or linen. if appropriated for the state apartment, the frame might then be finished entirely in gold. plate ix. six designs are given in this plate for patterns for chair legs, shewing a part of the seat rail to each. these legs being much enriched with carved work, are best suited for drawing room chairs ; and in that case, they should be virrought entirely in rosewood, or have some of their household furniture. parts in gold. this plate also contains four various patterns for the sup porting feet of sofas and chaise longues, shewing part of the foot rail, and scroll end of each. what has been said in respect to the chair feet, will also apply to these as regards their designation. plate civ. this plate contains four different ideas for the scroll ends of sofas, shewing the profile of one end, part of the rail, and one leg, in each design. agreeable to the fashion of the present day, the frames would require to be made of rosewood, and the carved ornaments to be worked out of the solid ; but we are not prevented from making use ofa mixture of gilding whenever the other finishings of an apartment may require it. plate lxxiv. three designs are here given for music stools ; one shewing its frame as worked in mahogany, and the other two as executed in rosewood, with their ornamental parts in gold, the covering of each seat being of morocco leather : — underneath each design is given a plan of its pillar and block, with a scale. plate cxxxi. this plate contains six different designs for foot stools in profile, intended as appendages to the furniture of the drawing room. they are variously got up and ornamented ; some being manufactured of rosewood, some altogether finished in gold, and others partly in rosewood with gold ornaments. the covering for this article raust be regulated by the rest of the furniture in the apartment. >!^^ g (= w m (? b %a dir^le^g lioom (cmaiii backs o ii)ka>v!lin(& lioom c ,^: :( .l;,.\€ks london, i'libiishcd by joae^s.- c apnl u, /, :*i /, ..\ v\ iir dra wing, room sofa flan or.siifii imi size. ll r hrt+i-i± :i/";vv 'd poi)]is],'--,j "ay j,.tl,.'s p-i.:\,u]- ,'" . .? . & © a, ^ piate i. xxt. t je t e a t ete .' ji.\t i london, publi s"h cd "bv jones s,- c? oct^.l ; pi. xciv chancelier ottoman for. a. recess. a, chymney, b, pilaster orchymney piece, c, brea t or d" d,d,d, recess ee, frame, or ottoman. scale. ror. i'lan. ift :i* shcd})y jone^b" "nov^ lonaoii fufclishcdiy jons^c" "n^v^ , chaise longues ornament. at. foot. enlarged -n ^% j'-f^^:w'^:^s'-.. \ "(t- ^tt "zznr ^j:u-iju//u/in/u^ulluj±lli\s^^ ^^^^^^^^' [»— *— *^^" leg . enlarce'd £, ^_ ^ i ddsi^ned by g- smuk scale b leg . en larged ' for. chaise . longues. ^^for enlarged parts. london. pub^ by^ jonehpc april . . m ' ^ ^-rk. foots to ol,s icn ririojfil,]e. - _l_ _j , - t i london, fuhirticd byjoncfifc c°jdly ,ia . household furniture. towards producing good work, viz. that of patience, if they are not alto gether so quick and fanciful as the french on that which relates to design. some years back many of these artizans worked in several of our cabinet manufactories, but have since emigrated almost all of thera into the musical establishments of messrs. broadwoods, muzio clementi, stodart and others. if we refer to the artists who have excelled in their designs for furniture we shall find but few to notice amongst our own countrymen. mr. thomas hope stands the foremost on the list, as being best acquainted from his travels, with the costume of foreign countries, and as possessing a very refined and classic taste. mr. thomas chippendale (lately deceased), and knoavn only amongst a few, possessed a very great degree of taste, with great ability as a draughtsman and designer. except a few secondary assis tants in this branch of design, we have now none of any consequence ; unless we take into the account some few of our best architects, whose efforts at best can be but limited, arising chiefly from a want of knowledge as to the proportion and distribution of the component parts of cabinet furniture ; and which alone can only rest in the individual who is well acquainted with the practical part of the whole. if we refer on the other hand to foreigners resident in this country, we may reckon at the head of this department mons. doileau, who was formerly eraployed in the decoration of carlton palace. this gentleman, in addition to his unrivalled taste in decorative painting, possesses a light, an airy, and classic style of design for household articles of comfort; and be has never been surpassed by any raodern artist in his designs for ornamental plate or articles for casting in or molu. the late mr. bogaert, in addition to his merits as a carver, was also equally happy in his designs for furniture and other branches of interior decoration. there are other artists, as well foreigners as english, of -considerable merit, who practice in the decorative branches of design ; but as they are no way connected with the manufac turing department, nor with that of making designs for furniture, we shall avoid enlarging any further on the subject, and pass on to the descriptive portion relating to cabinet furniture, — the last series in this cur work. household furniture. s tables. plates xxiv. and cxviii. these two plates exhibit three different designs for occasional or sofa tables, intended as meubles for the drawing room ; in which case they may be executed wholly in fine rosewood, or they may have a portion of their ornamental work in gilding or or molu. if intended for the library or dining room they should be manufactured of mahogany, and the* orna mental parts carved in the solid wood. in plate xxiv, each design is accompanied with a profile of its standard, the parts of which may be measured by the scale given j and in plate cxviii. is given one half the plan of the table. plate xlii. in this plate are given two designs for loo tables, intended for drawing rooms, as being much enriched with carved work ; and which may be manu factured either of solid rosewood, king wood, or of other fancy woods of equal beauty. if intended for the dining room or library, this species of table should be manufactured wholly of mahogany with a lesser portion of carved work. a plan of each block on a reduced scale, is given at the bottom of the plate. plates xxvii. and lxiv- the designs given in these two plates are intended as tables for occupying the piers between the windows of the drawing room, and in these cases should haye mirrors placed over them. the lower design in plate xxvii. is represented as having its sides inclosed, the panels of which on % household furniture. the outside are intended to be filled up with quilled silk ; and those on the inside as well as the back, with silvered glass. the intent of this arrangement is to produce a reflecting effect from the china objects of ornament which are usually placed in such situations. in plate lxiv. is given a design for a console table, with a portion of the glass frame shewn over it, after the style of louis xiv., accompanied with a geometrical profile and a scale. plate lxxxiii. . the first subject in this plate is intended for the use of female artists, as well as to answer the purpose of a pier table. when used in drawing rooms, this table may be so adapted, as with a rising frame at the back to admit the influence of heat from the fire place, and at the same time afford a riser for the female artist to place her copy on : — the small drawers on the right and left hand of the table, are intended to contain all the apparatus and materials necessary for drawing, and that in the centre for the reception of drawing paper. the second subject in this plate exhibits a design for a writing table with a sliding screen at the back, which may be raised up or lowered at pleasure, and should be filled with plate glass. plate viii. contains two designs for ladies' work tables, which may be either ol rosewood, fine mahogany, or of any other fancy woods. the table in the second design is furnished with a backgamraon board, and a sliding cover, divided either for draughts or chess. a profile and plan is given with each table. household furniture plate xxvi. in this plate are given two designs for articles of cabinet furniture, both of them adapted for occupying the boudoir : — they may be considered of french origin. the first design contains a secretaire drawer, adapted to the height for writing, together with a sliding frame intended as a desk, under which is an open space for paper, &c. the upper desk is so propor tioned in its height, as to be equal to the position requisite for a person to write or read when standing ; it has sliders right and left of it, for holding candles or other articles. the second design forms an ornaraental table, either for the boudoir or drawing room : — the tops of such tables are generally of the finest parian marble ; sometimes they are composed of a mixture of scarce and valuable stones inlaid and cemented together, and in this case are termed tesselated. where such table tops are known to be genuine, they are alraost invaluable; but the craft and artifice of dealers in this article too frequently impose on our faith, by substitution. plate xxxvi. the first design in this plate is that of a dressing table, having the central portion of the top occupied by the wash-hand bason; on each side of which and under hinged covers are contained the water caraffs, the tumblers, tooth brush trays. sec, as shewn in the plan : — one ofthese sides is fitted up with two trays, the one over the other, which are intended to contain combs and other small articles, necessary in dressing. the dressing glass is intended as a fixture at the back, after the manner of those in the french toilette tables : — these tables may be manufactured either in maho gany or rosewood. the second design exhibits a toilette table, wholly intended for dressing ; it contains three drawers which are fitted up with various divisions for combs, brushes, and various other articles necessaiy for the toilette : this table, like the one preceding, has its dressing glass fixed to the back, and may be manufactured of woods ofthe same description. g household furniture. plate lix. this design is intended as a double wash-hand table, and is vvholly after the french taste. the top containing the basons, &c. is intended to be of marble, and the frame under it to be made ofthe finest figured mahogany, which in the inside is lined throughout v, ith lead. this table is supported by four truss shaped legs, resting on a plinth; the ornamental parts of which may be of raetal, either lacquered or gilt : a plan and scale is added, by which the parts may be measured. ' ^ plate cxxvi. the design in this plate is intended as a dressing table for the principal bedchamber, and should be manufactured of the finest wood : — the drawer under the top is wholly fitted up to contain the necessary dressing apparatus, with watches, trinkets, and other bijoux appertaining to female use. the drawers above are intended for the reception of papers and other articles, over which is fixed the dressing glass. this plate likewise contains a design for a circular wash-hand stand, accorapanied with a plan. plate cxxxii. contains two highly ornamental stands for the reception of hand- basons and ewers, and other articles necessary for daily lavations. this article of furniture may either be made of mahogany or rost^wood ; if of the latter, the whole of the orriaraentaf parts may be executed of metal, such as the masks and tails of the dolphins with the shell ornaments sup porting the base ; as well as the gallery round the centre sbelf^ and the rings attached to the swans heads. the sarae may be said as to the ornamental parts in the design for the larger stand, snch as the ornaments round the frieze, the foliage on the truss supports, the paw feet. sec. i'l .\', ' o ic € a .^ ,l -l) ^: ail t a. ; h 'f. ',% . ji-otile (^ scale 'p for ihuh, tahiti nviik' _o c w^ ;^.,.~_i s ,- s-, london. putjlishol by .(ones & cmuue , g n rjiw :l'(hd i'akljil;^, bn.v ihiildiiui.r n pillar tnliiniil . :i a . pail oi ilu- pillnr t'niaifid. b . plnli the plan of pular. li,.i,,.,u. ,„ ...tfiii-i, , i,.i,.l,.i ;\:il;f',m! :,. joni-s -t-r" julv ."::,:¦'-!, 'i; pl xxml . ¦pr,v.', k 'irable.'^. /v» //l' i l,i,,l- ^ for both tables. . < hvlil' >a.'c.if. .¦ jhjt i piiblislial ;\' jojji .- ;¦' f june , 'b'l'i. pi: . ladies . work . ta ble . ¦ u worm bag. backgammon work table. backgammon. board. inside. of table. isii -^-.j^^-i .i^..'.%if^^*fll.- } •'i i i i i i i i i i i i if,w bubjned iy gjmall ndon. published by jones &. c april . ox o > > household furniture. plate lxiii. exhibits four designs for the backs of sideboards, to be placed on the level surface of the top against the wall ; answering for an ornament as well as a guard. [they forra a substitute for brass rods, the panels sometimes being fitted up with looking glass, as noted in these designs. plate xvii. this plate contains six various' designs for legs, as supports for side boards. the four first are intended to be turned ; the two last to be shaped and carved, as shewn by the profile and front view of each design. plate xxix. the two designs in this plate are denominated running sideboards and sometimes vulgarly termed dinner waggons. their use is for the purpose of bringing the dinner at once from the hall into the dining room at one opening of the door ; and likewise for receiving and carrying away such dishes and plates as have been used. in small families, they answer the purpose of a dumb waiter when the attendance oi a footman is not required. the profile and scale given with each design, will render their construction plain to the workman. plate lv. these articles of furniture which belong to the dining parlour should be executed in mahogany, and the ornamental parts carved out ofthe solid. the insides are lined with lead to receive the beer and ale jugs»f or at other o h household furniture. times to ice the wine intended for use after dining. a plan of each is given, by which it will be seen that there is sufficient space in each cooler for ten decanters or bottles. plate cvii. contains two designs for cellarets or stores for win,e, to be placed underneath the sideboard. this article is so familiar as to render descrip tion almost needless: — ^it will be sufficient to observe, that they appear to most advantage when manufactured wholly of mahogany; as well the ornaments as the body itself. ' by the plans given with each, it will be seen how much the square plan has the advantage over that which is shaped in point of accommodation ; the one containing twelve decanters, whereas the other will only contain eight. the spaces noted a, a, a, a, in the first plan are intended for the reception of bottles, placed horizontally ; and the two spaces in the second plan are likewise for the same purpose. plate lxxx. exhibits a design for a lady's secretaire, having shiffonier on the top, with silvered plate glass at the back. the lower part is inclosed by doors, the panels of which are fitted up with an ornamental metal guard and covered behind with silk, which may either be plain as in the present design, or otherwise gathered into neat plaits. the decorative enrichments in this article of furniture should be executed in or molu, and the case itself, of rosewood or fine mahogany as fancy may dictate. the secretaire drawer is fitted up as usual for the purpose of writing. the plan shews the situation of the columns ; the profile giving the heights, the projection ofthe mouldings*, &c. plate vi. this ejpgant piece of drawing roora furniture is intended for the end of an«apartment, to be placed opposite the chimney piece ; or in pa e: pedestal. sideboard. and.wine. cooler. (trnri:xixrmiix;.;ii,'(titrn: scale i ' — t^ plan '/% size =xfor sidg board, zifru o t.ju /lis trd fy jcntrj sc.^ oct jiid s l 'j: r;^ q s s m ;';';x.xin. 'flu- i'ln-lt iiliirlcd a,iilc f.iiiil.lliii i'llii.i-.-^ . _lu -lorjsjhj.-hed. bi'''c-, -;¦ ,>; i'-; sfp^iv,' : -:v-i[ 'si'[ k\ boae.ii le'h.s a?^'u uaci.j^. ^^^^/>jkj>jxjxjyjx/ oljjl'l iiharlj j,k' ,y ;>:¦ tra.mus,, wjtfl :<- '.y it \-	)\' [\' [¦.!., i ,'•' '' ii fm (j>nt i(-:l.,^x/ ,|mc v i ,!,,£ i- ¦'# ^oiidcn publ i',hniv jones ,t c" mav g h.xxix. ;il ¦ r^'inm ,^' g sid ilil 'b oa '.r'd s . tiolut^. profile . ^^^fii^ ldudnn . published by jones .l- c".i,ine g. pl:lw. wine .coole rs. afte r the. antique. rf tt :v // // / \ \^^^^\^^^^^^^^^^ tig.l. \^^ d / / ___^__,^---^ __^ --^ a. habfl'laxi. b. pljjuv of belli/, c . i'tert, oi:xeck d tian. of bottom . jit-ei. bottles . t-lq.z i i i i j 'i i i i i i i=t= jpeet ionaon.poblisliclljv jones & c°aiig*i, : i! .- -i ' ^ . v_ '\ ' ', a \j •i.'i.c' \ ! i? ^ o npp o o o l,l / f, ' ^"" o o household furniture. fitted up for writing ; and at other times fitted up to contain the whole of the apparatus necessary for dressing : — the other drawers are intended for linen. the second design being considerably higher, is intended both for clothes and linen. the frieze is made to draw out, and forms a depository for jewellery, papers, &c. plate xc. in houses of first rate dimensions, the best apartments of which are generally very spacious, and thereby capable of .admitting furniture on an enlarged scale, an opportunity is afforded for giving a design out of the common routine. the present plate exhibits a design for a wardrobe adapted for an apartment of such ample dimensions ; affording much con venience as regards accommodation for an extensive assortment of clothing, as well as producing considerable efiect from the distribution and proportion of its parts, which in such pieces of bedchamber furniture is generally very heavy. the central division of the present design is wholly intended for sliding tray shelves; — the parts connecting the centre with the ends, are fitted up with drawers, and the two butside wings are intended for the pur pose of hanging up dresses that would otherwise be injured if folded together. the heights in this design may be taken geometrically from the front ele vation; the perspective making little variation, and certainly none but what the intelligent workman can make allowance for : — the plan and scale will guide him as to the proportions. plate xxxi. with respect to the design in this plate we have only to observe that the ends are intended for the same purpose as those in the one preceding, for receiving the habilliments de nuit. the proportions may be obtained from the elevation and scale as before mentioned plal-t jjss tla» iie s se nr,e taiiaib . ^=^ m, loncloti. publitijicd "byjoces £r c^ oct.'fl ics pi ¦drawing- room commode. scai.e to plan i i -r-r-i i i i i i i i m :_ scale i , ' i i ¦ f i to enlang'd parts ixesigtted/ by g.sitiiih/. enlargd-profilt: -of upper part, ^m base. enlarc ?. j^k 'nmi>r ^ =^r--_ ) london published by jones c c apm pt,. cn idffiawiwg moom commomeo front . i'ro/ilt . ^ v ai '' nil il' i v/l. ji i qfwtttrtt w^ ((((l\) ---^ ! fat. f . i london. pu'bkstied. hj jonps sc c? j^n. z , irtl'/ [.[.atje ixxu >srppo>?vti^l^^t- ifm-ri' ipo^ 'ra:i?>:iinet.s^ c'i»:i:>'(ij):i!),i':',a x- "'l'''^jut^s'j'(^jo]i^§ oil(jall.pul)listied.l> jones- i: c" sl'^aiss'^' i ^mmmifm^'' •arcirommoa moom: ^mimymot lltaxx.-) t, household furniture. plate cviii. this design for a lady's dwarf wardrobe is of similar dimensions to that in the preceding plate, but rs different as to the arrangement of the parts. the central part being screened by folding doors, is intended to be fitted up inside with sliding shelves up to one half its height, and the other half to be occupied by drawers. the two wings are intended for hanging up dresses, as before stated plate cl the two designs in this plate are for box dressing glasses, so termed as having a case placed beneath the glass, which is generally occupied by three drawers. they are for the most part manufactured of mahogany; and are intended for first-rate apartments, when executed of rosewood: — the profiles in this plate will be sufficient to give the geometrical heights and projectians. plate xv. the placing a glass over the chimney piece will always hold the prefer ence to the fixing of this mirror in any other situation in the room. the walls of our apartments on the chimney side cannot be said to be properly furnished without the addition of a glass ; for pictures make but an indifferent sub stitute. there reigns throughout a cheerfulness, a gaiety, and what the french would term a jt ne scais quoi, in regard to the effect of a glass^ as to induce us to consider the apartment as lifeless that does not contain it. we have in this plate given two designs for this elegant and pleasing article of domestic embellishment with a section of each frame, and the mouldings, on an enlarged scale. with respect to the style and manner of their i household furniture. execution we shall forbear saying any thing, further than when executed wholly in gold, the general effect will not only be the most chaste, but also the most imposing in its appearance. plate lxi. drawing room fire screens. two designs are here given for this useful and elegant appendage to the furniture of the drawing-room. in the first design, as much variety has been displayed in the form of the mount as such would consistently admit of. in the second, the idea of the banner has been adopted, with the addition of a grecian ornament as a finish for the upper part, from which is suspended silk tassels and line. the standards in both designs may be executed either of mahogany, rosewood, king-wood, or of zebra-wood ; and the ornamental parts finished in gilding : — or they may be carved out of the solid wood. plate cxxxviil screen libraire. in the nobleman or gentleman's library, the bookcase screen will not only be found a useful appendage, but at the same time will form a portable and ornamental library of itself. the idea as given in this design was suggested from the use that a portable bookcase would be in the library or drawing room, the want of which hitherto has been supplied by tbe open chiffonier. here we have an article of furniture serving the purpose of a screen in cold weather, the front of which when elevated or sliden up, discloses a small but select library. the panel of the rising front may be filled either with silk, as shown in the plate, or it may be fitted with transparent plate glass, shewing the books when down ; and although we have in this instance an elevated screen securing us from the heat when raised up ; yet we are not altogether shutout from a view ofthe cheering fire. this elegant piece of furniture may be constructed of any of our fancy woods, according to the apartment it may be destined for. household furniture. plate xxiii. this plate offers a design for a library bookcase, a, piece of furniture familiar to almost every one. in the present design, columns are introduced in the lower part after the french taste ; and the panelling of the under doors is varied from the usual manner : — ^various patterns for dividing the glazed doors in the upper part are also given. the ornamental parts, such as the caps of the columns, the corners of the door panels. sec, are given on an enlarged scale ; a correct plan, with a scale for the same, and likewise a scale for the enlarged parts, being added : — the mechanic will therefore find no difficulty in the construction of this very useful article of furniture. ,, „ plate xll, this design is intended to occupy a principal situation in the spacious library or study. in the composition of this ornamental piece of furniture, the grecian style has been adopted ; and at the same time, every attention been bestowed in its construction, to render it as a whole, and in all its parts, useful as well as elegant. the whole af the ornamental embel lishments are given on an enlarged scale in so ample a manner, together with a plan of the bookcase; and a scale as well for the elevation as forthe enlarged parts, as to render further observation unnecessary, the whole being plain by inspection. plate xcviii. a design is here offered for a dwarf bookcase, divided into four equal parts, each being inclosed by a single door ; having the panels filled with trellis wire work, which may be either backed with silk or not at pleasure. the ornamental parts, such as the busts, and the foliage cups forming the supports for the pilasters, may be of bronzed metal. this description of £^ ^i i'hj£- mke ssiing glua s sb s » proiizc^ fi-ofu'^ -.n.pliblislied lv.t,iii,=sx cf.l ic.-,;? , l.^-"i n.ixi. idilvmhg liiiiiyi ;f''!ti>; .st'keerifs <- i i i - london i'ulliilii tjjonra s: c?a^lo] ^s, jlate_ cxxx\'ui che^al, sckeel-'sr jl,illi.ka!ilik, j!>- l e .w.:i a ^'i[^> vg$>_ l^ f ¦ d n_ i- , , i . , i loniloii,?!]!)!!;,!!^ liy jones st c°aug,u,l fcl profile or the truss and cornice cd oo n> / co-< fro nt. view. of. the. truss. dwa r f doors > m r. b= household furniture like covering would spring :— it would also be continued up each angle of the sides as well as in the division of every gore formed in the tent roofing. in many cases the upright angles are finished at the top with a bow and two tassels, as in the present design. from a rich rosette in the centre of the roof, will be suspended two handsome large tassels, and frequently an ornamented valance or drapery would be continued round the walls, sus pended from the upper part of the sides frora whence the tent roofing would spring ; the same being decorated with fringe or tassels as taste or fashion may dictate. every appearance of architectural decoration is avoided in fitting up such an apartment, the architraves round the doors and windows being either removed or wholly covered with the furniture chosen ; and this will extend to the glasses over the chimney piece and elsewhere, if more than one be introduced. the furniture to be introduced into a room of this kind, should in itself be of a light cast : — the chairs raay be of rosewood with cane seats and cushions ; or the light stained chairs with coloured straw seats, as imported from france are very appropriate. ottoman seats with cushions at the back may range round the walls of the apartment. a rosewood loo table should occupy the centre space of the floor, which in the present design partakes of the octangular forra : — dejune tables, amd light chiffoniers are adraissible; and, where a recess is formed, it may be occupied by an escritoire with an orna raental french clock placed on the top: — we are not so restricted by taste or fashion, as not to admit into such an apartment, such articles as will be essential to our comfort as well as pleasing to the eye ; taking care, agreeably to the latin motto, to associate in our choice the utile cum dulce. ^ fl. l.x\ iv lotidon vl-^icked lyr jones & c^ sep".?. j?f? ib index to the principal matters. n.b. the figures refer to the number of the page. angle of a polygon, explained, . right angle in a semicircle, its application for trying the truth of a square, . angles, definitions of the various kinds, , . to make one angle equal to another, and its application, . to bisect an angle, . to trisect a right angle, and its application, , . to lay down an angle bythe orotractor, . to lay down an angle by the scale of chords, . angular perspective, ^rdvaaiii i.rj remarks, . difference between parallel and inclined, illus trated, . in what respect applicable, . method of laying down the vanishing points, and points of distance, . arc of a circle, definition of, . summit of an arc, defined, . to find a centre for describing the arc of a circle, . its application for laying down the plan of a bow, , . arch eliptical, rule for describing it by means of two laths of wood, . to find the centres for describing the saxon arch, . to find the centres for describing the gothic arch, . axis, or diameter of an ellipsis, defined, . bed-steps, to represent a flight of, in perspective, . bedstead, to represent a four post, in angular perspective, . bedsteads, various kinds described, , . block, triangular ; rule for finding the proportion of such for a loo table of any given diaraeter, and for laying down the plan of the same, . method of representing the sarae perspec tively, . block, quadrangular ; manner of laying down the plan geometrically, . bookcase, to draw the same in perspective from a given plan, . bookcases of various kinds, described, , . cable molding, rules for forming it in all its varieties, . cavetto, rule for describing it, . centre of an ellipsis, defined and explainedjv^ . centre of the picture in perspective, explained, . centre of a circle, method of finding such whereby to describe any given arc, . l n d e x. chair, to draw the same perspectively, with its side parallel to the picture, . to represent the same in perspective, with its front to the picture, and the method for finding the vanishing points for the bevelled sides, . chairs of various kinds described, — . chaise longue, to represent the same in parauel perspective, . cheval glass, process for obtaining its perspective representation, . mode for finding the inclination of the swing frame perspectively, . diagrams for elucidating the same, after three different methods — . chords, scale of, explained, . its construction laid down, . its application and use, . chords, line of on the sector, its use explained, . chiffonier commode, to draw the same in parauel perspective, with the method for representing a door open, . circle, division of, . process laid down for dividing the circumference, . its use for laying down angles, explained, . to find the centre of a circle from an arc g^ven, . to describe the arc of a circle which shall pass through three given points, . to divide the circle into three psirts for the triangle, . into five parts for the pentagon, . into six parts for the hexagon, . to draw the perspective representation of the circle, , . circumference of a circle, to find a right line, whose length shall equal it, . the application and use of the problem explained, . circamference ofthe ellipsis, defined, . lours, tints in all their varieties produced by the mixture of the primitives, one with the other, . a list of the different tints, with the process laid down for producing them, — . process for laying them on, detailed, . ' columns, process for shadowing of, detailed, . compasses, for dividing, described, . compasses with shifting legs and points, . compasses, proportional, their use explained, , . cone, definitions of its various sections, , . problem for describing the parabola, , . problem for describing the hyperbola, . cone of rays, defined, . console or truss bracket, to find the outline of the same by means of proportional numbers, , . corner ornaments for interior decoration, described, , cube, to represent the same in parallel perspective, . to represent tbe same with a projecting top, . cylindrical solid, to represent the same perspectively, . the application of the diagram, . how to throw out a projecting member from a round object, . cyma recta, to find the centre for describing it, . to describe the same by means of ordinates, . gyma reversa, rule for describing it by means of ordinates, . decoration, interior, observations on its origin, rise and progress amongst the ancients, and its tadual improvement to the present time, . observations on decorative painting, . the difi'erent styles described, viz. — egyptian, . greek, , etruscan, . roman, . gothic, , . french, . english . definitions, geometrical — of points, , . of lines, — . of angles, — of triangles, , . 써 ​in min slevens og ornamenta design no nk elements of ornamental design a ooo onn nk the elements of ornamental design prepared for students of the international correspondence schools scranton, pa. volume ii elements of ornament practical design applied design historic ornamental drawing color harmony first edition scranton international textbook co. spe copyright, , by international textbook company. entered at stationers' hall, london. elements of ornament: copyright, , by the colliery engineer company. practical design : copyright, , by the colliery engineer company. entered at stationers' hall, london. applied design, part : copyright, , by the colliery engineer company. entered at stationers' hall, london. applied design, part : copyright, , by international textbook company. entered at stationers' hall, london. historic ornamental drawing, part : copyright, , by the colliery en- gineer company. entered at stationers' hall, london. historic ornamental drawing, part : copyright, , by the colliery en- gineer company. entered at stationers' hall, london. color harmony: copyright, , by international textbook company. entered at stationers' hall, london. all rights reserved. b press of eaton & mains new york nk frank h. ball i , library state teachers college santa barsara, california contents. section. page. elements of ornament. composition. surface decoration conventionalism ornament. natural ornament. conventional ornament classification of elements geometrical elements architectural elements industrial elements natural elements animal elements human figure ng ng practical design. principles involved planning the design drop pattern turn-over method variety of methods borders, corners, and stripes . book-cover design early bookbinding. modern bookbinding - iii ry ry ! iy contents. applied design. section. page. geometrical considerations. arrangement of details application of ornament hanging fabrics wall decoration ceiling decoration. floor decoration utensils and vases textile fabrics . character of the threads yarns cotton, flax, and silk warp and weft. double cloths jacquard machine carpets . historic ornamental drawing. . introduction. plate, historic mural detail plate, architectural elements . introduction plate, textile patterns plate, ceramics and leather plate, light textiles . . + . color harmony. introduction primary colors secondary colors position of colors in chromatic scale neutral tints producing harmony making a color card plate, historic ornament plate, natural forms. ny . contents. v section. questions elements of ornament . practical design applied design applied design (continued) color harmony ng elements of ornament. composition. . unity in design.- composition in art deals almost entirely with the grouping of the elements of a design to bring them together and appear as a unity. no matter of how many parts a design may be composed, if these parts are properly treated, it will present to the eye an appear- ance of unity and individu- ality, and only in such periods of art history as the designs have presented this unity do we find a progress in (a) a thoroughly artistic sense. to illustrate this some- x (b) fig. . fig. . what, we have, in fig. , a group of six lines, all of one length, but irregularly arranged. there is no expression for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. § elements of ornament. of unity in this, nor is there anything about it suggestive of an attempt at any kind of an arrangement, but in fig. these same six lines are so placed as to convey an idea beyond the lines themselves, and the individual lines are lost in the expression of unity. another method of pro- ducing this impression is to surround the irregularly drawn fig. . fig. . lines with some detail of more importance, as shown in fig. , where a number of irregular lines are included within a rectangle and the force of the outline is sufficient to com- bine all the lines in one idea. again, the smaller lines may be grouped to form a series of geometrical figures within a similar geometrical figure, and produce this same feeling, as shown in fig. . . limit of outline.-in order to express this feeling of unity, there must be a limit in the outline governing the arrangement of the lines; for instance, in fig. we have a ^ fig. . series of equal lines arranged in groups that repeat indefi- nitely; but there is nothing to stop them and there is a feeling of continuity as though it might be extended forever in the same arrangement without materially changing the form. this feeling is not unity, but continuity, of which we shall elements of ornament. have occasion to speak later. in fig. , the arrangement of the six lines, in one case, conveys an impression of extension, as though it could be extended in any direction and in all directions without impairing the original form—this is con- tinuity in all directions. the other geometrical form in fig. conveys the idea of unity and contraction without any impression of a desire to spread out. . assemblage of details to secure unity.-in assembling the subordinate details of a design in order to secure a unity in the whole, there are three general arrangements or groupings that completely satisfy the mind to a sense of unity: one single object always looks well alone, unless improperly subdivided or surrounded by a lot of trivial and discordant details. an arrangement con- sisting of a group of two things can be made to look well, unless there is too great a difference in their form or size, or unless they are badly united. any group of three things looks well, unless they are of uniform size or consist of too prominent a character to be expressed in any quantity at all. surface decoration, . subdivision of space. surface decoration con- sists in the subdivision of a given space so that its parts shall bear a relation to one another that varies in form and shade. this subdivision may be accomplished by the judi- cious spacing of a number of straight lines so that the sepa- rated members bear a definite relation to one another. take, for instance, the square; its pro- portions cannot in any way be varied, as all its sides are equal; but its surface may be divided into number of smaller squares, as shown in fig. , а. fig. . $ elements of ornament. simply by the placing of equally spaced vertical and hori- zontal lines. this, however, does not accord with our idea of unity, because, if it expressed unity, we should feel that nothing could be taken away from the square without destroying its value, and, in fig. , should we take away eleven of the smaller squares across the top and one side, we would still have a square very little different from the first one. . arrangement of lines. - suppose we divide the surface of the square somewhat as shown in fig. , spacing the dividing lines more irregularly and grouping the lines themselves in pairs and singly. this relieves the surface of its monotony, and the various parts bear definite relations fig. . fig. . to one another, so that the surface appears as a unit, the subtraction of any member of which would materially change its appearance. in fig. we have another sub- division of the surface of the square where the lines are not symmetrical on all four sides, and yet this is relieved of that feeling of monotony so dominant in fig. . an immense variation of surface can thus be accomplished simply by the placing of lines, and the more irregular the intervals between the lines, the greater scope is there for invention and design, as there is no limit to the number of different arrangements that can be arrived at in the division of a space in this manner. the symmetrical arrangement in $ elements of ornament. fig. is the character of subdivision we must adhere to in the design of ceilings, paneled wainscots, and the like, while the unsymmetrical design shown in fig. is char- acteristic of woven fabrics such as plaids and other dress goods. . in order to fully comprehend the importance of this simple suggestion, the student should make a freehand drawing of a simple square measuring about inches on each side, and divide it by vertical and horizontal lines into various relative shapes. a piece of tracing paper laid over the square, so as to retrace its outline, may be used to advantage, and a traced square made in this way may be divided into a number of pleasing forms that may afterwards # . fig. . be compared to determine which of the arrangements are more satisfactory to the eye than others. when this has been determined, endeavor to ascertain what arrangement of lines satisfies the eye most, and what arrangement satisfies it least. some arrangements will always be more interesting than others, and a little study will show that the most sat- isfactory groupings are dependent entirely on the variation in the proportions and relations of their parts. take, for instance, fig. , wherein we have six different arrangements on precisely the same grouping of lines, the relative parts of this being produced by shade and not by line grouping, $ elements of ornament. as in the previous example. but in fig. we have four examples of a surface divided by lines the grouping of which makes four distinct figures entirely different, some of which more pleasing than the others. are no fig. ng. study of grouping. in this grouping of lines it is important that the student should study various works of art. he will soon learn that certain things look well if grouped in a certain manner, matter whether they are the figures in an oil painting, lines in a plaid, the windows of a building, or the leaves of a plant as they are disposed in a carved panel; and he should study as much as possible those forms of art that have been handed down from generation to generation throughout history as being beauti- ful and worthy of attention. in the french châteaux we have an elaborate grouping of chimneys and turrets; in fact, the distinguishing characteristic of these buildings lies in the grouping of their roof treatment. in the venetian palaces we have a variety of relations of lines and spaces in the arrangement of the windows in their facades, and in ara- bian and moorish art we find the surface decoration grouped on geometrical principles wherein the proportion of one part to another is affected not only by lines, but by color systematically and scientifically applied. the student should therefore, in studying the simple outline forms in figs. to , bear in mind that, simple though they be, the principle of their pleasing or unpleasing appearance is the same that governs the most elaborate ornament elements of ornament. in the venetian style or the most brilliant coloring in moorish art. . relation of colors.-in the coloring of parts we do not really consider the actual spectrum shades that exist on adjacent members of a design, but rather the tints or shades as they appear to the eye. a design may be expressed in two tints or it may be expressed in more, and the depths of these tints should bear a definite relation to one another in proportion to the surface that is covered. we know that the three primary colors—yellow, red, and blue-exist in their pure form in perfect harmony in the proportion of , , and , and the same may be said of black- and-white compositions. a certain depth of one shade must be in exact proportion to a lighter or darker shade, in order that a feeling of harmony may exist in the composition. in all examples of ancient art we find that attention has been given not only to the exact subdivision of a surface in order that the space relations may be pleasing, but that the most careful consideration has been given to the coloring of each of these divisions and its appearance and relation beside the coloring of its neighbors. this color relation can exist in line composition where the lines used are of different breadths, or weights, thereby bringing somewhat the effect of a surface element in their appearance. . light and shade:—we find in certain oriental designs for rugs a thorough understanding of this relation of light and shade, and to it we are indebted largely to the influence of mohammedan religion on oriental art. as the creed of mohammed forbade the representation of any natural form, it became necessary for his followers to secure pleasing effects in their designs by color relation or light and shade, and thus freed from the struggle to imitate nature, their whole attention could be concentrated on this other element. . reversion of colors.-in fig. is shown a design for a rug, based on the simplest geometrical lines, while in fig. the same identical pattern is produced, but elements of ornament. reversed so far as its color relations are concerned. it is at once evident that any design consisting of but two tones is susceptible to this reversing of its treatment in color relations, and parts of it also can in some cases be reversed, while others remain the same. for instance, in fig. we have a rug with a dark center on which the geometrical ornament is traced in light lines, while the border is of a light shade and the geometrical orna- ment is traced in dark lines. mm. in fig. we have exactly the reversal of this—a light fig. . center and a dark border. put the border of fig. on fig. and we have a dark rug throughout, the geometrical ornament of which is executed in light lines; reverse this new pattern, and we have what would be the equivalent of fig. with the border of fig. . in this way a num- ber of different arrangements in light-and-shade effects can be made with the same geo- metrical design as its founda- tion. in fact, many grades of rugs and carpets are woven so that one side presents one effect and the other exactly its reverse in light and shade. x . reversion of treat- ment.-in fig. are shown four styles of ornamentation, each of which is expressive of unity and balance in its fig. . $ elements of ornament. design, but each at the same time being perfectly capable of a reversal in treatment in three or more ways. for instance, dino ri sin ii i ini a. yya be fig. . in any example the border can consist of black figures on a white ground and the center of white figures on a black ground, or the border and center can both consist of white 日 ​ 上​。 事业​部 ​fig。 . § elements of ornament. figures on a black ground, or a third arrangement will per- mit of a reversal of the first; certain figures can be changed and others remain the same, thus giving a great variety. the proper understanding and comprehension of this color relation in surface decoration enables the student to produce an almost unlimited variety of effects, as is shown in fig. . here we have eight examples of variation in light and shade, all based on precisely the same geometrical arrangement, the entire variation being produced simply by a variation in the relation and proportion of the effects of light and shade. the frequent practice of rendering in this manner is of immense value to the designer. let him divide a surface up into a number of small rectangles and then work over them with a brush charged with heavy color, and group these rectangles so as to produce different symmetrical designs, in order that he may familiarize himself with the capability of these forms for extension and compre- hend the value of a thorough understanding of this principle. . variety of designs from same elements. referring to fig. , the eight examples there shown are executed in but two colors—black and white--and all based on a uniform arrangement of lines that divide the surface originally into a number of small squares. turn this prin- ciple over to immediate practical work, and we find that, in laying a tile or mosaic floor, any one of these designs could be produced with a series of tiles or mosaics cut to uniform squares representing each of the squares divided in our sur- face design, and colored in proportion to the light and shade of our example. in wood mosaic or parquetry work, a number of simple squares or a combination of squares and rectangles of uni- form sizes in light and dark woods would produce any of these eight patterns and many more. the arrangement of the geometrical constructive principle of diagonally inter- secting lines so as to produce the triangle, the lozenge shape, or the hexagon, brings us again in contact with other sys- tems of construction in which the variety is also unlimited. $ elements of ornament. conventionalism. . necessity of conventionalism. convention- alism of design is usually very much misunderstood by students in art, and the majority are inclined to believe that it is simply a term that means stiffness and rigid for- mality in a design. this is entirely wrong. a conventional treatment may be easy and flowing as well as severe, both qualities being necessary and valuable in their proper places, but by no means is either one of them absolutely necessary at all times. as an illustration, take a piece of pottery or a china plate, and the design executed on it represents a spray of flowers. while it is proper that the designer should go to nature and draw his instructions from natural forms in order to create decorative design, there is a limit to which he can carry this imitation justifiably, and it is in this spray of flowers where that limit shall be expressed, . shall the imitation be a portrait of the flower spray, showing the light and shade, and the shine of the leaves, and all the details connected with the appearance of that spray under particular conditions of surrounding and lighting? or, shall it represent the spray regardless of light and shade, so that, no matter under what conditions the plate or pottery appears, its decoration will always seem to be in place ? a plate is a movable object, and its decoration is seldom seen in the same position twice in succession. therefore, a painted spray on this plate, that demanded a certain condition of light in order that it should appear to its best advantage, would be entirely out of place, while one with the light and shade ignored, all the refinements of form still retained, and all the delicate details of nature emphasized, would certainly be most suitable. in the naturalistic treatment, the beautiful and delicate details of nature are lost in the attempt to make the spray seem natural, and, in making it natural-contrary as it may seem-we make it false. $ elements of ornament. . invention and imitation. decorative art origi- nates in two distinct faculties of the mind—the inventive, or constructive, and the imitative. inventive ornament consists of an arbitrary and abstract arrangement of lines calculated to produce a pleasing effect. this is character- istic of the savage tribes, though traces of it pervaded all the great styles, the frets and interlacings of the classic, medieval, and arabian styles being of this character. invent- ive ornament of this class affords the best practice to the student in the study of decorative design, and, at the same time, offers the best and simplest means of demonstrating some of the greatest principles of ornament. . the oval in nature.-there is an abstract form that seems to pervade many beautiful forms in nature; this form we call the oval, and on it are based many outlines seen in the vegetable world. it is an elementary outline of many leaves, and also enters into the composition of the human head and hand. in studying the oval we find that its two sides are alike, that is, it is repeated on each side of a center line. it is not only repeated, but, being reversed, one side is contrasted to another, and still, again, throughout the entire curve — unlike the curve of a circle — there is a constant change of form and direction; therefore, we have a variety. hence, three important principles of design-repetition, contrast, and variety—are expressed in the simple form of this oval. > . repetition, contrast, and variety.–now let us take up these three principles in a point of design. the simplest arrangement of lines in order to secure repetition is somewhat shown at (a) in fig. , but here there is no variety; while at (b) we secure variety with the same arrangement for repetition by making the lines of varying lengths, but there is no contrast. let us again change them and put them as we have them at (c), which gives us con- trast, but destroys our variety. however, by adopting the elements of ornament. three methods in (a), ( ), and (c), we have in (d), repetition, variety, and contrast—the three elements that we seek. abandoning lines, let us return to some natural form. in ( ) |||| lalo ( ) luule m మీరు (c) (a) fig. . fig. . fig. , at (a), we have repetition, at (b), we have variety, and at (c), by combining (a) and (b), introducing the third element as in the previous case, we have repetition, variety, and contrast in leaf forms as desired. . symmetry and radiation. in addition to these principles, we have evolved two more, so far unspoken of, as shown at (b) and (d) in fig. . these principles are, (a) ( ) c) (a) fig. . symmetry and radiation. symmetry has many forms of expression, but usually may be considered to mean likesided- ness, no matter what the form of the object may be. at (a), s elements of ornament. as fig. , is shown a form of symmetry that consists simply of the arrangement and repetition of a given form each side of a center line ; this is known bisymmetry. at ( ) is a similar arrange- ment where the forms on the sides are the same in detail as the form that separates them ; this is known as tri- syminetry. at (c), where there are a number of forms each side of a similar form in the center, we have what is known as multisymmetry. by bringing the forms shown at ( ), fig. , together to form a unity, we have an example of radiation from a point, as shown at (d), while the dis- tribution of the forms along a center line, as shown in fig. , gives an example of radiation from a center line. fig. . ornament. linear ornament. . ancient pottery decoration. from a considera- tion of the earliest forms of historic art, it will be found that, after the most suitable form of utensil for the purpose required had been arrived at, the easiest and readiest means were employed to execute the decoration of its surface. the elements of the pattern were of the simplest character- composed of straight lines—and a pointed stick was gener- ally used to execute the ornament in the soft clay of their pottery. fig. shows a vase where the straight lines variously arranged in patterns are disposed in bands, and the patterns are a result of simple arrangement in accordance with some fundamental principle handed down from generation to generation. pottery is selected for the demonstration of s elements of ornament. this point; inasmuch as it is of a more durable character, we have more examples of the early period, and it there- fore furnishes a more reliable series of art development, it has often been demonstrated that the patterns evolved by weaving are identi- cal with, and often suggested by, the patterns found on pottery. it is only incidental to point out in this figure that there appears to be an unconscious obedience to the laws of fitness in the application of these straight-line pat- terns. they are not applied in an arbitrary way, but in harmony with the structure they adorn, as a fig. . . fitness of ornament. usual thing, the rim comes in for deco- ration in order to give the part most likely to fracture an appearance of strength, while any change in the contour of the form is usually emphasized by additional ornamentation. the reason for this may be found in the fact that the application of ornament gives an impression of strength, and, when a vase or jug in its plastic condition is difficult to maintain in shape, the idea naturally sug- gests itself to the potter to decorate that part that exhib- its the weakness of the form. this determines largely the location of the bands around the curves. we will find also a precedent for this in the vegetable world, as changes in the directions of stems are generally accented in some way or other by the thickening or broadening of the point of union for the two elements. the stem of a leaf is usually almost as large or thick as the branch itself at that point. . as we progress in the study of prehistoric decora- tion, the later examples possess the curved line, and the zigzag—so common in early work—becomes softened and gradually develops itself into a wavy scroll, as shown at $ elements of ornament. (a), (b), and (c) in fig. . the changes arise from the fact that the angles are first rounded off, and the other portions of the line between the curves are softened and graduated until the zigzag loses its identity entirely in the wavy line at (c). (a) ( ) . constructive origin of decorative art. - from these illus- trations it will be readily understood that decora- tive art had a construc- tive origin. primitive man, finding it necessary to provide coverings for his body, learned that the weaving of certain strands produced certain patterns, such as the zig- zag, lozenge, etc., and in later periods, when he had learned the use of metals, he applied the forms thus associated in his mind. these forms were again adopted in decorating other materials, and hence formed a starting point for decoration. (c) fig. . . evolution of design.-if the student will now follow out graphically the progress of design from the work of the savage to that of civilized man, he will comprehend a number of details that he otherwise could not learn. on a sheet of paper, rule off a number of equally spaced vertical and horizontal lines, as shown in fig. . then emphasize certain lines of the square meshes, but varying the emphasis by shade work or spotting to produce different patterns all based on the same geometrical principle as shown at (a), (b), (c), and (d). (a) is the simplest form, and consists of repeated crosses alternating with squares, while ( ) is evolved on the same principle, but by uniting the inter- mediate squares with the crosses; (c) is another pattern resulting from the inclusion of a greater number of founda- tion squares, and (d) shows how an interlaced design may be produced. the geometrical figures at (e) contain > % l(a) ( ) {(e) (이 ​h (e) fig. . (a) ( ) x (c) (e) fig, , s $ elements of ornament. elements of more progressive design, and resemble the pat- terns usually evolved by the savage race. in fig. is shown a different series of patterns evolved by working on the diagonals of the squares and then by the introduction of semicircles struck from the angles or inter- sections of the diagonals. . limitless variety of patterns.—the product of various patterns on this plan is almost unlimited, a few of which are shown in fig. in order that the student may better understand the extent to which this can be carried. at (a), fig. , quarter circles are struck from the center of each figure, thereby forming a series of wavy lines that determine the shape of the pattern. at ( ), how- ever, a series of semicircles is emphasized so as to gen- erate a trefoil pattern, while (c) and (d) are produced by means of a number of tangent circular arcs, and (e) is developed upon lines crossing one another diagonally so as to leave lozenge shaped spaces instead of squares or parallelograms. in the latter case we have a series of figures produced somewhat as shown in fig. , each of which can be used as (a) (b) (c) (d) fig. . the element for the construction of a new pattern, as shown in fig. . if, now, we reduce the forms shown in fig. to their own individual elements, we get a series of forms similar to fig. , and, applying these as elements of design, produce results similar to fig. , where at (a) we have an orderly arrangement of the obtuse angle shown at (a) in fig. , at ( ) a combination of the quadrants shown at ( ) aucerveis bbc fig. . $ elements of ornament. in fig. , and at (c) a similar combination of the ogee curves, shown at (c) in fig. . straight lines alone may be combined almost ( ) without limit, as shown in fig. ; (a) and a combination of curves and straight lines, or curves, straight lines, and spirals, gives a great کر s (c) fig. . (a) ( ) (c) fig. . c variety of forms, which can be introduced and combined to form an unlimited series of patterns. (a) ( ) (c) fig. . . brush decoration of pottery.“we have been considering so far only linear patterns as were found in pre- historic pottery when pottery was ornamented chiefly by incising the soft clay with a hard point. in later periods, however, pottery was decorated by means of the brush, and, elements of ornament. as has already been pointed out, the use of this employment led to much excellence in ornamental art. it will now be readily understood how the combination of a few brush marks produced such important historic forms as the greek palmette and honeysuckle ornament, and the fleur-de-lis and other devices common in medieval heraldry. in the first instance we considered the development of linear design in pottery decoration; then the application of pottery design to surface decoration and an analysis of forms that these arts produced; and, finally, a production of new forms from the elements of the original ones. now follow out the same idea and reproduce these forms with the variety that can be given them through brush decoration, we introduce an entirely new lot of expressions that linear decoration is incapable of carrying forth. if we natural ornament. . union with geometrical ornament.--history shows that, as civilization advanced, greater ability for the expression of ornamental design was developed, and that mere geometrical design was found insufficient. natural forms were therefore resorted to in order to add new fea- tures to the preexisting forms, and this was done in such a way that the new elements should harmonize with the old. the natural representations, though imitations of nature, were not pictorial copies, but modifications to suit their pur- pose, or, as we now consider it, conventional renderings; and it is the union of these two principles—the imitative and the inventive—that has given rise to the most impor- tant styles of ornamental art. therefore, in applying natural forms to decoration, the student must always guard against the tendency to run into a pictorial representa- tion, as pictorial forms do not harmonize with the older geometrical lines that may be called on to serve with them. forms adopted from nature must be adapted by a judicious conventionalism. $ elements of ornament. conventionalism in ancient art. . kinds of conventionalism. in historic ornament we find two kinds of conventionalism : first, the conven- tionalism of principles or ideas, and second, the conven- tionalism of facts. the first deals only with the principles or ideas of growth common to a number of classes of plants or objects, and not representative of any specific form. the second deals with the individualizing of particular plants or objects, giving a more or less geometrical rendering of them. fig. . . egyptian conventionalism.-for instance, the art of the egyptians, being purely symbolic, bound them to the conventionalism of facts, and in using their favorite flowers — the lotus and papyrus - in decorative art, they did not copy them pictorially, but con- ventionalized them in such a manner that they readily conveyed the idea (a) ( ) of the type and at the same time obeyed the rules of their geometrical foundation. in fig. the papyrus is shown at (a) and the lotus at (b), in their natural forms. in fig. is shown a border based on the primi- tive zigzag of prehistoric ornament, and decorated at (a) with a conyentional (a) (c) rendering of the lotus and at ( ) with a conven- tional rendering of the papyrus, while at (c) is shown the lotus flower with its curyed outline as we see it in later egyptian art after the curve of the zigzag had been evened up, as heretofore shown in fig. . ( ) fig. . . greek conventionalism.-—the art system of the greeks, however, was of the other kind of conventionalism- § elements of ornament, that of principles or ideas. greek art not being symbolic, there was no necessity to represent particular plants (though at times they did so), and usually in their ornament we find principles expressed without indicating any particular natural type. in fig. is shown an ornament found as a border on many vases. its structural line is undoubtedly a develop- ment of the zigzag, while the leaf forms owe their origin to the limitations of brush work, and the general character of the orna- ment is indicative of a class of running plants, but expressive of no par- ticular plant. another point observable in greek art is the way in which the scrolls are decorated, which, though based on a principle of vegetation, do not imitate any particular type. in fig. is shown an example of greek foliated orna- ment; it will be noticed that the principles there expressed are based on certain ideas derived from the vegetable world. in fig. is shown a branch of a shrub from nature, and it fig. . fig. . fig, . will be observed that the part of the shrub above the branches is smaller than the part of the shrub below the branches, and that there is a considerable thickening of the elements of ornament. part where the main stem and the branching stem unite. the greek ornament in fig. is simply a development of this principle, and does not imitate the plant at all, but ornaments the idea. . development of leaves.-following the general growth and development of plants comes the consideration of their leaves; these should be studied systematically, accord- ing to their develop- ment. such study will show that in spite of the apparent irregu- larity of leaf form there is a regular order in their outlines. it has already been shown that leaves develop fig, . according to some geo- metrical principle, and it will be found that the majority of leaves or leaf clusters may be enclosed within a circle or an (a) ( ) fig, , ellipse, as shown in fig. ; and a continuance of this prin- ciple to the study of flowers will show that the top views of many flowers are governed by the same geometrical figure, as shown at (a), fig. , where the buttercup, daisy, and $ elements of ornament. phlox are shown, while at (b) the side views of these flowers are enclosed within a triangle. . geometrical forms in nature.—the study of nature will show that this principle can be carried out exten- sively, even to the fruit or seeds of the various plants; and a careful study of individual forms and their details will enlighten the student to many ideas that can be reduced to a geometrical principle and thereby become conventional- ized, while other facts observable in nature can also be con- ventionalized to give a closer representation of the form. conventional ornament. . natural forms in design.„we will now try to show how the study of nature can be applied in ornamental design. suppose we return to fig. and take the design worked out at (e) and decorate it with forms from nature. fig. . we will surround the extremities of the radiating lines with figures derived from the study of nature, such as the edges of some flowers, and produce a design somewhat as shown in fig. . a similar treatment of (c), fig. , will elements of ornament. produce a design somewhat as shown in fig. . fig. is based on the development of (c), fig. , and fig. is a development of (d), fig. . fig. . . now, instead of dividing our sur- face up into rectan- gles, as we did in figs. , , etc., we will let the out- line of some natural form govern the subdivision; and, in fig. we have a pattern where the contour of a five- lobed leaf is used as the governing principle of the outline, within which other floral forms are used to form a surface decoration. this, it will immediately be observed, is the method of using natural forms practiced by oriental artists, and the pattern shown in fig. is strongly sug- gestive of arabian art. for instance, at (a), fig. , is shown a spray of leaves from nature, while at ( ) is an arabian design based on the out- line of this spray of leaves. la fig. . . arrangement of ornament in indian art.-in indian art a favorite way of spacing out the orna- ment was after the manner shown in fig. , where the leaf form is evidently of the lotus type. diapers in indian art are often designed as shown in fig. , where there is no attempt made to represent any particular plant, but simply $ elements of ornament. an application of principles. thus, we see that the conven- tionalism of principles is almost unlimited in its extent, and we will now consider the conventionalism of facts. स a . convention- alizing plant form.--take, for in- stance, any plant suit- able for the purpose, and adapt it to orna- ment. we are not going to make a pic- ture of it, but study its characteristics, par- fig. . ticularly those those that distinguish it from other plants, and idealize the original. it will be necessary to examine more than one specimen of the selected plant, because a peculiarity or accidental mark in one individual may not be found in another, and what we then require is a knowl- edge of the details and characteristics common to the entire family or kind to which the chosen speci- men belongs. this knowl- edge can be acquired only by long and continued study of plant analysis, as a limited study is likely to render an untrue repre- sentation. fig. . . realism and conventionalism.—to copy nature as she is presented to us, with all the accidents and defects, would be to render her realistically. to correct nature by knowledge derived from the study of all her works in each elements of ornament. class, would be to treat her naturally. to reduce the result of these studies to a principle that expresses a simple fact with the fewest possible lines, as was done by (a) ( ) fig. . the egyptians with their lotus blossom, is to treat nature conventionally. for instance, at (a), fig. , is shown an ivy leaf sketched from nature. it cannot be considered as ideal or natural, because its shape is not even the average shape of a number fig. . of leaves; therefore, (a) is a realistic drawing. at ( ), how- ever, is shown what might be considered a composite picture of a number of leaves possessing all the corrections of irreg- ularities found in the entire class. this is a naturalistic ren- dering of the ivy leaf, and the reduction of this leaf to a $ elements of ornament. pentagonal form, shown in fig. , reduces it to the simple expression of an idea, and presents the ivy leaf in a most conventional form. . consideration of purpose.—the extent, however, to which the modification of the details must be carried in order to apply a plant form in design must be determined by the purpose of its applica- tion, whether the design is to be free or severe. if the design is to be severe, the geometrical rendering shown in fig. will be most serviceable, but, if the design is to be free, the naturalistic form shown at ( ), fig. , may be used. the form shown at (a) with all its shadings and gradations, so strongly characteristic of the growing plant under certain conditions of lighting, is never suitable to ornament. fig. . . . taste in conventionalism.—now let us consider this application in fig. . at (a) is shown the application of the flower to the primi- tive design illustrated at (e) in fig. . the flattened curves of the flowers and leaves in the natural repre- sentation as shown in fig. are arranged at (a), fig. , stiffly, in order to harmonize (a) ( ) with the severe character of the design. but the char- acter of the plant is maintained, because its main features fig. . § elements of ornament. have not only been adhered to, but have been empha- sized. observe the indented ends of the petals, the serrated edges of the calyx, and the acutely lobed characteristic of (a) (b) fig. . the leaves. at ( ), fig. , however, the lines forming the basis of the pattern are composed of curves and do not demand so severe a treatment of the ornamenting plant, and the flower is rendered in a freer and more naturalistic manner than was possible in the previous case. . thus, it will be seen that the conventionalized rendering of a natural object requires careful consideration as to the extent to which the geometrical rendering shall have influence, and the idea that conventional rendering is sim- ply a geometrical rendering, without consideration of the properties and application, is entirely wrong. fig, , $ elements of ornament. elements of ornament. these may classification of elements, . although good ornament is possible with the sim- plest forms and materials, it is undoubtedly true that the higher the form of decorative art, the nobler must be the elements of which it is composed. the elements of orna- ment are therefore drawn from a great many different sources, but may be classified in a general way under two distinct heads—the artificial and the natural. again be subdivided, for the sake of convenience, into six subordinate classes-geometrical, architectural, industrial, vegetable, animal, and the human figure. . under the subject of geometrical ornament, we include frets, traceries, diapers, interlacings, etc., together with those forms that are so simply developed in the orna- ment of the savage races. in architectural ornament, we include columns, entablatures, pediments, cartouches, etc. industrial ornament may be considered to include all musical instruments, vases, spears, and other arms, as well as laces, ribbons, etc. vegetable ornament embraces designs from plant life-leaves, flowers, fruits, festoons, various rosettes, etc.—while under the animal classification we have quadrupeds, fishes, birds, insects, and reptiles, as well as such imaginary figures as griffins, dragons, etc. the human figure used in design includes both natural and mythological representations, the terminals of foliage designs used in the renaissance periods, the caryatids used in classic art, as well as certain creations in the mind of man, such as sphinxes, atlantes, mermaids, etc. geometrical elements. . frets.—the simplest form of geometrical elements we find in the frets, which throughout all ages and with all peoples seem to have been a favorite method of ornamenting $ elements of ornament. flat surfaces. they are used largely for borders, for which they are eminently fitted, but diapers are also formed of them in japanese and egyptian art. in fretwork, the pattern and the ground are usually equally spaced, but this need not always be the case, as a strong effect is sometimes obtained by making a variation in this respect, as shown at (a), fig. . another variation that may be attained in frets is accomplished by changing the formation of the figure that forms their governing outline. it is not necessary that this figure should be l ja = fig. . square or even rectangular, as is clearly illustrated at ( ) and (c), the former being a parallelogram in the form of each section of its pattern, and the latter developed on the intersection of a series of diagonal lines, this being more characteristic of ornamental work, and suitable for flat or inclined surfaces. the introduction of curved lines in this class of work, either in conjunction with straight lines or entirely by themselves, leads us to various interlaced pat- terns, including the guilloche and basketwork. . the study of geometrical ornament is of particular value on account of the elements that lie at the base of the elaborate and intricate patterns that oriental artists and the middle-age mosaic workers so freely indulged in. with a thorough understanding of geometrical ornament and the possibilities of geometrical arrangement, the designing of complex and intricate patterns becomes a comparatively simple task. architectural elements. . construction allied with beauty.–next in the order of our subdivision we take up architectural ele- ments, and we must consider that architecture properly § elements of ornament. comprehended is the art of construction allied with beauty —not construction made beautiful by superadded decora- tion, but construction with beauty incorporated with it. in all the best periods of ornamental art, it has been architec- ture that has afforded the greatest field for its development; and in pottery, stained and painted glass, ironwork, jewelry, and the decoration of pilasters, shafts, etc., architectural construction has had a most marked influence. in decorated designs, certain architectural forms have been used in their pure and simple form, but most fre- quently they have been modified by imagination so as to bring them in harmony with other details with which they are associated. hence, in some forms of ornament, we find but a suggestion of architecture, while, in others, a distinctive characteristic, . adaptation of architectural forms.--in adapt- ing architectural forms to a surface design, it is entirely unnecessary that the stiffness and structural rigidity that is demanded in architectural practice should be maintained in the surface pattern, because the same structural conditions do not exist. there is no physical weight to be provided for, and, in the decoration, the introduction of the appear- ance of weight is all that is necessary so long as the eye is satisfied. the representation of a frieze may be taken from carved pro- totype, but the details of the relief expressed in the original carving need form no part of the textile or other surface design, the element of beauty lying in the direction and proportioning of the lines only; the frieze may there- (a) (b) fore be reduced to a simple sur- face treatment. the same may be said in the design of an iron grille fig. . $ elements of ornament. either for a railing or for a gate. the design should be influenced if not governed by some characteristic of a simi- ilar detail in its original material. for instance, the design of the fence panel shown at (a), fig. , is clearly copied in its general outline from the stone baluster of the classic balustrade shown at ( ). the treatment of the head-piece over the gateway shown at (a), fig. , is clearly developed > bane (a) ( ) fig. . from the broken pediment characteristic of certain renais- sance work shown at ( ). these details as reproduced in iron are not copies of the original, but simply ornamental forms founded on a principle of earlier construction. in the same manner a well-designed iron railing is influenced in its proportions and composition by the architectural orders and classic proportions for balustrades. . the volute scroll.–some of the ornamental details derived in architecture and applied in decorative art will now be considered as to their origin and proper treat- ment. there is, for instance, the little volute scroll so characteristic of the corinthian column as it curls out under the corner of the abacus. the gracefulness of this feature and its apparent strength render it particularly adaptable in setting out friezes and other purely ornamental arrange- ments where the qualities of grace and strength are to be $ elements of ornament, combined, as shown in fig. , where a frieze is designed fig. . using one of the forms of scroll shown in fig. , all of fig. . which have been taken from the capitals of the various modifications of the corinthian. (a) fig. . sg elements of ornament. some > . the cartouch.—the cartouch is another archi- tectural detail that enters largely into decorative design; it owes its origin to the ancient use of paper or parchment labels for inscriptions and badges. the margins of these labels were usually cut in ornamental shape and afterwards curled into scroll forms of an ornamental char- acter. this led to a systematic develop- ment, and, subsequent- ly, in conjunction with interlaced ornament, produced a new kind of decorative work that we usually term cartouch work. this element is invaluable to the designer, both in its capacity as a filling-in treatment for an uninteresting piece of background, and as a strengthening element to the general composition. at (a), fig. , is shown one of the earliest and simplest forms of this cartouch work, while at ( ) is shown the paper from which it is cut. in figs. and are shown examples of advanced and more complicated cartouches, developed from the same general principle. it is easy to understand the develop- ment of the cartouch form into the carved work shown in fig. , where a shield-shaped cartouch, with its curled and ornamental edges, is carved in relief with the human figure. in fig. is shown a further fig. . fig. , s elements of ornament. development of the ornament, in order to convert it into a frame, as was done during the period of the italian renaissance. the general form varied, but became more elaborate in design as the renaissance spread into france and germany. industrial elements. . association with architectural elements,—the industrial elements of design are not widely separated from the architectural class, and are considered here under a different heading simply as a matter of convenience. indus- trial objects, such as tools, armor, musical instruments, etc., are used in various ways in decoration, usually for purely symbolic purposes. these articles are usually introduced purely from an esthetic sense, with no other purpose than to please the sense of vision, and are therefore arranged to present to the best advantage the beauty of their forms. . symbolism.-in the symbolic use of these details, it should always be remembered that there are two ideas associated with nearly all symbols-one, the idea of recall- ing something to the memory; the other, the expression of an entirely new idea, or the illustration of one. thus, the latin cross may stand as an expression or as a symbol of the christian faith, or it may act as a reminder of the crucifixion of christ. another case is where the musical instrument, the lyre, so frequently used to express the idea of music, may with equal propriety set forth a reminder of the ancient use of that instrument in the classic musical entertainments. . prehistoric emblems.-at (a), fig. , is shown a prehistoric emblem of god. it had its origin almost undoubtedly in early sun worship, which fact is attested by the circle, and the survival of this form is seen in the halo, or nimbus, painted over the heads of the saints during the middle ages. at ( ) we have the egyptian symbol of divinity, but of a more complex character. the circle is $ elements of ornament. still retained but is supported by outstretched wings, indica- tive of sovereignty and ubiquity of the deity. the scara- bæus of the egyptians, shown at (c), was a detail that appeared frequently in their designs. at (d) we have the nimbus, or halo, characteristic of the christian symbol of glory, and at (e), (f), (g), and ( ) we have four forms of (a) (b) t+x a (e) ( ) (h) fig. . crosses known under the names of the latin cross at (e), the greek cross at (ſ), the cross of st. andrew at ( ), and the maltese cross at ( ). at ( ) is shown the old symbolic monogram of christ, composed of the two greek letters of his name x (chi) and p (rho), with a (alpha) and (omega), the first and last letters of the greek alphabet, added to indicate his eternal character. . these few forms will serve to illustrate the extent to which symbolism enters into modern ornamental design, and a little study and thought will bring to the student's mind and attention numerous other examples of the same kind. natural elements. . vegetable forms.--of the elements of design that are taken directly from nature, our first consideration will naturally be the vegetable forms. here the material presented to the designer is not only unlimited in style, but is easy of adaptation to all his requirements. elements of ornament. a te org whic in using plant forms for design, there is material for the designer in every part of the growth-the roots, stalk, leaves, flowers, and seed all contain details that may sug- gest ideas to the designer. while there may be nothing of great beauty in the root of a flower itself, yet there is always sufficient detail of importance there, and, if properly studied, can give rise to beautiful ideas. stov fect mor bore cen mei . thickening of stem at points of departure. in all good ornament of a flowing character, no matter how conventionally it may be arranged, it has always been the practice that there should be a thickening of the stem at the point of departure of the two reversed growths, as shown at (a), fig. ; or, if more than one starting point is used, a stop is usually intro- (a) duced between the two sections of gro can goc ha na (a) ( ) cu fig. . an in run- design that are ning together, as at ( ). m ir . (c) botanical principles in design. now let us see how the application of some of these principles of growth can be proper- ly considered in orna- mental design. let us study the botanical aspect for a moment. we have in botany (d) fig. . sg elements of ornament. a term called inflorescence, which is the arrangement or growth of flowers on the stem, the simplest form of which is shown at (a), fig. . taking its principle of growth and not copying in any way the specimens, we can introduce it in the design shown at (c), where it forms a per- fectly proper termination with the scroll, with which it har- monizes, as well as with the longitudinal character of the border pattern. at ( ) is shown another form of inflores- cence, and at (d) is shown its application to a scroll orna- ment as before. . there are many different characteristics of botanical growth, each of which is capable of furnishing an idea that can be carried out as simply as the above, and always to good advantage, in the product of satisfactory designs. animal elements. . frequent use in design. animal elements have always been used in ornamental art in a more or less naturalistic manner, and, though these forms are more diffi- cult to treat ornamentally than are inanimate forms, the ancient artist used them frequently, as animal forms will increase the interest in any composition. in celtic orna- ment, for instance, elements from the animal world are introduced even with the purest geometrical designs, and we find down to the present day that conventionalized rep- resentations from the animal world are most conspicuous details of heraldry. in certain periods of art, animal forms were preferred even to the vegetable forms, as man in his early condition had a closer interest in certain classes of beasts that aided him in his struggle for existence, such as the horse, rein- deer, dog, etc. his admiration for them lay more in his comprehension of their usefulness than in his admiration of their form, as his chief business in life at that time was the provision for his natural wants and his own protection. $ elements of ornament. watchfulness, strength, alertness, and swiftness. we find this figure on the piers of gateways, and it was often used by the greeks to adorn certain portions of their temples. . in this representation, we conventionalize the idea by representing it symbolically, the eagle's head and wings and the expression of the added ears being symbolic of watch- fulness, alertness, and swiftness, whereas the lion's body is symbolic of strength. the conventionalized facts we find in the reduction of these emblems to a form by which they can be combined in one figure. . sphinx, wivern, etc.--other figures of this char- acter are the sphinx, shown in fig. , which combines the > fig. . human head with the body of the lion-symbolic of intelli- gence and strength; the wivern, shown in fig. , which con- sists of a sort of winged serpent with a bird's head and legs, and carries the same idea as the griffin, with the addition of wis- dom indicated by the ser- pent's body, and alertness during the nocturnal hours from the bat-like form of its wings. another figure of this character, which is of greek fig. . § elements of ornament. origin, is the chimera, shown in fig. . this figure is supposed to typify a volcanic mountain in greece, which, according to various legends, was infested with lions at the top, and around the middle with goats, while the foot of fig. . the mountain abounded in venomous snakes. the chimera therefore combining the forms of the lion, goat, and ser- pent, from whose mouths issued flames and deadly gases, became the symbol of terror and devastation. the dragon shown in fig. has ever been an emblem of the evil forces of the natural and moral world. it com- walan . fig. . bines in its characteristics the litheness and repulsiveness of the lizard and serpent, the swiftness of action charac- teristic of various winged creatures, and the fierceness and $ elements of ornament. f belligerency of the carnivorous animals from the form of its teeth and claws. to intensify its evil appearance, it is fre- quently represented as belching flames. there are numerous other animals of a mythical char- acter that have their origin purely in the conventionalism of some idea, and the reduction of numerous animal forms to the conventional rendering is almost unlimited in its application. . difficulty of adapting animal forms. in the case of animal forms, it is not so easy to adapt them to the requirements of ornamental design as it is the free and varied growth of plants. the latter have a multitudinous repetition of parts that enables the designer to adapt them without violence to nature, while animal forms have a proscribed and limited number of parts that narrows the limit of their employment and presents difficulties in the way of their successful adaptation. it is therefore necessary that ani- mal forms should be analyzed in the same manner that plant forms have been analyzed in this course of study, in order to learn the characteristic lines of their compo- sition and reduce them to a form capable of conventional rendering . it is comparatively easy to draw accurately any animal form, and yet such a form is likely to be utterly unfit for decorative purposes, while a less accurate repre- sentation may be highly suited to decorative work; and we will find that the animal forms usually seen in the designs of the more barbaric nations are better suited to ornamental art than the realistic renderings of the later periods. . birds and running ornaments.—birds also may be combined successfully with running ornament, as they are not only graceful in themselves, but are pleasantly associated with all plant growth, and they can be arranged so that their lines flow with the lines of the ornament and harmonize with it perfectly. certain quadrupeds can thus be treated also, but not always so readily. i $ elements of ornament. . wings in ornament. while we are considering the introduction of bird forms it will be wise for us to con- sider the subject of wings and the introduction of wings in ornament. there are few details of animal form that have been so extensively introduced in various convention- alized forms, to represent both ideas and facts, as the wings of birds and bats. though the bird's wing is composed of flesh and feathers, and the bat's wing is made up of a skele- ton framework between the parts of which a thin skin is . kuala mon fig. . stretched, the principle governing the outline of each is practically the same, and, in addition to this, it might be noted that the structure of wings and that of the human arm is very closely allied. at (a), fig. , is shown the outline of a bird's wing, while at ( ) is shown the outline of a bat's wing, and at (c), an outline of the bone construction of the human arm, the relative arrangement of these details will show their relation in structure, while fig. shows three forms of $ elements of ornament. bird's wing, differing materially in outline, owing to the arrangement of the feathers, but based on precisely the same skeleton construction as is shown at (a), fig. . . proportions of wings.—at (a), fig. , the wing represented is that of a common sparrow, while ( ) shows the pigeon's wing, and (c), that of the sea swallow. it will be observed that in the order they are named these wings are ( ) (b) (c) fig. . from birds each of whose flight is more prolonged than the former—the sparrow, flying but short distances; the pigeon, usually capable of traveling a mile or more on the wing; while the sea swallow is flying a majority of the time. the relative extent of the outward extremity of the wing, it frank h. ball elements of ornament $ . will be observed, increases with the flying qualities of the bird, in apply- ing these wing forms to design, it is fre- quently necessary to take these details into consideration. > . application of wings. we have already considered the application of the wing in the design of the winged globe shown at ( ), fig. , but its application to other forms we will consider here. in fig. is shown the character- istic egyptian hiero- glyph of the goddess fig. . neith, who carries in each hand a symbol, and whose out- stretched wings typify her world-wide sovereignty. in more modern applica- tion, we find the use of wings in the greek sphinx, shown in fig. , where the treat- ment is less conventional than in the egyptian style, and the possession of the wings distinguishes this sphinx from the of egyptian design. fig. shows a still modern application, where, in a female figure, the wings replace the arms and are outstretched in the one more fig. . $ elements of ornament. position usually considered symbolic of untiring activity or eternal protection. fig. . . feathers. besides the wings, in a total by themselves, we have the individual feathers as a sub- ject for decoration, and many designs are based on these details. at (a), fig. , are shown the ends of pea- fig. . cock feathers, which have always been a favorite type for ornamentation, while at ( ) are shown various types of feathers from the pheasant in different stages of their development, with their characteristic spots and markings. at (a), fig. , is shown a design for a border, the ele- ments of which are derived from the peacock feather, while at ( ) are shown three designs based on the formation $ elements of ornament. fy illustrated in the forms of the pheasant's feather shown at ( ), fig. . > (a) ( ) fig. . . insects in design.—the use of insects in decora- tive design is not as extensive as of birds, though the mark- ings of the wings of some of them, particularly the butterfly, are easily applicable in some characters of design, as shown > (a) ( ) fig. . at (a), fig. , where a border is designed on principles taken from the butterfly's wing illustrated at (b), and the simple mosquito, illustrated in a conventional rendering at $ elements of ornament. (a), fig. , is easily applicable to a diaper ornament, as shown at ( ). there is no limit to the extent to which these ( ) fig. . forms may be varied, or combined with plant forms, to pro- duce any given variety of ornament. . fishes in ornament.—the use of fishes in orna- mental art is somewhat limited. with the exception of the dolphin, we have very few historic representations of this class of animal; but, in order that there may be a thorough understanding of the details that must be considered in the designing of any fish-like form, there is illustrated in fig. a typical fish, with the (a) five principal fins that exist in nearly every (c) example, though they may be varied in form. at (a) is the dorsal fin; at (b), the ventral fin; and at (c), the pec- toral fin. the tail is technically known as the caudal fin, and the fin between the ventral and the tail is termed the anal fin. each of these fins is developed to a greater or less degree in different fishes, in some of which it is divided so as to pre- sent two fins. for instance, it is not unusual to find two or more dorsal or two or more ventral or anal fins on one fish, and in rendering them for conventional treatment, it would be well to bear in mind a certain type of fish from which to study, and to preserve the characteristics of this fish in the rendering fig. . $ elements of ornament. for instance, we have at (a), fig. , a fish wherein the pectoral fins are so enlarged as to appear almost as wings, > (a) (c) (b) fig. . while at ( ) and (c) are two conventional renderings typify- ing the characteristics of this fish but reducing it to a purely ornamental form. . snakes and lizards.-there is no limit to which this can be carried, not only with fish but with snakes and lizards, as the latter sometimes introduces an ele- ment of frivolity and relieves the seriousness of a purely conventional and constructive composition. ser- pents have always formed a favorite type for the design of all periods, not only in flat-surface ornament but also in the design of certain utensils, where, as in fig. , they are used to form the handle of a ewer. the combination of fishes and rep- tiles gives, again, an opportunity to fig. . sg elements of ornament. express conventionally the attributes of two animals, as was done in the combination of reptiles and birds, or of birds and animals, and the introduction of shells and shell-like forms is not only highly appropriate in designs where ele- ments from the sea are characteristic, but we find that shells fit themselves admirably, with very little alteration in their detail, to the purposes of the designer. tiie human figure. . the noblest element of design.--the human figure is the highest and noblest of all the elements from which the designer can draw ideas, and it is at the same time the most difficult one to handle in any character of a design. it does not lend itself to conventionalism and con- ventional rendering as readily as do the vegetable and animal forms, and the rendering of its proportion is more difficult to learn than any other subject. . proportions of the human figure. in order that the human figure might possess uniformity in its pro- portions, the egyptians drew up a system by which different members of the body could be maintained in relatively the same ratio at all times, and it is believed that this same sys- tem was adopted by the greeks, although carried to greater refinement. a greek writer on the subject states that "nature has so composed the human body that the face from the chin to the top of the forehead and roots of the hair should be one-tenth the height, and that the palm of the hand froin the wrist joint to the tip of the middle finger should possess the same measurement; that from the chin to the highest point of the head should be one-eighth the height, and from the chest to the roots of the hair should be one-sixth.” carrying out the measurements, and, at the same time, calling the student's attention to a number of others, we have the proportions as shown in fig. . here the fig- ure is shown with one arm extended, drawn within the $ elements of ornament. as els ke square a b c d, and the horizontal and vertical lines dividing this square into sixteen smaller squares determine the posi- tion of important parts of the body. thus, the distance be is one-fourth the height of the body, and the line passes through the middle of the chest; the dis- tance bf is one-eighth the height of the body, and the line is ir a re d fig. . passes under the chin; the distance fg is one-tenth the height of the body, and the line passes tangent to the chin and through the roots of the hair; fh is one-sixteenth the height of the body, and marks the distance of the eyes above the chin; while fi is one thirty-second the height of the body, and marks the dis nce of the bottom of the nose above the chin. it will be here observed that the arms extended horizontally measure the same distance across, § elements of ornament. from the tip of the middle finger of one hand to that of the other, a distance equal to the height of the body. the lines across the elbow, thigh, knee, calf of the leg, etc. show the breadth of each member in proportion to the height of the body at the point marked. it is not the intention of this description to give a com- plete systematic set of rules for the drawing of the human figure, but simply to indicate the general proportions by which the student can outline a figure in a design and keep it in relative proportion to the other elements of the composition. . harmony in adaptation. in adapting figures to design, it is of the utmost importance that they should har- monize with the ornament, in its direction and line, with which they are associated, as well as that the figures should be so posed as to be in harmony with the space they are to fill. figures simply drawn to fill a space, without consider- ation of their harmony with that space, have the appearance of being stuck in the design instead of forming an integral part of it. therefore, to successfully handle the human figure as an ornamental element, the student must not copy his model exactly, but must idealize as much as possible, and by constant study familiarize himself with the ornamental lines that pervade the human structure. the study of anatomy, to a general extent, will be of great assistance but cannot be altogether relied on by the orna- mentalist, as it is the surface forms and lines that concern him mostly, and these do not altogether agree with the under structure of the body. the only way to become familiar with the details and beauties of curves characteristic of the human figure is to study them frequently and constantly and make drawings from life. the general proportions and characteristics may be learned by drawing from copy, but different poses and arrangements can be acquired in no superficial study, and the designer that finds the human form necessary in his compositions must make a separate study of it and devote elements of ornament. nearly as much time to this branch as to all the rest of his studies combined. . fundamental principles of figure design.-in applying the human form in design, there are certain funda- mental principles that must ever be recognized. for instance, at (a), fig. , is shown the outline of a figure resting the > . (à) ( ) (c) fig. . bulk of the weight on one leg, and it will be observed that there is a general line of support, which is shown dotted throughout the body, from the ankle to the neck, and that about this line of support the body is disposed in almost equal masses, as shown. . another principle that must be considered is that, in drawing the upper and lower limbs, one is likely to lay too much detail upon their outline and shape rather than to appreciate the value of these elements and the general lines that govern their arrangement. for instance, though the $ elements of ornament. side view of the leg is composed of a series of convex lines, these should not be given too much prominence over the general proportion of the whole limb, as such a rendering would give a result somewhat as shown at (a), fig. ; while a closer observation of this whole member would lead to the discovery that, notwithstanding the existence of convex curves in the shin, the line in the front of the leg is con- cave, as shown at ( ), while that of the back is convex. u ( (a) (c) (d) (e) fig. . the same may be said of the forearm, which is frequently drawn as shown at (c), fig. , with the inside of the fore- arm convex, in order to show the softness of the curves at that point; but, as a matter of fact, if its general contour were taken into account, it would be found to be concave, as shown at (d), and a proper rendering of it would be more as shown at (c). the student should carefully analyze these details in studying the human figure, not only as a guide to its truth- ful representation, but also in order to study the details of its conventionalism to arrive at a proper principle for its general design--a principle that can be enlarged upon after the main outlines have been established. . difficulty of free rendering.–in considering the application of the human figure to decorative purposes, the same rules hold good as for decoration with foliage, but its rendering is, of course, more difficult, as we cannot handle it as freely as we do the plants. the human figure has to be taken in its entirety, without exaggerating its elements of ornament. , he le пе ex . ) we structure in any way (except for the purpose of caricature, which does not enter into this course of study), and its elementary lines must be thoroughly comprehended by the student. details of the human figure have been combined with animals, as has here- tofore been shown and illustrated, as in the sphinx, etc., and will presently have occasion to give other examples. the combination of the human figure with foliage is character- istic of many designs of the renaissance period, where the lower portions of the body were permitted to terminate in leaf-like forms and enter into the foliated ornament of an arabesque or panel, as shown in fig. . fig. . . this style of treatment probably grew out of a development shown in fig. , where at (a) is shown a half figure that might appear more suitable to the filling of a (®) ( ) (c) ( ) fig. . certain space than the full-length figure. the lower part of the figure is covered by drapery, the elaboration of the folds § elements of ornament. of which brings it to the form of a design shown at ( ), which further elaboration brings to a foliated form as at (c), and subsequent renderings form a part of the figure as illus- trated at (d). attention is simply called to this here to illus- trate a possible progress and growth and to show the ration- alism of foliated terminations under certain circumstances. . human figures as supports.—the use of the human figure as a support in the place of a column, or occa- arqu tate hepsgeulabcthusis el rey wildl ulvin mumum tutumlaumu twin xtutvu fig. . fig. . sionally, with artificial terminations, under brackets, is shown in fig. , which is taken from one of the caryatids elements of ornament. . used in the north porch of the erechtheum at athens, while in fig. is shown a front and side view of the egyptian method of carving human figures as supports, though, in the latter case, it will be observed that the figure does not actually support any of the superimposed load, but simply rests against a pier. the greek artists, apparently appreciating the inappropriateness of the human figure to act as a column and permanently support something super- imposed, increased the proportions and gave them a strong architectonic feeling. mem- . during the renaissance period, the use of figures as supporting bers was very much misunderstood, and the combination of these elements with the attemptat grace- fulness of line led to such misconcep- tions as shown in fig. , where the curved dotted line shows the real line of support through the figures, and, at the same time, gives expression of weakness to the detail as fig. . tectural member. a comparison of this with the greek figure shown in fig. will readily illustrate the error made by the more modern designers. an an archi- fig. . § elements of ornament. the use of half figures, called termini, is characteristic of the renaissance period, an example of which is shown in fig. . no great load should be superim- posed upon them, in order that their appli- cation may be harmo- nious. . application of wings. in the application of wings and feathers to the human figure, egyp- tian art usually at- tached the wings below the arms, as shown in fig. , while the assyrians usually attached them behind the shoulders, as shown in fig. , and, although the latter method is the less rational one from an anatomical structure, it is the one that survives at fig. . درررررر fig. . $ elements of ornament. ic in id the present day, and is usually used in modern work. fig. is taken from greek vase paintings, and shows the greeks' idea of wing treatment; while the renaissance example shown in fig. possesses an exaggerated outline, the curves of which in no way appear to agree with the hidden structure, though the development of the wings in the place of arms is much more rational than the form shown in fig. . i s . fabulous creatures. many fabulous crea- tures—partly human and partly animal--have been created during the periods of grotesque art, and to greek art we are indebted for most of these mythical creatures, as their cen- tral idea was the glorification of the human form. greek mythology had so many deities representative of different characteristics and ideas that separate gods and goddesses, illus- trative of separate con- ceptions, were indispensa- ble; and not only were lit- erature, arts, and sciences typified by a form of human being, but the seas, the rivers, the moun- tains, the woods, the trees, and the rocks were all representatively depicted in some ideal form, and even the natural devices and calamities of man- kind had some symbol fig. . in human guise. when these, however, were insufficient to properly express their ideas, the human form was combined with that of a bird or animal, or some reptile, in order to complete the symbol- ism as far as possible. therefore, in their personification § elements of ornament. of the free untrammeled woodland life, they gave to the figure of a man the legs and horns of a goat, to intensify the idea of wild freedom, and as a result we have the mytholog- ical forms of the satyr and pan illustrated in fig. . . greek sphinx.--the egyptian sphinx, being sym- bolic of the combination of intellect, wisdom, and power, is represented with the human head and the lion's body, as shown in fig. ; while the greek sphinx differs in form from that of the egyptian, as it is usually represented as being of the female sex and possessing wings. this sphinx by the greeks appears to have been adopted as the personi- fication of malignity combined with mystery, and to her is accredited the practice of propounding riddles to those that visited her and tearing to pieces all that failed to solve them. the gracefulness of the creature's form, however, caused it to become a favorite as an ornamental element, and it is used frequently in mural decoration and for the adornment of bronze tripods and other devices purely of an orna- mental character. . centaur. the combination of man and horse, called the cen- taur, was repre- sentative of a race of warriors cele- brated in greek mythology for their horseman- ship. their skill was so great that the rider and horse appeared as one; hence, the development of the idea shown in fig. . a similar device was the combined form of a fig. . j elements of ornament. woman and a horse, or, more frequently, of a woman and a deer, typifying the huntress, or a denizen of the forest. . medusa.—the head of medusa, shown in fig. , is emblematic and typical of the sensations of extreme fear and terror. according to greek mythology, medusa was the most celebrated of the gorgon sisters, who were origi- nally priestesses of athe- na, but having broken her vows of celibacy and ultimately marrying po- seidon, she was punished by the goddess athena, by having each of her beautiful wavy locks transformed into a ven- omous serpent, and her head thus assumed the horrible aspect depicted in the illus- tration, fig. . . license in designing the human figure. thus, the human figure is seen to have pervaded certain classes of ornamental design throughout all ages, but has been altered or modified in order to suit it to characteristic purposes and places, or its details better arranged to har- monize with other elements of ornament. the restrictions that influence and largely govern the use of certain ornamental forms in conventionalized design must all be considered of equal importance in the applica- tion of the human figure, and a truthful portrayal or realistic rendering is permissible only under the rarest circumstances of absolutely monumental work. || practical design. principles involved in practical design. . the principles that are involved in the production of good repeating patterns are repetition, contrast, and variety; balance, symmetry, and unity; tangential junction; radiation and proportion; and growth, stability, repose, and fitness. . repetition.—repetition in many respects is the most important principle in textile design, as an all-over repeat- ing pattern implies in itself the idea of repetition, and whereas there are many all-over designs that do not repeat, they are confined to hand work, such as rugs, embroideries, and other products beyond the scope of the designer for the loom or the press. . alternation.—in connection with repetition we have alternation, wherein the repetition consists of a form that wote fig. . duplicates itself alternately with another form, as shown in fig. . alternation is very useful in some cases when it is for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. § practical design. used to vary repetition and avoid monotony. it produces a slight feeling of contrast combined with a feeling of con- tinuous variation, but it must not be confounded with the principles of contrast and variety, which are separate and distinct. . contrast and variety.--the feeling of contrast is best expressed in a design wherein the linear elements meet or cross each other nearly at right angles, as shown in fig. , and contrast is best effected by an arrange- ment of lines that brings about this con- dition, as shown in fig. , which is an ancient greek pattern wherein this prin- fig. . ciple dominates the entire design, all the lines being arranged to join each other nearly at right angles. the feeling of contrast is not confined entirely to designs se fig. . of a rigid character, and fig. illustrates an example wherein this principle is carefully handled in a design of a soft and flowing character. at a will be observed the main flowing practical design. j line broken by the scroll that crosses it at right angles, and, therefore, stands not only in contrast with it but also assists in giving a feeling of variety. variety is the very essence of a design and the principle that gives it brightness and prevents its monotony, and though the variety of design must not be so extensive as to rob it of its feeling of repose, there must be sufficient change to rest the eye from the observation of any par- ticular form, fig. . . symmetry and balance.-symmetry and balance are principles that exist when the arrangement of ornament is such that the details on both sides of a line or point are fig. . fig. . exactly repeated or duplicated, as in fig. , or are of equal value, as in fig. , the former being a symmetrical element, the latter a balanced element. . tangential junction.—tangential junction of lines, as we already know, is a detail depending on the close observation of nature, and is illustrated in several forms in fig. . radiation is also a principle that we have g practical design. already considered, and whether that radiation takes place from a point or a line is a matter to be decided according to the character of the ornament. growth is another principle derived from observation of plant form, and the curves exist- ing in long slender leaves, such as that of the cattail and flag, or even blades of grass, are expressive of this principle. fig. . . subordination is a principle that must be introduced into certain parts of a design in order to prevent monotony; there must be principal features and subordinate features, and if every detail is brought into equal prominence there will be neither contrast nor variety. in every good design there should always be a principal feature, such as a bright flower or group of flowers or of leaves, or of some other striking object, and the rest of the design should sink into the background and take a secondary place. . fitness.—the question of fitness is simply the appli- cation of a certain class of design to certain materials. of course, it is evident that the style of design that would be suitable for a carpet would be utterly unsuitable for a printed cotton goods or a velvet, and would be out of place for printing on a fine silk. then, there is always the considera- tion of fashion-a subject that every designer is bound to be familiar with and governed by, although his good sense may at times be opposed to it; but designs are made for commercial purposes and the designer must bow to the prevailing fashions even though his artistic nature rebel. therefore, a design should always be thought out or men- tally planned at first, and its style, scale, and character suited and fitted to the material and purpose in which it is to be carried out and for which it is to serve. practical design. . proportion.-in connection with fitness we come to the principle of proportion, which is most difficult to decide upon, as, under it, the designer must make up his mind as to the relation between the lengths and breadths of the repeats, the scale of the pattern, etc. . unity.—the last principle to be considered, per- haps, is unity, and in this we must sum up all the previous ones. however well the plan may be balanced and however well the natural formations and growths may be observed and adhered to, and thoroughly adapted though the design may be in scale and proportion to the material in which it is executed, it is of little value unless all these principles unite in a characteristic whole that prevents any one of them becoming unduly prominent or makes it appear that they are not bound together inseparably. > planning the design. . characteristic of a design. it is always well to have a clear idea of what the main characteristics of a design are to be before the actual work of arrangement is begun. these characteristics will be influenced largely by the mate- rial purpose of the finished fabric as well as the trend of the prevailing fashions. if, for instance, the design is to be woven in tapestry or other hanging, then it may be bold and rich, emphasized by the arrangement of strong and contrast- ing colors. but, on the other hand, if the design is for a dress fabric, it must be made to a much smaller scale and the colors be much more subdued. in the case of a dress fabric, it should always be borne in mind that the scale must be kept down, as some one is going to wear it; and, there being a comparative uniformity in the sizes of various people, we have a definite scale to work to. it has been shown that the most convenient size for a repeat in dress patterns is about inches, as the folds of the dress and the numerous seams would destroy the effect of the repeat if it were made much larger. practical design. . geometrical basis.-it must always be borne in mind that it is absolutely necessary that the plan of any design that is to be reproduced by mechanical means, such as a printing block, must always have a geometrical basis, and the repeat must be governed by a regular geometrical figure. this figure is called the unit, and it is the govern- ing shape of the unit of the pattern; it must always be enclosed in itself, or in a multiple of itself, in a square or oblong whose dimensions correspond with the dimensions of the printing block from which the design is to be reproduced. this may be more clearly understood by reference to fig. (a), where the unit of the design and the size of t (a) (b) : (d) (e) fig. . the repeat are identical, the small dark square indicating the unit after which the cards would have to be cut in weaving, and the dotted exterior square showing the size of the block from which the pattern would be produced in printing. at (d), however, the lozenge shape contains the unit of the design, and the complete repeat is composed of one whole diamond and four quarters, which together, as shown at abcd, are contained in an oblong, this oblong being the repeat for which the cards would be cut in weaving. at ( ) is shown the manner in which this oblong would be treated practical design. 생 ​in a square if it were intended to reproduce the design by printing, the square there representing the printing block; while at (c), (c), and (f) are shown the methods of treating such forms as the triangle, hexagon, and ogee shape, which are considered in the same manner as was the lozenge. } . unit and repeat. it is important that the student should always keep clearly in his mind the difference between the unit of a design and the repeat, and not confound one with the other. a comparison of all the details of fig. will show that the units are always made up of regular geometrical figures that fit together, leaving no interstices between them. this, of course, is a necessary characteristic that the unit must possess. the diamond, the square, and the oblong are the most useful shapes; but on general prin- ciples the lozenge or diamond is the best of all. . defective design.—as said before, it is necessary that a clear and definite idea should be possessed when a design is started, on which the subsequent building up can depend. in fig. are shown two renderings, of the same style of ornament intended for the same purpose, though the one at (b) in no way fulfils the conditions. it is assumed that this is a design for a stripe in some piece of goods, and an irregular wavy line is drawn, from which spring a number of leaves and flowers, regardless of any preconceived order, except that the design must repeat beyond the lines ab and cd. the line, the leaves, and the flowers have no apparent relation to one another, nor to the border of the panel itself, and the three flowers at o acci- dentally fall together and form a straight line across the stripe, making a very awkward accentuation at the end of each repeat-a characteristic of repeating designs that the designer usually tries to conceal. . remedy for defects.-at (a), however, the same elements are used and show that, by a little consideration, practical design design. an arrangement can be obtained whereby the same details may be put together to form a satisfactory repeating pattern. the main stem runs through the ornament in the form of a wave line as before, and the repeating portion is limited between the lines e f and gh arranged similarly to a b and fa g d ( ) fig. . cd of ( ). the main stem at the points k and k is equi- distant from each side of the border lines, and the scroll springing from the main stem is drawn in such a way that it will break this stem twice and thereby destroy its monotony. the flowers are placed on alternate sides and grouped in bunches of three, and a similar grouping, though different in its arrangement, is maintained in relation to the leaves. close study of the design will show that the leaves and flowers ter inate about the same distance from the outside border, and this detail, taken with the evenness of spacing of the wave line, tends to give a solidity and steadiness to $ practical design. the design and adds to the impression that the floral orna- ment could not readily be removed without impairing its appearance. . the parent stem.-in fig. is shown a surface, or all-over, pattern somewhat of the same character as fig. , the limitations of which are precisely the same as those of the border. the principal line, or the main stem, is drawn first, and once located, the designer must determine whether this line is to form an essential detail of his design or simply to be a starting element. in many cases, the parent stem is inserted into a design solely to give some logical growth and provide some element that the flowers and leaves can spring from, but in no way forms an important part of the design itself, and might be removed without impairing the design in the least. in this case, however, the parent stem is one of the most important factors and must be put in with care and thought. . principal feature.--in all designs, or at least in nearly all, there should be some feature that by its promi- nent color, shape, or size is more prominent than the others, and it should be so placed that it will immediately attract the eye. such being the case, it is necessary that the means by which this attraction to the eye is attained must be con- sidered before the design is started. a design without a leading feature is uninteresting and tiresome, and it natu- rally follows that if this leading feature is so important, it is necessary that it should be the most beautiful and the most interesting part of the design. in the present case, the repeat is first decided on and the wave line is carefully studied with the idea that it is to be a prominent detail in the finished design. its curve must be graceful, of good proportions, and so arranged that it will not interfere inharmoniously with its adjacent curves in the other repeats. the four large leaves in the corner of each repeat being intended for prominent features, should also be carefully drawn and placed in position. in general practical design. practice it would be found advisable to sketch the design in outline at first, as shown in fig. at (a), because it is likely to be modified after the design is worked out and it would be a waste of time to try and work out the finished details at once. the next detail in the preparation of the design is the conventional flower in the center of the repeat; this should go in next, and it would seem advisable to place the flower at some point central between the four large leaves. the necessity of placing this flower in a central position can be readily seen by referring to fig. , where the design is the sanie as that shown in fig. , except that the flower is not لی (a) (b) fig. . in the center but thrown to one side, over one set of the leaves. the effect of this can be readily seen, that inas- much as the flower is removed from the center, the character of the pattern ceases to be of the all-over type, and resolves itself into a series of stripes. this does not absolutely spoil the design, as it would be considered all right if a striped pattern were wanted; but when an all-over pattern is wanted, this treatment is certainly all wrong. after the flower is $ practical design. drawn in outline, the rest of the figure is blocked in as shown in fig. ( ). . effect of the repeat.-in all cases in laying out a design, it is advisable to draw more than one repeat, as the student can then judge somewhat better the appear- > fig. . ance of it when multiplied in the loom or the press. few but the most experienced designers can judge the prob. able effect and know how to avoid faults that are likely to appear, unless several repeats are laid out in each direction. § practical design. having considered the preliminary arrangement of the plan for the repeat itself, we will now take up the different methods of securing this repeat, and consider the advantages of each case. drop pattern. . unit of the pattern.—the drop pattern takes its name from a characteristic that requires the unit to be dropped one-half its length in order that adjacent members fig. . may properly match, and it has been suggested that the lozenge shape is best adapted as the figure constituting the unit of any pattern. in fact, though this shape is used as § practical design. i the basis for nearly all repeating diaper patterns, it is almost indispensable in the construction of the drop pat- tern. every practical drop pattern, if properly analyzed, will be found with the lozenge as its fundamental form, though, as a rule, this shape is concealed in the superfluity of ornament. in fig. the lozenge shape does not appear at all, although it can be easily shown that it is the govern- الكوسا fig. . ing principle of this design. if we join the four central points of the four large five-lobed leaves, the resulting figure is lozenge-shaped, and a similar figure would be pro- duced by joining any four repeating points in the design, as shown in fig. . practical design. . the enclosing rectangle.-notwithstanding the fact that this lozenge shape is the governing principle of so many designs, it must not be forgotten that the practical working out of the pattern in the loom, or the printing of wild fig. . the pattern in the press, requires that the design shall be enclosed within a rectangle, and the amount that has to appear in the design will be one complete lozenge and four quarter-lozenges in order to make up the rectangle. an exception to this rule, however, will be found in center ties and roll carpets, which will be considered later on. . symmetrical designs.-where a design is sym- metrical on both sides of a given center line, as shown in cos practical design. fig. , it is only necessary to put half the lozenge on the design paper, as it is possible to arrange the loom to produce two symmetrical halves from one set of pattern cards. for instance, in fig. , the actual a amount of design worked out would simply be the rect- angle abcd, the other half being produced automatically through the arrangement of the loom. this is also applicable in the weaving of fabrics whose design is not based on the drop pattern, but is of a symmetrical character, as shown in fig. , which is a gothic design of the six- teenth century,fand does not drop in its repeat, the por- tion abcd being the only part of the design necessary to execute, its duplication and reversing being accomplished when cutting the cards for the loom. d fig. . . drop pattern in carpet designs.—the drop pattern is most advantageous in its application to roll carpets. different kinds of carpet are of different widths, but inches is the standard for most styles, and by using a drop pattern it is possible to make the width of the repeat twice this, or inches. this can best be understood by referring to fig. , which is a carpet design in which the drop pattern has been used. the distance ab represents inches, or one width of the carpet, and the rectangle abcd represents the amount necessary to be worked out in the design in order to cut the jacquards properly, and includes one complete repeat. in the center of the line bc we find the same repeat $ practical design. dropped at ef gh, this rectangle representing another width of carpet roll that fits the first so as to make a perfectly connected design. thus it will be seen that the same points do not repeat in this design in less than twice the width of one roll, as may be seen at d and k, where fig. . away from it. the flower at d is completed in the section at k inches if the plan were adopted for a side-to-side repeat, these forms would repeat every inches horizon- tally; but by means of the drop pattern we can, without additional labor or expense, produce a carpet design of apparently twice this width, and this same idea can be carried out in wall paper. § ng practical design. a le . waste in cutting.–another advantage in the use of the drop pattern for carpets is that the chance of waste is considerably reduced during the process of cutting and fitting the widths together to suit the size of a room. this can better be understood by referring to fig. , where at (a) the drop pattern is shown as its repeats would recur in a ce e a h e (a) b с e (b) fig. . room; and at (b) the side-to-side repeating pattern appears as laid out upon the same room. this room is assumed to be ft. in. x ft., the narrower dimension requiring just six widths of -inch carpet to cover it. it will be seen at (a), that, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and cutting off from the roll what is required for the length of the room, we will have four complete repeats and a little over, and in replacing this width to the right of this and laying off what is required for the second length of the room, there will be a little waste at each end, as shown at b and c. in the saine manner, the same amount of waste occurs at de and half as much at fg, while the breadths between, at i and i, are cut to exactly over the room in the same the first one. looking now at the other arrangement at ( ), we have the manner as $ practical design. same space carpeted with a pattern that does not drop, but matches from side to side, and it will be readily seen that the waste, as indicated at bc de and f, is considerably more than the previous case, amounting to very nearly yards. of course, the proportions of this room are such as to make this rather an extreme case; but the fact remains that there is less waste with the drop pattern, because the repeats fit at half the height, and the greatest possible waste ir. any one room length of roll will be half the length of a repeat, while with a side-to-side repeating pattern nearly a whole repeat of waste is possible. on this account it is advantageous to keep the length of the repeat short whether the design drops or not, for with a long repeat there is much more waste in cutting than where the repeat is moderate. in fig. the repeat is entirely too long for economy, and had the lozenge form been turned to a horizontal position it would have been much more advantageous, inasmuch as the effort has been in the first place to make the repeat extend over two widths of carpet, and there is no good reason why the repetition in a vertical direction should be of any greater extent. . planning and drawing the design.-it is always best to construct the lozenge shape so that its vertical and horizontal dimensions are equal to the vertical and hori- zontal dimensions of a full repeat, and then to sketch in the principal details and general lines. the leaf forms can then be filled in so that the upper right line of the lozenge will cut these details in exactly the same form and position as the lower left-hand line, and the same may be said of the upper left-hand line and the lower right-hand line. in gen- eral practice, the best way of doing this is to sketch the form roughly on transparent paper or tracing cloth, with a soft pencil. these forms may then be gone over with a harder pencil on the reverse side and the pencil markings trans- ferred almost exactly uniform to any part. in the frequent references that we will make to tracing paper hereafter, we $ practical design. will in all cases mean simply the drawing or tracing of a design on transparent paper and the transferring of the design by means of that tracing to other parts of the draw- ing. in this way the details of the general sketch may be multiplied and extended freely in every direction. when so multiplied and the forms appear to be well arranged and distributed, an exact drawing can be made by means of tracing paper and everything carefully drawn in its proper place. . striped effect in drop patterns.-in the true drop pattern, the drop is always considered as half the height of the repeat; but it is not unusual to have a drop pattern of less than this, as, for instance, one-third the height of the repeat. this is shown in fig. at (a), while at ( ) the kdrop (a) ( ) (c) fig. . an drop is only one-quarter of the height; but the result is never as satisfactory, as even distribution is not so readily acquired and the comparative width of the repeat is greater. the bringing of the principal elements so much closer together is also likely to produce a striped effect as shown at practical design. ab in fig. (a) and at cd in fig. ( ); whereas in (c), where the drop is half the height of the repeat, there is little or no tendency to get a striped effect, as the principal elements of the design are evenly distributed. the shorter the drop the stronger is the tendency to produce a pronounced stripe and increase the width of the repeat, and, therefore, the more expensive to work out without any compensating advantages regarded of value as ornament. for this reason it should be borne in mind that drop patterns of less than half the repeat are to be avoided if an even distribution of ornament is desired, and the tendency of any part of the ornament to run in stripes is to be obviated. turn-over method. . advantage of the turn over.—another method of planning a design is called the turn-over method, and for many reasons is very desirable. with this method of planning, faults can be avoided with greater certainty and the design is given an appearance of greater complexity, as the repeats alternating to the right and left are less evident to the eye than when running in but one direction. this is a most useful system of planning, and, when properly stud- ied, a design can be executed in which faults are least likely to occur; but the method is a most difficult one for the stu- dent to master, because when the unit of one repeat is reversed or turned over, the two units are likely to overlap in some of their details. . planning the turn over. -in fig. is shown a turn-over design, with the geometrical constructions and the main lines on which the whole is based. the first consideration is the proportions of the repeat, shown at abcd, containing but unit and quarter-units surround- ing it. this constitutes the geometrical construction of our design. the next consideration is the character of the design itself, and if we assume the ogee outline as shown in this case, we $ practical design. must divide the top corner of the repeat into four equal parts, at e, f, g, h, and draw in the ogee line fh, in order to get any degree of accuracy. in fact, all that is required of this line is the portion from f to i, the other half being traced from it, the two parts being exactly the same. the other four portions may be traced in a similar manner. o fig. . next, the large flower in the center of each repeat should be placed in position, and care must be taken that each alternate horizontal series of repeats is turned in a different direction-one whole series toward the right, and another whole series toward the left as shown—as no other arrange- ment will produce the effect. . practical design. in the first blocking out of the design, much time will be saved if the main features are sketched with a single line as shown in fig. , where the oval shape stands for the flower in the center of the unit. when these oval shapes have been repeated a sufficient number of times, the lines of the ogee at k should be broken away from their regular direction, and the small flowers in each unit drawn upon these branchings. . elimination of faults.-by this time the design has been advanced sufficiently to enable the designer to look over it carefully and see that none of its details is likely to overlap or go wrong in any way. it is, however, almost certain that some detail will overlap another when the orna- ment is first drawn and turned over on the adjacent dia- mond, and if such overlapping occurs, of course the design must be altered. if, however, the design develops satis- factorily, the detail of the principal element in the center may be repeated in the four corners, at a, b, c, and d, and then the flowers distributed along the line kk may be sketched in place. even now though the design is finished in the last detail, it is wise to look over it thoroughly, as it is almost sure to require some alterations, lest when turned over one portion will come into conflict with another; and the line where the first lozenge joins the four adjacent ones may be so thickly ornamented as to appear heavy, or it may be so sparse that it requires filling. it is always at the points where these units join that the most skill is required in the arrangement. . turn-over-and-drop patterns.-in some of its details the turn-over pattern is not unlike the drop; it requires unit and quarter-units to make up the whole repeat, and the unit contained in the whole lozenge is both turned over and dropped, so that in making the design it is necessary to trace off the first lozenge, reverse the tracing paper, and drop it to the adjacent lower one. in fact, were it not for a $ practical design. be needless lengthening of the name, this style of design could better be termed the turn-over-and-drop pattern. as er en гее se . avoidance of faults. — turn-over designs are liable to the same faults as are designs that go only in one direction, but not to such a marked degree. this partial avoidance of faulty lining is one of the advantages, as the turning over of the unit causes a zigzag effect rather than a line effect. an illustration of this effect is given in fig. , where at (a) a turn-over pattern is shown based on the wave line, and its unit is indicated by the lozenge shape in to ost a. en is- der nd be lil , to on -re so am so (a) ( ) ts he fig. . ts es ad in the center. looking at this rectangular repeat, it would be difficult for even an expert designer to predict that the whole design, when printed and many times repeated, would appear faulty; but this faultiness becomes very evident when the design is executed and a large surface spread out before the eye as shown at ( ). if the design shown at ( ) be held at arm's length and the eyes half closed, a white zigzag line will be perceived running systematically through the design from top to bottom, as marked at a'aa, etc. er гу d a şay practical design. this could easily have been avoided by the addition of another leaf in each blank, or by twisting around the little spray of conventional buds at the top so that they would fill in fact, if the design is worked out enough to present such faults they can usually be easily remedied; but they are very difficult to discern from one or even two or three adjacent repeats. the gaps. other methods. . advantage of a knowledge of numerous methods.-in order that designs may have a variety and that the work of each designer may not be stamped too much with his personal characteristics, it is necessary that he should be familiar with a number of different ways of planning a design, and whenever he sees the work of another designer he should study the system and analyze the geo- metrical elements of its construction. having determined upon the geometrical basis, he should look for the principal spots, and then the secondary features, and the system of connecting them. . systems of construction.—the choice of geo- metrical systems of construction on which a plan can be built are very limited, as for mechanical duplication it must be either a square or other rectangle, or some geometrical figure that will exactly fit inside a rectangle, and thereby repeat. the latter condition permits us to arrange a plan that is apparently irregular, provided we can fit all of its repeat within the given rectangle; but care must be exer- cised under these circumstances to avoid an irregular or unsteady appearance. thus, it is understood why the square, rectangle, and lozenge shape are the fundamental bases of nearly every design, and the endless variety of every class of repeating ornament that we meet can be traced to a rearrangement of these three simple geometrical figures. cos practical design. f l; n . selection of system of design.-the selection of the system of construction should not be made arbitrarily, but should always be decided after mature thought as to which would bring about the best result. the square pro- duces a repeat in the same distance both vertically and hori- zontally, and the rectangle gives us a repeat greater in one direction than the other, according to which way it is turned; is id at of er . of бе st al y fig. . cs e f the lozenge can be made to produce repeats in the same proportion as the square or rectangle, but produces an entirely different effect, as shown in fig. , where the same design is worked out on the system of the square as is worked out on the system of the lozenge in fig. . the former is much more severe than the latter, and the limits of the repeat are much more definitely marked. there is a tendency, too, toward the expression of a horizontal and practical design. vertical system of lining in fig. that is not so apparent in fig. . it is therefore seen that for some conditions the fig. . square might be preferred to the diamond shape, while for other conditions the latter is preferable. . variety possible. - on these geometrical bases an unlimited variety of designs may be developed from a simple sprig or spray to most elaborate combinations of interlaced wave lines and ogee forms. these may be roughly divided into spots, powderings, connected forms, or stripes, in which the repeats are made continuous by structural lines though the pattern may be made up entirely of geometrical forms. . simple spot designs.-in fig. is shown a spot design, the plan of which is based on the diamond, as is very evident, and shows how valuable an arrangement the şir practical design. e diamond form is to us when much ornament is not a neces- sity. it should always be borne in mind that ornament is intended to beautify a material, and if the material will look better with very little ornament upon it and plenty of ground or bare space, the designer must confine himself to just so much ornament as the fabric appears to demand. c whe or fig. . es s be , y y then, for some purposes, an elaborate design is unsuitable, so that too much ornament will vulgarize and spoil a fabric rather than enhance its beauty. it is in such cases that the spot character of design, as shown in fig. , is most useful, especially when the ground of the material requires only sufficient ornament to break its monotony, or where the material is to be used in small quantities. et s . influence of fashions. the prevailing fashions influence this condition of design to a great extent, especially in regard to wearing apparel. sometimes the demand is for practical design esour | | m/ r 的 ​ fig. . fig. . practical design. it may, spots, sometimes for elaborately figured goods, and some- times there is an occasion for a medium between the two, as shown in fig. , which is a design based on an elaboration of the spot, but giving a spot and powdered effect. fig. shows a style of design that is used very largely in dress fabrics; its simple treatment renders it very suitable and to a large extent obviates the danger of faulty lining, and the design is very effective and easy to construct. it is arranged upon the diamond plan, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. , the largest spray being drawn first in any of the unit forms, and then turned over and dropped as before explained. under some conditions, be suffi- cient to trace simply the four corners of the repeat and then trace in the principal sprig to fill the center of the lozenge shape and occupy any bare space that may appear. under these circumstances, it is wise to turn the tracing paper back ), and add the sprig to the larger one and then insert the small sprig in other repeats just as the large sprig was put in at the four corners. where it is desirous that there should be but little of the ground broken with ornament, a little running vine may be used as the basis of the design, arranged in sprays somewhat as shown in fig. . the construction here is very simple, and though the sprigs run in a lozenge shape, the pattern is constructed upon the system of the square, as shown in fig. . olot ro fig. . . irregular units.-a design in which the forms are connected is of much more importance to the designer than a simple sprig pattern such as shown in figs. and , practical design. and is naturally much more intricate to execute. the struc- tural basis of the design shown in fig. is an irregular lozenge shape different from anything we have heretofore considered, as shown in fig. . the simplest way of constructing this design is by means of vertical and horizontal lines, the latter drawn at equal fig. . distances, as at abc, fig. , and the vertical ones alternating with a large and small space as at de, ef, etc. the two large flowers may then be placed in the upper corner of a rectangle of the repeat as at a and the other large flower at the intersection of the vertical and horizontal line, below this rectangle, as at h. the connecting lines and secondary features may then be sketched in and drawn as shown. this $ practical design. design is a turn-over pattern, and though irregular, it is constructed on the same principles as all turn-over designs, and when completed its principal line is a vertical wave, as may be seen in fig. . . a ball pattern.-in fig. is what might be considered a ball pattern, as the ball-shaped flower is one n v l fig. . of the most prominent features. the design is apparently much more complicated in its effect than it really is. it is a regular turn-over pattern, and where the skeleton outline of the figure is shown it will be observed that there is a con- tinuous flowing stem from which the flowers branch alter- nately to the right and left. on these branches are arranged gy practical design. five clover leaves, and the main feature of the design consists of the arrangement of these flowers and leaves in order to give the impression of simplicity and at the same time pro- duce an all-over effect, without expressing in a pronounced degree the system of its arrangement. . in fig. we have a turn-over pattern on the dia- mond basis and it conceals the simplicity of its development through the possession of three equally prominent features. > bil bobook lin > kos obol doch fig. . the circular flowers, for instance, are arranged on the dia- mond plan, and the other two features are intersected in a regular order, while the stem oscillates from side to side, sending off alternately to the right and left a scroll with a bud or a blossom. the effect of this treatment, simple though it is, is exceedingly pleasing and expresses the variety that can be attained by the simple geometrical arrangements that underlie it. simplicity in the arrangement of a design should always be the aim of the designer, as a pleasing effect practical design. can be more easily developed thereby; while complicity alone is never pleasing and is much more difficult to make so. . fig. is a design based on the parallelogram, the corners of which are to be found in the centers of the four similar flowers, while the conventional leaf form is placed in the center. the design is peculiar in the fact that the ne fig. . arrangement of its wave line is such that it runs diagonally across the repeat, making an ogee curve from corner to corner with but one simple curve in each repeat. . in fig. we have a pattern based on the turn- over design characteristic of the eighteenth century style § practical design. in northern italy. in this design there are two strongly contrasting figures—the spray of flowers and the leaves- and though the plan can be constructed on the diamond, it is far simpler to plan it on horizontal and vertical lines, as shown in fig. . all the leaves that run in the same direction are placed at the four corners of the > } us fig. repeat. the design is then traced and turned over on the center, where the leaf extending in the opposite direc- tion is traced in place. circular forms representing the flowers are then located and the figure arranged to follow its course. . introduction of geometrical elements. the design shown in fig. is a combination of geometrical interlaced strap work over which are superimposed various foliated forms. the construction is on the basis of the lozenge, and, owing to a duplication of various parts of " practical design. بع ( fig. . fig. , co practical design. l sc fig. . fig. . ! $ practical design. the design on each side of a given center line, only one-half of the pattern need be executed for weaving purposes, as it can be adapted to a center tie. this example is particularly interesting in showing the contrast of line, and it will be observed by studying the elements of fig. , which is a skeleton outline of fig. , that when one line crosses another, in nearly every instance it crosses it at a right angle and thereby gives to the design a sharpness and crispness that characterizes it. . in fig. is shown a design based on the dia- mond and arranged as a center tie. its principal con- struction lines are a pair of ogee curves that cross each fig. . orna- other, one of which follows the stem of the running vine, and the other forms the governing direction of an mental ribbon work that underlies the main decoration. this introduces also a contrast between the ribbon and the design itself that causes the latter to stand up promi- nently and prevents the whole composition from appearing monotonous. practical design. borders, corners, and stripes. borders. . uniformity of repeat.-in woven fabrics it is impossible to consider the design for the border by itself and apart from the filling, as usually when a fabric possesses a border, both the border and the filling are woven together in one piece, and it is essential for mechanical reasons that the repeat of the border should be in line with that of the filling. an example of this would be a stair carpet, which has a border on each side. then, if the repeat of the filling is inches, the repeat of the border must also be inches, or a divisor of , so that the border may repeat twice for every repeat of the filling, or even three times. a repeat of inches in the border would be impracticable, as it would fail to work with the -inch repeat of the filling. however, where a border is woven separately and afterwards sewed to the filling, as in carpets, for instance, there is not this same necessity for uniformity of repetition, but there should be, even in a case of this kind, some definite relation between the repeat of the border and that of the filling around which it is to be stitched. . one-piece borders.—the weaving of borders in direct connection with a falling design is confined to a certain class of goods, such as damask, table linen, tapes- try, velvet table covers, cotton quiltings, toilet covers, handkerchiefs, lace, muslin, damask or tapestry curtains, rugs, and carpets woven in one piece, such as brussels and kidderminster squares. the presence of a border on any fabric usually implies that it was woven in one piece and that the fabric- such as a table cover — - not only possesses the border on the sides but also at each end. therefore, we must consider, before dealing with the ornamental details of the design of a border, the prac- tical elements that underlie the requirements of their weaving: v practical design. . size of the repeat in damasks.—first, we must consider the size of the article, and in most instances a size that is an even multiple of a quarter of a yard is found to be convenient. fabrics such as table covers and table linen, or carpets, will always be found to be multiples of a quarter- yard in both length and breadth. for instance, quarter- yards by quarter-yards gives us feet inches by feet fig. . inches; and take a table cover of these dimensions as shown in fig. and we have the setting out arrangement of the repeats in which a very highly ornate treatment is given. in this case, the size of the repeat is one-quarter of a yard in each direction. this has the advantage of making the design capable of fitting any size table cover, either in length or breadth, that is desired, simply by increasing the number of repeats. $ practical design. the border around this, it will be observed, is the same in design and dimension of its repeats both at the sides and at the ends, and it may be readily observed that the secondary repeats of the filling fall directly in line with the repeats of the border not only on the sides and ends but also in the corner. this -inch square repeat is the simplest and least fig. . expensive way of dealing with a fabric such as a table cloth, and is suitable for some particular designs, but the designer is in no way limited to this shape. . unequal repeats.—in fig. is shown another design of identical dimensions with fig. , in which the filling repeat is oblong and the proportion of the oblong is such as to make it similar to the entire oblong surface of the şey practical design. filling, thereby securing a sense of fitness in the design. this, however, brings us against the proposition of having the repeat of the side borders greater than the repeat of the ends, and the corners are different in shape from the border either at the side or end. it is the corner of the border of this character that usually requires the most skill in order to make it join properly with e d fig. . the repeat in each direction, while retaining at the same time an identical design in the four corners. this is sometimes obviated by paneling off the corner by itself and introducing here an isolated ornament that has no connection with the border. when it is desirable, however, that the border should continue around the design without a break, the problem is practical design. } a troublesome one unless the design is similar to that shown in fig. , as it is a simple matter to design a corner to fit a system of repeat that is uniform in the two directions. but in running borders such as shown in figs. and , the ornament must have a distinct development in one direction and grow from itself continuously. in some forms of art this is not difficult at all, but in a woven fabric it must be borne in mind that the two side borders must be equal, the top and bottom borders must be equal, and the corners each the same. . in fig. we have a design of a border that is made to connect around the corners without any break, while in fig. we have at bc a design for a border that runs from the center of the width around the corner to the center of the length, where it is stopped by a rosette or other inde- fig. . pendent device. this system of treatment, however, requires that the repeat of the border and its adjacent filling shall amount to one-quarter of the whole fabric, as shown at bcd x, and that whatever comes in this quarter must reverse and repeat above and on the other side; this system also $ practical design. permits us to treat the angles of the filling with separate ornament, as shown at (e) in fig. . when a fabric is square it is sometimes convenient to duplicate the design on each side of the diagonal line, as shown in fig. , where the square is divided into eight equal triangular pieces as shown at f g h, each of which is symmetrical but reversed from its neighbor. . m- lace - curtain design. — where cur- tains are woven in one piece, one of the most popular schemes of de- sign is to have a dado treatment at the bottom and a border on each of the sides. this bor- der can be of the same width on each side or of varying widths, accord- ing to the circumstances, or the design may be such that the two bor- ders and the dado con- sist of one scheme of ornament varying in width to express the proportion of each. much economy can be effected, however, in the designing of curtains by having the whole length worked out upon a symmetrical arrange- ment so that the two halves each side of the center line will be identical. this may be somewhat severe in style, but is capable of producing the happiest of results. in fig. is shown a symmetrical arrangement of design fig. . practical design. duplicating on the center line y h. only one-half of this design would need to be prepared on design paper, ghkl > fig. . being the amount required for the dado, and klmn, the repeat for the border and filling of the body of the cur- tain; whereas in fig. just twice this quantity of design practical design. would have to be executed, as the pattern extends the full width of the curtain. the severity of style which this plan is likely to produce may be somewhat obviated by the use of a free center, shown in fig. , where the design on each side of a given center line is exactly balanced and reproduced. the amount of design worked out on paper in this case is shown at abcd in the dado, and cdef in the upper portion of the curtain, and when this is woven, the opposite side is separated from it a distance equal to bg, and the free center bghc in the dado, and chk f for the repeat in the upper part of the cur- tain would require to be drawn out separately on design paper. a . classification of borders. — we have so far devoted all our attention to the application of border designs to such textile fabrics as they are njost generally used, but we will now consider some of the more typical details upon which repeating borders may be constructed. for the purposes of classification, ordinary repeating borders are termed link or vertebrate, according to the method by which the repeats are joined, the former being linked together by some conventional form that tends to give the appearance of combining the units, and the latter being built about a straight line that acts as a sort of backbone through the whole design. in fig. are shown several borders built up of historic ornament and illustrating the principles of this classification. fig. . $ practical design. it will be noticed that in nearly all of them there is a decided tendency to vertical and horizontal arrangement, that the ornament grows, or appears to grow, at right angles to one of the edges or from both of them. for instance, the greek border at (a) appears to be perpendicular to the inner edge, > it (a) ( ) (d) र (e) (c) fig. . while that at ( ) is perpendicular to the outer edge, and at (c) is alternately perpendicular to the two edges, each separate element being connected by an s-shaped link. these designs are all greek in origin and express the handling of border elements typical of the greek style. . borders for hangings and table covers.-it should always be borne in mind that the position of the practical design. goods or material on which the border is designed must always be considered before the characteristics of the border are decided upon. table covers and scarfs are usually seen in such a position that the border assumes a perpendicular position in relation to the outer edge, and for such a purpose the design shown at (b) would be perfectly suitable. on por- tiers and other hangings, the lower border is perpendicular to the bottom line, while the side borders could be either perpendicular to the outer or the inner line, and a combina- tion of effect is obtained by using the pattern shown at (c), where the border runs all the way around, or the one shown at (d), where the border runs up and down the sides and a straight dado is designed across the bottom. . borders for rugs and floor coverings.-rugs and carpet squares are usually observed from the center of the room, and a border design is most satisfactory when it is perpendicular to the inner edge of the border line, as shown at (a) and (c), the latter being a design based on arabian lines. at (a) the link is parallel with the direction of the border and turns up at each end to join the ornamental figures that constitute the principal elements of the design. at (e) the link consists of a number of semicircles, the ends of which unite every other ornamental detail. at (f) it assumes an s shape and lies in a horizontal position, while at (d) the link travels from one side of the border to the other, as it does also at (c), though in the former case each s runs in the same direction as its neighbor, and in the latter case they are made to reverse alternately. . vertebrate borders.—a of the above are link borders, while those shown in fig. are vertebrate borders. the chief characteristics that we observe in comparing these two figures is that the link border seems more associated with classic art, while the character of the vertebrate border tends more toward the middle ages and renaissance design. at (a) is shown the simplest pattern consisting of a straight line or backbone, with a series of leaves growing practical design. h (a) ( ) (c) se (d) co (e) (h) å geos (f) ( ) fig. . practical design. symmetrically from each side; at ( ) the alternate sides are not symmetrical, as the repeats grow alternately above and below the vertebrate lines. at (c) one of the boundary lines of the border acts as the vertebrate line from which the details of the ornament spring, while at (d) we have both boundary lines acting as vertebræ and the ornament springing alter- nately from each side. at (e) is shown an example of a border based on the wave line, so that it miters well in the corner without a material change in the character of the design. this is based on the principle of a curved vertebra instead of a straight one, as is also the form shown at (s), which is a scroll vertebra clothed with conventional foliage, the scroll itself having developed from the waye line. at ( ) we have the application of the persian system, where there are two wave lines, each carrying its own share of ornament, in order to fill the space, and while in this example the growth of the two vertebræ is in the same direction, there is no authentic necessity for it, as many designs are known to exist where one appears to grow in one direction and the other in the opposite direction. at ( ) is shown an arabian border, the vertebrate line of which does not appear, but exists as an imaginary detail through the center. from each side of this, there branches a conventional figure typical of this style of ornament but printed in two shades, alter-- nating and interlacing with each other, though identical in this example of ornament is best suited to a vertical position, for which it was originally intended, while for hori- zontal positions other designs such as shown at (d), (c), (f), and (s) are better adapted. form. . corners.-in fig. , examples of borders and corners are given that are based on the vertebrate principle but are laid out on less conventional lines. the style of treatment suitable to certain classes of fabric is illustrated in the design of the borders, where the character of the ornament is more suitable to floor coverings than to table covers, or hangings, inasmuch as the former lie flat and dis- play the whole design, while in a table cover, or other practical design. hanging, the corner is usually lost by the folding of the cloth. it should be borne in mind that the purpose of any angle ( ) (c) e f e . е (a) e, m al e f (d) (e) fig. . ornament is to break the crudeness of a sharp corner, but its form and contour must be consistent so that it leaves a pleasing effect. in the filling at (a) in fig. is shown the practical design. outline of a rug in which the border and corner design shown at (b) is used, and it will be readily seen that the style of corner ornament shown at ( ) is suitable only to a rug of oblong shape, while the oriental design shown at (c) is better adapted to a rug with a square shape, though of course it could be used in an oblong without any sense of incongruity, whereas the form shown at ( ) could not be used in a square rug. at (d) is shown a corner design that breaks into the bor- der and causes it to stop abruptly at each side. this design is symmetrical upon the miter line as shown in fig. and is capable of reproduction on four sides of a square as described in connection with that figure. one other style of corner design is shown at (e) where the border runs around the corner, and repeats itself utterly independent of the corner ornament, and the corner orna- ment is woven or printed within the border line entirely independent of the border itself. this corner ornament is not enclosed in any definite outline as were (b) and (c), nor is it symmetrical on the center line as are (c) and (d). it therefore requires separate consideration in design and requires no calculations for repeat in unison with a repeat of the border. } . stripes. ——the use of stripes in woven goods, of course, applies almost entirely to the field where a border is considered, or to the goods themselves exclusive of any con- sideration of corner or border ornament, but the purpose for which the goods are to be used will govern the size, strength, and direction of the stripe entirely. stripes running verti- cally tend to increase the appearance of height, while stripes running horizontally tend to decrease the impression of height. it is for this reason that short persons are advised to wear dress goods with stripes running vertically, and in the decoration of rooms with very high ceilings, numerous hori- zontal lines are introduced to decrease the effect of height. in fig. at (a) is shown a combination of a stripe and powdered effect consisting of narrow straight stripes from in of of er it re in (a) ( ) is od re ly a. ly or it nd aat be of is alone (c) (d) pe x h, es of ed wum sve ne --- d m (e) fig. . a $ practical design. which conventionalized flowers branch at an angle of °, changing their direction at each alternate stripe. at ( ) the stripe consists of alternate wave lines with conventional flowers growing in the broader spaces on and between them. at (c) parallel wave lines are broken by systematic and con- ventional ornament that grows from its sides alternately in the same manner as described in the vertebrate border, fig. (d). at (d) the stripe crosses the ornament in a diagonal direc- tion at an angle of °, and consideration will remind the student that the direction of this stripe is governed by the diagonal of the rectangle representing the repeat. if the repeat were within an oblong, the angle of the stripe could be made greater or less than °, according to the propor- tions of the rectangle. at (c) is shown a more complicated treatment of a striped design wherein three distinct styles of contrasting stripe are used-a conventionalized floral form alternating with a conventionalized geometrical form from which it is separated by a heavy wave-line stripe. . style in historic stripes.-in fig. we have three examples of stripe ornament showing the characteris- tics of historic styles. at (a) the straight stripe is relieved of its monotony by an all-over pattern of sprigs, four of the sprigs representing the four corners of a rectangular repeat with the fifth sprig in the center. this might be considered a combination of a stripe-and-spot pattern, the style of which is characteristic of the old italian brocades, this example having been taken from a piece of italian velvet. the treatment given at ( ) is entirely different from this -a severely conventional design-being alternated with a somewhat naturalistic rendering, thereby giving the effect of a light stripe alternating with a dark one, a style of design characteristic of the early gothic period. the pattern shown at (c) is from an old spanish fabric showing alternate light and dark stripes, each of which heightens the interest of the other and both of which are more or less elaborated with conventional floral designs. stupet clur sta design. cond prÁctical > > (a) ( ) fig. . practical design. book-cover design. early bookbinding. . character of book-cover design. the modern designer of book covers, book plates, and other productions of the printing press is confronted with a problem entirely different from that demanding solution by the designer of repeating ornament. book-cover designs usually contain, first, the title of the book, and second, some piece of char- acteristic ornament that is in harmony with, or symbolic of, something contained in the book itself, or the subject on which it treats. a book plate differs from a book cover in the fact that it is usually a part of the title page and its ele- ments are more characteristic of the writer, publisher, or owner of the work, than of any detail in the narrative. the initial letters that are sometimes used to head the chapters may partake of both of these characteristics, or they may consist of simple abstract ornament in no way associated with the chapter that they introduce. it should be borne in mind, however, that while harmony of idea is not demanded, discord must be avoided, and a book the contents of which is suggestive of classic history or art could not be printed with initial letters designed in the gothic style, except through a violation of the fundamental principles of design. . origin of bookbinding.-it must be also borne in mind that every device of a utilitarian character had at the time of its origin a primitive form, and the associations of this form, from its origin to the present day, have had more or less influence on the character of its design. the old methods of engrossing on parchment, facts for preservation, made these documents very rare and valuable, and the scrolls on which they were usually written were wound around a stick and placed within a metallic tube in order to preserve them. the makers of these metallic tubes, usually silver- practical design. smiths and goldsmiths, therefore were in reality the first bookbinders. in later periods, pages were engrossed, similar to those in our paper books, and bound together to form a volume not unlike our common books of today. but, still, the binder was employed only to sew the pages together, and the silversmith and goldsmith did the elaborate work of designing and enclosing the cover. these volumes were a very expensive lot of documents naturally, and could be possessed only by the most wealthy. the introduction of printing and the printing press brought books within the reach of every one and revolutionized book printing, bookbinding, and book-cover design. . character of early bindings.—in the earliest times of bookbinding, the work of the cover was in the hands of the leather worker and the goldsmith, as the bookbinder, as understood by us at the present day, was a craftsman that had not then come into existence. rare and beautiful volumes representing hours and hours of laborious produc- tions of the scribes and the artists were incased in befitting covers of gold and silver or ivory, and frequently enriched with precious stones. such volumes were obtainable only .. by the king, or, possibly, the library of a church or monastery. when princes and nobles took an interest in matters liter- ary, as they did at a subsequent time, manuscripts became more common, and these costly bindings were superseded by bindings of velvet and satin and, afterwards, by leather. then the invention of printing, making books producible in a large quantity, made a still less expensive material desir- able, and leather formed the binding material of nearly all books, but the decorative work was carried out on its surface in gold leaf and enamel colors. during the time of charles viii and louis xii in france many books were collected by the royal library, and anne of brittany, who was successively the wife of each of these reigning monarchs, shared with them the love of literature, and bought as well as ordered specially printed volumes for her library. f e d s a e i şay practical design. a t ti . heraldry in book binding.—it will be necessary for us to consider only a few of these early bindings in order that the student may obtain an idea of the great pains that was put upon this class of work, and that he may understand that the style of ornament prevailing in each particular period influenced book-cover design more than did the contents of the book itself. the fact that the books were bound as individuals and not in numerous quantities led each king or queen to stamp on the cover his or her coat of arms or initials, and this serves to identify many volumes for us at the present day. this stamping by the king, or other royal personage, of his coat of arms and initials upon the cover of a book, was in reality the prototype of our modern book plate, for, as pointed out before, the book plate stamped on or in a book is usually there placed as a mark of ownership rather than in any way relative to the subject bound, fi a c t į i ( . tools.-in order that we may better understand the character of early book-cover designs in leather and gold, it must be borne in mind that the limits of the design were governed very largely by the tools in use by the leather worker. this term “tools” refers to the implements on the end of which little devices or ornaments, were cut, each of which was separately used to transfer the design to the leather. when leather was first used as a book-cover material, most of the work was done in the monasteries, as there were no regular binderies at that time. the designs that these monks and craftsmen invented were made up largely of motives borrowed from manuscript, initial letters, etc., from carvings in wood and stone that they would naturally observe in the various churches and monasteries. . influence of increase of binding on character of design. however, the love of learning and the spread of books became so important that the monastery workshops were unequal to the task, and leather workers of all sorts practical design. were pressed into service to bind the numerous books that were springing into existence. saddlers, harness makers, and even bootmakers were called upon to do the work, and the new trade of bookbinding was influenced not only by their skill as craftsmen, but also by the character of the tools, that they had been using in their various crafts, and to a certain extent by the designs that they had used for years in the ornamentation of boots, saddies, and harnesses for royal personages. the artisans themselves were humble men, few knowing even how to read and write, and we therefore find the earliest leather bindings stamped with devices that are no way relevant to books or book work, but that have become characteristic of bookbindings of the present day simply on account of this original association. the binder being familiar with the extent to which he could interchange his tools, conceived the general scheme of his cover decoration, then by a combination and repeti- tion of the forms on these tools created his design. these designs therefore varied according to the fertility of the mind of the designer and the prevailing tastes of suc- ceeding periods of time. it is necessary, therefore, that familiarity with these tools should be possessed by the student in order that a real understanding of book-cover design may be attained. . origin of french tools. - in the period of louis xii of france, we find the forms of the tools used were borrowed from italian devices, wherein arabesque figures were stamped in black upon white paper; but the french worker soon learned that this heavy black mass, though suitable to a white page, was utterly unsuited for stamping in gold on the cover of a book. it therefore was usual to stamp the devices in outline, or sometimes in out- line with the interior slightly shaded, or asured, as this form is technically known, thus giving the binder not only a means of varying the weight of his device but also a variety by a combination of which strength or lightness was acquired. practical design. cha ft . forms of tools.—these tools in their three forms are illustrated in fig. , where at (a) are shown the tools as derived from italy in their solid form, at ( ) their varia- tion by simply the use of outline, and at (c) their further vari- ation by the shading of the outline in order to give a little more strength. the form of these devices is plainly bor- du a (a) para ( ) (c) fig. . rowed from the arabesques of italy, and, separated from the elaborate interlacings with which they were there associated, show their outline to be distinctively of oriental or arabian origin, from which they derived their name as arabesques. these simple devices connected by a long line of scrolls and interlaced bands formed the entire theme of book-cover design during the first period of the french renaissance. . grolier.—the styles of book-cover design that prevailed in different periods, unlike the style of ornament that is characteristic of each period, usually take their names from their designers rather than from the ruling monarch. for instance, many of the book covers bound during the reigns of louis xii and francis i we designate by the title of the grolier style, inasmuch as the art was introduced into france from italy by a great collector of books, named grolier, and the grolier style includes both the prevalent $ practical design. character of binding found in italy and a later style in france, . the aldine press.—grolier assisted in the pro- duction of many volumes that were printed on the press of aldus manutius, a celebrated venetian printer, and in recog- fig. . i nition of his services many volumes were beautifully bound for grolier's own library. in the year , grolier obtained the position of treasurer-general in france, and held it until his death, in , thereby establishing his great library of three thousand volumes of fine italian bound books in the heart of france, near paris. practical design. un ac an . grolier's bindings. — these books were mostly bound in morocco, the finest skins for which were procured from the orient, though a few were covered with calfskin, the earlier works possessing the characteristics of the italian aldine press, the later ones being modified under the influ- ence of binding in france. . characteristics of italian bookbinding. — in fig. is shown a binding in the italian style on a book printed in venice in the year . this shows the char- pa ta th fig. . acteristics of this italian work and the form of arabesque patterns that were introduced into france during the reign of louis xii. here are seen the impressions of the tools $ practical design. of the aldine press, already pointed out at (a) in fig. , united with the scrolls and arabesque panel ornament char- acteristic of the italian renaissance. in fig. is shown another design from venice bound for grolier, whereon a panel is left in the middle that subsequently might be used to receive a coat of arms. here the tools are still similar to those lised on the aldine press and give a fair idea of the style of book design when first introduced into france. . in fig. is illustrated a book that was bound under orders of henry ii for diana of poitiers to be placed in her voxxonoiao's diep! - yxploj all de * ei fig. . library, and stamped on its cover are the interwoven initials h and d indicative of these two names, while in the upper § ry practical design. w right-hand and lower left-hand corners of the central panel are the three intertwined crescents of the coat of arms of diana. the cover of this book was of citron morocco and is a characteristic binding of this period ( ). . the book cover shown in fig. , bound in by henry ii, shows a type of ornament entirely different cc fig. . from the previous example, and in the center is a raised medallion with a profile portrait of the king himself. this cover was of brown morocco leather with painted bands and giit trimmings, and no initials or other devices ß in practical design. were placed on the outside of it, except the portrait of the king. . the book cover shown in fig. was bound in for catherine de medici, and the coat of arms on its center was that of her family. the back of the book be ! r k ka fig. . was ornamented in each panel with a crowned k, the initial of her name, and the whole was executed in dark blue, green, and gold on leather of olive morocco ; how- ever, the central oval panel around the coat of arms was painted red. practical design. . in fig. is shown a design executed in brown morocco for henry iii, with gilt ornamentation inclu- ding the cipher initials of the king and queen and the coat of arms in the center. it will be observed that 據​陸​媒 ​點點 ​} 联 ​媒​线 ​参数 ​禁​黎黎黎 ​* 峨 ​點點 ​點 ​路​能够 ​缺铁​碳​球 ​敬 ​w欲​盤​據​環 ​望​城 ​张继​张 ​谈谈​继​號​谈谈​碳 ​碳​碳 ​城​谈 ​號​碳 ​碳​碳 ​碳​碳​城 ​城​送​線 ​場​城城​战​碳 ​说说 ​ 业 ​坐 ​坐 ​举 ​碳​碳 ​碳​碳 ​暖​联盟 ​x 谈谈​谈​號​说说 ​ 條 ​據​城​碳​城 ​缘​缘​诺​%战​ %谈谈​据说​说​端端 ​战 ​坛​城​以​说说 ​说说 ​说说​城 ​城城​城城 ​征​说说 ​说说 ​说说​战​议​端​作 ​張​* % f桃​城城​城城 ​* * 城城​城 ​% 成​战​战​胡​號​说说 ​战​故 ​*被​機 ​说 ​坐 ​架 ​带​淡彩 ​購 ​典 ​fig. . the ciphers and fleur-de-lis forming the ornament on this design partake of the character of a spot and powder design limited at the angles by specially designed corner pieces. . in fig. is shown a design executed in red morocco for henry iv, in , the central ornament being composed practical design. of his coat of arms; in the outer limits of the border surround- ing it are found his initials intertwined with those of his queen margaret of valois. h h % et le fig. . . the change in the character of design at this period can now be readily compared by reference to fig. , which is a design in brown calf executed for margaret of valois, twenty-seven years before that shown in fig. . the tend- ency throughout-simplicity rather than complicity-is very graphically illustrated in these two examples. . tendency of early bookbinding.–thus, it will be seen that the earliest efforts to enclose books in suitable practical design. a and appropriate bindings tended to make those bindings and cover designs more characteristic of the owner of the book than of the book itself, and each design being executed but once and that on the book cover itself rendered it advisable to spare no money, in order that the quality of the cover c fig. . should be suitable with the value of the work it protected. at the present day, however, we have an entirely different proposition; our books are printed in editions varying from one thousand to ten thousand, and some limited editions of a few hundred. our cover designs must therefore be reduced to the limitations of practical printing and at the practical design. al q may be executed in black and white, in gold, or in color, the only considerations necessary being the expense of produc- tion and the handling of the material in a manner suitable for the die press. certain classes of book-cover design require an imitation, perhaps, of what has been done in the past, such as our examples already shown; other classes may require the enclosure of the cover in a border with corner pieces, in which case the design may partake of the character hereto- fore shown in fig. ; a simple design in appropriate historic letters would also be perfectly proper without any ornament whatsoever, or, possibly, this style of letter with a slight inter- weaving of historic ornament. in any case, the desigrer is left almost entirely to the dietates of his own ideas influenced by the character of the book for which he is to design, and a few suggestions is all that will be necessary in order that he should learn to apply the principles of design to this class of work. . in fig. is shown a binding executed for groiier, in which the lightening of the tool effect by means of out- lining is very apparent; a heavy black interlaced pattern is stamped on the leather, the background is powdered, and the tools outlined in gold and their interior powdered. the italian motto, “io. grolierii et amicorum," is stamped on nearly all of grolier's books and, in reality, represents his book plate. fig. , . francis i book cov- ers. - during the reign of francis i the influence of french taste on bookbinding is seen by the introduction of powdered devices for books. in fig. is shown a powder effect wherein the dauphin device and the fleur-de-lis are alternated vertically and horizontally, practical design and this device in varied forms was very popular in subse- quent periods, as may be seen in fig. , which was a bind- ing for louis xiii, wherein the powder effect is secured by means of the fleur-de-lis and the crowned l. other devices i l l l'l ltl'l l l lll i l'i l ll l' i* ll lll l'l'li fig. , were used in powder effects and also interwoven in arabesque design, as the double h of henry ii, the interwoven crescents of diana of poitiers, and the h c, and l a for henry and catherine, and louis and anne of austria, in their respective reigns. . le gascon and de thou.—after the time of gro- lier, whose name is associated with all french bookbinding, s practical design. days of grolier. bear in mind that grolier was a book collector and not a binder and that through his efforts a style was devel- oped that made a great binder like le gascon a possibility. . in fig. are shown the tools used in the execu- tion of these fanfare covers, all of which, except the little branches, it will be observed, are azured or ruled with a light surface tinting. le gascon developed these tools into still lighter forms, not only by out- lining them but by dotting their outline so as to make it as delicate as possible, as shown in fig. . le gascon developed great individuality, but always employed the stiff framework of the fanfare on important bindings. his style gradually developed, however, and the reduction of the aldine tools to the dotted outline is characteristic of the work of le gascon and gives a remarkable brilliancy of effect to the best of his bindings. . style of louis xiv.-at the beginning of the reign of louis xiv, le gascon was still binder to the king, and this might be considered the period of the highest development of french literature. in bookbind- fig. . ing, however, it was liter- ally a golden age, as the application of heavy stamps and gilding rendered the bindings less delicate than their predecessors and in certain instances positively vulgar in their glitter. the royal arms were stamped on the covers in exaggerated proportions, and heavy borders of gold in geometrical patterns were printed around the edges. these borders being printed from revolving wheels, were abso- lutely uniform and lost the charm that is ever characteristic fig, , $ practical design. of purely freehand work. in some examples where the courtiers followed the style set by the king, a simple border was run around the book by means of one of these wheels, varying in width from to inches. sometimes there would be two or three narrow borders, one within the other, usually with a heavy corner piece to mark the return, but very fre- quently without any attempt at a corner piece at all, allow- ing the corners to take care of themselves where the ruled work stopped. sometimes the entire side of the book would be engraved in this same incongruous style of repeating orna- ment, making the bookbinder a mere machine without an opportunity to exercise skill or taste and rendering all books so alike in character as to make them appear commonplace. as a consequence, we find no great bookbinder in france during this period, and the reign of louis xiv, grand as it may have been politically and artistically, developed no great book lover like grolier or bookbinder like le gascon. the tools used by le gascon (then called "tools of the seventeenth century ") were still in use at this time and have remained in use to the present day, and form the stock in trade of the best binders at the beginning of the twentieth century. . jansen style.—it was due to this elaboration and over gilding that the reaction known as the jansen style took place. this consists of soberly bound volumes absolutely devoid of gilding on the sides, and depending for their beauty on the character of the leather itself. these books were bound better, in a technical sense, than the earlier ones, regardless of the fact that as works of art the covers of the earlier books are more interesting but the binders of books were giving more attention to keeping the leaves intact and inclosing them in a proper protecting cover than to shoving the leaves in a haphazard manner into an elaborately decorated portfolio. . mosaic binding. — however, some binders were still interested enough to keep up the traditions of le gas- con, and shortly after the death of louis xiv we find a new style of leather binding springing into existence as the work of padloup. this is the mosaic binding and is certainly § practical design. the most elaborate and remarkable of its kind. its chief characteristic is that it is in several colors formed by differ- ent leathers inlaid within one another. the bindings in grolier's time, too, were of polychromic decoration, but the colors were painted on them with somber de je: fig. . tinted enamels. but it remained for nicholas padioup, in the reign of louis xv, to introduce the style of work shown in fig. , which has since become characteristic of him. in this example, bound for the duchess of orleans, the center quarterfoils were red on a ground of deep olive green and the rest of the binding was a brown leather sharply out- lined in bright gold. practical design. . the deromes.—contemporary with the bindings of padloup were those of the deromes (a number of brothers, "v fig. . the most prominent of whom was known as the younger derome). the characteristic binding of derome is entirely different from that of padloup, and we might say that as all the mosaics of this period were attributed to padloup, derome gets credit for all bind- ings wherein a tool is used representing a bird with outstretched wings, thus giving a lightness and vivacity to the design. derome's covers usually consisted of a lace- like foliated border suggestive of wrought- iron work, as in fig. , from which he undoubtedly borrowed ideas, as the seven- teenth century smithery work had reached a high scale in art in france. work borders were heavily tooled, and the motives borrowed from the ironwork of the period were capable of immense variation, so that of derome's bindings it is not likely that there are two exactly alike. the tools used by derome are shown in fig. . these open- jente . eighteenth century bookbind- ing.- in the eighteenth century bookbinding fig. . practical design. became heavy. padloup and derome had no successors of importance, and while we find the introduction of a few new tools, there is nothing of importance or interest in any of them and they serve only as a key to the period of cer- tain bindings, if the student chooses to so use them at the present day. thus we see the development of the book cover from its earliest condition to its present form- -a devel- opment that we should endeavor to comprehend in order to design book covers intelligently in the present period. . in bookbinding, as in everything else, one style was evolved from another. the aldine press in italy, being the pioneer printer of ornament, introduces a style that was brought by grolier to france and developed there into a french style. then followed the powdered styles and the brilliant fancies of le gascon, which in turn gave place to the mosaics of padloup and the vigorous borders of derome. throughout all these styles we have the key to the period of each binding by the styles of the tools used; and a knowl- edge of the characteristics of these tools, whether used in the present day for an imitation of antique bindings or for the study of antique bindings to locate their periods, is essen- tially important. . comparison of bindings of different coun- tries.—this historical branch of the subject of bookbinding has been confined to french style, as the art of bookbinding was developed to a higher point of excellence in france than in any other country. true, it originated in italy, but italy was soon outstripped by france in style and ingenuity, and germany, unequal to the task, attempted to do no more than paste an ornamental book plate inside of a volume, acknowledging thus her lack of skill to adorn the volume externally. to germany, therefore, we owe the invention of the book plate. only one great binder appears in england during this period and even he cannot be compared with his contempo- raries in france. practical design. modern bookbinding. . character of modern binding:-it must not be supposed that the binding of books in individual copies, the covers of which are ornamented with particular devices, has been confined entirely to antiquity. it is quite customary at the present day to bind books in individual copies with covers to suit their owner or match the general bindings of his library. in fact, nearly all french and german books and a large number of the books published in england are not bound in stiff covers at all, but in paper so that the purchaser may have them properly enclosed to suit his own desires within covers that satisfy his taste. the designing of book covers, then, even at the present day, may require a theme that can be either executed by hand on leather work or duplicated on the press. as the former case is a somewhat higher branch of the art and is more closely allied with the practice of the past, we will first consider that, but let us first look into the general process of binding a book, as the designer of the cover must be familiar with the details through which the volume passes before it reaches his hands for completion. . process of binding.-in bookbinding there are two separate and distinct operations usually termed "for- warding” and “finishing.” forwarding consists in the assembling of the leaves and the preparation of the book for its cover, the putting on of that cover and the completion of the book ready for its exterior decoration. finishing con- sists in the decoration of the cover and of the back of the book. forwarding, therefore, is a mechanical process; finish- ing, an artistic one. it has been expressed as the opinion of one of the most prominent binders of the day, that a book when neatly and cleanly covered is in a very satisfactory condition without any finishing or decorating, and that many people are in accord with this idea is evinced by the fact that so many books are bound in plain leather without any decoration whatsoever on their exteriors except a device or title by $ practical design. which they can be recognized. it will be remembered that the jansen books, as described in art. , consisted simply of a well forwarded book with a minimum amount of gilding on its cover, and in some cases none at all. . securing the sheets.-in modern bookbinding the first operation of the binder is to refold all of the printed sheets into a section and to gather these sections together in regular order so as to form the volume. after this, the sections are taken one at a time and placed in a frame to hold them and then sewed with a continuous thread backwards and forwards through their backs, thus uniting them and at a h g f fig. . the same time securing them to upright strings that are fastened in the sewing frame across the backs of the sec- tions, as shown at a in fig. . as a matter of fact, after the completion of this process, the book is “bound," and all that is subsequently done to it is for the purpose of protect- ing this binding. the decoration of the latter part of the work to make it beautiful as well as useful brings the element of design into bookbinding. the book is now ready for the forwarder, who completes the work of binding, to the pasting on of the cover. the back of the book b is made by him and rounded to shape, and the millboards e that are to form the covers of the book gy practical design. are carefully squared and secured by means of leather or cloth bands to the sheets that are sewed in. . securing the boards.—the sides of the volume are thus protected by millboards, usually termed “boards," for brevity, which are themselves protected, as shown at f, by a covering of leather, vellum, or silk, as of old, or of linen or paper, in most modern work. the projection of the boards beyond the edges of the volume protects them, and the upper edge is then cut smooth, and sometimes gilded to prevent damage from the accumulation of dust. . classification of bindings. this protecting cover over the boards, and the extent to which it is subsequently · decorated, determines the character of binding under which the book is classified. there are four classes of modern binding-cloth binding, half binding, whole binding, and extra binding. in cloth binding the cover is made sepa- rately from the book and encloses it after the entire book is sewed. in half binding, the cover is made for each indi- vidual book as before, but the boards are not entirely covered with the leather, silk, or other material that protects it, leaving the fore part of the board to be covered with some- thing else. books bound in this manner are usually termed half morocco or half calf, according to the material. in whole binding, the boards are entirely covered with the leather or other material of the binding and are commercially termed full morocco or full calf. in extra binding, the whole surface, or such a portion of it as is desirable, is deco- rated in gold or enamel color. where a book is to be extra bound, the processes tending to the assemblage of its parts are gone into somewhat more in detail. after the sections are folded, the end leaves shown at g' at the front and back of the volume are added to protect the most exposed pages. then the sections are sewed as before, and the volume passes into the hands of the forwarder, who makes and shapes the back of the book, attaches the boards, and laçes them to the ends of the string a to which the forms have practical design. been sewed. after the edges have been colored or gilded, which is usually done at this stage, the head-band h is sewed in at the head and tail, and the back k is lined with cloth or leather to keep this head-band in place and strengthen the back. . the covering material.-if leather is now applied to cover the book, its edges must be carefully shaved off in order to make no ridge at l where they fold over on the inside, and after being pasted securely to the cover the depression caused by the overlap is filled with an evenly cut piece of paper so that it may be perfectly smooth to receive the first or last end paper g', which is now cut to shape and pasted down, leaving only the leather borders of the boards uncov- ered. this completes the forwarding of the volume, and the finishing on the leather consists of a decoration in gold with tools heretofore described. . decorating the cover.—the method of operating the tools and applying the decoration is very simple. the pattern being drawn on paper, it is marked on the leather after it has been washed with vinegar and water. then white of an egg, well beaten up and allowed to stand, is carefully penciled over the pattern, after which it is gener- ally wiped with oil. gold leaf is now applied with a pad of cotton wool, and the pattern, plainly visible through the gold leaf, is pressed into the leather with the tools heated to a temperature of a little over °, and the waste gold is then removed by rubbing with an oiled rag. . character of the cover design.-the design must be one that can be executed conveniently with the means at the finisher's command, that is, by means of the tools with which he does the embossing. it is an unfor- tunate fact that at the beginning of the twentieth century nothing has been developed toward a new style of book- binding characteristic of the present age. grolier lived in the sixteenth century and le gascon in the seventeenth century, and even in the eighteenth century we have the ſing practical design mosaic borders of padloup and the heavy lacework borders of derome borrowed from or inspired by wrought iron, and yet the most beautiful bindings that we find executed in the nineteenth century are simply imitations of those that pre- ceded them. even in france, where bookbinding was devel- oped and flourished to such an extent, we have nothing worthy of consideration during the past century, for the french revolution and the long succeeding wars prevented further development of the art, and even the traditions dis- appeared. the foremost bookbinder of the nineteenth century was trautz, a german, and after him the french revived some- what their former enterprise. the chief beauty of the work of trautz is its conscientiousness; he always did his best, and being a student of ancient methods, revived the tools of le gascon, derome, and padloup. . modern designs.-in individual bookbinding of the present day, it is very hard to direct the student on what lines to follow. many binders are content to follow identi- cally the styles of grolier, padloup, and derome, but this is altogether wrong as they are out of sympathy with modern advancement. they may be more perfect in design than anything that has recently been created, but to persist in using them is as unreasonable as to confine our designs of art and architecture to the early greek, for a man's residence today is a thing he requires for his modern wants however imperfect it may be and is far better than the style of the early greek, unsuited to his purpose, though beautiful. . propriety of design.—it should always be borne in mind that there should be some propriety of scheme in the design of a binding, and though it is not necessary that a volume on botany should be decorated with floral forms, it is proper that there should be some association between the title, the binding, and the interior of the book. one expensive volume on the subject of glass making was once bound in covers that contained glass panels enameled in ging practical design. bound in a material that is in harmony with this subject, and a design after the pattern of le gascon, or the earlier practice as seen in results from the aldine press, would cer- tainly be suitable to the occasion if not carried too severely on the lines of the original. in the same manner, the mosaic bindings of padloup and the heavy wrought iron suggestions of derome could each be pressed into service to be appro- priated on certain occasions and for certain purposes and used intelligently in their places. $ . cheaper bindings.-leather is very little used for modern bookbinding, and, consequently, the designs for book covers must, as a rule, take into consideration the adaptability of another material. stamped cloth is the more common material for this purpose nowadays, and the old leather-work designs have been superseded by free and tra- ditional ornament in some way associated with the subject of the volume. there is practically no limitation in the execution of the designs, inasmuch as machinery has been so improved that a pattern may be stamped on the side and back of a book cover in as many colors as the designer can use to advantage or the publisher is willing to pay for. modern bindery with steam power is capable of binding the entire edition of any one work—amounting even to several thousand copies-in the course of hours. } . hand and machine binding.—here, then, is one strong and essential difference between hand bookbind- ing and machine bookbinding. in the former the book is bound and then decorated by hand, while in the latter the cloth or other material that is to form the cover is made and decorated apart from the book itself and afterwards fastened in place. the former is a slow process, and the latter a rapid one; in the former the designer really executes the design on the cover, in the latter he may never see the cover, and simply designs the dies to be used. . novelty of design.-in the attempt to secure novelty of design, a great effort has been made to find special i practical design. cloths for covering materials for special books, and canvas, burlap, calico, and silk have each been used to advantage, under some circumstances. the special fitness of the asso- ciation of certain goods, or of the pattern of them, has been used to advantage for certain bookbindings. a book entitled "gowns and frocks in colonial days" was very appropri- ately bound in the figured calico characteristic of that period, while another book devoted to the interests of yachts and yachting was bound in ordinary sail canvas on which was imprinted a line of signal flags bearing the devices of the different yachts of prominence described in its pages. here, at once, are suggested two styles of treatment—one, wherein the binding material itself is suggestive of the propriety of its use, and the other, where this suggestion is added or increased by the printing upon the material of certain char- acteristic devices, as the signal flags above referred to. . paper covers.-paper-covered books are of two kinds—the one where the edition is valuable and the paper cover is simply put on to protect the volume until its owner shall decide to bind it in leather or other permanent material; other paper-covered books are usually so bound for cheap- ness, and particularly books of the fiction class that are usually read and tossed aside after one reading. from a commer- cial standpoint, however, the covers of these latter are of as much importance to the designer as the most elaborately tooled leather cover designed in the style of the sixteenth century. . magazine covers.--these paper covers, in the case of a magazine, must be characteristic, so that the maga- zine is readily recognized by its cover; in the case of a novel, it must be striking in order to catch the eye of the purchaser as it lies upon a stand; and in some cases it is highly impor- tant that it should be symbolic, especially where the subject treated is a religious or political one, in order that the person interested may, from a glance at the design of the cover, form some idea of the material within. in each of these cases, it $ practical design. lies entirely with the designer to decide and settle the material, color, design, and treatment in each individual case, and on the judicious decision of any one of these points frequently depends the success or failure of the entire design. the styles of design that publishers take to can only be learned by experience, but in cost of production there is little difference between one design and another, except when color is used. a complicated design in black-and- white will cost no more to print than a simple one, but if one or more colors are introduced, this will require the entire edition to go on the press a second time, and perhaps a third, and requiring a separate die to be cut for each print- ing, thereby multiplying the expense accordingly. applied design. (part .) geometrical considerations. . fitness.—in applying any form of nature to a surface in order to produce a decoration, it must unquestionably possess a quality known as fitness for that purpose for which it is required. it is just as important that the decora- tion should exactly fit the utensil as that the utensil should exactly fit the purpose for which it is made. mere applica- tion of ornament to a space is not decoration, nor is it applied design. it must be adapted to that space as per- fectly as possible, and in any respect that it falls short of this perfect adaption, just in that respect does it fall short of being a proper decoration. . influence of shape. - in fig. are shown four shapes or forms, and it will require very little study to determine that no two of them could be rationally treated from a decorative standpoint in exactly the same way, and in decorating them the first question that arises is, in what direction should the lines run on the surface that is to be occupied by them. here let it be known that the lines forming the boundaries of the figure should influence the direction of the lines laying out the pattern. the leading lines should emphasize the tines of the boundaries, unless for some reason this cannot be done, when the minor lines should be made to do so. s for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. $ applied design. this must all be done with perfect harmony and due care to prevent monotony. both of these principles can be observed by paying particular attention to the effects of contrast and variety. (a) on . influence of conven- tionalism. — in determining the ( ) directions that are to be taken by the leading lines of our design, it is of the greatest importance that the character the design is to assume should be considered, whether it is to be a purely con- ventional composition to be based (c) on conventionalism of general ideas, or the realization of some particular plant. in the first case, we may assume any ornamental lines we choose, so long as they are suitable to their surroundings; but if the design (d) is to realize some particular plant form, the lines must be such that they depict the growth of the plant and at the same time are suitable to the space they occupy. this limits our field of selection in the latter case, and we must select our natural types with care, in order that both of its conditions-adaptability of lines and adherence to plant growth-- will be carried out. we must not let stiff growing plants be designed in easy flowing lines, nor must we allow the soft trailing aspect of running vines to be stiffened into an unnatural appearance, for such would not be convention- alism, but quite the contrary. fig. . . emphasis of structural lines.-in fig. we have the decoration of a surface similar to that shown at (a) of fig. . the first lines put in place here are the vertical ones repeating and emphasizing the effect of the sides of the $ cas applied design. oblong, but varying in length. short horizontal lines are then introduced, emphasizing the top and the bottom of the figure; then the curved lines are brought in for contrast. > fig. . fig. . if, for any reason, the leading lines of our composition cannot be made to follow the leading lines of the surface that is decorated, our minor lines must be made to do this, as shown in fig. . here we start with a diagonal line in direct contrast to any of the sides of the rectangle. this contrast is made strong, and variety is obtained by the introduction of the spiral lines; then the short vertical and horizontal lines are' introduced secondary details, to emphasize the sides of the rectangle. as vo same . emphasis of curved lines. in fig. we have the circle, and the details apply here as in the previous case. a central vertical line stands in strong con- trast to a boundary line, while the curved lines are in harmony with it and emphasize the circumference. fig. . § applied design. in fig. we have a decoration of a spandrel between two arches, based on the outline form shown in fig. at (c); the arches between which this spandrel is introduced being important features of this construction, the curved lines fig. . forming its boundaries are given more emphasis, while the vertical line separating them is introduced to present contrast. then, again, in fig. , which is based on (d) of fig. , the spiral forms and semicircle within the top emphasize the outline of the figure, while both con- trast and variety are produced by the flowing lines from the center to the sides. . harmony of secondary lines. it must be observed, too, that while some of the lines used in laying out the ornament are in accord with the boundary of the surface, the secondary lines must also be influenced in their direction by the main lines, as shown in fig. , where the small branching lines from the ver- ticals are influenced by the curves in the verticals them- selves. fig. . $ applied design. . harmony of lines in nature.—this principle of harmony and fitness in the direction of lines can readily be studied by the observation of the veining of some leaves. take, for instance, the lilac leaf shown in fig. , and observe that although in the beginning of their growth the veins start almost in direct contrast to the direction of the edge of the leaf, they gradually bend and assume a curve similar to the marginal outline, and that the secondary veins are in har- mony with the primary ones. in order to further secure this har- mony and unity in composition, it is necessary that lines should express a continuity in their arrangement as well as a harmony with each other and their surrounding outlines, and although they may be interrupted, a common and united direction should be indicated. fig. . . continuity of lines. it is well that all lines should express the feeling that if they were continued in the same direction or on the same curve from the point where they stop, they would unite with some other line. thus, in fig. , we have a square panel, the inside of which is laid out on a sym- metrical arrangement, and the lines a and b possess such a as would bring them into unity if continued shown by the dotted line. } d curve , as je fig. . n - . distribution of masses. another point to be observed is the proper distribution of lines—a distribution s applied design. . geometrical basis of surface decorations.- wall-paper patterns are laid out on a geometrical basis, and the adoption of different geometrical forms will lead to a great variety of designs in the filling in. in fig. at (a) is a pattern suited for wall decoration or textile design, where the leading lines are vertical and horizontal, and the repeated da coco & (b) jedan (c) fig. . ornament consists in the joining of a number of decorated rectangles. at ( ) is shown a surface decoration where the foundations of the geometrical construction are tangent cir- cles, yet the pattern is so handled that the lines governing its foundation principle are lost in the appearance of the entire design, and a study of the circular design itself would $ applied design. show that the leading construction lines were set out in pre-. cisely the same manner as in figs. to . at (c) the basis for construction of ornament is the lozenge shape, and this introduces oblique lines giving the pattern an entirely different character from the previous one, while at (d) the structural lines of the pattern being of a wavy or ogival character, give rise to the production of still another variety of surface ornament. in all of these designs the principal lines are in harmony with the form of the principal figure, and the filling in of the figure is of a secondary consideration, although, of course, it lies with the designer to limit the character of his decoration simply to one figure or to run it into several figures, making the design simple or complex as he desires. . retaining and abolishing fundamental geo- metric constructions.—then, again, the designer may retain the original form on which the design is based and emphasize it, or arrange that it will be abolished altogether when the pattern is completed, adopting his course according to the purpose to which the design is to be applied. as a suggestion, it may be said that if the design is for a wall paper to be used on a dado, the constructive geometrical forms are better retained, as they impart to the design a stiffness and strong look that make it suitable for the pur- pose; but if the paper is designed to be hung between the dado and the frieze, the structural forms may be judiciously dispensed with and the flowing, easy pattern of the ornament left open that it may be more in harmony with the position it is to occupy. arrangement of details. } . a method of evolving patterns upon the basis of intersecting lines has already been shown; the ornament formed on this principle has been analyzed as the basis for new ornament. starting from here, we will consider the method of treating a surface according to the composition and location of the ornament. chiaper diaper •t checker ಅls ಇದರ m ksrs ನl ( ) ( ) (e) m . (f) ( ) @@@ @ ( ) od ) d @@@ ಎನಾಾಾವಾ ವರದಿ. 'ನ ( ) ನಡ' ವೆ d @ @@ ( ) (k) striping & banding ( ) ( ) paneling (p) (q) fig, . spotting & yowdering $ applied design. . general arrangements of ornament in surface work. there are five general arrangements of ornament in surface work—diapering, checkering, striping and banding, paneling, and spotting and powdering. assuming that we have simply a number of square meshes laid out as was our foundation plan in fig. of elements of ornament, we can, by simply filling in each square with some form of ornament and repeating the arrangement regularly, obtain the style of treatment, known as diapering, shown in fig. , where at (a) and (b) the square forms are in a horizontal position, and at (c), (d), and ( ), they are at an angle, or in other words, a lozenge shape. at (c) and (ſ) are shown the same design as is used at (a) and ( ), only the method of laying out the design is to have the ornament occupy only every other square, thereby producing the treatment known as checker- ing. at (g) we have a combination of these two forms, called checkering and diapering, wherein the design is made lighter on every alternate square, thus giving a checker effect, while each square is filled with ornament as in the diaper effect. . in arranging our ornament in annexed squares, either vertical or horizontal, and leaving spaces of one or more rows of squares between, we get the effect known as striping and banding, as shown at (i), (j), and (k); or by combi- ning striping and banding in such a manner that the stripes and bands enclose a certain amount of space, we get the treatment called paneling, shown at ( ), (m), and (n). an extreme treatment of this gives 'uis the effect shown at ( ), sometimes called lining, where the space is divided by lines of different weights converting the surface into a number of small panels like a plaid. by extending the space between the ornaments to a greater or lesser extent, we obtain the effect known as spotting and powdering, as shown at (p), ( ), and (r). the difference between spotting and powdering simply consists in the relative area occupied by the different pieces of ornament. where the ornamentation and the background " tax hrs (a) ( ) z- (e) (f) fig. . $ applied design. are about of one area, or apparently so, the design is said to be powdered, but where the ornament exists in small masses with considerable space between, the effect is said to be spotted. . diaper.-we will now consider by itself each of these systems of arrangement: first comes the diaper—this consists of a pattern that regularly repeats itself so as to com- pletely cover a surface without interyal, or in such a way that any interval that exists will form a part of the pattern. it is what is usually termed an all-over pattern—an arrange- ment of a most systematic character wherein each detail of the pattern is confined to an allotted space and does not overrun its boundaries. the forms on which the diaper is based may be of any shape, and frequently different forms may be used in the same diaper design alternating with each other both ver- tically and horizontally. this is shown in fig. where, at (a) and (b), the geometrical forms governing the diaper are squares and lozenge shapes, and at (c), tan- gent circles. . as the diaper developed historically, the pattern in each geometrical section was permitted to extend over and run into the succeeding section, thereby tending in a slight degree to obliterate the apparent geometric formation as shown at (d) and (e); and, finally, as it developed still more, the boundaries became ornamented as well as the spaces enclosed by them, and the diaper took a form shown at (f). it was then but a short step to the time when the formal all-over pattern developed itself, and arrived at what we consider the ordinary diaper pattern of the present day, which consists of a surface decoration that rarely shows its geometrical construction no matter how regular that con- struction may be. in fig. are shown four designs, at (a), (b), (c), and (d), wherein, after the geometrical guide lines have been removed, it is a difficult matter to trace the character of : § applied design. the ornament. each geometrical form shown dotted in these designs contains the complete details of all the orna- (a) comply (d) (c) fig. . ment of the entire surface and they repeat in each direction unlimitedly. . fig. shows additional patterns taken from pieces of tapestry of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, whereon the geometrical expression of the design has been empha- sized for the purpose of illustration. at (a) the square is the basis on which the design is constructed and contains every detail of the entire pattern, but in two forms, one of > (a) ( ) (c) (d) fig. . $ applied design. which is the reverse of the other, forming what might be considered a right-and-left pattern, so to speak. at ( ), however, the rectangle containing all the details of the design is repeated without reverse both above and below and on each side of itself. at (c), where the design is based on the lozenge shape, the pattern consists of a simple repe- tition of the lozenge form in diagonal directions on each of the four sides of its origin, while at (d) the general design is based on the circle, and the parts filled in, as well as the parts between the circles, are emphasized in the design and almost obliterate the geometrical basis of the construction. from this it can be seen that the extent to which a system of diapering can be varied is unlimited, and checkering is so similar to it that we can readily see it also has no limitation. . checkering.-in fig. , at (a) and (b), are shown two systems of surface decoration by means of checker work; at (a) the individual lines separating the checkers are omitted from the design and the checker filling alone is used, but at ( ) the vertical lines of at least a part of the checker work are maintained in the design, and the fillings branch from either side of them in conventionalized floral forms. . striping, paneling, banding, spotting and powdering.–the effect obtained by striping is shown in fig. at (c), where the broad stripe down the center of the panel is blended into the border to improve the effect, while the space each side is broken by a single spot. at (d) the stripes run diagonally across the panel and divide its surface up into a number of bands at (e) is shown the appearance of a panel decorated by spotting alone. here a large cen- tral spot forms a main feature and two smaller spots are placed above and below, the whole being balanced by means of vertical and horizontal lines. at (f) is shown the effect in panel work of spotting and powdering, the whole being arranged on a lozenge system of checker work, but destroyed from a checker work effect by the powdered background. applied design. application of ornament. hanging fabrics. . propriety of design.-in applying ornament to any surface the greatest consideration must be given to the question of purpose. the style and method of deco- rating a textile fabric may be very appropriate for itself and altogether inappropriate when applied to a wall sur- toidublicidioso quiltedilitiei ilito itililligini tattoliuinonta - sisse sed pospalio groen gos fig. . face. for instance, even in the same class of goods, a woven fabric that is to be used on a wall surface must necessarily present a different problem in design from one that is to form a hanging over a doorway - one is $ applied design. stiff, flat, and hard, from the surface it is called upon to cover; the other is soft, movable, and flexible, and uneven in surface when in use; and a design that is suit- able for the one would surely be greatly out of place for the other. . here it must again be suggested that the method in the style of design that will best accent the qualities desired in each material will be the method most suitable in con- structing the design. the wall must appear flat, and for that reason a design that will not show any particular direc- tion will be more suitable. vertical and horizontal stripes must not form any part in the decoration, and a scheme based on diapering or pow- dering, or an all-over system of paneling, will be allow- able. பார்ப்பாய் > . on the other hand, a curtain that is hung from a pole is suitable to striping, and horizontal or oblique stripes work in very naturally for such a purpose, as shown in fig. , as through the folds the stripes are broken and the strongest effect of the movability and softness of the goods is brought out. vertically striped patterns are to be avoided as hangings, as their design tends to confusion, emphasizing the folds of the goods instead of harmonizing them, as shown in fig. . another point that should be considered in designing hangings is the size of the pattern compared with the weight and quality of the goods-a heavy material that will lie in fig. , a it s $ applied design. bold round folds can support a pattern of large details and vigorous design, but light goods that hang in delicate undu- lations require a delicate handling in order that the pattern may not appear incongruous or heavy for the goods. wall decoration. . methods of treatment. in the wall decoration of large and important rooms, the figures forming the detail of the decoration may be bold and heavy, but in small rooms of less importance in character the figures of the decoration should be sufficiently reduced not to attract the eye from the other harmonies of the room. aside from the scale of the detail of the pattern, there should be considered the order of its distribution, for when we begin to divide a surface into its different sections we must consider the value of each section and the relative importance each is to occupy in the design. for instance, should we divide our wall into dado, wall surface, and frieze, and possibly subdivide these members by moldings and borders, we are emphasizing an idea derived from a struc- tural value—the pedestal, column, and entablature of an architectural order—and the parts having the greatest struc- tural value should, therefore, receive the inost severe treat- ment, while those of less importance may have a delicate and more picturesque treatment. the dado, being the support of the wall surface, must therefore receive the plainest and most dignified decoration, while the wall sur- face itself may be freely treated with a diaper or spotted decoration, and the frieze, with an elaborate though delicate treatment. . pilaster forms of treatment. sometimes the wall may be divided by means of pilasters so that it consists of a number of panels; then it loses its character as an entire wall surface, and the panels should be decorated individu- ally, while the pilasters as structural members should receive proper treatment of importance and dignity. § applied design. there is a strong objection in some cases to using the pilaster form of treatment as a surface decoration, inasmuch as it has too much of a structural significance, but it is fre- quently necessary to break the monotony of a long wall sur- face, and if the actual pilasters cannot be built to bring about the effect, a decorative pilaster may be used with per- fect propriety, provided always that it is a conventional representation of one and not a realistic counterfeit. it is in this that the danger of using structural forms in wall decoration exists. the pilaster may, and properly should, suggest the idea of the forın of decoration with which we effect the subdivision, but a false and painted pilaster is most assuredly highly out of place as the divi- ding member. . effects of vertical and horizontal decorating. it will also be well to remember that the methods of wall decoration have each a marked effect upon the general appearance of a room. horizontal divisions of the wall increase the effect of comfort and coziness in an apartment but reduce the apparent height of its ceiling, and if the upper and lower divisions of the wall are overdeveloped in order to get this horizontal effect, the cramped posi- tion of the intermediate space will reduce the apparent height of the ceiling almost to an exaggeration. on the other hand, vertical divisions of the wall into panels or by means of pilasters, tend to increase the apparent height of the ceiling at the expense of the cozy and home- like appearance of the apartment. such treatment is per- missible only in the more formal rooms of a building, where great dignity and less familiarity of surroundings are required. i е e :s 'e . in the preparation of patterns for wall decoration, whether they are to be stencils, direct paintings, or designs for the paper stainer, weaver, or textile printer, there are always technical matters in each industry that must be con- sidered, besides the mere handling of the design, and the - те § applied design. conditions by which each design is more or less limited must be thoroughly understood by the designer if the artistic element is to be carried to its fullest possibilities. . wall-paper design. — wall papers are printed from blocks or rolls varying in size from to inches square, though most english papers are printed from blocks inches square; and to practically space out a design it requires that the number of fundamental forms or repeats must be so adjusted as to fit one of these blocks; otherwise, perfect repetition in all directions will be impossible. it must also be remembered that 'no matter whether the pat- tern is based on the square, the rectangle, or the triangle, the paper will be printed from a square block and in runs of about yards. the block may contain one repeat or more than one repeat or even only a portion of a repeat, accord- ing to the scale of the pattern, and in all cases the extension of the repeat in a vertical direction is attained by repeated printings from the block, while the horizontal repeats are matters for the paper hanger to carry out when he places the hangings side by side. the dimensions of the printing block will therefore control, to a large extent, the size and proportion of the pattern, and the pattern must always be so adjusted that the repeat will occur with the utmost accuracy in both directions, . size of the repeat.-for instance, suppose we adopt the lozenge form as the basis of our pattern, as shown in fig. at (a), and comparing it with the proposed design, discover that it will yield a pattern far too large for the character of the subject we desire to have printed; there- fore, we make the block contain one and one-half of the form for repeat as shown at ( ); but this, while it reduces the scale of our design, at the same time so alters the pro- portions of our figure that we cannot readily handle it. the arrangement of two lozenge shapes, as at (c), in the same space that we originally attempted to put one, as at (a), still further decreases the relative proportion between $ applied design. the width and the height of our geometrical form. there- fore, if it is necessary that our pattern should preserve the same proportion as our lozenge shape in fig. (a), we must shorten the block somewhat as expressed at (f), or adopt the arrangement shown at (e), which reduces our - inches ko am > (a) (b) (c) (f) (d) (e) fig. , repeat to one-half the size we started with at (a), and we can therefore see that in adapting any form to suit a block of a given size we are compelled to alter the proportion or greatly reduce the scale. . if the size of the pattern indicated in fig. at ( ) is satisfactory and if the change of its proportion is of no great account, it will be found that the method of repetition differs from that in (a), (c), and (c) and that it will not repeat by being placed side by side on the same level, as in fig. at (a), and therefore the horizontal repetition of the pattern must be effected by lowering the pattern half a block when placed side by side as shown at ( ). patterns arranged in this way for hangings are technically known as “drop pattern," because the decorator has to drop the paper half the width of one block when pasting it on the wall. the chief object attained in adopting the drop pattern is the e t d lbfa. otate teacher collec santa barbara, california $ applied design. avoidance of too small a scale, as can be seen in fig. . the largest possible scale that can be worked on this piin- ciple, next to the full size shown at (a), is shown at (b), and the arrangement shown at (d), though satisfactory for a repetition horizontally by dropping the pattern one- third of a block, will not repeat vertically and so can- not be printed. kx a (a) . proportion of the unit. here is the first problem that confronts us in making a repeat pattern. we have in fig. six schemes of arrangement by which to adapt the form shown at (a) to a different scale of pattern, each of which is likely to present certain unsurmountable dis- ( ) advantages. the scheme at ( ) may be too narrow for the height according to the work of the design; (c) is still more so; (d) presents us with a smaller pattern than (a) in the same proportion, but one that cannot be printed owing to its lack of vertical repeat; (e) being but half the size of (a) may be too small; and (f), though suitable in every respect for a drop pattern, demands that the proportions of the printing block be changed, which is not a convenient thing to do. we therefore must resort to the printing of our pattern in large scales as at (a), or reduce its proportions to the forms shown at ( ) and (e). fig. . . bringing this down to a practical basis, we have in fig. at (a) the diagram of a wall-paper pattern on a basis of geomertrical figures and at ( ) the method of dropping it in order to secure the satisfactory repeats. this, however, i s applied design. . ..^ is not the only method of securing repeating pat- terns used by designers. the plan of cutting the paper into equal sections after the first elements of the design have been laid out and then transposing the pieces during the process of design, has been heretofore discussed and is certainly more suitable for designs where the treat- ment is free, such as that shown in fig. at ( ). by this method the artist can work with greater freedom and always be sure of the accuracy of his repeats. d??? (a). . coloring in wall paper.-another detail in the manufacture of wall paper that must always be considered, is the question of color, and the number of colors to be used should always be governed to a certain extent by the scale of the pattern. if the scale be small, several colors may be used, as the diminutiveness of the details will cause the colors to blend and show effect of brilliant or dark spots, which would appear i no ( ) fig. , ) § applied design. in a wall surface where the pattern was large. in a large pattern, however, the colors must be few, or so subdued in tint that none of them is obtrusive. . fitness of pattern. in the character of patterns that are suitable for wall papers, the law of fitness should govern us always. the limitations of the processes of printing affect our repetition, but not the growth and devel- opment of our design. patterns that are made up of a con- ventional repetition of a given type are well adapted to block printing, but patterns having the appearance of a natural growth are but ill suited to this class of work, as the iden- tical lines must occur again and again throughout the deco- rated space, and the characteristic irregularity of nature is thus violated. . the only way to present a naturalistic treatment of a wall surface is by some process that favors the principle of variety. hand painting is the only means by which ever changing variety may be attained to an unlimited extent. therefore, the fitness of methods to the realization of the best designs justifies us in saying that conventional patterns are best suited to the mechanically repeated process of print- ing, and naturalistic designs must always be executed by hand painting . friezes.—we will now consider the subject of frieze decoration, which bears the same relation to the wall surface as the capital does to the column, or the entablature to an architectural order, and it should be borne in mind that inasmuch as the capital of a column is made more elab- orate and interesting than is the shaft itself, just in such proportion should the frieze design of the wall be elaborated over the decoration of the general surface. it should also be borne in mind that the scheme of deco- ration of a frieze should be more complicated and interesting than the wall, because it occupies a structural position and also because it is removed beyond a point of danger from damage from moving furniture, etc., but at the same time applied design. (a) ( ) (c) (d) fig. . i $ applied design. its elevated position requires that its decoration should be simple so as to be easily understood at a distance. . there are four distinctively different ways in which a frieze may be treated. it may contain a continuous run- ning pattern as shown at (a) in fig. —a system of treat- ment in accord with the gothic system of decoration and observable in many of the carved friezes of gothic art, but unfortunately productive of rather a weak effect when used for plain surface decoration. a better method is by the introduction of a number of vertical ornaments as shown at ( ) somewhat after the clas- momomo mommmmmmc fig. . sic method of frieze decoration as shown in fig. , which is a portion of a frieze from a greek temple. several separate details of this character may be joined by horizontal running ornament, as shown in fig. at (c), and this we might con- wh fig. . sider somewhat more in sympathy with the renaissance system of treating this detail, as shown in fig. . § applied design. the fourth method, shown at (d), is by the introduction of a number of panels, but this is only applicable where a severe form of treatment is desired. the system of filling a frieze with a few vertical ornaments is entirely in accord with the structural conditions and recalls the vertical mem- bers in the triglyphs of the doric order, and the dentals in the ionic and corinthian. it makes no difference whether we lay out our frieze by an arrangement of panels or by simple vertical elements, we must bear in mind that it is always wise to accentuate the structural lines, but the extent to which this is permissible depends on the general scheme adopted. if the scheine of design is severe and dignified, structural accentuation may be carried out to a greater degree than if the treatment be light and fanciful. . borders.-borders are used sometimes in wall deco- ration to separate the frieze and the dado from the filling or wall space, or are sometimes used as the boundaries of panels. their primary office in design is usually to prevent the decoration of one surface from lapping over and imping- ing on that of another; therefore, an elaborate border of complicated design requires a separating element of a plainer character in order to keep its design from mixing with the design of the filling and thereby forming a part of the patterns it is intended to separate. this is sometimes accomplished by making a distinct contrast between the character of the pattern of the border and that of the filling this may be done in matter of color, or in the arrangement of lines, allowing vertical lines to predomi- nate one, and horizontal lines to form the characteristics of the other. . another use to which the border is put is that of the enclosing of an ornament in order to confine it and give it an expression of unity as illustrated in fig. of elements of ornament. in the case of pictures, the application of a border in the form of a frame is to separate it from the more § applied design. conventional rendering of the wall surface on which it hangs and confine the attention to that which is enclosed. . the treatment of the border depends entirely on the space around it, and the character of the design must be carefully studied in order that the border may not be of more interest than the picture. occasionally, when the subject does not allow the enclosure a proper border, a simple line around the edge to confine it to its apparently allotted space is sometimes sufficient to satisfy the eye, but this method should be but sparingly used and only when some good reason warrants its adoption. the character of the border, as said before, must be studied relatively to the design surrounded; for instance, in fig. is shown a panel of conventional design where at (a) % (a) ( ) te fig. . the simple line border is readily seen to be insufficient, while at (b) a heavier border is introduced and suits its pur- pose better. there is no rule that requires the design of a > fig. . (a) rus (b) fig. . applied design. $ border to be simply a band around its subject demanding parallel lines, and in fig. is shown a design where the inside of the border is not parallel with the outside, but con- sists of a surrounding member of special design to suit its particular purpose. in fig. we have at (a) a panel of foliated ornament surrounded by a border composed of details, the interest of which is too great and consequently conflicts with the inter- est in the panel itself; but at (b) the same foliated ornament is reduced in the border to a conventional rendering, thereby suiting its purpose exactly and enhancing the value of the design instead of detracting from it. . corners.—besides the consideration of borders, attention should be given to the consideration of corners where borders turn around a frame or wall surface, and it should always be remembered that a frame is structurally formed in one of several ways, the three most prominent of which are shown in fig. , where at (a) we have the (a) ( ) fig, . miter joint, at (b) a square joint, and at (c) the joggled or halved joint. the joint is always apparently the weakest part of a structure, therefore the ornament should be added in such a way as to apparently strengthen this part of it, and in laying out a design it is advisable to start at the corner and apply the ornament in such a manner that it will appear to hold the corner in position and extend itself over the vertical and horizontal pieces. . pilasters.-besides horizontal borders, there are vertical elements that fulfil the same functions, and under $ applied design. $ this consideration may be included the decorative elements of pilasters and other upright divisions of a wall surface. many lines used for horizontal borders have often been used in the decoration of pilasters, subject to certain modifi- cations in order to adapt them; but this course is not to be commended, as there are four systems of pilaster decoration that seem to have satisfied the wants of mankind in the best periods of art without any general modification or improve- ment. . in one of these the elements of the design are built in stages and symmetrically disposed around a central stalk as shown in fig. at (a). this method gives us the (a) ( ) (c) fig. . impression of support and vertical feeling of stability charac- teristic of the pilaster itself. the second method is where the ornament is tied together in bunches apparently and suspended over the surface of the panel of the pilaster by a § applied design. cord or ribbon as shown at ( ), and this treatment should be used only when the pilaster itself is of vigorous design and requires no element to apparently strengthen its ability to support. a third method is arranged upon a succession of spirals growing apparently in vine form from the bottom of the pilaster or panel and neither adding to nor detracting from its value as a structural member, as shown at (c). the fourth method, shown at (d), is similar in effect to the first, and is based on a series of wave lines crossing and recrossing a central stem without in any way adding to its apparent support. . in the treatment of these, designs (a) and (d), being additions to the development of structural feeling, will require a conventional rendering of their details. the cen- tral axis must be strong, and architectural elements can be used in the subdivisions. on the other hand, the light delicate treatment of ( ) and (c) will permit of a naturalistic rendering, and grape-vine, ivy, or morning-glory patterns, never suit- able to the other surroundings, may form the type on which the design is based. ceiling decoration. . in every room there are two surfaces that require consideration in connection with the architecture and deco- rative treatment; these are the ceiling and the floor. the first of these is usually the least decorated part of any apartment, though in many historic buildings the conditions are quite the reverse. . in decorating the ceiling it should always be remem- bered that this detail of a room acts as a reflector of light and should therefore be treated in such a manner that its ornamentation will not render the apartment gloomy, and particularly if the ceiling is low. it should certainly be in harmony, both in design and color, with other details of the room and particularly with the frieze or cornice with which it is surrounded. its design may consist of the most simple treatment, limited to a border, with ornaments at the ss applied design. in fig. is shown a corner of a ceiling in the style that prevailed largely during the elizabethan period -a development of the elaborate tracery of gothic days, relieved with spotted ornaments; while fig. shows a design for all-over treatment suitable for a wall-paper pattern that can be mounted on the ceiling as other patterns are on the side walls. fig. . l de sacom tank han vaan gas vuvu fig. . applied design. a d atatatalialaltala talayi utpatwiativtati tuvininiativtatyta avalaval liialt vajaltaltaliata laualtata tall writhvir se ch uc mt as vatavavajavajavatavavazat yvyyyyyyyyyy kat taa fig. . $ applied design. > the general practice of designing floor coverings to have the appearance of an uneven surface is found more in carpets than in tiles or parquetry, but this mistake will be found in all materials. this can best be expressed by a few illustra- tions. for instance, in fig. , at (a) is shown a simple border pattern for parquetry, wherein the design appears to possess an interlaced effect of one strap passing over and then under wa (a) (c) ) (d) fig. . another, which, if true, would make the floor uneven and therefore undesirable. a better method of treating this on the same lines is shown at ( ), where the flatness of feeling is preserved. the same may be said of the tile-work pattern shown at (c), wherein the arrangement of lozenge-shaped tiles is such that it gives one the impression of a series of cubes standing on their corners, which certainly is most undesirable. a better treatment is shown at (d). . softness of outline.--in carpet designs, the pat- terns usually take a less rigid form than in tile work, mosaic, etc., because the nature of the material is such that, besides the expression of flatness, consideration must be (a) (b) fig. . $ applied design. sign. > given to the flexibility of its character. carpet usually pos- sesses a soft and somewhat yielding surface and it is there- fore proper that patterns woven in it should be made up largely of curved lines that are more expressive of softness and flexibility than are straight lines—symbolic of firmness and strength. great contrast in a carpet design is undesirable, because it is expressive of hardness and firmness, at variance with the character of the material. for instance, in fig. at (a) the appearance of the design is uneven and there is too great a contrast between the tones of color used. the treatment at ( ) is better and gives a flatter appearance, but the outlining of the pattern has increased the contrast of the general ground. at (c), however, the tones are brought nearer together and the entire appearance is flat and soft, so that the pattern and the ground melt and blend into each other in a harmonious manner entirely suitable to the material and its purpose. ii. - utensils and vases. . origin.-a objects that are products of industrial art have evolved by successive developments from some simple form that was originally constructed to serve a utili- tarian purpose only. the most elaborate forms of cups, vases, furniture, jewelry, etc. each have a most elementary origin, and various alterations, for reasons of convenience, have been forced upon them, in accordance with the con- stantly altering conditions of society. take, for instance, a cup; this vessel has its origin in the desire of prehistoric man to provide himself with some vessel of capacity in which to collect water to drink and for other purposes. the earliest cups and bowls were doubtless natural ones, consisting probably of gourds, shells, horns of animals, etc., and these crude implements satisfied man's requirements until a more cultivated period of society was attained, and we find man manufacturing utensils of clay. nothing was more natural than that he should imitate in clay the same forms and shapes to which he had been ! $ applied design. accustomed in nature, and we find the earliest vases and vessels modeled on a form of the gourd, shell, drinking horn, etc. fig. . . the earliest form of a vessel used for catching water from a spring would naturally be a wide-mouthed bowl on the sides of which were provided handles for holding it, as shown in fig. ; but, although this is well conceived for receiving dripping water, it is poorly adapted to the carrying of it, because the least motion would cause the water to spill, it having so large a surface, and for carrying purposes a narrow-mouthed vessel was far superior. both conditions, however—that of receiving the water, and that of carrying it—had to be provided for, and we thus arrive at a vessel designed to suit the double purpose in the form shown in fig. . here the wide mouth is still retained, while the under part is narrowed down in order to present a small surface of water to be affected by the oscillation of the body in walking, thereby reducing the chance of spilling. in this simple necessity we arrive at the first form of vase, with its large fig. . body, narrow neck, and expanding top, and we find that its origin was due to necessity and not to fancy. . development of the drinking cup.–now, let us turn for a moment to the ordinary drinking cup that we find in various forms. in fig. at (a) is shown a form of cup that is common even at the present day and undoubtedly had its origin in the section of some animal's horn, and it is this form of cup that has received the greatest development throughout successive ages of history. although this horn shape is decidedly serviceable in use, it had a tendency to be easily overturned when filled with liquid, and at the same time there was danger of its slipping through the fingers when the exterior was wet, and a change § applied design. in shape naturally resulted. the first of these difficulties was overcome by expanding the base somewhat, in order to give it a greater standing area, as shown at ( ), while the slipping tendency was counteracted by an alteration of the i > (a) ( ) (c) (d) (e) oddo (g) (h) (j) fig. . outline as shown at (c), or by means of raised rings as shown at (d). the gathering of the part below these rings brings us to the form shown at (e) and introduces us to the first idea of a stem below the glass. . the parts of the cup then assumed specified names, the extreme top being termed the lip, the lower part the applied design. working. the precious metals, owing to their ductility, were worked to a great thinness, and, consequently, became so light as to be particularly flimsy; to resist the damage the surface was likely to undergo from indentation, the sides were usually bulged and beaten into various regular forms in order to give them strength. this method of working was soon adopted as a decorative feature. . another method of strengthening the stem that became a source of ornamentation was the adding of small cast supports and braces at different parts of the stem, it being believed that these would add stiffness to the whole. they were, in the first place, adopted to overcome the tend- ency of interior pressure on the vessel and to strengthen the junction of the calyx and stem, and they not only gave sup- port to the vessel but added a very pleasing effect and sug- gested undoubtedly to the mind of some subsequent worker the possibilities of an extended application. . development of the vase.—the development of what is modernly known as the vase had for its origin the water cup shown in fig. . this was developed in various forms, until we arrive at the perfected work of the greeks, where the surface was covered with ornamentation appro- priate to its position, and moldings were carved with that extreme skill for which the greek was ever noted. . the chalice.—another form of cup is the chalice, and it appears to have been developed from the primitive bowl suggested in fig. . bowls of that character were in early greek times supported on a short stem, and the next step—that of elongating the stem and suppression of the side handles—became necessary when the cup was used for drink- ing purposes only. this form of drinking cup is not the one that was used for religious purposes, and extensive changes were subsequently made in order to suit it for its specific purposes. the knop was added to the stem in order that it could be more easily grasped, and the base was greatly extended over s applied design. that of other drinking cups in order to minimize the danger of upsetting. the base was afterwards made irregular in shape, so that when the chalice was laid on the side to drain, as it frequently was, it would not tend to roll in one direction or the other, and incidental with these changes, the profile of the cup became somewhat altered, until it assumed generally the form shown in fig. . . the jug and ewer.- the jug and ewer seem to have been evolved by an entirely dif- ferent process from that which called into existence the vessels we have already considered, as these vessels have a long side handle for lifting them, instead of a stem. ewers were prob- ably derived from vases and beakers, by repressing the stem on one side and cutting the lip obliquely downwards so as to make it more serviceable, at the opposite side. fig. . . handles.-in designing vessels with handles it is important to give proper consideration for the position of the handle with relation to the lips and spouts of the vessel, in order that its contents may not act against the pouring action. the point whereat a vessel can best be grasped and turned to pour out its contents will be a little above the center of gravity of the whole mass, and it is of the highest importance to determine the point of the center of gravity in order that the handle will be properly placed upon a pitcher. this may be very easily done, graphically, by cut- ting out, in cardboard, the form of a vertical section through the center of the proposed vessel and drawing on this s applied design. section the vertical center line. if the card section is now hung, or supported, from any point on its upper edge, a vertical line passing through this point and across the center line will mark, where it crosses the center line, the center of gravity required. this experiment should always be tried in designing vases. . the tracing of the development of these forms thus far shows conclusively that every detail has had its origin in necessity—that the elaboration of these details has progressed in harmony with man's inventive genius and general ability through several ages. it is well to understand, though, that up to the present time there is no reason why any two forms should have been molded on exactly the same lines, or why infinite variety cannot be obtained by working the changes on these simple forms. too often the designer attempts to copy literally from nature in the production of some object, an idea for whose design he has drawn from a natural source. take, for instance, the acorn, and assume that a vessel is to be designed with this simple detail as its model. to use the identical outline of the acorn, imitate its cap at the bottom, and raise it on a stem with a bunch of leaves for a base, in direct imitation of the original, is not design- ing a vessel on the type of the acorn, but making a metallic acorn suit the purpose of a drinking vessel. we should do better to borrow ideas of outline and structure from the acorn and produce a hanap of the style shown in fig. . here there is no direct imitation of nature - no attempt made to deceive the eye into the belief that this cup is an acorn used for drinking purposes. . suggestions from nature.—there is no form in nature that cannot, if intelligently used, be made to give fig. . ss applied design. suggestions for the design of vase and other forms. take, for instance, the human form and extract its subtle lines, and one can readily, by repeating the soft curves on each side of an axial line, at least get suggestions that may be worked up into most pleasing forms. in fig. is shown a vase or bowl, the governing outline of which is formed by two profiles of the human face arranged fig. . at such an angle that they suit the conditions exactly. such a design is suitable for execution in any wrought metal, but preferably in silver on account of the delicacy of some of its lines. the details of this design are associated with the sea, the base being formed of scallop shells, while the stem con- sists of groups of dolphins and other sea forms. the head of the mermaid at the top of the bowl is raised on the sur- face, and the locks of hair distributed in each direction as § applied design. though floating on the waves of the sea give an irregular outline to the top. the propriety of this distribution of hair is evident from two points; first, it produces the hori- zontal lines necessary to emphasize and apparently strengthen the weakest part of the vessel, and, second, applies a type of decoration consistent with the profile on which the out- line is formed. the handles consist of dolphins reduced to conventionalized forms according to the principles suggested in the discussion of the animal elements of design in ele- ments of ornament. it is not necessary in a design of this character that the entire profile should be used, or that it should be maintained in this position or particular angle. it may be varied to suit any conditions according to the artist's fancy, and is used here only to illustrate that an interesting outline may be applied to various widely differing objects, always caus- ing a pleasing effect inasmuch as it is the proportions and variations of the curves of these outlines that satisfy the artistic eye. when such an outline is adopted, whether it is the profile of the human face, the curve of the neck, shoulder, or any other portion of the body, or an established outline of any other natural form, care should always be exercised that the surface decoration accompanying it is in harmony with the disposition of its various parts, and that members requir- ing a treatment in horizontal lines are not handled in accord- ance with the system of decoration that creates a wrong impression. each thing should be suited to its place; no element should be applied unless it appears to be required, and no ornament should be placed so that it will destroy the effect of what is essentially an interesting outline or a well proportioned surface. h it s d > applied design. (part .) textile fabrics. general considerations. . appropriateness of design.-in making a design for any class of textile fabric, the first object to be con- sidered is, the use to which this fabric is to be applied. this having been determined, the ornament of the fabric can be considered either as part of the structure woven into the fabric itself, or stamped on its surface, as in cotton goods or in some silks. it thus appears that in the design of textile fabrics we do not necessarily work entirely on principles of art; but designate to the weaver, by means of drawings, details that are to confine him to a certain structure of goods. . purposes of fabrics.-the use to which a fabric is to be put very materially determines its structure, and we may divide these uses, purely from a utilitarian standpoint, into two classes--coverings for the body to keep it warm, and coverings for our walls and furniture, primarily, perhaps, as a decoration, but, in reality, also to provide warmth. in both cases, the goods will be called upon to fulfil one condi- tion; that is, wear, and in this subject of wear we are con- cerned entirely with the structure of the goods, its ornament for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. s applied design. affecting the wear only inasmuch as that ornament affects the structure. some goods must bear strain in one direction to fulfil this condition of wear, others must be able stand friction and general handling without apparent damage, and others are likely to be called upon for both these qualities. . textile fabrics may be generally described as a com- bination of interwoven or interlaced threads, and the struc- ture of that fabric consists of the method of interlacing these threads in order that the fabric may serve all the require- ments of its purpose. now, the threads that go to make up any woven fabric are divided into two sets—the warp threads that run lengthwise of the goods on the loom and are practically continuous throughout the entire piece, and the weft threads that run crosswise of the goods and inter- weave with the warp. we liſt wa (А . weaving.-this interweaving is effected in the loom by lifting a certain number of warp threads and passing the weft thread under them, after which another set of warp threads is lifted and another line of weft thread is passed under. if, in this system of weaving, every other warp thread and pass the weft through, and then lift every alternate warp thread between and pass the weft thread back, we will produce a weave of plain goods, such as is shown in the diagram, fig. , where the warp threads with the odd numbers , , , etc. are lifted and the weft thread is passed through from a to b, then the even numbered warp threads , , , etc. are lifted and the weft thread is returned from b to c, and so on, alternately, weaving a piece of plain cloth the width of which remains constantly equal to ab, but the length can be unlimited and is determined entirely by the length of the warp threads that are wound on a cylinder in the loom, called the beam. fig, . applied design. the structural design of any woven fabric depends entirely on the arrangement of these warp and weft threads, while its wearing qualities and utility may be dependent on the character of the threads themselves, both as to the material of which they are made and the manner in which they are spun. } i . effect of twist in weaving.-it will be seen from fig. that the twist of the thread, or yarn, in the warp threads is at right angles to the twist of the threads in the weft and that it will be necessary, therefore, that these threads should bend around one another and, thereby, leave small open spaces, instead of lying quite tight and close together. the thicker the threads of which the fabric is made, the larger will be these open spaces; and the thinner the thread, the smaller and closer will be the weave. other conditions of the yarn will affect these perforations also, as a thread that is soft and fuzzy will pack in rather closely and will practically fill up the open spaces by the projecting filaments of fuzz and make a piece of solid goods, so that in the mechanical process of weaving we can press the goods closely together and as the yarn springs out it will fill up these small openings and produce a solid piece of goods. on the other hand, if the yarn is twisted hard, so as to make a firm, solid thread, it cannot be compressed as can the softer yarn, and it will, therefore, be worked less closely together, producing an open fabric, but, owing to the hard- ness of the thread, a fabric that will bear more wear from friction than the previous one. ) lp edy & ift ich , add ind ofice . om arp ned lain . now, in fig. we have an illustration of a fabric precisely the same as that in fig. , except that the weft thread is twisted in its manufacture in the opposite direc- tion to that of the thread used in the warp, and it will be observed that the lines of this twist are parallel in weft and warp and that when the threads are woven together the fig. . but z by der applied design. individual filaments of one will fall between the individual filaments of another and, thereby, mechanically produce a quality of goods superior to that of which we have just been speaking it is therefore apparent that with the same quality of yarn we can make a stronger fabric by using the method illus- trated in fig. than by using that shown in fig. and at precisely the same cost. this should always be borne in mind in working out a design for any piece of goods, whether it is to be ornamented or simply plain cloth, as one method will produce a close weave naturally, and another a close weave only by the use of soft or fuzzy yarn that can be made to expand, after being driven into position, and fill up the spaces. . now, before we go into the conditions under which different classes of goods are woven, we will consider the material of which the threads of this warp and weft are composed, and we can then more readily understand the effect that will be, hereafter, referred to in different classes of goods. character of tiie tiireads. . a thread is a filament composed of small fibers that are either drawn out parallel to one another or twisted together in order to make them more or less compact. the fibers of which threads are usually made are obtained from wool, cotton, silk, and flax, and each one produces a fiber of a particular character that causes conditions to arise that can be obtained with no one of the others. . wool fibers.-a lock of wool examined under the microscope, just as it comes from the sheep, will show that its fibers are wavy and crimped, that the waves are exceed- ingly regular from end to end, and that the entire filament is covered with a series of small scales forming rings arranged around the filament and pointing from what was the root of the hair toward the top. if a piece of wool fiber § applied design. be drawn through the fingers from its root to its end, it will slip quite smoothly, but if drawn in the contrary direction, it will feel rough and present considerable resistance. it is the scales on its surface and the crinkliness in its length that gives to wool fiber its particular value, and when this fiber is spun into thread it is arranged so that these scales on its surface are opposed to one another as much as possible and thereby interlock and hold fast to one another, and the more the thread is spun the closer do they engage one another and the stronger does the filament become. e e s d . felting.-it is not only in the spinning that these scales are of value, but after the goods are woven they can be put through a process called felting, in which the fibers are pounded together and the scales made to interlock so firmly that the fabric becomes perfectly compact and homo- geneous so that it is with the greatest difficulty that the individual warp and weft threads may be discerned and unraveled. the waves, or crimps, in the fiber are of value in this operation, as well as the scales. the felting is effected by wetting the cloth with soapy water and apply- ing pressure. the result of this process is, that these fibers are straightened out and the scales of the opposing fibers engage, or lock in, with them, and when the pres- sure is removed the natural spring or crinkliness of the fiber causes it to return as nearly as possible to its origi- nal position and draws all of the other fibers with it, caus- ing compactness in the goods. this operation is repeated several times so that the threads lose their individuality and the cloth becomes a solid compact mass. where felt- ing is carried out to its greatest extent, the threads must be especially prepared; and any pattern that is intended to appear in the weaving, through this process is seri- ously impaired or may be entirely lost. different classes of wools vary materially in this quality of waviness, and, therefore, some are better suited than others to this class of work. de of he at d- int jas jer $ applied design. . cotton fibers.- under the microscope, a wad of cotton appears materially different from a lock of wool. cotton is a vegetable fiber and, when magnified, appears as a thin flat tube or ribbon considerably twisted, and these twists in the fiber are what give the strength to the cotton thread by interlocking with one another somewhat after the manner of the scales on the woolen thread. the cotton fiber, however, is soft and pliable and does not possess that natural crinkly spring that we find in the wool; hence, threads that we are able to spin from it are weak and do not possess the ability to be felted as do the woolen threads. . silk fibers.-silk is obtained from unwinding the filament from the cocoon of the silk worm and in reality is not materially different from ordinary spider's web. under the microscope, it appears as a very straight, smooth, and highly polished fiber, somewhat like a glass rod. it is soft, exceedingly pliable, and lends itself readily to the forma- tion of a thread, but it cannot be spun like wool and cotton, as it has no peculiarities of surface that correspond to the scales of the former or the twists in the latter, and silk filaments can be made into thread only by twisting, a num- ber of filaments being twisted together into fine threads and then a number of these fine threads again twisted until a final thread of proper weight is obtained. . flax fibers.-flax is a vegetable fiber appearing like long blades of grass. it is cylindrical in form, and has knots at regular intervals throughout its length. these knots act, mechanically, in the spinning of the thread in a similar manner to the scales in the wool and the twists in the cotton fiber. . of each of these four classes of fibers we can make two entirely different kinds of thread, and it is in the manu- facture of this thread that we materially affect the orna- mentation and sometimes the structural formation of the fabric. ny applied design. spinning the fibers. . in order to obtain a clearer idea of the effect that spinning has on the fibers, the subject of wool spinning is here considered. the entire process of preparing the woolen yarns is given from the time the wool is taken from the sheep's back until it is wound upon the bobbin or, spool from which it is woven into the fabric. the wool comes to the mill in sacks and is emptied upon the floor and sorted, each lock being handled, examined, and placed in a separate pile, according to the quality and length of its fiber. it is then thoroughly washed, to free it from all impurities, and the fibers are then separated and straightened in a carding machine. . carding machine.-a carding machine is com- posed of large rollers from which short wires project similar to the bristles in a brush. these wires have slightly hooked ends, and as they turn they lock into the fiber of the wool and carry it around the drum or roller as it revolves. on their way around the roller, the fibers come in contact with a similar roller turning in the opposite direction, thereby engaging part of the fibers and pulling them away from the others. thus the fibers are separated and reseparated on these revolving drums, called cards, the wires on which become finer and closer together as the wool fiber proceeds, until at the end of the final drum it is scarcely rougher than a piece of fine sandpaper. there is no attempt here to keep the fibers parallel. they are simply separated and bunched together across the end of a cylinder forming a long soft rope-like sliver that possesses only tensile strength enough to support its own weight as it is drawn into a round box, or can, from which it is taken to the throstle frame, or to the spinning mule. a Š s e a e yarns. . . . there are two kinds of woolen thread-one, com- monly known as woolen, and the other as worsted thread. when wool is intended for the production of woolen thread, e $ applied design. it is passed through two or three of these carding machines in order to reduce it to a finer quality. . woolen yarn.—the essential distinction between woolen and worsted yarns consists of a difference in the quality of the wool and of a difference in the methods of spinning into thread. generally, it may be said that woolen yarns are made from shorter fibers than worsted yarns and of fibers that possess the highest felting qualities, or in other words, that are most sharply crinkled, and that the yarns are prepared from the carded fibers more or less crossed and interlocked vith one another with no attempt at parallelism. though these may be spun hard upon the mule frame, they form a light fluffy yarn that is suitable, when woven into cloth, to produce a partially felted goods, which, in reality, is the distinguishing characteristic between woolen and worsted goods. . worsted yarn.-worsted yarns are generally made of the long silky varieties of wool, and the fibers are combed as well as carded, in order to bring them as nearly parallel to one another as possible. the spinning of worsted yarn is accomplished on a throstle frame and the thread is smooth and compact and does not partake of the character of felting in any part of its weaving. in all varieties of worsted and woolen yarns there is a tendency for each to partake largely of the characteristics of the other, some woolens being made from longer wool than are some worsteds, and worsteds. being made from short staple wool, so that the actual length of the fiber has nothing to do with the classification, but its felting quality and method of conversion into thread forms the distinction. . preparing wool for spinning.- when the carded wool has passed through the third carding machine, it is in the form of a continuous evenly distributed mat around the last cylinder. to prepare it for spinning, it must be divided into a series of equal strips or ribbons, and these condensed into a round sliver sufficiently compact to stand winding on $ applied design. a bobbin. the condenser for doing this is attached to the carding machine, and as the strips pass off the drum they are acted on by a pair of rubbers that simply pinch the sliver down to a smaller size by compacting the fibers with- out twisting them. from this they pass to the spinning mule and are drawn down to fine threads. . s t ! the mule.—the mule frame on which this spinning is effected acts in a similar manner, but on a larger scale, to the old-fashioned spinning wheel. large bobbins or spools of the wool sliver are placed on the frame and their ends drawn and attached to vertical spindles that revolve and give a twist to the yarn as it draws it. the frame contain- ing the spindles advances to the sliver spools and then backs away from them, as the sliver is gradually fed out as the spools revolve. the entire distance moved by the frame is or feet, during two-thirds of which the sliver is fed out as the frame recedes, but during the rest of the distance the spools remain stationary and the sliver is drawn or stretched, thereby becoming thinner, and at the same time it is rapidly twisted by the revolving spindles into an even compact thread. when this twist is completed, the mule frame advances toward the sliver spools again, and the spun threads just completed are wound upon the spindles as the mule frame advances. i s ſ Í t s . the effect of this drawing and twisting at one time is one of the characteristics of woolen thread. it is evident that, in drawing, the stretch will not take place evenly and that some portions of the yarn will be thinner than the others; but it is also evident that these thinner portions will be the ones that will be first affected by the twisting, or spin- ning, of the bobbins and when once twisted become hard and less subject to drawing, thereby causing the thicker por- tions between them to be drawn out more. while the tend- ency of this work is to equalize the thread, somewhat, it is not sufficient to compensate entirely, and, therefore, woolen thread is unequal and irregular in its thickness. l $ applied design. . knitting and carpet yarns.-while the technical definition of worsted yarn requires that it be made of fibers that are parallel with one another and it is restricted to two methods of manufacture—of long wool, by the method of drawing and combing, and of medium and short staple wools that are first carded and afterwards combed—we have a third class of worsted yarns, but in reality they are wor- sted only in the sense that they are not meant for felting. these are yarns for carpets and knitting yarns, each being full and open in structure and prepared for spinning simply by carding in the manner that woolen yarns are made. as said before, we class them as worsted yarns simply because they are not fit for felting. . combing.–before the slivers pass through the operation of combing, they are put through a gilling machine, for the purpose of making them uniform in size and quality and at the same time making all fibers parallel to one another. several slivers are fed into the gilling machine, and drawn into one; this process is repeated several times, if necessary, in order to get a final sliver of uniform quality throughout. it is then passed through a combing machine, which removes the short fibers and leaves the sliver even, compact, and uniform in quality and composed almost entirely of long fibers. as it is delivered from the combing machine the sliver is into a ball on a bobbin that winds it up with an oscillating motion, in order to wind the sliver up in a diagonal direction alternately from end to end. the sliver is then drawn out by passing it through sets of rollers, the first pair of which revolves much more slowly than the next pair, so that between the two pairs of rollers the sliver is constantly being drawn or stretched out. now, assuming that the sliver is to pass through six such drawing frames, six slivers may be fed into the first and drawn out to the dimensions of one, and the same may be repeated in the next five slivers that are put in. in this manner, a sliver may be drawn out several thousand times its original length, made up $ applied design. $ hical bers two id aple ave tor cing. . eing according to the quality and uniformity that is demanded in the goods. . throstle spinning. after the yarn is drawn and redrawn, the bobbins containing it are placed on a throstle frame for spinning. in this process, the drawing is effected in exactly the same manner as in the woolen yarn on the spinning mule. the rovings, as the drawn yarns are called, pass between pairs of rollers in which they are drawn out by the difference of speed of rotation between the front pair and the back pair, and as the cylinder cord is delivered from the front pair of rollers, a spindle that is revolving rapidly gives it the required twist. these yarns or threads are known as singles. for some uses they are twisted into two-ply or three-ply yarns on a twisting frame where each single is drawn from a bobbin and twisted with others into a two-ply or three-ply yarn, as be. zaply as ause the ling size allel the case may veral form hing the osed er is an in a liver the next er is ning nies, the the iver ti . characteristics of worsted thread.-in worsted thread we have a yarn of great uniformity and evenness of diameter, all the fibers being parallel and as nearly as pos- sible of the same length. it therefore possesses the advan- tage of uniformity in strength and is especially suited to the weaving of fabrics where a pattern is to show in the finished product as a result of the system of weaving. it will not be suitable for milling or felting, because the fibers, being parallel, will not lose their individuality. it will not resist wear from friction to the same degree that woolen will, because the threads will retain their individuality and not become felted into the general mass; and thus the fabric not being so compact as woolen, it will not possess, to the same degree, the quality of retaining warmth. on the other hand, the subsequent processes through which the cloth may pass to finish it will in no way impair the pattern, and a worsted fabric is always recognized by the clearness of its pattern and the sharpness and smooth- ness of its finish, both wool and worsted being possessed of individual properties and advantages. applied design. cotton, flax, and silk. . cotton yarn.-cotton is prepared by carding in much the same manner as wool, but subsequent processes are necessary to equalize the fiber, as was the case in the manufacture of worsted. cotton is sometimes combed when a very high class of yarn is desired. it is spun into threads in much the same manner that worsted is spun, and the majority of cotton yarns partake of the mechanical characteristics of both woolen and worsted. . flax yarn.—the two yarns prepared from flax are linen and tow. linen yarn is prepared similar to worsted, but the machinery is essentially different on account of the difference in the character of the fiber. raw flax is beaten, or crushed, in order to make it pliable; this is called hackling. after that, it passes through a combing opera- tion that, in linen manufacture, is called scutching. where the fibers are too long to work readily, as is fre- quently the case, they are broken in a machine called a saw. after scutching, the fibers are carded and the short ones are converted into tow yarn, while the long ones are spun into linen yarns. . silk yarn.-silk yarn is different from any of the previous fibers, the raw silk being obtained by drawing it from the cocoon of the silk worm in one long, continuous filament. several of these filaments must be combined in order to produce a tram, or an organzine, the former being used for weft in weaving and is put together loosely with little or no twist, and the other, used for warp silk, is twisted firmly to make a compact thread. both qualities are composed of long filaments and are well suited for the production of more or less elaborate patterns in the fabric. there are many cases, however, where the cocoons are damaged, and the filament cannot be wound from them in a continuious thread. these cocoons are usually torn up and the fibers are combed and laid parallel to one another in the same manner as in cotton or worsted. the silk yarn thus made § applied design, does not possess the freedom from fuzzy surface that raw silk does, yet many of the combed fibers are of considerable length and this makes a very strong thread well suited for the weaving of ornamental patterns. ? . the object of this short discussion, the manufac- ture of threads, is to enable the student to be familiar with the materials that are to be woven into a fabric, the design of which he is to execute. in the descriptions that follow of the weave of certain classes of cloths, the student can readily see wherein a knowledge of yarn or thread will be of great value in the preparation of his design, warp and weft. + . plain fabrics.—in the fabrics shown in fig. we have what is called a plain fabric, that is, one in which the warp and weft threads are equal in quantity and diameter, but we may alter this relation of warp and weft and by so doing obtain an increase in weight of the goods; thereby making a warmer cloth, if for wearing material, or an increase of strength, where that is a requisite quality, or, in other cases, an increase in ornamental value, if it is desired to increase the effect of ornamentation by the weave. . where the warp threads are heavier than the weft threads, the weft will naturally bend around them and cause ribs to appear lengthwise of the fabric; but where the weft threads are the heavier, the warp will bend around them and cause ribs to appear running across the fabric. the best quality of fabrics, however, are those in which the warp threads are the thinner and are arranged with a greater number to the inch than the weft threads. the weaving of these classes of goods is precisely the same as the weaving of plain cloths, but the variations of the relative quantities or thicknesses of warp or weft completely changes the character of the fabric. in goods where the weft threads are thicker than the warp threads and the warp applied design, threads are packed closely together, the weaving binds the warp threads so closely that it actually compresses them between the weft threads and makes them occupy less space than their true diameter. the warp threads being placed close together and crossing one another around each weft thread, or pick as it is technically called, it makes no differ- ence how much tension be put upon the warp, either in the process of weaving or after the process is formed, it will not bend the weft out of line, simply because the spaces between the warp threads are so small in comparison with the weight of the weft thread that the latter cannot be bent in any direction. thus, a very firm goods is formed. therefore, in this class of goods, the closeness of the warp and the strength of the weft give it the property of resisting wear and retaining warmth. . another system of weaving is to have the warp threads and the weft threads alternately heavy and light, thereby causing the thin threads of the warp to wind them- selves around the heavy threads of the weft, and the thin threads of the weft around the heavy threads of the warp. a characteristic style of goods of this class is what is com- monly known as repp, but in this particular fabric the weft lies in perfectly straight lines and the warp winds around both the thin and the heavy threads. . twills.- in twilled fabrics there is an effect of ribs running diagonally across the goods, not by varying the weights of threads, but by varying the proportions of warp and weft that come to the surface. in making twills, there are two general objects sought-one, to increase the bulk of the goods, and the other, to ornament its surface. the essential difference between a plain weave and a twill is, that in the former the warp and weft interweave alter- nately, while in the latter the warp and weft interweave at varying intervals so as to produce the desired fabric. for instance, in fig. it will be observed that the weft thread a b passes over the warp threads and and under the warp applied design. interweaves again and in this way bind this number together in close contact and crowd them into a much smaller space than they would have occupied had they been interwoven alternately. but as this increase in weight is produced by the skipping of a greater number of threads, the fabric loses strength, inasmuch as it may not be properly interwoven, and a considerable amount of friction of its surface will allow these long overshot threads to become broken and to weaken the fabric by fraying. . the yarn of which the goods is woven is composed of single fibers, and when overshot for considerable distance these fibers are presented to a greater length than they may possibly be able to bear, causing a weak but warm fabric. the looseness of the fabric will also reduce its power to bear strain, and although a loosely woven cloth may be propor- tioned to its interweaving so that it will be stronger under tension than one more closely woven, yet it will never be so strong in proportion to the relative kind of material of which it is composed. . it is possible to make another order or arrange- ment in twills, wherein we abandon the idea of increasing bulk or warmth and endeavor to weave in order to acquire the greatest strength; when it is desired that the pattern shall be ornamental as well as be strong or warm, it must always be borne in mind that the character of the weave affects all three conditions-strength, warmth, and orna- mentation. the class of goods known as satins are twills woven on a regular systematic basis; that is, the order of interweaving two sets of threads does not follow consecu- tively but at intervals. in fig. is shown the system on which a satin is woven. it will here be observed that the threads interweave at every fifth end or pick and that the two succeeding picks do not interweave with adjoining ends but at intervals of two; that is, if weft a passes over no. warp, weft b will pass over no. warp, and so on. now, if it is desired to > § applied design. produce a fabric whose greatest strength is to be in the direc tion of its warp, it would be made on what is termed a warp surface. the warp threads will be laid in the loom as closely as possible, and as the weft threads are inserted, one of the warp threads will be withdrawn and bent around the weft at the back. as the next pick is inserted, another end will be with- drawn, the first one returning to its original place, but as the ends are not withdrawn in consecutive order, the weft does not bend around the warp to any extent and is practically straight, while the warp itself is drawn out of its course. the weft threads are not kept very close together but are separated from one another by the thickness of the warp threads. therefore, there are a greater number of warp threads to the inch than weft threads. e fig. . in this way . . h re st . now, if it is desired to produce a perfectly smooth, unbroken surface on the fabric, the warp threads may be placed so closely together that as one is withdrawn to bend around the weft, those on each side of it will close over the vacancy and completely hide the point where it is inter- woven with the weft. in that case, the number of warp threads will be increased in proportion to the number of weft, and, consequently, the fabric will be capable of bear- ing an increased strain in the direction of the warp and a decreased strain in the direction of the weft. moreover, it should be borne in mind that on account of the warp thread predominating, the fabric when handled possesses a glossy or smooth surface in the direction of the warp and a rough- ened surface across the warp. ve . of il: . this same principle may be carried out with the weft threads predominating and the warp threads set so far apart that they will permit the weft threads to inter- weave between them. the weft threads are inserted as to $ applied design. to produce a figure and at intervals of several picks inter- weaves with the other warp, thus tying the two warps together and producing a double-faced goods where the warp forms the prevailing material. this is shown in fig. , where at a are seen the ends of the upper warp, at c the ends of the lower warp, and at b e u fig. . one thread of the weft weaving through the cloth and catching a pick of each warp. in this manner, we have the warps separated from one another and a means of produ- cing a very heavy fabric with great strength in the direction of its length. the cloth itself is reversible, and one side may be any color or check and the other perfectly plain, as a lining. i . in exactly the same manner that we made our satin, as shown in fig. , we can weave our double-faced cloth to have the warp or weft predominate. if the weft is to pre- dominate, the conditions are reversed somewhat and the greatest strength of the goods will be across instead of lengthwise, as shown in fig. , where at a is shown the fig. . upper weft and at b the lower weft, while at c are the ends of the single warp, the two wefts interweaving with this warp alternately producing a very heavy cloth with two wefts and one warp. the ornamenting of the surfaces can be carried on quite independently of each other, the only considerations required being that the weaving of the applied design. ornament must be such as will permit the interweaving of the opposite side at certain fixed intervals. . ornament threads.-still another way of orna- menting cloth is by the introduction of additional threads, threads that exist in the cloth for no other reason than to produce ornament. if we conceive a plain cloth to be woven double with a series of unused threads lying between the two surfaces and these unused threads drawn to the outside of the cloth whenever we want to produce an ornament or design on the surface of the goods, we have a condition wherein one quality of material is put into the goods to stand wear and another quality is put in to give the orna- mentation. each one is entirely independent of the other in quality and purpose, but both are interwoven to form the desired article. in this class of goods we have plush and velvet, and they come under the head of what is known as pile fabrics. the term "pile" is applied to all goods wherein the surface is ornamented by drawing up the threads to form an extra surface, as in plush, velvet, brussels carpet, etc. this gives us an extensive field for ornamentation, inasmuch as the threads can be brought so closely together that they obliterate the warp and weft back- ing entirely and produce an unlimited variety of design on the surface. . laying out a design.-in weaving all kinds of cloths and carpets, the design for the weave is laid out on a special kind of paper ruled off in squares, as shown in fig. , with a varying num- ber of subdivisions to the inch according to the goods and the number of warp and weft threads used. in this design paper each series of vertical spaces usually rep- resent warp threads, and each series of horizontal spaces or squares rep- resent weft threads. the design is fig. . $ applied design. expressed on the paper by filling in the squares where the weft thread comes to the surface or falls below the surface, as shown in fig. , which is a design for a twill composed of six ends, the weſt thread coming to the surface over the warp thread and then falling below the surface and passing under two warp threads progress- ively throughout the piece. each of these black squares represents a pick in the loom. e fig. . e i on . if the number of threads per inch of weft and warp are the same, the angle of this twill will be °, because it will move in each direction, progressively, at the same rate, and the warp or weft in this particular pattern must pre- dominate on the surface, as one side the weft passes under twice as much warp as it passes over, and on the other side the warp passes under twice as much weft as it passes over. this is the first principle of ornamentation in fabrics where color is not used and represents the principle on which ornamentation is attained in the greater number of dress goods that are of one color only. fig. . . this ornamentation may be carried out in a checker pattern somewhat after the manner shown in fig. , where the twills run diagonally for twelve picks, and the same amount of warp and weft are on the surface. then, for the twelve additional picks the twills reverse in direction, thus producing a checker effect in squares each representing twelve picks. there is no limit to the amount of surface decoration that can be obtained in this way, and the student should bear in mind all these fig. applied design. possibilities in the weaving of cloth fabrics before he con- siders the subject of color. a pattern of this character, where the warp and weft are of different colors, will produce goods running in diago- nal stripes as well as diagonal ribs. figs. , , and each show arrange- ments whereby the pattern may be varied on the system of the simple twill, which is an economical method of producing a variation of surface. this is the principle on which most woolen goods, such as are used for men's clothing, are made. fig. . fig. . . laying out ornamenta- tion.-figured fabrics present a prob- lem that is different from that of any of the twill systems that have so far been discussed, inasmuch as the pat- tern forms a fixed and definite design all over the fabric, and our designs for these have been designs for the whole fabric. if we now consider the orna- mentation of a fabric where specific ornament is worked out in spots, we must consider the appearance of these spots on the design paper and the characteristic limitations of their mechanical reproduction in the loom. for forming this figure on the surface of the cloth we may either use the material of which the cloth itself is woven, or, as already suggested, we may introduce extra material, which exists for the sole purpose of forming the figure. in a plain cloth, additional warp or weft may be intro- duced in order to weave the figure without in any way inter- fering with the weave of the plain fabric, or the warp or weft of the plain fabric may be caused to cease interweaving regularly and to come to the surface in considerable quantities in order to produce the figure. usually, the figures woven in a fabric are composed partially of the ground material of $ applied design. the fabric itself and partially of other material introduced purely for ornamentation. . in fig. we have an example of a pattern for a perfectly plain cloth on which a lozenge-shaped spot is woven, and in fig. we have a seçtion through that cloth where, at a, the ends of the warp threads are shown and, at b, the weft thread, interweaving regularly except where it passes over the five warp threads to form the pattern in the center of the lozenge-shaped spot, as at c d. eral body of the cloth remains perfectly plain, and the pattern is formed simply by the skipping of a few threads. of course, this affects the quality of the goods somewhat and it is not so closely woven, but this the gen- fig. . d a fig. . defect will vary according to the size and number of figures that are introduced. . in fig. we have an example of a piece of goods woven on the principle shown in fig. , and the number of spots is distributed evenly over the entire piece. each spot must be examined in its relation to each pick and warp end, in order to comprehend the pattern. the spots a each commence on the same pick, and so do the spots b, c, etc., and, further, we can see that a and c are also woven on the same warp ends, as are also b and d, so that in reality a is a repetition of c in the direction of the warp, and b is a repetition of d in the direction of the weft. consequently, we can see that a and b are the only two spots in the pattern, the others be- fig. . § applied design. . let ... do ce.......... ............ ba .............. ........... ................ same distance apart, and the order of interweaving each respective pick and end is equal. the appearance of the finished cloth will be the same as that of fig. , but it will be more perfectly constructed and certainly more pleasing to the eye. this system of weaving is very simple and is based on what is called an eight-end satin. in laying it out, we must calculate the area of the figure to determine tine number of the ends and picks that will be re- quired to produce it, and if this num- ber does not conveniently fit in with the number of hooks contained on our jacquard machine, then we must alter it to suit as the case may require. ft ts le те s p d. . t ...........oooo s . @o . the jacquard machine consists of an apparatus that is sup- ported above the loom, and by means of a number of wire hooks extend- ing to each thread of the warp in the loom, it raises certain desired warp threads and permits the shuttle with the weft wound on it to pass under the raised threads and over those that lie below. in weaving any kind of goods each throw of the shuttle is preceded by a raising of certain warp threads under which it is desired that the weft shall pass. these raised threads are usually called the “shed.” ooo . the design is punched on cards similar to fig. , where each hole represents one of the squares of fig. . s applied design. the ground at longer intervals, and is then cut as shown at c, leaving the loose ends to stand above the ground warp and form the surface. the pile must be well bound into fig, . the cloth, or it will pull out of its surface and, in time, leave nothing but the ground cloth. . in the formation of pile surfaces with warp pile, we have a more convenient and useful fabric and a class with which we are somewhat more familiar. in weft pile there is one warp and two wefts in the fabric-one weft to form the body of the goods, and the other to form the pile; in warp pile there are two warps and one weft, the second warp being solely to form the pile on the surface. where the pile is made up of the weft, the cutting of the pile takes place after the goods are completed, but with warp pile the cutting takes place with the weaving, if it is to be cut at all. so that we have two forms of warp pile, commonly known as cut and loop pile, or sometimes as cut velvet and terry velvet, but whether the pile is cut or uncut the structure of the cloth is absolutely the same. . velvet is formed by pile warp issuing from the cloth, passing over a wire, and then passing into the cloth again where it is interwoven to secure it firmly. we can bring the whole of the pile warp over this wire at once or we can bring only a portion of it, but in either case it must be firmly bound into the body of the goods when it returns. . the ornamentation of pile fabrics must be consid- ered under two heads, the decoration of pile fabrics them- selves, and the decoration of fabrics with pile. the first system suggests the ornamentation of fabrics by the use of colored pile. in ordinary velvet, color can only be used under limited conditions and cannot be used in a general - . applied design. at lp to way. the pile on the surface of the fabric covers the ground cloth entirely and any ornamentation that is intro- duced must be introduced into the pile warp. therefore, if we introduce a variety of colors they will naturally run in stripes, and regular figures cannot be formed. the warp, , existing as it does of a number of parallel threads, should we make them of different colors with a given number of one color and another number of another color, when these are woven into the fabric and form the pile on the surface, they will introduce the same stripes exactly on the body goods as in the pile and thus limit our ornamentation on very narrow lines. e е : e another sys- ? . the ornamentation of pile fabrics may be accom- plished by forming patterns with the pile itself without the aid of color. we may form a pattern by varying the length of the pile, but this will usually form a stripe across the piece, because the different lengths of pile are produced by the introduction of wires of different sizes. tem of ornamenting the surface is by a system of cut and uncut pile, the figures being formed in terry velvet. the same warp can be used for the formation of both kinds, but two kinds of wires must be used-one, a plain wire to form the loop, and the other, a wire terminating in a knife at one end that will cut the loops as it is drawn out. > . brussels carpet.-brussels carpet is a form of terry velvet, the ornamentation of whose surface is accom- plished by the introduction of extra material, and it is necessary, in explaining the designing of these goods, that considerable attention be paid the weave. the pile on brussels carpet is formed, in precisely the same manner as terry velvet, by the insertion of wires under the pile threads, but the selection of the threads to form the pile is entirely different. in weaving the velvet, we bring all or a given portion of the pile over the wires at one time, but in brussels carpet we have a series of duplicate ends in the warp, each of a different color, and from these our jacquard $ applied design. . selects one, according to the pattern we require, brings it to the surface and passes it over the wire. in ordinary velvet, the pile warp returns to the ground and interweaves in the same manner as the ground warp, except at the points where the pile is formed; but in brussels carpet, the pile warp does not weave in any place into the ground, but lies as a straight thread in the body of the carpet, where it is not used in forming the pile. . now this can be somewhat more clearly shown by referring to fig. , where the ground warp is represented by the lines a, and the weft by the dots, while at b, c, and d are three colors of pile warp that are to form the pattern on the surface of the carpet. it will be observed that the ground warp a weaves regularly and alternately throughout the entire fabric from side to side, but that the colored warps b, c, and d lie perfectly straight in the body of the goods until they come to the surface in forming the pile fig. . loops, as shown. the pile warp lies between the ground weft and is intersected by the ground warp, so that where no pile loops are formed there is a plain cloth with a stout back in the middle, the threads of which are perfectly straight and take no part whatever in the formation of the cloth, except to give bulk to it. between every pair of ground warp threads, there is one thread of each color of the pile warp that is to be used. when the pattern is formed, one of each of these threads is raised between each pair of ground picks, passed over the wire, and returned to $ § applied design. to its os the cloth. if it is again required, it again comes up, but the threads are dormant and useless, except where they appear in the figure. thus, it will be seen that though there may be four, five, or even six colors, and consequently as many separate threads between each pair of ground threads, only one of each is brought to the surface, accord- ing to the color that is required. this makes an expensive weave, but it produces a uni- form surface and body of cloth, and the pattern is formed by color, so that any amount or variety of it will in no way affect the structure or quality of the goods. the colored material forming the pattern is in the carpet at all times, and is only brought to the surface where it is required. d. e t e . it will be apparent that these idle threads lying straight in the carpet and forming loops at irregular inter- vals, must be used in varying proportions, so that they cannot all be wound on one cylinder or beam at the end of the loom as is the ground warp. for instance, the ground warp interweaves with the weft at every pick, whereas the pile warp may remain as a straight thread through several picks. under these circumstances, a strip of ground warp twice as long as that of the pile warp may be consumed in a given number of picks, and it is evident that the two classes of warp could not be wound upon the same beam. > . so, in the manufacture of brussels carpets, the pile warp threads are wound on separate spools or bobbins, each bobbin serving for a single color and the bobbins being arranged in series on a frame. each color has a frame to itself, and this arrangement of the threads on frames gives rise to the descriptive terms used in brussels carpet trades, such as five-frame brussels. this term means that the carpet contains five sets of pile-warp threads, each set hay- ing been wound on bobbins and supported by a separate frame. these frames make carpet looms very bulky machines, but without them it would be impossible to produce the goods. f applied design. . in designing carpets, each square on the design paper represents one loop of the pile. if the carpet is a velvet carpet, where the pile is cut, then the square on the design paper represents the two ends of the cut loop, and in laying out the design this should be borne well in mind. it should also be borne in mind, that the more colors that are used, the more material there is in its body and consequently the more expensive it becomes. the main divisions of design paper used for brussels carpet are in squares of inch, but in moquette carpet they are as large as inch. low ingrains have the squares inch, but regular ingrains are x š inch. that is to say, the threads of warp and weft are proportioned to run to the inch in one direction, and to the inch in another... . in laying out circular or other curved figures on design paper, it should be borne in mind that this design, when woven, will present a somewhat ragged out- line, as it must be formed in squares, and the scale of the figure must be al- tered to suit the size of the square on the design paper when it is pro- duced. fig. shows a curved figure that is too small to be produced on design paper of the size shown, and the outline loses its curved effect, whereas in fig. the enlargement of the same figure on the same sized design paper shows that the effect of the curved lines can be readily carried out. it is well to bear this in mind in all design work. fig. . . brussels carpets are formed with two kinds of yarns, the body or ground of the carpet being made of hemp or $ applied design. kesign t is a on the linen yarn, while the pile is of wool. the methods of spin- ning the yarns for this fabric, or any other class of goods, is precisely the same as has been described. the wool that at are enth of es of -inch. tains and tion, s sign, sent out- med cale e al fig. . sign - . is a size ine oct the per jed forms the surface of the carpet is carded and spun in pre- cisely the same manner as the wool that goes into a dress fabric. it is dyed to the color desired to be reproduced and , or $ applied design. wound on spools ready to go into the frame behind the loom. . there have been many suggestions for economy in the manufacture of carpets, and there are many carpets manufactured that present the same general appearance as brussels but do not possess its great weight, owing to the lack of goods in the body. one form of these carpets is what is known as tapestry brussels, wherein the threads are not left idly inside the fabric, and exist only where the pile is formed. in tapestry brussels there is but one set of threads of pile warp and that is printed so as to form the pattern. the printing of the pile thread is effected by measuring out the length of a certain color required in a certain place to form the figure and that length of the thread is colored accordingly. it is then woven into the cloth as in ordinary velvet, and its pile brought to the sur- face. following it on the same thread is another color required to form the ground on another portion of the fig- one printed thread thus serves for a number of col- ored ones, and it certainly is a very, economical way of produ- cing a colored carpet, but it is in no way so serviceable as the body brussels that it is attempting to imitate. ure. . wilton carpet is the same as brussels carpet, except that the pile is cut, and another formation of velvet carpets is effected by setting the pile surface into the carpet in sec- tions just as it is required. rugs are also formed in this way. the pile threads are neither warp nor weft, but are simply tufts set in where the figure is required. the colored threads are wound on long thin cylinders or rollers, possess- ing all the colors that are necessary to form one pick across the goods. a short length of these threads is then cut off and falls in place parallel with the warp in the loom, while the weft thread passes over them and binds them into the body of the carpet. they are then cut off and the roll passes on its way and makes room for another roll to bring the next set of threads. this makes a very bulky loom, as s applied design. there must be a separate roll for each pick across the loom for every repeat. in fact, there must be one roll for every jacquard and in weaving long rugs it is not unusual to have three or four hundred of these rolls, each one of which is used but once, to form the pattern. . the designing of all these goods remains the same, however, the only difference being in the design papers themselves, which must be obtained for the particular pur- pose they are required. ingrain carpet cannot be designed on brussels paper, because it does not run the same number of threads to the inch, and when designs are laid out on paper care must be given that the proper subdivisions of the paper have been obtained. e st ts re ed ass off ile he oll ng as y historic ornamental drawing. (part .) introduction. . this branch of the instruction will treat entirely of the application of the elements of design to the various styles of ornament that have characterized certain races of people or periods of history. the student by this time should be familiar with the characteristics of each general style of ornament, and also with the fundamental principles that have governed the details of that ornament. we have traced the development of ornamental design from its earliest civilized period down to the present day, and have found in all instances that, during the best periods of art, the same general underlying principles have governed each style. in adapting natural forms to strictly ornamental work, there has ever been a tendency to represent those forms in a general, or, as we term it, a conventional way; but the earlier influence of a strictly geometrical ornament is always traceable through the natural forms. for instance, in the egyptian wave ornament, afterwards adopted by the greeks, we find a development of the old primitive straight- line zigzag, and in the wall decorations of the renaissance period, wherein the fleur-de-lis and other strictly conven- tional forms repeat themselves, we find the influence of the for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. § historic ornamental drawing. . nearly all of these designs will be executed, at least partially, with drawing instruments, and such of the work as is freehand will be governed largely by mechanical measure- ments that the student must lay out very accurately and carefully, the success of all geometrical repeating orna- ment depends as much on the draftsman's skill in the use of his instruments as in his familiarity with any type of design, and attention must be given in the division and subtraction of a line to see that it is carried out according to instructions, down to the minutest detail. in many figures, an error of the minutest fraction of an inch will repeat itself to such extreme proportions as to render it almost impossible to make the figures close in and repeat. drawing plate, title: historic mural detail. . on this plate are given six examples of the style of wall decoration characteristic of the egyptian, greek, roman, medieval, moresque, and persian styles. they are numbered in their order of antiquity as closely as possible, in order that the relative values of each may be compared with its predecessor, and no attempt has been made to graduate the exercises on this plate to put the simpler ones first, as all should be within the ability of the student at this stage of his studies. after drawing the border line to enclose a space on his drawing plate of in. x in., the student will divide the plate by a horizontal line inches above the lower border line. this line will form the bottom of the upper three figures. in the middle of the plate, and above this line, construct a rectangle inches wide by inches high, to contain the greek ornament; and in the spaces to the right of this, and between it and the border lines, construct two rectangles, inches wide and inches high, each inch from side border lines, to contain the roman and egyptian ornament. o s h $ historic ornamental drawing. practice on a separate piece of paper not less than inches in diameter, in order to follow out closely these directions. having drawn a circle inches in diameter, divide it verti- cally and horizontally by diameters shown at a b and cd, and then divide it again diagonally at an angle of ° by the lines e f and g h. construct within the eye, on the points €, & f, h, a square as shown, and at the points of intersec- tion between the sides of this square and the diameters a b and c d, construct another square as shown at k l m n. the corners of this second square will form the centers from which the curves of the volutes are to be struck. the sides of this second square should be prolonged, as shown, to a distance equal to about three times the diameter of the volute, beyond its circumference, as shown at k', ml', ni m', and k ni'. . now, returning to fig. , we will assume that the eye at the end of the radius pl is divided as shown in fig. , and that the diameter gh of the latter figure is on the radial line pl of fig. , with the center of the volute at the intersection of the lines c and d of fig. . now proceed to draw the volute by placing the pin point of the compasses at point k (see fig. of text), and with a radius equal to k d, to the outside of the eye, draw an arc from the point d to some point on the line k', as , while from the point , and with the same radius, draw an arc from the point a to some point on the line k u', as r. from the point in, draw, with the same radius from c, an arc to s on the line il m', and from the point l, draw from b an arc to the point t on the line m l'. the centers from which we have drawn these arcs, and the points to which we have drawn them, are shown by the same letters in fig. of the text. now go back to the point k, where we started, and with that as a center and a : radius kr, draw the arc r v, fig. , and with the center at l and a radius lq, draw the arc q w. with m as a center and a radius mt, draw the arc † x, while with n as a center $ 생 ​historic ornamental drawing. and ns as a radius, draw the arc sy. this brings us back to k from where, with ky as a radius, draw the arc y , and with l as a center, draw the arc va; with mas a center, draw the arc w b; and with n as a center, draw the arc x c. this completes the voluted form at the intersection of the radial lines pland jr of fig. . fig. . c e . another volute at the intersection of the lines x n' and k ;' will be precisely like this one, but the two volutes at the intersections of js and xl', and pn and k r' will be reversed in their direction; that is to say, the lines that are prolonged beyond the sides of the square within the volute will be reversed as shown in the text at fig. . now, having drawn the volute, shown in fig. of the text, around the eyes at the intersection of pl and jr, and k s' and x n', draw two volutes of the reversed curvature, such as shown in fig. , around the eyes at the intersection of lines kr' and pn, and j's and xl', as shown in fig. of the text. the curves joining the ends of these volutes will then be struck from centers at j, x, k, and p with a radius equal to jr. this will com- plete one section of the design, and the others are drawn in precisely the same manner, each fitting into its neighbors as shown on the drawing plate, and forming a completely interwoven composite whole. observe that every alternate figure, either vertically or horizontally, is a c e . е d е е fig. . a d i § historic ornamental drawing. n g xc or text. within each of the rectangles so described, a form characteristic of greek art is described on more or less geo- metrical lines, and repeated in each of the other rectangles with only such variations as are conditioned by its position. the description of one of these will therefore suffice for the entire lot. each figure con- sists of a heart- shaped device, within which a pal- mette brush- work form is in- scribed ; the outline of the de- ¿ vice is the govern- ing element, we will describe that first. the heart- shaped form fin- ishes at the bottom Í in two volutes, forined on geometrical lines, similar to the freehand volute shown in fig. of the drawing plate, title, linear ele- ments, but, in this case, the volute is described by mathe- matical means, and though the construction lines are the same as before, the curves will be drawn by a compass instead of freehand. as ho fig. . es he us ܪܶܐ li it . in order to describe these volutes properly, it will be necessary to refer to fig. of the text, where the volute is drawn on a larger scale, in order to familiarize the student with its characteristics. commencing with the upper left- hand rectangle of fig. on the drawing plate, the student will draw through its center, vertically, the line kl (see fig. ), and on each side of this line portray half of the ornamental form. draw a vertical line, as shown at cd in a c: is § historic ornamental drawing. fig. of the text, inch each side of kl, and inch above the line gh, draw, to the right and left of these vertical lines, horizontal lines corresponding with b c of fig. . from the point c then lay out the geometrical construction of the volute, as in fig. , on drawing plate, title, linear ele- ments; that is, bc :cd: de :: : : , or by actual meas- urement bc will be inch; cd, inch; and de, inch; p o im u fig. . ef i (deti bc), or inch. from the points b, c, d, and e, lines will be drawn at an angle of °, so as to form, near the center, a rectangle as shown at g h ij. the sides of this rectangle will then be bisected, and within it will be described another rectangle klmo. the side k l of the rectangle should be prolonged to p, the side § historic ornamental drawing. : lm, to q; the side mo, to r; and the side o k, to s. these four corners k, l, in, o will then form centers from which the arcs of the volute can be struck. with l as a center and a radius lp, describe the arc p ; with m as a center and a radius in q, describe the arc qr; then with o as a center and a radius or, describe the arc r s; with k as a center and a radius ks, describe the arc st. the arcs'tu, uv, etc. are then described, with one leg of the compass at the same centers as previously used and with a radius sufficient to continue the curve. the inner curye is described parallel to the outer one, the thickness of the band being inch; therefore, with l as a center and a radius of lw, id inch less than the radius lp, the arc w x is described; and with m as a center and a radius in x, the arc x y is described; and so on to the completion of the interior volute. then, by curves drawn freehand, the exterior and interior lines of the volute finish in a point at k. on each side of the axial line k l in fig. , one volute will thus be described, each like the other, except that they are the rights and lifts; that is, in arranging the geometrical outline, the line bc of fig. will extend to the left of kl on the left of the center line, and to the right of kl on the right of the center line, and the point r will be, in each case, inch from the line k l. d i . the upper part of the figure is formed by placing the compasses at some point on the line pk, prolonged in each volute, and with a radius of inches, drawing an are from p through an angle of °, to the points. the center of this arc is marked in figs. and at y, and the radius of the arc is extended from , through y; to x, a distance of inches. now, with x as a center and a radius of inches, finish the arc from sto n, as shown in fig. . this will complete one half of the enclosing outline in the upper left- hand rectangle of fig. of the drawing plate, and the other half is formed in precisely the same manner. the interior lines are formed from the same centers as the exterior, but with a radius inch less. car und che ide § historic ornamental drawing. sa co lin ma re ou up ing th fat . the interior of this heart-shaped outline is filled with brush forms, with which the student should already be familiar. the central form is described on the center line kl, finch below the enclosing outline, and is inch in length. under this, a base is formed with a triangular top, at right angles to which two other brush forms branch, whose under sides conform to the contour of the volutes each side of the center line. having drawn the vertical brush mark, sketch from its uppermost point a curved line that will fall each side and become tangent to the volute, as shown by the dotted line in fig. , and then draw the lower brush mark on each side. in the space between the lower brush mark and the vertical one, lay out two other brush marks, evenly spaced, so that the whole will present a palmette form supported upon a base between the two volutes, as shown. repeat this operation in each of the six rectangles consti- tuting this figure. in doing this, it will not be necessary to measure and proportion the guiding lines of each volute. measurements can be taken by means of a piece of paper, on which the center lines and most important parts are marked, and transferred to other sections so as to locate the four centers from which the curves of the volutes are drawn. when all of the volutes are drawn in place, the flatter curves, with the -inch and -inch radii, can then be described, completing the figures. ma is gle pe co to pe ch in su as m m fig ar va ch : . where the points of two of these figures face each other, as shown in fig. at , a small device is interposed in order to fill up the space. this is simply a reduced example of the main figure, measuring / inch across on its extreme breadth, and inch in height, from the bottom of its volutes apex of its flatter curves. this latter figure can readily be drawn freehand in each case, although its curves and out- line are exactly in proportion to the figure in the larger rectangles. the brush forms in these smaller figures are also similar to those in the larger ones, and the student will follow the to the a w be r. si § historic ornamental drawing. while above and below extend younger growths of the same plant. in the corners, we find a luxuriant development of the acanthus leaf, flower, and tendril, which is not only characteristic of this style of ornament, but also the prede- cessor and prototype of a multitude of ideas that were developed during the renaissance period. in drawing the vertical and horizontal members, the student has but to sketch the simple outline forms, locating each detail by eye measurement; but with the forms extending into the corners it will be necessary to recall some of the instructions given in the conventionalizing of the acanthus leaf. . the outline form of the leaf, as shown on this plate, is drawn by means of a series of rectangles, as shown in fig. , and in each of the four rectangles the student will m o s k fig. . lay out the design in the following manner: divide the rectangle abcd vertically and horizontally into five equal parts, and through these points of division draw vertical and horizontal lines, as shown, thus forming a number of smaller § historic ornamental drawing. * rectangles. now observe where the lines of ornament cross these lines and rectangles, and carefully sketch them in on the drawing plate, as was done with fig. on drawing plate, title, flowers and conventionalized leaves. the general outline should be sketched lightly, so that it may be easily erased, until an evenly swelling contour is attained, within which the individual lobes of the various leaves may be described, and the veinings and other markings afterwards drawn. minor details, such as the tendrils, from which spring the five-pointed flowers, and the side elevations of the blossoms may be left until the entire figure is penciled in, as they are simply inserted to fill awkward spaces, where the absence of detail would attract the eye. a careful study of the plate, together with the location, by eye measurement, of every element of the design, will enable the student to lay out all the parts with sufficient accuracy. afterwards he can clean up the superfluous lines, strengthen those that he proposes to use, and prepare the figure for washing in with color. the rosette in the center contains six lobes, and is too simple to require description. with its diameter known, the student should be able to divide it readily into six equal parts and to complete the device almost identically as shown. . before taking up fig. of the drawing plate, it will be advisable for the student to study the characteristics of figs. , , and . it will be observed in the egyptian orna- ment, fig. , that the governing outlines can all be laid out geometrically, and that the freehand element is comparatively small; but, though the general design is governed closely by details of the lotus flower, those details are so reduced as to come within the limits of geometrical ornament. this design is the most antique on this plate, and, consequently, we find it more closely allied with the geometrical construc- tions that are characteristic of all the earliest attempts at ornamental design. in the greek design, we still find a geometrical element governing the system, but with no such rigid rules as those § historic ornamental drawing. parallel lines will divide the main rectangle into thirty squares and six haif squares, and the intersections of the lines thus dividing it will give the centers for arcs from which the general form of the figures may be struck. with k as a center and a radius kl of i inch, draw the arc lr; and with l as a center and the same radius, draw the arc kr; with in as a center and the same radius, draw the arc w s; and with t as a center, draw the arc u s intersecting the arc is at s; in a similar manner, with n as a center, draw the arc kv. it will be observed that the centers used for these arcs are the corners of the interior square formed by the divisions of the main rectangle, and before the radius is changed to draw the larger arcs, it would be wise to fill the entire figure with the single outline before proceeding further. then, with k as a center and a radius kw, or [inch, draw the arc w x, and with l as a center draw the arc y x; then, with m, n, and t as centers, draw arcs parallel with kv, ls, us, etc. this will complete the general exterior outline of the figures. the inner border line inch from, and parallel to, the arcs kr, ir, etc. is drawn from the same centers, but with a radius of inch. on account of the minuteness of these dimensions, in order to secure accuracy, the com- pass should not be changed during the entire operation of drawing each set of arcs of the same radius. . these figures, whose outline is based on the pointed arch of gothic architecture, are then alternately filled with animal and vegetable forms, as shown on the drawing plate. the form of the lion shown in each alternate figure is pre- cisely the same as that drawn in fig. , freehand drawing, on drawing plate, title, brush work, and may be propor- tioned in the same manner. it is only half the size of the one on the drawing plate, however, and all the dimensions given for its previous rendering should be divided by two when drawing it here. the vertical line of the triangle sur- rounding it and forming a construction line may be drawn inch to the left of the center of the pointed arch on this historic ornamental drawing. plate, when the figure faces to the right, and inch to the right of the center of the pointed arch when the lion faces to the left. alternating with this heraldic lion in the diaper spaces are the vegetable forms, as shown; these may be readily sketched in place without further instruction than the guide lines in fig. indicate. the rectangle containing fig. of the drawing plate is a square measuring inches on each side, and is placed with its vertical center line directly under that of fig. . this is an example of moorish geometrical ornament, and though exceedingly simple in construction, and composed of the most primitive and elementary forms, it is a very compli- cated and difficult design to draw, as the least inaccuracy of measurement will render it almost impossible to make the parts work out evenly and in proper proportions. . in fig. of the text is shown the principle on which this design is based. here the rectangle abcd is divided into three equal parts by the lines e f and g h. on the left- hand side, in the rectangle a efd, we have a simple fretwork design, very similar to some of the greek compositions, con- sisting simply of the intersection of a number of straight lines at right angles to each other. in the right-hand rect- angle bchg we have precisely the same arrangement of fretwork, but reversed as regards the inclination of the lines; and in the middle rectangle egh f we have a design pro- duced by the intersections and combination of these two arrangements, resulting in a design identical with that of fig. of the drawing plate. the reduction of the ele- ments of this ornament to their simplest form gives a zigzag line, as shown in fig. of the text, where the length a b is inches and the length bc is inch, and the two lines constituting the width of the outline itself are } inch apart and parallel, as shown. the accurate inclination of this ele- mentary form, and the accurate spacing of the lines them- selves, so as to be exactly inch apart, is the key to the simple solution of this problem, and the slightest variation in the angle of one or both lines, or the slightest inaccuracy ) $ historic ornamental drawing. of the spacing of the lines themselves, will throw the work out so much that the figures composing the design, instead of being regular and identical, will be unsymmetrical and unlike. the student, in drawing this figure, should observe that the intersections of the right-hand and left-hand details of the pattern take place exactly on the center line ij, which a e k t ; { d h } } fig. . s t should be drawn through the rectangle as soon as the lat- ter is outlined. then the points k and i should be located } inches below the points a and b, and the lines al and bk drawn intersecting on the line ij. these two lines al and b k form the base lines on which are drawn the two series of squares that govern the outline of the geometrical figures, and the entire rectangle abcd should first be divided into a § historic ornamental drawing. series of small squares measuring ſ inch on each side and inclining in the direction of either one of the lines al or b k. then complete one full set of figures, as shown by the heavy outlines in the rectangle a e fd, and let this set design be carried over the entire rectangle abcd. when these figures are completed, the construction lines should be carefully erased and a second set of squares, inclining in the opposite direction with the line b k as a base, drawn in, observing that the intersections of all important lines take place on the center line i j. when the intersections are all carefully drawn in, the guide lines should be erased and the main construction fig. . lines of the ornament strengthened with a hard pencil, preparatory to the washing in with color. if the student prefers, the outlines may be inked in with a fine line instead of the hard pencil; but before the color is applied, in either case, all vestiges of construction lines should be carefully erased, as they mar the completed design if allowed to remain. . in producing this, or any other design based on the intersection and interlacement of two separate patterns, it is necessary to observe that the common points of intersection, as m, n, and o, of fig. , take place on the same vertical and horizontal lines, in order that the finished work may be symmetrical and easy to repeat. a simple way to secure this result is to draw the complete pattern, and then make a § historic ornamental drawing. a é k mis ! within which to construct the design. the width of this rectangle will be divided into ten equal parts, through which will be drawn vertical lines as shown at a, b, c, d, e, f, etc., fig. , and the height will be divided into twelve equal parts, through which h j will be drawn horizon- tal lines, as shown at , , , , , etc. by locating the es- sential elements of the ornament as it crosses these lines, the whole figure may be readily described, and the lines of the foliated orna- ment connected so as to form a continuous design. for instance, the point of the gen- eral outline under f is the line f about one-third the distance between the horizontal line a and the horizontal line , and sweeps to the right and left in a compound curve, so as to nearly strike the line d about midway between the horizontal lines and . the interior line is parallel to, and inch from, it. the main lines of the scrolls should be proportioned, in the same way, and then the foliated line from which the flowers spring, and, lastly, the flowers them- selves. the foliated device formed in the corners of the rug may be drawn within a circle inch in diameter, whose center is on the line , two-thirds the distance from b toward c. the five-pointed floral devices that occur within the squares bounded by lines de and - and on the center line between lines and , may be described within a circle whose radius is inch, while the floral forms near the inter- section of lines and may be described within a circle on fig. . § historic ornamental drawing. s h whose radius is į inch. this information is given in order that floral forms similarly placed may be uniform. having drawn this figure in all its details, carefully strengthen up all the outlines, so that they may be readily followed in the subsequent operation of washing in. clean out all guide lines and again strengthen the outline where it may have become pale through erasure, after which the plate is ready to be finished with brush and wash work. wash work. . before attempting to wash in any of the details of this plate, it is necessary that the student should have before him a diagram of shades and tints, in order that he may intelligently comprehend the references we make to different gradations of color in this and the next five drawing plates. . making the diagram of tints. stretch a piece of drawing paper, not less than inches square, upon the board, and on it draw a rectangle measuring inches on each side. divide this rectangle into thirty-six squares of inch each, and ink in the lines bounding it, and separating the smaller squares, with waterproof ink. now mix a con- siderable quantity of water and india ink, in order to lay a very pale wash over the entire diagram, and allow same to dry thoroughly; afterwards, a second wash should be applied, but covering only thirty-five of the thirty-six squares of the diagram, and this should be allowed to dry also. a third wash should then be laid over thirty-four of the thirty-six squares, and so on until the entire rectangle has been washed over thirty-six times, each square receiving in its turn one more wash than its predecessor. these squares should now be numbered, in any con- venient way, so that reference can easily be made to any particular tint by its number, that is to say, no. referring to a single wash, no. to the square that has received ten washes, no. to the square that has received thirty- six washes, each of these numbers representing a tint $ historic ornamental drawing. corresponding to the tint on the reference diagram. this is shown in fig. , though the tints are not all numbered, but those on the border have numbers in front of them repre- senting the number of washes they have received, and the intermediate ones can readily be counted up. the student will keep his diagram as a reference for all work in this part of the course, and, in preparing same, he is cautioned not to make tint no. any darker than that shown in fig. , nor to attempt to wash over any square or squares until the previous tint laid is thoroughly dry. on • fig. . this account, it is advisable that the entire -inch rectangle should not be covered at one sitting, but allowed to wait from time to time while the student is engaged on other work, in order that its result may be thoroughly satisfactory. when it is finished, the student will write his name and class number clearly on the bottom and send it in with his plate § historic ornamental drawing. on historic mural detail in order that it may be recorded and criticized as to its quality, etc. . before attempting to wash in fig. , the student will carefully ink in all the lines with waterproof ink and then wash over the entire rectangle with a tint equal in depth to no. of his color diagram. the eyes from which the volutes spring, and the straight bars that connect the convex sides of the long flat curves from the volutes, are tinted to a depth of no. or of fig. , and the portions between the bars and the flat curve of the volute should be tinted to a depth of no. to . it should be borne in mind that it is not absolutely neces- sary that these shades should correspond identically with those expressed on the original drawing plate, as differences in printing are likely to affect them, but the student must maintain the same relative contrast between adjacent parts, and these contrasts are expressed by the depth of his color in accordance with the foregoing numbers. it is not necessary, either, that these depths should be obtained by repeated washes on the drawing plate to the number of twelve or fourteen tints, but the color can be mixed to the desired tint and tried with a brush on a separate piece of paper, when, after drying, if too dark or too light, it may be altered by the addition of water, or more ink, as the case may require. . in the greek ornament shown in fig. , the entire surface is washed over as before with the no. tint, without outlining the forms in ink, and the honeysuckle and palmette forms are washed in with a tint equal in depth to about no. or , care being exercised to keep this tint perfectly even, in order that one part of the figure may not be darker than another. in order to do this, it is wise to use plenty of color on each detail when the color is first applied and then dry the brush out partially by drawing it across a piece of blotting paper, and removing the surplus color from the drawing with the point of the brush. et b 比 ​. te § historic ornamental drawing. cm { ( t i fig. is far more difficult to render with the brush than fig. , though the former has a greater variety of tints, and the student is urged not to hurry his work, as all the pre- liminary labor of drawing these designs may be wasted through carelessness or hurry in the brush rendering: wash over the entire rectangle containing the roman ornament with one tint of light color, and then strengthen the foliated ornament throughout with a tint corresponding to no. . the darker portions of this foliated ornament may then be strengthened with a tint equal to about no. , and the eyes in the acanthus leaf, and small loops in the central rosette, may be touched up to a depth of no. . it will be observed in this that the greatest contrast in light and shade lies between tints no. and no. , that is, between the background and the lightest of the tinted orna- ment. this is done in order that the ornament may stand out clearly and sharply against the ground, whereas the other tints are simply shadings of the same material, or, in other words, variations of the ornament itself. this is, in reality, one form of spotting, as we are producing variety by means of a variation of light and shade. t i t i i f c a i hi . the gothic ornament in fig. is tinted in three separate and distinct shades, the entire rectangle being washed over with no. tint, and the geometrical figures that form those details of the surface decoration that are without enclosed ornament are tinted to a depth of color equal to no. . the heraldic lions are also of this tint, while the background surrounding the foliated ornament in the other geometrical figures is tinted to a depth of no. . an emphasizing shade line in no. tint is also drawn in the upper half of each of these geometrical figures after all the other tinting has been washed in and dried. is b n p . in the moresque ornament there are but two tints used—à no. tint going over the entire background and a no. tint outlining the geometrical forms characteristic of the design. in colored work, the contrast between the م ه . بخ § historic ornamental drawing. ground and geometrical figure is established by color, the one usually being black and the other red. here we arrive at a similar effect by a variation of light and shade. each one of these irregular geometrical figures must be colored separately with a small brush, and care must be taken not to go over any figure twice, nor to use a paler or darker shade of ink on one figure than on another, also to have about the same amount of ink in the brush as each one is washed; otherwise there will be a variation of tint between the beginning and finish of the drawing that will be almost impossible to overcome. . oriental designs.—the persian design is washed in four tints—a no. tint for the entire background, a no. tint for the curving arabesques of its surface decoration, an intermediate tint for the fine ground line that must simply be indicated rather than clearly expressed, and no. , which is practically black, for the background of the corners and the device at the bottom of the figure. the foliated ornament against this background should be outlined in waterproof drawing ink before the ground is painted in, and if the student so desires, he may outline all of the surface ornament with a very fine black line before applying the color. he will find that the color will flow more readily within the limits of the line than where the pencil is used, but must not let this lead to carelessness in handling, as a spreading of the color beyond the black out- line will show much more plainly here than where the line is simply in pencil. fig. may be also outlined if desired, but care should be taken that the line is very fine and no more obtrusive than that shown in the original drawing plate. е e s é i le je in ill ts . mixing colors.—in mixing the color for this plate, and particularly for the preparation of the color diagram, it is highly important that sufficient color should be mixed at one time for the completion of any one figure or wash, as a second quantity can never be mixed to match the first of he § historic ornamental drawing. being the projection of the wall from the bottom, and the line e' f completes the line of the shadow. this will com- plete the outline of fig. , and it is ready to be washed in with color according to the directions hereafter given. . the student should carefully draw this figure on a separate piece of paper and be thoroughly familiar with each of its details before he attempts it on his drawing plate, because frequent erasing in the latter instance will render it impossible for him to lay his color well, and a little undue haste or carelessness may spoil the entire plate. it is better not to wash in any one figure until all of them have been completed, as otherwise the ink is likely to be unequal in color and therefore unsatis- factory in its results on the plate. slo a a m+ . fig. is an example of the lotus capital, with its characteristic polychromatic decoration, as seen in ex- amples of the best period of k ㅏ ​egyptian art. the line a b (fig. ) is inches above the lower border line, and extends inches each side of the center line of the col- umn, and the top line of the column neck cd is inches above the lower border line. the width of the top of the column across cd is inches, and the sides of the column ce and d f taper so that they would meet on the corners of the abacus, or top block gh. this block is inch high above the line a b, and inch wide each side of the center line. the part of the . f e fig. . to is § historic ornamental drawing. number of equal parts, as shown. in order to do this, a semi- circular half plan must be drawn over the top of the column, as shown in fig. at a pb, and divided on the curve from a through p to b into nineteen equal parts, each of which will represent the width of one of the lotus blossoms at the edge of the bell of the capital, and the lines projected from these subdivisions to the line ab of the bell will mark the width of each of the upper lotus flowers in the elevation of the capital. the depth of these lotus flowers below ab is finch, although their true depth, as painted on the column, is much greater than this, as is shown at the edges, as br. draw a line lightly at rs, j inch below.ab, and then outline the blossoms as shown, turning each one a little more toward the right or left as their outlines approach b or a, as the curve in the top of the bell shape causes them to lose their perpendicular appearance as they recede from the center. the ornament shown at the bottom of the bell shape, representing conventionally the calyx of the flower, must also be located by means of a semicircular plan of the column on the line kg. this is drawn, for convenience, across the upper part of the column as shown, and its circumference is divided into eight equal parts, as , , , , etc., from each of which a perpendicular line is erected to locate, on the line kq, a point of one of the petals of the calyx, as shown at ', ', ', ', etc. on the bell. ľ е . it will be observed that the extreme outside calyx leaf of the capital and the one in the center under point ' are nearly tangent at their lower extremities to the center line of the calyx leaf under point '. if, therefore, we draw under ' a vertical line parallel to kl and from to the line cd, curved to conform to the bottom of the bell, the right side of the center leaf can be drawn as follows: with a radius of inches and a center at m i inch to the left of the line of the column, and on a line with the bottom of the first band, draw an arc from # to within inch of cd, and then round this arc to conform to the bottom of the capital, freehand. the left side of the extreme right-hand leaf, 'e s le to § historic ornamental drawing. whose point is under the point k, may then be sketched in freehand, as shown. the leaf under point ' is then drawn, , extending its sides to the leaves already drawn and touching them to inch below the top, and then the little that shows of the leaves under points ' and ' is located, intersecting the previous leaves & inch below the top. each one of these leaves consists of fourteen stripes, each parallel to its neighbor and the outside of the leaf, as shown, and the width of the leaf across the bottom must therefore be divided into twenty-nine equal parts—one in the middle for the little lozenge-shaped eye, and fourteen each side, for the stripes above mentioned. the other leaves are similarly striped, although those on the extreme right and left will appear narrower than those in the middle, owing to their altered positions. a vertical line through the center lotus blossom, corre- sponding to the center line of the column, will be properly placed for the stem of this blossom, and a curved line at the extreme right and left sides of the capital, parallel to the outline of the bell, will represent in its proper place the stem of the extreme right and left of these blossoms. between these extremities, lines will radiate apparently from the top of the column with a greater or lesser degree of curvature, according to their nearness to the outside or the center of the column, and these lines must be carefully sketched by the eye until they are uniform and accurate, and, when equally spaced, the intermediate lines and con- ventional flowers should be drawn with their stems located by a similar system and in a similar manner, and then the final hair-like appendages alternating with each set of blossoms. all this work must be carefully carried out in pencil, and, when the capital is finished, the pencil lines should be well strengthened in order that the subsequent washings with color may not entirely erase them. . in fig. is shown a doorway from the erechtheum at athens, which is essentially greek in its design. the § historic ornamental drawing. courses below the top of the lintel, the next to the last one being inch wide and the other ones equally divided and of equal width. the patere, or disks, equally spaced around the door, are inch in diameter, and the lines of the mold- ings on the inside of the door jamb measure, altogether, inch across and are divided into seven members. . fig. is an ionic capital from the south porch of the erechtheum at athens, and its distinguishing character- istics are the volutes and bands of the capital over the top of the column. to draw fig. , it will be necessary for the student to first draw the volutes of the capital and arrange the other details in conformity with them. the outside curve of these volutes extends inches each side of the center line of the column, and the lowest portion of the volute is inches above the lower border line. it has been observed else- where in this course that these greek curves are based on a regular mathematical proportion, and the proportions of these volutes are exactly the same as those we have drawn in previous cases, namely: . : . : . the student, having drawn the extreme outside and lower lines of the volute, will now lay out the top line represent- ing the top band across the column inches above the bottom of the volute. this will represent the depth of the volute as inches, and as the depth is to the width as : , we have the width of each volute as inches; and as the depth of the inner curve of the volute is to the width of the volute as : , we have for that depth š inches. in this way and by these proportions, we are able to lay out each side of the volute as before, and calculations will show that the width of the inner curve of the volute is fi inch and that each of the other curves is just one-half the corre- sponding outside member. . this may be somewhat more clearly understood by reference to fig. , where the line a b, inches long, represents the depth of the volute; bc, inches long, § historic ornamental drawing. represents the width of the volute; c d, inches long, repre- sents the depth of the inner side of the volute; and de is i inch long, that is, i leftcd), ef being (ab), or inch, f&, } (bc), or it inch, and gl, ž (cd), or inch. in the same manner, we find h i to be inch, ik to be inch, kl to be inch, and imn to be inch. in this way we could go on continuously and wind the volute up in as many convolutions as we chose. or, if we wished to enlarge it still more, we could draw from a to the left a line equal to twice cd, or inches, and so on around. e m igles ਭੱਟ org # fig. . from a, b, c, and d, lines are then drawn at angles of ° with the side lines of the volute, intersecting to form at the center a rectangle at w, x, j', and s, fig. . the sides of this rectangle are then bisected and the points thus located form the centers of quadrants that are struck to contour the volute. for instance, with o as a center, on the line x and with a radius equal to - , the curve – is struck, then § historic ornamental drawing. l with p as a center, on the line x y and with a radius equal to p- , the curve – is struck, the curve - being struck from r as a center, and the curve - from s. we now draw a new set of diagonal lines from the corners l, f, g, and h, and form a new and smaller square in the } hee _t lom yn k ju fig. . center, by bisecting the sides of which we establish centers for the next four curves, and, again bisecting the angles and drawing diagonals from i, k, l, and m, we form a new rect- angle, from the center of the sides of which we will strike the remaining curves. . on this small scale it will be exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, for the student to carry out these instruc- tions exactly, and he is therefore urged to practice them a half dozen times or more on a separate piece of paper before he makes the first attempt to locate the details on his draw- ing plate. even then he may find it advisable to contour only the first portion of the volute, that is, the curves ? § historic ornamental drawing. outside band of the volute extends across the top of the column inch in width, and the space from it to the next band below, measured on the center of the column, is inch. the two bands then in the center are each inch wide and inch apart, while a space of inch separates the lower band, which is inch wide, from the second of the middle ones on the center line of the column. these bands dimin- ish in width as they coil themselves up in the volute, the two middle ones uniting to form one band before they have taken the first quarter-turn, as shown at b. the location of the bands immediately at the sides of the column as they start to wind themselves into the volute may readily be dis- tributed by eye measurement, as the outer curve of the volute is already determined. whether the bands are drawn with a compass or freehand, they should be carried around to the eye with a light, easy, clean line, and the eye itself finally drawn with the com- pass, inch in diameter and tangent to the last curve of the volute. its center should be on the side lines of the column. . the decoration of the neck, with the horizontal orna- ment immediately below the ornate portions of the capital, may now be sketched in very lightly, simply to locate posi- tions for various details, as most of this work will be done with the brush or pen after the design is washed in. the sides of an ionic column are grooved by twenty-four flutes separated by fillets, and, in order to draw these, it will be necessary to make a half plan of the column and divide it into twelve equal parts, as shown under fig. , projecting each of these parts upwards to locate on the ele- vation of the curved surface the lines where these flutes will occur. having done so, the middle fillets in elevation may be drawn a trifle less than inch in width, and the others, in gradually diminishing widths, may be laid out each side according to the position shown on the semicircular plan. in the same manner, the curved or arched finish at the tops of the flutes may be drawn with the compass for the three o do he $ historic ornamental drawing. center ones, while those on each side, taking an elliptical form as they curve away from the eye, must be contoured freehand. the abacus or little slab on top of the volutes is já inch thick, and extends inches to the right and left of the center line. its entire width is divided into sixteen equal parts, each one of which contains the egg molding char- acteristic of classical art, separated in each instance from its neighbor by a small dart, as shown. the egg-and-dart molding under the volutes is identically the same in form as that on the abacus, but, being carved on a curved surface, the apparent width of these details diminishes to the right and left of the center. having drawn all these details of fig. and strengthened up the principal lines in pencil, the student may now ink in with a fine line the capital and top of the column. popvlvsoverom anvs vogitodi tvespz sane fig. . . fig. of the drawing plate is an elevation of the arch of titus at rome, and is characteristic of the roman style of architecture. the original arch still stands, $ historic ornamental drawing. draw all of these details carefully, and ink in the figure with a fine line, then carefully draw the lettering in the tablet above, the style of which is the old characteristic roman now no longer used, except in its modified form, which modern work titles french-roman. this lettering must be done in waterproof ink or it will run and spoil the drawing plate when the figure is washed. . fig. of the drawing plate is an elevation of the capital of a composite column, the composite being the architectural order invented by the romans for their most " . m far " fig. . luxurious attempts at architecture, and is therefore typical of their character and temperament. the top of this column should be laid out inches above the lower border line, and it extends inches each side of the center. the width of the shaft of the column, imme- diately below the capital, is inches each side of the center line, and the height of the various details between the top of the shaft and the top of the capital is shown in fig. . $ historic ornamental drawing, entrance, a no. tint is used in fig. , and a no. tint in fig. . the shadows of fig. are then laid in a tint between and , but this tint is gradually deepened to the depth of no. as the shadow nears the ground. in fig. , the moldings on the under side of the top and on the left side of the entrance are emphasized as shown, by deepening to a no. tint. careful study of the original will show about what is required. the outlines of the stonework should not be heavier than no. in fig. , and should be very even in depth of tone, while in fig. , a depth as deep as no. will be permitted and the unevenness both of tint and out- line--due to the raggedness required to represent age- should be carefully studied. each feather of the winged globe, and the right and under sides of the disk and asps, should have a shade line. in expressing the hieroglyphs, they may be outlined very lightly with a fine brush or pen charged with no. or tint, and the left and upper sides should be emphasized in tone to show that the figures are incised and not raised on the wall. . fig. is tinted evenly all over to a depth of no. , and the abacus may then be darkened to a depth of no. . the middle of the five bands around the neck of the column should be about a no. or , and the two adjacent bands may be as dark as no. . the shadow on the bell of the capital should be carefully sketched in and then tinted to a depth of no. , and the blossoms under the line a b may be tinted as dark as no. . the right and left sides of the capital should be tinted slightly deeper than no. , in order to give the expression of roundness, although this should be a mere suggestion and had better be omitted rather than overdone. of the calyx leaves at the base of the bell, the outside stripe may be left in no. tint, the second stripe in no. , and the fourth stripe in no. . very little contrast is needed in any of these parts, as the lines are so well defined, and the student may shade in figs. , , and at the same time, working from one to another § historic ornamental drawing. in order that each may get a chance to dry before it is worked on a second time. the other three figures on the plate, however, should each be treated individually. e e a t t i . the entire surface of fig. should be washed over with a no. tint. the edges of the voluted bands, shown at c, fig. , should now be tinted to a depth of no. , and immediately below these edges and on their right sides a shadow is drawn to the depth of no. , and before the ink of each one of these strokes or shadows has become entirely dry, the brush should be thoroughly rinsed in clean water and the edges of the shadows softened or blended off into the light no. tint that covers the whole surface. this will produce the graded shadows as shown, and give the surface the appearance of being rounded rather than abso- lutely straight and square. the student should tint all these details as directed, giving close attention to the original plate after every stroke to see that he has conformed entirely with both the direc- tions and the example before him. the under and right-hand side of all the eggs and darts in the moldings may then be tinted with a single stroke of the brush charged with color to the depth of no. , and the back- ground or body of the column under the darts may be tinted to a depth of no. . the point of high light, or, in other words, the lightest portion of the column, is just to the left of the center, and a shadow may be drawn inside of the volute, beginning with the middle one, which should be shaded only to the depth of about no. and deepening, one tint at a time, toward the right and left in order that the outside may be darkest. the band immediately over the volutes may then be tinted to a depth of no. , and the shadow of the left-hand volute drawn across it in an elliptical curve, as shown. complete all the details as closely as possible to the orig- inal drawing, and mark the extreme high lights, where necessary, with chinese white. this may be done on the upper left-hand edges of the raised ornament on the neck j ? § historic ornamental drawing. and on the upper left-hand corners of the eggs in the egg- and-dart molding. the student is cautioned about using ink of too deep a shade. it is far better to have your ink too light than too dark, as the former can be easily remedied by the application of another wash, while a dark shade must remain the tint it dries, and contrast with it can be produced only by making other tints much darker in proportion. . wash in the entire drawing of fig. with an even no. tint, and then cast the shadows that are seen to the right of the columns and pilasters in a no. tint. the spandrels, or spaces, immediately above the arch, should be tinted all over with a no. , and the shadows shown thereon should be cast in a no. tint. notice that these shadows make the other portions of the drawing stand out. it shows that the pilasters, marked c in fig. , are raised above the surface d and that the panel e is sunk below the surface f. it also shows that the spandrels g are so deeply recessed that the column shadow is wider on them than on the surface h, where there is only the thickness of the column itself. the small panels between the columns should be tinted, as shown, in flat washes, care being taken to observe the emphasis given the moldings in each case. now divide the surface up by lines that indicate the stone- work. these lines should be drawn lightly with a brush in about a no. to no. tint. the different stones should then be shaded so as to break the monotony of their sur- face, and this shading should be executed in a no. tint, repeating same, if necessary, to get a proper depth. fre- quent reference to fig. will aid the student materially in getting the effect he desires in this figure. . great care should be exercised in washing over fig. , in order to keep the tints all light, otherwise it will have a mottled or muddy appearance. an even no. tint is carried over the entire surface to begin with, and then the right side of the left-hand volute is tinted to a depth of § historic ornamental drawing. no. , while the left side of the right-hand volute is tinted to a depth of no. . toward the left side of the abacus, which is hollow on its face, a no. tint is laid and gradually blended off until at the center of the capital it is as light as the no. , thus giving a curved effect. the under side of the quarter-round molding, shown at c in fig. , should be tinted to about a depth of no. and rapidly blended off as it rounds out to the surface, while the same molding at d, fig. , should be tinted to a depth of no. all over, and strengthened to a depth of no. on its under side. . the shadows of the lobes of the leaves at the points where they turn over from the capital should be sketched freehand and then tinted to a depth of no. , while all the leaves under the right-hand volute should be tinted to an even depth of no. , gradually blending off to the left, the lightest point of the capital being between the middle and extreme left-hand leaves, the left-hand leaves on the edge being tinted to a depth of no. or . the bell or core of the capital, shown at e in fig. , is tinted to give it the round effect expressed on the drawing plate, and this general curvature is again emphasized on the moldings below, at a where, on the left-hand side, the moldings are tinted to a depth of no. and blended off rapidly to no. over the first three volutes, and deepening again toward the right-hand side until it approaches a full depth of no. again over the third volute from the right and blends off to no. at the extreme right-hand edge. note all these little details in variations in shading ; they are all important and require close study and attention to fully appreciate them. the little eyes or cyelets formed by the lobes of the various leaves may be expressed in black, and the extreme corners under the volutes and between the volutes and capital may approach very nearly to black, although it is best not to have them entirely so. this will complete the drawing and washing of the figures on this plate, and the student may draw his border line and $ historic ornamental drawing. letter the title with his t square and ruling pen. the name, date, and class number and letter should then be placed below, as usual. there is nothing on this plate that the student is asked to do that he has not already done; it is a very intricate plate to draw, but requires patience, care, and study more than anything else. each figure should be drawn at least once on a separate piece of paper and entirely finished before it is attempted on the drawing plate, and if the first drawing of it is in any way unsatisfactory to the student himself, he should draw it two or three times before making the draw- ing plate, as the plate he sends to us is supposed to represent the result of repeated trials during which he has honestly endeavored to do his best. historic ornamental drawing. (part .) the drawing of designs. > introduction. in . woolen fabric designs. we will now take into consideration the drawing of designs that have been executed, or are suitable for execution, in some woven fabric. the essential difference between a design painted on a wall or carved in stone, and a design woven in a soft fabric, is that the former will always maintain its rigid outline, uninfluenced by any change of position, except so far as that change of position will change the effects of light and shadow. woven fabrics, however, the goods will frequently hang in folds, thus presenting a portion of the pattern on a convex surface, another portion on a concave surface, and perhaps another portion on a flat surface. geometrical patterns con- sisting of straight lines and regular geometrical figures are, therefore, not suitable for this class of work, as the nature of the material will destroy the precision of the geometrical outline. therefore, broad, bold patterns are necessary in the heavier goods, and more delicate patterns in the fabrics of lighter weight. the importance of these details will be pointed out as we progress with the drawing plates. for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. $ § historic ornamental drawing. drawing plate, title: textile patterns. . in this drawing plate we have, in fig. , a modern, and, in fig. , a comparatively ancient design showing the variation of motive as expressed in designs for textiles of different qualities. the hard, even curves and well defined outline of fig. renders it suitable for stamped silk or other light flimsy fabric wherein the surface will be sufficient to preserve the continuity of outline even though the goods lie in folds and irregularities. fig. is taken from a damask pattern of the fifteenth cen- tury. the peculiarity of damask patterns is that the weave is arranged in such a manner that the figure appears light in color upon a dark ground on one side of the goods, and dark upon a light ground on the other side, making a complete reversal, so far as light and shade is concerned, on the oppo- site sides. the goods in which this pattern was executed were rather heavy and necessitated a bold, broad pattern, the outlines of which were not confined with any degree of rigidity. the rendering of the floral forms is severely con- ventional, but not so geometrical as in fig. , and the stu- dent will observe that in both figs. and the relation of pattern to surface has been very carefully studied, there being just sufficient ground showing behind the pattern to set it off and the pattern and the ground so happily arranged that neither seems to predominate over the other. . to execute fig. , the student will first draw a per- pendicular line inches to the right of the right-hand border line, and a horizontal line inches above the lower border line. from the point of intersection of these two lines he will lay off to the right and left, on the horizontal line, a distance of inches, and above and below the hori- zontal line he will lay out on the vertical line inches. the four points thus located will mark the four angles of a diamond or lozenge shape, as shown in fig. of the text. this lozenge shape determines the area of the repeat of the pattern, and the system in which the design is carried out is known as the drop system or drop pattern, as each § historic ornamental drawing. element of the repeat of the goods is dropped one-half its height in order to fit the adjacent details, as shown in fig. of the text. here the rectangle bc de represents one repeat of the goods in which the pattern is executed, and it will be observed that in order to have the side c d match the side x -f fig. . be, it will be necessary to drop the pattern one-half a repeat, so that the line dg of one piece of the goods will correspond with the line fb of the adjacent piece. for certain classes of goods, such as carpets, wall papers, etc., there is much cconomy in this system of design. . it will be observed from the measurements given in fig. that the thickness of the two outside leaf blades is inch, while the next ones within are but inch wide at their widest part, and inch from the outside leaf. the § historic ornamental drawing. ? r . each detail of the pattern may be sketched in pencil, and it will be observed that the key to the whole situation lies in the curve of the large outside leaf blade as it comes up over the lily. the convex side of this curve not only fills a portion of the space in the next lozenge shape but it also establishes the degree of curve for the bottom of itself; that is to say, the curve of the top of the large leaf blade governs the curve of the bottom of the large leaf blade next above it, and indirectly influences the curves of all the other blades, which are spaced simply to fill the void satisfactorily. the short brush strokes shown at a in fig. represent, conventionally, the turning over of the leaf or blade, and in sketching them preparatory to outlining the figure for inking in, the student should bear the fact in mind and represent them as shown in fig. . he will then avoid any distortion that might occur if he simply considered each of them as individual strokes and not as parts of another leaf. when this is all sketched in, the student should carefully cover over this half of his drawing plate with a piece of paper, to protect it, and proceed to draw fig. , after which both can be washed in and tinted with opaque color, as described hereafter. . the center line of fig. is inches from the right- hand border line, and the design is planned on what is known as a turn-over pattern; that is to say, the pattern is sym- metrical on each side of a center line, and only one half of it would need be worked up in the design, the weaver being able to arrange the loom so that it will weave the pattern symmetrically to the right and left of the center line. . in fig. of the text is shown the rectangle abcd within which one complete element of the repeat may be drawn. it will be observed here that this pattern does not "drop," as in the previous plate, as the rectangle constitu- ting its repeat is arranged so that the bottom continues over fig. . e e t e i § historic ornamental drawing. the top, and the right side is the reverse of the left side of the pattern without extending horizontally beyond the limits of the repeating rectangle. the pattern thus virtually resolves itself into a stripe, inasmuch as it is continuous and interwoven vertically but independent and separate from any overlapping in a hori- p s u . n po' ca fig. . zontal direction. in fact, such is the case, and the effect of stripe in the woven goods may be materially increased by increasing the scale of the repeating rectangle in a horizon- tal direction, without increasing the scale of the enclosed design, thus leaving a broader ground space between the elements of the stripe. the effect of this treatment can be seen in fig. , where the pattern is shown on a reduced scale in order to get the effect of three widths, while in fig. the scale of the rectangle is increased as suggested historic ornamental drawing. > fig. . fig. . § historic ornamental drawing. above, and the effect of stripe thereby emphasized. if it were desired to produce this design as an all-over pattern so as to avoid this effect of the stripe, it could be accomplished fig. . by making it a drop pattern, as shown in fig. , where it has been necessary to change the governing line of the pat- tern but slightly in order to make it conform to the new conditions. . to draw fig. , the student will construct on each side of his center line a rectangle inches wide by inches long, the bottom of which will be inches above the lower border line. these two rectangles will each represent one repeat. in fig. of the text is shown the left one of these rectangles with the design sketched in. it will first be necessary to draw through the rectangle the parent stem or guiding line ofe, the point o being about į inch above the point c, the point f about half way up the height of the rect- angle, and inches from the line bc. the guiding line $ historic ornamental drawing. ; then curves in toward b, as shown by the dotted line, but reverses its curve and passes out of the rectangle again at e inches to the left of b. it is well to continue its course beyond the rectangle, because that will give us the location, direction, and contour of the line e' p' in the lower part of the rectangle, e' p' being the same curve as ep beyond the rectangle at the top. these dimensions have not been given exactly, because this is essentially freehand work and we do not wish to give the student directions for copying this design, but rather to instruct him how to execute a design of this character and at the same time to preserve his own individuality. . the parent stem or guiding line oe being drawn, the student will roughly outline on each side of it the foliated forms as shown. in doing this, he will observe that there is no material difference between the sketching of these foliated forms and the sketching of the forms for the brush strokes on his drawing plate, title, brush work. these general outlines are simply the outlines of brush strokes, and the points at q show in a general way the appearance of a brush- stroke leaf after it is turned over and shows its under side. . t the floral form in the center of the design may be drawn within a kite-shaped figure shown by the dotted lines hlk, the point h being about inch below the point b, and the lines hl and ik being and inches in length, respect. ively, and the angle at i a right angle. the petals of the upper part of the floral form are brush strokes, the points of which are all in contact with lh. the brush strokes of the lower part bear little relation to the line lk, but are governed on top by the arc of a circle whose radius is inches and whose center at n is inches above c, the lower strokes shown at r are drawn to fill in the space between the main feather-like stem and the central figure. h s e it of je di le . having drawn this form complete, it will next be necessary to notch the edges of the foliated forms and reduce it to the conventional outline shown in fig. of the drawing t- le § historic ornamental drawing. plate. the process of doing this is precisely similar to the process in the drawing of the acanthus leaf on drawing plate, title, flowers and conventionalized leaves. you have here the general lobe forms to be notched into finer forms, as you had in the previous case, and, by repeatedly referring to your drawing plate, you can study all the detail that will be developed in the final rendering. . the foliated forms occupying the spaces at s and s' may be sketched in after the rest of the work is complete, as their only function is to fill the space that would otherwise exist above and below the leaf c' p'. the parts of the figure above and below this repeat, as shown on the drawing plate, represent simply the continuation of the pattern above and below, and so far as they show, they are precisely similar to the part already described. having completed the drawing, the student will proceed to wash in and tint the plate as follows: . after carefully outlining all details of the two figures, the paper should be thoroughly cleaned with a soft rubber and the figures strengthened with a hard pencil so that the first wash may not so remove the pencil lines that they will be indistinct or invisible. if there are any parts of the plate that are inclined to be in the slightest degree greasy from the hands, it is well to sift a small quantity of powdered chalk on the plate and rub it into the paper, in order that the color will flow evenly. . mix a considerable quantity of ink (not waterproof) and water in a cup and have it so diluted that a wash of it, when dry, will be no darker than tint no. , of fig. , historic ornamental drawing, part . with this pale tint, wash evenly the entire rectangle of fig. and fig. , being careful not to carry the wash over the edges, but to spread it evenly from the upper left-hand to the lower right-hand corner in a flat wash. use the largest and softest brush that you have, but not a japanese brush. dip the brush into the color and apply it repeatedly to the drawing plate, until $ historic ornamental drawing. o the =wing l'ou finer atedly quite a puddle of color is in the upper left-hand corner of the rectangle, as shown at e in fig. . the board should be tilted somewhat so that the corner a will be the highest and the corner b the lowest; and the brush being repeatedly dipped into the color, should be drawn in a slightly curved line under a, as shown by the dotted lines, thereby extend- ing the wash gradually toward the corner b. if the brush is not large enough to carry the entire puddle across from the side to the corner, as shown by the dotted line from c to d, detail ands a a zte, as erwise figure plate, re and ilar to roceed e two a soft cicil so es that parts legre tity of per, i fig. . proof) of it , g. , e tint, being it should be dipped into the cup and drawn part way from c toward d and then dipped again and drawn from d toward c; but the line cd must have a long puddle of color at the bottom of it in order that the tint may be even. repeat these curved strokes until the wash is carried all the way down to b, and then drying the brush on a piece of blotter, tilt the drawing board still more and remove the surplus color as it flows down into the corner b. there is nothing difficult about this, the main points to be observed being that the portion of the plate that dries to form the tint must be drained, not with the brush, but by spread -hand h that to the uintil $ historic ornamental drawing. lace the ina in to ittle pard his chinese white used anywhere on fig. except for the stamens in the center of the lily. if after the entire plate is finished there are a few points where the color has run over on portions that should have been left, a little clear chinese white may be laid over the damaged part, which, when it is dry, may be tinted with the very palest suggestion of wash in order that it may match the background. ing mpt itest don . in fig. , however, the veining of the leaves is so intricate that it would be practically impossible to leave the ground to show for them, and they may be drawn in with a pointed brush, using chinese white tinted with a pale wash of ink until it corresponds in color with the ground. many of the regular lines, however, such as the petals of the calyx in the central figure and the points where the serrated edges of the leaf forms lap over other leaf forms, may be easily and advantageously left the color of the ground when the work is painted in. hite caus ness the aked rent shal age. rait- cir it enly in a in it n to . if the distemper color has at any point run over the outline of the figure, the best way to remove it is by a gen- tle scraping with a sharp knife: if the wash has run over the edge of the rectangle, it may be removed with an ordi- nary ink eraser, first protecting the drawing surface itself with a piece of ordinary writing paper, along the edge of which the eraser may be applied so that it does not rub out where erasure is not required. do not attempt to erase any part of the work, however, until the entire plate is finished, as the application of an ink eraser to the paper will render it porous, and when ink or color is applied it will spread into the pores of the paper to such an extent that it cannot after- wards be eradicated. the student will now place the title at the top of the plate, as shown, in letters inch in height, the outlines of which may be drawn with triangle and t square after they have been sketched in pencil. the name, and class letter and number, and the date on which the plate is finished may then be placed in their respective corners, as usual. it to . of do, te. oin i no $ historic ornamental drawing. drawing plate, title: ceramics and leather. . in this plate are given six characteristic designs each illustrating an example of a natural form applied to some specific purpose. figs. and are plate borders suit- able for designs in chinaware, although with slight modifica- tions they are equally applicable to fan borders. figs. and are designs in stamped-leather work executed as book covers, and figs. and are also stamped-leather work in designs for wall decoration. the style of fig. is arabian, and the connection of this pattern with a natural form can be easily traced by a refer- ence to elements of ornament. in fact, the theme of this design is based on identically the same type as that illus- trated in elements of ornament, the only difference being its elaboration in order to make it more suitable to its present purpose. . to draw fig. , the student will strike a semicircle whose radius will be inches, and whose center will be inches to the right, and inches below the border line. this semicircle may be divided into eight equal parts by fig. . lines radiating from its center, as shown in fig. . begin- ning with the center one of these lines and then with each alternate line to the left and right, the student will draw the general outline of the foliated form as shown at abc in fig. , the point a being inches from the center, and the $ historic ornamental drawing. feeling of additional strength are weakened by the broken and uncertain ending of the design. ( ) (c) fig. . . in fig. ( ) the same design exactly is changed to suit the purpose of the utensil in which it is executed. the border around the rim of the plate is reduced to a series of links, not very elaborate in themselves, but suggestive of binding the rim of the plate together and certainly strength- ening its form. in the center a rosette formed by the com- plicated geometrical work suits its place exactly and shows that it was intended for the place where we see it and not somewhere else. . fig. should be washed over with a no. tint in the same manner as was fig. , and then the general design $ historic ornamental drawing, token : ( ) fig. . ed to the les of re af com- hows | not sign § historic ornamental drawing. may be executed in a no. tint and shaded with darker tones to give expression to the general idea. no distemper will be used in this, as the forms are much more freely ren- dered and are not composed of as many flat tints as in the previous case. in both fig. and fig. a light tint may be laid so as to indicate the portion of the plate that rounds away from the border or rim, the depth of this being of little importance, as it is a shadow line and forms no element of the design itself, except in so far as it emphasizes the plate border and limits the area of decoration. . fig. is an example of a book cover in stamped leather, the style being that of about the middle of the six- teenth century. the original was olive-colored morocco, whereon the white outlines were executed in gold. the heavy black scrolls on each side of the center (medallion) were a deep purple, while the lighter scrolls of a similar outline were a light green. the background of the coat of arms on the oval was royal red, and the coat of arms, which is that of katherine de medici, was executed on the left with gold fleur-de-lis on a blue ground, and on the right with red and blue devices stamped on a gold ground. the back of the book was stamped with four golden k's, being the initial of katherine, each one of which was crowned as shown. . to draw fig. , construct first a rectangle inches wide and inches high, located inches to the right and inches below the border lines. this rectangle will rep- resent the entire front or top of the book cover, but within it three other rectangles must be constructed , , and inch to the left of the right-hand side. the first of these rectangles will measure exactly inches in width, and its upper and lower lines will be the same distance from the upper and lower lines of the enclosing rectangle, as on the right-hand side; the other rectangles within this will be parallel to it all around. the inner one will be divided as shown in fig. , and from the location of the ornament as it crosses the lines § historic ornamental drawing. in fig. , the student will be able to sketch in the design and then strengthen it up for his coloring. the back of the book, shown to the left of the top view, is inch in thickness, and the ridges are į inch in width matututunut fig. . against the back but only inch at their extremities. the first one is located Å inch below the top, and the last one Å inch above the bottom; between these the others are spaced equally. . the student, after sketching in all his ornamenta- tion carefully, will strengthen it with a hard pencil and then wash in the entire book cover to the depth of about tint no. . his pencil lines of ornament will show through this tint, and they can be gone over with a fine pen charged with chinese white. the tinting of the scrollwork where it is lighter than the ground, and also the light portions of $ historic ornamental drawing. . fig. is an example of stamped-leather wall deco- ration from the château de blois, in france, and is the same decoration that was illustrated in figs. and , historic ornament, part . considerable liberty has been taken here with the coloring, in order to express in black-and-white the strong effect of the design itself. in the original, the entire background was a deep, olive green, and all the black por- tion, rich royal red. the white lines and surfaces, as in the previous examples, were executed in gold. the rectangle bounding this design is inches wide by } inches high, and is inch to the left of, and inch above, the border lines. to draw the design, the student will con- th a m d r he he he ti of is w to ced ale lis- the n f fig. . his hat ted struct a rectangle as shown at abcd, fig. , and divide it through the center vertically and horizontally by the lines ef and gh. at the point of intersection of these central ver- tical and horizontal lines, a circle will be drawn the radius of which will be inches, and within this circle is drawn as iny library btape teachers college mamta naama eklifornia § historic ornamental drawing. and st, a square the angles of which will be on the vertical and hori- zontal dividing lines, as shown at ijkl. a distance inch within each of the bounding lines, vertical and horizontal lines may now be drawn as shown at mn, op, qr, and their points of intersection will furnish the centers for the circles within which the royal initials h and c are to be drawn. the inner of these circles will have a radius of inch and will govern the width of the panels above and below them. the outer circles will each have a radius of inch, and the space between them will be filled in solid with waterproof black ink, as shown. these solid black circles govern the widths of the enclosing border to the panels between them and also the straight line connecting them with that panel border. . the leaf forms between the circles containing the initials and the central square are drawn within triangles as shown, the longer sides of which are formed by a line drawn from k to u, and the shorter sides measuring inches from u to v and inches from k to v. the point x where the stem crosses into this triangle is inches from k. the other details may now be sketched in freehand. the leaf form may be outlined within the triangle as shown, and the stem sketched to pass gracefully from x and approach the line e f, without touching it, across the lower end of the tri- angle near u and extend below the line st before it curves upwards to pass about the same distance from v that it did from e f but outside of the triangle. it crosses the center of the panel at w, and this is an important part, inasmuch as it must be so balanced that it will cross the stem from the neighboring panel at the same point. these guiding lines are the same on all four sides of the central device, the only difference being that they reverse for the one immediately above and to the side of them. take careful note of the crossings of these lines on qr and st as well, and observe carefully the branchings of the pecul- iar conventional leaflets that spring out alternately on oppo- site sides. $ historic ornamental drawing. * line ab : om the the instruments where necessary, and then after all pencil lines are erased, the entire surface may be washed over with an even no. tint and the ground rendered in distemper to the depth of no. . the student will now ink in his border line, place the title at the top of the plate, his name and class letter and number in the lower right-hand corner and the date in the lower left-hand corner, as usual. drawing plate, title: light textiles. . the two figures on this plate are taken from exist- ing examples of french and italian designs. fig. is a wall decoration the original of which was executed in stamped felt, the figure being left in relief and the background slightly sunken and forced to a smooth surface by means of hot iron dies. the design is characteristic of the renais- sance style and is suitable as a drop pattern for wall paper or any textile where a vertical figure is desirable. . tel in drawing fig. , the rectangle containing it is inches wide by ] inches high, and it is placed inch to the right and above the border lines. two center lines a b and cd should be drawn, each passing through the center of the unit of the pattern, as shown in fig. . the design is a drop pattern falling one-half the length of a repeat in order to match from side to side; the scrolls enter the rectangle at €, thus forming a continuation of the scroll leaving the rectangle at f. in woven patterns, only one-half of this design would have to be worked out on design paper, the other half being duplicated by the center ties in the loom. the entire figure should be worked out by the student as a problem in design, not as an effort to copy his drawing plate. he should now be familiar with the handling of con- ventional-leaf work similar to that which was applied to ornamental ironwork in one of the earlier plates of this course. the rendering of the various styles of foliage and ribbon is no different here from other pencil and brush work that the student has passed over, and with the vertical and ete alli care cu: this tic. ing § historic ornamental drawing. horizontal center lines as guides and the outline of the rect- angle as the limit of surface covering, he should start in and scheme out a design based on the motives above set fig. . forth. this is not a problem in drawing but a problem in designing, and as such it will be considered and criticised. . the student must apply all the practical information he has received on his previous plates in the execution of the general outline of this work. remember to keep a balance between the design and the background. emphasize the lapping over of one part on another by means of fine white lines as was first done in the border on the drawing plate, title, applied design. when the whole design has been out- lined satisfactorily, strengthen with a hard pencil the lines that are to become permanent, clean the plate with a soft rub- ber, and wash in the entire rectangle with a tint equal to no. $ $ historic ornamental drawing. on the color chart prepared heretofore. the figure is then laid in with distemper or opaque color mixed so that it will dry to the depth of about no. . by this time the student should be able to go all over his work evenly and not be reduced in any place to the necessity of using chinese white to touch up points of the background. > . fig. of this drawing plate is an italian silk design and its unit is a hexagon. the rectangle containing the design is the same height as the previous one, but is only inches in width and is located i inch to the left of the border line. the figures in this are extremely conventional but are all grouped around generally arranged lines that give them a feeling of unity in the general design. for instance, in the center of each hexagon forming the repeat there is a single device surrounded by six radiating leaves and the whole enclosed in a foliated form nearly circular in shape. this really constitutes nearly all the material of one repeat. i in the . to draw the figure, the student will construct within the rectangle one complete hexagon inches in diameter, and interlocking with this other partial hexagons, as shown in fig. . the governing lines of the composition may then be sketched in, using an ogee line instead of a hexagon as the center line, each side of which they will repeat. this ogee line must be of such a character that it will fit or inter- change with itself quite as well as the hexagon; in order to do this, the corners of the hexagon may be rounded off, as shown at a in fig. . the arc on which the roundings of these corners must be effected will have a radius equal to that of a circle described within the hexagon, and for the purpose of sketching the design, the hexagon may be aban- doned entirely and the outline be carried out on the ogee as at b; but it should be borne in mind that it is the hexagon that forms the unit of this design although it is apparently ignored in the blocking out of the design. the background and surface coloring of fig. are precisely the same in tint nce the nite ate, out- nies ub. $ historic ornamental drawing. detail and architectural elements, we tested his ability to handle his pencil, pen, and brush, and at the same time taught him to use them in the first elements of design work, the drawing plates, title, ceramics and leather, and textile patterns, brought him still further in contact with the theory and practice of designing, and now with light textiles we expect him to put into practice all that he has learned, and he will find in the problems on this plate applications for all of the details that were introduced in each of the preceding plates. this synopsis of the course up to this point is introduced here in order to remind the student that we are leading him to a point of independence, and if he does not find all that he thinks he requires in the instructions for this last plate, he is to look up his past suggestions in the directions for executing other plates, before he asks for further instruction. Į | § color harmony. standard of some kind to go by at all times, and if we take clear sunlight as a standard and call that white light, we have a standard with which we can make comparisons. . shadow.--shadow is produced by varying the degree of light. if an object is equally illuminated on all sides it possesses no shadow, but where the light falls upon it from one direction some parts of it are illuminated more than others and the object, if opaque, interferes with the passage of light and casts a shadow. shadows vary in degree from a slight diminution of the power of the direct light to utter darkness. . relation of light and shadow.-the relation of light and shadow to color is a very important one, and it must be borne in mind that color is a sensation produced by certain conditions of light and outside of those conditions does not exist at all. to make this clearer, let us assume that we have a red card hanging in a room. now, as long as that room is illuminated, no matter in how slight a degree, the card remains red, but as soon as the room is in utter darkness the card is no longer red because the sensation of the red color is produced by the reflection of the light from it, and if there is no light to reflect, there is no color there. . analysis of white light.--an analysis of white light will show that it is composed of a combination of seven separate colors, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. these colors vary in quantity to form white light, and colored lights can be mixed in such proportions that they will produce white light. an illustration of the analysis and decomposition of light may be seen in the rain- bow, where the sunlight passing through drops of rain is refracted and broken up into its several colors. a more satisfactory decomposition of light can be obtained by means of a glass prism, when the colors appear much clearer. . artificial color.—the only method that we have of producing the sensation of color with any degree of : § color harmony. je le ee it permanency is by means of pigments or dyes. if we stain a piece of paper or fabric with a certain dye, or if we paint on its surface with a pigment, we produce on that paper the sensation of a given color. this is due to the fact that the pigment or dye has the mechanical or chemical quality of absorbing all the color rays that compose the white light except the particular color that it reflects back to the eye, and thus produces that sensation. if we paint on the paper with red and set it in the light, we know that the pigment is absorbing the violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, and orange rays and is reflecting back to the eye only the red, hence, the sensation of red. m m er of it primary colors. is ze as ee, cer of . the spectrum.—the seven colors mentioned above are called the spectrum, which varies with different kinds of light, such as sunlight, gaslight, lamplight, etc. that is to say, that the seven colors composing them vary in pro- portion, but are constant for the same kind of light. it is found that green, violet, and orange can be produced by the mixture of other colors, and if we subtract these from our spectrum, as well as the indigo of which we will learn more later on, we will reduce our colors to three—red, yellow, and blue. these three colors are termed the primary colors, inasmuch as they cannot be divided into any other colors and exist by themselves as a standard from which all other colors and shades can be theoretically made. red and yellow make orange, blue and yellow make green, red and blue make violet. om ete of w, ete s he in- is ore .ns . formation of colors of spectrum.-now, it may be assumed that when we paint on a card or surface with green paint, that card absorbs all the colors of the spectrum, except the yellow and the blue and these it reflects to the eye, producing the sensation of green. the proportion of each of these colors, yellow and blue, that is reflected will determine the quality of the green that appears on the sur- face. for practical purposes it can be assumed that the те of § color harmony. colors of the spectrum are really red, yellow, and blue, and that the colors orange, green, and violet consist of an admix- ture of the adjacent colors, inasmuch as the orange occurs between the red and yellow and the green between the yellow and blue. therefore, we will confine our studies to these three colors for the present. . the ancients seemed to possess a very practical idea of these colors and their harmony with one another, inas- much as all the earliest, and from an artistic standpoint, highest quality, of ornament and decoration were executed in the three primary colors, and the secondary, or mixed, colors were not introduced until the art of the various periods began to decline. . secondary colors. . the secondary colors are green, orange, and violet and they vary in shade or tint according to the proportion of the admixture of the two colors composing them, whereas the primary colors are standard and do not vary. a mix- ture of two secondary colors gives us what we term a tertiary color, or one composed of four primaries. this may seem somewhat obscure at first, inasmuch as we have but three primaries, but in a tertiary color some one of the primaries must exist twice. if we mix green and orange we will get a brown tint in which there is nearly twice as much yellow as there is of either of the other primaries, and while it contains nothing but the three primary colors we call it a tertiary color because it is in reality composed of four ingredients. position of colors in chromatic scale. . blue and yellow.-of the three primary colors blue possesses that quality that is technically known as scoldness" in color, and if we adopt a chromatic scale, that is, a color scale, wherein the various colors are related to one another in the same manner that the various degrees of light and shade are related to one another from most § color harmony. . green.—green in the general scale of colors, so far as relation of light and shade are concerned, occupies the middle position, but in the secondary colors it is second. it is composed of the extreme primaries yellow and blue. a perfect green consists of three parts of yellow and eight parts of blue in equal intensities and this perfect green will neutralize a perfect red in the proportion of : . of all compound colors green is the most effective, distinct, and striking, and contrasts beautifully with the other primaries and secondaries and is the most abundant color found in nature, mixed with orange it produces the tertiary citrine, and mixed with purple it produces the other extreme of tertiary, olive. . purple.-purple, the third and last of the secondary colors, is composed of five parts of red and eight parts of blue. such a purple will neutralize a perfect yellow in the proportion of : . as said before, with green it produces olive, and with the other tertiary, orange, produces russet. it is the coldest of the secondary colors and nearest black in respect to light and shade. it is a receding color and pos- sesses many of the qualities of blue in this respect. next to green, purple is the most pleasing of the contrasting colors. it has long been emblematic of royalty, probably on account of its rareness in a pure state in nature. purple when inclined to red takes the name of crimson, and falling back toward blue becomes violet. . these six colors constitute the entire gamut or chromatic scale with which all tints and shades are repre- sented. as said before, mixed with black they form semi- neutral tints. if we consider a color scale beginning with the palest yellow and ending in the darkest blue, we have the extremes of light and shade producible by pure color. on the other hand, if we have a parallel scale beginning with the purest white and ending in the deepest black, we have the extremes of light and shade producible with all the colors, or in other words, producible with white light. § y color harmony. neutral tints. . formation. - in nature we have several neutral tints that are produced by reducing the intensity of light on the color. it may be that the object that presents a neutral tint to the eye does so by absorbing the seven colors of the spectrum to a certain extent and reflecting only a small por- tion of the ingredients necessary to give it its tint. this has the same effect on the eye as though the object were in shadow. if we take a tree trunk the bark of which is brown, we can assume that only a portion of the red, yel- low, and blue constituting that color is reflected, and that it is in reality the same as the tertiary color russet in deep shadow. f f . $ .. . use of black. as black is our means of producing the effect of shadow, we can produce the semineutral colors by mixing black with the secondary and tertiary colors. by doing this, we simply are mixing shade with them and in this way get a new series in the scale of color compounds, having black for its basis. these same neutral tints are termed brown, maroon, and gray. they are far inferior in point of color to any of the primaries or their direct combi- nations, but they are of the greatest value inasmuch as they exist in nature in so large a proportion that they serve as a background against which the more brilliant colors contrast. t r producing harmony. . necessary proportions of colors.-in decorative effects all colors must be mixed so as to neutralize one another, and reducing all colors to the perfect primaries, we find that where these three colors exist they should be in the proportion of three parts of yellow, five parts of red, and eight parts of blue. it will be remembered that yellow is the warmest of the colors and blue the coldest and that red lies intermediate between them. it will be evident from the above proportion, too, that on a given surface it requires § color harmony. as much blue as there is red and yellow combined to produce harmony. . importance of proper proportions.-these fig- ures are of vast importance in color harmony, although in general practice it is not possible to mix them in these abso- lute proportions, but it is possible to train the eye so as to appreciate proportions when the color appears on a surface. if we have a figure or a decoration on which it is desired to express three colors, it can be divided according to the area of its several parts and the three colors laid in the propor- tion of three parts of yellow, five parts of red, and eight parts of blue, thus producing harmony. or, if there are but two colors, such as red and green, the green should be such a mixture of blue and yellow as will give us the necessary contrasting color with red. the aim should be at all times to keep this mathematical proportion and to vary the tint or intensity of one of the colors in order that it will harmonize with the other two. . it will be remembered that the moors in decorating their walls with the elaborate geometrical color devices char- acteristic of their art practiced this color harmony with the greatest of skill. they reduced the quantity and intensity of red in their decorations, because yellow was replaced by gold leaf and the gold leaf had a reddish tinge. in the same way, the modern artist, where he uses a combination of a primary and a secondary color or of two secondary colors, reduces those colors as nearly as possible so that in the entire general surface of the decoration there will be the proper relation of , , and in the yellow, red, and blue. there are many ways of accomplishing this, and it depends in each case on the design to be executed as to how it can be best carried out. . the student first studying the subject of design practices “spotting ” or “space relation” by dividing up surfaces in order that he may become skilled in judging the amount of light and shade that is required to produce the § color harmony. ce j. most pleasing effect. when he advances to color work he must bear in mind the spotting, inasmuch as a red figure on a green ground has the effect of a spot, but the shade of his red and the quality of his green must also be considered, in order that the entire surface covered will be harmonious in the admixture of his color. c: eo ea making a color card. . in order to appreciate this proportion, the student should draw on a sheet of paper a number of small squares, each about į or of an inch on the sides, as shown in fig. , and then paint in his three colors, yellow, red, and blue, and uit ch tr fig. . fig. . le a s. ie le is streak or stripe over each set of squares so that the relative proportion of , , and of each color is maintained, as shown in fig. . in this way he will associate in his mind the relative value of each color to the other. he should then construct three squares similar to fig. that bear the same relations to one another that the three lines do in fig. . this can be done approximately; by making the middle square inches on each side, he will give it an area of very nearly square inches. the next square should be inches on each side, in order that its entire area may be square inches, and the circumscribed area around the center square should be square inches. the extreme outside square must be square inches larger than the one within, or square inches in all, and inches on each side p е e § color harmony. n j the location and proportion of the individual parts are shown in figs. , , and , of the text, while figs. , , , and , es > > i fig. . - "- " fig. . colo a fig. . fa of the text, are the outlines of figs. , , , and , of the drawing plate. : . § color harmony. background is composed of the same ingredients as the lower part of fig. , but is slightly darker. in any case, do not get it any darker than is shown on the original drawing plate, as it will be less of an error to make it lighter than to make it darker. the red in the strokes of the greek orna- ment is very nearly a pure red, but it has a slight addition of yellow, bringing it toward the scarlet, but the student should bear in mind that the orange background already contains some yellow and this will affect the color. experi- ments should be made with this on a separate piece of paper before these strokes are put in. the blue is a greenish blue produced with the slightest suggestion of a yellow admix- ture. the outlines of the details of this figure should be drawn sufficiently strong in pencil, so that when the back- ground wash is put on they will show clearly and enable the student to follow them closely. . fig. is a moorish design constructed on geomet- rical lines, as shown in fig. , of the text. its three colors- red, gold, and blue—are very nearly pure colors, although the blue contains a slight suggestion of yellow carrying it somewhat toward the green, but not as much yellow, even, as the blue in fig. . yellow is also added to the red, inas- much as the gold, which takes the place of yellow in this design, is of a reddish tinge, and the addition of yellow to the red background produces a harmonious effect. . fig. is a gothic design wherein the background is composed of two shades of an orange red. the color should be mixed to the lighter tint and washed rapidly and evenly over the background throughout all portions except where the green exists. while the paper is still wet, the darker portion should be washed in so that it will cloud away into the ground and will not show any distinct or sharp outline. the green is a yellow green produced by the addition of blue to a medium wash of yellow and should be applied in as even a tint as possible so as to show a sharp, clear outline and contrast with the red background. the white flowers may be put in with chinese white after the ground is dry, $ color harmony. as well as the yellow blossoms by means of chinese white tinted with pure yellow or a light orange. > . the essential characteristic in fig. , which is a byzantine design, is the background, as the byzantine blue is a very difficult shade to produce. it is a greenish blue, but depends for its quality not only on the quantity of yel- low that is mixed with the blue to give it the greenish tinge, but also on the thickness of the wash. the student should make repeated trials of this color on separate pieces of paper © or este fi fig. . ? until the desired tint is obtained. the green of the leaves, and the upper part of the design, may be carried out with the same color as was used for fig. , and the red is the same red that was used in fig. . the last color to be applied should be the gold, and care should be taken that this does not overreach on any of the color work so as to impair the quality of the outlines. the dimensions for out- lining fig. will be found on fig. , of the text. $ color harmony. . fig. is a gothic design taken from a stained-glass window, and although the general dimensions are given in fig. , of the text, the student must lay out the greater part of it freehand. the background of the figure is the same as in fig. . there are several shades of red, blue, orange, and green in this figure, and care should be taken - oqo tá fig. . to represent each color with a separate wash as simple as possible. mix the red and blue to the proper tints first and then paint in the red portions of the design. both of these colors will require a slight addition of yellow to give them the proper tinge, as neither of them is abso- lutely pure. the green is a yellow green and therefore should be produced by the mixture of an excess of yellow in the color. . in working with water color the student will find that he depends very largely on the white drawing paper § color harmony. coloring is done. after inking in the border line, the student should place his name and class number and letter erik thin mount fig. . in the lower right-hand corner of his plate, and the date in the lower left-hand corner, as usual. § color harmony. still wet, thus causing it to shade in and blend itself into the general tint. details a, b, c, and d of fig. should be washed in in absolutely flat tints corresponding to the body tints in fig. . ; hi . fig. , the dimensions of which are shown in fig. , is rather more difficult to render; the principal color, however, is a yellow orange, which can be obtained by making up a wash of yellow and mixing with it the slightest suggestion of red. the dark portions of the wings of the insect may be put in with rather a heavy wash of brown mixed in the same manner as the brown for fig. . or, if unsatis- factory results are ob- tained from this method, a wash of black, or india ink may be introduced, although the latter method is entirely unnecessary as a very dark brown may be obtained by mixing the three colors liberally and permitting the blue to dominate. the blue spots in the lower portions of the wings may be produced by laying a wash of blue over the yellow that already forms the body wash of the figure, the spots being a greenish blue, and the wash of pure blue on top of the yellow being sufficient to produce the desired tint. ce ed f - fig. . of he gh to ied ot, tre re ned ale a lite fig, . the . in fig. y we have dragon fly whose outline is shown in fig. . its color is a blue green composed of a mixture of yellow and blue in proportions that can be best determined by experiment. the shaded portions of the wings are produced by the addition of a brown wash the the ul is elements of ornament. . ( ) (a) in the application of wings to the human figure, where did the egyptians attach them? ( ) where did the assyrians attach them? (c) which of these methods sur- vives at the present day? ( ) make a sketch of (a) maltese cross; ( ) greek cross; (c) cross of st. andrew; (d) latin cross. ( ) sketch a conventionalized form of greek foliated ornament and the natural growth from which it is derived. ( ) what is meant by unity in design? ( ) in drawing the human figure, how should the masses be disposed ? Į ( ) describe the dragon and its combined characteristics. ( ) what is included under industrial ornament ? ( ) what three principles in design are represented by the oval? ( ) what are the supposed characteristics of the greek sphinxes ? ( ) what were the general measurements of the human figure according to greek proportions ? v ( ) what is the simplest form of geometrical elements ? for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. $ elements of ornament. ( ) why is conventionalism necessary in decorative design? ( ) (a) describe the head of medusa. ( ) what is the legend concerning this head ? ( ) draw a conventionalized border composed of insect forms, or ideas derived from insect forms. v ( ) what was the origin of the cartouch ? ( ) draw a leaf and a flower, the outline of which shall be based on a geometrical figure. ( ) what is included under architectural ornament ? ( ) what abstract form seems to pervade all nature ? ( ) what is included under animal ornament? ( ) (a) what two kinds of conventionalism do we find in historic ornament ? ( ) describe each. ( ) (a) describe the imaginary animal known as the griffin. ( ) what does it symbolize ? (c) describe the dif- ference between the conventional idea and the convention- alized facts in this figure. ( ) describe the principles of symmetry and radiation. ( ) (a) under how many divisions can the elements of ornament be classified ? ( ) name them. ( ) make sketches about inches high illustrating bisymmetry, trisymmetry, and multisymmetry. ( ) in designing an iron railing, what characteristic should greatly influence the form and proportion of its lines ? ៗ ( ) what two faculties of the mind lie at the origin of decorative art ? ( ) make a sketch of a cartouch and also of the form of the sheet of metal necessary to produce it. | practical design. ( ) describe the bookbindings of henry ii and henry iii. ( ) what is a drop pattern? ( ) make a sketch, inches square, the design of which repeats on each side of the diagonal and consists of an arrangement of eight equal triangles. ( ) make a drawing of a rug where the corner ornament merges into and is continuous with the border. ( ) who was padloup ? ( ) make a design for a book cover associated with the style of louis xiv. ( ) what were the characteristics of the italian bindings in the early part of the sixteenth century ? ( ) what is the difference between repetition and alter- nation ? ( ) what advantages are obtainable in the application of drop patterns in roll carpets ? ( ) what consideration must be observed as to the char- acter of borders used (a) on table cloths ? ( ) on rugs ? > ( ) who were the first bookbinders ? ( ) who was le gascon ? st for notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. applied design. (part .) ( ) (a) in a plain weave where the weft threads are heavier than the warp, what will be the effect in the finished goods ? ( ) why? ( ) describe in detail the method of weaving brussels carpet. ( ) what is the direct effect of the twist of the threads in the texture of the goods in a woven fabric ? ( ) what is a twill ? ( ) what yarn is used in the body, or ground, of brussels carpet? ( ) describe the process of making woolen yarn. ( ) describe the system on which satins are woven. ( ) describe the method of weaving tapestry brussels carpet. ( ) what is the difference between wool and worsted ? ( ) make a sketch of a cross-section of a double-faced cloth with one warp and two wefts. ( ) what is wilton carpet ? ( ) what are the characteristics of (a) wool fibers ? ( ) silk fibers ? s applied design. $ ( ) (a) make an original design on squared paper for a simple twill. ( ) make a sketch of a cross-section through this design, the second pick from the top. ( ) what is the jacquard machine ? ( ) describe the method of making (a) silk thread; ( ) linen thread. ( ) make a sketch of a cross-section of the goods woven according to the pattern in fig. , (a) on the fourth pick from the top; ( ) on the fourth pick from the bottom. ( ) on what is the warp wound in the loom ? ( ) what is accomplished by the use of the carding machine? ( ) (a) make an original design for a spot pattern. ( ) make a section showing the weave of the goods through the center of the spot. (c) make a section showing the weave of the goods between the spots. ( ) on what does the wearing quality of a fabric depend ? ( ) describe the operation of the spinning mule. ( ) make a section showing the weave (a) through fig. , five picks from the bottom of the spot; (b) through fig. , four picks from the bottom of the spot. ( ) what are the first considerations in laying out a design for a textile fabric ? ( ) describe the spinning of carpet yarn. ( ) (a) what is the gilling machine ? ( ) what is its purpose ? viii index. italian ... " flat in ......... sec. page. sec. page. book plate, invention of.. cartouch, the.. bookbinding at the present day catherine de medici, book bound characteristics of for...... ceiling decoration.... early.. ceilings, treatment of arched .. tendency of eighteenth century centaur.. heraldry in ceramics and leather, drawing modern..... plate securing chalice.. the boards character of book-cover design securing early bindings..... the sheets modern bookbind. in ing origin of threads.. process of modern characteristics of a design bookbindings, mosaic..... cheap bindings for books.... of different coun- checkering. tries, compar- ison of.. chimera, the... henry ii....... chinese white, mixing.. books, paper-covered. christ, monogram of.. border and filling, uniformity of chromatic scale, position of col- repeat in...... ors in...... applied to picture in classification of borders... form of frame.. " elements.. borders, classification of..... cleaning up drawing plate, tex- corners, and stripes.... tile patterns. for hangings and table cloth binding, definition of covers. plain, ornamented with rugs and floor cov- lozenge-shaped spot..... erings.. cloths, double color, artificial greek card, making a.. link. harmony one-piece.. mixing, for textile-pat- vertebrate. . tern designs.. botanical principles in design... nature of. brocades, italian....... use of, in pile fabrics.... brush decoration of pottery colors, contrast of. brussels carpet. importance of proper proportions of..... body. mixing..... tapestry necessary to neutralize one another, propor- c. sec. page. tions of .. carding machine. of spectrum, formation cards, jacquard.. of.. carpet, brussels.. primary designing of. relation of designs, drop pattern in reversion of. softness of out- secondary. line in tertiary. width of repeat coloring in wall paper: in combing..... waste in cutting comparison of bookbindings of different countries.. wall paper. ( cg cg wilton ... index. ix >> te unit. ! > sec. page. composition ..... consideration of purpose in de- sign construction allied with beauty of design, selection of system of...... systems of constructive origin of decora- tive art....... continuity of lines... contrast and variety.. of colors.. variety, and repetition conventional ornament.... treatment of na- ture.. conventionalism and realism... egyptian ....... explanation of greek ........ in ancient art.. influence of.. kinds of... necessity of... of facts.... principles or taste in... conventionalizing a plant form animal forms corner ornament... corners borders, and stripes... cotton fibers.. yarn cover design for books, char- acter of covering material in modern bookbinding.. covers, magazine.. creatures, fabulous cross, greek. latin maltese.. saint andrew's. curtain design, lace. curved lines, emphasis of... cutting carpets, waste in. > cc ideas...... sec. page. decoration, floor surface.. geomet- rical basis of........ decorative art, constructive ori- gin of...... defective design.. defects, remedy for.. definition of bisymmetry.. " cloth binding . extra binding.. “ half binding.. inflorescence.. inventive ornament multisymmetry.... trisymmetry “ whole binding. deromes, the .... design based on the diamond and arranged as a cen- ter tie based on the parallelo- gram botanical principles in.. characteristics of a...... defective... enclosing rectangle of a evolution of field of, unlimited in book covers..... for fabric, appropriate- ness of..... laying out.. . human figure used in.. - in hanging fabrics, pro- priety of... natural forms in. nobiest element of, novelty of ..... " of the sixteenth century, gothic. planning the. practical principal feature in a.... principles involved in practical.... unity in... wall-paper... designing, advantage of numer- ous methods in..... of carpets.. designs, drawing of. for book covers, modern simple spot.. syınmetrical ܀ cc d. sec. page. damasks, size of repeat in. decorating book covers... effects of vertical and horizontal..... decoration, adaptability of..... ancient pottery. ceiling $ ܨܢ ܘ ܕ ܢ ܕܢ ܕܢ index. ху u. sec. page. unequal repeats.. union of natural with geomet- rical ornament. unit and repeat. definition of. of pattern.. proportion of. units, irregular.. unity...... assemblage of details to secure... in design. utensils and vases, origin of.... t. sec. page. table covers and hangings, bor- ders for tangential junction of lines..... tankard tapestry of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.... taste in conventionalism.. termini... tertiary colors. textile fabrics, general consid- erations in.. patterns, cleaning up dra w i n g plate....... drawing plate thickening of stem at points of departure.... thread, characteristics of worsted. threads, character of.. ornament. warp weft throstle spinning. tinting figures on dr a wing plate, archi- tectural ele. ments ......... on drawing plate, his toric mural detail.. tints, making diagram of, for wash work... neutral ... tool effect, lightening of, by means of outlining... tools. forms of. origin of french. tram. trautz treatment, reversion of, in orna- mentation.... trisymmetry, definition of.... turn-over-and-drop patterns... method, advantage of the..... elimination of faults in.......... in design, planning the........ pattern based on the diamond.. twills.. twist, effect of, in weaving... v. sec. fage. variation of surface by the pla- cing of lines..... variety and contrast.. of designs from same elements... possible on certain geo- metrical bases... repetition, and contrast vase, development of the....... profile of human face used to form design for out- line of vase... s vases and cups, suggestions from nature for design of...... utensils, origin of.... vegetable forms.. ornament.. velvets and plushes.. vertebrate borders. vertical and horizontal decora- ting, effects of.. volute scroll... w. sec. page wall decoration. methods of treatment in paper, coloring in.. design.. size of repeat in.... surface, naturalistic treat- ment of.. warp and weft in different col. ors, effect of.. pile fabrics. threads wash, applying, to large surface removing.... work on drawing plate, historic mural detail... waste in cutting carpets.. waves of light.... xvi index. sec. page. wivern. wool fibers... for spinning, prepar- ing.... woolen yarn... worsted thread, characteristics of yarn sec. page. weave, basket.... weaving.... effect of twist. weft pile in fabrics.. threads.... whole binding, definition of.. wilton carpets... wings, application of. to human figure... assyrian method of attaching, to human figure... egyptian method of attaching, to human figure... in ornament.. proportions of.. y. yarn, cotton... flax.. silk.. woolen. worsted yarns... knitting and carpet. yellow.... sec. page. } ! gy pre face. stas? efore the appearance of the present work, the object of which is to give a selection of the purest and best spe- cimens of ornament of all kinds and of all ages, many books on the subject of ornament had been given to the public; but, in general, they were either specially re- stricted to one class or one style, or imperfect as giving faulty or inaccurate examples, or difficult of access to most of those who require them for practical purposes, on account of the ex- pensive form in which they were published. the author has endeavoured, as far as possible in a work of moderate expense, to remove these difficulties. it has been his study to give faithful representations of authentic models belong- ing to each particular class of designs, of affording a direct reference to some of the best examples of the several styles and periods, and therefore furnishing hints for a selection of parts which when combined may produce a new arrange- ment of equal elegance; thus constituting a mass of materials from which the artist or manufacturer may derive a succession of entirely novel designs. each style has its peculiar character, and this must pervade all fresh combi- nations to make them pleasing and satisfactory. the ornament of different nations has its distinctive features, and these so vary as to illustrate particular epochs. a knowledge of these necessary points can only be attained by an opportunity of studying from the originals themselves, or from copies drawn with strict adherence to their peculiar characteristics. on this point the author trusts that the present collection will be highly conducive to the enlargement of correct taste in all branches of decorative art. greece and rome have left us specimens of foliage in which natural objects have been copied with classical elegance; but in the middle ages and oriental examples we find a profusion of ornamental detail, rich in invention, of a iv preface. grotesque and fanciful nature. at the period of the renaissance the elegant taste of the ancients was blended with mediæval richness and eastern fancy. we look for the best specimens of painted glass in windows from the twelfth century to the fifteenth; for florid ornamental architecture in buildings of the same period; for carvings and engraved ornaments, bindings of books, jew- ellery, embroidery, ornamental plate, and furniture, in the sixteenth century. we have elegant and rich designs of drapery during the middle ages. foliage and scroll-work are peculiarly bold and effective in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; and throughout the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, arabesques are abundant. the present volume contains examples of most of these classes, taken from the period at which each was in its greatest perfection, and the specimens are arranged in chronological order. architectural ornaments are given from works of various dates ; stained glass from york, durham, canterbury, salis- bury, cologne, chartres, &c.; painted tiles of the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, from westminster, and great malvern in worcestershire ; carvings in wood and panels of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ; rich ironwork of the thirteenth century, from the doors of the church of nôtre dame at paris ; ornamental drapery, velvet hangings, &c. from designs of the fifteenth century; lace and needlework of the seventeenth ; bindings of books of the sixteenth century; and designs for jewellery, plate, and other ornamental articles, by hans holbein, and contemporary artists. . to the practical designer, therefore, this work is offered as a useful collec- tion of pure studies of ancient works of art; while the amateur will find in it a correct series of illustration of the progress of ornamental design during a long period of history. ) list of plates to the encyclopÆdia of ornament. plate . the title, taken from a binding in the possession of george lucy, esq. of charlecote, war- wickshire. . ante-pendiums, or altar cloths of the date of about , taken from churches in italy. these draperies, generally made of rich velvet or brocades, were used for the decoration of the altars in the churches of the middle ages. . arabesque on the lining of a door in the palace of heidelberg. . pattern of grolier binding; and another formerly belonging to thomas wotton in the british museum. . two patterns of grolier binding in the british museum. . cover of a book, taken from erasmus on the new testament, in the possession of mr. pickering. . bosses from southwell church, nottinghamshire, and from the passage leading from the cloisters of westminster abbey. . capital of pilasters in the temple of eleusis at athens. . capital from the lady chapel of lincoln cathedral. . capital from lincoln cathedral, and from the library and chapter room of southwell church, nottinghamshire. . capitals and entablature from the façade of the certosa . a centre ornament from an engraving of israel van mecheln. . a circular ornament in the possession of thomas willement, f.s.a. date . this is executed in a soft metal, similar to that used for printing type, and may have been the original design for the interior of a tazza, so frequently found among the utensils displayed on the side-boards of the gentry in the th century. . drapery from a picture of the virgin and child by cima da conegliano, in the louvre at paris. . ewer, from the collection of mr. frisson, languedoc. . a finial, from lincoln cathedral. . a frame, from a drawing in the british museum. - . designs by hans holbein for goldsmiths' and jewellers' work, taken from a very interesting series of drawings by holbein in the british museum. additional ms. . these afford many excellent hints for modern jewelry, and might readily be adapted to numerous purposes. . velvet hangings. these hangings are composed of crimson velvet and gold thread. . velvet hangings at hardwicke hall, lancashire, a seat of the duke of devonshire. . iron work from one of the western doors of the church of notre dame, paris. these doors exhibit, it is supposed, the finest examples of wrought iron of the th century. the hinge selected is one out of ten, each displaying considerable variety in design, combined with the most admirable execution. . key-stone, and ornaments round a capital, in the church of pont de l'arche, normandy. - . patterns of ancient lace-work from engravings of the date of . list of plates to the encyclopÆdia of ornament. plate . needlework from the tester of a bed at levens hall, westmoreland, the seat of the hon. col. f. g. howard. . wall ornament on the tomb of ibrahim aga, at cairo. . ornament from the soffit of an arch in the gallilee of durham cathedral. . ornaments in stone from southwell church and furness abbey. . ornamental tracery from the abbey of jumieges in normandy. . ornaments on the box containing the seal of the royal hospital of st. catherine, regent's park. . ornaments on an ancient chair in st. mary's hall, coventry. . ornaments carved in wood at hildesheim and salzwedel. . ornamental carvings in wood. . ornaments from the palace of heidelberg. . coloured ornaments from the monuments of sophia and maria, daughters of james i. and from that of the countess of oxford and family in westminster abbey. these ornaments are carved in low flat relief in alabaster, the raised parts being gilt and the spaces between filled in black. . ornaments of the beginning of the th century, containing a panel with a shield and coronet, and two inlaid ornaments. . heraldic panels, in the possession of thos. willement, f. s. a. . panels in marble, from the façade of the certosa di pavia. . from a picture by an early german painter of the date of . . from a painted screen in worstead church, norfolk. this screen is one of the most interesting examples of painted architecture in england. . pendants from st. stephen's chapel, westminster. . three sides of a pilaster in the cloister of st. sauveur at aix in provence. . designs for plate, from a very valuable collection of drawings by van swol, in the print room of the british museum. . border of stained glass in the royal abbey of st. denis, near paris. . stained glass in the possession of thomas willement, f. s. a. - . stained glass from canterbury cathedral. . stained glass from salisbury cathedral. . stained glass from the chapter house of york cathedral. . stained glass from southwell church, nottinghamshire. . stained glass from the church of altenberg, near cologne. . stained glass from the sacristy of the cathedral at chartres. . stained glass from the entrance to the sacristy of the cathedral at chartres. . from stained glass, and from needlework. the stained glass from the beautiful window re- cently erected in st. george's church, hanover square, and formerly in the cathedral at mechlin. . a staircase, from a drawing in the possession of c. j. richardson, esq. f. s. a. . a design for tapestry, from a drawing in the possession of c. j. richardson, esq. f. s. a. . painted tiles from the chapter house, westminster. from drawings by l. n. cottingham, esq. f. s. a., at whose suggestion this beautiful floor was uncovered jan. st, . one quarter only of each figure is given to allow room for four varieties. . painted tiles from great malvern church, worcestershire. date about . ante-pendiums. v thomae vvottoni grativs m. avr.olym pivs t.calpivr nivs etc b o io. grolierii et amicorvm specimens of bindin late the la!' duh . a.a. secuon no: , , . fr in southwell church. notinolan bire, n. , fruin the palza + leading out of the loisters into this chapter house. wn-tuloster abbey. front of the flowers from the luty chipel lin, on l'ithe tral . apter kom chwe!! (bir h. ns. di" by dry s!:"w. cccccccccccccc gesce abstrv sa m o teni em pvsb meredvciting avras dade ). ccccccccc tempor is ccc caccccc 'mme size as the riginal in meta, from the islespoo wowa rimble pie the from a drawing in m.s in the british museum. see de i wa fing " late the end of the th century. hu -hr frn velvet iriwch [' rvslire an goes baa ooo lon veen ப ( about . needleworr. vacuu alitate wo in the mi lhin. a. u | o o os r na m nt, i'm in the gallae of durhain 少 ​ f & | el 宁 ​ 年​。 分​分​分​分​分​分​分​分​分​分​分​分​分 ​".. jeudor www hus cop tannels ma le from the facade of the croaci prvi beli? th century date, . maia irlanta ve hicona from an early german picture, capital developed royal albev of s! deny th century b s three sides of a tilaster, in the clomitent of purit aix in provence date the ' 's(':»ntury یکم با ( مهریه bood ) ) ) ) / oo : : : date town the in the rv al ad of the ice temt : : oo : : : o: : ;o ထိုင်း ထိ da'e ) ► oo aus / ex stained from the chapter fouse of york cari fw s .' da's the beyinlar of te . century ܕ ܚܙܐ ܝܦܝܐ ܕܦܵܝ \ . mi fi ܫ: :v . ii ' ) ; ' tu - u , ' ' : ; " l ܐ | | ܙ ;tr ܀ date about the in die of th century fo au © no from stanei gafs. n° . a design for needle work. . . ps ct s} sh , lich works by mr. s ha w. . jlluminated ornaments, selected from manuscripts and early printed books of the middle ages, carefully coloured from the originals, with descriptions by sir frederick madden, k. h. in one volume to. . . or on large paper, highly finished with opaque colours, and heightened with gold, imperial to. . s. “ the design of this work is unique, and its execution beautiful. the elaborate richness of decoration, and splendour of the combinations of colour and blazonry, which render illuminated missals so curious and valuable, afford many useful bints for embellishment, both in colour and design." --spectator. . specimens of ancient furniture, drawn from existing authorities, with descriptions by sir samuel r. meyrick, k. h. in one volume containing plates, medium to. plain, . s. with numerous co- loured plates, . s, or on imperial to. the whole of the plates coloured, price . s. “mr. shaw's specimens of ancient furniture is another most interesting and original work, gratifying at once to the anti- quary, who regards them from their associations; to the virtuoso, who furnishes his mansion à la mode antique; and to the historical painter, who aims at accuracy of detail.”—gentleman's magazine, jan. . . specimens of the details of elizabethan architecture. in one volume to. containing plates, price . ., or imperial to. india paper, price . s. “the great accuracy of mr. shaw's pencil stamps the highest value upon this work." gentleman's magazine, april, . . specimens of ornamental metal work. with plates, to. price . s. the ohio state university nk the encyclopaedia of ornament viili vokk • - a it s v preface. published first as a series of articles in " the architectural record" of new york, these notes on the evolution of ornament are now presented in volume form, and a few words of apology are consequently necessary; for illustrations which were prepared for a magazine have not in every case been capable of arrangement in a book either sequen- quentially or in close proximity to the text to which they refer. for most of them, whether photographs or pencil sketches, the author is himself responsible, but for others he has to thank friends, including messrs. r. g. lovell, a.r.i.b.a., w. a. rigg, a.r.i.b.a., m. f. surveyor, f. clemes and f. r. somerford, a.r.i.b.a., while he is also indebted to mr. batsford, the publisher of, and mr. r. h. carden, a.r.i.b.a., his collaborator in that volume, for permission to reprodace certain illustrations from "ornamental details of the italian renaissance." if this book contains, of deliberation, any novel features, these consist mainly in its general arrangement, classifying architectural ornament as to its bases, found .either* in. vegetable or animal forms of life, or in straight or curved; tfoes/tvancl in.tke.tiracing of gothic forms almost wholly to nature, those: c;f the.thirteenth century representing spring, followed in regular succe"ds eri 'btf those of summer, autumn and winter, alike in england aml/oii ihaipdhtinent. the appendix chapter on some capitals which'*£h"e' author'sketched in alexandria in is also, it is believed, quite new, except that a paper on the subject has been read before the society of architects. g. a. t. middleton. • • • • • contents page preface .. .. .. .. ..v. introduction .. .. .. .. xv. chapter i.—ornament with a foilage basis—the anthemion .. .. ii. —ornament with a foliage basis—the acanthus .. .. iii. —ornament with a foliage basis—miscel- laneous foliage of the classic and renaissance school .. iv. —ornament with a foliage basis—the english gothic school .. v. —ornament with a foliage basis—the gothic school of the european continent .. vi. —ornament with a human and animal basis —classic and renaissance school .. „ vii.—ornament with a human and animal basis—the gothic school .. ,, viii.—ornament with a linear basis .. ix. —minor enrichments .. .. x. —some alexandrian capitals—an appendix vii list of illustrations page frontispiece fig. i phoenician ornament, incised on ivory (british museum) ... „ assyrian wall slab—date palms in low relief (british museum) ... a „ assyrian wall slab—fir trees in low relief (british museum) ... „ fragment of assyrian sacred tree (british museum) ... ... „ assyrian sacred tree (british museum) ... ... ... „ anthemion border to assyrian floor slab (british museum) ... „ lotus incised carving, from the tomb of mes, a ka priest, egyptian xix. dynasty (british museum) ... ... ... „ crude representation of lotus bud and flower on incised slab, of the egyptian ptolemaic period (british museum) ... ... „ gilded enrichment of pediment cymatium, temple at aegina (british museum) ... ... ... ... „ antefixial ornament, the parthenon (british museum) ... ... . „ either an akroterion, or a stele head (british museum) ... „ console. north portico of the erechtheion, from a cast (british museum) ... ... ... ... ... „ cella frieze of the erechtheion, athens (british museum) ... „ enrichment of cymatium (cyma recta) of the mausoleum at halicarnassus (british museum) ... ... ... „ enrichment of cymatium, temple of minerva polias at priene (british museum) ... ... ... ... ... „ square capital, temple of minerva polias at priene (british museum) „ anthemion band on roman column (victoria and albert museum) ... „ anthemion on the base of a roman candelabrum (british museum)... „ fragment of enrichment on the base of a roman candelabrum (louvre, paris) ... ... ... ... ... „ capital on west front, notre dame, poitiers ... ... „ enrichment of capital in the chapel of the pyx, westminster abbey „ enrichment of arch, malmesbury church, wilts ... ... „ capital, street colonnade, maison historique, beauvais, a.d. „ wrought iron hinge, west door, antwerp cathedral ... ... . „ burgundian wood panels, now in gatton church, surrey ... „ font, ufford church, suffolk ... ... ... ... „ chimnies, chateau de blois ... ... ... ... „ ' enrichment of pedestal in front of the strozzi palace, florence ... „ low belief ornament, bologna ... ... ... ... „ a florentine fountain (victoria and albert museum) ... ... „ natural acanthus leaf ... ... ... ... „ capitals from the choragic monument (cast), and the tower of the winds (original), athens (british museum) ... ... „ capital from the tower of the winds, athens (british museum) ... „ portion of the cymatium (cyma recta) of the temple of diana at ephesus (british museum) ... ... ... ... „ detail of part of acanthus scroll, temple of diana at ephesus (british museum) ... ... ... ... ... „ acanthus leaf on pilaster cap from ephesus (british museum) ... ix list of illustrations xi page fig. plaster in chapel of the duomo, modena (from " ornamental details of the italian renaissance) ... ... ... ... „ portion of a pilaster, south transept doorway, sta. guistina, padua (from " ornamental details of italian renaissance ") ... „ altar tomb in north transept, dol cathedral ... ... „ capital of nook shaft, southwell cathedral ... ... ... „ fragment of norman carving now in the chapter house vestibule, westminster abbey ... ... ... ... „ the oratory chapel, dover castle ... ... ... „ capitals in wall arcade of the main south transept, lincoln cathedral „ capital in the elder lady chapel, bristol cathedral (sketched by mr. f. clemes) ... ... ... ... ... „ capital in the chapel of st. john the divine, westminster abbey ... „ portion of scroll enrichment of door jamb, chapter house, west- minster abbey ... ... ... ... ... „ triforium gallery, north transept, westminster abbey (looking west) „ piscina, merstham church, surrey ... ... ... „ part of wall arcade, approach to chapter house, southwell minster „ capital in arcade, approach to chapter house, st uthwell minster ... „ capitals in entrance to chapter house, southwell minster ... „ capital in berkeley chapel, bristol cathedral (sketched by mr. f. clemes) ... ... ... ... ... „ fragment of bishop dalderby's shrine, lincoln cathedral ... „ fourteenth century tombs, westminster abbey ... ... „ capital from kingston seymour, somerset (sketched by mr. f. clemes) ... ... ... ... ... „ capitals in the north chantry, lincoln cathedral ... ... „ cornice enrichment over entrance to south aisle, henry vii.'s chapel, westminster ... ... ... ... „ carved wood spandril in north porch, merton church, surrey ... „ screen in bristol cathedral, part of cresting, &c. (sketched by mr. f. clemes) ... ... ... ... ... „ choir stalls in henry vh.'s chapel, westminster abbey „ label stop, uppingham school chapel (sketched by mr. a. e. middleton) ... ... ... ... ... „ capital in martin kirche, brunswick ... ... ... „ romanesque cornice st. sauveur, dinan ... ... ... „ holy-water stoup, notre dame, chalons sur marne ... ... „ the double north aisle, st. hilaire, poitiers ... ... ... „ angle capital and vault rib of porch of the templars' church, laon ... ... ... ... ... ... „ capital in choir arcade, lisieux cathedral ... ... ... ,, typical capital, soissons cathedral ... ... ... ,, portion of leaf capital, knight's hall, mont st. michel... ... „ string round interior of apsidal transept, soissons cathedral ... „ north door, west front, rouen cathedral ... ... „ wall carving, interior of west front, reims cathedral ... ... ,, capital in apse, st. alpin, chalons sur marne ... ... ,, thistle carving, north door, west front, tours cathedral ... „ canopy terminal, st. sauveur, dinan ... ... ... ,, crocket and finial to archway in the courtyard of the hotel de ville, abbeville ... ... ... ... ... „ wood cusp, maison francois i., abbeville ... ... ... xii list of illustrations page fig. crocket over west door, antwerp cathedral... ... ... „ crocket and canopy over north doorway, beauvais cathedral ... „ niche canopy in buttress, south doorway, beauvais cathedral ... „ a doorway at goslar, north germany ... ... ... „ choir stalls, ulm cathedral (from a cast, victoria and albert museum) ,, tree of jesse, worms cathedral ... ... ... ... „ colossi at entrance to temple at abou simbel ... ... „ assyrian head (british museum) ... ... ... „ sculptured drum of a column from the temple of diana at ephesus (british museum) ... ... ... ... ,, frieze of the mausoleum at halicarnassus (british museum) ... „ entablature of the mausoleum at halicarnassus (british museum) ... „ lycian tomb (british museum) ... ... ... ... ,, lion's head from the temple of diana at ephesus (british museum)... ,, bull head capital from salamis (british museum) ... ... >» roman urn or crater (british museum) ... ... ... „ etruscan antefix (victoria and albert museum) ... ... ,, scroll enrichment of a monument in the church of sta. maria del popolo, rome (from "ornamental details of the italian renaissance") ... ... ... ... ... ,, step end, palazzo gondi, florence (victoria and albert museum) ... „ italian bracket of the th century (victoria and albert museum) ... „ bronze entrance gates to loggia of the campanile, venice ... ,, door from a palace at genoa (victoria and albert museum) ... ,, a niche, chateau dc villers, cotterets ... ... ... „ low relief ornament, maison fontaine henri, near caen ... ,, corbel to confessional box, st. loup, namur ... ... ,, priest's chair, bayeux cathedral... ... ... ... „ capital on the doorway to council chamber, hotel de ville, andenarde ,, floral tablet outside the old cathedral, hanover ... ... „ face corbel on house in the dom platz, halberstadt ... ... „ bronze knocker and plate, house in rath-haus strasse, hilderheim „ coat of arms in the courtyard, heidelberg, castle ... ... „ capital in the crypt, canterbury cathedral 'sketched by mr. r. g. lovell, a.r.i.b.a.) ... ... ... ... buttress terminal, st. etienne, beauvais ... ... ... south door, barfreston church, kent ... ... ... grotesque label stop, barfreston church, kent ... ... capital of doorway, kilpeck church, herefordshire (from a cast at the crystal palace) ... ... ... ... spandrel in north transept, westminster abbey ... ... a capital in the chapter house, lincoln cathedral (sketched by mr. r. g. lovell, a.r.i.b.a.) ... ... ... buttress terminal, amiens cathedral ... ... ... carving in west doorway, notre dame cathedral, paris ... statuary in west doorway, reims cathedral ... ... part of north porch, bourges cathedral ... ... ... carving on rood-screen, southwell minster ... ... ... fourteenth century label stop, merton church, surrey ... ... a crusader's tomb, southwark cathedral ... ... ... a sanctuary door knocker ... ... ... ... face in hollow moulding, henry vii's. chapel, westminster abbey gable to south aisle, andreas kirche, brunswick ... ... list of illustrations xiii page fig. a capital in the chapter house, southwell minster (sketched by mr. r. g. lovell, a.r.i.b.a.) ... ... ... „ terminal of staircase turret, acting as support to flying buttress, st. etienne, beauvais ... ... ... ... „ capital lying on grass in front of dol cathedral ... ... „ corbel for vaulting shaft, norwich cathedral (sketched by mr. r. g. lovell, a.r.i.b.a.) ... ... ... ... „ cornice to vestibule of henry vii.'s chapel, westminster abbey ... a ,, enrichment in hollow moulding, beauvais cathedral ... ... „ pew in ufford church, suffolk ... ... ... ... ,, the gargoyles, chateau de blois ... ... ... ... „ column at entrance to the treasury of atreus, mycenae ... „ doorway, paddlesworth church, kent ... ... ... „ church doorway, salford prior, warwickshire ... ... „ stepped gable at ypres ... ... ... ... „ transept gable, st. etienne, beauvais ... ... ... ,, shaft on th century tomb, westminster abbey ... ... „ tomb of eduand duala at agra ... ... ... ... „ moulding found near athens (british museum) ... ... „ continuous fret pattern, langley park, kent (c. a.d.) ... „ guilloche on door jamb, palazzo di venezia, rome ... ... „ window, hotel lauemande, bourges ... ... ... „ oak door, st. maclou, rouen ... ... ... ... „ edward the confessor's tomb, westminster abbey ... ... „ base of shaft, shobden church, herefordshire (from a cast in the crystal palace) ... ... ... ... ... „ corner of breiteweg and schuh strasse, halberstadt ... ... ,, rilaster on south front, hatfield house, herts ... ... ,, staircase to rood loft, st. etienne dn mont, paris ... ... ,, rood-screen, st. etienne du mont, paris ... ... ... ,, portion of door panel (victoria and albert museum) ... ... „ a street corner at mainz ... ... ... ... „ centre of tarapet, rood-loft, st. etienne du mont, paris ... ,, fragment of assyrian pavement (british museum) ... ... ,, capital from the archaic temple of diana at ephesus (british museum) „ capital from the later temple of diana at ephesus (british museum) „ corbel to overhang, halberstadt ... ... ... „ enrichment on pedestal moulding, later temple of diana at ephesus „ grseco-roman leaf and tongue ... ... ... ... „ enrichment on roman urn (british museum) ... ... ,, leaf enrichment to mantelpiece, langley park, kent ... ... „ lycian tomb (british museum) ... ... ... ... „ entablature of the mausoleum at halicarnassus (british museum) ... „ arch moulding of the rotunda windows, templars' church, laon ... ,, st. mary's church, dover ... ... ... ... „ corbel string over choir arcade, st. nicholas, blois ... ... ,, jamb of south door, bourges cathedral ... ... ... ,, detail on th century house, dol, brittany ... ... ,, dog tooth, barfreston church, kent ... ... ... „ corbel, impost and vault rib of rotunda, templars' church, laon ... ,, a romanesque archway at lou vain ... ... ... ,, capital in the chapter house, lincoln cathedral ... ... ,, th century diaper ornament (westminster abbey) ... ... xiv list of illustrations pag, pig. portion of humphrey de bohun's monument, hereford cathedral (from a cast in the crystal palace) ... ... ... ,, ornament, yatton church, somerset (sketched by mr. f. clemes) ... ,, ball-flower (from a cast in the architectural museum) ... ... „ bark of reredos, peterborough cathedral (photographed by mr. t. r. somerford, a.r.i.b.a.) ... ... ... „ ornament on th century tomb, westminster abbey ... ... „ enrichments of panels in arch soffit, st. guistina, padua (from "ornamental details of the italian renaissance") ... „ diaper on rood screen, southwell minster ... ... ... „ leaf enrichment, vestibule to henry vh.'s chapel, westminster ... ,, lower part of bay window, henry vh.'s chapel, westminster ... ,, hathor-headed capital ... ... ... ... ; ,, ptolemaic lotus capital ... ... ... ... „ ptolemaic palm capital ... ... ... ... ,, capital at entrance to principal chamber in the catacombs at alexandria ... ... ... ... ... ,, the khartoum monument, alexandria ... ... ... ,, pompey's pillar, alexandria ... ... ... ... ,, a doubly supported respond capital (corinthian) ... ... ,, a crude roman capital ... ... ... ... ,, a doric capital ... ... ... ... ... ,, a greek ionic capital ... ... ... ... ,, a romano-byzantine ionic capital ... ... ... ,, a byantine basket capital ... ... ... ... introduction all architects wno are accustomed to use ornamental detail for the enrichment of their buildings must have been struck with the wonderful persistence of certain types, and have become interested in considering their origin and the gradual changes which they have undergone from time to time. in fact, without this interest being aroused it is almost impossible for them to design their own ornament in accordance with the general character of their buildings, or with any sense of development. they are likely to become mere copyists, or else blunderers in the general scheme of evolution, which is still continuing as it has done from the earliest times. this interest in ornament is, too, not merely confined to architects, but involves all who enter the field of decorative design, whether their work lies in connection with buildings or with jewelry, or even with dress or china and glass. there are several methods of dealing with the subject which might be adopted. it would be possible to treat it historically, period by period or country by country, considering one architectural phase or style at a time, and treating simultaneously with all the various types of ornament employed during the same architectural epoch. if the intention were to produce mere stylists or to encourage the designers of the present day to work as archaeological copyists, at one time as classicists and another time as goths, this would be the right system to adopt. the present tendency in ornament is, however, not to conform so rigidly as this to the precepts laid down by our remote forefathers, but to develope and if possible to originate. if we are to do this successfully, we must bear in mind how development has proceeded in the past, and it is consequently thought better, under the present circumstances, to adopt a classification by means of which it may be attempted to trace each of the principal types of ornament in sequence. a commencement is therefore made with r xv ornament with a foliage basis— the anthemion fio. —assyrian sacred treo (british museum). i facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament forms of ornament. the anthemion occurs again and again, a some- what common form being that shown in fig. , which is a considerably enlarged representation of the original. here the anthemion is shown as a seven branched leaf rising from a curiously shaped bud, and connected by a semicircular stem with an alternating ornament which consists of a circle crowned by a trefoiled leaf. in this particular case the anthemion does not suggest the lotus, but is much more 'indicative of the palm tree, particularly to those who carefully observe the many wall slabs in alabaster which line the assyrian galleries of the museum, as at one time they lined the rooms of the great palaces at korsabad, kouyunjik and nineveh. of these, the british museum possesses a most remarkable series, such as cannot be found elsewhere, all being originals. unfortunately there seems to be no means of determining their sequence in point of date, but it is noticeable that 'the palm and the fir tree occur constantly, in some cases irregularly, but often arranged to represent rows along the sides of country roads or river banks, and so having a purely decorative appearance, as for instance, in the range of palm trees of which two are illustrated in fig. . it is impossible to turn's one's eye from these wall slabs to the ivory ornaments in the neighbouring case (depicted in fig. ) without seeing that the anthemion may very possibly have been derived from the palm, at any rate so far as one of its common forms, that known as the " palmette," whose leaves branch outwardly, is concerned. had this ornament originated certainly with the lotus, as many writers have thought, the leaves would have been less curved and more sharply pointed, for the lotus flower is always represented with a sharp point and not with a rounded end. the other principal variation of the anthemion, known as the t "honeysuckle," whose leaves, or, if we prefer to call them so, whose petals curve inwards instead of outwards, has been said to be derived from the lotus bud when not yet quite open, just as the palmette has been traced to the open lotus flower. this is a plausible explan- ation of its origin—probably in neither case will it ever be proved whether it is the true one—but, again turning to the assyrian sculptured the evolution of architectural ornament wall slabs in the british museum, ranges of trees are found from which the so-called honeysuckle ornament might very well have been derived. in this case they are fir trees, a most striking example being illustrated in fig. , with trees of large and small size alternating. this particular type of the anthemion is, however, much more difficult to trace, as fewer examples exist of it in its perfected ornamental form previous to the greek epoch. it does not occur either upon the ivories already mentioned, or elsewhere in phoenician or assyrian carvings, otherwise than as a range of somewhat conventionalized trees. the appearance of a distinctly decorative anthemion is perhaps first indicated in the assyrian " sacred tree," as shown in detail in fig. , and in the general photograph (fig. ). of this there are several examples in the museum. though their date is indeterminate within some centuries between and b.c., they have all the appearance, so far as one can judge from the character of the carvings, of being early rather than late. the anthemion occurs here as a flower at the terminals of a stem, which twists and turns in a decorative manner almost as if it were plaited, having, in fact, some resemblance to the guilloche plait to which reference will have to be made subsequently. the flowers are all of them seven-leaved and are more analogous to the palm tree in the manner in which they spread than to the incised ivory carvings shown in fig. . whatever we trace it back to, however, there is no question at all about the occurrence of the anthemion here in a decorative sense. this is even more apparent in certain floor slabs of terra-cotta, of which the british museum possesses several fragments. in all cases these appear to represent carpets, for their borders have fringes. these fringes, it may be noted, consist of alternate lotus flowers and buds, and give no sign in themselves of originating the anthemion, though it occurs on severed examples as one of the patterns upon the floor itself, as a continuous unvaried repeat, merely adapted to the angle where an angle occurs. this particular ornament is shown in fig. , but instead of containing seven leaves, each anthemion now contains nine, showing that even during the assyrian period there i the evolution of architectural ornament was no absolute rule as to the number of petals. the whole character of the ornament is otherwise precisely that of the anthemion upon the sacred tree, while the multiplication of leaves suggests the palm which, as already illustrated in fig. , varied in different examples. if the necessary trouble be taken to count the leaves in fig. , it will be found that one tree carries ten, while the other bears eleven. in the ornament shown in fig. there is a calix which seems to be devel- oped from the elementary calix from which the leaves spring, in fig. , while the single horizontal band or tie round the stem beneath the calix on the ivory has developed into a triple band. returning to the possibility of the anthemion having been derived from the lotus, one finds this to a certain extent borne out by crudely incised ornamentations such as that shown in fig. , which belongs to the period of the egyptian nineteenth dynasty, probably about b.c. it is thus greatly anterior to any of the assyrian or phoenician carvings to which reference has already been made. it shows the lotus flower both singly and in groups, at least suggesting the radial anthemion arrangement and opening up considerable possibilities of conventional design. something much more like the honeysuckle variation of the anthemion is shown in fig. , which is also a drawing of an exceedingly crudely incised ornamentation, which is egyptian, but belonging to the ptolemaic period, and probably executed no further back than b.c., if so far. its date is consequently subsequent to the whole of the great greek period; but it is obviously a copy, as much of the work of that date was, of previous egyptian ornament of a thousand years earlier, and so far may reasonably be considered as a prototype and not a sequence of the anthemion. the next definite step forward seems to be the appearance of alternating honeysuckle and palmette anthemion connected by scrolls in painted or gilded enrichments, such as that illustrated in fig. , sketched from the british museum cast of the pediment cymatium of the temple at aegina. the honeysuckle form seems to indicate a lotus bud origin, and consists of five petals only, while the palmette fio. —cclla frieze of the erechtheion, athens, (british museum). [ facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament consists of seven petals, and very closely indeed follows the suggestion of the anthemion on the assyrian sacred tree and seems almost unquestionably to have a palm origin. be this as it may—for all of these questions of origin are of little practical moment to the modern designer, so long as he recognises a type and understands how that type has developed—the various phases of this ornament already illustrated are sufficiently numerous to give plenty of suggestion to subsequent workers. clearly the greeks did not originate the anthemion, but with their extraordinary skill and sense of refined outline they developed it and produced a considerable number of variants of it, the majority of which are of extreme beauty in themselves, while they are invariably well suited to the positions which they occupy. this may in particular be said of the antefixial ornaments which were used along the eaves of buildings of the doric order to act as stops to the tiles. the best known example is that illustrated in fig. , being that from the parthenon at athens. these antefixaa, being independent ornaments, were naturally unconnected, and much skill is shown in the treatment of the scroll to make it a natural termination and support to the branching foliage which, it may be noted, now consists of no less than thirteen petals of the palmette type. the date of this is probably about b.c., by which time greek ornamental forms had become thoroughly established. carved in marble, perhaps the most perfect of all materials for carving, and not incised in lime-stone or granite as was egyptian work, or modelled in extremely low relief in soft alabaster slabs like the assyrian, it is no surprise to find that the workmanship was of the highest possible quality and the modelling unexcelled in its combination of simplicity with sharpness, yet without extravagance of emphasis, and with perfect adaptation of any surface curves to the position which the work should occupy in relation to the eye. fig. perhaps illustrates better the perfection of this work. it shows a further development of the anthemion ornament upon an unusually large scale. at one time the original of this was labelled the evolution of architectural ornament in the british museum, where it occupied a place among the elgin marbles, as an antefixial ornament from eleusis, but its great size suggests that it was more probably an akroterion or pediment terminal, though, in fact, little is known about it. many similar ornaments are to be found as the terminals of steles or sepulchral monuments, which invariably, as in this case, show the introduction of the acanthus leaf either in substitution for the scrolls or at their junction with the petals. it may be noted that when the anthemion is used as an isolated ornament, as in this case, it almost invariably takes the palmette form, at any rate in greek work, except when it is introduced to hide the junction between the circular band of egg and tongue enrichment and the volutes of an ionic capital. another example of its use in isolated palmette form occurs in the exceptional console which flanked the door of the north portico of the erechtheion, illustrated in fig. . possibly the most perfect examples of the anthemion enrichment anywhere in existence are those which occur in the frieze on the cella wall of this building (fig. ), a considerable fragment of which is in the british museum. the palmettes consist of eleven petals each, and the honeysuckles of five true anthemion petals in addition to two lower similarly curving acanthus leaves. the scrolls are differently connected along the main face and across the face of the anta, where the enrichments are com- paratively crowded in order to properly fill the space which they have to occupy. the subtle nature of the surface curvature will be recognised in the photograph, together with the extreme precision of the carving and generally marvellous workmanship. the work was probably executed within a very short period of that upon the parthenon, though the exact date is not known. it is clear, however, that by this time the motive had become thoroughly well recognised, and that any further changes partook only of the character of variants and gradual development according to the style and country where they were produced. there are many such variations, but attention need now be only called to some of the more prominent forms, as indicating possibilities for the future. the enrichments of the fio. —capital on west front, notre dame, poitk-rs. fio. —enrichment of capital in the chapol of the pyx, westminster abbey. f ' v ~y,y. fio. —enrichment of arch, malmesbury church wilts. fio. —capital, street colonnade, maison historiiiue. lieauvals, a.d. . [ facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament cymatium which crowned the mausoleum at halicarnassus, for instance, built about b.c., shows alternately three-petalled honeysuckles and eight-petalled palmettes, these being split into two halves of four petals each, as shown in fig. , and, of course, without a central petal. each of these forms was to have considerable influence upon the future changes which were to take place in the ornament. the reduction of the petals to three in the one case suggests the fleur-de-lis of a much later time, while the halving of the palmette was a device frequently used in many subsequent periods, and even also by the greeks, as is indicated in fig. , which shows a small portion of the cymatium enrichment of the temple of minerva polias at priene, which was one of the later greek temples. an example of the anthemion, used both as a whole and as a half, occurs upon the excep- tional square capital from the same temple, shown in fig. . this is carved in a softer stone than marble, and is, consequently, coarse in execution, while the whole character of the work is indicative of assyrian influence, which seems to have dominated the ornamentation of the buildings of the greek ionic order to a very large extent. the romans adopted the anthemion and all other forms of enrichments common to the greeks, introducing into it their own characteristics, and adding numerous variants. possibly the most common of these is that shown in fig. , in which each alternate anthemion in the band round the column is reversed, the first ornament being upright and the next pointing downwards. it is not a particularly elegant form of ornament, for the connecting scroll is exceedingly difficult to design gracefully under these circumstances. the form shown in fig. is more pleasing, though less true to the original idea. the palmette in this instance is not greatly different from the greek form, but the honeysuckle suggests one lotus flower rising j out of another, with the leaves curled over at the tip. between each palmette and honeysuckle there is another arrangement of three leaves, obviously derived from the same source. the workmanship is by no means so perfect as it was in the best greek period, and the leaves partake of a curious surface crinkle or wave, the effect of which c i -. -.' -~.f<\c-hg -r■f r r rj-j ••• ~ *r «k -_-- fw. —chimnies, chateau dc ulois. [ facing page —low heliof ornament, bologna. [facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament n them being made by means of drooping leaf buds. the ornament, as it appears here, seems to have been only faintly suggested by the greek original; a mere tradition of a branching leaf enrichment having apparently travelled across from the continent to england at this time. a good deal of nonsense seems to have been talked about the early norman enrichments having been invariably carved with rough tools, such as the axe, for it is impossible to look at this example without coming to the conclusion that something in the nature of a chisel must have been employed; and it is the same with a great deal more of the characteristic work of the period where any attempt at detail has been made. a much more nearly correct representation of the original anthemion appears on an arch in malmesbury church, illustrated in fig. , the form being that in which it occurred long before on the mausoleum at halicarnassus. the date of this is probably about a.d. with the death of the romanesque styles, the anthemion proper \ disappeared, but it was replaced in gothic times by a three-leaved flower known as the fleur-de-lis, which had an armorial significance. it consequently appears, as a rule, in isolation, as on the face of the column in front of the maison historique, at beauvais (fig. ); but the capital of this same column also shows a series of connected fleurs- de-lis closely resembling the true anthemion enrichment, but treated in a gothic spirit, and with a gothic surrounding. the capital is quite exceptional, and as beautiful as it is rare. the occurrence of the fleur-de-lis with any suggestion of five leaves is almost unknown, but examples are to be found. there are, for instance, some on the encaustic tiles which form the pavement of the old undercroft to the monks' dormitory at westminster, probably belonging to the fourteenth century. something of the same sort, in fact as nearly alike as the difference of material would permit, is to be seen'on the large wrought-iron hinges of the west door of antwerp cathedral, illustrated in fig. , those now existing being replicas of the originals, also probably made about the fourteenth century. it will be noticed that small flowers rise between the central and outer the evolution of architectural ornament in the best period of the renaissance in italy. figs. and show two examples from italy, differing considerably from one another, yet both founded upon the roman. fig. shows the anthemion as a three-leaved flower of the lotus character, but reversed in the common roman manner, as already indicated in fig. . the outlining, however, is unserrated, and the surface plane. fig. shows also an example of reversal, but the anthemion is of a more purely roman type, with serrated edges, while the scroll consists of foliage, the extreme leaf of which is turned over. there is also surface curvature. these two examples indicate that different hands and minds were at work, not slavishly copying the old, but merely adopting its suggestions in the spirit of the modern times. this, too, is the lesson to be learnt from the florentine wall fountain illustrated in fig. , much of the carved ornament upon which is of a character with which we shall deal subsequently, although a small anthemion enrichment occurs above the child's face, from the mouth of which the water spouts. the carving projects from a levelled surface as a background, and is itself of varying depth. the anthemion is almost classic in its type. fm —corinthian capital from the site of the temple of liana a kphesus (british museum). [facing page . ornament with a foliage basis— the acanthus - -- < ~v. :-\_ '» .* ' n .. .» i - ," : -•• fio. vi—iioman capital (the louvre, paris). fio. —scrouion'base of a roman candelabrum (british museum), [facing page . chapter ii ornament with a foliage basis—the acanthus. so far as the classic school of foliage ornament is concerned, the only type which is purely conventional is that which has already been dealt with—the anthemion and its variations—with the exception of a few minor enrichments which must be reserved for later discussion. there is, however, a large amount of naturalesque foliage, based, in greek times entirely and in roman and byzantine times very largely upon the acanthus leaf. this, in its natural form, is represented in fig. . it is a large leaf on a stem somewhat resembling that of the rhubarb, but, as will be noticed, it is divided into a series of lobes by deep indentations, and each lobe is itself serrated along the edge with sharp saw-tooth serrations of a curiously curved outline. it is eminently a leaf which is open to conventionalization. at what time it first came to be used for the purposes of archi- tectural ornament is entirely unknown. it appears in its perfect form on the earliest example which remains, with nothing to lead up to it whatever, this example being the internal (corinthian) order of the tholos at epidauros. it is next found in the frieze on the cella of the erechtheion, which has already been illustrated in fig. , though it occurs there only as the small covering leaf to the junctions between the scroll and the flowers. the corinthian capital, however, is very , little else than a bunch of acanthus leaves, attached as ornament to a bell or basket, having tendrils for volutes; but often, in com- bination with the acanthus, there is a row of plain pointed leaves, such^as those of ordinary grass. such are to be found on the capitals of the choragic monument of lysicrates at athens, illustrated in fig. , and unfortunately in a dilapidated condition. as when this photograph was taken the capital of the tower of the winds possessed by the british museum was exhibited close by, a photograph of that also appears on the same illustration. it is a d the evolution of architectural ornament much later example, for the choragic monument was built in b.c., and the tower of the winds not until about b.c., but it shows both the plain leaf and the acanthus leaf, the plain leaf in this case being above the acanthus. a more distinct illustration of this is given in fig. , in which some of the principal greek characteristics can be recognised. the outline is sharply cut, and there is no great amount of surface curva- ture, while the lobes have the central vein of each well-defined and carried right down to the base, which is widened out and not contracted on to a stalk; the point of the whole leaf is made to curl over. the plain leaves are in strong contrast to the acanthus, but they, too, are significant of the greek feeling in their simple and decisive lines, well defined and cleanly cut. while the name of acanthus is given to all the rich leaf foliage of this type, yet there are some writers who speak of the parsley also, and there are certainly examples, particularly in greek work, which indicate rather the following of the parsley with its clusters, than the acanthus with its large serrated leaves. an example of this, well known to all visitors to the british museum, is the small fragment from the temple of diana at ephesus, illustrated in fig. , representing the enrichment of the cymatium moulding which surmounted the cornice. this photograph is given to indicate its general effect. there is a large tendril scroll continued along the cymatium and standing out from its surface, which is that of an exceedingly refined cyma recta. it is purely applied ornament in considerable relief, throwing a strong shadow in the top-lighted museum, just as it would do under the bright sun of greece. the photograph also indicates how a gutter is cut out of stone at the back of the cymatium. the parsley char- acter of the ornament is perhaps better seen in the detail pencil sketch, fig- - ^ is so sharply cut that it looks more like wax modelling than marble carving; it is just the sort of thing that could be done with the fingers in a plastic material, and it is probable that the designer started in that way rather than by making a sketch on a flat surface. the date of this example is about b.c. /'f fio. —half of capital of the th century, now in fio. !)—italian capital, ciroa ) a.d. (victoria courtyard of hotel croix u'or, hoissons. and albert museum). i facing paue s. the evolution of architectural ornament the british museum contains another example of the same type of work, also believed to have come from ephesus. it is in the form of a somewhat flatly cut pilaster cap, the date of which is unknown; it is illustrated in fig. . in this case the leaves do not so clearly stand out from the background as in the examples hitherto mentioned, but neither is the workmanship of byzantine character. it is still real carving, and the leaf, which occurs beneath a tendril volute, shows both the well-separated and indented lobes of the acanthus and the crisply curled-over clusters of the parsley, these latter appearing as if they spring from the base of the deeper indentations. it thus almost appears as if this clustering variation of the acanthus foliage belonged to syria rather than to greece, and one would, consequently, expect to find that the true acanthus was confined more to greece. this, however, is not borne out, for there is one corinthian capital in the british museum, the largest of the greek period which is known to exist, which has been brought from the site of the temple of diana at ephesus, and shows the true acanthus leaves in all their simplicity. this is illustrated in fig. . it is elliptical in plan and considerably "better carved on the face, shown on the illustration, than it is upon the back, while there are clear indications of its having suffered both from fire and water. nothing more is known of it; nobody has been able to give it a place in the temple of diana; nobody has been able to ascribe a date to it; but it does not appear to belong to the best period, for the carving is comparatively crude, and shows indications of degraded later work, as, for instance, where the points of two leaves are allowed to join in order to secure strength, and in the over- emphasizing of the hollows. if trouble be taken to compare the forms of the serrations with those upon the natural leaf illustrated in fig. , it will be seen that the resemblance is considerable. it is just possible that this capital was never completed. the leaves of the lowest tier, for instance, have a bare space between them which ought to be filled with the detail of the tier behind, but is not. the supposition that this is of a late date is borne out by the great similarity between these leaves and those of certain fragments the evolution of architectural ornament such as that illustrated in fig. , which are distinctly of the byzantine type, having an almost flat surface and a background of unequal depth, instead of an even background and applied carving of varying depth. it is a pity that in this case, again, the date is uncertain. all that can be said is that the type of the acanthus leaf had become well established by the time that this was carved, and was now capable of adaptation to any style which might arise. the romans used the acanthus much, changing its character, as they did all the other greek forms of ornamentation, and varying its outline to a considerable extent. as a rule, they were not such good workmen as the greeks, or, at any rate, they aimed at producing ■ a greater amount of effect with less precision of outline. it is also more possible to recognise in roman work that each craftsman had a technique of his own. all that can be done, therefore, is to give a few typical examples to show what alterations were made, and to indicate that these were capable of infinite expansion—and received it to a large extent, though generally in the same spirit. fig. will indicate fairly well what this was. two types of leaves are shown which occur round the base of a roman column. plain leaves and true acanthus leaves are alternately introduced, but even the plain leaves have the edges crinkled and a surface wave imparted to them. this could have been done only at the expenditure of a considerable amount of labour, and it is perhaps doubtful whether the result has justified it, but the effect is that of a growing leaf and not of a conventionalized ornament. it is the same with the acanthus, the outline of which, while still serrated, is treated in a purely natural way and not in regularly arranged curves. the bottom lobe is particularly noticeable, and may well be compared with the lobes on fig. . in the illustration, an attempt has been made to indicate the surface curves, but it will be noticed that there are no veins. the same thing is illustrated even more clearly in fig. , which shows one of the acanthus leaves of the pilaster capital from the internal order of the pantheon at rome. the outlines are far from being conventionalized or decorative, but the result, even when viewed from a comparatively short distance, is the evolution of architectural ornament successful. the leaves have a natural appearance, and yet are not too entirely natural, for the detail is not fully worked out, and they are scarcely suited to the polished white marble—the material in which they are executed. it will be noticed that there is a great difference between this system of carving foliage and that of the greeks, which was always more or less conventionalized and sharp in outline. the use of the acanthus was not now confined to a few positions only; it is found in roman work wherever a leaf ornamentation was desired. fig. shows it as applied to a candelabrum, of which there is a cast in the victoria and albert museum. some of the upper leaves are designed with the crinkled edge even more prominently displayed than in fig. , but the acanthus is less natural; the leaves are extended considerably, even so greatly as might render them fragile at the points, and the edges are both serrated and crinkled. a little further examination of the candelabrum will show that other foliage is introduced in a perfectly natural manner, but only to a minor extent. much the same spirit permeates the acanthus foliage which is is used to a lavish extent on the roman capital, now in the louvre at paris, illustrated in fig. . the ionic volute is crowded with it, and so is the drum of the return, while another long acanthus leaf is used to fill up the somewhat awkward gap above the row of egg and dart enrichments on the circularly planned echinus. the extreme shallow- ness of the capital may also be observed, but it can hardly be considered to be a typical example, but rather as an exceptional one of the later elaborated period. work such as this has been frequently copied of recent years in softer materials than marble, in which a large amount of decoration is more justifiable. the acanthus has here been over- employed, to the destruction of simplicity of outline. that the acanthus is capable of quite free treatment and of use in many ways is indicated by fig. , which shows a lightly designed scroll which appears at the base of a candelabrum of roman date, now in the british museum. in fact, the essence of the design is a scroll formed by a twisting tendril or stalk, which terminates in flowers the evolution of architectural ornament and buds, the acanthus leaf being only used to conventionally suggest some ornamental leaf growing out of a stalk, where needed for decor- ative purposes and for covering the j unctions of the tendrils. any other leaf could have been similarly employed, but if the flowers had repre- sented those of some definitely recognizable plant the leaves also should have been those of the same plant—of course, in a conventional form. it will thus be seen that the romans fully understood that the acanthus was a conventional leaf which could be employed in many j different ways and places. they used it in wreaths in high relief, as well as for the enrichment of capitals and in low relief in scrolls; in fact, they seem to have fallen back upon it as their standard method of ornamentation wherever a rich carved effect was desired. wherever the romans went they took with them the traditional employment of the acanthus, and although there are few, if any, remains of its use upon roman buildings throughout the great districts of the rhine, of france and of england, where the roman power was 'predominant, yet the acanthus appears again and again upon the subsequent romanesque work of those vast districts, which was obivously based upon remains such as the romans must have left behind. strangely enough, its use is again almost entirely confined to capitals, as it had been in the time of the greeks, and these capitals partake of a corinthian character. this is very clearly indicated, for example, in the east door of mainz cathedral on the rhine, shown in fig. , the capitals of which might almost be of roman execution, with their well-projecting leaves of pronounced acanthus in two tiers, and even with the little primrose-like flower introduced in one case similarly to those which are shown on fig. . the cutting of the edges, however, is not of the purely natural character to which we have previously referred, but is almost always of a somewhat spiky type, such as is indicated in fig. , which illustrates an example that, although it has not come from the rhine, but from soissons, in the north of france, is equally indebted to the roman occupation of the district for its origin. a close examination of this illustration will show that it contains really two types of edge treatment, the two upper [ facing page . fio. —choir stull in st. onier cathedral. [facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament lobes being somewhat of the sharp character which is generally con- sidered representative of the greek or byzantine school, while the lower lobe has the rounded serrations of the roman: more like the form shown in fig. , which belongs to a district, that of poitou, several hundre miles distant from the rhine, but equally under roman influence. the leaf in this case can only by courtesy be called an acanthus leaf at all, as it is one broad leaf, with deep serrations, and not a leaf of several lobes. the corinthian volutes are replaced by four-petaled flowers, which rest upon the tips of the leaves. this original and very beautiful little capital was probably executed about a. d., and belongs to the small and comparatively little-known baptistry of st. jean at poitiers, a general view of the apse of which is given in fig. . the actual capital illustrated in fig. is one of the small ones of the wall arcade of the apse; the larger ones, which carry the impost of the apse archway, are of the more ordinary corinthian type. this building at poitiers is several hundred years older than those at soissons and mainz, already referred to, so that the poitiers capital cannot be considered to be a development, but rather an eccentricity—a mere exceptional variant of a persistent type, of which another illustration is given in fig. , from the wall arcade of the north transept of laon cathedral in north france, not far from soissons, where it appears in conjunction with the pointed arch and belongs to the latter part of the twelfth of the early part of the thirteenth century. the acanthus leaves are here of the ordinary roman character, but the great interest of the illustration lies in the fact that two adjacent capitals are shown, one of them being acanthus carved, while the other consists of similarly arranged broad leaves curling over at the points; in other words, the well-known crochet cap of the early gothic period in northern france. glancing from one to the other, it is quite obvious that they are of the same origin; the broad chochet leaves, which appear to be those of the hart's tongue fern, are little else than acanthus leaves without serrations, while the closely knotted "crochet " or hook at the point is only a tightened form of the usual termination of the acanthus leaf in roman corinthian work. the evolution of architectural ornament except in a few french examples of an early date, obviously in pure succession to the work of the romanesque period, there is no attempt at representing the acanthus while the gothic styles dominated european architecture, but, with the advent of the renaissance, it was introduced again. it is to be found in italy, france, germany and england, always roman in its character until quite recent times and during the short period when, in england in particular, the inspiration of the modern work was taken direct from greece. thus the italian capital, illustrated in fig. , is highly suggestive of the purely roman. though the outline is slightly conventionalized, it is clearly nothing else than a replica of the roman work of which there still remains a great deal in italy; yet this was not the true spirit of the renaissance which, above everything, introduced originality of treat- ment while adopting the old forms. so we find it in fig. , which is quite typical of the larger work of the period—a capital from an italian chimney-piece, now in the victoria and albert museum. a dolphin's head has here replaced the volute, but the acanthus leaves of the normal corinthian capital are still in evidence and of purely roman outline. it will be noticed particularly, that the lobes are distinct, and that the veining is arranged with regard to the separate lobes rather than the whole leaf. this is sometimes found in roman work, but is a much more frequent characteristic of the italian renaissance. the relief is high, the carving being true carving, as in the roman period, but several liberties are taken, as, for instance, in giving fins of acan- thus to the dolphin. the treatment of another italian capital, fig. , taken from a door of a private chapel in one of the genoese churches, again illustrates the point that the renaissance workers adopted the old classic tradition of the acanthus, but used it in a new spirit, inventing many different forms of capital in which it could be employed, yet all variations of the corinthian or the composite. in this case the curves of the serrations along the leaf are similar to those which are found in the little romano-gallic baptistry at poitiers, illustrated in fig. , only here each triplet of serrations forms a lobe of the leaf. a quite distinct and much more free treatment of the acanthus facing page l' . fio. —'roman naturalesque capitals (british museum). fia. —roman column (victoria and albert museum). fio. —itoman urn from syrenaica (british museum). facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament is that upon the well-known marsuppini tomb at florence, a portion of which is illustrated in fig. . it is here treated as a natural wild plant, in low relief and ragged in outline, arranged with little formality, but with a great deal of freedom and swing, and rising from the foot of the monument as if it there grew direct from the ground and termin- ated in scrolls which carry flowers. connecting tendrils are carried across and across from one main stem to the other. this has been called a good example of an indifferent period, and perhaps it is false art to work in so entirely natural a manner, but the execution is marvellously fine, and the effect, at any rate, is pleasing, even if it be a trifle over- crowded. in this case the serrations are more or less spiky in their nature. a suggestion that the acanthus might be used in the form of a freely designed scroll is found in the cornice enrichment of some greek temples (see fig. ), and again in the scroll at the base of the roman candelabrum illustrated in fig. . this suggestion was adopted largely during the renaissance period, both in italy and elsewhere. there is an exceedingly beautiful example, though it is by no means an isolated one, in the scroll which enriches the architrave surrounding the principal door to the well-known miracoli church at venice. the base of this is illustrated in fig. , showing how the scroll rises from a cluster of acanthus leaves, and is itself formed of a winding tendril from which leaves and flowers spring. the same sort of thing was adopted in many other instances, and in all countries where the renais- sance style was employed. another very fine and well-known example is the similarly placed scroll in the architrave of the great door to the church of the madeleine at paris. in spirit the principle is exactly that of the miracoli scroll, but the tendril is less obvious, the acanthus leaves covering the whole surface and being closely intertwined and executed in comparatively high relief, in this case in black marble in contradistinction to the white marble used in most italian examples. it is not necessary to give "many examples of the use of the acan- thus outside italy during the period\of the renaissance, for it is difficult to find any fresh inspiration, but perhaps it may be of some interest fio .—oak panel, choir stulls, ^t. gertrude, louvain. [ facing page . ornament with a foliage basis—miscellaneous foliage of the classic and renaissance school fio. —west door, st. maclou, rouen. [ facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament the scroll is also sometimes found in roman work, but it is perhaps more prominent as based on the acanthus than as belonging to the school of miscellaneous foliage. it does appear, however, in this con- nection in byzantine work, and so does a system of foliage ornament springing from a centre line. these are important types which will be found to be used to a large extent in the renaissance period, but for the moment attention may be concentrated upon them as they appear on one of the byzantine shafts standing in the great piazza of st. mark at venice (fig. ). the scroll upon the shaft itself may be described as double, the two side scrolls being symmetrical about a central panel, whose arrangement is axial. the leaves here are those of the vine, while grapes constitute the fruit. in the capitals, however, it is not so easy to distinguish what the leaves are intended for, but the arrange- ment is again symmetrical. of course, the carving is of the byzantine character, the background being incised. this compels a certain amount of conventional treatment, as it is only by true carving that natural leaf, flower and fruit forms can be shown with their proper modelling. each of the types of ornament thus established in roman times was resuscitated during the renaissance period and used in many countries and at different times. as a general rule, it may be conceded that each was indicative of some particular period or of some individual artist's work, the latter being in all probability of more influence than the former. it is well to take each type in the order in which it has been dealt with just now. purely natural carving, illustrative of leaves and flowers and fruit, is not found to a large extent in italy, but occasionally an example can be pointed to, it being in every case possessed of extreme beauty. the example taken for illustration (fig. ) occurs on a door in the via s. stefano, bologna. the door itself is enriched with panels, the ornamentation of which is in beaten bronze representing natural vine leaves and tendrils and bunches of small grapes in flowing patterns which depart but little from the method of growth of the natural vine. the marble jamb is also enriched with natural foliage, the fio. —staircase newel, hotel de l'enipereur, brussels. [facing pnae . the evolution of architectural ornament on the other hand at namur we have true oak carving, but the twisted columns themselves look weak, and are unsatisfying; while at st. omer, though the carving looks as if it were applied or as if it would be better if executed in beaten metal, the structure lines are preserved and there is plenty of rest for the eye, giving an artistic sense of fitness to the whole. the wreath or swag became a much more prominent enrichment during the renaissance period than the purely natural foliage. it has been used largely, particularly on great buildings and generally in very high relief, and examples of it are to be found in all countries during their strongest renaissance period. fig. illustrates an example from a church in rome, where it occurs in a frieze round the building, just beneath the lower entablature and on a level with the capitals of the lower order. the swags are supported from knots of ribbon, and have terminal drops which consist of fruit, just as do the wreaths or swags themselves, the segmental space above the latter being filled in with cupids' heads. the carving is entirely of a bold type, but not yet over-emphasized, having, as is usual in italy, a perfect sense of relationship of part to whole, and not claiming too much attention to itself. this class of carving does not seem to have been employed to so great an extent in france as it was in england, where it was adopted to a considerable degree, particularly in the work of wren and his successors. the idea of the wreath had, how- ever, reached england long previously. it is to be found in elizabethan work, particularly on such tombs as that illustrated in fig. , which at one time stood in the rolls' chapel in chancery lane, london, but disappeared when that chapel was destroyed some ten years ago. there is a wreath over each of t.ie arched openings, suspended from the centre by a head, and itself consisting almost entirely of fruit, amongst which grapes are prominent; but the wreath is not con- tinuous, as in the greater examples, the fruit being broken up into bunches. this method of treatment is somewhat uncommon in the actual swags, but it is often to be found, in english work, in the drops from their points of suspension, and similar treatment was occasionally f the evolution of architectural ornament adopted in france, an example being shown in the woodwork of the external door of st. maclou at rouen (fig. ). the grape again appears as well as apples and other fruits of the district; in fact, its occurrence is so universal, even in england, as to show that it must have been very much cultivated here, as it still is over a great part of europe. it may be noticed in respect of this illustration that the white line represents an ivory two-foot rule, which was placed against the door, to indicate its size, when the photograph was taken. the bunches of foliage here are quite distinct, each bunch being tied round at the stalks, and all having the appearance of attachement to a central stem of rope. this work belongs to the middle of the sixteenth century. grinling gibbons, the great carver of wren's days, used natural foliage largely. his work is not all of the same type, for although the master exercised a general control, it is obvious than many hands were employed and that each gave his own individuality to that which he carried out. thus, while there is a great deal of powerful stone- carved foliage, mainly wreaths, on the exteriors of the london churches, and particularly upon st. paul's cathedral, there is an equally large amount of comparatively delicate wood carving in the interiors. in much of it the foliage is in the form of heavy swags, but occasionally it is naturalesque, though the swag or wreath suggestion generally underlies the design. this is the case with the carving upon the pulpit which now stands in the church of st. margaret, lothbury (fig. ), which is, as it were, a combination of the purely natural treatment with the wreath. the carving is slight is character, and the central portion stands right away from the background. as will be seen, there is a suspended wreath with its drops, as usual, but the flowers are lightly strung together and are of all descriptions, the rose and lily being clearly indicated, while the grape occurs in the lower portion of the drop. the scroll has always been largely employed in renaissance foliage ornament. it is admirably adaptable to either light or heavy treatment, but has been mostly introduced in a comparatively light form. an example of its use in early italian work is shown in the the evolution of architectural ornament england. the curves are all of a graceful character, and are designed so as to well cover the space without much interlacing or crossing, and use is made both of the cornucopia and dolphin in this particular instance, as well as of foliage branching from a slender stem. the tendency is to develope a liking for free curves and an appreciation for their beauty, which was satisfactory enough here. later on, in france and in belgium particularly, the pleasure of revelling in curved forms seems to have drawn the designers somewhat away from basing their work upon any structural centre or line, and the scrolls and wreaths of the rococo period, as illustrated in the door from the grande rue notre dame at abbeville, shown in fig. , indicate how far this tendency could be carried. the moulding of the upper panel is itself designed with an outline of free curvature, so much so round its upper portion as to suggest that the mould- ing is independent of the door, which, of course, it is not; the effect is rich, but not quite satisfying when critically examined. at the same time the leaves lost definite character. this is perhaps more clearly indicated in the rococo gable at malines, of which a sketch is given in fig. , where the stems, if they can be called such, have them- selves scroll terminations or form portions of the architrave mouldings of window opening—in once case, at least, of a contorted form. this class of work was almost entirely confined to woodcarving and plaster, in which latter material the gable at malines has been carried out. it is most fitted for decorative work, a fine example occurring on the foot of the newel of the staircase in the older part of the well-known hotel de l'empereur, at brussels, shown in fig. . unfortunately, at the time when this sketch was made the proprietor was talking of rebuilding the older part of the hotel, so that possibly the staircase may now have been destroyed; if so, it is to be hoped that this newel has been preserved or introduced into a new staircase. panel decoration, based upon a centre line, though rare in true classic work, was the most important of all during the period of the italian renaissance. in many instances it illustrates very clearly the well-known fact that the early renaissance workers were primarily the evolution of architectural ornament a fine example of a richly decorated italian altar-tomb (fig. ) now stands in the north transept of dol cathedral, in brittany. the the pilasters carrying the entabluture to the altar and also those carrying the main entablature are both decorated on the central line system, but the enrichment of the smaller pilasters is not carved but formed by incising the marble and filling the hollows with a black sub- stance level with the marble face, thus giving the effect of an inlay. occasional examples are to be found of the inlaid material, consisting of coloured marble, but, as a general rule, a black composition is used. where it is employed externally, lead has sometimes been^found to have replaced the composition. facing page . ornament with a foliage basis—the english gothic school fio. —capital in the elder t.ady chanel. bristol fio. —portion of scroll enrichment of door jamb, cathedral (sketched by mr f. lemes) . chapter house, westminster abb**y. [ facing page chapter iv ornament with a foliage basis—the english gothic school. the foliage carving of the gothic period was entirely distinct from that of classic tendency. it had its own origin and ran its own inde- pendent course, particularly in england, where there are few remains extant of anything so early as the roman occupation, and even these having been buried, and for all practical purposes not existent, during the middle ages. besides this, the influence of even contemporary work upon the continent appears to have been little felt. development there had a different origin, and while, to a certain extent, a similarity of sequence can be traced, yet, upon the whole, it is marvellous how distinctive is the english work, and yet how uniform it is throughout the whole of england; much the same in somerset as in yorkshire, and in cheshire as in lincolnshire, during any particular generation, with comparatively little to indicate the influence of any one craftsman or to differentiate the work of one man from that of another. the first indication that there was to be a fresh evolution of foliage carving is to be seen in some of the norman capitals, such as that illustrated in fig. , from the small south door of southwell minster. here the ornamentation upon the capital is mainly of the nature of a scroll, conforming with the outline of the scallops and incised after the manner of byzantine ornament; but above the scroll occurs a series of elementary leaves, and another trefoil leaf is to be found carved on the face of the stonework just above the door itself and beneath the arch. if these have an origin at all, it is to be found in the anthem- ion, but it is difficult to trace. examples such as this are not entirely exceptional, and one even finds occasionally that the leaf developes a trifle further, as in the terminals shown to the curiously extended tail of the animal, forming a capital of norman date, now lying in the g the evolution of architectural ornament vestibule of the chapter house of westminster abbey and illustrated in fig. . the leaf is here of a more natural type, closely conforming to a good deal of the foliage ornament which is to be found upon con- temporary illuminated manuscripts. these, however, only appear to have been tentative efforts. more is perhaps to be said for the broad leaves shown in fig. , which represent those of the hart's-tongue fern before it has completely opened, and while the tips are curled over in a tight knot. such capitals as these are occasionally found in late norman work all over the country, but particularly along the eastern coast, from dover in the south to newcastle in the north, and wherever continental in- fluence was strongly asserted. it is much more common in france than in england, and can only be considered, as used here, to have been of foreign introduction. it is norman and not, correctly speaking, gothic; but it gives the first clue to the inspiration of gothic carved foliage, which went straight back to nature, utterly regardless of precedents. thus, as soon as the early gothic style became fully established in the early part of the thirteenth century, we find an entirely new spirit at work. the idea of the broad leaf is put aside in england, but the suggestion contained in the half-opened tip of the fern is preserved. thirteenth-century foliage is essentially that of the early spring. a good illustration of this is to be found in the large amount of such enrichment which occurs in lincoln cathedral, an example of which, from the wall arcade of the main south transept, is shown in fig. . already the principle had become well established; the foliage rises from the necking of the capitals in a number of narrow stalks, and then curls over immediately the obstruction of the overhanging portion is met with, intertwining and at times attempting to grow over and around it, but always acting like the young foliage of early spring, with knotted half-open buds and occasional half-formed trefoil or cinquefoil leaves, whose identity it is as difficult to distinguishjas it is in nature. the carving is always crisp and admirably executed, sometimes bold and sometimes of light design, according to the work- fio. —capital from kingston seymour, somerset (sketched by mr. f. clemes). fio. —capitals in the north chantry, lincoln cathedral. fio. —cornice enrichment over entrance to south aisle, henry vii.'s chapel, westminster. ilk; fio. —carved wood spandrel in north porch, merton church, surrey. i'm. —label stop, uppingham school chapel (sketched by mr. a. e. middleton). [facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament man employed and the position where it is used, but always of the same perfect workmanship, whether it be in a great cathedral or a little village church. the example from bristol cathedral, given in fig. , shows how the same general idea was occasionally adopted in connection with a less pronounced bell, the leaves in this case growing more out of the capital and having less indication of the stem having sprung originally from the necking. there is obviously a different hand at work, and to a certain extent a different recognition of the same root idea—the treatment of spring foliage—which one could only expect, considering how far bristol is from lincoln. it is an example of comparatively formal treatment, just as that at lincoln indicates the early stiffly rising stalks and the free and graceful leaves of young spring shoots or seedlings. at westminster abbey there appears to have been more freedom, though to what this is due is quite in doubt, except, it may be, that the abbey was wealthy and that the carvers were free to lavish any amount of skill on every tiny piece of work. fig. is sufficient in itself to show how they must have revelled in what they were doing: taking a bunch of natural leaves, tying them together, turning them in this way and that way, and then conventionalizing in the freest possible manner, undercutting where necessary to obtain strong shadows and even allowing the foliage to grow right over the projecting upper mem- ber below the abacus. the foliage, too, was not confined to the capitals of shafts; it is to be found in many a beautiful spandrel piece, and, in lincoln cathedral, even between the main pier shafts, and in westminster cloist- ers also, as independent leaves or crockets of spring type. in the chapter house at westminster, foliage is found as a constantly repeated double scroll in a vertical hollow moulding, of which a portion is shown in fig. . this, like much of the westminster work, gives some suggestion of continental influence, where similar scrolls are more often found (though they are rare everywhere). the constantly recurring trefoil leaf, with its central rib, may be noted—the most the evolution of architectural ornament characteristic leaf of all of this period, though one with five bulbs is also frequently to be observed. the rounded character of the west- minster example is somewhat exceptional, and is another indication of french influence. similar foliage also occurs in the arch mouldings of the triforium, as shown in fig. , the variety being extraordinary. in the example given, the leaves radiate from centres, and form, as it were, a series of bosses along the moulding; and they show a tendency to extend beyond their bounds and to cover everything, which suggests that the original idea of spring was giving way to a certain extent to one of summer's luxuriance—a sure sign that the thirteenth century was advancing. right up to its close, however, the general type was fairly well retained, being displayed almost in its perfection in one of the bunches of leaves acting as a corbel to the piscina in merstham church, surrey (fig. ), while the pair corbel to it (the nearer one) has leaves of quite a different type—still with a central stem, but more rectangular in outline, with the convolutions separated, not by mere cuts, but by deep circular hollows. at first sight it would appear as if these two were executed at different times by different workmen, one belonging purely to the thirteenth and the other to the fourteenth century; they are so entirely characteristic of each. but this is not the case; so far as is known, they are contemporary and by the same hand. it only indicates that a new fashion was taking the place of the old one, which had held sway over the whole country and for a considerable period. in fact, summer was overtaking spring, and in this instance they are to be found, not gradually merging into one another, but side by side, just as the fully developed summer leaves on some plants are to be seen in our fields at the same time as the early shoots of others. very much the same thing occurs—though in one instance only— in the arcade of the approach to the chapter house at southwell minster, where the carving is known to have been executed within a year or two of a. d. in the instance given in fig. , the fully the evolution of architectural ornament developed thirteenth-century leaf appears in two tiers in the capital, the upper tier well undercut, and, in fact, quite clear of the bell behind, but still of the springlike outline; while the small leaf above, displaying a portion of the bough, is the fully developed summer leaf of the may tree which, as all of us know in england, comes to its full foliage at an early period of summer. in all the rest of the most wonderful series of foliage carving at southwell, the leaves are of a natural and early summer type, and are perfectly recognisable. in the approach to the chapter house, the work is not quite so fine as in the chapter house itself, but fig. is another example from the approach in which the may flower is to be seen in conjunction with its leaf in the recess of the window opening, while other leaves occur in the boss above which carries the hood moulding. there is still a certain amount of vertical tendency in the carving, and this is retained even in the well- known capitals, shown in fig. , of the doorway of the chapter house, which constitutes the most wonderful piece of stone carving which england possesses. the leaves stand perfectly clear of the surface behind, undercut in a manner which appears marvellous to the carvers of the present day. every leaf is perfectly lifelike, and with each is associated its natural flower, berry or nut, indicating that the carvers did not feel themselves absolutely tied at this time to the representation of the foliage of any particular season. here, in the same group, we have the may flower and the hawthorn leaf, the vine leaf and young grape, and the oak leaf with its acorn, which, as all observers of nature know, does not put in its appearance until the summer is well advanced. the representation is so lifelike that the photograph has almost the appearance of having been taken from clusters of the foliage itself, and this in spite of the fact that six hundred years have elapsed since the carving was executed. the stone shows scarcely any sign of weathering, but here and there the carving has'sufferedjfrom deliberate or accidental destruction, as, for instance, in the hollow moulding in the jamb, from the lower portion of which it has been entirely knocked away, showing how the undercutting may possibly have been done by drilling through before the stone was laid, and nnishingjthe surface the evolution of architectural ornament afterwards. the same process, however, could hardly have been applied to the capitals. one little point to notice is the character of the natural stem from which the leaves grow. this has all the appearance of the younger growth of wood and not of a substantial bough, while it is shown in each instance as lying upon the surface with its cut end displayed, and not as growing out of the necking of the capital, indicating that the carvers did actually take natural leaves and little branches for their models. of conventionalization, there is absolutely none at all. unfortunately, there is very little work of this purely natural character anywhere in the world; there is certainly none which is superior to that at southwell, where, if it was not done by one hand, it must have been all under one influence—an influence so strong as to have changed the whole idea of the carving of its time, from that of conventionalized spring foliage to the representation of the natural foliage of summer, which remains the principal characteristic of the english work from the year , during the period of the great wars with france, until the breaking out of the plague known as the " black death " in . a somewhat exceptional example is illustrated in the capital from berkely chapel at bristol cathedral (fig. ), where the leaves are shown as clustering more round the bell, while the stems are somewhat prominent. a further example (fig. ) is from the only fragment now remaining of bishop danderby's shrine in lincoln cathedral, probably carved about the year . the leaves are now larger, but the fact that they are not undercut merely indicates that they are not the work of the great southwell carver, for scarcely any other work is to be found which is like his in this respect. the greater size of the leaves, however, and their detachment, are sure indications of a somewhat later date; they are the leaves of late, rather than early, summer, and are not always so easily traced to their natural origin. it may also be remarked that there is by no means so much carving in england of this period as of the previous century. the greater churches were already built, while the country was impoverished, being fio. — screen in br'stol cathedral: part of cresting, &c. (sketched hy mr. f. demes.) fio. —choir stalls in henry viii.'s chapel, westminster abbey. [facing page fio. —capital id martin kirchc, brunswick. fio. —holy water stoup, notro dame, chalons sur marnc. fio. —romanesque cornice, st. sauveur, dinan fio. —angle capitarand vault rib of porch of the templar's church, laon. facing pgne . the evolution of architectural ornament drained of its money in order to prosecute the french wars. carving, where it occurs, is generally found upon small ornaments, such as this at lincoln and the three great tombs in westminster abbey, of which an illustration is given in fig. . these belong to the period just precedent to the occurrence of the "black death." the spandrel carving, in particular, is noticeable, from the natural character of the leaves, which, like those at lincoln, represent the period of late summer, still well modelled, but not quite so crisp as at an earlier date, and, in fact, c jmparatively flatly treated. the scale of the photograph is, however, somewhat small for all the detail to be well observed; but it may be noticed, on close examination, that the leaves grow upon the capitals in quite a natural manner, and that the crockets also grow leaf above leaf in regular sequence, rounded in outline and connected. at an earlier period they would have been detached from one another, and at a late dater they would have been angular. the " black death" proved to be such a terrible scourge as to practically stop all building operations until a generation grew up which was not affected by it. yet, strangely enough, when, about the year , building recommenced, it did so upon the same tradition and almost in unbroken sequence with what had gone before. it is perhaps impossible to put an exact date to the capital from kingston seymour, shown in fig. , but it belongs to about this period. the leaves have opened out and are still modelled in a perfectly natural manner, but the modelling is that of an old and not of a new leaf; the carvers have gone to nature, but have preferred to copy the foliage of summer or autumn. this tendency shows itself more and more as time goes on, combined with a gradual hardening of the outline into more or less rectangular forms, and an occasional crisp serrating of the larger leaves. both these tendencies are indicated in fig. , which shows two capitals from the northern chantry in lincoln cathedral, known to have been executed about the year . the leaves upon the capitals are exaggeratedly large, with huge ribs and serrations, while those in the hollow moulding above show a tendency towards a rectangular outline, with each lobe formed as an approximately rect- the evolution of architectural ornament angular trefoil, the leaves being connected by a continuous knarled stem, which, as will be noticed, has been accidentally broken away in one place. two things are clear. one of these is that the mason has been copying autumnal foliage, and the other that he has conven- tionalized it and has executed his stone carving from a wax or clay model, and not immediately from nature. the fashion thus established about this date seems to have been retained for something like a hundred years; in fact, during the whole of what is known as the perpendicular gothic period. the foliage is everywhere autumnal and flat, and there is a large amount of it, varying comparatively little in general character. the example given in fig. from henry vii's chapel, westminster, is closely allied to that in fig. , in spite of its much later date. the only change is that between early and late autumn. a good deal of the carving of this time which still remains to us has been carried out in wood and not in stone. a small but typical example is given in fig. , taken from the north porch of merton church, surrey. the treatment is flat, and the cutting such as is eminently suited to the sharp chisel of the wood carver, rather than to the blunt tool of the mason. the leaf has been conventionalized out of recognition, but it is well modelled upon the surface, in addition to being well serrated. a more precisely cut example, so far as the leaves, at any jate, are concerned, and more recognizable as to what the leaf is intended to represent is that shown in fig. , illustrating a small portion of the cresting of the screen in bristol cathedral, with its sharp autumnal twisted bough, its crisp angular leaves, conventionally representing those of the vine, and the knots of grapes and the twisted tendrils. the steadily increasing appearance of the bough or stem, and the disappearance of the leaf, is another indication of the later period in england. this was rarely carried to the extreme of displaying the bare bough of winter, as the reformation put a sudden stop to the development of english gothic work; but even this is to be seen in the canopies of the choir stalls in henry vn.'s chapel, westminster fio. —capitul in choir arcade, lisieux cathedral. fio. —portion of leaf capital, knights' hall, mont t. michel. [facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament (fig. ), which are amongst the latest specimens of gothic carving in the country. a few leaves are to be observed, here and there, of a greatly decayed type, such as might be left throughout the whole of winter time upon a tree from which the greater number had fallen, but the foliage, if foliage it can be called, consists almost entirely of bare twisted boughs, not easily distinguisahble in a photograph from the tracery of the canopy head itself. how it came about we cannot now determine, but it is clear to any who have observed closely that there is this regular sequence in gothic foliage carving, following that of nature. that while the thirteenth cen- tury represents the spring, that of the fourteenth century more than indicates the summer, and that of the fifteenth century denotes the autumn merging into winter. occasionally divergencies from this, such as the appearance of the acorn amongst the early summer foliage of southwell chapter house, cannot be taken to disprove the general tendency; they only go to show that the carvers were not working with deliberation. it is, in fact, impossible to believe that the men of the thirteenth century, with their ideas of spring and opening life, could have had any foreknowledge of what their grandsons and their grandsons' grandsons' might do. they could not have known that those who were to follow them would supersede spring by summer and summer by autumn. even the later men may not have recognised what they were doing. they followed a gradually changing fashion, which for the period was universal throughout the country. neither of these facts seems to have been fully appreciated during the gothic revival of fifty years ago. in all the books of that time the thirteenth and the fifteenth century foliage is spoken of as con- ventional; the first as stiff-leaved or stiff-stalked, and the last as rectangular. to a certain extent the writers were correct, but had they recognized the succession of the seasons, probably better work would have been done by the masons who put their theories into practice. with workmanship which fell little short of that of their gothic fore- fathers, and with an almost equal appreciation of beauty of form, they occasionally committed incongruities, such as the introduction of the h the evolution of architectural ornament autumnal grape amongst a group of spring leaves, as shown in fig. , which illustrates one of the terminals to a hood moulding in the chapel connected with uppingham school. fio. —thistle carving, north door, west front, tours cathedral. [facing page . ornament with a foliage basis—the gothic school of the european continent chapter v ornament with a foliage basis—the gothic school of the european continent. the romanesque and gothic foliage ornament of the continent of europe, while it synchronised with that of great britain, differed from it materially in inspiration and in local characteristics, though if we except italy and spain, where gothic art was an exotic, we find that there was no marked difference of type or motive once the english channel was crossed. it may be said at once, however, that the rule already laid down that the th century foliage was that of spring, while that of the th century represented summer, and that of the th century autumn, was observed and was carried even further in some respects than in england. the entirely different spirit in which this sequence was adopted, and the universal acceptance of the same spirit in continental examples of similar date, seem to have been due to the general conditions prevailing. this is as might be expected. england, isolated by the sea, was at peace within itself for several centuries, and free to develope village communities and an agricultural population, living in isolated cottages of small villages clustered round a country church and with no attempt at fortification. the life was free and pastoral. the churches were served mainly by secular priests, while those priests who were attached to the monastic orders also lived quiet and peaceful lives, having their houses either in the great towns, where their abbeys formed the present cathedrals, or else completely isolated in the country. on the continent of europe the conditions were very different; there was constant warfare, constant raiding; the unprotected village was a practical impossibility; the populace was compelled to live in walled towns. warfare was the rule rather than peace, and the great cathedrals rose within walled cities, the evolution of architectural ornament as the churches belonging to a community and served by secular priests, and were not growths of a monastic system. these remarks apply more particularly to the early periods, but they are sufficient to show that there was good reason why english carvers should find their inspiration more directly in natural foliage than the carvers of france and germany. during the romanesque period there were two traditional influences at work in europe, and, from what has been already said, it will be recognized that these were likely to be strongly felt. throughout the districts which had been under roman sway at a much earlier date—that is, along the trade route passing northwards up the valley of the rhine into germany and again along the similar route which passed from italy westwards across the riveria and then northwards into france—a great deal of romanesque carving is to be found, which is closely allied to the roman and byzantine. two examples are given, each from the extremity of one or other of these routes. fig. shows an almost pure corinthian capital from the martin kirche at brunswick, which is about as far as the influence of the rhenish trade route extended. it will be noticed that there are two rows of acanthus leaves, but that the volutes terminate with trefoil leaves and that the rectangular outline of the stone from which the capital has been cut can be clearly traced in the upper portion of it. this may be remarked as being by no means an isolated example, but as typical of a large amount of work, such as is to be found over a territory of considerable length but narrow in width, extending almost to the baltic in a direct line north from the alps. it has already been referred to in the second chapter of this volume, one of its most western examples being illustrated in fig. , which showed two capitals in the wall arcade of the north transept of laon cathedral—one of which does not differ very greatly from the present example, while the other displays a similar arrangement of the leaves without serrations and with the tips curled over into a tight knot. fig. is an illustration of the same true romanesque influence as found at the extremity of the french trade route, in the church / a .' fio. —crocket and fintal to archway in the courtyard of ti>e hotel de ville, abbeville. [ facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament of st. sauveur, at dinan in brittany. the acanthus leaves are here as perfectly of roman type as they are at brunswick, but the district was reached by a different route. while this romanesque type of ornament was in general use along the two trade routes mentioned and in the districts controlled thereby, there was quite a different influence at work along the coast— that of the scandinavian pirates, who, as danes and anglo-saxons, had made england their principal home, but also occupied a great part of the northwestern coast line of france. the ornament due to this influence was most of it devised upon a lineal basis and will consequently be dealt with later on, but there was a good deal in england and along the coast of france into which foliage was introduced, the influence of the type occasionally crossing that of the romanesque. it is generally known as norman, and an example is given in fig. , now forming a holy water stoup in the church of notre dame at chalons sur-marne. the stems are intertwined and the foliage is of a branching trefoil character, though intermingled with leaf terminals which show that the anthemion motive was recognized by the workers. there is consequently a combination of types in this example, such as is by no means uncommon; and it will be recognized that all types were now, at the end of the th century, tending towards a foliage treat- ment. the next development can be clearly seen in the several capitals of the double north aisle of st. hilaire, poitiers, illustrated in fig. . some of these capitals are almost purely corinthian, but the nearest and the largest in the photograph shows fewer leaves upon the bell, and these are curled over at the tip, still to a certain extent suggesting the volute of the corinthian capital. what is being reached is some- thing very like the broad leaf capitals of the oratory chapel in dover castle already illustrated in fig. , which, as said in connection therewith, was really french rather than english, the development being as now indicated. in france, on the other hand, the scandin- avian type, as illustrated in fig. , was never developed far, though it is often to be found. the evolution of architectural ornament the influence of the romanesque is still seen, however, in many examples, and appears in divers manners. the broad leaf, for instance, is found in two tiers in the angle capital from the porch in the templar's church, laon, illustrated in fig. , in which church much other carving is almost identical with that found in the well-known norman church at barfreston in kent; the similarity being so marked that it is even possible that the same mason was employed,—the distance between the two places not being really great, the intervening sea being no serious obstacle if it be remembered that at the time now being discussed england was in close touch politically with the continent. again in fig. there is an illustration of a type quite frequently met with, while there are as many rows of leaves as in a normal corinthian capital. each leaf curls over at the point and is without serrations. this occurs as far west as lisieux in normandy, in a church which has pointed arches and is of a generally th century form; it is in fact the typical early th century capital of france, the leaf being that of the hart's tongue fern which has not yet opened, belonging to a period when the arches were pointed, when tracery was used, and when, in contradistinction to english work, the columns were generally single cylindrical shafts and the mouldings were of a romanesque type, consisting of little else than large rolls at the angles of the various rectangular blocks of which the arches were built up. it will be noticed how very different this work is from the english capitals illustrated in the last chapter; and that, even at lisieux where english influence was considerably felt. when the advance took place and the foliage became more natural, towards the latter part of the th century, it was developed out of the broad leaf in the way indicated in fig. , which is an entirely typical capital from soissons cathedral. it is as perfectly indicative of french work of its date as the capital from westminster abbey, already illustrated in fig. , is of the english. there are no slender stalks with clusters of leaves and these leaves intertwining, but instead there are broad leaves rising from the necking and just opening at the points. it is spring foliage, but with a difference; it repre- fio. —choir stalls, i lm cathedral, (from a cast, victoria & albert jluseum). fio. —a doorway at goslar, north germany. fio. —tree of jesse, worms cathedral. [ facing page . fio. —coloss! at entrance to temple at anou hliubel. fio. —assyrian head (liritish museum). [ facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament there comparative peace, and it is only there where architectural development took place. examples of foliage carving of this date are consequently so rare that it is difficult to lay down any rule, and it would be impossible to do so if we had not the english work for guid- ance. in the interior of the west front of reims cathedral, however, and also in the western-most capitals of the same building, foliage carving is to be found which is of almost the same date as that in the chapter house of southwell minster referred to in the last chapter, as can be well seen in fig. . the undercutting is not so deep as in the english work, but the foliage is of precisely the same natural character, though here it is confined within rectangular panels. it will even be noticed that the same leaves are represented as at south- well; it is almost as if one of the english carvers who had been engaged there had subsequently found his way to reims. fig. represents a capital from the church of st. alpin, at chalons-sur-marne, which is of a slightly later date, more like the english work of about the year . the whole bell of the capital is covered with large vine leaves, amongst which the grapes appear though the stem is hidden. it is the foliage of late summer, just such as we should find in england at this time, perfectly natural in form. from this date it is impossble to trace any further development for some thirty or forty years. the period corresponds with that of some of the most destructive warfare ever known upon the european continent, to be followed by the " black death" in . we have already seen that the effect of this was very serious in england, but it was even more so in france. on the revival of the country and the recommencement of building work, however, the effect of war is seen in a new way. recent writers upon the subject trace the rise of the french " flamboyant " phase of gothic architecture to the fact that a considerable number of englishmen must have been left behind in france as prisoners of war or invalids. their influence is seen most markedly upon the tracery and the mouldings, but it is to be recognized also in such foliage as the thistle carving on the west front of tours cathedral, a small fragment of which is illustrated in fig. . here fio. —sculptured drum of a col n from the temple of diana at kphesus (british museum). l acing page . the evolution of architectural ornament we have all the freshness of the english th century carving, with its crisp outline and deep undercutting, combined with the general inclination to use autumnal foliage which was becoming universal in the th century. the stalk is still fairly covered with the leaves, but it can be perfectly well traced, and it is also old and gnarled. even the thistledown also appears, as a sure indication of late work. there is, in fact, a large amount of carving of this description to be found, not in one district only, but spread over the greater part of france, particularly where it had been overrun by the english a generation previously; that is, from the north of the seine, right through the whole district of the loire and into poitou and anjou. it was, of course, controlled more or less by the available material. the example shown in fig. , perhaps a trifle later in date than the last, was executed in granite and consequently shows a type of work- manship in which effect was obtained without high finish, and to a large extent by drilling deep holes down from the surface, while another somewhat late example, shown in fig. , but carried out in a hard limestone, again displays crispness of outline with the finish carried to as great perfection as such a material would permit. in this case the leaves are quite detached and of the latest autumnal character, not so much conventionalized as ragged, like the detached fallen leaves of late autumn time. this example occurs in the courtyard of the hotel de ville at abbeville. another small example from the same town is illustrated in fig. , but this time the material employed is wood. it may be somewhat interesting to compare this illustration with fig. , which was just as typical an example of english wood- work of a simple kind. another somewhat fine example of practically the same date is the crocket over the west door at antwerp cathedral shown in fig. ; it is typical of a good deal of the work which was carried out in the low countries at that date, but with a somewhat english outline as compared with what was generally found in france at the same time. as the th century drew towards its close, and at the opening of the th century, the carved foliage of france went a step further o the evolution of architectural ornament than in england—except in such isolated examples as the choir stalls in henry vllth chapel, westminster, already described. the late dying leaf of winter rather than of autumn, such as is illustrated in fig. , is often seen, which the absolutely bare bough of winter, as shown in fig. —a sketch of a niche canopy in the south doorway of beauvais cathedral—was not entirely uncommon. it was not until the comparatively late period of the th and th centuries that there was much gothic carving in germany; it seems as if there is an almost unbridged gap from the th to the th century. of the later work, however, a considerable amount exists; it is based upon the french, but as a rule is more heavy and less crisp and less instinct with artistic spirit. the doorway at goslar, shown in fig. , is typical. the leaves are detached and are of wintry rather than autumnal type, but unquestionably ugly; in fact, they are overpowering in relation to the door, and not kept in proper subordination as they should be to the general architectural treat- ment, with little sense of proportion between one group of leaves and another, the excessive prominence given to the pinnacles of the terminals being particularly noticeable in comparison with the crockets upon their edges. this heavy type looked perhaps better in woodwork than in stone. the choir stalls at ulm cathedral, shown in fig. , are typical of a great deal of wood carving of the late th century. the stem in the central panel is heavy, and the leaves artistically intertwined around it; but no less characteristic is the long lower panel, with its central rod perfectly straight, out of which the leaves spring—a form of carved foliage ornament which was commonly employed upon the german timber buildings of the time. when the spirit of autumn was replaced by the spirit of winter —which occurred in the early part of the th century in germany as well as in france—the foliage carving might be said to have " gone to seed." fig. , though an extreme, must not be considered to be an isolated example of the representation of bare boughs with occasional dying leaves upon them, exaggerated until all artistic feeling is lost. it is perfectly clear that the carvers have actually fio. vi')—scroll knriclonent of a monument in the church of sta. maria del popolo, rome. (from " ornamental details of the italian renaissance.") ornament with a human and animal basis- classic and renaissance school •v •' <t v- " •r' i *-' fio. —corbel to confessional box, st. loup, namur. t'~ -• v\ - ^ v : fio. —a niche, ch&teau de villers cotterete. ^/ ^>' fio. ." —priest's chair, bayeux cathedral. fio. hi—low relief ornument, maison fontaine henri, near caen. [ facing page <jj. chapter vi ornament with a human and animal basis.—classic and renaissance school. in dealing with ornament which is based upon human or animal forms, one is confronted at the outset with the difficulty of discriminating between true sculpture and mere carved enrichment. there is a great deal of the representation of human and animal forms as applied to buildings which is correctly described as sculpture. there is a great deal more which cannot be dignified by this term. the only thing to do, in connection with the present notes on ornament, is to include the consideration of both sculpture and figure carving when used in a decorative manner as applied to a building, and only to exclude such sculpture as is absolutely independent. there are certain sculptors, even at the present day, who contend that the greatest buildings in the world were designed expressly for the exhibition of sculptured subjects. architects, on the contrary, generally contend that sculpture, when used in connection with a building, forms part of its integral mass; that it is an essential portion of its decoration, and must be subservient to it; suited to its position, but not controlling it. this seems to be the more reasonable view to take, though at the same time it is impossible not to recognize that certain buildings, particularly of the great renaissance period, which were designed by men who were primarily sculptors, were made to a certain extent subservient to the sculptural art. but correctly speaking sculpture can only be considered as an accessory and not as a primary, and if so considered, it reasonably comes within the purview of this volume, and must be dealt with simultaneously with mere carvings of human and animal forms and of grotesques founded thereon. if we go back to the egyptian and assyrian periods, we find, k [facing paye fi. fio. —mural tablet outside the old cathedral, hanover. [facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament the sculptors did their work. the wall slabs, instead of being incised as in the egyptian work, have the figures raised upon a slightly recessed background, the pictures—for they are really such—being executed in the very lowest relief, while the animals, the horses, the lions, the stags and the wild asses, all of which are found amidst a profusion of human figures, are shown with a perfect understanding of their modelling. the representations are in many cases as perfect as any that can now be produced, although perspective was an art not understood; everything is alive, and often the figures are displayed in motion, with just the right amount of restraint. when the figures are at rest they are always dignified, like those already illustrated in fig. . it was in greece where both architecture and sculpture culminated as the great classic arts. it was there where they were developed best in conjunction with one another, neither supreme, but absolutely harmonious; the sculpture used to enrich the buildings and the buildings designed at the same time to display the sculpture to its best advantage. sometimes the sculpture was framed, as in a tym- panum or metope; sometimes it occurred in a continuous range upon a frieze or round the base of a column, though this last is rare; in all cases it was designed so as to fit its position perfectly. take, for example, one of the lower drums of the sculptured columns on the temple of diana at ephesus, shown in fig. , this being the last great temple of that name, the one spoken of by saint paul. there are also similar fragments of a similar drum of a similar column belonging to the earlier temple which stood upon the same site, and these like this fragment, are now in the ephesus room of the british museum. both in the earlier and in the later temple the sculpture is in good relief; but the lines, as they should be, are of a vertical tendency, there being nothing in the least degree clashing with the general suggestion that a column is a vertical support, while the relief is sufficient for the figures to stand out beyond its actual substance, and to give no impression of their carrying weight themselves. in the very few instances where figures are used for weight carrying, as are the cary- tides of the erechtheium, well-known to everybody, and of which the evolution of architectural ornament one is illustrated in the frontispiece, it is remarkable that the weight to be borne is obviously slight, and that the figures stand up under it in precisely the pose of women who are accustomed to carry water pots upon their heads. they, too, are weight carriers, sustaining loads which they can support with comparative ease, but accustomed to poise themselves for the purpose. where sculpture (or carving) is used upon a frieze as a continuous band, the design is almost always of a continuous character, leading on from figure to figure, the stiffly upright being rarely found; though it occurs in certain parts of the cella frieze of the parthenon, where it was intended to give the impression of rest or pause in the motion or onward movement of the procession which is represented there. the same suggestion of continuous motion is found in the frieze of the mausoleum at halicarnassus, of which a small portion is shown in fig. , as it has been pieced together in the british museum. the subject is a combat in which female warriors are taking part; but for the present purpose this is a mere matter of detail, it being more essential to indicate that the general flow of the design is such as to harmonize with the architectural surroundings—the strongly marked horizontal lines of the architrave below and the cornice above. the position in which this frieze occurs can be better seen in the pencil sketch (fig. ) of the section of the entablature. it indicates that this band of sculpture must have been in deep shadow beneath the overhanging cornice, and this and its great height above the ground must have rendered it difficult to recognise its detail, the perfection of its execution being to a great extent wasted. the sculpture was only employed as an architectural ornament to give texture to a surface and a harmonious flow of line. in all these things it is not the human form alone which is repre- sented, particularly in the low reliefs, where animals are freely intro- duced, as in the frieze just mentioned. fig. , however, indicates another use for representations of animal forms. a series of lion's heads may be noticed along the cymatium moulding of the cornice, acting as waterspouts to the gutter behind. these have a perfectly the evolution of architectural ornament traceable origin, as may be seen in fig. , which shows one of the famous lycian tombs now in the british museum. the roof of this, which is of pointed form, is in imitation of the roof of a low hut which was covered with lions' skins, and the heads, of course, protude. there is a great deal to be said about this little so-called tomb or monument, which is obviously in imitation of timber construction. some of the timber ends suggest the dentil ornament, about which more may be said later on, and it has side bearers, as if it had been intended that it should be carried upon men's shoulders. it is held by many that the ark of the covenant was of this character, and there is at any rate a suggestion of the pointed arch in the roof form. whether this roof represents an upturned boat having a deep keel, or an ordinary hut roughly covered with bent boughs, is an entirely open question. for the moment, however, these matters are beside the mark, interest converging upon the heads of the lions. this tomb, it may be noticed, has been brought from asia, and is probably of earlier date than any of the recognized greek buildings; while the lions' head spouts, as on the mausoleum of halicarnassus, are found almost invariably on greek work of the ionic order, which seems also to have had an assyrian origin. a detail of a fragment of another such head, from the temple of diana at ephesus, is shown in fig. . the greeks rarely used animal or human forms in other than a purely decorative way—that is, in close alliance with the construction —so that the capital shown in fig. must be looked upon as entirely exceptional. according to the inscription which its pedestal bears, as it now stands in the ephesus room at the british museum, it is a greek variation of an oriental design belonging to the fourth or third century b. c. it was found at salamis in cyprus in , and presented by the cyprus exploration fund. it is in the form of two winged bulls, with a fantastic caryatid in relief upon its principal or external face, which is that shown in the illustration, the hands being upraised to give the appearance of support to the abacus, and the dress terminating in acanthus foliage. from an antiquarian point of view the interest in this capital the evolution of architectural ornament centres in the use of the bulls' heads, which are quite commonly em- ployed in roman buildings, sometimes (as shewn in fig. , which represents a crater or urn now standing in the entrance vestibule of the british museum) as lifelike representations wreathed for sacrifice, but more frequently as isolated masks in a frieze. this urn also indi- cates that the greek idea of placing low reliefs on a surface was retained, but the supports of the actual crater are curious human atlantes, or male figures, carrying the urn on their backs. the attitude, it will be noticed, is a correct one for weight supporting; the clothing, such as it is, consists of acanthus leaves, and very much recalls that of the caryatid on the capital shown in fig. ; but the figures stand upon lions' legs and feet, which are entirely out of proportion to them. alternating with these figures are human masks or busts, lifelike and crisp. the romans were, in fact, much more free in their adoption of ornament with an animal basis than were the greeks, but it generally consisted of one of the types shown here. the human head was, however, by no means infrequently used also in antefixial ornaments. there are several examples of these in the british museum, but the one selected for illustration in fig. is etruscan, and has been preserved at south kensington; or perhaps it would be more correct to say that what is preserved there is a modern cast in unbaked clay from the original terra cotta mould found near orvieto, now in the central etruscan museum, florence. it is believed to belong to about the third century b. c. the head is surrounded by a halo of spiked leaves. it is somewhat astonishing to find that in the work of the italian renaissance the human and animal motive is used much more decor- atively than in the classic, whether greek or roman. hitherto we have been able to trace a close connection between renaissance and classic; now the connection is mch less apparent—the work becomes less that of the sculptor and more that of the carver. the spirit of this new style of work is well indicated by fig. . this shows a small portion of the scroll enrichment of an important monument in the church of s. maria del popolo, rome, and it is typical of a large amount of similar carved ornament to be found throughout a great part the evolution of architectural ornament of italy, and, with certain local variations to be presently pointed out, in france also. the foliage of the scroll work conforms to the types already mentioned in a previous chapter of this series. the human face is introduced as the central or most prominent incident, but masks are frequently found as terminals, while dolphins spring out from the foliage as if they were flowers, and other imaginary beasts occur where leaves and flowers would more naturally grow. all these are mere incidents in the scroll work pattern; they are not the con- trolling features of the enrichment; there is no sculptural representation of a scene or portrait, but they are in harmony with the foliage design. other examples are shewn in figs. and , both sketched in the victoria and albert museum, one representing the end of a stone stair and the other a bracket. in one case a head and in the other a grotesque animal is the most prominent feature in the design, yet the treatment is essentially decorative and scroll-like, and foliage is freely introduced in conjunction with the representation of imaginary life forms. the fancy has been allowed free play, much more so than was ever permitted to it during the true classic ages. the representation of the complete human figure was not, however, entirely abandoned in the architectural embellishments of the italian renaissance. a good example of its use is shown in fig. , which is from a photograph of the bronze entrance gates f the loggia to the campanile at venice, which was destroyed when that building fell a few years ago. it will be noticed that there were winged figures in the spandrils over the arch, that the keystones were carved to represent human heads, that there was statuary in the niches, and, moreover, that the design of the gates consisted of a medley of human forms surrounded by fragments of armour and weapons, while the lion of st. mark, with the open book (indicating that venice was at peace when the gates were made), appears as a supporter on either side. the gates were amongst the most famous pieces of bronze work in the world, and their destruction is most seriously to be deplored. they were excellent examples of a somewhat unsatisfactory system of introducing the human figure into design, and they showed how, in the evolution of architectural ornament the hands of a great artist, an indifferent system of ornamentation may be rendered beautiful, particularly when combined with excellence of workmanship. the usual confusion to be found in the work of this particular time and style was not unduly apparent. the doorway from genoa, shown in fig. , is illustrative of a much more satisfactory method of dealing with the sculptured figure. statuary is here employed as ornament most satisfactorily; the upstanding virgin, interpenetrating the pediment and with a crown held above her head by winged angels, being in perfect harmony with the general scheme of the doorway, while the little figures which support the pediment serve admirably as acroteria. there are other tiny figures carved upon the greatly enriched columns, while winged masks are to be found here and there amongst the foliage enrichment. prom- inent in this illustration is the great shell in the tympanum. another example of this has already been illustrated in fig. , and it is of quite frequent occurrence both in italian and french renaissance work. perhaps it may be called the most common of all the forms of renais- sance ornament which have an animal basis, and it would be certainly difficult to imagine anything more suitable to the position which it is designed to occupy. considering how immediately france owes its renaissance decor- ation to the influence of italians, it is not astonishing to find that the ornament which is based upon animal forms is very similar in the two countries. fig. , for example—and it is only one of a large number of similar examples which might be cited—shows a small portion of the decoration of the chateau de villers cotterets, built in the time of frangois l, that is, about the year . in many respects it suggests the doorway at genoa, both in the figures above the tympanum and in the shell which fills the niche; but the grotesque animal which occupies rather more than the whole of the tympanum space is the well-known vampire which occurs on all great buildings erected for the use of francois l, and must, therefore, be considered as an armorial signification more than a piece of pure decoration, though it is decor- atively introduced. the scroll from the maison fontaine henri, fio. —carving in west doorway notre dame cathedral, i'aris. fio. —buttress terminal, amiens cathedral. facing page . facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament duced either in stone or timber, having scenes illustrated upon them pictorially. something of the same sort had already been done in gothic times, generally representing scriptural subjects. in con- nection with a renaissance building, the result was generally a medley of figures, not always easily decipherable. the germans adopted this pictorial system of carving enrichments even more than the french, and carried it to great excess. the example shown in fig. of a mural tablet outside the old cathedral at hanover, is quite insignificant compared with the large carvings of the same type to be seen in several churches at nuremburg and in the more southern parts of the country. the only portion of this which is truly architectural ornament is the male figure acting as a column and carrying an exag- gerated corinthian capital. a certain amount of the same sort of thing is also to be found in england; the two most pronounced examples occur on the bases of wren's monument to the great fire, and the statue of king charles i. in trafalgar square. sculptured representa- tions of crowds of folk may be very well in their proper places, but they ought to occur in isolated panels and not to be used for architectural adornment. it is the confusion of the two elements which renders the mural tablet shown in fig. so entirely unsatisfactory. that the germans did, in their renaissance work, use the human form reasonably and in suitable positions at times, is shown by the small face corbel illustrated in fig. . examples such as this are rare; it is one of a series of little sculptured heads in a facade at haberstadt in the hartz mountains. the door knocker shown in fig. is from the same district. it is more typically german, the human face being introduced with a humour which is more gothic than renaissance; it is best expressed by the term " quaint," which is one that can rarely be applied to classic or renaissance work. something of the same spirit is also to be traced even in armorial bearings, as exemplified in fig. ; and again there is a suspicion that this is quite as much gothic as renaissance in its feeling, the truth of the matter being that germany never took kindly to the architectural renaissance of classic ideas, at any rate until modern times. ornament with a human and animal basis.— the gothic school chapter vii ornament with a human and animal basis.—the gothic school. the gothic school of animal carving came into existence long before the introduction of the pointed arch in architecture. the sequence is, in fact, unbroken from the time of the romanesque buildings of byzantine type in the south of france onwards. in the earlier cen- turies there seems to have been no attempt at sculpture as an independ- ent art; the animal representations were architectural enrichments in their proper sense, and nothing more, except that they were also generally intended to convey a meaning. there were frequently symbolical or scriptural scenes, but not invariably so; the difficulty of classification is extreme, and the origin often exceedingly obscure. this, however, may be said with certainty, that the earlier examples so far partook of byzantine character as to be not so much true carvings as surface work, with a background cut down, leaving the face of the stone to form the face of the carving as in all other byzantine ornament. this has already been exemplified in the capital from the west front of notre dame at poitiers, illustrated in fig. , where the general out- line of the capital is retained, although the carving is that of a grotesque bird. the same sort of thing is frequently found in engand. one of the earlier examples is illustrated in fig. , which shows a capital from the crypt of canterbury cathedral, carved about a. d. it is of the usual norman cushion form, and the carving on it is grotesque and crude and difficult to decipher. the fact that the background is in- cised suggests a byzantine origin, at any rate for the craftsmanship; but otherwise little can be said. it is impossible, in fact, to tell what the actual origin was of this particular type of work, though there exists a considerable amount of it both in france and england. it fio. — fourteenth century label stop, merton fio. —gable to south aisle, andreas kirche, church, surrey iiiunswiok. [facing page o the evolution of architectural ornament all the best which represented the human figure were mutilated at the time of the great civil war, though enough remains to indicate the general type of work, as can be seen in the slight sketch of one of the spandrils in westminster abbey, given as fig. , which shows a female figure and a dragon in the spandril and also a human head acting as a stop to the hood moulding, all now considerably decayed. the archaic or crude character of the earlier carving has given place to the actual representation of the human figure and face, in correct contour and with a fine appreciation of line, animals being introduced not so much perhaps as pure architectural ornament, but as an incident in the tale which was to be told by the spandril; for in most instances such groups as this have a more or less discernible meaning. that the animal figure was, however, used occasionally as ornament alone is clearly shown by fig. , which illustrates one of the capitals in the chapter house at lincoln cathedral. the head in this instance, half human, half canine, serves exactly the same purpose as one of the lobes of foliage; it was evidently just a freak upon the part of the carver to turn his piece of stone into a head instead of a group of leaves. fig. is a french example of grotesque animal carving, showing two strange gargoyles on one of the buttress terminals of amiens cathedral. they are full of spirit but hideously ugly, constrasting greatly with the sculptured figure of the bishop on his pedestal above, rendered as a pure piece of statuary. another series of french grotesques of the th century is illustrated in fig. . these occur in the spandrils of the small arcade in the jamb of the west doorway of notre dame at paris, and even in the smaller panels besides the door itself. each animal in this case is, however, much more recognizable, and in one instance is replaced by a human figure in an extremely natural attitude, grasping an axe. this little example, is, in fact, full of carving which has an animal basis; there are panels, for instance, within the archway, each of which is a picture in stone. similar pic- tures are crowded all over the greater french cathedrals, amiens, in particular, being notable for them, to such a great extent that when •; .. l > fio. —terminal of staircase turret, acting as support to flying buttress, st. etienne, beauvais. [ facing page so. the evolution of architectural ornament best known and most prominent example is to be found in the row of gargoyles at the chateau de blois (fig. ). they are waterspouts from the eaves of the building, and are not led to, as in gothic buildings, by a pipe passing through a parapet; but they are true gargoyles all the same, or, at any rate, they acted as such originally, varying from one another, grotesque and ugly, yet full of vigour and almost sug- gesting living animals. ornament with a linear basis the evolution of architectural ornament it is found in the cut brickwork chimneys of the english tudor period and in the similar cut brickwork of belgium of the same date. a some- what late example is given in fig. , which shows a portion of a stepped gable in what was till lately the hotel de gand at ypres. it might naturally be thought that the trellis pattern was a development of the zig-zag, considering that it is but a coupled zig-zag, but it is doubtful if this is the case. it is a form of ornamentation which belongs essentially to the norman period and has more the appearance of having been derived from needlework than any other enrichment, passing, as the strands often do, over and under one another alternately as if to suggest a coarse canvas. even when this is not the case the effect is much the same. one of the most pro- nounced examples known is illustrated in fig. , the trellis pattern being carried over the whole face of one of the transept gables of st. etienne, beauvais. it was not a particurarly common ornament, but of all those of scandinavian origin it was the one which survived the longest in gothic times, recurring now and again throughout the whole period, particularly in smaller work, as exemplified in fig. , which shows the upper part of a shaft on a th century tomb in westminster abbey. another example has already been illustrated in fig. . it was even retained throughout the earlier years of the english renaissance; at any rate it crops up now and again in eliza- bethan tomb work. strange to say it is also to be found in the recently discovered azteck remains in mexico. one would think that ornamentation of this description was not capable of great development, and possibly indian work, such as is shown in fig. , (where the openings are hexagonal, or honey comb, and not diamond shaped), had an entirely different origin. it is difficult indeed to discover how rectilinear surface ornament passed first to the moors of southern spain and northern africa, and then gradually across to india, where it has survived to the present day. there may possibly have been some connection with what we know as norman ornament, for the normans occupied sicily. most surface mosaic work is curvilinear or else based on foliage forms, but there is still a the evolution of architectural ornament ently nothing whatever to do with the guilloche, an ornament which has been already alluded to several times. now, the guilloche is one of the most important classic enrich- / ments. it is to be found at a very early date indeed; in its incipent form it has been seen in fig. , where it occurs as part of the assyrian sacred tree. this seems to suggest that it had a tendril origin, but possibly it is nothing more than a primitive effort to obtain decoration by means of curved lines. how this could happen is shown in fig. , though what occurs there is more perhaps a forecast of the curvilinear key pattern than of the true guilloche. the tendril or scroll is of a continuous form, such as can easily be made, and in fact often is made, with braid upon a lady's dress. the whole suggestion of the guilloche is greatly that of braiding. owing to the way in which the moulding which is illustrated in fig. has become destroyed through exposure to the weather, it is easy to recognize that what was a complicated guilloche may have had its origin in the simple twisting of ribbon. as a general rule in the greek form it is not pos- sible, however, to trace how the various strands would run into one another, and this characteristic would have been more in evidence if the moulding had been less destroyed. whenever the ornament was revived at a later period there was more definite arrangement of the plait, as if the subsequent workers thought that there was no doubt of the origin and worked accordingly. a simple but quite typical example is shewn in fig. ; it is of renaissance date and shows a little piece of the door jamb of the venetian palace, rome. the plait or guilloche is a single one, and not complicated as in most of the greek examples. it recurs in this form in every country where renaissance architecture penetrated; it can be recognized, for instance, in the window jamb of the hotel lallemande at bourges, shown in fig. , where it appears in combination with many other enrichments which have already been spoken about. it will further be noticed that the corona round the shell ornament above the window is enriched with simple rectilinear flutings which radiate from the same centre as the shell. this window, though it occurs in mid- fid. —portion of door pane! (victoria and fio. —fragment of assyrian pavement (british albert museum). museum). [ facing page . the evolution of architectural ornament curves are almost always those of the capital letter c, showing a certain poverty of design, and that these curves are connected by straight lines, with the occasional use of circles. the date of the south front of hatfield house is , and at about the same date ornament with a similar basis appeared upon the continent, differing considerably, according to the country in which it occurred. figs. and , respectively a measured drawing made on the spot and a photograph of the rood screen and staircase of the church of st. etienne du mont, paris, displays a great deal of this enrichment, difficult to distinguish as to the detail in the photograph, though perfectly clear in the drawing, while the photograph gives a better idea of the general effect of it. the ribbon is not necessarily endless, and in fact there seems to have been little rule with regard to it except that of obtaining a pleasing design in curved lines, suggestive of a twisted plait. this class of enrichment more than any other goes to distinguish the renaissance detail of western europe from that of italy. it seems to have been based upon nothing which existed pre- viously, but to have been naturally devised; it gives the impression, in conjunction with the fact that a similar ribbon ornament appears in the same district in norman times, that it is indigenous to the peoples of that part of europe, and that in fact whenever they have been thrown back upon their own resources for ornamentation they have naturally adopted something of this sort. in the course of a century it developed in france into such forms as are shown in fig. , which indicates how foliage was applied to a strapwork basis. what happened in germany was quite different; unless, indeed, the english c curve may be taken to have been the basis of the devel- opment. the street corner in mainz, which is illustrated in fig. , is typical of a great deal that is to be found, though unfortunately it has been vanishing somewhat rapidly during the last thirty years. where the owners have appreciated its value it has been taken care of, and in many instances is coloured and gilded, but in other cases it is to be found covered with whitewash and scarcely distinguishable from the rest of the white houses in the streets, and under such cir- fio. —st. mary's church, dover. fro. —arch moulding of the rotunda windows, templars' church, laon. [facing page (i fio. ' dog-tooth, uarfrestou church, kent. fio. —a romanesque archway ot louyain. fio. —thirteenth century diaper ornament (westminster abbey). fio. - ornament, yatton church. somerset (sketched by mr. f. ciemes). facing page . minor enrichments *] o the evolution of architectural ornament taken from the templar's church at laon; the dogteeth are cut in a hollow between two rolls, here, as in all cases, so placed that they could be easily carved out of a rectangular block of stone, in this instance that from which the vault rib was fashioned; and also, again, as in most other cases, appearing as the enrichment of a hollow and intended to break up the extreme depth of its shadow. it is more rarely employed beneath a hood moulding in the position commonly occupied by the norman billet or nail head, but it is found there sometimes, as can be seen from the photograph of a romanesque archway at louvain in belgium (fig. ). the earlier examples are all fairly shallow, but as time went on the hollows became deeper, and by the middle of the th century the dogtooth was often scarcely discernible in their heavy shadow. the effect produced consequently, one would think, scarcely jus- ified the large amount of labour expended. that so much trouble should be taken to produce so slight a result as is indicated in the deep shadow in fig. , may well be wondered at, if it were not known that the great gothic carvers of that date spared no pains to obtain perfection in their work. the example is taken from the chapter house of lincoln cathedral, but there is a large amount of such work in england. to what extent the diaper work of this same th century was derived from the dogtooth it is impossible actually to say, but certainly there is a close resemblance between the one and the other—except, of course, that the diaper is a shallow ornament worked upon a surface. fig. , however, is so closely allied in its detail to figs. and that it is impossible not to imagine that some connection must have existed, and it is by no means exceptional. it is one of many different forms of diaper ornament to be found in westminster abbey. there is a star-shaped four-leafed flower with a ball at the junction of the petals, which appears to have originally itself represented a small flower, while there are other flowers, probably primroses, introduced between the great petals, following the general tendency of the th century carvers to represent spring foliage. the evolution of architectural ornament subsequently this star-shaped arrangement of a flower becomes quite common; it is found in the latter part of the th and during the th century, introduced as an ornament in a shallow hollow and varying in outline according to date. two different forms appear in the portion of humphrey de bohun's monument in hereford cathedral, of which a sketch is given in fig. ; the leaves are now of a perfectly natural type, but the centre of one represents a flower bud, while the centre of the other is itself a small four-leafed flower, remarkably like the dogtooth in its general suggestion. later again it occasionally took some such entirely conventionalised form as is shown in fig. , which is a late example from yatton church in somersetshire. these last examples belong to the th century, or possibly even later. during the intervening th century an ornament appeared in the west of england to which the name of " ballflower" has been given. it was considered by all the older writers upon gothic archi- tecture to be the distinctive ornament of the " decorated " period, but as a matter of fact it is only found in a few counties, where it was used largely, occupying the same position in the hollow mouldings of that period and district which was filled by the dogtooth of the th century all over england. but as the hollows were not so deep the effect was a different one. these balls, occurring in constant suc- cession all round the tracery as well as in the true mouldings of a win- dow, give it much the appearance of knotted lacework. a detail of one is shown in fig. . an outer ball, like a seed pod, is slightly opened, displaying another one within it. a range of them occurs at the back of the reredos in peterborough cathedral, shown in fig. , in the hollow cornice, though not so close together as in more typical examples, while the form is somewhat altered, probably owing to the fact that the work was executed in one of the eastern counties of england, where it is quite a rarity, and not in the west, where it is common. the outer petals, which are always three, are more pronounced, and there is no sign of the inner ball. occasional examples are found in the th century of a com- o the evolution of architectural ornament bination of these motives. fig. shows a four-leafed patera in the cornice of a th century tomb in westminster abbey. the general idea is that of the leaves in de bohun's tomb (fig. ), but the centre is a ball, as if the ball flower and the four-leafed flower were combined. other similar examples are by no means uncommon. paterae like these are not entirely confined to gothic work. it is very rare indeed that one can trace gothic influence in renaissance ornament, but perhaps it is only necessary to introduce here an illus- tration of the paterae in the arch soffit of sta. giustina at padua (fig. ) for the similarity of motive to that of much of the late gothic ornament to become at once apparent, with the advantage of indicating how large an amount of variation is possible of quite a simple original idea. diaper work is not always arranged on a diagonal or other regular scheme, at any rate so far as the pattern itself is concerned, though it is always in square or diamond-shaped blocks. occasionally isolated leaves occupy the diapers, as in some of those in the rood screen of southwell minster; an example is given in fig. . the relief is not great, and of course the form of the leaf is that which is indicative of the period, which in this case is that of the th century. similarly, when leaves were used as minor enrichments in the th century, they also partook of the character of the time. an illustration of this will be found in fig. , the leaf being here as unquestionably autumnal as is that shown in fig. the open leaf of summer. it is one of a series of leaf enrichments in the hollow cornice moulding of the vestibule to henry vii.'s chapel, westminster. a photograph of the exterior of a portion of the same building is given in fig. , mainly with the object of illustrating a minor enrichment which became common during the th century—that known as the crenelle. it appears invariably upon the top of a ornice as a kind of cresting thereto, and has every appearance of having been derived from the embattlements of castle walls with their alternating embrasures. this is probably the case, and if so it is perhaps the most prominent example which exists of what was originally a wholly essential feature in a some alexandrian capitals—an appendix - - \ 'i i fio. —the khartoum monument, alexandria. fio. —pompey's pillar, alexandria. i facing page . chapter x some alexandrian capitals—an appendix. on account of its geographical position and fine natural harbours, easily made more safe by artificial means, alexandria has necessarily been the most important seaport of egypt for many centuries, while it was, for a considerable period, one of the very greatest cities of the civilised world. founded by alexander the great in b. c, it became the centre of greek intellectual life during the third and second centuries b. c, precisely at the date when the fourth great building period of egypt, the ptolemaic, was at its zenith. later on it became a most important roman port, and then the headquarters of one of the great branches of the christian church, to be eventually destroyed by the arabs in a. d., having risen afresh after almost as complete destruction in a. d., in a. d. (when the inhabitants were massacred by caracalla), and in a. d., when it was taken by the persians. throughout this long period of a thousand years, its merchants traded with all parts of the mediterranean by sea, and simultaneously with egypt and nubia by way of the nile, and with syria and assyria by means of caravans. thus alexandria has been the natural meeting place of many influences. yet there is little known of it, and the archaelogist and the enquirer into the evolution of architectural forms have troubled little about what its ruins might have to tell. in truth, investigation has been unusually difficult, owing to the occupation of the site by a modern city, and to the gradual sinking of the land below the ancient water level, while the one scientific attempt at excavating, made by mr. d. g. hogarth in , was remarkably barren in its results. since then a considerable number of fragments of buildings, mainly capitals of columns, have been discovered. most of these are stored " q n the evolution of architectural ornament half-column, and partly to a pilaster. in has been entitled here as "a respond capital" but no more than a guess can be made as to the position it originally occupied or even as to whether the building it belonged to was trabeated or arcuated. it is of white marble. it even does not seem improbable that the romans obtained their knowledge of the corinthian capital rather from alexandria than direct from greece, though the principal roman example in alexandria hardly conforms to the type just described, except in having leaf volutes at the angles instead of tendril volutes. pom- pey's pillar (fig. ) which the example referred to surmounts, is known to have been erected in a. d., in honour of diocletian, by the local governor pompeius. how the leaf volute of alexandria may have readily developed into the usual volute of the roman corinthian order is, however, traceable by means of this capital of pompey's pillar (fig. ) and a crude roman capital, now in the museum, which is illustrated in fig. . the voluted leaf has, as it were, tightened up and become more constructional, less liable to damage and easier to carve, while the acanthus leaves cover more of the bell and are clumsy. besides this, the roman egg-and-dart enrichment appears upon an echinus, in an attempt to form a capital of composite character. the evolution of the corinthian capital is thus more clearly to be traced at alexandria than elsewhere, and that by means of little known and recently discovered examples. examples of the other orders are more rare. in fact, the museum at alexandria contains only one doric capital (fig. ), having a shallow abacus and equally shallow echinus, while flat bands of egyptian character replace the usual annulets. another, similar to it but much water-worn, lies on the shore near the bay of abou kir, some eighteen miles from alexandria. both are of coral limestone. a beautiful ionic capital, entirely greek in feeling and execution, is shown in fig. , and may well be contrasted with the obviously much later capital shown in fig. , roman so far as the truly ionic portion is concerned, but carrying a byzantine dosseret, carved out of english church architecture. from the earliest times to the reformation. by g. a. t. m ddleton, a.r.i.b.a. crown vo. s. d. net. by post, s. d. "this is a delightful essay upon the growth of ecclesiastical architecture in england. mr. middleton has interpreted for the uninitiated laymen the interesting story of our history that is told by our old cathedrals and abbeys. he has written in language sufficiently technical for the expert, but at the same time plain to be understood by the ordinary reader. the numerous illustrations and diagrams add still further to the interest and value of mr. middleton's essay. the reader will find his interest in and appreciation of architecture considerably enhanced by a study of this charming and compact book. our old cathedrals are poems in [stone, which convey no meaning whatever beyond that of mere antiquity to the vast majority even of cultivated readers. we cannot imagine any careful reader of mr. middleton's essay being content in future to limit his appreciation of these stupendous creations to the meaningless ' ohs ' and ' ahs ' of the mere tripper."—catholic herald. the element of reinforced concrete building by g. a. t. middleton, a.r.i.b.a. s. net. by post, s. d. "we hold the opinion that the subject of reinforced concrete has been made need- lessly complicated by the manner in which authors in general have treated it. so many of them seem to have proceeded on the assumption that the readers know as much mathematics and graphic statics as they themselves do, and they introduce as many hieroglyphics into their work as they possibly can, with a result that is positively disheartening to the student. while we think that mr. middleton could have simplified several passages in his little book, we are yet pleased that he has provided an exception to. the general style of authorship above quoted. he has honestly striven to present a number of simple explanations, which, after a little earnest study, the inquirer will not have great difficulty in mastering."—building world. our english cathedrals by the rev. james sebree. fully illustrated by photographs and block plans. in two volumes. crown vo. s. net each. by post, s. d. "the author has, therefore, thought that there was still room for a book on these wonderful creations of our ancestors' skill and genius, on somewhat different lines from those taken by previous works on the subject." to those who have neither time nor inclination for a minutely-detailed examination, the author trusts that his book may be of service; and " he is not without hope that it may also prove to be of interest to those who, in our own country, or in our colonies, or in the united states, may wish to have, in a brief and compact form, a sketch of english cathedrals on the whole." the book, however, is neither scrappy nor meagre. the buildings are adequately described, building dates and historical notes are given. there is a chapter upon the significance and growth of gothic architecture, upon references to the cathedrals in english literature (including many quotations), and also upon the relation of our cathedrals to the life of to-day. the work is complete and thoroughly readable. the story of ford abbey from the earliest times to the present day. by sidney heath. crown quarto, cloth. price s. d. net. by post lis. profusely illustrated with plan, photographs, drawings, specially designed initials and headpieces, etc., and dedicated by kind permission to freeman roper esq., j.p., (of ford abbey). london: francis griffiths, maiden lane, strand, w.c. illinois university of ilunois at urbana-champaign production note university of illinois at urbana-champaign library brittle books project, . copyright notification in public domain. published prior to . this digital copy was made from the printed version held by the university of illinois at urbana-champaign. it was made in compliance with copyright law. prepared for the brittle books project, main library, university of illinois at urbana-champaign by northern micrographics brookhaven bindery la crosse, wisconsin  "library of the university or illinois % " j <^ leea cop wcwrrr' . the	•	r grammar of ornament by owen jones illustrated by examples from various styles of ornament one hundred and twelve plates london bernaed qi t a r itch . reprinted . printed ix grt ,£ sjoklth io kmmtm h jo yns ■isrkft c*ry>, preface to the folio edition. it would be far beyond the limits of the powers of any one individual to attempt to gather together illustrations of the innumerable and evep-varying phases of ornamental art. it would be barely possible if undertaken by a government, and even then it would be too voluminous to be generally useful. all, therefore, that i have proposed to myself in forming the collection which i have ventured to call the grammar of ornament, has been to select a few of the most prominent types in certain styles closely connected with each other, and in which certain general laws appeared to reign independently of the individual peculiarities of each. i have ventured to hope that, in thus bringing into immediate juxtaposition the many forms of beauty which every style of ornament presents, i might aid in arresting that unfortunate tendency of our time to be content with copying, whilst the fashion lasts, the forms peculiar to any bygone age, without attempting to ascertain, generally completely ignoring, the peculiar circumstances which rendered an ornament beautiful, because it was appropriate, and which, as expressive of other wants when thus transplanted, as entirely fails. it is more than probable that the first result of sending forth to the world b	 preface. this collection will be seriously to increase this dangerous tendency, and that many will be content to borrow from the past those forms of beauty which have not already been used up ad nauseam. it has been my desire to arrest this tendency, and to awaken a higher ambition. if the student will but endeavour to search out the thoughts which have been expressed in so many different languages, he may assuredly hope to find an ever-gushing fountain in place of a half-filled stagnant reservoir. in the following chapters i have endeavoured to establish these main facts,— first. that whenever any style of ornament commands universal admira- tion, it will always be found to be in accordance with the laws which regulate the distribution of form in nature. secondly. that however varied the manifestations in accordance with these laws, the leading ideas on which they are based are very few. thirdly. that the modifications and developments which have taken place from one style to another have been caused by a sudden throwing off of some fixed trammel, which set thought free for a time, till the new idea, like the old, became again fixed, to give birth in its turn to fresh inventions. lastly. i have endeavoured to show, in the twentieth chapter, that the future progress of ornamental art may be best secured by engrafting on the experience of the past the knowledge we may obtain by a return to nature for fresh inspiration. to attempt to build up theories of art, or to form a style, independently of the past, would be an act of supreme folly. it would be at once to reject the experiences and accumulated knowledge of thousands of years. on the contrary, we should regard as our inheritance all the successful labours of the past, not blindly following them, but employing them simply as guides to find the true path. in taking leave of the subject, and finally surrendering it to the judgment of the public, i am fully aware that the collection is very far from being complete ; there are many gaps which each artist, however, may readily fill up for himself. my chief aim, to place side by side types of such styles as might best serve preface. as landmarks and aids to the student in his onward path, has, i trust, been fulfilled. it remains for me to offer my acknowledgment to all those friends who have kindly assisted me in the undertaking. in the formation of the egyptian collection i received much valuable assistance from mr. j. bonomi, and from mr. james wild, who has also con- tributed the materials for the arabian collection, his long residence in cairo having afforded him the opportunity of forming a very large collection of cairean ornament, of which the portion contained in this work can give but an imperfect idea, and which i trust he may some day be encouraged to publish in a complete form. i am indebted to mr. t. t. bury for the plate of stained glass. from mr. c. j. bichardson i obtained the principal portion of the materials of the elizabethan collection ; from mr. j. b. waring, those of the byzantine, and i am also indebted to him for the very valuable essays on byzantine and eliza- bethan ornament. mr. j. o. westwood having directed special attention to the ornament of the celtic races, has assisted in the celtic collection, and written the very remarkable history and exposition of the style. mr. c. dresser, of marlborough house, has provided the interesting plate no. of the twentieth chapter, exhibiting the geometrical arrangement of natural flowers. my colleague at the crystal palace, m. digby wyatt, has enriched the work with his admirable essays on the ornament of the renaissance and the italian periods. whenever the material has been gathered from published sources, it has been acknowledged in the body of the work. the remainder of the drawings have been chiefly executed by my pupils, mr. albert warren and mr. charles aubert, who, with mr. stubbs, have reduced the whole of the original drawings, and prepared them for publication. s preface. the drawing upon stone of the whole collection was entrusted to the care of mr. francis bedford, who, with his able assistants, messrs. h. fielding, w. r. tymms, a. warren, and s. sedgfield, with occasional help, have executed the one hundred plates in less than one year. my special thanks are due to mr. bedford for the care and anxiety which he has evinced, quite regardless of all personal consideration, to. render this work as perfect as the advanced stage of chromolithography demanded ; and i feel persuaded that his valuable services will be fully recognised by all in any way acquainted with the difficulties and uncertainties of this process. messrs. day and son, the enterprising publishers, and at the same time the printers of the work, have put forth all their strength ; and notwith- standing the care required, and the vast amount of printing to be performed, the resources of their establishment have enabled them, not only to deliver the work with perfect regularity to the subscribers, but even to complete it before the appointed time. owen jones. argyll place, dec. , . list of plates chap. i. ornament of savage tribes. plate. no* 	l ornaments from articles belonging to various savage tribes, exhibited in the united service and british museums. 	 ditto	ditto	ditto. 	 ditto	ditto	ditto. ^ chap. ii. egyptian ornament. 	 the lotus and papyrus, types of egyptian ornament. 	 ditto ditto with feathers and palm-branches. 	 capitals of columns, showing the varied applications of the lotus and papyrus. *	 *ditto	ditto	ditto. 	 various cornices, formed by the pendent lotus. 	 ornaments from mummy cases in the british museum and the louvre. 	 geometrical ornaments from ceilings of tombs. 	 ornaments with curved lines from ceilings of tombs. 	 various ornaments from ceilings and walls of tombs. v chap. iii. assyrian and persian ornament. l painted ornaments from nineveh. ditto	ditto. \ carved ornaments from persepolis, and sassanian ornaments from ispahan and bi-sutoun. chap. iv. greek ornament. 	l the various forms of the greek fret. 	 \ 	' 	 	 	 i) painted greek ornaments from the temples and tombs in greece and sicily. d	 ornaments from greek and etruscan yases in the british museum and the louvre. list of plates. chap. v. pompeian ornament. plate. no. 	l collection of borders from different edifices in pompeii 	 ditto pilasters and friezes	ditto. 	 mosaics from pompeii and the museum at naples. chap. yi. roman ornament. 	x roman ornaments from casts in the crystal palace. 	 ditto from the museo bresciano. chap. yii. byzantine ornament. 	 carved byzantine ornaments. 	 painted	ditto. *	 *ditto	ditto. 	 mosaics. chap. viii. arabian ornament. 	l arabian ornaments of the ninth century from cairo. 	 ditto	thirteenth century ditto. 	 ditto	ditto ditto. 	 portion of an illuminated copy of the koran." 	 mosaics from walls and pavements from houses in cairo. chap. ix. turkish ornament. 	l ornaments in relief from mosques, tombs, and fountains at constantinople. 	 painted ornaments from the mosque of soliman at constantinople. 	 decoration of the dome of the tomb of soliman i. at constantinople. chap. x. moresque ornament from the alhambra. 	l varieties of interlaced ornaments. 	 spandrils of arches. 	 lozenge diapers. * *ditto ditto. 	 square diapers. * *ditto ditto. f fditto ditto. 	 mosaics. chap. xi. persian ornament. 	l ornaments from persian mss. in the british museum. 	 ditto	ditto. 	 ditto	ditto. 	 from a persian manufacturer's pattern-book, south kensington museum. *	 *ditto	ditto	ditto. 	 from a persian ms., south kensington museum. list of plates. chap. xii. indian ornament. plate. no. 	l ornaments from metal-work from the exhibition of . 	 \ ^ ditto from embroidered and woven fabrics and paintings on vases exhibited in the indian ( collection in , now at south kensington museum. 	 ) 	 ::: * , . 	 specimens painted lacquer-work from the collection at the india house. * * 	 ornaments from woven and embroidered fabrics and painted boxes exhibited at paris in . chap. xiii. hindoo ornament. 	l ornaments from a statue at the asiatic society's house. 	 from the collection at the crystal palace, sydenham. 	 from the collection at the india house. chap. xiv. chinese ornament. 	 | 	 ) chinese ornaments painted on porcelain, and on wood, and from woven fabrics. 	 j 	 conventional renderings of fruits and flowers. chap. xv. celtic ornament. 	 lapidary ornamentation. 	 interlaced styles. 	 spiral, diagonal, zoomorphic, and later anglo-saxon ornament. chap. xvi. mediaeval ornament. 	 conventional leaves and flowers from illuminated mss. 	 borders from illuminated mss. and paintings. * *ditto	ditto	ditto. 	 diapers from illuminated mss. and backgrounds of pictures. 	 stained glass of various periods. * *ditto	ditto. 	 encaustic tiles ditto. illuminated mss. 	l portions of illuminated mss. of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. 	 ditto	ditto	thirteenth and fourteenth ditto. 	 ditto	ditto	fourteenth and fifteenth ditto. list of plates. chap. xyii. renaissance ornament. plate. no. 	l) 	 ®enaissance ornaments" in relief, from photographs taken from casts in the crystal palace, 	 j sydenham. 	 enamels from the louvre and hotel cluny. 	 ornaments from pottery at south kensington museum. 	 ditto ditto	hotel cluny and the louvre. 	 ditto ditto	ditto. 	 \ 	 / ^rnamen^s from st°ne an(l wood from the collections of the louvre and hotel cluny. chap, xviii. elizabethan ornament. 	 ] 	 f ^ar^ous ornaments in relief from the time of henry viii. to that of charles ii. 	 painted ornaments and ornaments on woven fabric, ditto. chap. xix. italian ornament. 	l pilasters and ornaments from the loggie of the vatican, reduced from the full-size paintings at south kensington museum. * l*ditto	ditto	ditto	ditto. 	 ornaments from the palazzo ducale, mantua. 	 ditto from the palazzo ducale and the church of st. andrea, mantua. 	 ditto from the palazzo del te, mantua. 	 ornaments from printed books. chap. xx. leaves and flowers from nature. 	l horse-chestnut leaves. 	 vine leaves. 	 ivy leaves. 	 leaves of the oak, fig-tree, maple, white bryony, laurel, and bay-tree. 	 leaves of the vine, hollyoak, turkey oak, and laburnum. 	 wild rose, ivy, and blackberry. 	 hawthorn, yew, ivy, and strawberry-tree. 	 various flowers in plan and elevation. 	 honeysuckle and convolvulus. 	 passion flowers. chapter i.—plates , , . ornament of savage tribes. plate i. .	cloth. otaheite.—united service museum. .	matting from tongotabu, friendly islands. .	cloth. otaheite.—u. s. m. .	cloth. sandwich islands.—u. s. m. - . cloths. sandwich islands.—british museum. .	cloth matting from tongotabu, friendly islands. .	cloth. otaheite.—u. s. m. .	cloth. sandwich islands.—b. m. .	cloth. .	cloth made from paper mulberry, feejee islands.—b.m. plate . .	south america.—united service museum.	 .	sandwich islands.	u. s. m. .	owhyhee. *	u.s.m. .	new hebrides. inlaid shield.	u. s. m. .	sandwich islands.	u. s. m. .	south sea islands.	u. s. m. , i	 . sandwich islands.	u. s. m. , . tahiti. adze.	u. s. m. , . friendly islands. brum.	u. s. m. , . tahiti. adze.	u. s. m. .	sandwich islands.	u. s. m. ,	 . new zealand.	u. s. m. - . sandwich islands.	u. s. m. plate iii. .	owhyhee. club.—united service museum. .	sandwich islands. club. u. s. m. .	new zealand. patoo-patoo. u. s. m. .	tahiti. adze.	u.s.m. .	new zealand. paddle.	u. s. m. .	new zealand. pajee, or war club.	u. s. m. .	south sea isles. war club.	u. s. m. .	handle, full size of fig. .	u. s. m. .	feejee islands. club.	u. s. m. from the universal testimony of travellers it would appear, that there is scarcely a people, in however early a stage of civilisation, with whom the desire for ornament is not a strong instinct. the desire is absent in none, and it grows and increases with all in the ratio of their progress in civilisation. man appears everywhere impressed with the beauties of nature which surround him, and seeks to imitate to the extent of his power the works of the creator. man's earliest ambition is to create. to this feeling must be ascribed the tattooing of the human face and body, resorted to by the savage to increase the expression by which he seeks to strike terror on his enemies or rivals, or to create what appears to him a new beauty.* as we advance higher, from the * the tattooing on the head which we introduce from the museum at chester is very remarkable, as showing that in this very barbarous practice the principles of the very highest ornamental art are manifest, every line upon the face is the best adapted to develope the natural features. e	 ornament of savage tribes. decoration of the rude tent or wigwam to the sublime works of a phidias and praxiteles, the same feeling is everywhere apparent: the highest ambition is still to create, to stamp on this earth the impress of an individual mind. from time to time a mind stronger than those around will impress itself on a generation, and carry with it a host of others of less power following in the same track, yet never so closely as to destroy the individual ambition to create; hence the cause of styles, and of the modification of styles. the efforts of a people in ornament of a savage tribe than in the innumerable productions of a highly-advanced civilisation. individuality decreases in the ratio of the power of production. when art is manufactured by combined effort, not originated by individual effort, we fail to recognise those true instincts which constitute its greatest charm. plate i. the ornaments on this plate are from portions of clothing made chicfly from the bark of trees. patterns no. and are from a dress brought by mr. oswald brierly from tongotabu, the principal of the friendly island group. it is made from thin sheets of the inner rind of the bark of a species of hibiscus, beaten out and united together so as to form one long parallelogram of cloth, which being wrapped many times round the body as a petticoat, and leaving the chest, arms, and shoulders bare, forms the only dress of the natives. nothing, therefore, can be more primitive, and yet the arrangement of the pattern shows the most refined taste and skill. no. is the border on the edge of the cloth; with the same limited means of production, it would be difficult to improve upon it. the patterns are formed by small wooden stamps, and although the work is somewhat rude and irregular in execution, the intention is everywhere apparent; and we are at once struck with the skilful balancing of the masses, and the judicious correction of the tendency of the eye to run in any one direction by opposing to them lines having an opposite tendency. female head from new zealand, in the museum, chester. an early stage of civilisation are like those of children, though presenting a want of power, they possess a grace and naivete rarely found in mid-age, and never in manhood's decline. it is equally so in the infancy of any art. cimabue and giotto have not the material charm of raphael or the manly power of michael angelo, but surpass them both in grace and earnest truth. the very command of means leads to their abuse : when art struggles, it succeeds ; when revelling in its own successes, it as signally fails. the pleasure we receive in con- templating the rude attempts at ornament of the most savage tribes arises from our appreciation of a difficulty accomplished ; we are at once charmed by the evidence of the intention, and surprised at the simple and ingenious process by which the result is obtained. in fact, what we seek in every work of art, whether it be humble or pretentious, is the evidence of mind,—the evidence of that desire to create to which we have referred, and which all, feeling a natural instinct within them, are satisfied with when they find it developed in others. it is strange, but so it is, that this evidence of mind will be more readily found in the rude attempts at ornament of savage tribes. when mr. brierly visited the island^ one woman was the designer of all the patterns in use there, and for every new pattern she designed she received as a reward a certain number of yards of cloth. the pattern no. , from the same place, is equally an admirable lesson in composition which we may derive from an artist of a savage tribe. nothing can be more judicious than the general arrange- ment of the four squares and the four red spots. without the red spots on the yellow ground there would have been a great want of repose in the general arrangement; without the red lines round the red spots to carry the red through the yellow, it would have been still imperfect. had the small red triangles turned outwards instead of inwards, the repose of the pattern would again have been lost, and the effect produced on the eye would have been that of squinting ; as it is, the eye is centred in each square, and centred in each group by the red spots round the centre square. the stamps which form the pattern are very simple, each triangle a and each leaf a being a single stamp : we thus see how readily the possession of a simple tool, even	by the most uncultivated, if guided by an in- stinctive observation of the forms in which all the works of nature t are arranged, would lead to the creation of all the geometrical arrangements of form with which we are acquainted. on the upper left-hand corner of pattern no. , the eight-pointed star is formed by eight applications of the same tool; as also the black flower with sixteen pointing inwards f and sixteen pointing outwards. » the most com- plicated patterns of the byzantine, arabian, i and moresque mosaics would be generated by the same means. the secret of ™ success in all ornament is the pro- duction of a broad general effect by the repetition of a few simple elements ; variety should rather be sought in the arrangement of the several portions of a design, than in the multiplicity of varied forms. the stamping of patterns on the coverings of the body, when either of skins of animals or material such as this, would be the first stage towards ornament after the tattooing of the body by an analogous process. in both there would remain a greater variety and individuality than in subse- quent processes, which would become more mechanical. the first notions of weaving, which would be given by the plaiting of straws or strips of bark, instead of using them as thin sheets, would have equally the same result of gradually forming the mind to an appreciation of a proper disposition of masses: the eye of the savage, accustomed only to look upon nature's harmonies, would readily enter into the perception of the true balance both of form and colour; in point of fact, we find that it is so, that in savage ornament the true balance of both is always maintained. after the formation of ornament by stamping and weaving, would naturally follow the desire of forming ornament in relief or carving. the weapons for defence or the chase would first attract attention. the most skilful and the bravest would desire to be distinguished from their fellows by the possession of weapons, not only more useful, but more beautiful. the shape best fitted for the purpose having been found by experience, the enriching of the surface by carving would naturally follow; and the eye, already accustomed to the geometrical forms produced by weaving, the hand would seek to imitate them by a similar repetition of cuts of the knife. the ornaments on plate ii. show this instinct very fully. they are executed with the utmost precision, and exhibit great taste and judgment in the distribution of the masses. nos. and are interesting, as showing how much this taste and skill may exist in the formation of geometrical patterns, whilst those resulting from curved lines, and the human form more especially, remain in the very first stage. plaited straw from the sandwich islands. ornament of savage tribes. !,|;......■'vt!^it^i|ii"r*g the ornaments in the woodcuts below and at the side show a far higher advance in the distribution of curved lines, the twisted rope forming the type as it naturally would be of all curved lines in ornament. the uniting of two strands for additional strength would early accustom the eye to the spiral line, and we always find this form side by side with head of canoe, new guinea. from the side of a canoe, new zealand.	the ornament of a savage tribe, being the result of a natural instinct, is necessarily always true to its purpose; whilst in much of the ornament of civilised nations, the first impulse which generated received forms being enfeebled by constant repetition, the ornament is often- times misapplied, and instead of first seeking the most convenient form and adding beauty, all beauty is destroyed, because all fitness, by superadding ornament to ill-contrived form. if we would return to a more healthy condition, we must even be as little children or as savages ; we must get rid of the acquired and artificial, and return to and develope natural instincts. the beautiful new zealand paddle, nos. - , on plate itt., would rival works of the highest civilisa* tion : there is not a line upon its surface misapplied. the general shape is most elegant, and the decoration everywhere the best adapted to develope the form. a modern manufacturer, with his head of canoe, new guinea. geometrical patterns formed by the interlacing of equal lines in the orna- ment of every savage tribe, and retained in the more advanced art of every civilised nation. ornament of savage tribes. stripes and plaids, would have continued the bands or rings round the handle across the blade. the new zealander's instinct taught him better. he desired not only that his paddle should be strong, but should appear so, and his ornament is so disposed as to give an appear- ance of additional strength to what it would have had if the surface had remained undecorated. the centre band in the length of the blade handle of a paddle.—b. m. is continued round on the other side, binding together the border on the edge, which itself fixes all the other bands. had these bands run out like the centre one, they would have appeared to slip off. the centre one was the only one that could do so without disturbing the repose. the swelling form of the handle where additional weight was required is most beautifully contrived, and the springing of the swell is well defined by the bolder pattern of the rings.* club, eastern archipelago. * captain cook and other voyagers repeatedly notice the taste and ingenuity of the islanders of the pacific and south seas: instancing especially cloths, painted "in such an endless variety of figures that one might suppose they borrowed their patterns from a mercer's shop in which the most elegant productions of china and europe are collected, besides some original patterns of their own." the " thousand different patterns " of their basket-work, their mats, and the fancy displayed in their rich carvings and inlaid shell-work, are, likewise, constantly mentioned. see the three voyages of captain cook, vols. lond. - ; dumont d'urviixe's voyage au pole sua, vo. paris, ; ditto, atlas d'histoire, fol.; pkichakd's natural history of man, lond. ; g. w. eaki.e's native races of indian archipelago, lond. ; keek's general history and collection of voyages and travels, london, - .  wilde stamme tafel i. savage tribes n°i • <^r. w? » kvav:mr*w:«:« l<lm|lli|llhllll'ilulllllllli|ll|lll<llllllll'>l'llll|>'l>>lli|ti|l< tribu - sauyages pl i. i 	 	 	 / w//w/ fi/w/t//j//f /f / ft/ mm ■ ■ illinium ■ ■ ■iimmiii ■ ■ iiiiiiiib ■ i m sn  wilde tamme tafel. ii fldcoqqqq ~gj ejqq q gggg » . wf'f f¥»»?f c >j) avage tribes m°z tribus sauvaues pl ii ililhili iiimiinifnmwniifni mnini>wiwii;nni ^w i la.aaaakj.a*aa*aaikaaaaaa aaaa*a a aaa. isss^issij ----------------- artaluuwmwmmaaamaflmmmmmmmaaammiwtfm/ wvmvnwvvwvwvvn'wwwvvvwvwvvwvv<;v>i\ ^sot aaa^^rtmmaaaammaa/mm/mammamimaammft \mvwtftw^wm'vvvwvvwv^vmvvwwvw v^ttst^rs ^ r m* ^ m' ul> i mum* a. rvnwwwwtwtovwvvmtuwvtnwww'twvwvwwvuvwi*'' ra-umui ^iaii tuuii m\m\w  wuoe stamme savage tribes n° tribussauyages h:'y. p bshi wm wjewlr: stapf p$: -v'v'--'t ^'.'' >** '<vfta; tmhhhhtt llti ^ j*<  chapter ii.—plates , , , **, , , , , . egyptian ornament. --- plate iv. .	the lotus, drawn from nature. .	egyptian representation of the lotus. .	another, in a different stage of growth. .	three papyrus plants, and three full-blown lotus flowers with two buds, held in the hand of a king as an offering to a god. .	a full-blown lotus and two buds, bound together with ribbons, the type of the capitals of egyptian columns. .	the lotus and buds in the form of a column, bound round with matting, from a painting representing the portico of a temple. .	the base of the stem of the papyrus, drawn from na- ture ; the type of the bases and shafts of egyptian columns. .	.expanding bud of the papyrus, drawn from nature. .	another, in a less advanced stage of growth. .	egyptian representation of the papyrus plant; the com- plete type of the capital, shaft, and base of the egyptian columns. .	the same, in combination with lotus buds, grapes, and ivy. .	a combination of the lotus and papyrus, representing a column bound with matting and ribbons. .	egyptian representation of the lotus and buds. .	) representations of the papyrus, from an egyptian .	j painting. .	representation of plants growing in the desert. .	representation of the lotus and papyrus growing in the nile. .	another variety of desert plants. plate v. .	fan made of feathers, inserted into a wooden stem in the form of a lotus. .	feathers from the head-dress of the horses of the royal chariots. .	another variety, from aboo-simbel. .	fans made of dried leaves. .	ditto. .	fan. .	royal head-dress. .	ditto. .	representation of a species of lotus. .	the true lotus. .	insignia borne by certain officers of the time of the pharaohs. .	another variety. .) .	i gold and enamelled vases in the form of the lotus. .	) .	a rudder oar decorated with the lotus and the eye, representing the divinity. .	ditto, another variety. ) jg' j boats made of papyrus plants bound together. plate vi. .	capital of the large columns of the temple of luxor, thebes, of the time of amunoph iii., b.c., according to sharpe. it represents the full-blown papyrus, and around it papyri and lotus buds alter- nating. .	capital of the smaller columns of the memnonium,thebes, b.c. . represents a single bud of the papyrus decorated with the. coloured pendent fasciae that are seen in the painted representations of columns of plate iv. nos. , , . . capital of the smaller columns of the temple of luxor, b.c. . representing eight buds of the papyrus bound together, and adorned with pendent and coloured fasciae. egyptian ornament. - . capital from the unfinished hypaethral temple in the island of philae. roman period, b.c. . composed of the papyrus plant in three stages of growth, and arranged in three tiers : the first composed of four full-blown and four large expanding papyri; the second tier, of eight smaller expanding flowers ; and the third tier, of sixteen buds : making in all a bundle of thirty-two plants. the stem of each plant may be traced, by the size and colour of its stalk, down to the horizontal bands or fasciae. see plate iv. nos. , , . .	capital from the temple at koom-ombos. the full- grown papyrus surrounded by various flowers. .	capital from the principal temple, philse. representing two tiers of the papyrus, in three stages of growth. the first tier composed of eight plants, four full-blown and four expanding; the second tier composed of eight buds : making sixteen plants. in this capital the circular form is not disturbed, as in no. . . capital from the unfinished hypsethral temple, philse. composed of three tiers of the papyrus plant in three stages of growth. the first tier has eight, full-blown and eight expanding plants ; the second tier, sixteen expanding flowers ; and the third tier, thirty-two buds of the papyrus : in all, sixty-four plants. the stem of each plant is distinguished by its size and colour, and continued down to the horizontal bands which bind them together round the shaft. ^ . capital from the portico of edfu, b.c. , represents the palm-tree, with nine branches, or faces. the horizontal fascise of the palm-tree capital differ from the fascise of all the other capitals, inasmuch as there is always a pendent loop. plate vi*. .	capital from a temple in the oasis of thebes. repre- senting a collection of aquatic plants, with triangular stalks tied round a single full-blown papyrus. .	capita] from the portico of edfu, b.c. , of similar structure to no. . .	capital from the principal temple in the island of philse, b.c. . the full-blown papyrus surrounded by the same flower in various stages of growth. .	capital from a temple in the oasis of thebes. .	capital from the colonnade of the island of philse. representing sixteen lotus flowers bound together in three tiers. shown in elevation. .	the capital no. seen in perspective. . capital from a temple in the oasis of thebes. re- presenting eight lotus flowers bound together in two tiers. . capital from the unfinished hypaethral temple, philse. composed of the papyrus in two stages of growth, arranged in three tiers. the first composed of four full-blown and four expanding flowers ; the second tier, of eight smaller, fu -blown; and the third tier, of sixteen, still smaller. . capital of the grseco-egyptian form, but of the roman period. very remarkable, as showing the egyptian and greek elements combined, viz. the papyrus in two stages of growth, with the acanthus leaf and the tendrils of the honeysuckle. plate vii. .	ornament on the top of the walls of a tomb at beni- hassan. .	ditto	ditto. .	ditto, from karnac, thebes. .	ditto, from gourna, thebes. .	ditto, from sakhara. ' . decoration of the torus moulding of some of the early tombs in the neighbourhood of the pyramids of giza. >) ,	? from a wooden sarcophagus. .	' .	from the tombs, el kab. .	from the tombs, renihassan. .	from the tombs, gourna. .	ditto. .	ditto. .	from a necklace. .	from the wall of a tomb, gourna, immediately under the ceiling. . , \ .	> portions of a necklace. .	) .	from the wall of a tomb. .	from a necklace. .	from the upper part of the wall of a tomb, sakhara. .	ditto, at thebes. .	from a necklace. .	from the wall of a tomb, gourna. .	from a sarcophagus. .	from the wall of a tomb. .	from a sarcophagus. .	from the upper part of a picture. .	arrangement of lines from dados. .	from a sarcophagus in the louvre. .	from the wall of a tomb, gourna, representing the lotus, in plan as well as in elevation. .	from a ceiling at medinet haboo. .	arrangement of lines from dados, in tombs. nos. - , , , always occur on vertical surfaces, and on the upper part of the walls of tombs and temples. nos. - , , , , , are all derived from the same elements, viz. the lotus in a pendent position, with a bunch of grapes intervening. this very constant egyptian ornament in some of its forms so much resembles the greek moulding, usually termed the egg-and-tongue, or egg-and-dart moulding, that we can hardly doubt that the greek moulding was derived from this source. nos. , , , , exhibit another element of egyptian ornamentation derived from the separated leaves of the lotus. egyptian ornament. plate viii. the whole of the ornaments on this plate are from mummy- cases in the british museum and the louvre, and, like those of the last plate, are mostly composed of the lotus-flower and single leaves of the same plant. in no. , above the lotus-leaves, is a white ornament on a black ground, very common in the tombs, suggested by the interwoven strands of a rope; and in no. we have the chequered pattern, one of the earliest ornaments, evidently derived from the weaving to- gether of different-coloured strands. in the lower part of no. we have another very common orna- ment, derived from feathers. plate ix. the ornaments on this plate are taken from paintings on tombs in various parts of egypt, from original draw- ings. they are chiefly patterns that could be pro- duced by the loom, and a single glance will show that this is doubtless the origin of most of them. - are representations of mats on which the kings stand. they were evidently formed of interwoven straws of different colours. the transition from this state to the formation of patterns, such as - , - , , would be very rapid, and they are most probably only repro- ductions of woven articles of daily use. nos. and may have suggested the fret to the greeks, unless they arrived at it themselves by a similar process. is from a ceiling of a tomb at gourna. it represents the trellis-work of a garden walk, covered with a vine. it is by no means an uncommon ornament for the curved ceilings of small tombs, and usually occupies the whole ceiling of each excavation at the period of the nineteenth dynasty. - are derived from mummy-cases in the louvre, of a late period. plate x. - . from mummy-cases in the louvre, at a late period. geometrical arrangements of the single lotus-leaf. .	from a tomb at thebes. each circle is formed of four lotus-flowers and four buds, the intermediate star probably intended for four lotus-leaves. .	from a tomb at thebes. , . from a mummy-case. - are from ceilings of tombs in various parts of egypt. in nos. , - , - , are various examples oi an ornament representing the unwinding of a pile of rope, which may have given the first suggestion of the volute. in no. the continuous blue line is evidently from the same type. plate xi. , , , , are from tombs at thebes, and are further examples of the rope ornament given in the last plate. nos. and are varieties of arrangements of stars, very common on the ceilings both of tombs and temples. no. is formed on squares, no. on equilateral triangles. . from a mummy-case. . from the embroidery on a king's robe. - are varieties of borders from paintings in tombs. . from the dress of a figure in one of the royal tombs of biban el moluk. it represents the scales of the armour worn by the heroes and gods of egypt. - are similar, and most probably were suggested by the feathers of birds. . . . . ornament on the dress of the god amun, from aboo- simbel. from a fragment in the louvre. dado from the tomb of ramses, biban el moluk, pro- bably representing, in diagram, a papyrus-grove, as it occupies a similar position to those dados of a later period which were formed of buds and flowers of the papyrus. from a very ancient tomb at giza, opened by dr. lepsius. the upper part represents the usual egyptian torus ; the lower portion is from the dado of the same tomb, and shows that the practice of imitating grained woods in painting is of the highest antiquity. egyptian ornament. the architecture of egypt has this peculiarity over all other styles, that the more ancient the monu- ment the more perfect is the art. all the remains with which we are acquainted exhibit egyptian art in a state of decline. monuments erected two thousand years before the christian era are formed from the ruins of still more ancient and more perfect buildings. we are thus carried back to a period too remote from our time to enable us to discover any traces of its origin; and whilst we can trace in direct succession the greek, the roman, the byzantine, with its offshoots, the arabian, the moresque, and the gothic, from this great parent, we must believe the architecture of egypt to be a pure original style, which arose with civilisation in central africa,* passed through countless ages, to the culminating point of perfection and the state of decline in which we see it. inferior as this state doubtless is to the unknown perfection of egyptian art, it is far beyond all that followed after; the egyptians are inferior only to themselves. in all other styles we can trace a rapid ascent from infancy, founded on some bygone style, to a culminating point of perfection, when the foreign influence was modified or discarded, to a period of slow, lingering decline, feeding on its own elements. in the egyptian we have no traces of infancy or of any foreign influence; and we must, therefore, believe that they went for inspiration direct from nature. this view is strengthened when we come to consider more especially the ornament of egypt; the types are few and natural types, the representation is but slightly removed from the type. the later we descend in art, the more and more do we find original types receded from; till, in much ornament, such as the arabian and moresque, it is difficult to discover the original type from which the ornament has been by successive mental efforts developed. the lotus and papyrus, growing on the banks of their river, symbolising the food for the body and mind; the feathers of rare birds, which were carried before the king as emblems of sovereignty; the palm-branch, with the twisted cord made from its stems; these are the few types which form the basis of that immense variety of ornament with which the egyptians decorated the temples of their gods, the palaces of their kings, the covering of their persons, their articles of luxury or of more modest-daily use, from the wooden spoon which fed them to the boat which carried their similarly adorned embalmed bodies across the nile to their last home in the valley of the dead. following these types as they did in a manner so nearly allied to their natural form, they could hardly fail to observe the same laws which the works of nature ever display; and we find, therefore, that egyptian ornament, however conventionalised* is always true. we are never shocked by any misapplication or violation of a natural principle. on the other hand, they never, by a too servile imitation of the type, destroyed the consistency of the representation. a lotus carved in stone, forming a graceful termination to a column, or painted on the walls as an offering to their gods, was never such a one as might be plucked, but an architectural * * in the british museum may be seen a cast of a bas-relief from kalabshee in nubia, representing the conquests of ramses ii. over a black people, supposed to be ethiopians. it is very remarkable, that amongst the presents which these people are represented as bringing with them as a tribute to the king, besides the leopard-skins and rare animals, ivory, gold, and other products of the country, there are three ivory carved chairs precisely similar to that on which the king sits to receive them; from which it would appear that these highly-elaborated articles of luxury were derived by the egyptians from the interior of africa. egyptian ornament. representation; in either case the best adapted for the purpose it had to fill, sufficiently resembling the type to call forth in the beholder the poetic idea which it was sought to supply, without shocking his feeling of consistency. egyptian ornament is of three kinds : that which is constructive, or forming part of the monument itself, of which it is the outward and graceful covering of the skeleton within ; that which is representative, but at the same time conventionally rendered; and that which is simply decorative. in all cases it was symbolic, and, as we have observed, formed on some few types, which were but slightly changed during the whole period of egyptian civilisation. of the first kind, viz. constructive ornament, are the decorations of the means of support and the crowning members of the walls. the column only a few feet high, or one forty or sixty feet, as at luxor and karnac, was an enlarged papyrus plant: the base representing the root; the shaft, the stalk ; and the capital, the full-blown flower, surrounded by a bouquet of smaller plants (no. , plate vi.), tied together by bands. not only did a series of columns represent a grove of papyri, but each column was in itself a grove; and at no. of plate iv. we have a representation of a grove of papyri in various stages of growth, which would only have to be assembled as they stand, and be tied round with a string, and we should have the egyptian shaft and its highly-ornamental capital; and further, we have in nos. , , , , , on plate iv., pointed representations of columns forming parts of temples, in which the original idea is unmistakably portrayed. we may imagine it the custom of the egyptians in early times to decorate the wooden posts of their primitive temples with their native flowers tied round them; and this custom, when their art took a more permanent character, became solidified in their monuments of stone. these forms, once sacred, their religious laws forbade a change; but a single glance, however, at plates vi. and vi*. will show how little this possession of one leading idea resulted in uniformity. the lotus and papyrus form the type of fifteen of the capitals we have selected for illustration; yet how ingeniously varied, and what a lesson do they teach us! from the greeks to our own time the world has been content with the acanthus leaf arranged round a bell for the capitals of columns of all architecture called classic, differing only in the more or less perfection of the modelling of the leaves, or the graceful or otherwise proportions of the bell: a modification in plan has but rarely been attempted. and this it was that opened the way to so much development in the egyptian capital; beginning with the circle, they surrounded it with four, eight, and sixteen other circles. if the same change were attempted with the corinthian capital, it could not fail to produce an entirely new order of forms whilst still retaining the idea of applying the acanthus leaf to the surface of a bell-shaped vase. the shaft of the egyptian column, when circular, was made to retain the idea of the triangular shape of the papyrus stalk, by three raised lines, which divided its circumference into three equal portions; when the column was formed by a union of four or eight shafts bound together, these had each a sharp arris on their outer face with the same intention. the crowning member or cornice of an egyptian building was decorated with feathers, which appear to have been an emblem of sovereignty; whilst in the centre was the winged globe, emblem of divinity. the second kind of egyptian ornament results from the conventional representation of actual things on the walls of the temples and tombs; and here again, in the representations of offerings to the gods or of the various articles of daily use, in the paintings of actual scenes of their domestic life, every flower or other object is portrayed, not as a reality, but as an ideal representation. it is at the same time the record of a fact and an architectural decoration, to which even their hieroglyphical writing, explanatory of the scene, by its symmetrical arrangement added effect. in no. , on plate iv., we have an example in the representation of the three papyrus-plants and three lotus-flowers, with two buds, in the hand of a king as an offering to the gods. the "arrangement is symmetrical and graceful, and egyptian ornament. we here see that the egyptians, in thus conventionally rendering the lotus and papyrus, instinctively obeyed the law which we find everywhere in the leaves of plants, viz. the radiation of the leaves, and all the veins on the leaves, in graceful curves from the parent stem ; and not only do they follow this law in the drawing of the individual flower, but also in the grouping of several flowers together, as may * be seen, not only in no. , but also in their representation of plants growing in the desert, nos. and of the same plate, and in no. . in nos. and of plate v. they learned the same lesson from the feather, another type of ornament ( and , plate v.) : the same instinct is again at work at nos. and , where the type is one of the many forms of palm-trees so common in the country. the third kind of egyptian ornament, viz. that which is simply decorative, or which appears so to our eyes, but which has doubtless its own laws and reasons for its application, although they are not so apparent to us. plates viii., ix., x., xi., are devoted to this class of ornament, and are from paintings on tombs, dresses, utensils, and sarcophagi. they are all distinguished by graceful symmetry and perfect distribution. the variety that can be produced by the few simple types we have referred to is very remarkable. on plate ix. are patterns of ceilings, and appear to be reproductions of woven patterns. side by side with the conventional rendering of actual things, the first attempts of every people to produce works of ornament take this direction. the early necessity of plaiting together straw or bark of trees, for the formation of articles of clothing, the covering of their rude dwelling, or the ground on which they reposed, induced the employment at first of straws and bark of different natural colours, to be afterwards replaced by artificial dyes, which gave the first idea, not only of ornament, but of geome- trical arrangement. nos. - , plate ix., are from egyptian paintings, representing mats whereon the king stands; whilst nos. and are from the ceilings of tombs, which evidently represent tents covered by mats. no. , , , show how readily the meander or greek fret was produced by the same means. the universality of this ornament in every style of architecture, and to be found in some shape or other amongst the first attempts of ornament of every savage tribe, is an additional proof of their having had a similar origin. the formation of patterns by the equal division of similar lines, as by weaving, would give to a rising people the first notions of symmetry, arrangement, disposition, and the distribution of masses. the egyptians, in their decoration of large surfaces, never appear to have gone beyond a geometrical arrangement. flowing lines are very rare, comparatively, and never the motive of the composition, though the germ of even this mode of decoration, the volute form, exists in their rope ornament. (no. , - , - , on plate x., and , , , , plate xi.) here the several coils of rope are subjected to a geometrical arrangement; but the unrolling of this cord gives the very form which is the source of so much beauty in many subsequent styles. we venture, therefore, to claim for the egyptian style, that though the oldest, it is, in all that is requisite to constitute a true style of art, the most perfect. the language in which it reveals itself to us may seem foreign, peculiar, formal, and rigid ; but the ideas and the teachings it conveys to us are of the soundest. as we proceed with other styles, we shall see that they approach perfection only so far as they followed, fti common with the egyptians, the true principles to be observed in every flower that grows. like these favourites of nature, every ornament should have its perfume; i.e. the reason of its application. it should endeavour to rival the grace of construction, the harmony of its varied forms, and due proportion and subordination of one part to the other found in the model. when we find any of these characteristics wanting in a work of ornament, we may be sure that it belongs to a borrowed style, where the spirit which animated the original work has been lost in the copy. the architecture of the egyptians is thoroughly polychromatic,—they painted everything; therefore we have much to learn from them on this head. they dealt in flat tints, and used neither shade nor egyptian ornament. shadow, yet found no difficulty in poetically conveying to the mind the identity of the object they desired to represent. they used colour as they did form, conventionally. compare the representation of the lotus (no. , plate iv.) with the natural flower (no. ); how charmingly are the characteristics of the natural flower reproduced in the representations ! see how the outer leaves are distinguished by a darker green, and the inner protected leaves by a lighter green ; whilst the purple and yellow tones of the inner flower are represented by red leaves floating in a field of yellow, which most completely recalls the yellow glow of the original. we have here art added to nature, and derive an additional pleasure in the perception of the mental effort which has produced it. the colours used by the egyptians were principally red, blue, and yellow, with black and white to define and give distinctiveness to the various colours; with green used generally, though not universally, as a local colour, such as the green leaves of the lotus. these were, however, indifferently coloured green, or blue; blue in the more ancient times, and green during the ptolemaic period; at which time, also, were added both purple and brown, but with diminished effect. the red also, which is found on the tombs or mummy-cases of the greek or roman period, is lower in tone than that of the ancient times; and it appears to be a universal rule that, in all archaic periods of art, the primary colours, blue, red, and yellow, are the prevailing colours, and these used most harmoniously and successfully. whilst in periods when art is practised traditionally, and not instinctively, there is a tendency to employ the secondary colours and hues, and shades of every variety, though rarely with equal success. we shall have many opportunities of pointing this out in subsequent chapters.  aegyptisch ta:fel iv. egyptian n i egyptiens pl iv ■smi  aegypiisch	egyptian n° .	egyptiens tafelv.	pl~y egyptian n igyptied tafei egyptian n° * eg f pt ens ' pl vi* aegyptisch tafel yi  aegyptisch tafel yii & egyptian n° 'kgyptiens pl yii - j i i aaaaaaaa w wi 	to ii	i ii i ii ii ii ii ii ii ii	 ii ii » " ii il »i j y&® il ® ^ g■■...... ? ^ f\ it t it- itn i htm ml i i i ........- i. w -,— m wmzmm il ii il il t i ii ii n ii f ii ii ...../ v iihhhmlhtlhi -----■—,—  a.egy pj sgh rafel y i iiiyuiiij.jiiu jikiui); • \ 	 - w.'"). / \j y v/ w w vv v o iiy # ♦ / ■ egyptian n f: ii ihir m t « » » gibbsigplf q eee!ncei ce mm cooego&oc i x/$k\ " egyptiens pl yiii hi • v* \/* v* v* v* v* v* v* j) o <=g> © ■	g -~xo o v=s > o o -tp o d cs © <scs > © £=£ © gs © co © o s= © - £^s > ©	o c=^? co o ,~r q czc qcq q >oc °e>°^lvw^°c^ wbiwie ....	•	■s-	 			c liiiiiiii _ - • fwwwwwwwvww _ - z zsz zs ^z^ zzz  aegyptisch tafel ix egyptian n° egyptiens pl ix mwvw. vw ^wwvwavv llilllllllllllllllllllllllll lllllllllllllllllllllllllll lllllllllllllllllllllllllll i tlllll llltlllllltllllltl ii mi illinium iniiiiiiii i linn iiiimiiiii iiiiii ii iiiiinniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii i unti iiiiii limn inn in llll iiiiii iiihiiiiitlllllll ■■ m !■■■ ■ ■■ it •■ ■ ■■ ■■ «■ ' ■ ;■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ '■■ hm ■■ ■■ !■! 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ch v)cyv/v>\ v/v/v/(/\x •prnims <*r^	^ * * 	^ v/y ? a> v'^ "/k" '/av* ^ a !• rwh' \./\/\ v t.t ^'> . ,ri	^ w. :-^ %fcb,i ^ ^iv» v»? k>	^	^	^ *§ y#, a i'" ■ * , * ■• mm - mm • mm » g %ii^ %ii^ ^r«i% w m»i a »n a- ''«»"* v %•«* '"«** satmwawi m i m<mm  aegyptisch "^fei xi egyptian h° •k ic ic i< sju*	<*l> s\ s\ /\ /% m egypt! eh pl xi 	 	 	 	 	 	 •k ic ic i< sju*	<*l> s\ s\ /\ /% !!! 		i in m g		wmm i'l"ii mmm 		 iffli	ill	||gb mmmwmn	 	 	 ft w v tvvwwwv^ c <v «^_cv < <a ii____ li i__i «jl«jc ojli < a m « s wffiv yyvyyyyi ??▼! iulikw ^ iffvvffvw^f nimmiii j i i ' i t , f i i | t i < j f . t . i i i nv w xwa  chapter iii.—plates , , . assyeian and persian ornament. i'late xii. . sculptured pavement, kouyunjik.	 - . painted ornaments from nimroud. - . painted ornaments from nimroud.	 - . sacred trees from nimroud. . sculptured pavement, kouyunjik. the whole of the ornaments on this plate are taken from mr. layard's great work, the monuments of nineveh. nos. , , , , , , , , are coloured as published in his work. nos. , , and the three sacred trees, nos. , , , are in relief, and only in outline. we have treated them here as painted ornaments, supplying the colours in accordance with the prin- ciples indicated by those above, of which the colours are known. plate xiii. - . enamelled bricks, from khorsabad.—flandin & coste. .	ornament on king's dress, from khorsabad.—f. & c. ,	 . ornaments on a bronze shield, ditto. f. & c. , . ornaments on a king's dress, ditto.	f. & c. , . ornaments from a bronze vessel, nimroud.— la yard. . ornament on a king's dress, from khorsabad.— flandin & coste. .	enamelled brick, from khorsabad.	f. & c. .	ornament on a battering ram, khorsabad.—f. & c. .	ornament from a bronze vessel, nimroud.—la yard. - . enamelled bricks,from khorsabad.—flandin&coste. .	enamelled brick, from nimroud.—layard. .	ditto, from bashikhah.—layard. .	ditto, from khorsabad.—flandin & coste. the ornaments nos. , , , , are very common on the royal robes, and represent embroidery. we have restored the colouring in a way which we consider best adapted for developing the various patterns. the remainder of the ornaments on this plate are coloured as they have been published by mr. layard and messrs. flandin and coste. plate xiv. .	feathered ornament in the curvetto of the cornice, palace no. , persepolis.—flandin & coste. .	base of column from ruin no. , persepolis.—f. & c. .	ornament n the side of the staircase of palace no. , persepolis.—f. & c. .	base of column of colonnade no. ,persepolis.—f. & c. .	base of column, palace no. , persepolis. f. & c. .	base of column, portico no. , persepolis. f. & c. .	base of column at istakhr.	f. & c. - . from sassanian capitals, bi sutoun. f. & c. - . from sassanian capitals, at ispahan.—flandin & coste. . from a sassanian moulding, bi sutoun.	f. & c. , . ornament from tak i bostan.	f. & c. , . sassanian ornaments from ispahan.	f. &c. .	archivolt from tak i bostan.	f. & c. .	upper part of pilaster, tak i bostan.	f. & c. .	sassanian capital, ispahan.	f. & c. .	pilaster, tak i bostan.	f. & c. .	capital of pilaster, tak i bostan.	f. & c. .	sassanian capital, ispahan.	f. & c. assyrian and persian ornament. egyptian. rich as has been tlie harvest gathered by mons. botta and mr. layard from the ruins of assyrian palaces, the monuments which they have made known to us do not appear to carry us back to any remote period of assyrian art. like the monuments of egypt, those hitherto discovered belong to a period of decline, and of a decline much further removed from a culminating point of perfection. the assyrian must have either been a borrowed style, or the remains of a more perfect form of art have yet to be discovered. we are strongly inclined to believe that the assyrian is not an original style, but was borrowed from the egyptian, mo- dified by the difference of the religion and habits of the assyrian people. on comparing the bas-reliefs of nineveh with those of egypt we can- not but be struck with the many points of resemblance in f »two styles ; not only is the same .ode of representa- tion adopted, but the objects repre- sented are oftentimes so similar, that it is difficult to believe that the same, style could have been arrived at by two people independently of each other. the mode of representing a river, a tree, a besieged city, a group of prison- ers, a battle, a king in his chariot, are almost identical,—the differences which exist are only those which would result from the representation of the habits of two different people; the art appears to us to be the same. assyrian sculpture seems to be a development of the egyptian, but, instead of being carried forward, descending in the scale of perfection, bearing the same relation to the egyptian as the roman does to the greek. egyptian sculpture gradually declined from the time of the pharaohs to that of the greeks and romans; the forms, which were at first flowing and graceful, became coarse and abrupt; the swelling of the limbs, which was at first assyrian. assyrian and persian ornament. rather indicated than expressed, became at last exaggerated; the conventional was abandoned for an imperfect attempt at the natural. in assyrian sculpture this attempt was carried still farther, and while the general arrangement of the subject and the pose of the single figure were still conventional, an attempt was made to express the muscles of the limbs and the rotundity of the flesh; in all art this is a symptom of decline, nature should be idealised not copied. many modern statues differ in the same way from the venus de milo, as do the bas-reliefs of the ptolemies from those of the pharaohs. assyrian ornament, we think, presents also the same, aspect of a borrowed style and one in a state of decline. it is true that, as yet, we are but imperfectly acquainted with it; the portions of the palaces which would contain the most ornament, the upper portions of the walls and the ceilings, having been, from the nature of the construction of assyrian edifices, destroyed. there can be little doubt, however, that there was as much ornament employed in the assyrian monuments as in the egyptian: in both styles there is a total absence of plain surfaces on the walls, which are either hovered with subjects or with writing, and in situations where these would have been inapplicable, pure ornament must have been employed to sustain the general effect. what we possess is gathered from the dresses on the figures of the bas-reliefs, some few fragments of painted bricks, some objects of bronze, and the representations of the sacred trees in the bas-reliefs. as yet we have had no remains of their con- structive ornament, the columns and other means of support, which would have been so decorated, being everywhere destroyed; the con- structive ornaments which we have given in plate xiv., from persepolis, being evidently of a much later date, and subject to other influences, would be very unsafe guides in any attempt to restore the constructive ornament of the assyrian palaces. assyrian ornament, though not based on the same types as the egyptian, is represented in the same way. in both styles the orna- ments in relief, as well as those painted, are in the nature of diagrams. there is but little surface-modelling, which was the peculiar invention of the greeks, who retained it within its true limits, but the romans carried it to great excess, till at last all breadth of effect was destroyed. the byzantines returned again to moderate relief, the arabs reduced the relief still farther, while with the moors a modelled surface became extremely rare. in the other direction, the romanesque is distinguished in the same way from the early gothic, which is itself much broader in effect than the later gothic, where the surface at last became so laboured that all repose was destroyed. with the exception of the pine-apple on the sacred trees, plate xii., and in the painted ornaments, and a species of lotus, nos. and , the ornaments do not appear to be formed on any natural type, which still farther strengthens the idea that the assyrian is not an original style. the natural laws of radiation and tangential curvature, which we find in egyptian ornament, are equally observed here, but much less truly,—rather, as it were, traditionally than instinctively. nature is not followed so closely as by the egyptians, nor so exquisitely conventionalised as by the greeks. nos. and , plate xiii., are generally supposed to be the types from which the greeks derived some of their painted ornaments, but how inferior they are to the greek in purity of form and in the distribution of the masses ! i	 egyptian. o o o o o o a/wv assyrian. assyrian and persian ornament. the colours in use by the assyrians appear to have been blue, red, white, and black, on their painted ornaments; blue, red, and gold, on their sculptured ornaments ; and green, orange, buff, white, and black, on their enamelled bricks. the ornaments of persepolis, represented on plate xiv., appear to be modifications of roman details. nos. , , , , , are from bases of fluted columns, which evidently betray a roman influ- ence. the ornaments from tak i bostan,— , , , , ,—are all constructed on the same principle as roman ornament, presenting only a similar modification of the modelled surface, such as we find in byzantine ornament, and which they resemble in a most remarkable manner. the ornaments, and , from sassanian capitals, byzantine in their general outline, at bi sutoun, contain the germs of all the ornamentation of the arabs and moors. it is the earliest example we meet with of lozenge-shaped diapers. the egyptians and the assyrians appear to have covered large spaces with patterns formed by geometrical arrangement of lines; but this is the first instance of the repetition of curved lines forming a general pattern enclosing a secondary form. by the prin- ciple contained in no. would be generated all those exquisite forms of diaper which covered the domes of the mosques of cairo and the walls of the alhambra. sassanian capital from bi sutoun.—flandin & coste. assyrisch &persiseh nineveh & persia m° assyr eh £t'perse taf&l xii.	<|	pl xii.  assyrisch &persiseh. nineyeh & persia assyriehs etperses fl.xir in iii ib tafel-xiii 	 i		 		i 	 —	□	—	□	-	□	 j r	| |		 i		 	 	□	—	. □	—	□	— 	 i		 		 	 h	l_				*______	 ¥p!#p m m luolliulij □ □□ □ □□□el el in □ !• ] m □i . in ini mni iiiiisfl ililis •••••••••••••• $!s§i®ls # !•###< !••••< □	□jo |a	□	□ ] a j c	a		 □ a □	[i]	q □ d	 	n a ci	e	 □	n|a|&	a	a | a| □	□	ajo[	 k ! □ f	 	□ □ a	 	a □ ~et	fq]	 a	□ | d |n	□	n | a | a	a	d|c|	o' a in		a		a		i-°. ! q fa"	 	u a	 	u "a"	; n j	i hj a	o|a| a	a	n]o|a	a	ajolalc	 «- assyftisch&msisch nineyeh & persia n° . assyriens etferses fl.xiy tafejlxxiy mmammm, mmm  chai'teb iv.—plates , , , , , , , . greek ornament. plate xv. a collection of the various forms of the greek fret from vases and pavements. plate .xvi -xxi. ornaments from greek and etruscan vases in the british museum and the louvre. plate xxii. from a sarcophagus in sicily.—hittorff. from the propylsea, athens.—hittorff. from the coffers of the ceiling of the propylsea.—penrose. string-course over the panathenaic frieze. published by mr. penrose in gold only, we have supplied the blue and red. painted ornaments.—hittorff. ornaments in terra cotta. painted ornament from the cymatium of the raking cornice of the parthenon.—l. vulliamy, the blue and red supplied. various frets, the traces of which exist on all the temples at athens. the colours supplied. we have seen that egyptian ornament was derived direct from natural inspiration, that it was founded on a few types, and that it remained unchanged during the whole course of egyptian civilization, except in the more or less perfection of the execution, the more ancient monuments being the most perfect. we have further expressed our belief that the assyrian was a borrowed style, possessing none of the characteristics of original inspiration, but rather appearing to have been suggested by the art of egypt, already in its decline, which decline was carried still farther. greek art, on the contrary, though borrowed partly from the egyptian and partly from the assyrian, was the development of an old idea in a new direction; and, unrestrained by religious laws, as would appear and . , - . - . . - , - . and . . - . greek ornament. to have been both the assyrian and the egyptian, greek art rose rapidly to a high state of perfection, from which it was itself able to give forth the elements of future greatness to other styles. it carried termination of the marble tiles of the parthenon.—l. vulliamy. the perfection abundant rem f pure form to a point which has never since been reached; and from the very we have of greek ornament, we must believe the presence of refined taste was upper part of a stele.—l. vulliamy. the upper part of a stele.—l. vulliamy. greek ornament. almost universal, and that the land was overflowing with artists, whose hands and minds were so trained as to enable them to execute these beautiful ornaments with unerring truth. greek ornament was wanting, however, in one of the. great charms which should always accompany ornament,—viz. symbolism. it was meaningless, purely decorative, never representative, and can hardly be said to be constructive; for the various members of a greek monument rather present surfaces exquisitely designed to receive ornament, which they did, at first, painted, and in later times both carved and painted. the ornament was no part of the construction, as with the egyptian : it could be removed, and the structure remained unchanged. on the corinthian capital the ornament is applied, not constructed : it is not so on the egyptian capital; there we feel the whole capital is the ornament,—to remove any portion of it would destroy it. however much we admire the extreme and almost divine perfection of the greek monumental sculpture, in its application the greeks frequently went beyond the legitimate bounds of ornament. the frieze of the parthenon was placed so far from the eye that it became a diagram : the beauties which so astonish us when seen near the eye could only have been valuable so far as they evidenced the artist-worship which cared not that the eye saw the perfection of the work if conscious that it was to be found there; but we are bound to consider this an abuse of means, and that the greeks were in this respect inferior to the egyptians, whose system of incavo relievo for monumental sculpture appears to us the more perfect. the examples of representative ornament are very few, with the exception of the wave ornament and the fret used to distinguish water from land in their pictures, and some conventional renderings of trees, as at no. , plate xxi., we have little that can deserve this appellation ; but of decorative ornament the greek and etruscan vases supply us with abundant materials; and as the painted ornaments of the temples which have as yet been discovered in no way differ from them, we have little doubt that we are acquainted with greek ornament in all its phases. like the egyptian the types are few, but the conventional rendering is much further removed from the types. in the well-known honeysuckle ornament it is difficult to recognise any attempt at imitation, but rather an appreciation of the principle on which the flower grows; and, indeed, on examining the paintings on the vases, we are rather tempted to believe that the various forms of the leaves of a greek flower have been generated by the brush of the painter, according as the hand is turned upwards or downwards in the formation of the leaf would the character be given, and it is more likely that the slight resemblance to the honeysuckle may have been an after recognition than that the natural flower should have ever served as the model. in plate xcix. will be found a representation of the honeysuckle; and how faint indeed is the resemblance! what is evident is, that the greeks in their ornament were close observers of nature, and although they did not copy, or attempt to imitate, they worked on the same principles. .the three great laws which we find everywhere in nature—radiation from the parent stem, proportionate distribution of the areas, and the tangential curvature of the lines—are always obeyed, and it is the unerring perfection with which they are, in the most humble works as in the highest, which excites our astonishment, and which is only fully realised on attempting to reproduce greek ornament, so rarely done with success. a very characteristic feature of greek ornament, continued by the romans, but abandoned during the byzantine period, is, that the various parts of a scroll grow out of each other in a continuous line, as the ornament from the choragic monument of lysicrates. in the byzantine, the arabian moresque, and early english styles, the flowers flow off on either side from a continuous line. we have here an instance how slight a change in any k	 i m greek ornament. generally received principle is sufficient to generate an entirely new order of forms and ideas. roman ornament is constantly struggling against this apparently fixed law. at the head of the roman chapter is a fine example, which may be taken as a type of all other roman ornament, which scarcely ever got beyond the arrangement of a volute springing from a stem fitting into £■ >•* from the choragic monument of lysicrates, athens.—l. vt llia.my. another stem, encircling a flower. the change which took place during the byzantine period in getting rid of this fixed law was as important in its results to the development of ornament as was the substitution of the arch by the romans for the straight architrave, or the introduction of the pointed arch in gothic architecture. these changes have the same influence in the development of a new style of ornament as the sudden discovery of a general law in science, or the lucky patented idea which in any work of industry suddenly lets loose thousands of minds to examine and improve upon the first crude thought. plate xxii. is devoted to the remains of coloured ornaments on the greek monuments. it will be seen that there is no difference whatever in the character of the drawing to those found on the vases. it is now almost universally recognised, that the white marble temples of the greeks were entirely covered with painted ornament. whatever doubts may exist as to the more or less colouring of the sculpture, there can be none as to the ornaments of the mouldings. the traces of colour exist everywhere so strongly, that in taking casts of the mouldings the traces of the pattern are strongly marked on the plaster cast. what the particular colours were, however, is not so certain. different authorities give them differently: where one will see green, another finds blue,—or imagines gold where another sees brown. we may be quite certain, however, of one point,—all these ornaments on the mouldings were so high from the ground, and so small in proportion to the distance from which they were seen, that they must have been coloured in a manner to render them distinct and to bring out the pattern. it is with this consideration that we have ventured to supply the colour to , , , , , which have hitherto been published only as gold or brown ornaments on the white marble. plate xv. in this plate are given a collection of the different varieties of the greek fret, from the simple generating form no. , to the more complicated meander no. . it will be seen, that the variety of arrangement of form that can be produced by the interlacing of lines at right angles in this form is very limited. we have, first, the simple fret, no. , running in one direction with a single line; greek ornament. the double fret, no. , with the second line interlacing with the first; all the others are formed by placing these frets one under the other, running in different directions, as at no. ; back to back, as at nos. and ; or enclosing squares, as at no. . all the other kinds are imperfect frets,— that is, not forming a continuous meander. the raking fret, no. , is the parent of all the other forms of interlacing ornament in styles which succeeded the greek. from this was first derived the arabian fret, which in its turn gave birth to that infinite variety of interlaced ornaments formed by the intersection of equidistant diagonal lines, which the moors carried to such perfection in the alhambra. greek. arabian. arabian. moresque. celtic. the knotted work of the celts differs from the moresque interlaced patterns only in adding curved terminations to the diagonal intersecting lines. the leading idea once obtained, it gave birth to an immense variety of new forms. the knotted-rope ornament of the greeks may also have had some influence in the formation both of these and the arabian and moresque interlaced ornaments. the chinese frets are less perfect than any of these. they are formed, like the greek, by the intersection of perpendicular with horizontal lines, but they have not the same regularity, and the meander is more often elongated in the horizontal direction. greek. fin] fe] he] [e] ie jeeu chinese. chinese. chinese. they are also most frequently used fragmentally,—that is, there is a repetition of one fret after the other, or one below the other, without forming a continuous meander. the mexican ornaments and frets, of which we here give some illustrations from mexican pottery in the british museum, have a remarkable affinity with the greek fret: and in mr. catherwood's illustra- ___™ tions of the architecture of \	rn til	in yucatan we have several va- rieties of the greek fret: one especially is thoroughly greek. from yucatan. yucatan we have several va- rieties of the greek fret: one especially is thoroughly greek. m from yucatan. but they are, in general, fragmentary, like the chinese : there is also to be found at yucatan a fret with a diagonal line, which is peculiar. the ornaments on plate xyi. have been selected to show the various forms of conventional leafage to be found on the greek vases. they are all very far removed from any natural from yucatan. greek ornament. type, and are rather constructed on the general principles which reign in all plants, than attempts to represent any particular one. the ornament no. is the nearest approach to the honeysuckle—that is, the leaves have the peculiar turn upwards of that flower, but it can hardly be called an attempt to represent it. several of the ornaments on plate xvii. are much nearer to nature : the laurel, the ivy, and vine will be readily distinguished. plates xviii., xix., xx., and xxi., present further varieties from borders, necks, and lips of vases in the british museum and the louvre. being produced by one springing of the group. when we consider that each leaf was done with a single stroke of the brush, and that from the differences which appear we may be sure no mechanical aids were employed, we must be astonished at the high state of the arts which must have existed for artists to be found in such numbers able to execute with unerring truth what it is almost beyond the skill of modern times even to copy with the same happy result. or two colours, they all depend for their effect on pure form : they have mostly this peculiarity, that the groups of a curved stem, with a volute at either e of this parent stem in tangential curves. the individual leaves all radiate from the centre of the group of leaves, each leaf diminishing in exquisite proportion as it approaches the greek ornament. ornaments prom mexican pottery in the british museum. iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii \ ) «mlllil|l|ll| ^....................^ l^wi'niiw-'iia ^ v   greek m°i tafe; grecs plxy % * h h ipinaietimie naibii luauat imbibibi s hffgulgl^zlai wlmiw i mumm □ e h ehh [glialmllglsalleil o a o hi * p (c sia m m [m ]c> [ ik  griecihsch g rbk-x n° grecs. tapel xv pi, xvi © lllllllllllllllll y tl / 	 	l^o?s 	 v,  gr ecihsch tafe.l xvii. ifiitiimiiti uhxii'ktki greek n° grecs plxvii wins 'iwiwim nun m mm hi hp	ii	h 		| lululv	a	,®u	ulum	 grecs plxvii mmmmrnm jamva jauaual o	o mm /v& w w ■/vw/av 	 	 	 	 * * * a a awvvwwvwvw f » » » *  griecihsch. tapel -xviii greek ng grkcs. plxvlll is i flg	i kp	 	sk p	 ■	wmm&	 	mmm	 ■		 	umm	 % k m m  griecihsch tafel xx greek n° gr£€ s pl xx # m & sms il m m // / / tapel xxi uuuuuuiuii^^ juuuuuuuyuuuyuuuuuuuuuuyu g regs pl xxi greek n°  gfuecihsch	greek n° 	grecs tafelxxn	pl xxii  chapter y.—plates , , . pompeian ornament. plate xxiii. collection of borders from different houses in pompeii.—zahn's pompeii, plate xxiv. various pilasters and friezes from different houses in pompeii.—zahn's pompeii, plate xxv. collection of mosaics from pompeii and the museum at naples.—from the author's sketches. the ornament of pompeii has been so ably and so fully illustrated in zahn's magnificent work, that we have thought it only necessary for this series to borrow from him the materials for two plates, to illustrate the two distinct styles of ornament which prevail in the decorations of the edifices of pompeii. the first (plate xxiii.) are evidently of greek origin, composed of conventional ornaments in flat tints, either painted dark on a light ground, or light on a dark ground, but without shade or any attempt at relief; the second (plate xxiv.) are more roman in character, based upon the acanthus scroll, and interwoven with ornament in direct imitation of nature. we refer the reader to zahn's work* for a full appreciation of the system of ornamentation in use at pompeii. an examination of this work will show that this system was carried to the very limit of caprice, and that almost any theory of colouring and decoration could be supported by authority from pompeii. the general arrangement of the decoration on the walls of the interior of a pompeian house * les plus beaux ornemens et les tableaux les plus remarquables de pompeii, & her culanum, et de stabice, dec., par guillaume zahn. berlin, . pompeian ornament. consists of a dado, about one-sixth of the height of the wall, upon which stand broad pilasters half the width of the dado, dividing the wall into three or more panels. the pilasters are united by a frieze of varying width, about one-fourth of the height of the wall from the top. the upper space is frequently white, and it is always sub- jected to a much less severe treatment than the parts below, generally representing the open air, and upon the ground are painted those fantastic architectural buildings which excited the ire of vitruvius. in the best examples there is a gra- dation of colour from the ceiling downwards, ending with black in the dado, but this is very far from being a fixed law. we select from the coloured illustrations in zahn's work several varieties, which will show how little this was the result of system	diagram of the side of a pompeian house. dado.	pilasters.	panels.	frieze. yellow	green	red	black red	red	black	purple black	yellow	black	red black	yellow	green	green blue	yellow	green	green blue	yellow	blue	blue black	green	yellow and red	white 		(alternately)	 black	grey	yellow and red	black 		(alternately)	 black	black	green and red	white 		(alternately)	 the most effective arrangement appears to be black dado, red pilasters and frieze, with yellow, blue, or white panels, the upper part above the frieze being in white, with coloured decorations upon it. the best arrangement of colours for the ornaments on the ground appears to be, on the black grounds, green and blue in masses, red sparingly, and yellow still more so. on the blue grounds, white in thin lines, and yellow in masses. on the red grounds, green, white, and blue in thin lines : the yellow on red is not effective unless heightened with shade. almost every variety of shade and tone of colour may be found at pompeii. blue, red, and yellow are used, not only in small quantities in the ornaments, but also in large masses as grounds for the panels and pilasters. the yellow of pompeii, however, nearly approaches orange, and the red is strongly tinged with blue. this neutral character of the colours enables them to be so violently juxtaposed without discord, a result still further assisted by the secondary and tertiary colours by which they are surrounded. the whole style, however, of the decoration is so capricious that it is beyond the range of true art, and strict criticism cannot be applied to it. it generally pleases, but, if not absolutely vulgar, it oftentimes approaches vulgarity. it owes its greatest charm to the light, sketchy, free-hand manner of its execution, which it is quite impossible to render in any drawing; and pompeian ornament. which has never been accomplished in any restoration of the style. the reason is obvious; the artists of pompeii invented as they drew; every touch of their brush had an intention which no copyist can seize. mr. digby wyatt's restoration of a pompeian house in the crystal palace, sydenham, admirable and faithful as it is in all other respects, necessarily failed in this; no one could possibly have brought greater knowledge, experience, and zeal to bear upon the realisation of that accuracy in the decorations which was so much desired than did signor abbate. the want of his perfect success consisted in the fact, that his paintings were at the same time too well executed and not sufficiently individual. the ornaments which are given on plate xxiii., and which have evidently a greek character, are generally borders on the panels, and are executed with stencils. they have a thinness of character compared with greek models, which show a marked inferiority; we no longer find perfect radiation of lines from the parent stem, nor perfect distribution of masses and proportional areas. their charm lies in an agreeable contrast of colour, which is still further heightened when surrounded with other colours in situ. the ornaments from pilasters and friezes on plate xxiv., after the roman type, are shaded to give rotundity, but not sufficiently so to detach them from the ground. in this the pompeian artists showed a judgment in not exceeding that limit of the treatment of ornament in the round, altogether lost sight of in subsequent times. we have here the acanthus-leaf scroll forming the groundwork, on which are engrafted representations of leaves and flowers interlaced with animals, precisely similar to the remains found in the roman baths, and which, in the time of raphael, became the foundation of italian ornament. in plate xxv. we have gathered together all the forms of mosaic pavement, which was such a feature in every home of the romans, wherever their dominion extended. in the attempt at relief shown in several of the examples, we have evidence that their taste was no longer so refined as that of their greek teachers. the borders, formed by a repetition of hexagons at the top and the sides of the page, are the types from which we may directly trace all that immense variety of byzantine, arabian, and moresque mosaics.  p mpej sgh tafel xxiii p m.peian n° i fompeiehs pl xxii mm ishsssk	hi				l»mi 					 ■ iiiilliii'ili pn, rvo. m/jm '£ i □ r	h y □	ii mi iii  fragment in white marble from the mattei palace, rome.—l. vulliamy.* chapter vi.—plates , . roman ornament. plate xxvi. , . fragments from the forum of trajan, rome. . pilasters from the villa medici, rome. .	pilaster from the villa medici, rome. ,	 . fragments from the villa medici, rome. nos. - are from casts in the crystal palace ; no. from a cast at south kensington museum. plate xxvii. - . fragments of the frieze of the roman temple at ...* brescia. . fragment of the soffits of the architraves of the roman temple at brescia. nos. - from the museo bresciano ; f no. from taylor and cresy's rome. .	fragment of the soffits of the architraves of the roman temple at brescia. .	from the frieze of the arch of the goldsmiths, rome. * examples of ornamental sculpture in architecture, by lewis vulliamy, architect. london, f museo bresciano, illustrato. brescia, . roman ornament the real greatness of the romans is rather to be seen in their palaces, baths, theatres, aqueducts, and other works of public utility, than in their temple architecture, which being the expression of a religion borrowed from the greeks, and in which probably they had little faith, exhibits a corre- sponding want of earnestness and art-worship. in the greek temple it is everywhere apparent that the struggle was to arrive at a perfection worthy of the gods. in the roman temple the aim was self-glorification. from the base of the column to the apex of the pediment every part is overloaded with ornament, tending rather to dazzle by quantity than to excite admiration by the quality of the work. the greek temples when painted were as ornamented as those of the romans, but with a very different result. the ornament was so arranged that it threw a coloured bloom over the whole structure, and in no way disturbed the exquisitely designed surfaces which received it. the romans ceased to value the general proportions of the structure and the contours of the moulded surfaces, which were entirely destroyed by the elaborate surface-modelling of the ornaments carved on them; and these ornaments do not grow naturally from the surface, but are applied on it. the acanthus leaves under the modillions, and those round the bell of the corinthian capitals, are placed one before the other most unartistically. they are not even bound together by the necking at the top of the shaft, but rest upon it. unlike in this the egyptian capital, where the stems of the flowers round the bell are continued through the necking, and at the same time represent a beauty and express a truth. the fatal facilities which the roman system of decoration gives for manufacturing ornament, by applying acanthus leaves to any form and in any direction, is the chief cause of the invasion of this ornament into most modern works. it requires so little thought, and is so completely a manufacture, that it has encouraged architects in an indolent neglect of one of their especial provinces, and the interior decorations of buildings have fallen into hands most unfitted to supply their place. in the use of the acanthus leaf the romans showed but little art. they received it from the greeks beautifully conventionalised ; they went much nearer to the general outline, but exaggerated the surface-decoration. the greeks confined themselves to expressing the principle of the foliation of the leaf, and bestowed all their care in the delicate undulations of its surface. the ornament engraved at the head of the chapter is typical of all roman ornament, which consists universally of a scroll growing out of another scroll, encircling a flower or group of leaves^ this example, however, is constructed on greek principles, but is wanting in greek refinement. in greek ornament the scrolls grow out of each other in the same way, but they are much more delicate at the point of junction. the acanthus leaf is also seen, as it were, in side elevation. the purely roman method of using the acanthus leaf is seen in the corinthian capitals, and in the roman ornament. examples on plates xxvi. and xxvii. the leaves are flattened out, and they lay one over the other, as in the cut. fragment of the frieze of the temple of the sun, colonna palace, uome.—l. vulliamy. the various capitals which we have engraved from taylor and cresy's work have been placed in juxtaposition, to show how little variety the romans were able to produce in following out this application of the acanthus. the only difference which exists is in the proportion of the general form of the mass; the decline in this proportion from that of jupiter stator may be seen readily. how different from the immense variety of egyptian capitals which arose from the modification of the general plan of the capital, even the introduction of the ionic volute in the composite order fails to add a beauty, but rather increases the deformity. the pilasters from the villa medici, nos. and , plate xxvi., and the fragment, no. , are as perfect specimens of roman ornament as could be found. as specimens of modelling and drawing they have strong claims to be admired, but as ornamental accessories to the architectural features of a building they most certainly, from their excessive relief and elaborate surface treatment, are deficient in the first principle, viz. adaptation to the purpose they have to fill. the amount of design that can be obtained by working out this principle of leaf within leaf and leaf over leaf is very limited ; and it was not till this principle of one leaf growing out of another in a continuous line was abandoned for the adoption of a continuous stem throw- ing off ornaments on either side, that pure conventional ornament received any develop- ment. the earliest examples of the change are found in st. sophia at constantinople; and we introduce here an example from st. denis, where, although the swelling at the stem and the turned-back leaf at the junction of stem and stem have entirely disappeared, the continuous stem is not yet fully developed, as it appears in the narrow border top and bottom. this principle became very common in the illuminated mss. of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, and is the foundation of early english foliage. the fragments on plate xxvii., from the museo bresciano, are more elegant than those from the niiininmmi from the abbey of st. denis, paris. roman ornament. villa medici; the leaves are more sharply accentuated and more conventionally treated. the frieze from the arch of the goldsmiths is, on the contrary, defective from the opposite cause. we have not thought it necessary to give in this series any of the painted decorations of the romans, of which remains exist in the roman baths. we had no reliable materials at command; and, further, they are so similar to those at pompeii, and show rather what to avoid than what to follow, that we have thought it sufficient to introduce the two subjects from the forum of trajan, in which figures terminating in scrolls may be said to be the foundation of that prominent feature in their painted decorations. the acanthus, full size, from a photograph. roman ornament. i temple of jupiter stator, rome. temple of vesta, tivoli. arch of constantino, rome. l in m\s\ arch of trajan, ancona. arch of titus, rome. temple of mars victor, rome. pantheon, rome. portico. pantheon, rome. interior of pantheon, rome. arch of septimius severus, rome. corinthian and composite capitals reduced from taylor and cresy's rome* * the architectural antiquities of rome, by g. l. taylor and cresy, arohiteots. london, .  rgmisch	roman n° 	r main s pl xxyi tafel xxyi iaianiiihm»n.fi	..atm  ft m is c h tafel xx vii roman n° ro mains plxxvli. chapter yii.—plates , , *:% . byzantine ornament. plate xxviii. , , . stone sculptured ornament, sta. sofia, constanti- nople. th century.—salzenberg, alt christliche baudenkmale, constantinopel. , . from the bronze gates, sta. sofia.—salzenberg,w.«. , . portions of ivory diptychs, beauvais cathedral; apparently anglo-saxon work of the th century. —willemin, monuments frangais inedits. . portion of bronze door,basilica of the nativity,beth- lehem. rd or th century.—gailhabaud, l'ar- chitecture et les arts qui en dependent - . stone sculptures, from st. mark's, venice. th century.—j. b. w. from casts at sydenham. , , . portion of a capital, st. michael's church, schwabisch hall. th century.—heideloff, ornamentik des mittelalters. .	from a doorway, preserved at murrhard monastery. —heideloff, u. a. .	composition of bosses, from st. sebald, nuremberg, and the church of nosson, saxony.—heideloff. , . friezes from the church of st. john, gmund, swabia.—heideloff. . romanesque wood and ivory carving, in the collec- tion of herr leven, cologne.—heideloff. th and th cen- turies. .	from the principal bronze door,n monreale, near palermo.—j.b.w. .	from the bronze door of the }" duomo, ravello, near amalfi.- j. b. w. .	 . from the bronze door of the duomo, trani. th century.—barras et luynes, recherches sur les monuments des normands en sicile. .	stone sculpture, from the small cloister, huelgas monastery, near burgos, spain. th century.—j.b.w. .	from the porch of lucca cathedral. circa a.d.— j. b. w. .	from st. denis (porch), near paris. th century.— j.b.w. .	from the cloisters of sant' ambrogia, milan.—j. b. w. .	from the chapel of heilsbronn, bavaria.—heideloff. .	from st. denis.—j. b. w. .	from bayeux cathedral. th century.—pugin, an- tiquities of normandy. .	from st. denis.—j. b. w. .	bayeux cathedral.—pugin, u. a. .	from lincoln cathedral porch. close of th century. j. b. w. .	from the kilpeck porch, herefordshire. th century.— j. b. w. plate xxix. - . mosaics from sta. sofia, constantinople. th century. —salzenberg, alt christliche baudenkmale von constantinopel. . marble pavement, agios pantokrator, constantinople. first half of th century.—salzenberg, u. a. , . marble pavement, sta. sofia. - . mosaics, sta. sofia.—salzenberg. - . from illuminated greek mss., british museum.— j. b. w. , . borders, from illuminated greek mss.—champol- lion figeac, palceographie universelle. . the centre, from st. mark's, venice.—digby wyatt, mosaics of the middle ages. byzantine ornament. plate .	from a greek ms., british museum.—j. b. w. the border beneath from monreale.—digby wyatt's mosaics. .	from the homilies of gregory nazianzen. th cen- tury.—champollion figeac, u. a. , . from greek mss., british museum—j. b. w. .	from the acts of the apostles, greek ms., vatican library, rome.—digby wyatt, u. a. .	st. mark's, venice.—digby wyatt, u. a. .	portion of a greek diptyeh. th century. florence. —j. b. w. (the fleurs-de-lys are believed to be of later workmanship.) xxix*. .	enamel of the th century, (french).—willemin, monuments frangais inedits. .	from an enamelled casket (the centre from the statue of jean, son of st. louis).—du sommeraiid. les arts du moyen age. .	from the enamelled tomb of jean, son of st. louis, a.d. .—willemin, u. a. .	limoges enamel, probably of the close of the th century.—willemin, u. a. .	portion of mastic pavement, th century. preserved at st. denis, near paris.—willemin. plate xxx. , . mosaics (opus grecanicum) from monreale cathe- dral, near palermo. close of th century — j. b. w. . mosaics from the church of ara coeli, rome.—j.b.w. , . monreale cathedral.—j. b. w. . marble pavement, st. mark's, venice.—j. b. w. - . from san lorenzo fuori, rome. close of th cen- tury.—j. b. w. .	san lorenzo fuori, rome.—j. b. w. .	ara coeli, rome.—j. b. w. .	marble pavement, st. mark's, venice.—j. b. w. .	san lorenzo fuori, rome, architectural art in italy and spain, by waring and macquoid. ] , .	palermo.—digby wyatt, mosaics of the middleages. .	from the cathedral, monreale.—j. b. w.	^ .	from ara coeli, rome.—j. b. w. x. .	marble pavement, s.m. maggiore, rome.—hessemer, arabische und alt italianische bau verzierungen. .	marble pavement, san vitale, ravenna.—hessemer, u. a. .	marble pavement, s. m. in cosmedin, rome.—hes- semer, u. a. , . . . . . . . . . . - . - . . . . . mosaic, st. mark's, venice.—specimens of the mosaics of the middle ages, digby. wyatt. baptistery of st. mark, venice.—architectural art in italy and spain.—waring and macqu-oid. sangiovanni laterano,rome. the duomo, civita castellana. ara coeli, rome.—j. b. w. from digbywyatt's mosaics of the mid- dle ages. san lorenzo, rome. ara coeli, rome. san lorenzo, rome. architectural art in italy and ■ spain, waring and mac- quoid: san lorenzo fuori, rome.—-j. b. w. san giovanni laterano, rome.—digby wyatt's mosaics of the middle ages. monreale cathedral.—j. b. w. marble pavement, s. m. maggiore, rome.—hesse- mer, u. a. st. mark's, venice.—mosaics of the middle ages, digby wyatt. from the baptistery, st. mark's, venice.—j. b. w. from st. mark's, venice.—architectural art in italy and spain. . from the duomo, monreale.—j. b. w. byzantine ornament. the vagueness with which writers on art have treated the byzantine and romanesque styles of architecture, even to within the last few years, has extended itself also to their concomitant decoration. this vagueness has arisen chiefly from the want of examples to which the writer could refer ; nor was it until the publication of herr salzenberg's great work on sta. sofia at constantinople, that we could obtain any complete and definite idea of what constituted pure byzantine ornament. san yitale at ravenna, though thoroughly byzantine as to its architecture, still afforded us but a very incomplete notion of byzantine ornamentation : san marco at venice represented but a phase of the byzantine school; and the cathedral of monreale, and other examples of the same style in sicily, served only to show the influence, but hardly to illustrate the true nature, of pure byzantine art: byzantine ornament. fully to understand that, we required what the ravages of time and the whitewash of the mahom- medan had deprived us of, namely, a byzantine building on a grand scale, executed during the best period of the byzantine epoch. such an invaluable source of information has been opened to us through the enlightenment of the present sultan, and been made public to the world by the liberality of the prussian government; and we recommend all those who desire to have a graphic idea of what byzantine decorative art truly was, to study herr salzenberg's beautiful work on the churches and buildings of ancient byzantium. in no branch of art, probably, is the observation, ex nihilo nihil fit, more applicable than in decorative art. thus, in the byzantine style, we perceive that various schools have combined to form its peculiar characteristics, and we shall proceed to point out briefly what were the principal formative causes. • even before the transfer of the seat of the roman empire from rome to byzantium, at the commencement of the fourth century, we see all the arts in a state either of decline or transformation. certaiti as it is that rome had given her peculiar style of art to the numerous foreign peoples ranged beneath her sway, it is no less certain that the hybrid art of her provinces had powerfully reacted on the centre of civilisation; and even at the close of the third century had materially affected that lavish style of decoration which characterised the magnificent baths and other public -buildings of rome. the necessity which constantine found himself under, when newly settled in byzantium, of employing oriental artists and workmen, wrought a still more vital and marked change in the traditional style; and there can be little doubt but that each surrounding nation aided in giving its impress to the newly-formed school, according to the state of its civilisation and its capacity for art, until at last the motley mass became fused into one systematic whole during the long and (for art) prosperous reign of the first justinian. b . - in this result we cannot fail to be struck with the important influence exercised by the great temples and theatres built in asia minor during the rule of the caesars; in these we already see the tendency to elliptical curved outlines, acute-pointed leaves, and thin continuous foliage without the springing-ball and flower, which characterise byzantine ornament. on the frieze of the theatre at byzantine ornament. c i patara (a), and at the temple of venus at aplirodisias (caria), are to be seen examples of flowing foliage such as we allude to. on the doorway of the temple erected by the native rulers of galatia at ancyra ( ), in honour of augustus, is a still more characteristic type, and the pilaster capital of a small temple at patara (c), inscribed by texier to the first century of the christian era, is almost identical with one drawn by salzenberg at smyrna (d), which he believes to be of the first part of justinian's reign, or about the year a.d. in the absence of authentic dates we cannot decide satisfactorily how far persia influenced the byzantine style, but it is certain that persian workmen and artists were much employed at byzantium ; and in the remarkable monuments at tak-i-bostan, bi-sutoun, and tak-i-ghero, and in several ancient capitals at ispahan—given in flandin and coste's great work on persia—we are struck at once with their thoroughly byzantine character; but we are inclined to believe that they are pos- terior, or at most contemporaneous, with the best period of byzantine art, that is, of the sixth century. however that may be, we find the forms of a still earlier period reproduced so late as the year a.d. ; and in jovian's column at ancyra (e), erected during or shortly after his retreat with julian's army from their persian expedition, we recognise an application of one of the most general orna- mental forms of ancient persepolis. at persepolis also are to be seen the pointed and channelled leaves so characteristic of byzantine work, as seen in the accompanying example from sta. sofia (/); and at a later period, i.e. during the rule of the caesars, we remark at the doric temple of kangovar (g) contours of moulding precisely similar to those affected in the byzantine style. interesting and instructive as it is to trace the derivation of these forms in the byzantine style, it is no less so to mark the transmission of them and of others to later epochs. thus in no. , plate xxviii., we perceive the peculiar leaf, as given in texier and in salzenberg, reappear at sta. sofia; at no. , plate xxviii., is the foliated st. andrew's cross within a circle, so common as a romanesque and gothic ornament. on the same frieze is a design repeated with but slight altera- tion at no. from germany. the curved and foliated branch of no. of the sixth century (sta. sofia) is seen reproduced, with slight variation, at no. of the eleventh century (st. mark's). the toothings of the leaves of no. (germany) are almost identical with those of no. (sta. sofia); and be- tween all the examples on the last row but one (plate xxviii.) is to be remarked a generic resemblance in subjects from germany, italy, and spain, founded on a byzantine type. the last row of subjects in this plate illustrates more especially the romanesque style (nos. and ), showing the interlaced ornament so affected by the northern nation, founded mainly on a native type; whilst at no. (st. denis) we have one instance out of numbers of the reproduction i j ^\wmw j byzantine ornament. of roman models; the type of the present subject,—a common one in the romanesque style,—being found on the roman column at cussy, between dijon and chalons-sur-saone. thus we see that rome, syria, persia, and other countries, all took part as formative causes in the byzantine style of art, and its accompanying decoration, which, complete as we find it in justinian's time, reacted in its new and systemised form upon the western world, undergoing certain changes in its course; and these modifying causes, arising from the state of religion, art, and manners in the countries where it was received, frequently gave it a specific character, and produced in some cases co-relative and yet distinct styles of ornament in the celtic, anglo-saxon, lombardic, and arabian schools. placing on one side the question of how far byzantine workmen or artists were employed in europe, there can be no possible doubt that the character of the byzantine school of ornament is very strongly impressed on all the earlier works of central and even western europe, which are generically termed romanesque. pure byzantine ornament is distinguished by broad-toothed and acute-pointed leaves, which in sculpture are bevelled at the edge, are deeply channelled throughout, and are drilled at the several springings of the teeth with deep holes; the running foliage is generally thin and continuous, as at nos. , , and , plate xxix*., plate xxix. the ground, whether in mosaic or painted work, is almost universally gold; thin interlaced patterns are preferred to geometrical designs. the introduction of animal or other figures is very limited in sculpture, and in colour is confined prin- cipally to holy subjects, in a stiff, conventional style, exhibiting little variety or feeling; sculpture is of very secondary importance. romanesque ornament, on the other hand, depended mainly on sculpture for effect: it is rich in light and shade, deep cuttings, massive projections, and a great intermixture of figure-subjects of every kind with foliage and conventional ornament. the place of mosaic work is generally supplied by paint; in coloured ornament, animals are as freely introduced as in sculpture, vide no. , plate xxix*.; the ground is no longer gold alone, but blue, red, or green, as at nos. , , , plate xxix*. in other respects, allowing for local differences, it retains much of the byzantine character; and in the case of painted glass, for example, handed it down to the middle, and even the close of the thirteenth century. one style of ornament, that of geometrical mosaic work, belongs particularly to the romanesque period, especially in italy; numerous examples of it are given in plate xxx. this art flourished principally in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and consists in the arrangement of small diamond- shaped pieces of glass into a complicated series of diagonal lines; the direction of which is now stopped, now defined, by means of different colours. the examples from central italy, such as nos. , , , , , are much simpler than those of the southern provinces and sicily, where saracenic artists introduced their innate love of intricate designs, some ordinary examples of which are to be seen in nos. , , , from monreale, near palermo. it is to be remarked that there are two distinct styles of design coexistent in sicily: the one, such as we have noted, consisting of diagonal interlacings, and eminently moresque in character, as may be seen by reference to plate xxix. ; the other, consisting of interlaced curves, as at nos. , , , also from monreale, in which we may recognise, if not the hand, at least the influence, of byzantine artists. altogether of a different character, though of about the same period, are nos. , , , , , which serve as examples of the veneto-byzantine style; limited in its range, being almost local, and peculiar in style. some are more markedly byzantine, however, as no. , with interlaced circles; and the step ornament, so common at sta. sofia, as seen at nos. , , and , plate xxix. the opus alexandrinum. or marble mosaic work, differs from the opus grecanicum, or glass mosaic work, chiefly from the different nature of the material; the principle (that of complicated /	*	 byzantine ornament. geometric design) is still the same. the pavements of the romanesque churches in italy are rich in examples of this class; the tradition of which was handed down from the augustan age of rome ; a good idea of the nature of this ornament is given in nos. , , , , and . local styles, on the system of marble inlay, existed in several parts of italy during the roman- esque period, which bear little relation either to roman or byzantine models. such is no. , from san yitale, ravenna ; such are the pavements of the baptistery and san miniato, florence, of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries; in these the effect is produced by black and white marble only; with these exceptions, and those produced by moresque influence in the south of italy, the principles both of the glass and marble inlay ornament are to be found in ancient roman inlay, in every province under roman sway, and especially is it remarkable in the various mosaics found at pompeii, of which striking examples are given in plate xxv. important as we perceive the influence of byzantine art to have been in europe, from the sixth to the eleventh century, and still later, there is no people whom it affected more than the great and spreading arab race, who propagated the creed of mahomet, conquered the finest countries of the east, and finally obtained a footing even in europe. in the earlier buildings executed by them at cairo, alexandria, jerusalem, cordova, and sicily, the influence of the byzantine style is very strongly marked. the traditions of the byzantine school affected more or less all the adjacent countries ; in greece they remained almost unchanged to a very late period, and they have served, in a great degree, as the basis to all decorative art in the east and in eastern europe. j. b. waring. september, . *** for more information on this subject, see " handbook " to byzantine and romanesque court at sydenham.— wyatt and waring. books referred to for illustrations. salzenberg. alt christliche baudenkmale von constantinopel. flandin et coste. voyage en perse. texier. description de varmenie, perse, &c. heideloff. die ornamentik des mittelalters. kreutz. la basilica di an marco. gailhabaud. is architecture et les arts qui en dependent. du sommerard. les arts du moyen age. barras et-luynes (due de). recherches sur les monuments de normands en sicile. champolt.ion figeac. palceojraphie universelle. willemin. monuments frangais inedits. hessemer. arahische und alt italianische bau- verzierungen. digby wyatt. geometrical mosaics of the middle ages. waring and macquoid. architectural arts in italy and spain. waring. architectural studies at burgos and its neighbourhood. u byzantinisch byzantine n° i b yz antins afelxxytil  byzantmisch	byzantine n 	byzantins pl xxix tafel xxix  yapei> xxix* byzantihs pl xxix byzantinisgh. byzantine n° * m wa- if ■<** *i «..v& a -a , a . a f: : x a r fer-s; vn>>-« .:  by antinisch byzantine n° by antins pl xxx tafel xxx ft	r > ■sim* * y r-% mpm t^xt/a % * smss? i ;:£«::■ ♦ k * > ♦ gs^gg ■ sgbst?^ sssjijslssw. sr#£m wkmrn^r /*fi/»jij^ji/iij^iii '^*t* «r«ffvfv**rt! if st 'i»> xi.<i\m.'wwmvnv -- k.^ " /,%	m * -*-m - v ♦. l * • jt+***£*ma*£re£££l -"-— piqiq v — ■ ♦♦*. "» ssffis mmm i «*v v ' ' ' r •* r •* ■v «r ▼ ▼ ^ ififiiiiffiiimiiimiiaiiifiiri  chapter "viii.—plates , , , , , ababian oenament, from cairo. plate xxxi. this plate consists of the ornamented architraves and soffits of the windows in the interior of the mosque of tooloon, cairo. they are executed in plaster, and nearly all the windows are of a different pattern. the main arches of the building are decorated in the same way ; but only a fragment of one of the soffits now remains, sufficiently large to make out the design. this is given in plate xxxiit., no. .* nos. - , , , - , are designs from architraves round the windows. the rest of the patterns are from their soffits and jambs. the mosque of tooloon was founded a.d. - , and these ornaments are certainly of that date. it is the oldest arabian building in cairo, and is specially interesting as one of the earliest known examples of the pointed arch. plate xxxtj. - . from the parapet of the mosque of sultan kalaoon. , . ornaments round arches in the mosque en nasi- reeyeh. - . ornaments round curved architraves in the mosque sultan kalaoon. . soffit of one of the main arches in the mosque of tooloon. - . ornaments on the mosque of kalaoon. . wooden stringcourse pulpit. - . from the mosque of kalaoon. the mosque of kalaoon was founded in the year - . all these ornaments are executed in plaster, and seem to have been cut on the stucco while still wet. there is too great a variety on the patterns, and even disparities on the corresponding parts of the same pattern, to allow of their having been cast or struck from moulds. plate xxxiii. - .	from the parapet of the mosque of sultan kalaoon. - .	curved architraves from ditto. .	soffit of arch, mosque en nasireeyeh. .	from door in the mosque el barkookeyeh. .	wooden architrave, mosque en nasireeyeh. .	soffit of window, mosque of kalaoon. , .	wooden architraves. .	frieze round tomb, mosque en nasireeyeh. .	, wooden architrave. - .	ornaments from various mosques* plate xxxiv. these designs were traced from a splendid copy of the koran in the mosque el barkookeyeh, founded a.d. . arabian ornament. in the buildings which they constructed partly of old materials, they endeavoured, in the new parts of the structure, to imitate the details borrowed from old buildings. the same result followed as had already taken place in the transformation of the roman style to the byzantine: the imitations were crude and imperfect. but this very imperfection gave birth to a new order of ideas; they never returned to the original model, but gradually threw off the shackles which the original model imposed. the mohammedans, very early in their history, formed and perfected a style of art peculiarly their own. the ornaments on plate xxxi. are from the mosque of tooloon in cairo, which was erected in , only years after the establishment of mohammedanism, and we in this mosque already find a style of architecture complete in itself,—retaining, it is true, traces of its origin, but being entirely freed from any direct imitation of the previous style. this result is very remarkable when compared with the results of the christian religion in another direction. it can hardly be said that christianity produced an architecture peculiarly its own, and entirely freed from traces* of paganism, until the twelfth or thirteenth century. the mosques of cairo are amongst the most beautiful buildings in the world.. they are remarkable at the same time for the grandeur and simplicity of their general forms, and for the refinement and elegance which the decoration of these forms displays. this elegance of ornamentation. appears to have been derived from the persians, from whom the arabs are supposed to have derived many of their arts. it is more than probable that this influence reached them by a double process. the art of byzantium already displays an asiatic influence. the remains at bi-sutoun, published by flandin and coste, are either persian under byzantine influence, or, if of earlier date, there must be much of byzantine art which was derived from persian sources, so similar are they in general character of outline. we have already, in chapter iii., referred to an ornament on a sassanian capital, no. , plate xiv., which appears to be the type of the arabian diapers; and on the spandril of the arch which we here introduce from salzenberg's work on sta. sofia, will be seen a system of decoration totally at variance with much of the grseco-roman features of that building, and which it may not be impossible are the result of some asiatic influence. be that as it may, this spandril is itself the foundation of the surface decoration of the arabs and moors. it will be observed that, although the leafage which surrounds the centre is still a reminiscence of the acanthus leaf, it is the first attempt at throwing off the principle of leafage growing out one from the other : the scroll is continuous without break. the pattern is distributed all over the spandril, so as to produce one even tint, which was ever the aim of the arabs and moors. there is also another feature connected with it,—the mouldings on the edge of the arch are ornamented from the surface, and the soffit of the arch is decorated in the same way as the soffits of arabian and moresque arches. the collection of ornaments from the mosque of tooloon, on plate xxxi., are very remarkable, as exhibiting in this early stage of arabian art the types of all those arrangements of form which reach their culminating point in the alhambra. the differences which exist result from the less perfection of the distribution of the forms, the leading principles are the same. they represent the first stage of surface decoration. they are of plaster, and the surface of the part to be decorated being first brought to an even face, the patterns were either stamped or traced upon the material, whilst still in a plastic state, with a blunt instrument, which in making the incisions slightly rounded the edges. we at once recognised that the principles of the radiation of the lines from a parent stem and the tangential curva- ture of those lines had been either retained by graeco-roman tradition, or was felt by them from observation of nature. many of the patterns, such as , , , , , , , , still retain traces of this greek origin : two flowers, or a flower turned upwards and another downwards, from either end of a stalk; but there was this difference, that with the greeks the flowers or leaves do not form part of the scroll, q	 arabian ornament. but grow out of it, whilst with the arabs the scroll was transformed into an intermediate leaf. no. shows the continuous scroll derived from the romans, with the division at each turn of the scroll, so characteristic of roman ornament, omitted. the ornament we engrave here from sta. sophia would seem to be one of the earliest examples of the change. arabian. arabian. arabian. greek. moresque. the upright patterns on this plate, chiefly from the soffits of windows, and therefore having all an upright tendency in their lines, may be considered as the germs of all those exquisitely-designed patterns of this class, where the repetition of the same patterns side by side produces another or several others. many of the patterns on this plate should be doubled in the lateral direction : our anxiety to exhibit as many varieties as possible preventing the engraving of the repeat. with the exception of the centre ornament on plate xxxii., which is from the same mosque as the ornament on the last plate, the whole of the ornaments on plates xxxiii. and xxxiv. are of the thirteenth century, i.e. four hundred years later than those of the mosque of tooloon. the progress which the style had made in this period may be seen at a glance. as compared, however, with the alhambra, which is of the same period, they are very inferior. the arabs never arrived at that state of perfection in the distribution of the masses, or in the ornamenting of the surfaces of the ornaments, in which the moors so excelled. the guiding instinct is the same, but the execution is very inferior. in moresque ornament the relation of the areas of the ornament to the ground is always perfect; there are never any gaps or holes; in the decoration of the surfaces of the ornaments also they exhibited much greater skill,—there was less monotony. to exhibit clearly the difference, we repeat the arabian ornament, no. , from plate xxxiii., compared with two varieties of lozenge diapers from the alhambra. the moors also introduced another feature into their surface ornament, viz. that there were often two and sometimes three planes on which the patterns were drawn, the ornaments on the upper plane being boldly distributed over the mass, whilst those on the second interwove themselves arabian ornament. with the first, enriching the surface on a lower level; by which admirable contrivance a piece of ornament retains its breadth of effect when viewed at a distance, and affords most exquisite, and oftentimes most ingenious, decoration for close inspection. generally there was more variety in their surface treatment; the feathering which forms so prominent a feature on the ornaments on plates xxxii., xxxiii., was intermixed with plain surfaces, such as we see at nos. , , , plate xxxii. the ornament no. , plate xxxiii., is in pierced metal, and is a very near approach to the perfection of distribution of the moorish forms; it finely exhibits the proportionate arabian.	moresque.	moresque. diminution of the forms towards the centre of the pattern, and that fixed law, never broken by the moors, that however distant an ornament, or however intricate the pattern, it can always be traced to its branch and root. generally, the main differences that exist between the arabian and moresque styles may be summed up thus,—the constructive features of the arabs possess more grandeur, and those of the moors more refinement and elegance. the exquisite ornaments on plate xxxiv., from a copy of the koran, will give a perfect idea of arabian decorative art. were it not for the introduction of flowers, which rather destroy the unity of the style, and which betray a persian influence, it would be impossible to find a better specimen of arabian ornament. as it is, however, it is a very perfect lesson both in form and colour. the immense mass of fragments of marble derived from roman ruins must have very early led the arabs to seek to imitate the universal practice of the romans, of covering the floors of their houses and monuments with mosaic patterns, arranged on a geometrical system; and we have on plate xxxv. a great number of the varieties which this fashion produced with the arabs. no better idea can be obtained of what style in ornament consists than by comparing the mosaics on plate xxxv. with the roman mosaics, plate xxv. ; the byzantine, plate xxx.; the moresque, plate xliii. there is scarcely a form to be found in any one which does not exist in all the others. yet how strangely different is the aspect of these plates! it is like an idea expressed in four different languages. the mind receives from each the same modified conception, by the sounds so widely differing. arabian ornament. the twisted cord, the interlacing of lines, the crossing of two squares , the equilateral triangle arranged within a hexagon, are the starting-points in each; the main differences resulting in the scheme of colouring, with the material employed and the uses to which they were applied, mainly suggested. the arabian and the roman are pavements, and of lower tones; the moresque are dados; whilst those of the brighter hues, on plate xxx., are decorations on the constructive features of the building. arab is ch arabian n° i arabes tafel xxxi pl.xxxi km-h-m-m-i-m-m y y t t u i y y f, ft t v s it o cm dot a % d kg a m  arabisch arabian m° a « a b e s tafklxxxii pl xxxii. ^£ m m m a i mh m n ^ si £ "fig m  arabisce	arabian n 	ajrabrs tafel xxxiu i	 e	  arab ch arabian n < arases pl xxxiv taftzl. xxxiy *w# '\ m* j'/. •*♦ **  arabisch tafelxxxy arabian n° arabes pl xxxv * & & ^ *»*?y *<y •' e ( ♦ ' j a ; ♦& t\ $ i .<l\m'>  chapter ix.—plates , , . turkish ornament. plate xxxv], , , , , . from a fountain at pera, constantinople. .	from the mosque of sultan achmet, constantinople. ,	 , , , . from tombs at constantinople. , , , . from the tomb of sultan soliman i., constan- tinople. , , , , . from the yeni d'jami, or new mosque, constantinople. , . from a fountain at tophana, constantinople. plate xxxvii. , , , , . from the yeni d'jami, constantinople. . rosace in the centre of the dome of the mosque of soliman i., constantinople. , . ornaments in spandrils under the dome of the mosque of soliman i., constantinople. plate xxxviii. portion of the decoration of the dome of the tomb of soliman i., constantinople. the architecture of the turks, as seen at constantinople, is in all its structural features mainly based upon the early byzantine monuments; their system of ornamentation, however, is a modifi- cation oi the arabian, bearing about the same relation to this style as elizabethan ornament does to italian renaissance. when the art of one people is adopted by another having the same religion, but differing in natural character and instincts, we should expect to find a deficiency in all those qualities in which the borrowing people are inferior to their predecessors. and thus it is with the art of the turks as compared with the art of the arabs; there is the same difference in the amount of elegance and refinement in the art of the two people as exists in their national character. we are, however, inclined to believe that the turks have rarely themselves practised the arts; but that they have rather commanded the execution than been themselves executants. all their mosques and public buildings present a mixed style. on the same building, side by side with ornaments derived from arabian and persian floral ornaments, we find debased roman and renaissance details, leading to the belief that these buildings have mostly been executed by artists differing in religion from themselves. in more recent times, the turks have been the first of the mohammedan r	 turkish ornament. races to abandon the traditional style of building of their forefathers, and to adopt the prevailing fashions of the day in their architecture ; the modern buildings and palaces being not only the work of european artists, but designed in the most approved european style. the productions of the turks at the great exhibition of were the least perfect of all the mohammedan exhibiting nations. in mr. m, digby wyatt's admirable record of the state of the industrial arts of the nineteenth century, will be found specimens of turkish embroidery exhibited in , and which may be compared with the many valuable specimens of indian embroidery represented in the same work. turkish. turkish. turkish. elizabethan. it will readily be seen, from the simple matter of their embroidery, that the art-instinct of the turks must be very inferior to that of the indians. the indian embroidery is as perfect in turkish ornament. distribution of form, and in all the principles of ornamentation, as the most elaborate and important article of decoration. the only examples we have of perfect ornamentation are to be found in turkey carpets; but these are chiefly executed in asia minor, and most probably not by turks. the designs are thoroughly arabian, differing from persian carpets in being much more conventional in the treatment of foliage. by comparing plate xxxvii. with plates xxxii. and xxxiii. the differences of style will be readily perceived. the general principles of the distribution of form are the same, but there are a few minor differences that it will be desirable to point out. the surface of an ornament both in the arabian and moresque styles is only slightly rounded, and the enrichment of the surface is obtained by sinking lines on this surface; or where the surface was left plain, the additional pattern upon pattern was obtained by painting. the turkish ornament, on the contrary, presents a carved surface, and such ornaments as we find painted in the arabian mss., plate xxxiv., in black lines on the gold flowers, are here carved on the surface, the effect being not nearly so broad as that produced by the sunk feathering of the arabian and moresque. another peculiarity, and one which at once distinguishes a piece of turkish ornament from arabian, is the great abuse which was made of the re-entering curve a a. this is very prominent in the arabian, but more especially in the persian styles. see plate xl vi. with the moors it is no longer a feature, and appears only exceptionally. this peculiarity was adopted in the elizabethan ornament, which, through the renaissance of france and italy, was derived from the east, in imitation of the damascened work which was at that period so common. it will be seen , on reference to plate xxxvi. that this swell always occurs on the inside of the spiral curve of the main stem; with elizabethan ornament the swell often occurs indifferently on the inside and on the outside. it is very difficult, nay, almost impossible, thoroughly to explain by words differences in style of ornament having such a strong family resemblance as the persian, arabian, and turkish ; yet the eye readily detects them, much in the same way as a roman statue is distinguished from a greek. the general principles remaining the same in the persian, the arabian, and the turkish styles of ornament, there will be found a peculiarity in the proportions of the masses, more or less grace in the flowing of the curves, a fondness for particular directions in the leading lines, and a peculiar mode of inter- weaving forms, the general form of the conventional leafage ever remaining the same. the relative degree of fancy, delicacy, or coarseness, with which these are drawn, will at once distinguish them as the works of the refined and spiritual persian, the not less refined but reflective arabian, or the unima- ginative turk. plate xxxviii. is a portion of the decoration of the dome of the tomb of soliman i. at constan- tinople ; it is the most perfect specimen of turkish ornament with which we are acquainted, and nearly approaches the arabian. one great feature of turkish ornament is the predominance of green and black; and, in fact, in the modern decoration of cairo the same thing is observed. green is much more prominent than in ancient examples where blue is chiefly' used.  turkisch	turkish n ° 	turcs fafel xxxyi  turkisch tafel xxxvii. turkish ng turcs. pl xxx vii u \ \ yi i mm i r< m mm m ^ —~ turkisgh tafelxxxyiii turkish n° turcs pl.xxxylll. ssis mm m m m m m m m m m m m f m * f i i ( ) m % i as b ft- ; sw i & m ) a e  chapter x.—plates , , , ®, , s , f, . moresque ornament, from the alhambra. plate xxxix, interlaced ornaments. - , , , are borders on mosaic dados. - , . plaster ornaments, used as upright and horizontal bands enclosing panels on the walls. , . square stops in the bands of the inscriptions. . painted ornament from the great arch in the hall of the boat. plate xl. spandrils of arches. .	from the centre arch of the court of the lions. .	from the entrance to the divan hall of the two sisters. .	from the entrance to the court of the lions from the court of the fish-ponds. . from the entrance to the court of the fish-pond from the hall of the boat. , . from the arches of the hall of justice. plate xli, lozenge diapers. .	ornament in panels from the hall of the boat. .	„	„ from the hall of the ambassadors. .	„ in spandril of arch, entrance to court of lions. .	„ in doorway of the divan, hall of the two sisters. .	ornament in panels of the hall of the ambassadors. .	,,	in panels of the courts of the mosque. .	„	in panels, hall of the abencerrages. .	,,	over arches, entrance to the court of lions. , . ornaments in panels, court of the mosque. .	soffit of great arch, entrance to court of fish-pond. .	ornaments in sides of windows, upper story, hall of the two sisters. plate xli* . ornaments in spandrils of arches, hall of the aben- cerrages. , . ornaments in panels, hall of the ambassadors. . „ in spandrils of arches, hall of the two sisters. plate xlii. square diapers. . frieze over columns, court of the lions.	| . panelling in windows, hall of the ambassadors. plate xlii*. . panelling of the centre recess of the hall of the ambassadors.	 . panelling on the walls, tower of the captive. s	 moresque ornament. plate xltit. . panelling on the walls, house of sanchez. . part of the ceiling of the portico of the court of the fish-pond. plate xliii. mosaics. .	pilaster, hall of the ambassadors. .	dado,	ditto. .	dado, hall of the two sisters. .	pilaster, hall of the ambassadors. . dado in centre window, hall of the ambassadors. .	pilaster, hall of the ambassadors. .	dado, hall of justice. , . dados, hall of the two sisters. .	pilaster, hall of justice. .	dado, hall of the two sisters. , .	dados, hall of the ambassadors. .	from a column, hall of justice. .	dado in the baths. .	dado in divan, court of the fish-pond. moresque ornament. our illustrations of the ornament of the moors have been taken exclusively from the alhambra, not only because it is the one of their works with which we are best acquainted, but also because it is the one in which their marvellous system of decoration reached its culminating point. the alhambra is a£ the very summit of perfection of moorish art, as is the parthenon of greek art. we can find no work so fitted to illustrate a grammar of ornament as that in which every ornament contains a grammar in itself. every principle which we can derive from the study of the ornamental art of any other people is not only ever present here, but was by the moors more universally and truly obeyed. we find in the alhambra the speaking art of the egyptians, the natural grace and refinement of the greeks, the geometrical combinations of the romans, the byzantines, and the arabs. the ornament wanted but one charm, which was the* peculiar feature of the egyptian ornament, symbolism. this the religion of the moors forbade; but the want was more than supplied by the inscriptions, which, addressing themselves to the eye by their outward beauty, at once excited the'intellect by the difficulties of deciphering their curious and complex involutions, and delighted the imagination when read, by the beauty of the sentiments they expressed and the music of their composition. to the artist and those provided with a mind to estimate the value of the beauty to which they gave a life they repeated, look and learn. to the people they proclaimed the might, majesty, and good deeds of the king. to the king himself they never ceased declaring that there was none powerful but god, that he alone was conqueror, and that to him alone was for ever due praise and glory. there is no conqueror but god." arabic inscription from the alhambra. moresque ornament. the builders of this wonderful structure were fully aware of the greatness of their work. it is asserted in the inscriptions on the walls, that this building surpassed all other buildings ; that at sight of its wonderful domes all other domes vanished and disappeared; in the playful exaggeration of their poetry, that the stars grew pale in their light through envy of so much beauty; and, what is more to our purpose, they declare that he who should study them with attention would reap the benefit of a commentary on decoration. we have endeavoured to obey the injunctions of the poet, and will attempt here to explain some of the general principles which appear to have guided the moors in the decoration of the alhambra— principles which are not theirs alone, but common to all the best periods of art. the principles which are everywhere the same, the forms only' differ. .*	the moors ever regarded what we hold to be the first principle in architecture—to decorate construction, never to construct decoration: in moorish architecture not only does the decoration arise naturally from the construction, but the constructive idea is carried out in every detail of the ornamentation of the surface. we believe that true beauty in architecture results from that " repose which the mind feels when the eye, the intellect, and the affections are satisfied, from the absence of any want." when an object is constructed falsely, appearing to derive or give support without doing either the one or the other, it fails to afford this repose, and therefore never can pretend to true beauty, however harmonious it may be in itself : the mohammedan races, and moors especially, have constantly regarded this rule ; we never find a useless or superfluous ornament; every ornament arises quietly and naturally from the surface decorated. they ever regard the useful as a vehicle for the beautiful ; and in this they do not stand alone : the same principle was observed in all the best periods of art: it is only when art declines that true principles come to be disregarded ; or, in an age of copying, like the present, when the works of the past are reproduced without the spirit which animated the originals. .	all lines grow out of each other in gradual undulations; there are no excrescences; nothing could be removed and leave the design equally good or better. in a general sense, if construction be properly attended to, there could be no excrescences ; but we use the word here in a more limited sense : the general lines might follow truly the construction, and yet there might be excrescences, such as knobs or bosses, which would not violate the rule of construction, and yet would be fatal to beauty of form, if they did not grow out gradually from the general lines. there can be no beauty of form, no perfect proportion or arrangement of lines, which does not produce repose. all transitions of curved lines from curved, or of curved lines from straight, must be gradual. thus the transition would cease to be agreeable if the break at a were too deep in proportion to the curves, as at b. where two curves are separated by a break (as in this case), they must, and with the moors always do, run parallel to an imaginary line (c) where the curves would be tangential to each other : for were either to depart from this, as in the case at d, the eye, instead of following gradually down the curve, would run outwards, and repose would be lost.f * this essay on the general principles of the ornamentation of the alhambra is partially reprinted from the " guide book to the alhambra court in the crystal palace," by the author. -j* these transitions were managed most perfectly by the greeks in all their mouldings, which exhibit this refinement in the highest degree ; so do also the exquisite contours of their vases. moresque ornament. .	the general forms were first cared for; these were subdivided by general lines ; the interstices were then filled in *with ornament, which was again subdivided and enriched for closer inspection. they carried out this principle with the greatest refinement, and the harmony and beauty of all their ornamentation derive their chief success from its observance. their main divisions contrast and balance admirably : the greatest distinctness is obtained ; the detail never interferes with the general form. when seen at a distance, the main lines strike the eye; as we approach nearer, the detail comes into the composition; on a closer inspection, we see still further detail on the surface of the ornaments themselves. .	harmony of form appears to consist in the proper balancing and contrast of the straight, the inclined, and the curved. as in colour there can be no perfect composition in which either of the three primary colours is wanting, so in form, whether structural or decorative, there can be no perfect composition in which either of the three primary figures is wanting; and the varieties and harmony in composition and design depend on the various predominance and subordination of the three.* in surface decoration, any arrangement of forms, as at a, consisting only of straight lines, is monotonous, and affords but imperfect pleasure; but introduce lines which tend to carry the eye towards the angles, as at b, and you have at once an increased pleasure. then add lines giving a circular tendency, as at c, and you have now complete harmony. in this case the square is the leading form or tonic; the angular and curved are subor- dinate. we may produce the same result in adopting an angular composition, as at d : add the lines as at e, and we at once correct the tendency to follow only the angular direction of the inclined lines; but unite these by circles, as at f, and we have still more perfect harmony, i.e. repose, for the eye has now no longer any want that could be supplied, f . in the surface decorations of the moors all lines flow out of a parent stem : every ornament, however distant, can be traced to its branch and root. they have the happy art of so adapting the ornament to the surface decorated, that the ornament as often appears to have suggested the general form as to have been suggested by it. in all cases we find the foliage flowing out of a parent stem, and we are never offended, d	e	f	as in modern practice, by the random introduction of an ornament just dotted down, without a reason for its existence. however irregular the space they * there can be no better example of this harmony than the greek temple, where the straight, the angular, and the curved are in most perfect relation to each other. gothic architecture also offers many illustrations of this principle ; every tendency of lines to run in one direction is immediately counteracted by the angular or the curved : thus, the capping of the buttress is exactly what is required to counteract the upward tendency of the straight lines ; so the gable contrasts admirably with the curved window- head and its perpendicular mullions. t it is to the neglect of this obvious rule that we find so many failures in paper-hangings, carpets, and more especially articles of costume : the lines of papers generally run through the ceiling most disagreeably, because the straight is not corrected by the angular, or the angular by the curved : so of carpets ; the lines of carpets are constantly running in one direction only, carrying the eye right through the walls of the apartment. again, to this we owe all those abominable checks and plaids which constantly disfigure the human form—a custom detrimental to the public taste, and gradually lowering the tone of the eye for form of this generation. if children were born and bred to the sound of hurdy-gurdies grinding out of tune, their ears would no doubt suffer deterioration, and they would lose their sensibility to the harmonious in sound. this, then, is what is certainly taking place with regard to form, and it requires the most strenuous efforts to be made by all who would take an interest in the welfare of the rising generation to put a stop to it. - / \	\ y / \	v - '/ / \ \ ✓ / \	\ / / \	\ / ✓ \ \ / / n	? / \	n / ' \ \ /* / \	\ ✓ { \	^ ) / \ "s y	^ > / \	 p;	 	 p)	a	/ \ o' / v	a	:o 	o;	h s. ) o	a	a moresque ornament. have to fill, they always commence by dividing it into equal areas, and round these trunk-lines they fill in their detail, but invariably return to their parent stem. they appear in this to work by a process analogous to that of nature, as we see in the vine-leaf ; the object being to distribute the sap from the parent stem to the extremities, it is evident the main stem would divide the leaf as near as may be into equal areas. so, again, of the minor divisions ; each area is again subdivided by intermediate lines, which all follow the same law of equal distribution, even to the most minute filling-in of the sap-feeders. .	the moors also follow another principle; that of radiation from the parent stem, as we may see in nature with the human hand, or in a chestnut leaf. we may see in the example how beautifully all these lines radiate from the parent stem; how each leaf diminishes towards the extremities, and how each area is in pro- portion to the leaf. the orientals carry out this principle with marvellous perfection ; so also did the greeks in their honeysuckle ornament. we have already remarked, in chapter iv., a peculiarity of greek ornament, which appears to follow the principle of the plants of the cactus tribe, where one leaf grows out of another. this is generally the case with greek ornament; the acanthus-leaf scrolls are a series of leaves growing out one from the other in a continuous line, whilst the arabian and moresque ornaments always grow out of a continuous stem. .	all junctions of curved lines with curved, or of curved with straight, should be tangential to each other; this also we consider to be a law found everywhere in nature, and the oriental practice is always in accordance with it. many of the moorish ornaments are on the same principle which is observable in the lines of a feather and in the articu- lations of every leaf; and to this is due that additional charm found in all perfect ornamentation, which we call the graceful. it may be called the melody of form, as what we have before described constitutes its harmony. we shall find these laws of equal distribution, radiation from a parent stem, continuity of line, and tangential curvature, ever present in natural leaves. .	we would call attention to the nature of the exquisite curves in use by the arabs and moors. as with proportion, we think that those proportions will be the most beautiful which it will be most difficult for the eye to detect ;* so we think that those compositions of curves will be most agreeable, where the mechanical process of describing them shall be least apparent; and we shall find it to be universally the case, that in the best periods of art all mouldings and ornaments were founded on curves of the higher order, such as the conic sections; whilst, when art declined, circles and compass-work were much more dominant. the researches of mr. penrose have shown that the mouldings and curved lines in the parthenon are all portions of curves of a very high order, and that segments of circles were very rarely used. the exquisite curves of the greek vases are well known, and here we never find portions of circles. in roman architecture, on the contrary, this refinement is lost; the romans were probably as little able to describe as to appreciate curves of a high order, and we find, therefore, their mouldings mostly parts of circles, which could be struck with compasses. * all compositions of squares or of circles will be monotonous, and afford but little pleasure, because the means whereby they are produced are very apparent. so we think that compositions distributed in equal lines or divisions will be less beautiful than those which require a higher mental effort to appreciate them. t	 moresque ornament. in the early works of the gothic period, the tracery would appear to have been much less the offspring of compass-work than in the later period, which has most appropriately been termed the geometrical, from the immoderate use of compass-work. they carried to the highest perfection. they ever worked as nature worked, but always avoided a direct transcript; they took her principles, but did not, as we do, attempt to copy her works. in this, again, they do not stand alone : in every period of faith in art, all ornamentation was ennobled by the ideal; never was the sense of propriety violated by a too faithful representation of nature. thus, in egypt, a lotus carved in stone was never such an one as you might have plucked, but a conventional representation perfectly in keeping with the architectural members of which it formed a part; it was a symbol of the power of the king over countries where the lotus grew, and added poetry to what would otherwise have been a rude support. the colossal statues of the egyptians were not little men carved on a large scale, but architectural representations of majesty, in which were symbolised the power of the monarch, and his abiding love of his people. in greek art, the ornaments, no longer symbols, as in egypt, were still further conventionalised; and in their sculpture applied to architecture, they adopted a conventional treatment both of pose and relief very different to that of their isolated works. in the best periods of gothic art the floral ornaments are treated conventionally, and a direct imitation of nature is never attempted; but as art declined, they became less idealised, and more direct in imitation. the same decline may be traced in stained glass, where both figures and ornaments were treated at first conventionally; but as the art declined, figures and draperies, through which light was to be transmitted, had their own shades and shadows. in the early illuminated mss. the ornaments were conventional, and the illuminations were in flat tints, with little shade and no shadow; whilst in those of a later period highly-finished representations of natural flowers were used as ornament, casting their shadows on the page. when we examine the system of colouring adopted by the moors, we shall find, that as with form, so with colour, they followed certain fixed principles, founded on observations of nature's laws, and which they held in common with all those nations who have practised the arts with success. in all archaic styles of art, practised during periods of faith, the same true principles prevail; and although we find in all somewhat of a local or temporary character, we yet discern in all much that is eternal and immutable; the same grand ideas embodied in different forms, and expressed, so to speak, in a different language. . the ancients always used colour to assist in the develojment of form, always employed it as a further means of bringing out the constructive features of a building. here is a curve (a) common to greek art, to the gothic period, and so much delighted in by the mohammedan races. this becomes graceful the more it departs from the curve which the union of two parts of circles would give. . a still further charm is found in the works of the arabs and moors from their conventional treatment of ornament, which, forbidden as they were by their creed to represent living forms, on the colouring of moresque ornament. moresque ornament. thus, in the egyptian column, the base of which represented the root—the shaft, the stalk— the capital, the buds and flowers of the lotus or papyrus, the several colours were so applied that the appearance of strength in the column was increased, and the contours of the various lines more fully developed. in gothic architecture, also, colour was always employed to assist in developing the forms of the panel-work and tracery ; and this is effected to an extent of which it is difficult to form an idea, in the present colourless condition of the buildings. in the slender shafts of their lofty edifices, the idea of elevation was still further increased by upward-running spiral lines of colour, which, while adding to the apparent height of the column, also helped to define its form. in oriental art, again, we always find the constructive lines of the building well defined by colour ; an apparent additional height, length, breadth, or bulk, always results from its judicious application ; and with the ornaments in relief it developes constantly new forms which would have been altogether lost without it. the artists have in this but followed the guiding inspiration of nature, in whose works every transition of form is accompanied by a modification of colour, so disposed as to assist in producing distinctness of expression. for example, flowers are separated by colour from their leaves and stalks, and these again from the earth in which they grow. so also in the human figure every change of form is marked by a change of colour; thus the colour of the hair, the eyes, the eyelids and lashes, the sanguine complexion of the lips, the rosy bloom of the cheek, all assist in producing distinctness, and in more visibly bringing out the form. we all know how much the absence or im- pairment of these colours, as in sickness, contributes to deprive the features of their proper meaning and expression. had nature applied but one colour to all objects, they would have been indistinct in form as well as monotonous in aspect. it is the boundless variety of her tints that perfects the modelling and defines the outline of each ; detaching equally the modest lily from the grass from which it springs, and the glorious sun, parent of all colour, from the firmament in which it shines. .	the colours employed by the moors on their stucco-work were, in all cases, the primaries, blue, red, and yellow (gold). the secondary colours, purple, green, and orange, occur only in the mosaic dados, which, being near the eye, formed a point of repose from the more brilliant colouring above. it is true that, at the present day, the grounds of many of the ornaments are found to be green ; it will always be found, however, on a minute examination, that the colour originally employed was blue, which being a metallic pigment, has become green from the effects of time. this is proved by the presence of the particles of blue colour, which occur everywhere in the crevices : in the restora- tions, also, which were made by the catholic kings, the grounds of the ornaments were repainted both green and purple. it may be remarked that, among the egyptians and the greeks, the arabs and the moors, the primary colours were almost entirely, if not exclusively, employed during the early periods of art ; whilst during the decadence, the secondary colours became of more importance. thus, in egypt, in pharaonic temples, we find the primary colours predominating; in the ptolemaic temples, the secondary ; so also on the early greek temples are found the primary colours, whilst at pompeii every variety of shade and tone was employed. in modern cairo, and in the east generally, we have green constantly appearing side by side with red, where blue would have been used in earlier times. this is equally true of the works of the middle ages. in the early manuscripts and in stained glass, though other colours were not excluded, the primaries were chiefly used; whilst in later times we have every variety of shade and tint, but rarely used with equal success. .	with the moors, as a general rule, the primary colours were used on the upper portions moresque ornament. of objects, the secondary and tertiary on the lower. this also appears to be in accordance with a natural law ; we have the primary blue in the sky, the secondary green in the trees and fields, ending with the tertiaries on the earth ; as also in flowers, where we generally find the primaries on the buds and flowers, and the secondaries on the leaves and stalks. the ancients always observed this rule in the best periods of art. in egypt, however, we do see occasionally the secondary green used in the upper portions of the temples, but this arises *from the fact, that ornaments in egypt were symbolical; and if a lotus leaf were used on the upper part of a building, it would necessarily be coloured green; but the law is true in the main; the general aspect of an egyptian temple of the pharaonic period gives the primaries above and the secondaries below; but in the buildings of the ptolemaic and roman periods more especially, this order was inverted, and the palm and lotus-leaf capitals give a superabundance of green in the upper portions of the temples. in pompeii we find sometimes in the interior of the houses a gradual gradation of colour downwards from the roof, from light to dark, ending with black ; but this is by no means so universal as to convince us that they felt it as a law. we have already shown in chapter v. that there are many examples of black immediately under the ceiling. .	although the ornaments which are found in the alhambra, and in the court of the lions especially, are at the present day covered with several thin coats of the whitewash which has at various periods been applied to them, we may be said to have authority for the whole of the colouring of our reproduction ; for not only may the colours be seen in the interstices of the ornaments in many places by scaling off the whitewash, but the colouring of the alhambra was carried out on so perfect a system, that any one who will make this a study can, with almost absolute certainty, on being shown foi the first time a piece of moorish ornament in white, define at once the manner in which it was coloured. so completely were all the architectural forms designed with reference to their subsequent colouring, that the surface alone will indicate the colours they were destined to receive. thus, in using the colours blue, red, and gold, they took care to place them in" such positions that they should be best seen in themselves, and add most to the general effect. on moulded surfaces they placed red, the strongest colour of the three, in the depths, where it might be softened by shadow, never on the surface; blue in the shade, and gold on all surfaces exposed to light: for it is evident that by this arrangement alone could their true value be obtained. the several colours are either separated by white bands, or by the shadow caused by the relief of the ornament itself—and this appears to be an absolute principle required in colouring—colours should never be allowed to impinge upon each other. .	in colouring the grounds of the various diapers the blue always occupies the largest area; and this is in accordance with the theory of optics, and the experiments which have been- made with the prismatic spectrum. the rays of light are said to neutralise each other in the proportions of yellow, red, and blue; thus, it requires a quantity of blue equal to the red and yellow put together to produce a harmonious effect, and prevent the predominance of any one colour over the others. as in the " alhambra," yellow is replaced by gold, which tends towards a reddish- yellow, the blue is still further increased, to counteract the tendency of the red to overpower the other colours. interlaced patterns. we have already suggested, in chapter iv., the probability that the immense variety of moorish ornaments, which are formed by the intersection of equidistant lines, could be traced through the ^ moresque ornament. of the pattern is obtained by the arrangement of the coloured grounds ; and how, also, by this means an additional pattern besides that produced by form results from the arrangement of the colours. pattern no. , plate xlif., is a portion of a ceiling, of which there are immense varieties in the alhambra, produced by divisions of the circle crossed by intersecting squares. it is the same principle which exists in the copy from the illuminated koran, plate xxxiv., and is also very common on the ceilings of arabian houses. the ornament no. , plate xliif., is of extreme delicacy, and is remarkable for the ingenious system on which it is constructed. all the pieces being similar, it illustrates one of the most important principles in moorish design,—one which, more perhaps than any other, contributed to the general happy result, viz. that by the repetition of a few simple elements the most beautiful and complicated effects were produced. however much disguised, the whole of the ornamentation of the moors is constructed geometrically. their fondness for geometrical forms is evidenced by the great use they made of mosaics, in which their imagination had full play. however complicated the patterns on plate xliil may appear, they are all very simple when the principle of setting them out is once understood. they all arise from the intersection of equidistant lines round fixed centres. no. is constructed on the principle of diagram no. , cited on the other side, and is the principle which produces the greatest variety ; in fact, geometrical combinations on this system may be said to be infinite. mau ris c h taeel.xxxix moresque n mauresque s pl xxxix ) mnryw si hi ib^ic^i v ■i  mmjriseh	moresque	mauresques tafelxl - _  matjris en fftfelxll. ' moresque n mauresques i? .o.. li i. cr  mauri sgh tafel xli * moresque	maurebques pl. xli*  moresque n° < mauri sch mauresques maurisen	moresque n° * mauresques  mau ris c h ta.fel xliii moresque n ♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦ i * # * § * i » a .u.j arfta	db	♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ , « y v i sss "* — mauresoues pl xl:ii k+++h i-+++h h f* h lxxjlj * ag i •av«v	?. ■rcv £$ ,% *• l^v '*• *, ***• x* *\ -v r.. i ♦ i & / x » j x jjl jl m$mw mm rf • y# j  chapter xi.—plates , , , , *, . persian ornament. plates xliv., xt,v,. xi,¥ . ornaments from persian mss. in the british museum. plates xlvii., xlvii*. from a persian manufacturer's pattern-book, south kensington museum* plate xlviii. from a persian ms. south kensington museum. the mohammedan architecture of persia, if we may judge from the representations published in flandin and coste's "voyages en perse," does not appear to have ever reached the perfection of the arabian buildings of cairo. although presenting considerable* grandeur in the main features, the general outlines are much less pure, and there would appear to be a great want of elegance in all the constructive features as compared with those of cairo. their system of ornamentation also appears to us much less pure than the arabian and moresque. the persians, unlike the arabs and the moors, were free to introduce animal life, and this mixing up of subjects drawn from real life in their decoration led to a much less pure style of ornament. with the arabs and moors, ornaments with their inscriptions had to supply every want, and therefore it became of more importance in their structures, and reached a higher point of elaboration. persian ornament is a mixed style; combining the conventional, which is similar to the arabian, and probably derived from a common origin, with an attempt at the natural, which sometimes has influenced both the arabian and turkish styles, and is ^even felt in portions of the alhambra. the great attention paid to the illuminating of manuscripts persian ornament. in persia, which, doubtless, were widely disseminated in mohammedan countries, would readily spread the influence of this mixed style. the decorations of the houses of cairo and damascus, the mosques and fountains of constantinople more especially, exhibit this mixed style; groups of natural flowers are constantly found growing from a vase and enclosed in panels of conventional arabian ornament. the ornament of modern india also feels this ever-present influence of the persian mixed style. in a book-cover from the india house (plates liii. and liv.) is an example of this; the outside is treated in the pure arabian manner, whilst the inside (plate liv.) is quite persian in character. the ornaments on plate xliv., from illuminated mss. in the british museum, present also the mixed character we have referred to. the geometrical patterns are purely conventional ornament, and have great affinity with the arabian, but are less perfect in distribution. nos. - , on the contrary, are from backgrounds of pictures, representing tapestry on the walls; they possess great elegance, and the masses are well contrasted with the grounds. the patterns on plate xlv. are chiefly representations of pavements and dados, and probably were intended for glazed tiles, so abundantly used by the persians, compared with the arabian and moresque mosaics, they exhibit a marked inferiority, both in the distribution of form and in the arrangement of colour. it will be observed that, throughout our persian subjects, the secondary and tertiary colours are much more dominant than in the arabian (plate xxxiv.), or in the moresque, where blue, red, and gold, are the prevailing harmonies, and, as may be seen at a glance, with much increased effect. the ornaments on plate xlvi. have a much greater affinity with the arabian ; nos. , , , , - , are very common ornaments for the heads of chapters in persian mss. : indeed there is but little variety to be found in these, numerous as they are. compared with the arabian mss. (plate xxiv.), a great similarity will be found in all the leading lines of the construction of the ornaments, and also in the surface decoration of the ornaments themselves ; but the masses are much less evenly distributed. however, the same general principles prevail. plates xlvii. and xlvii*. are arranged from a very curious persian book at south kensington museum, which appears to be a manufacturer's pattern-book. the designs exhibit much elegance, and there is great simplicity and ingenuity displayed in the conventional rendering of natural flowers. both these plates and plate xlviii. are very valuable, as showing the extreme limit of this conven- tional rendering, reached, but not exceeded. when natural flowers are used as decoration, and subjected to a geometrical arrangement, they can have neither shade nor shadow, as was the case with the later mss. of the mediaeval school—see plate lxxffi.—without falling under that reproach so justly due to the floral papers and floral carpets of modern times. the ornament at the top of plate xlviii., which forms the title-page to the book, as well as the borders throughout, present that mixed character of pure ornament, arranged in conjunction with the ornamental rendering of natural forms, which we have considered as characteristic of the persian style, and which, we think, renders it so much inferior to the arabian and the moresque. persis ch tafel xliy ■_ persian n° tilii > i	*	m j j j < » • h " 	"	 ,	<-s^-	"n- t *	} * ♦	* ± ,	£ "	£ " j:	*" i;	"	i	j	j k~'■	b*	i	" + ♦ y	^	x * j j t perses pl xliy w v a\ y, fn <f ♦> , v vy a > v v v v w v * « <s > fv/ vy _ vy <* a fv f<% f> . v + v , <♦ ♦><» ♦* * a v .t. * \/ iv/, f* ' ^  persisch tafelxly persian n° perse s . plxly x x a ♦ o ♦ <§> © : s  per i ch persian ng perse pl.xlyi tafel xlyl   persisch	per s i am n° *	perse s plxl-yii af el xlyii  persisch.	persian n° .	perses. tap xlvur.  chapter xii.—plates , , , , , ", , ", . indian ornament, from the exhibitions of and . plate ilix. ornaments from works in metal, exhibited in the indian collection in . plates l., li.. lit. ornaments from embroidered and woven fabrics, and paintings on vases, exhibited in the indian collection in , and now at south kensington museum. plates liii., liu*., liv., liv*. specimens of painted lacquer-work, from the collection at the india house. plate ly. ornaments from woven and embroidered fabrics and painted boxes, exhibited in the indian collection at paris in . the exhibition of the works of industry of all nations in was barely opened to the public ere attention was directed to the gorgeous contributions of india. amid the general disorder everywhere apparent in the application of art to manufactures, the presence of so much unity of design, so much skill and judgment in its application, with so much of elegance and refinement in the execution as was observable in all the works, not only of india, but of all the other mohammedan contributing countries,—tunis, egypt, and turkey,—excited a degree of attention from artists, manufacturers, and the public, which has not been without its fruits. whilst in the works contributed by the various nations of europe there was everywhere to be observed an entire absence of any common principle in the application of art to manufactures,—whilst from one end to the other of the vast structure there could be found but a fruitless struggle after novelty, irrespective of fitness, that all design was based upon a system of copying and misapplying x	 indian ornament. the received forms of beauty of every bygone style of art, without one single attempt to produce an art in harmony with our present wants and means of production—the carver in stone, the worker in metal, the weaver and the painter, borrowing from each other, and alternately misapplying the forms peculiarly appropriate to each—there were to be found in isolated collections at the four corners of the transepts all the principles, all the unity, all the truth, for which we had looked elsewhere in vain, and this because we were amongst a people practising an art which had grown up with their civilisation, and strengthened with their growth. united by a common faith, their art had necessarily a common expression, this expression varying in each according to the influence to which each nation was subject. the tunisian still retaining the art of the moors who created the alhambra; the turk exhibiting the same art, but modified by the character of the mixed population over which they rule; the indian uniting the severe forms of arabian art with the graces of persian refinement. all the laws of the distribution of form which we have already observed in the arabian and moresque ornament are equally to be found in the productions of india. from the highest wrork of embroidery, or most elaborate work of the loom, to the constructing and decorating of a child's toy or earthen vessel, we find everywhere at work the same guiding principles,—there is always the same care for the general form, the same absence of all excrescences or superfluous ornament; we find nothing that has been added without purpose, nor that could be removed without disadvantage. the same division and subdivision of their general lines, which forms the charms of moresque ornament, is equally to be found here; the difference which creates the style is not one of principle, but of individual expression. in the indian style ornaments are somewhat more flowing and less convention- alised, and have, doubtless, been more subjected to direct persian influence. the ornaments on plate xlix. are chiefly taken from hookhas, of which there was an immense variety exhibited in , and all remarkable for great elegance of outline, and for such a judicious treatment of the surface decoration that every ornament tended to further develope the general form. it will be seen that there are two kinds of ornament,—the one strictly architectural and conven- tional : such as nos. , , , , , which are treated as diagrams; and the other, such as nos. , , , in which a more direct imitation of nature is attempted : these latter are to us very valuable lessons, showing how unnecessary it is for any work of decoration to more than indicate the general idea of a flower. the ingenious way in which the full-blown flower is shown in no. , in three positions in nos. and , the folding back of the leaf in no. , are very suggestive. the intention of the artist is fully expressed* by means as simple as elegant. the unity of the surface of the object decorated is not destroyed, as it would be by the european method of making the flower as near like a natural flower as possible, with its own light and shade and shadow, tempting you to pluck it from the surface. on the persian, plate xlvii., will be seen a similar treatment of natural flowers; the comparison shows how much of persian influence there is in this floral style of india. in the application of the various ornaments to the different portions of the objects the greatest judgment is always shown. the ornament is invariably in perfect scale with the position it occupies ; on the narrow necks of the hookhas are the small pendent flowers, the swelling forms of the base are occupied by the larger patterns; at the lower edge, again, appear ornaments having an upward tendency, and, at the same time, forming a continuous line round the form to prevent the eye running out of it. whenever narrow flowing borders are used, as in no. , they are contrasted by others, with lines flowing in an opposite direction ; the general repose of the decoration is never for a moment lost sight of. in the equal distribution of the surface ornament over the grounds, the indians exhibit an instinct indian ornament. and perfection of drawing perfectly marvellous. the ornament no. , on plate l., from an embroidered saddle-cloth, excited universal admiration in . the exact balance obtained by the gold embroidery on the green and red grounds was so perfect, that it was beyond the power of a european hand to copy it with the same complete balance of form and colour. the way in which the colours are fused in all their woven fabrics, so as to obtain what they always appear to seek, viz. that coloured objects when viewed at a distance should present a neutralised bloom, is very remarkable. a due regard to economy in the production of our plates has necessarily limited the number of printings, and we have not always, therefore, been able to obtain the proper balance of colour. the indian collection at south kensington museum should be visited and studied by all in any way connected with the production of woven fabrics. in this collection will be found the most brilliant colours perfectly harmonised— it is impossible to find there a discord. all the examples show the nicest adjustment of the massing of the ornament to the colour of the ground; every colour or tint, from the palest and most delicate to the deepest and richest shades, receiving just the amount of ornament that it is adapted to bear. the following general rules, which are applicable to all woven fabrics, may be observed :— .	when gold ornaments are used on a coloured ground, where gold is used in large masses, there the ground is darkest. where the gold is used more thinly, there the ground is lighter and more delicate. .	when a gold ornament alone is used on a coloured ground, the colour of the ground is carried into it by ornaments or hatchings worked in the ground-colours on the gold itself. .	when ornaments in one colour are on a ground of contrasting colour, the ornament is separated from the ground by an edging of a lighter colour, to prevent all harshness of contrast. .	when, on the contrary, ornaments in a colour are on a gold ground, the ornaments are separated from the gold ground by an edging of a darker colour, to prevent the gold overpowering the ornament.— see no. , plate l. .	in other cases, where varieties of colour are used on a coloured ground, a general outline of gold, of silver, or of white or yellow silk, separates the ornament from the ground, giving a general tone throughout. in carpets and low-toned combinations of colour, a black general outline is used for this purpose. the object always appears to be, in the woven fabrics especially, that each ornament should be softly, not harshly, defined ; that coloured objects viewed at a distance should present a neutralised bloom ; that each step nearer should exhibit fresh beauties; and a close inspection, the means whereby these effects are produced. in this they do but carry out the same principles of surface decoration which we find in the architecture of the arabs and moors. the spandril of a moorish arch, and an indian shawl, are constructed precisely on the same principles. the ornament on plate liii., from a book-cover at the india house, is a very brilliant example of painted decoration. the general proportions of the leading lines of the pattern, the skilful distribu- tion of the flowers over the surface, and, notwithstanding the intricacy, the perfect continuity of the lines of the stalks, place it far before any european effort of this class. on the inside of the same cover, plate liv., the ornaments are less conventional in their treatment; but how charmingly is observed the limit of the treatment of flowers on a flat surface! this book-cover offers in itself a specimen of two marked styles : the outside, plate liii., being after the arabian manner, and the inside after the persian. indtsch tafel xlix indian n° i. indren s. pi xlix ss:x::sxt::x 'hi#	w iittuiii' iiilik a wbmwwwwf^!^m^ww* y. .llnllnllllllllllllllj m > c<s> \< t n d i s c h indian n° . tafel l indien s pl l - \ w£ _______________________________ v .ttj-') ^	}-j..." - >?x/ov' -v y> a _»: wt'x&k ik i m ■ e>» » «. ® »»»•* * t msfehwffl !'i »wl ii'ilmi j; j  indisch	indian n° 	indiens m c	,« o.s? wiffi mlvlfli wifm ashsshi i !	 	 z	 indisch tafkl li i indian n° in d ie n s pl li i -i-i- p\y'"k *\i> *mml r- lllllii owoxoxox&w^ jis f^. fjjjt 	jbsip^c ^s i 	ahmhrhbhbhbhhhrib 	 	 i 'r ■r" fc - hems - >p jum :v»wi i 'r ■r" . .  indian n i n d ie n s ih disc h tafel utt* ww-i -■ / '- v* *n' a'-^v \y\ l ,:>• *o -j ';saal {. . \'---.^jjs • -	x /.  indisch tafel liy* indian n° * indien s pl uv* ' * |x m | h g p ml §« i nb? ' is if i i* u m / /'-j* . "» ■hs* **sv . r	'vt.r •''	» 'i • s . s... a s* i i ti- i*i m ni • hi «i i m d & ."'t pi b&s * e _» p| r 'm -r $ *r"' i &i. s $ im® t,f & & -' ml krl i ^ i '■■ izi > ll i i® j 'w> m j*| , is! sr** . i«i w bfifl ' ig: •: g ■•> m v « l jil '■ * ' iii « ' s * * $*i m ?i < ifel - isi £ ^ fi ;. i. \ k r:j!'_ /%*. «ia«abna^ >l vv :.	ls yt i.« j/» i,;. n >',. *<« i ^>sk» »a»'taab'  indisch tafei). xjy. indian n° . 	em 	bh 	 mmtmk. b igisral&^m ihdi.ens. fl . xjy. 'f ' . r <), , v ?❖! xj* §<>$ v w *«•* y h v -ia fi** v " v va- h a j-t\ *n*#» x-x *,<>*< *■* tv? h v •;*!• v h v	«/ w i @;«k©»;ts jg	 		|	m kfz	if			 #  chapter xiii.—plates , , . hindoo ornament. plate lvi. ornaments from a statue in basalt at the house of the royal asiatic society. .	burmese, of glass.—crystal palace. .	burmese shrine.	c. p. .	burmese standard.	c. p. - .	from burmese shrine. c. p. plate lvil - , - . ornaments from the copies of the paintings on the walls of the caves at ajunta.—crystal palace. . burmese, from a monastery near prome.—c. p. plate lviit. .	burmese.—east india house. , .	burmese shrine.—crystal palace. .	burmese gilt chest.—c. p. .	hindoo.—united service museum. - .	hindoo ornaments.—e. i. h. .	burmese.—c. p. .	hindoo.—u. s. m. .	burmese.—british museum. .	hindoo.—e. i. h. .	hindoo.—u. s. m. .	hindoo.—e. i. h. - , . burmese.—c. p. , - . burmese.—u. s. m. . burmese.—c. p. we have not been able, with the materials at command in this country, to procure sufficient illustrations for a fair appreciation of the nature of hindoo ornament. in the works hitherto published on the ancient architecture of india, sufficient attention has not been directed to the ornamental portions of the buildings to enable us to recognise the true character of hindoo ornament. in early publications on the art of egypt all the works of sculpture and ornament were so falsely rendered, that it has taken considerable time for the european public to become persuaded that there existed so much grace and refinement in the works of the egyptians. the egyptian remains, however, which have been transported to this country, the casts of others existing in egypt, and the more trustworthy representations which have of late been published, have placed this beyond doubt, and egyptian art is taking its true place in the estimation of the public. y	 hindoo ornament. when the same thing shall have been done for the ancient architecture of india, we shall be in a better position than we are at present to form an opinion how far it is entitled to take rank as a really fine art, or whether the hindoos are only heapers of stone, one over the other, adorned with grotesque and barbaric sculpture. had we possessed only picturesque views of the parthenon and the temples of balbeck and palmyra, we should unhesitatingly have said that the romans were, far greater architects than the greeks. but the contour of a single moulding from the parthenon would at once reverse the judgment, and proclaim loudly that we were viewing the works of a people who had reached the highest point in civilisation and refinement. although ornament is most properly an accessory to architecture, and never should be allowed to usurp the place of proper structural features, or to overload or disguise them, it is in all cases the very soul of an architectural monument; and by the ornament alone can we judge truly of the amount of care and mind which has been devoted to the work. all else in any building may be the result of rule and compass, but by the ornament of a building we can best discover how far the architect was at the same time an artist. no one can peruse the essay on hindoo architecture by ram raz* without feeling that a higher state of architectural perfection has been reached than the works published up to the present time would lead us to believe. in this work not only are precise rules laid down for the general arrangement of structures, but also minute directions are given for the divisions and subdivisions of each ornament. one of the precepts quoted by ram raz deserves to be cited, as showing how much the general perfection was cared for : " woe to them who dwell in a house not built according to the proportions of symmetry! in building an edifice, therefore, let all its parts, from the basement to the roof, be duly considered." among the directions for the various proportions of columns, bases, and capitals, is a rule for finding the proper diminution of the upper diameter of a column in proportion to the lower. ram raz says, that the general rule adopted by the hindoo architects was to divide the diameter of the column at the base by as many parts as there were diameters in the whole height of the column, and that one of these parts was invariably deducted to form the upper diameter. from which it is apparent that the higher the column the less it will diminish ; and that this was done because the apparent diminution of the diameter in columns of the same proportion is always greater according to the height. the best specimens of hindoo ornament we have been able to procure are represented in plate lvi., from a statue of surga, or the sun, in basalt, at the house of the asiatic society, and supposed to belong to a period between the fifth and ninth century a.d. the ornaments are very beautifully executed, and evidently betray greek influence. the ornament no. represents the lotus, seen as it were in plan, with the buds in side-elevation : it is held in the hand of the god. in the sacred books quoted by ram raz are several directions to ornament the various archi- tectural members with lotuses and jewels; which seem to be the chief types of the decoration on the mouldings. the architectural features of hindoo buildings consist chiefly of mouldings heaped up one over the other. definite instructions are quoted by ram raz for the varying proportions of each, and it is evident that the whole value of the style will consist in the more or less perfection with which these transitions are effected ; but, as we said before, we have no opportunity of judging how far this is the case. * " history of the architecture of the hindoos." by ram raz. london, . hindoo ornament. on plate lvii. we have gathered together all the examples of decorative ornament that we could find on the copies of the paintings from the caves of ajunta, exhibited by the east india company at the crystal palace. as these copies, notwithstanding that they are said to be faithful, are yet by a european hand, it is difficult to say how far they may be relied upon. in the subordinate portions, such as the ornaments, at all events, there is so little marked character, that they might belong to any style. it is very singular, that in these paintings there should be so little ornament; a peculiarity that we have observed in several ancient paintings in the possession of the asiatic society. there is a remarkable absence of ornament even on the dresses of the figures.  hindus hindoo nc o hindous taffl l/i pl. lvi. a m q tt   hindus pl lym hindous tafel ly i hindoo n° jb£r mgib •l< . * - a-./--' ^t£y wgg&.  chinese ornament. in their ornamentation, with which the world is so familiar through the numerous manufactured articles of every kind which have been imported into this country, they do not appear to have gone beyond that point which is reached by every people in an early stage of civilisation : their art, such as it is, is fixed, and is subject neither to progression nor retrogression. in the conception of pure form the}^ are even behind the new zealander; but they possess, in common with all eastern nations, the happy instinct of harmonising colours. as this is more a faculty than an acquirement, it is just what we should expect; the arriving at an appreciation of pure form is a more subtle process, and is the result of either more highly endowed natural instincts, or of the development of primitive ideas by successive generations of artists improving on each other's efforts. the general forms of many of the chinese porcelain vases are remarkable for the beauty of their outline, but not more so than the rude water-bottles of porous clay which the untutored arabian potter fashions daily on the banks of the nile, assisted only by the instincts of his gentle race ; and the pure form of the chinese vases is often destroyed by the addition of grotesque or other unmeaning ornaments, built up upon the surface, not growing from it: fyom which we argue, that they can possess an appreciation of form, but in a minor degree. in their decoration, both painted and woven, the chinese exhibit only just so much art as would belong to a primitive people. their most successful efforts are those in which geometrical combinations form the basis ; but even in these, whenever they depart from patterns formed by the intersection of equal lines they appear to have a very imperfect idea of the distribution of spaces. their instinct of colour enables them, in some measure, to balance form, but when deprived of this aid they do not appear to be equally successful. the diapers on plate lxix. will furnish us with examples. patterns , , , , , being generated by figures which ensure an equal distribution, are more perfect than nos. , - , , where the arrangement depends more upon caprice; on the other hand, nos. , , , , and the other patterns of this class on the plate, are examples in which the instinct of the amount of balancing colour required would determine the mass. the chinese share with the indian this happy power in their woven fabrics ; and the tone of the ground of any fabric is always in harmony with the quantity of ornament which it has to support. the chinese are certainly colourists, and are able to balance with equal success both the fullest tones of colour and the most delicate shades. they are not only successful in the use of the primaries, but also of the secondaries and tertiaries; most successful, perhaps, of all in the management of the lighter tones of pure colours,—pale blue, pale pink, pale green, prevailing. of purely ornamental or conventional forms, other than geometric patterns, the chinese possess but very few. on plate lx. are some examples in - , , , . they have no flowing conventional ornament—such as we find in all other styles; the place of this is always supplied by a representation of natural flowers interwoven with lineal ornament: such as nos. , , plate lxi.; or of fruit, see plate lxii. in all cases, however, their instinct restrains them within the true limit; and although the arrangement is generally unnatural and unartistic, they never, by shades and shadows, as with us, violate consistency. in their printed paper-hangings, the whole treatment, both of figures, landscape and ornament, is so far conventional, that however we may feel it to be unartistic, we are not shocked by an overstepping of the legitimate bounds of decoration. in their floral patterns, moreover, they always observe the natural laws of radiation from the parent stem, and tangential curvature : it could not well be otherwise, as the peculiarity of the chinese is their fidelity in copying; and we hence infer that they must be close observers of nature. it is the taste to idealise upon this close observation which is wanting. we have already referred in the greek chapter to the peculiarities of the chinese fretwork. no. , chinese ornament. plate lxi., is a continuous meander like the greek; nos. - , , specimens of irregular frets; no. , plate lx., a curious instance of a fret with a curved termination. on the whole, chinese ornament is a very faithful expression of the nature of this peculiar people; its characteristic feature is oddness,—we cannot call it capricious, for caprice is the playful wandering of a lively imagination ; but the chinese are totally unimaginative, and all their works are accordingly wanting in the highest grace of art,—the ideal.    chine sisch tafel lxi ■ chinese n° ghihois pl.lxi i irnll f mmmsmmmm u uu uu u uuuii u u u u u u u u u uuu u u.u.u uu uyu u uuu uuu uu wuu l^u u ujj uu u uuu u u umuu uujum'juu a _  .chin'£ssish.	chinese- n° 	chinois tafel lx  chapter xy.—plates , , . celtic ornament. plate lxiii. lapidary ornamentation. .	the aberlemno cross, formed of a single slab, ft. high.— . central portion of stone cross in the cemetery in the chalmers, stone monuments of angus.	island of inchbrayoe, scotland. .	circular ornament on the base of stone cross in the . ornament on the cross in the churchyard of meigle, churchyard of st. vigean's, angusshire.—chalmers.	angusshire.—chalmers. . ornament of base of cross near the old church of eassie, angusshire.—chalmers. note.—in addition to the various ornaments observed on the stones here figured, a peculiar ornament occurs only in many of the scotch crosses, which has been called the spectacle pattern, consisting of two circles, connected by two curved lines, which latter are crossed by the oblique stroke of a decorated z. its origin and meaning have long puzzled antiquaries : the only other instance which we have ever met with of the occurrence of this ornament is upon a gnostic gem engraved in walsh's essay on christian coins. on some of the manx and cumberland crosses—as well as on that at penmon, anglesea—a pattern occurs analogous to the classical one represented in our greek plate viii. eigs. and . it was probably borrowed from the roman tessellated pavements, on which it is occasionally found : it never occurs in mss. or metal-work. plate lx v. interlaced style. - , - , , - , are borders of interlaced ribbon patterns, copied from anglo-saxon and irish mss. in the british museum, the bodleian library, oxford, and the libraries of st. gall and trinity college, dublin. , . interlaced ribbon patterns, from the golden gospels in the harleian library in the british museum.— humphries. .	terminal ornament of initial letter, formed of inter- laced and spiral lines, from the copy of the gospels in the paris library, no. .—silvestre. .	interlaced ornament, from irish ms. at st. gall.-— keiler. .	terminal ornament of initial letter, from the corona- tion book of the anglo-saxon kings, a production of franco-saxon artists.—humphries. .	terminal interlaced ornament, from the tironian psalter in the paris library.—silvestre. .	terminal ornament, with foliage and naturally-drawn animals introduced, from the golden gospels.— humphries. .	angulated ornament, with interlacement, from the bible of st. denis. th century. .	pattern of angulated lines, from the gospels of lindis- farne. end of th century. .	interlaced panel, from the psalter of st. augustine in the british museum. th or th century. .	ornament formed of four triquetrse conjoined, from the franco-saxon sacramentarium of st. gregory, in the library of rheims. th or th century.—silvestre. .	part of gigantic initial letter, from the franco-saxon bible of st. denis. th century.—silvestre. .	quatrefoil interlaced ornament, from the rheims sacra- mentarium.—silvestre. .	angularly interlaced ornament, from the golden gospels. (magnified.) and . interlaced ornaments, formed of red dots, from the gospels of lindisfarne. .	interlaced triquetral pattern, from the coronation gos- pels of the anglo-saxon kings. .	circular ornament of four conjoined triquetrse, from the sacramentarium of rheims. (magnified.) and . initial letters from the gospels of lindisfarne, with interlaced patterns, animals, and angulated lines. end of th century. (magnified.) . terminal ornament, with dogs'-heads, from the franco- saxon sacramentarium of rheims.—silvestre. and . quadrangular interlaced ornaments, from the missal of leofric in the bodleian library. a a celtic ornament. st. augustine in a.d. , but that in several important points of doctrine the old british religionists differed from the missionary sent by st. gregory the great. this statement is most completely borne out by still existing artistic evidences. st. gregory sent into england various copies of the holy scriptures, and two of these are still preserved; one in the bodleian library at oxford, and the other in the library of corpus christi college, cambridge. they are copies of the holy gospels, written in italy, in the large uncial or rounded characters common in that country, and destitute of ornament; the initial letter of each gospel scarcely differing from the ordinary writing of the text, the first line or two being merely written in red ink, each gospel preceded by a portrait of the evangelist (one only still remains, namely, that of st. luke), seated under a round-headed arch, supported upon marble columns, and ornamented with foliage arranged in a classical manner. all the most ancient italian manuscripts are entirely destitute of ornamental elaboration. the case is totally different with the most ancient manuscripts known to have been written in these islands; and as these are the chief supports of our theory of the independent origin of celtic ornament, and as, moreover, we are constantly opposed by doubts as to the great age which has been assigned to these precious documents, we must enter into a little pal geographical detail in proof of their venerable antiquity. it is true, indeed, that none of them are dated ; but in some the scribe has inserted his name, which the early annals have enabled us to identify, and thus to fix the period of the execution of the volume. in this manner the autograph gospels of st. columba; the leabhar dhimma, or gospels of st. dimma mac nathi; the bodleian gospels, written by mac regol; and the book of armagh, have been satisfactorily assigned to periods not later than the ninth century. another equally satisfactory evidence exists, in proof of the early date of the volumes, in the unrivalled collection of contemporary anglo-saxon charters existing in the british museum and other libraries, from the latter half of the seventh century up to the norman conquest; and although, as astle observes, " these charters are generally written in a more free and expeditious manner than the books written in the same ages, yet a similarity of character is observable between charters and books written in the same century, and they authenticate each other." now it is quite impossible to compare, for example, the cottonian ms. vespasian, a , generally known under the name of the psalter of st. augustine, with the charters of sebbi king of the east saxons, a.d. (casley's catal. of mss. p. xxiv.); of lotharius king of kent, dated at reculver, a.d. ; or, again, the charter of iethelbald, dated a.d. , with the gospels of mac regol or st. chad; without being perfectly convinced that the mss. are coeval with the charters. a third species of evidence of the great antiquity of our very ancient national manuscripts is afforded by the fact of many of them being still preserved in various places abroad, whither they were carried by the irish and anglo-saxon missionaries. the great number of monastic establishments founded by our countrymen in different parts of europe is matter of historical record; and we need only cite the case of st. gall, an irishman, whose name has not only been given to the monastic establishment which he founded, but even to the canton of switzerland in which it is situated. the monastic books of this establishment, now transferred to the public library, comprise many of the oldest manuscripts in europe, and include a number of fragments of elaborately-ornamented volumes executed in these islands, and long venerated as relics of the founder. in like manner, the book of the gospels of st. boniface is still preserved at fulda with religious care; and that of st. kilian (an irishman), the apostle of franconia, was discovered in his tomb, stained with his blood, and is still preserved at wurtzburgh, where it is annually exhibited on the altar of the cathedral on the anniversary of his martyrdom. now, all these manuscripts, thus proved to have been written in these islands at a period prior to the end of the ninth century, exhibit peculiarities of ornamentation totally at variance with those celtic ornament. of all other countries, save only in places where the irish or anglo-saxon missionaries may have introduced their own, or have modified the already existing styles. and here we may observe that, although our arguments are chiefly derived from the early manuscripts, the results are equally applicable to the contemporary ornamental metal or stone-work; the designs of which are in many cases so entirely the counterparts of those of the manuscripts, as to lead to the conclusion that the designers of the one class of ornaments supplied also the designs for the other. so completely, indeed, is this the case in some of the great stone crosses, that we might almost fancy we were examining one of the pages of an illuminated volume with a magnifying glass. . peculiarities of celtic ornament.—the chief peculiarities of the celtic ornamentation consist, first, in the entire absence of foliage or other phyllomorphic or vegetable ornament,—the classical acanthus being entirely ignored; and secondly, in the extreme intricacy, and excessive minuteness and elaboration, of the various patterns, mostly geometrical, consisting of interlaced ribbon-work, diagonal or spiral lines, and strange, monstrous animals and birds, with long top-knots, tongues, and tails, intertwining in almost endless knots. the most sumptuous of the manuscripts, such for instance as the book of kells, the gospels of lindisfarne and st. chad, and some of the manuscripts at st. gall, have entire pages covered with the most elaborate patterns in compartments, the whole forming beautiful cruciform designs, one of these facing the commencement of each of the four gospels. the labour employed in such a mass of work* must have been very great; the care infinite, since the most scrutinizing examination with a magnifying glass will not detect an error in the truth of the lines, or the regularity of the interlacing; and yet, with all this minuteness, the most harmonious effect of colouring has been produced. contrary to the older plan of commencing a manuscript with a letter in noways or scarcely differing from the remainder of the text, the commencement of each gospel opposite to these grand tessellated pages was ornamented in an equally elaborate manner. the initial letter was often of gigantic size, occupying the greater part of the page, which was completed by a few of the following letters or words, each letter generally averaging about an inch in height. in these initial pages, as in those of the cruciform designs, we find all the various styles of ornament employed in more or less detail. the most universal and singularly diversified ornament employed by artificers in metal, stone, or manuscripts, consists of one or more narrow ribbons interlaced and knotted, often excessively intricate in their convolutions, and often symmetrical and geometrical. plates lxiii. and lxiv. exhibit numerous examples of this ornament in varied styles. by colouring the ribbons with different tints, either upon a coloured or black ground, many charming effects are produced. of the curious intricacy of some of these designs, an idea may easily be obtained by following the ribbon in some of these patterns; as, for instance, in the upper compartment of fig. of plate lxiii. sometimes two ribbons run parallel to each other, but are interlaced alternately, as in fig. of plate lxiv. when allowable the ribbon is dilated and angulated to fill up particular spaces in the design, as in plate lxiv., fig. . the simplest modification of this pattern of course is the double oval, seen in the angles of fig. , plate lxiv. this occurs in greek and syriac mss., in roman tessellated pavements, but rarely in our early mss. another simple form is that known as the triquetra, which is extremely common in mss. and metal-work ; an instance in which four of these triquetrae are introduced occurs in plate lxiv., fig. . figures and in the same plate are modifications of this pattern. * in one of these pages in the gospels of st. chad, which we have taken the trouble to copy, there are not fewer than one hundred and twenty of the most fantastic animals. celtic ornament. another very distinguishing ornament profusely introduced into early work of all kind consists of monstrous animals, birds, lizards, and snakes of various kinds, generally extravagantly elongated, with tails, top-knots, and tongues, extended into long interlacing ribbons, intertwining together in the most fantastic manner; often symmetrical, but often irregular, being drawn so as to fill up a required space. occasionally, but of rare occurrence, the human figure is also thus introduced; as on one of the panels of the monasterboice cross in the crystal palace, where are four figures thus singularly intertwined, and on one of the bosses of the duke of devonshire's lismore crozier are several such fantastic groups. in plate lxiii. are groups of animals thus intertwined. the most intricate examples are the groups of eight dogs (plate lxv., fig. ) and eight birds (plate lxv., fig. ) from one of the st. gall mss., and the most elegant is the marginal ornament (plate lxv., fig. ) from the gospels of mac durnan, at lambeth palace. in the later irish and welsh mss. the edges of the interlaced ribbons touch each other, and the designs are far less geometrical and much more confused. the strange design (plate lxv., fig. ) is no other than the initial q of the psalm ' quid gloriaris,' from the psalter of ricemarchus, bishop of st. david's a.d. . it will be seen that it is intended for a monstrous animal, with one top-knot extended in front over its nose, and a second forming an extraordinary whorl above the head, the neck with a row of pearls, the body long and angulated, terminated by two contorted legs and grim claws, and a knotted tail, which it would be difficult, indeed, for the animal to unravel. very often, also, the heads alone of birds or beasts form the terminal ornament of a pattern, of which various examples occur in plate lxiv., the gaping mouth and long tongue forming a not ungraceful finish. the most characteristic, however, of all the celtic patterns, is that produced by two or three spiral lines starting from a fixed point, their opposite extremities going off to the centres of coils formed by other spiral lines. plate lxv., figs. , , and , are instances, of this ornament, all more or less magnified; and fig. , which is of the real size. plate lxiii., fig. , shows how ingeniously this pattern may be converted into the diagonal pattern. in the mss., and all the finer and more ancient metal and stone-work, these spiral lines always take the direction of a c, and never that of an s. it is, therefore, evident, not only from the circumstance, but also from the irregularity of the design itself, that the central ornament in plate lxiii., fig. , was not drawn by an artist skilled in the genuine celtic patterns, but indicates a certain amount either of carelessness or of extraneous influence. this pattern has also been called the trumpet pattern, from the spaces between any two of the lines forming a long, curved design, like an ancient irish trumpet, the mouth of which is represented by the small pointed oval placed transversely at the broad end. instances in metal- work of this pattern occur in several circular objects of bronze of unknown use, about a foot in diameter, occasionally found in ireland; also in small, circular, enamelled plates of early anglo-saxon work, found in different parts of england. it is more rarely found in stone-work, the only instance of its occurrence in england, as far as we are aware, being on the font of deerhurst church. bearing in mind that this ornament does not appear in mss. executed in england after the ninth century, we may conclude that this is the oldest ornamental font in this country. another equally characteristic pattern is composed of diagonal lines, never interlacing, but generally arranged at equal intervals apart, forming a series of chinese-like patterns,* and which, as the letter z, or z reversed, seems to be the primary element, may be termed the z pattern. it is capable of great modification, as may be seen in plate lxv., figs. , , , , , and . in the more elaborate mss. it is purely geometrical and regular, but in rude work it degenerates into an irregular design, as in plate lxiii., figs. and . * several of the patterns given in the upper part of the chinese plate lix. occur with scarcely any modification in our stone and metal-work, as well as in our mss. b b	 celtic ornament. another very simple ornament occasionally used in our mss. consists of a series of angulated lines, placed at equal distances apart, forming a series of steps. see plate lxiv., figs. and ; and plate lxv., fig. . this is, however, by no means characteristic of celtic ornament occurring elsewhere from the earliest period. the last ornament we shall notice is, indeed, the simplest of all, consisting merely of red dots or - points. these were in great use as marginal ornaments of the great initial letters, as well as of the more ornamental details, and are, indeed, one of the chief characteristics distinguishing anglo-saxon and irish mss. sometimes, also, they were even formed into patterns, as in plate lxiv., figs. and . . origin of celtic ornament.—the various styles of ornament described above were practised throughout great britain and ireland from the fourth or fifth to the tenth or eleventh centuries; and as they appear in their purest and most elaborate forms in those parts where the old celtic races longest prevailed, we have not hesitated to give the celtic as their generic name. we purposely, indeed, avoid entering into the question, whether the irish in the first instance received their letters and styles of ornament from the early british christians, or whether it was in ireland that the latter were originated, and thence dispersed over england. a careful examination of the local origin of the early anglo-saxon mss., and of the roman, romano-british, and early christian inscribed and sculptured stones of the western parts of england and wales, would, we think, materially assist in determining this question. it is sufficient for our argument that venerable bede informs us, that the british and irish churches were identical in their peculiarities, and the like identity occurs in their monuments. it is true, indeed, that the anglo-saxons, as well as the irish, employed all these styles of ornamentation. the famous gospels of lindisfarne, or book of st. cuthbert, preserved in the cottonian library in the british museum, is an unquestionable proof of such employ- ment ; and it is satisfactorily known that this volume was executed by anglo-saxon artists at lindisfarne at the end of the seventh century. but it is equally true that lindisfarne was an establishment founded by the monks of iona, who were the disciples of the irish st. columba, so that it is not at all surprising that their anglo-saxon scholars should have adopted the styles of ornamentation used by their irish predecessors. the saxons, pagans as they were when they arrived in england, had certainly no peculiarities of ornamental design of their own; and no such remains exist in the north of germany as would give the least support to the idea that the ornamentation of anglo-saxon mss., &c., was of a teutonic origin. various have been the conjectures whence all these peculiarities of ornament were derived by the early christians of these islands. one class of writers, anxious to overthrow the independence of the ancient british and irish churches, has referred them to a roman origin, and has even gone so far as to suppose that some of the grand stand crosses of ireland were executed in italy. as, however, not a single italian ms. older than the ninth century, nor a single piece of italian stone sculpture having the slightest resemblance to those of this country, can be produced, we at once deny the assertion. an examination of the magnificent work upon the catacombs of rome, lately published by the french government, in which, all the inscriptions and mural drawings executed by the early christians are elaborately represented, will fully prove that the early christian art and ornamentation of rome had no share in developing that of these islands. it is true that the grand tessellated pages of the mss. above described bear a certain general resemblance to the tessellated pavement of the romans, and had they been found only in anglo-saxon mss. we might have conjectured that such pavements existing in various parts of england, and which in the seventh and eighth centuries must still have remained uncovered, were the originals from which the illuminator of the mss. had taken his idea; but it is in the irish mss., and in the mss. which are clearly traceable to irish influence, that we find these pages celtic ornament. difficult, because so little is known of real byzantine art previous to the seventh or eighth century. certain, however, it is that the ornamentation of st. sophia, so elaborately illustrated by h. salzenberg, exhibits no analogy with our celtic patterns; a much greater resemblance exists, however, between the latter and the early monuments of mount athos, representations of some of which are given by m. didron, in his iconographie de dieu. in our egyptian plate x., figs. , - , - , and plate xi., figs. , , , and , will be perceived patterns formed of spiral lines or ropes, which may have suggested the spiral pattern of our celtic ornaments; but it will be perceived that in the majority of these egyptian examples the spiral line is arranged like an s. in plate x., fig. , however, it is arranged c-wise, and thus to a greater degree agrees with our patterns, although wide enough in detail for them. the elaborate interlacements, so common in moresque ornamentation, agree to a certain extent with the ornaments of sclavonic, ethiopic, and syriac mss., numerous examples of which are given by silvestre, and in our palwographia sacra victoria; and as all these, probably, had their origin in byzantium or mount athos, we might be led to infer a similar origin in the idea,— worked out, however, in a different manner by the irish and anglo-saxon artists. we have thus endeavoured to prove that, even supposing the early artists of these islands might have obtained the germ of their peculiar styles of ornament from some other source than their own national genius, they had, between the period of the introduction of christianity and the beginning of the eighth century, formed several very distinct systems of ornamentation, perfectly unlike in their developed state to those of any other country; and this, too, at a period when the whole of europe, owing to the breaking up of the great roman empire, was involved in almost complete darkness as regards artistic productions. . later anglo-saxon ornament.—about the middle of the tenth century another and equally striking style of ornament was employed by some of the anglo-saxon artists, for the decoration of their finest mss., and equally unlike that of any other country. it consisted of a frame-like design, composed of gold bars entirely surrounding the page, the miniatures or titles being introduced into the open space in the centre. these frames were ornamented with foliage and buds ; but, true to the interlaced ideas, the leaves and stems were interwoven together, as well as with the gold bars—the angles being, moreover, decorated with elegant circles, squares, lozenges, or quatrefoils. it would appear that it was in the south of england that this style of ornament was most fully elaborated, the grandest examples having been executed at winchester, in the monastery of st. iethelwold, in the latter half of the tenth century. of these the benedictional belonging to the duke of devonshire, fully illustrated in the archceologia, is the most magnificent; two others, however, now in the public library of rouen, are close rivals of it; as is also a copy of the gospels in the library of trinity college, cambridge. the gospels of king canute in the british museum is another example, which has afforded us the figure in plate lxy. there can be little doubt that the grand mss. of the frankish schools of charlemagne, in which foliage was introduced, were the originals whence our later anglo-saxon artists adopted the idea of the introduction of foliage among their ornaments. j. . westwood. celtic ornament. bibliographical references. led wick. antiquities of ireland. to. o'conor. biblioth. stowensis. vols. to. . also, rerum hibernicarum scriptores veteres. vols. to. petrie. essay on the round towers of ireland. large vo. betham. irish antiquarian researches. vols. vo. o'neill. illustrations of the crosses of ireland. folio, in parts. keller, dr. ferdinand. bilder und schriftzuge in den irischen manuscripten ; in the mittheilungen der antiq. gesellsch. in zurich. bd. , . westwood, j. . palceographia sacra pictoria. to. - . ,,	in journal of the archaeological institute,vols.vii. and x. also numerous articles in the ar- chceologia cambrensis. cumming. illustrations of the crosses of the isle of man. to. chalmers. stone monuments of angusshire. imp. fol. spalding club. sculptured stones of scotland. fol. . gage, j. dissertation on st. jejthelwold's benedictional, in archceo- logia, vol. xxiv. ellis, sir h. account ofccedmorts paraphrase of scripture history, in archceologia, vol. xxiv. goodwin, james, b.d. evangelia augustini gregoriana, in trans. cambridge antiq. soc. no. , to. , with eleven plates. bastard, le comte de. ornements et miniatures des manuscrits frangais. imp. fol. paris. worsaae, j. j. a. afbildningerfra det kong. museum i kjdbenhavn. vo. . and the general works of willemin, strutt, du sommerard, langlois, shaw, silvestre and champollion, astle (on writing), humphreys, la croix, and lysons (magna britan- nia). c c  kelt jit ch, fl-atb xocin  kelt sch celtic n° c elti q li jtl s pl.lxiy taf£l lxiy  k£ltisch celtic ng ce-ltiq u es pl.lxy tafel lxy.  chapter xvi.—plates , , * , , °, , , , . medleyal ornament. plate lxvi. conventional leaves and flowers, from mss. of different periods. plates livii., lxvii*. collection of borders, from illuminated mss., from the th to the th century. plate lxvi . diapers on walls, from miniatures in illuminated mss., from the th to the th century. , , , .	church at attenberg, near cologne. . .	chapter-house, york cathedral. .	southwell church, nottinghamshire. .	north transept, york cathedral. plate lxix. stained glass of different periods and styles. , . cathedral of soissons. . st. thomas at strasburg. .	cathedral at troyes. .	canterbury cathedral. plate lxix*. , . st. cunibert, cologne. . canterbury cathedral. , . abbey of st. denis. stained glass of different periods and styles. - , , , . cathedral of bourges. . cathedral of angers. medieval ornament. plate lxx. encaustic tiles. th and th centuries. plate lxx i. illuminated mss., no. . - are of the th century ; is of the th century. and are from the illuminated books of the middle ages.— humphreys. the remainder of the ornaments on this plate from the british museum. plate lxxii. illuminated mss., no. . , , of the th century. , - , - , th century. , , , , of the th century. , , , , , and , are from the illuminated books of the middle ages. , from a ms. in the possession of the author. the remainder from the british museum. plate lxxi i. illuminated mss., no. . mss. from the beginning to the end of the th century. - , from the illuminated books of the middle ages. the remainder from the british museum. mediaeval ornament. the transition from the round arch, characteristic of the romanesque style to the pointed style of the thirteenth century, is readily traced in the buildings in which the two styles are intermingled; but the passage from romanesque ornament to that which prevailed so universally in the thirteenth century is not so clear. all traces of the acanthus leaf have disappeared, and we find a purely con- ventional style of ornament universally prevalent in all the buildings of the time. the nearest approach to this style is found in the illuminated mss. of the twelfth century, which appear to have been derived in some of their features from the greek mss. the ornaments are formed of a continuous mediaeval ornament. '..... early english. wells.-coii.ins.	warmington church, northamptonshire.-w. iwoptsnv. w'armington church, northamptonshire.—w. twopeny.	decorated. wells. collins. stem, throwing off leaves on the outer side, and terminating in a flower. the general disposition and arrangement of the lines in any given space is exactly similar to the arrangement of early english sculptured ornament. early english ornament is the most perfect, both in principle and in execution, of the gothic period. there is as much elegance and refinement in modulations of form as there is in the ornament of the greeks. it is always in perfect harmony with the structural features, and always grows naturally from them. it fulfils every one of the conditions which we desire to find in a perfect style of art. but it remained perfect only so long as the style remained conventional. as this style became less idealised and more direct in imitation, its peculiar beauties disappeared, and it ceased to be an orna- mentation of structural features, but became ornament applied. mediaeval ornament. in the capitals of the columns in the early english architecture the ornament arises directly from the shaft, which above the necking splits up into a series of stems, each stem terminating in a flower. this is analogous to the mode of decorating the egyptian capital. in the decorated style, on the contrary, where a much nearer approach to nature was attempted, it was no longer possible to treat a natural leaf as part of the shaft; and, therefore, the shaft is terminated by a bell-shape, stone church, kent.—published by the topographical society. round which the leaves are twined. the more and more natural these were made, the less artistic became the arrangement. the same thing occurs in the bosses which cover the intersections of the ribs. on the vaulting in the early english bosses the stems of the flowers forming the bosses are continuations of the mouldings of the ribs, whilst in subsequent periods the intersections of the ribs were concealed by the overlaying of the boss, which was here as much an application as was the acanthus leaf to the bell of the corinthian capital. in the spandrils of the arches, so long as the conventional style was retained, one vigorous main stem was distributed over the spandril, from which sprang the leaves and flowers; but when the natural was attempted, the stem ceased to be the guiding form of the ornament, and lost all grace in the endeavour to represent in stone the softness of nature. the main stem as a leading feature gradually disappears, and the spandrils are often filled with three immense leaves springing from a twisted stem in the centre. from the few remains which still exist of the decorations of the interior of buildings, we are unable to form a very complete idea of this class of ornament of the thirteenth century. the ornaments from illuminated mss. are not a safe guide, as, after the twelfth century, the style is rarely very architectural, and there were so many schools of illumination, and they borrowed so much one from the other, that there is often great mixture in the same illumination. it is unlikely, that while the sculptured ornament was so universally conventional, that the decorated portion of the same building could have departed from the style. mediaeval ornament. on plates lxvii. and lxvii*. we give a selection of borders found on illuminated mss., ranging from the ninth to the fourteenth century; and on plate lxviii. diapers from walls, chiefly taken from the back-grounds of illuminations, from the twelfth to the sixteenth. there are very few of either class that could be worthy accompaniments to the pure conventional ornament of the early english style. in the thirteenth century, beyond all others, architecture was in its zenith. the mosques of cairo, the alhambra, salisbury, lincoln, westminster, all possess the same secret of producing the broadest wells cathedral.—collins. general effects combined with the most elaborate decoration. in all these buildings there is a family likeness; although the forms widely differ, the principles on which they are based are the same. they exhibit the same care for the leading masses of the composition, the same appreciation of the undulations of form, the same correct observation of natural principles in the ornamentation, the same elegance and refinement in all the decoration. the attempt to reproduce in our time a building of the thirteenth century must be vain indeed. whitewashed walls, with stained glass and encaustic tiles, cannot alone sustain the effect which was arrived at when every moulding had its colour best adapted to develope its form, and when, from the floor to the roof, not an inch of space but had* its appropriate ornament; an effect which must have been glorious beyond conception. so glorious a point, indeed, had the style reached that it was exhausted by the effort,—the light burnt out; not only architecture, but all the decorative arts which accompanied it, immediately began to decline,—a decline which never stops till the style dies out. in the examples of encaustic tiles on plate lxx. it will be seen that the broadest in effect, and the best adapted to their purpose, are the earliest, such as nos. , . although there was never so much decline as to attempt an appearance of relief, yet a near approach to a representation of the natural forms of leaves may be seen in no. ; and a very marked decline is observed in patterns such as no. , where tracery and the structural features of buildings were represented. medieval ornament. on plate lxvi. are arranged a great variety of conventional leaves and flowers from illuminated mss. although many of them are in the originals highly illuminated, we have printed them here in two colours only, to show how possible it is to represent in diagram the general character of leaves. by adapting these leaves or flowers to a volute stem, almost as many styles in appearance could be produced as there are separate ornaments on the page. by a combination of different varieties they might be still further increased, and by adding to the stock by conventionalising the form of any natural leaf or flower on the same principle, there need be no limit to an artist's invention. in plates lxxi., lxxii., lxxiii., we have endeavoured to gather together types of the various styles of ornamental illumination from the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century. there is here, also, evidence of decline from the very earliest point. on plate lxxi. the letter n is not surpassed by any example in the subsequent styles we have reproduced. here the true purpose of illumination is fulfilled ; in every way, it is pure decorative writing. the letter itself forms the chief ornament; from this springs a main stem, sweeping boldly from the base, swelling out into a grand volute exactly at the point best adapted to contrast with the angular line of the letter : this is beautifully sustained again by the green volute, which embraces the upper part of the n, and prevents it falling over, and is so nicely proportioned that it is able to sustain the red volute which flows from it. the colours also are most beautifully balanced and contrasted; and the way in which the rotundity of the stems is expressed, without attempting positive relief, is a fruitful lesson. there are an immense number of mss. in this style, and we consider it the finest kind of illumination. the general character of the style is certainly eastern, and was probably a development of the illumination of the byzantines. we believe that, from its universal prevalence, it led to the adoption of the same principle so universally in the ornamentation of the early english, which follows exactly the same laws in the general distribution of form. this style, from constant repetition, gradually lost the peculiar beauty and fitness which it had derived from first inspiration, and died out by the scroll-work becoming too minute and elaborate, as we see in no. of the same plate. we have no longer the same balance of form, but the four series of scrolls repeating each other most monotonously. from this period we no longer find the initial letters forming the chief ornament on the page, but the general text becomes enclosed either in borders round the page, as at no. , plate lxxii., or with tails on one side of the page, such as , , , . the border gradually comes to be of more importance, and from the vignette form, which was at first general, we gradually arrive through the manner of no. to that of nos. and , where the border is bounded on the outer edge by a red line, and the border is filled up by intermediate stems and flowers, so as to produce an even tint. no. is a specimen of a style very prevalent in the fourteenth century, and which is very architectural in character. it is generally to be found on small missals, and surrounding very beautiful miniatures. the gradual progress from the flat conventional ornament, nos. and , to the attempt at rendering the relief of natural forms in nos. , , , will readily be traced through nos. , , . there is also to be remarked a gradual decline in the idea of continuity of the main stems, and although each flower or group of leaves in nos. , , , may still be traced to their roots, the arrangement is fragmentary. up to this period the ornaments are still within the province of the scribe, and are all first outlined with a black line and then coloured, but on plate lxxiii. we shall find that the painter began to usurp the office of the scribe ; and the farther we proceed the more does the legitimate object of illumination seem to be 'departed from. we have the first stage in no. , where a geometrical arrangement is obtained with conventional medieval ornament. ornament enclosing gold panels, on which are painted groups of flowers slightly conventionalised. in , , , , , , we find conventional ornament intermingled with natural flowers arranged in a fragmentary way. all continuity of design being abandoned, we arrive through this to no. , when a natural flower and a conventional ornament appear on the same stem, to nos. , , where the painter has full sway, and represents flowers and insects casting their shadow on the page. when the art of illumination had arrived at this stage it could go no farther,—all ideality had fled—and it ends in the desire to copy an insect so faithfully that it should appear to be alighting on the page. nos. , , are specimens of a peculiar style of italian mss., which was a revival in the fifteenth century of the system of ornament so prevalent in the twelfth. it led to the style no. , where the interlaced pattern became highly coloured on the gold ground. this style also died out in the same way, the interlacings, from being purely geometrical forms, became imitations of natural branches, and, of course, when it arrived thus far there could be no further progress. the character of the ornament on stained glass appears to follow much more closely that of the illuminated mss. than it does the sculptured ornament of the monuments of the same period, and, like the ornament of the illuminated mss., it appears to us to be always in advance of structural ornament. for instance,—the stained glass of the twelfth century possesses the same breadth of effect, and is constructed in the same way, as the sculptured ornament of the thirteenth, whilst the stained glass of the thirteenth century is, according to our view, already in a state of decline. the same change has taken place which we have already observed on comparing no. with no. , plate lxxi. the constant repetition of the same forms has gradually led to an over-elaboration of detail, from which the general effect considerably suffers. the ornaments are out of scale with the general masses. now as it is one of the most beautiful features of the early english style, that the ornament is in such perfect relation in point of scale and effect to the members which it decorates, this seems a very curious fact, if fact it is. on plates lxix. and lxix*. all the ornaments from nos. to are of the twelfth century. nos. and are of the thirteenth. nos. , , , , , , , , , are of the fourteenth, and we think a mere glance at the general effect of the plates will establish what we have here advanced. in the stained glass of the twelfth century we shall always find all the principles which we have shown to belong to a true style of art. we need only call attention here to the very ingenious way in which the straight, the inclined, and the curved, are balanced and contrasted in all the diapers. in nos. and we have an example of a very common principle, which is thoroughly eastern in character, viz. a continuous ground pattern forms a tint interlacing with a more general surface pattern. in nos. , , , , of the fourteenth century we see the commencement of the direct natural style, which ended in the total neglect of the true principles of stained glass, when both ornaments and figures through which life was to be transmitted, in the attempt to render them over-true, had their own shades and shadows. middle ages n°i motel alter mgyen-age fafell lxyi pl lxvi  mittelalter tafel lxvii middle ages h° mo yen-age pl lxyii ___ i i m i ____ -- mmsn -- -  mittelalter	middle ages n° ,*	moyen -age i i \ pl lxyii* tafel lxy i * - mam mimhumil—  glashalerei	stained glass v traux pe nts pl lxix tafei ixix   mittelalteb middle ages n . moyen-age tafel ixx pllxx hs : £   lluminirte manuscrifte. illiiminated mss. n° manuscripts enuimwe tafel lxxu fl lxx m # m t|  huihinirte maniisesifte illuminated mss'n° manuscripts ehlumines pl uxxm fa pel lxxu  chapter xyil—plates , , , , , , , , . renaissance ornament. plate lxxiv. ; , . bas-reliefs from the church of sta. maria dei mira- coli, venice. .	bas-relief from the scuola di san marco, venice. .	bas-relief forming the continuation upwards of fig. . ,	 . bas-reliefs from the church of san michele in murano, venice. ,	 . bas-reliefs from the scala dei giganti, venice. plate lxxv. , . from a collection of casts taken under the superin- tendence of professor varny, from the principal cinque-cento monuments of genoa. . from the first ghiberti gate of the baptistery, florence. , , , , . from genoa. .	from venice. .	from the church of santi giovanni e paolo, venice. . from the hotel bourgtheroulde, rouen. plate .	bas-relief by andrea sansovino, from the church of sta. maria del popolo, rome. .	bas-relief from the church of sta. maria dei miracoli, venice. .	bas-relief from the hotel bourgtheroulde, rouen. .	bas-relief from a collection of casts of the best cinque- lxxvi. cento ornaments of genoa, taken under the superin- tendence of professor varny. , , , . bas-reliefs from genoa. . bas-relief from the martinengo tomb, brescia. . bas-relief from the base of the " trois graces" of germain pilon in the louvre. plate - . ornaments enamelled on copper in the early li- moges champleve style, from the hotel cluny museum, paris. - . ditto, of a later period. . ornaments from the background of a picture, in the hotel cluny.	, , . enamels on gold ground, from the louvre. .	silver inlay in ivory, of the sixteenth century, from the hotel cluny. .	from a casket in the hotel cluny. .	from apowder-horn in iron of the sixteenth century, in the hotel cluny. - . similar objects in boxwood, from the same museum. - . from sixteenth-century limoges enamels, in the same museum. . from ditto, in the louvre. - . enamels on gold ground, sixteenth century, louvre. .	portion of an ebony cabinet of the sixteenth cen- tury, in the hotel cluny. .	inlaid ornament on a dagger sheath of the sixteenth century, in the hotel cluny. lxxvil , . from pottery of the sixteenth century, in the louvre. .	limoges champleve enamel on copper, from the hotel cluny. .	painted ornaments, hotel cluny. .	from the armour of henri iii., in the louvre. .	a metal plate in the same museum. - . from metal work, in the louvre. . from the armour of francis ii., in the louvre. - . repousse ornaments in copper, from the hotel cluny. , . limoges champleve enamel, from the same museum. - . from goldsmiths' work of the sixteenth century, in the louvre. , . from a picture in limoges painted enamel, six- teenth century, in the hotel cluny. .	ornament in copper, from the above. .	ivory inlay in ebony, from the above. .	painted ornament, from the above. - . limoges champleve enamel, from the above. - . from accessories to pictures, from the above. - . limoges champleve enamel. renaissance ornament. plate lxxviii. - . ornaments taken from specimens of hispano-arabic, french, and italian earthenware, preserved in the south kensington museum, and principally from the majolican wares of pesaro, gubbio, urbino, castel durante, and other italian towns of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. plate lxxix. - . ornaments selected from the faience. or enamelled earthenware, of bernard de palissy, in the hotel cluny. - . from specimens of majolica, in the hotel cluny. - . from faience of the fifteenth century, in the hotel cluny. - , . from faience of the sixteenth century, in the louvre. , . from porcelain of the seventeenth century, in the louvre. , . from the german pottery, en gres with painted glaze of the sixteenth century, in the hotel cluny. - . from earthenware, french, spanish, and italian, in the hotel cluny. . from the louvre. , .	ornaments from faience. - .	ornaments from faience of the sixteenth century. - .	ornaments from faience of the seventeenth century. , .	from faience with metallic lustre. .	from a vase in venetian glass of the sixteenth cen- tury. - .	from faience of the sixteenth century. , .	from faience of an earlier date. plate lxxx. - .	from ores fiamand, or earthenware. - .	from faience of the sixteenth century. .	from a carved-wood panel of the seventeenthcentury. - .	from enamelled earthenware. - .	from silk embroidery on velvet. n.b.—the whole of the specimens on this plate have been derived from the h tel cluny, paris. plate lxxxi. .	from a sideboard carved in wood, dated , in the hotel cluny. .	wood panels of the sixteenth century, in the h tel cluny. .	from an oak chair-back, in the hotel cluny. - . from carved-wood stalls of the fifteenth century, in the hotel cluny. - , , , , . from furniture, in the hotel cluny. . end of a beam of the end of the fifteenth century, in the hotel cluny. , , , , , . from furniture of the sixteenth cen- tury, in the hotel cluny. , . from furniture of the fifteenth century, in the h tel cluny. . from a sideboard, in the hotel cluny. . . . . . . - . , . . , . . shutter panels of the end of the fifteenth century, in the hotel cluny. carved ornament from the louvre. from a boxwood comb, in the hotel cluny, stone balustrading, from the chateau d'anet. stone carving from the louvre. from a chimneypiece, in the hotel cluny. carving in marble from the celebrated basin in the fountain of the chateau gaillon, now in the louvre. stone carving, seventeenth century, in the louvre. wood carving, from the h tel cluny. from the fountain of the chateau gaillon, louvre. from the stock of an arquebus of the sixteenth century, in the hotel cluny. plate lxxxii. - . carved ornament from oak furniture of the sixteenth century, in the hotel cluny. , , , . from the bed of francis i., in the hotel cluny. , , , , . from oak furniture of the sixteenth century, in the hotel cluny. - . from a sideboard of the fifteenth century. . from an oak sideboard, dated , in the h tel cluny. - . from furniture of the sixteenth century, in the hotel cluny. , . panels of shutters of the end of the fifteenth cen- tury, in the hotel cluny. renaissance ornament. if two intelligent students of italian art and literature diligently set themselves to trace, the one the latest date at which the direct, though lingering, light of roman greatness waned to its feeblest glimmer in the land over which it had once shed its dazzling rays, and the other the earliest effort made to excite a veneration for what most historians declare to have almost utterly died out in the lapse of ages—classical beauty—there is little doubt that they would not only meet, but cross one another, in the progress of their researches. the truth is, that the material monuments of the ancient romans, scattered thickly over the soil of italy, were so substantial and majestic, that it was impossible to live under their shadow and to forget them. fragments of exquisite beauty, in stone, bronze, and marble, were to be had for the trouble of turning up the soil that scarcely covered them; and thus they were, from time to time, pressed into service for tombs, and as accessories in buildings, in the construction of which the principles of art to which those fragments owed their beauty had been entirely lost sight of. hence, the gothic style was at once "slow to take root in italy, and destined to bloom brilliantly, but for a short season. almost concurrently with the introduction of the pointed arch into northern italy by an englishman, in the construction of st. andrea, at vercelli, early in the thirteenth century, and with the german works of magister jacobus, at assisi, a protest was commenced in favour of the ancients and their arts by that great reviver of antique sculpture, nicola pisano. the close of the thirteenth century was further marked by a complete revolution in the world of letters. dante, in his time, was scarcely less known as a christian poet than as an emulator of the great mantuan, and a profound student in classical learning. in the fourteenth century, petrarch and boccaccio, intimate friends, spent long and laborious lives, not in writing italian poetry or prose, as is often fancied, but in labouring incessantly in the preservation and restoration to the world of the long-lost texts of the roman and grecian authors. cino da pistoia and other learned commentators and jurists brought into fashion the study of the great " corpus " of ancient law, and maintained academies in which it was adopted as a text. boccaccio it was who first gave to italy a lucid account of heathen mythology, and who first instituted a chair for the study of the grecian language at florence, bringing over leontius pilatus, a learned greek, from constantinople, to be the first professor. these efforts at a revival of classical learning were seconded by a numerous band of notables, among whom the names of john of ravenna (petrarch's pupil), lionardo aretino, poggio bracciolini, ieneas sylvius (ultimately pope pius ii., - ), and cosmo, the father of the medici, are most popularly and familiarly known. it was at a moment when the labours of such men as these had accumulated in public and private libraries all that could be recovered of classical learning, that about the middle of the fifteenth century the art of printing was introduced into italy. under the auspices of the benedictines of subiaco, the germans sweynheim and pannartz set up their press in the celebrated monastery of santa scholastica, from which issued, in the year , their edition of lactantius. removing to rome in , the first-fruits of their labour was " cicero de oratore." thus, while in germany and france biblical and ecclesiastical literature, and in england popular, first gave employment to the printer; in italy, classical, for a time, almost exclusively f f	 if/' arabesques designed by baccio pintelli, for the church of sant' agostino, llome. renaissance ornament. for carvers, of the purest taste and most exquisite fancy. of the perfection attained in this depart- ment of art by the last-named artist, the celebrated wooden stalls of the choir of san pietro dei casinensi, at perugia, will long remain unquestionable evidence. the carrying out of these carvings by stefano da bergamo does full justice to the admirable composi- tions of rafeaelle. at milan, the important works of the duomo, and the certosa at pavia, created a truly remark- able school of art; among the most celebrated mas- paiiel from the piscina of the high altar of the certosa, pavia. ters of which may be noticed, fusina, solari, agrati, amadeo, and sacchi. the sculptor's talent had long been traditional in that locality, and there can be no doubt that these artists embodied in the highest forms the lingering traditions of the maestri coma- schi, or freemasons, of como; from whose genius many of the most celebrated buildings of the middle ages derived their highest graces of adornment. of panels from the piscina of the high altar of the certosa, pavia. arabesques designed by baccio pintelli, for the church of sant' agostino, rome. renaissance ornament. all the lombard cinque-centists, however, the highest admiration must be reserved for agostino busti, better known as bambaja, and his pupil brambilla, whose exquisite works in arabesque at the certosa must ever remain marvels of execution. our woodcuts, selected from the piscina of the high altar, furnish some idea of the general style of the pavian arabesques. at venice, the first great names which call for notice are those of the lombardi (pietro, tullio, giulio, sante, and antonio), through whose talents that city was adorned with its most famous monu- ments. they were followed by riccio, bernardo, and domenico di mantua, and many other sculptors; but their lesser glories are altogether eclipsed by those of the great jacopo sansovino. at lucca, matteo civitale (born , died ) fully maintained the reputation of the period. returning to tuscany, we find, towards the close of the fifteenth century, the greatest perfection of ornamental sculp- ture, the leading characteristic of which, however, we now no longer find to be the sedulous and simple imitation of nature, but rather a conventional rendering of the antique. the names of mino de fiesole— the greatest of the celebrated school of the fiesolani—benedetto da majano, and bernardo rossellini, bring to our recollection many exquisite monuments which abound in the churches of florence, and the other principal towns of the grand duchy. these artists excelled alike in wood, in stone, and in marble, and their works have been surpassed in this style of art only by those of their predecessors we have already named, and by some few others, their contemporaries. of these, andrea contucci, better known as the elder sansovino, was pre-eminent in his art; and it would appear impossible to carry ornamental modelling to greater perfection than he has exhibited in the wonderful monuments which form the pride of the church of sta. maria del popolo, at rome. his pupil, jacopo tatti, who subsequently took his master's name, may be regarded as his only rival. of him, however, more hereafter. ornaments from the piscina of the high altar of the certosa, pavia. i portions of pilasters from the church of sta. maria dei miracoli, venice. g g	us renaissance ornament. of specimens, in the majority of which gracefulness of line, and a highly artificial, though apparently natural, distribution of the ornament upon its field, are the prevailing characteristics. the lombardi, in their works at the church of sta. maria dei miracoli, venice (plate lxxiv., figs. , , ; plate lxxvi., fig. ); andrea sansovino at rome (plate lxxvi., fig. ); and domenico and bernardino di mantua, at venice (plate lxxiv., figs. and ), attained the highest perfection in these respects. at a subsequent period to that in which they flourished the ornaments were generally wrought in more uniformly high relief, and the stems and tendrils were thickened, and not so uniformly tapered, the accidental growth and play of nature were less sedulously imitated, the field of the panel was more fully covered with enrichments, and its whole aspect made more bustling and less refined. the sculptor's work as- serted itself in competition with the architect's : the latter in self-defence, and to keep the sculpture down, soon be- gan to make his mouldings heavy: and a more ponderous style altogether crept into fashion. of this tendency to plethora in ornament we already perceive indications in much of the genoese work represented in plate lxxv., figs. , , , , , , and ; and in plate lxxvi., figs. , , , , and . fig. in the last-mentioned plate, from the celebrated martinengo tomb, at brescia, also clearly exhibits this tendency to filling up. in the art of painting, a move- ment took place concurrent with that we have thus briefly noticed in sculp- ture. giotto, the pupil of cimabue, threw off the shackles of greek tra- dition, and gave his whole heart to nature. his ornament, like that of his master, consisted of a combination of painted mosaic work, interlacing bends, and free rendering of the acan- thus. in his work at assisi, naples, florence, and padua, he has invariably shown a graceful appre- hension of the balance essential to be maintained between mural pictures and mural ornaments, both in quantity, distribution, and relative colour. these right principles of balance were very generally understood and adopted during the fourteenth century; and simone memmi, taddeo bartolo, the orcagnas, pietro di lorenzo, spinello aretino, and many others, were admitted masters of mural em- bellishment. that rare student of nature in the succeeding century, benozzo gozzoli, was a no less diligent student of antiquity, as may be recognised in the architectural backgrounds to his pictures in the campo santo, and in the noble arabesques which divide his pictures at san gimignano. andrea mantegna, however, it was who moved painting as donatello had moved sculpture, and that not in figures alone, but in every variety of ornament borrowed from the antique. the magnificent cartoons we are so fortunate as to possess of his at hampton court, even to their minutest decorative details, might have been drawn by an ancient roman. towards the close of the fifteenth century, the style, vertical running ornament from the church of sta. maria dei miracoli, venice. portion of a doorway in one of the palaces of the dorias near the church of san matteo, genoa. renaissance ornament. the work of enguerand le prince; the heads are grand, and the poses of the figures call to mind the works of albert diirer. the grisailles, which ornamented the windows in the houses of the nobility, and even of the bourgeoisie, although small, were executed with an admirable delicacy, and in drawing and grouping leave little to be desired. toward the end of the sixteenth century the art began to decline, the numerous glass-painters found themselves without employment, and the celebrated bernard de palissy, who had been brought up to the trade, left it to engage in another presenting greater difficulties, but which eventually secured him the highest reputation. to him, however, we are indebted for the charming grisailles representing the story of cupid and psyche, from the designs of raffaelle, which formerly decorated the chateau of ecouen, the residence of his great patron the constable montmorency. renaissance ornament penetrated into germany at an early period, but was absorbed into the hearts of the people but slowly, until the spread of books and engravings quickened its general acceptation. from an early period there had been a steady current of artists leaving germany and flanders to study in the great italian ateliers. among them, men like roger of bruges, who spent much of his life in italy, and died in ,—hemskerk, and albert diirer, more especially influenced their countrymen. the latter, who in many of his engravings showed a perfect apprehension of the conditions of italian design, leaning now to the gothic manner of his master wohlgemuth, and now to the raftaellesque simplicity of marc' antonio. the spread of the engravings of the latter, however, in germany, unquestionably conduced to the formation of the taste of men who, like peter vischer, first brought italian plastic art into fashion in germany. even at its best the renaissance of germany is impure—her industrious affection for difficulties of the hand, rather than of the head, soon led her into crinkum-crankums; and strap-work, jewelled forms, and complicated monsters, rather animated than graceful, took the place of the refined elegance of the early italian and french arabesques. arabesque by theodor de bry, one of the " petits maitres " oi germany ( ), in imitation of italian work, but introducing strap-work, caricature, and jewelled forms. it may be well now to turn from the fine to the industrial arts, and to trace the manifestation of the revival in the designs of contemporary manufactures. from the unchanging and unchangeable nature of vitreous and ceramic products, no historical evidence of style can be more complete and renaissance ornament. satisfactory than that which they afford, and hence we have devoted three entire plates (nos. lxxviii., lxxix., and lxxx.) to their illustration. the majority of the specimens thereon represented have been selected from the " majolica of italy, on which interesting ware and its ornamentation we proceed to offer a few remarks. the art of glazing pottery appears to have been introduced into spain and the balearic isles by the moors, by whom it had long been known and used in the form of coloured tiles for the decoration of their buildings. the earthenware called " majolica " is believed to derive its name from the island of majorca, whence the manufacture of glazed pottery is supposed to have found its way into central italy; and this belief is strengthened by the fact of the earliest italian ware being ornamented with geometrical patterns and trefoil-shaped " foliations" of saracenic character (plates lxxix. and lxxx., figs. and ). it was first used by introducing coloured concave tiles among brickwork, and later in the form of encaustic flooring. the manufacture of this ware was extensively carried on between and , in the towns of nocera, arezzo, citta de castillo, forli, faenza (whence comes fayence), florence, spello, perugia, deruta, bologna, rimini, ferrara, pesaro, fermignano, castel durante, gubbio, urbino, and ravenna, and also at many places in the abruzzi; but pesaro is admitted to be the first town in which it attained any celebrity. it was at first called " mezza or " half" majolica, and was usually made in the form of thick clumsy plates, many of large size. they are of a dingy grey colour, and often have a dull yellow varnish at the back. the texture is coarse and gritty, but the golden and prismatic lustre is now and then seen, though they are more frequently of a pearly hue. this " half " majolica is believed by passeri and others to have been made in the fifteenth century ; and it was not till after that time that the manufacture of " fine " majolica almost entirely superseded it. a mode of glazing pottery was also discovered by lucca della robbia, who was born at florence in . it is said that he used for this purpose a mixture of antimony, tin, and other mineral substances, applied as a varnish to the surface of the beautiful terra-cotta statues and bas-reliefs modelled by him. the secret of this varnish remained in the inventor's family till about , when it was lost at the death of the last member of it. attempts have been made at florence to revive the manufacture of the robbian ware, but with small success, owing to the great difficulties attending it. the subjects of the bas-reliefs of della robbia are chiefly religious, to which the pure glistening white of the figures is well adapted ; the eyes are blackened to heighten the expression, and the white figures well relieved by the deep blue ground. wreaths of flowers and fruits in their national tints were introduced by the followers of della robbia, by some of whom the costumes were coloured, whilst the flesh parts w^ere allowed to remain unglazed. passeri claims the discovery of this coloured glaze at a still earlier date for pesaro, where the manufacture of earthenware was carried on in the fourteenth century ; but though the art of combining it with colour may have been known at that early time, it had not attained much celebrity until , when matteo de rani ere of cagli and ventura di maestro simone dei piccolomini of siena established themselves at pesaro, for the purpose of carrying on the manufacture of earthenware already existing there ; and it is not improbable that their attention was attracted by the works of delia robbia, who had been employed by sigismond pandolfo malatesta at rimini. some confusion appears to have arisen with respect to the precise process invented by delia robbia, and looked upon by himself and his family as the really valuable secret. we feel little doubt that it consisted rather in the tempering and firing of the clay to enable it to burn large masses truly and thoroughly than in the protecting glaze, about which there appears to have been very little novelty or necessity for concealment. prismatic lustre and a brilliant and transparent white glaze were the qualities chiefly sought for in the " fine" majolica and gubbian ware; the metallic lustre was given bv preparations of lead, renaissance ornament. colours of these jars are blue, green, and yellow; about of them still remain in the treasury of loreto. passeri gives an interesting classification of ornamental pottery, with the terms made use of by the workmen to distinguish the various kinds of paintings used in ornamenting the plates, and also the sums paid to the artists by whom they were painted. he gives a curious extract from a manuscript in the handwriting of piccolpasso, a " majolicaro " of the middle of the sixteenth century, who wrote upon his art; to understand which it is necessary to remember that the bolognino was equivalent to the ninth part, and the gros to the third part, of a paul ( £ pence); the livre was a third, and the florin two thirds of a petit ecu; and the petit ecu, or ecu ducal, two thirds of a roman crown (now value four shillings and threepence one farthing). trophies.—this style of ornament consisted of ancient and modern arms, musical and ma- thematical instruments, and open books; they are generally painted in yellow cameo on a blue ground. these plates were chiefly sold in the province (castel durante) in which they were manufactured, one ducal crown a hundred being the sum paid to the painters of them. this style was much affected by the cinque-centisti in marble and stone: witness the monument to gian galeazzo visconti, in the certosa, pa via, and portions of the genoese doorway we en- grave. arabesques were ornaments consisting of a sort of cipher, loosely tied, and interlacing knots and bouquets. work thus ornamented was sent to venice and genoa, and obtained one ducal florin the hundred. cerquate was a name given to the interlacing of oak-branches, painted in a deep yellow upon a blue ground; it was called the " urbino painting," from the oak being one of the bearings of the ducal arms. this kind of decoration received fifteen gros the hundred; and when, in addition, the bottom of the plate was ornamented, by having some little story painted upon it, the artist received one petit ecu. grotesques were the interlacing of winged male and female monsters, with their bodies terminated by foliations or branches. these fanciful decorations were generally painted in white cameo upon a blue ground; the payment for them being two ecus the hundred, unless they were painted on commission from venice, when the price was eight ducal livres. leaves.—this ornament consisted of a few branches of leaves, small in size, and sprinkled over the ground. their price was three livres. flowers and fruits.—these very pleasing groups were sent to venice, and the artists received for them five livres the hundred. another variety of the same style merely consisted in three or four large leaves, painted in one colour upon a different-coloured ground. their price was half a florin the hundred. pedestal forming part of a doorway of the palace, presented by the genoese to andrea doria. renaissance ornament. the works of the french jewellers in the reign of louis xii., when the extensive patronage of the powerful cardinal d'amboise gave considerable impetus to the art, it was under francis i., who invited to his court the great master of the renaissance—cellini—that the jeweller's art reached its highest perfection. to rightly appreciate, however, the precise condition and nature of the precious metal-work, it is necessary to pass in rapid review the leading characteristics of the admirable school of enamellers, whose productions in the fifteenth century, and much more in the sixteenth, served to disseminate far and wide some of the most elegant ornaments which have ever been applied to metal- work. about the end of the fourteenth century, the artists of li- moges found not only that the old champleve enamels,—of which, in plate lxxvii., figs. , , , , , , , , , , , we have given, for the sake of contrast, numerous examples,— had entirely gone out of fashion, but that almost every gold- smith either imported the translucid enamels from italy, or exe- cuted them himself with more or less skill, according to his talents. in this state of things, instead of attempting competi- tion, they invented a new manufacture, the processes of which belonged solely to the enameller, and enabled him to dispense entirely with the burin of the goldsmith. the first attempts were exceedingly rude, and very few of them now remain; but that the art progressed slowly is evident from the fact, that it is not until the middle of the fifteenth century that specimens are to be found in any quantity, or possessing any degree of merit. the process was this the design was traced with a sharp point upon an unpolished plate of copper, which was then covered with a thin coat of transparent enamel. the artist, after going over his tracing with a thick black line, filled in the intervals with the various colours, which were, for the most part, transparent, the black lines performing the office of the gold strips of the cloisonne work. the carnations pre- sented the greatest difficulty, and were, first of all, covered over with the black colour, and the high lights and half-tints were then modelled upon that with opaque white, which occasionally received a few touches of light transparent red. the last opera- tion was to apply the gilding, and to affix the imitations of precious stones,—almost the last trace of the byzantine school, which had formerly exercised so much influence in aquitaine. the appearance of the finished works was very similar to that of a large and coarse translucid enamel,—a resemblance not unlikely to have been intentional, more especially as specimens of the latter were never made of any considerable size, and were therefore fit to supply the place of ivory in the construction of those small triptychs which were so necessary an appendage to the chambers and oratories of the rich in the middle ages. accordingly, we find nearly all the early painted enamels are either in the form of triptychs or diptychs, or have originally formed parts of them; and a great k k	 lower portion showing the springing of scroll-work of a small pilaster, by the lombardi, in the church of sta. maria dei miracoli, venice. renaissance ornament. number preserve their original brass frames, and are supposed by antiquaries to have been produced in the atelier of monvearni, as the name or initials of that master are generally found upon them. as to the other artists, they followed, unfortunately, the but too common practice of most of the workmen of the middle ages, and, with the exceptions of monvearni and p. e. nicholat, or, as the inscriptions have been more correctly read, penicaud, their names are buried in oblivion. at the commencement of the sixteenth century the renaissance had made great progress; and among other changes, a great taste for paintings in " camaieu," or " grisaille," had sprung up. the ateliers of limoges at once adopted the new fashion, and what may be called the second series of painted enamels was the result/ the process was very nearly the same as that employed with regard to the carnations of the earlier specimens, and consisted in, firstly, covering the whole plate of copper over with a black enamel, and then modelling the lights and half-tints with opaque white; those parts requiring to be coloured, such as the faces and the foliage, receiving glazes of their appropriate tints —touches of gold are almost always used to complete the picture; and occasionally, when more than ordinary brilliancy was wanted, a thin gold or silver leaf, called a " pallion," was applied upon the black ground, and the glaze afterwards superposed. all these processes are to be seen in the two pictures of francis i. and henry ii., executed by leonard limousin, for the decoration of the sainte chapelle, but which have now been removed to the museum of the louvre. limoges, indeed, owed no small debt of gratitude to the former monarch, who not only established a manufactory in the town, but made its director, leonard, " peintre, emailleur, valet-de-chambre du roi," giving him, at the same time, the appellation of "le limousin," to distinguish him from the other and still more famous leonardo da yinci. and, indeed, the limousin was no mean artist, whether we regard his v copies of the early german and italian masters, or the original portraits of the more celebrated of his contemporaries, such as those of the duke of guise, the constable montmorency, catherine de medicis, and many others—executed, we must remember, in the most difficult material which has ever yet been employed for the purposes of art. the works of leonardo extend from to , and contemporaneously with him flourished a large school of artist-enamellers, many of whose works quite equalled, if they did not surpass, his own. among them we may mention pierre raymond and the families of the penicauds, and the courteys, jean and susanna court, and m. p. pape. the eldest of the family of the courteys, pierre, was not only a good artist, but has the reputation of having made the largest-sized enamels which have ever been executed (nine of these are preserved in the museum of the hotel de cluny—the other three, m. labarte informs us, are in england) for decorating the fagade of the chateau de madrid, upon which building large sums were lavished by francis i. and henry ii. we should observe that this last phase of limoges enamelling was not confined, like its predecessor, to sacred subjects; but, on the contrary, the most distinguished artists did not disdain to design vases, caskets, basins, ewers, cups, salvers, and a variety of other articles of every-day life, which were afterwards, entirely covered with the black enamel, and then decorated with medallions, &c. in the opaque white. at the commencement of the new manufacture, the subjects of most of the enamels were furnished from the prints of the german artists, such as martin schoen, israel van mecken, &c. these were afterwards supplanted by those of marc' antonio raimondi and other italians, which, in their turn, gave way about the middle of the sixteenth century to the works of virgilius solis, theodore de bry, etienne de l'aulne, and others of the petits-mattres. the production of the painted enamels was carried on with great activity at limoges, during the whole of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, and far into the eighteenth, when it finally expired. the last artists were the families of the nouaillers and laudins, whose best works are remarkable for the absence of the paillons, and a somewhat undecided style of drawing. in conclusion, it remains for us only -to invite the student to cultivate the beauties, as sedulously renaissance ornament. as he should eschew the extravagancies, of the renaissance style. where great liberty is afforded in art no less than in polity, great responsibility is incurred. in those styles in which the imagination of the designer can be checked only from within, he is especially bound to set a rein upon his fancy. ornament let him have in abundance; but in its composition let him be modest and decorous, avoiding over-finery as he would nakedness. if he has no story to tell, let him be content with floriated forms and conventional elements in his enrichments, which please the eye without making any serious call upon the intellect; then, where he really wishes to arrest observation by the comparatively direct representation of material objects, he may be the more sure of attaining his purpose. in.a style which, like the renaissance, allows of, and indeed demands, the association of the sister arts, let the artist never lose sight of the unities and specialties of each. keep them as a well-ordered family, on the closest and most harmonious relations, but never permit one to assume the prerogatives of another, or even to issue from its own, to invade its sister's province. so ordered and maintained, those styles are noblest, richest, and best adapted to the complicated requirements of a highly artificial social system, in which, as in that of the renaissance, architecture, painting, sculpture, and the highest technical excellence in industry, must unite before its essential and indispensable conditions of effect can be efficiently realised. m. digby wyatt. books referred to for illustrations. literary and pictorial. alciati (a.) emblemata d. a. alciati, denuo ab ipso autore recog- nita ; ac, quoe desiderabantur, imaginibus locupletata. accesserunt nona aliquot ab autore emblemata suis quoque eiconibus insignita. small vo. lyons, . antonelli (g.) gollezione del migliori ornamenti antichi, spar si nella cittd di venezia, colv aggiunta di alcuni frammenti di ootica architettura e di varie invenzioni di un giovane alunno di questa i. r. accademia. oblong to. venezia, . baltard. paris et ses monumens, mesures, dessines, et graves, avec des descriptions historiques, par le citoyen amaury duval: louvre, st. cloudy fontainbleau, ghdteau d'ecouen, due. vols. large folio. paris, - . c. becker and j. von hefner. kunstwerke und qerdthschaften des mittelalters und der renaissance. vols. to. frankfurt, . bergamo (stefano da). wood-carvings from the choir of the mon- astery of san pietro at perugia, . (cinque-cento.) said to be from designs by raffaelle. bernard (a.) recueil d'ornements de la renaissance. dessines et graves a veau-forte. to. paris, n. d. chapuy. le moyen - age pittoresque. monumens et fragmens d'architecture, meubles, armes, armures, et objets de curiosite xe au xvii siecle. dessind d'apres nature par chapuy, dbc. avec un texte archeologique, descriptif, et historique, par m. moret. vols, small folio. paris, - . clerget et george. collection portative d'ornements de la renais- sance, recueillis et choisis par ch. ernest clerget. gravis sur cuivre d'apres les originaux par c. e. clerget et mme. e. george. vo. paris, . d'agincourt (j. b. l. g. s.) histoire de vart par ses monumens, depuis sa decadence au iv siecle, jusqu'd son renouvellement au xvi®. ouvrage enrichi de planches. vols. folio. paris, . dennistoun (j.) memoirs of the dukes of urbino, illustrating the arms, arts, and literature of italy from to . vols. vo. london, . deville (a.) unedited documents on the history of france. comptes de depenses de la construction du chateau de gaillon, publies d'apres les registres manuscrits des tresoriers du car- dinal d'arriboise. with an atlas of plates. to. paris, . - tombeaux de la cathedrale de rouen; avec douze planches, gravees. vo. rouen, . durelli (g. & f.) la certosa di pavia, descritta ed illustrata con tavole incise dai fratelli gaetano e francesco durelli. plates. folio. milan, . dussieux (l.) essai sur vhistoire de la peinture sur email. vo. paris, . gailhabatjd (j.) varchitecture du ve au xvis siecle et les arts qui en dependent, le sculpture, la peinture murale, la peinture sur verre, la mosa'ique, la ferronnerie, dbc., publies d'apres les travaux inedits des principaux architectes franqais et etrangers. to. paris, , et seq. ghiberti (lorenzo). le tre porte del battisterio di san giovanni di firenze. plates, engraved in outline by lasinio, with description in french and italian. folio, half morocco. firenze, . hopfer. collection of ornaments in the grotesque style, by hopfer. renaissance renaissance n° renaissance p .t.xxtv tafel lxxiy.  renaissance tajfeju lxxy renaissance n° renaissance pllxxy fi m m*"tsi • • • • iwillm! i renaissance n° renaissance pl lxxyi renaissance tafel. lxxyi  renaissance taeel. lxxyii		 \/ tv		 \i		 		 z		 /i sfci	"sfe"<- ► 	— ■\ r.f' i\i hi. sjj. x* - wyj: -/*	| /n ■mhj	 	i «■ '.* \^zaa£	 renaissance n° renaiseance pl lxxyl § % m® ma m m s !t( v££v £v t^£g» *i.& 	j	hi h 		w&mm 		 		« © i 		klvnif' 		 w'svx j v
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(j size.) from the collection of mr. mackinlay. the ground, light green; the subject in light yellow, blue, or green ; the outline, yellow silk cord. . pattern from drapery in a tomb at westminster. elizabeth. .	from a damask cover to a chair at knowle, in kent. james i. .	applique needlework. james i. or charles i. in the collection of mr. mackinlay. the ground in dark red ; the ornament in yellow silk; outline, yellow silk cord. .	 , , . patterns from dresses, old portraits. eliza- beth or james i. .	applique needlework. james i. or charles i. by an italian artist. elizabethan ornament. prior to describing the characteristics of what is commonly termed the elizabethan style, it will be well to trace briefly the rise and progress of the revival of the antique in england to its final triumph over the late gothic style in the sixteenth century. the first introduction of the revival into england dates from the year , when torrigiano was employed by henry viii. to design a monument in memory of henry vii., which still exists in westminster abbey, and which is almost a pure example of the italian school at that period. in the same style, and of about the same date, is the monument of the countess of richmond at westminster; torrigiano designed this also, and, very shortly afterwards, went to spain, leaving, however, behind him several italians attached to the service of henry, by whom a taste for the same style could not be otherwise than propagated. amongst the names preserved to us at this time are girolamo da trevigi, employed as an architect and engineer, bartolomeo penni, and antony toto (del' nunziata), painters, and the well-known florentine sculptor, benedetto da rovezzano : to these may be added, though at a later period, john of padua, who appears to have been more extensively employed than any of the others, and, amongst other important works, designed old somerset house in . but it was not a purely italian influence which aided in the development of the new style in this country; and already we find the names of gerard hornebande, or horebout, of ghent, lucas cornelis, john brown, and andrew wright, serjeant-painters to the king. in the year the celebrated holbein came to england, and to him and john of padua is mainly due the naturalization of the new style in this country, modified by the individual genius and german education of the one, and the local models and reminiscences of the other, by whom many features of the earlier venetian school of the revival were reproduced, with great modifications, however, in this country. holbein died in , but john of padua survived him many years, and designed the noble mansion of longleat about the year . on the occasion of the funeral of edward vi. a.d. , we find in the rule for the procession (archceol. vol. xii. ) the names of antony toto (before mentioned), nicholas lyzarde, painters, and nicholas modena, carver; all the other names of master-masons, &c., being english. somewhat later, during the reign of elizabeth, we find only two italian names, federigo zucchero (whose house at florence, said to have been designed by himself, would rather serve to show that the english style of architecture had influenced him, than vice versa), and pietro ubaldini, painter of illuminated books. it is from holland that, at this period, when the elizabethan style may be justly said to have elizabethan ornament. been formed, we must look for the greater number of artists : lucas de heere of ghent, cornelius ketel of gouda, marc garrard of bruges, h. c. vroom of haarlem, painters; richard stevens, a hollander, who executed the sussex monument in boreham church, suffolk: and theodore haveus of cleves, who was architect of the four gates, humilitatis, yertutis, honoris, et sapientiae, at caius college, cambridge, and, moreover, designed and executed the monument of dr. caius about the year . besides these we approach now a goodly array of english names, the most remarkable being the architects,—robert and bernard adams, the smithsons, bradshaw, harrison, holte, thorpe, and shute (the latter, author of the first scientific work on architecture in english, a.d. ), hilliard the goldsmith and jeweller, and isaac oliver, the portrait-painter. most of the above-named architects were employed also during the early part of the seventeenth century, at which time the knowledge of the new style was still more extended by sir henry wotton's "elements of architecture."* bernard jansen and gerard chrismas, both natives of holland, were much in vogue during the reign of james i. and charles i., and to them is due the faqade of northumberland house, strand. before the close of james i.'s reign—i.e. in —the name of inigo jones brings us very nearly to the complete downfall of the elizabethan style, on the occasion of the rebuilding of whitehall palace; an example which could hardly fail of producing a complete revolution in art. the palladian style of the sixteenth century had been, moreover, introduced even before this by sir horatio pallavicini, in his house (now destroyed) at little shelford, cambridgeshire; and although nicholas stone and his son, architects and sculptors, appear to have continued the old style, especially in sepulchral monuments, it was displaced speedily for the more pure, but less picturesque fashion of the best italian schools. thus, taking the date of torrigiano's work at westminster, , and that of the commencement of whitehall by inigo jones in , we may include most of the works of art during that century as within the so-called elizabethan period. in the foregoing list of artists we perceive a fluctuating mixture of italian, dutch, and english names. in the first period, or during the reign of henry viii., the italian names are clearly dominant, and amongst them we are justified in placing holbein himself, since his ornamental works in metal, &c.—for example, the goblet designed by him for jane seymour, and a dagger and sword, probably executed for the king—exhibit a purity and gracefulness of style worthy of cellini himself. the arabesques painted by him in the large picture of henry viii. and his family at hampton court, though more grotesque and heavy, are still close imitations of cinque-cento models; and the ceiling of the royal chapel of st. james's palace, designed by him in , is quite in the style of many rich examples at venice and mantua. during the reign of elizabeth we meet with a great preponderance of dutch names, for this country was bound both by political and religious sympathy with holland; and although the greater number are described as painters only, yet we must remember how closely all the arts were connected in those days, painters being frequently employed to design models for ornament, both painted and carved, and even for architecture; and in the accessories of their own pictures was found frequent scope for ornamental design,—as, for example, may be seen in the portrait of queen mary, painted by lucas de heere, having panelled compartments of geometrical interlaced forms, filled up with jewelled foliage. during the early part of queen elizabeth's reign we are, then, justified in concluding that a very important influence must have been exercised on english art through the medium of the protestant states of the low countries, and of germany also.f it was during this period, also, that * the works of lomazzo and de lorme are said to have been translated into english during the reign of elizabeth, but i have never met with copies of them. f the remarkable monument of sir francis vere (time, james i.) at westminster, is almost identical in design with that of englebert of nassau, in the cathedral of breda (sixteenth century). elizabethan ornament. heidelberg castle was principally built ( - ); and it would not appear unlikely that it may have had an effect on english art when we remember that the princess elizabeth, daughter of james i., held court here as queen of bohemia, at the beginning of the seventeenth century. at the latter part of elizabeth's reign, and during that of james i., english artists are numerous, and appear, with the exception of jansen and chrismas, to have the field to themselves; consequently it is at this period that we expect to find a more decidedly native school. and, in fact, it is now that we meet with the names of english designers connected with such buildings (and with their con- comitant decoration) as audley end, holland house, woollaton, knowle, and burleigh. thus we may expect to meet with the purest italian ornament in the works of the artists of henry viii.'s reign ; and this will be found to be the case, not only on the subjects we have already mentioned, but in the examples given in plate lxxxiii., nos. and . during elizabeth's reign we perceive but a slight imitation of italian models, and a complete adoption of the style of ornament practised by the decorative artists of germany and the netherlands. in the reign of james i. we find the same style continued by english artists, but generally in a larger manner, as at nos. and , plate lxxxiv., from aston hall, built at the latter part of his reign. there is little, then, that can be justly termed original in the character of the ornament of this period, and it is simply a modification of foreign models. even at the close of the fifteenth century may be seen the germs of the open scroll-work in many decorative works in italy, such as stained glass and illuminated books. the beautifully executed ornamental borders, &c. of giulio clovio ( - ), pupil of giulio romano, present in many parts all the character of elizabethan scroll, band, nail-head, and festoon-work: the same may be remarked of the stained-glass windows of the laurentian library, florence, by giovanni da udine ( - ); and still more noticeable is it in the frontispieces of serlio's great work on architecture, published in paris in . as regards another main feature in elizabethan ornament, viz. the complicated and fanciful interlaced bands, we must seek its origin in the numerous and excellent designs of the class of engravers known as the " petits-maitres " of germany and the nether- lands, and more particularly those of aldegrever, yirgilius solis of nuremberg, daniel hopfer of augsburg, and theodore de bry, who sent forth to the world a great number of engraved ornamental designs during the sixteenth century. nor should we forget to mention, at the close of this century, the very fanciful and thoroughly elizabethan compositions, architectural and ornamental, of w. dieterlin, which vertue asserts were used by chrismas in his designs for the fagade of northumberland house. these were the principal sources from which the so-called elizabethan style of ornament was mainly founded ; and we may here remark, that whilst it is evident that decoration ought, and indeed in some cases must, vary in its character,. according to the different subjects and materials on which it is applied, and whilst the italian masters, recognising this sesthetical fact, did in most instances carefully abstain from carrying the pictorial style into sculptured and architectural works, confining it to its just limits, such as illuminated books, engravings, damascene metal-work, and other purely ornamental subjects,—so, on the other hand, the artists employed in england during the period of which we treat carried the pictorial style of ornament into every branch of art, and reproduced even on their buildings the- unfettered fancies of the decorative artists as they received them through the medium of the engraver. as regards the characteristics of elizabethan ornament, they may be described as consisting chiefly of a grotesque and complicated variety of pierced scroll-work, with curled edges; interlaced bands, sometimes on a geometrical pattern, but generally flowing and capricious, as seen, for example, on no. , plate lxxxiii., and nos. and , plate lxxxiv.; strap and nail-head bands; curved and broken outlines; festoons, fruit, and drapery, interspersed with roughly-executed figures of human beings; grotesque monsters and animals, with here and there large and flowing designs of natural elizabethan ornament. branch and leaf ornament, as shown in no. , plate lxxxiil, a noble example of which still exists also on the great gallery ceiling at burton agnes, in yorkshire; rustications of ball and diamond work, panelled compartments often filled with foliage or coats-of-arms; grotesque arch-stones and brackets are freely used; and the carving, whether in stone or wood, is marked by great boldness and effect, though roughly executed. unlike the earliest examples of the revival on the continent, especially in france and spain, these ornaments are not applied to gothic forms; but the groundwork or architectural mass is essentially italian in its nature (except in the case of- windows): consisting of a rough application of the orders of architecture one over another, external walls with cornice and balustrade, and internal walls bounded with frieze and cornice, with flat or covered ceilings; even the gable ends, with their convex and concave outlines, so common in the style, were founded on models of the early renaissance school at venice. the coloured patterns of diaper work—on wood, on the dresses of the monumental statues, and on tapestries,—show in most cases more justness and purity of design than the carved work: the colours, moreover, being rich and strongly marked. a great quantity of this kind of work, especially the arras, with which walls and furniture were constantly decorated, no doubt came from the looms of flanders, and in some cases from italy, since the first native factory of the kind was established at mortlake in the year . * nos. , , , and , plate lxxxv., are the most italian in their character of the examples given; no. being stated, indeed, to be the design of an italian artist. nos. , , and , also of a good italian character, being taken from portraits of the time of elizabeth and james i., are probably the work of dutch or italian artists. nos. , , , , and , though in the italian taste, are marked by much originality; whilst nos. and are in the ordinary elizabethan style. fine examples of coloured ornament are still preserved in the pall belonging to the ironmongers' company, date , the ground of which is gold, with a rich and flowing purple pattern; similar in every respect to the painted antependiums of several altars at santo spirito, florence (fifteenth century), and probably of italian manufacture. at st. mary's church, oxford, is preserved a rich pulpit hanging of gold ground with a blue pattern; and at hardwicke hall, derbyshire, is a fine piece of tapestry of a yellow silk ground, with a crimson and gold thread pattern. but, perhaps, the most beautiful specimen of this kind of work is in the possession of the saddlers' company, a gold pattern on a crimson velvet pall,* made in the early part of the sixteenth century. although in those we have referred to, and in the examples given in plate lxxxv., two colours only are principally relied on for effect, yet in other subjects every variety of colour is freely used; gilding, however, being generally predominant over colour—a taste probably derived from spain, where the discovery of gold in the new world led to an extravagant use of it as a means of decoration in the reigns of charles v. and philip ii. an example of this style may be seen in the magnificent chimneypiece, with elaborate gilt carving combined with black marble, now preserved in the governor's room at the charterhouse. by the middle of the seventeenth century the more marked characteristics of the %style had com- pletely died out, and we lose sight, not without some regret, of that richness, variety, and picturesque- ness; which, although deficient in good guiding principles, and liable to fall into straggling confusion, could not fail to impress the beholder with a certain impression of nobility and grandeur. j. b. waring. october . * for these, see shaw's very beautiful work on the " arts of the middle ages." m m elizabethan ornament. books referred to. h. shaw. dresses and decorations of the middle ages. „ the decorative arts of the middle ages. „ details of elizabethan architecture. c. j. richardson. studies of ornamental design. „	architectural remains of the reigns of eliza beth and james i. „	studies from old english mansions. joseph nash. the mansions of england in the olden time. s. c. hall. the baronial halls of england. joseph gwilt. encyclopcedia of architecture. horace walpole. anecdotes of painting in england, archceologia, vol. xii. ( ). the builder (several articles by c. j. richardson), . dallaway. anecdotes of the arts in england. clayton. the ancient timber edifices of england. britton. architectural antiquities of great britain. kliziabethkisch elizabethan n° eli £>a f(t h e e n § tafei' kxxxi elizabeth e is ch elizabethan n° £l.isab£thk£n>d papelt lxxxiv. plate lxxxiv k r iirv k cxsc a c o i q \ }^-rs) o \ (/u;y^ / © ng «§> c sn <$ s& :?■ kj ----	k^is^ 	 £ , zaseth ei s g h tafel lxxxy elizabethan h° elisaeetheen pl. la xxv i§ ils &ss®k am £ - • '-vcj-;' i^}"" •*• • '• . '* •' wmrt •? mmwmu  italian ornament. serlio, palladio, vignola, and rusconi, presented permanent records of the zeal with which the monuments of antiquity had been studied. but inasmuch, as the requirements of the italian social system of the sixteenth century differed from those of the imperial ages of rome, so of a necessity the nature of the monuments created to supply those wants materially differed. in the renaissance styles of the fifteenth century the artist's attention had been mainly directed to the imitation of ancient ornament; in the sixteenth, however, it was principally the restoration of ancient proportions, both of the five orders and of architectural symmetry generally, that engaged the designer's attention; pure ornament having been to a great extent neg- lected in its details, and considered only in its mass as a decor- ative adjunct to architecture. those arts which during the fifteenth century had been so frequently united in the persons of the maestri, under whom great monuments had been carried into execution, in the sixteenth became individualised. the genius of such intellectual giants as raffaelle and michael an- gelo could alone maintain the triple attributes of painters, archi- tects, and sculptors, in due relative subordination; when, in after times, men such as bernini and pietro da cortona attempted similar combinations, the result was little else than general confusion and failure. as the rules of art became more complex, academies arose in which the division-of-labour system was introduced. the consequences, with certain rare and notable exceptions, were obvious; architects thought of little else but plans, sections, and elevations, in which the setting out of columns, arches, pilasters, entablatures, &c., was all in all; painters worked more in their studios, and less in the buildings, their works were to adorn; forgetting altogether general decorative effect, and looking only to anatomical pre- cision, powerful chiar'oscuro, masterly composition, and breadth of tone and handling. sculptors of a high class deserted orna- mental carving and gave their attention, almost exclusively, to isolated statues and groups, or monuments in which general effects of beauty were made subservient to the development of the plastic features alone. ornament was left in a great degree to accident or caprice in its design, and to second-rate artists in its execution. favourable specimens of such ornaments may be seen in our woodcuts. the painted arabesques of the italian style, and the stucchi with which they were occasionally accom- panied, form so remarkable an exception to the above, that it will be well to reserve them for special notice. although the architecture which raffaelle has left to us in the pandolfini sofflte panel, from one of the genoese palaces.	palace at florence, and the caffareui, late stoppani, at rome, is excellent; it is in his connexion with the subject of arabesque that his celebrity as an ornamentist consists, and we shall not therefore further allude to him here. neither shall we dwell upon the italian ornament. this noble artist was born at florence, of an ancient family, in the year . having at an early ago displayed a remarkable predisposition for art, he was placed by his mother with andrea contucci t)f monte sansovino (of whom we have briefly spoken in chapter xvii.), then working at florence, who, says vasari, " soon perceived that the young man promised to become very eminent." their attachment speedily assumed such a character that, being regarded almost as father and son, jacopo was no longer called k' de' tatti," bat " di sansovino ; " and as he was then named so is he called now, and ever will be. having distinguished himself by his abilities at florence, and being con- sidered a young man of great genius and excellent character, he was taken to rome by giuliano da san gallo> architect to pope julius ii. at rome he attracted the notice of bramante, and made a large copy in wax of the " laocoon " (under bramante's direction), in competition with other artists, among whom was alonzo berruguete, the celebrated spanish architect. sansovino's was adjudged to be the best, and a cast was taken of it in bronze, which finally coming into the possession of the cardinal de lorraine, was taken by him into france in the year . san gallo falling ill was obliged to leave rome, and bramante, therefore, found a dwelling for jacopo in the same house with pietro perugino, who was then painting a ceiling for pope julius in the torre borgia, and who was so pleased with jacopojs ability that he caused him to prepare many models in wax for his use. he also became acquainted with luca signorelli, bramantino di milano, pinturicchio, cesare cesariano, famous for his commentaries on vitruvius ; and was finally presented to and employed by the pope (julius). he was in a fair way of advancement, when a serious illness caused him to return to his native city. here he recovered, and successfully competed with bandinelli and others for a large marble figure. he was in continual employment at this time, and among other works he executed for giovanni bartolini the beautiful " bacchus," now in the gallery degli uffizii at florence. in the year , great preparations being made at florence for the entry of leo x., jacopo was employed in making various designs for triumphal arches and statues, with which the pontiff was so much pleased, that jacopo salviati took his friend sansovino to kiss the feet of the pope, by whom he was received very kindly. his holiness immediately gave him an order to make a design for the fafade of san lorenzo at florence, which would seem to have given so much satisfaction, that michael angelo, who was to compete with him for the control of its construction, would appear to have outwitted sansovino, and effectually prevented his success; for, *says vasari, " michael angelo was determined to keep all for himself." not disheartened, however, he continued in rome, and was employed both in sculpture and architecture, and gained the great honour of being the successful competitor for the church of st. john of the florentines, against raffaelle, antonio da sangallo, and balthazar peruzzi. whilst superintending the commencement of the works he fell, and was so severely hurt that he left the city. various causes led to the suspension of the works until the pontificate of clement, when jacopo returned and recommenced it. from that period he was engaged in every work of importance at rome, until, on the th of may, , that city was taken and sacked by the french. jacopo sought refuge in venice, intending to visit france, where the king had offered him employ- ment. the doge, andrea gritti, however, persuaded him to remain, and to undertake the restoration of the cupolas of st. mark's. this work he performed so satisfactorily, that he was appointed proto- maestro to the republic, assigned a house, and provided with a stipend. the duties of this office he performed with such sagacity and diligence, that by various improvements and alterations of the, city he materially added to the income of the state. amongst his finest works here—and, indeed, among the finest examples of italian art anywhere—are to be noted, the libreria vecchia, the zecca or mint, the palaces cornaro and moro, the loggia round the campanile of st. mark, the church of san georgio dei greci, the statues of the giant's staircase, the monument of francesco veniero, and the bronze italian ornament. gates of the sacristy. his character as depicted by yasari (edit. bohn, vol. v. p. ) is eminently agreeable, sagacious, amiable, courageous, and active. he appears to have been generally honoured, and had a large school of pupils, amongst whom may be mentioned tribolo and solosmeo danese, cat- taneo girolamo of ferrara, jacopo colonna of venice, luco lancia of naples, bartolomeo ammanati, jacopo de medici of brescia, and alessandro yittoria of trent. he died on the d of november, , aged ninety-three; "and (as vasari tells us) notwithstanding that the years of his life had come to an end in the pure course of nature, yet all venice lamented his loss." it is mainly to the happy influence exerted by sansovino that the school of venice is indebted for its celebrity in ornamental bronze-work. turning from italy to france, we resume the thread of national progress, interrupted by the intro- duction into the service of francis i. {circa a.d. ) of those italian artists who formed what is familiarly known as the " school of fontainebleau." the leading and most popular member of that fraternity was primaticcio, a master whose style of drawing was founded upon the michael-angelesque system of proportion, somewhat attenuated in limb, and moulded into a somewhat more artificial and serpentine line of grace. the manner of arranging and defining drapery peculiar to the fontainebleau masters exerted a singular influence upon the native artists, and that not only in the corresponding department of art, but in ornament generally. the peculiar crinkled folds of the garments, disposed not as they would obviously fall if left to themselves, but as they would best fill up voids in composition, induced a general levity in the treatment of similar elements, and led to that peculiarly fluttering style which may be recognised in the works of all those artists who reflected and reproduced the prevalent mode of the day. among the most remarkable of these, and, moreover, a man of singular originality of intellect, stands conspicuous the renowned jean goujon, who was born in france early in the sixteenth century. his principal works are (for, happily, they have for the most part survived to our days) the " fontaine des innocents," at paris ( ); the gallery of the " salle des cent suisses," now " des caryatides," supported by four colossal female figures, which are considered among his best works. the celebrated diana of poitiers, called " diane chasseresse," a small and very beautiful bas-relief of the same subject, his wooden doors to the church of st. maclou at rouen, his carvings of the court of the louvre, and his " christ at the tomb," in the museum of the louvre. goujon partook warmly of the enthusiasm the recovery of the writings of vitruvius excited universally, and contributed an essay in respect to them in martin's translation. he was unfortunately shot during the massacre of st. bar- tholomew, whilst working on a scaffold at the louvre, in . an artist who had imbibed even more of the italian spirit of the school of fontainebleau than did jean goujon, narrowly escaped sharing his fate. barthelemy prieur was only saved from immolation by the protection of the constable mont- morency, whose monumental effigy he was ultimately destined to place upon its pedestal. contemporary with goujon and prieur was jean cousin, the most ardent disciple of the michael-angelesque form. he is principally known as the sculptor of the noble statue of admiral chabot, and, as we have already stated (chapter xvii.), by his designs for stained glass. prominent, however, among the artistic band of the period was germain pilon, who was born at loue, near mans. the statues at the convent of soulesmes are among his earliest works. about the year his father sent him to paris, and in his monument to guillaume langei du bellay was placed in the cathedral of mans. about the same time he executed the monument of henry ii. and catherine de medici, in the church of st. denis, near paris, from a design by philibert de lorme. one of his best works was the monument to the chancellor de birague. the beautiful and well-known group of the " three graces," cut out of one solid block of marble, was intended to support an urn containing the hearts of henry ii. and catherine de medici; it is now in the louvre. in order to give an idea of the ornamental style of pilon, we have engraved the base of this monument. see plate lxxvi., fig. . the statues and bas-reliefs on the monument italian ornament. led immediately to the employment of raffaelle and pinturicchio, in conjunction, in the decoration of the celebrated library at sienna, and subsequently, to the cultivation of such studies on the part of the former as induced his composition of the inimitable arabesques of the loggie of the vatican, &c. &c. ; and on that of the latter artist to the execution of the ceilings of the choir of sta. maria del popolo, and those of the apartamenti borgia, &c., at rome. bacchiacca became so completely en- amoured of the style, that his whole life was devoted to painting animals, flowers, &c., in " grotesque " decoration; and he ultimately became famous throughout italy as a perfect master of that variety of design. in freedom and cleverness of drawing, in harmony of colour, in brilliancy of touch, in nice balance of the " pieni" and " vuoti," and in close imitation of the paintings of the ancient romans, this speci- men is one of the most successful that has ever been executed, although, in delicacy of finish and refined study, it can scarcely be expected to equal the subsequent productions of giovanni da udine and morto da feltro. during the stay of raffaelle in rome, under the pontificate of leo x., he was commissioned by that pontiff to decorate an arcade, which had been constructed during the reign of his predecessor, julius ii., by bramante, whose daughter raffaelle married. it was determined, that while the theme of the necessary decorations should be sacred, their style and manner of execution should rival the finest remains of ancient painting which had been discovered at rome up to that period. the general designs appear to have been made by raffaelle himself, and the details to have been carried out by a chosen band of assistants, who unquestionably entered with wonderful zeal into the realisation of the great work. it was by their hands, controlled by the exquisite taste of the great urbinese, that those celebrated " loggie," which have ever since their execution been a theme of admiration for all artists, were created. we have given a careful selection, showing the principal ornamental motives comprised in them in plate lxxxvi. these arabesques cannot fairly be compared with the ancient, as the former were executed by the greatest masters of the age, and are applied to the decoration of an edifice of the highest magnificence and importance, whilst the latter were the productions of a less distinguished period of art, and those now in existence ornament buildings of a class relatively far less important to imperial magnificence than the vatican was to papal. the comparison might be fairer if we could but recall the faded glories of the palace of the caesars, or the " golden house " of nero. " the ancient arabesques have, in almost every instance, all their parts kept upon a reduced scale, in order to favour the apparent extent of the locality they decorate; in addition to which they generally manifest a predominating general proportion between their several parts. they never present such striking differences in scale between the principal subjects as we find in the arabesques of raffaelle, the component parts of which are sometimes as unreasonably large as they sometimes are unreasonably small. the greater is often placed beside and above the less, thereby emphaticising the dissonances, and being the more offensive by a deficiency in symmetry, as well as in the very choice of the motives for decoration. thus, close to the richest arabesques, presenting, on a very small scale, elegant and minute combinations of flowers, fruit, animals, human figures, and views of temples, landscapes, &c., we find calices of flowers putting forth twisted stalks, leaves, and blossoms —all which, with reference to the adjoining and first-described arabesques, are of colossal proportion; thereby not only injuring the accompanying decorations, but also destroying the grandeur of the whole architectural design. lastly, on examining the choice of subjects with respect to the association of ideas indicated thereby, and the decorations in the symbols and allegories employed to convey them, we find that the works of the ancients, who reverted to no other source than their mythology, appear to great advantage, in point of unity of idea, when compared with the prevailing intermixture italian ornament. have been freely sketched from the garden and field, an amount of delicate modelling and indication of accidental effect is admissible, which in the representation of the more absolutely conventional elements of the. specimens given in plate lxxxviii., strikes us as somewhat officious and feeble. already in the bustle of line, the fluttering ribbons, and vague jewelled forms of no. , and in the monotonous masques and foolscaps of no. (plate lxxx.), may be traced that tendency to caricature which disfigured so much that the genius of eomano threw o££ with masterly power, but unfortunately with too great fecundity. so long, as at the villa madama, and in other of his eoman works, his exuberance was controlled by association with artists of purer taste than himself, there is little with which to reproach him; but when he subsequently emerged into the " gran signore " at mantua, his vanity fairly intoxicated him, and with much that was beautiful he blended not a little that was ridiculous. the specimens of his arabesques, which we have collected in plate lxxxviii., illustrate at once his ability and his weakness as an ornamentist. unable to divest himself of his recollections of the antique, and at the same time too egotistic to be content with its careful reproduction, the motives he borrowed from it assume an aspect of unquiet rarely to be recognised in the remains of classic antiquity. the motives he derived from nature are equally maltreated, since he gathered flowers from her bosom only to crush them in his rude grasp. there are yet, however, a daring in his fancy, and a rare sweep and certainty in his handling, which must secure for him an honourable niche in the temple of art. like " van who wanted grace, yet never wanted wit," it is on the score of taste that he who in his time was one of its chief arbiters most frequently fails. this fallibility is stamped upon several of the ornaments we have engraved in plate lxxxix., which are taken principally from the palazzo del te, at mantua. thus, in no. , a scroll ornament freely dashed out is entirely spoilt by the ludicrous object from which it springs. again, in no. , the ridiculous masques seem sneering at the graceful forms which surround them; and in no. , nature and the antique are alike maltreated. no. in the same plate " points a " severe " moral." servile, where an ornament should be most free in the disposition of its main lines; and free, where deference to some received type of form ceases to be servile, in the accessory elements of which it is composed, typographic ornament from one of the productions of the early parisian press. (stephans' greek testament.) his running scroll, which is adapted from one of the commonest patterns of antiquity, betrays at once giulio's feebleness of imagination, and his want of taste. the peculiar influence of local association upon styles of ornament, which we have already noticed in the case of arabesques, may be traced with equal facility in the best typographic and xylographic illustrations of the early printers. thus, in the ornaments, figs. - , - , plate xc., taken from the celebrated " etymologion magnum," printed at venice in the year , the forms of the ornament, and the almost even distribution of the " pieni " and " vuoti," have been evidently based on the style of those oriental or byzantine fragments in which venice was so pre-eminently rich. many of the aldine initial letters in the last-named plate appear as though they might have been engraved by p p	 italian ornament. the very same hands that ploughed out the damascene patterns in the metal-work of the period. the tuscan bible of presents us with endless conventional renderings of the ordinary cinque-cento sculpture, which abounded in the churches of florence. nor are the specimens of the parisian press less worthy of the veneration of the virtuoso. in the productions of the stephans (fig. , from the celebrated greek testament), of colinseus, his pupil (fig. ), of mace bonhomme of lyons, in , theodore rihel of frankfort, in , jacques de liesveldt of antwerp, in , jean palier and regnault chauldiere of paris, may be found many agreeable and interesting illustrations of local differences in ornamental detail of a semi-antique character. returning to italy, and to its purer style, before briefly proceeding to trace the " first causes" of the general decline of revived classical art, we propose glancing at one or two branches of industry it would be unfair to altogether pass over. the first and most interesting of them is that of venetian glass—a commodity which helped to spread the fame of venice far and wide over the habitable globe. the taking of constantinople by the turks, in , drove the skilled greek workmen thence to italy; and at that period the glass-manufacturers of venice learned from the exiled greeks their modes of enriching their productions by colouring, gilding, and enamelling. in the early part of the -- ornaments designed for marquetry by fay, in the style of louis seize.	panels designed by fay, in the style of louis seize. sixteenth century, the venetians appear to have invented the art of introducing threads of coloured and opaque white (latticinio) glass into the substance of the articles they manufactured, forming a beautiful and enduring enrichment, suitable, from the lightness of its character, to the delicate forms of the objects to which it was applied. the secret of this art was most jealously guarded by the state; and the severest penalties were enacted against any workmen who should divulge it, or exercise their craft in any other country. on the other hand, the masters of the glass-houses at murand received great privileges, and even the workmen were not classed with ordinary artisans. in a, gold coin was struck at murano, with the avowed object of handing down to posterity the names of' those who italian ornament. these artists were lorenzo bernini and francesco borromini. the former was the son of a florentine sculptor, and was born in . he evinced an unusually precocious talent for sculpture; and whilst yet a youth was fully employed, not only as a sculptor, but as an architect. he resided almost entirely at rome, where he designed the fountain of the barcaccia in the piazza di spagna, the celebrated triton in the piazza barberini, and the large fountains of the piazza navona ; the college de propaganda fide ; the great hall and facade of the barberini palace, facing the strada felice; a campanile to st. peter's (afterwards taken down); the ludovico palace, on the monte citorio; the celebrated piazza of st. peter's; and the great staircase from st. peter's to the vatican, besides numerous other works. busts by bernini were eagerly sought after by the sovereigns and nobles of europe; so much so, that when he was sixty-eight years of age, louis xiv., who was unused to be refused anything, and much less to be forced to beg, was actually obliged to write supplicatory letters to the pope, and to bernini, requesting the sculptor's presence at paris. during his residence there, though he did but little, he is said to have received five golden louis a-day, and at his departure '///( ornamental composition, from a design by le pautre. fifty thousand crowns, with an annual pension of two thousand crowns, and one of five hundred for his sons, who accompanied him. on his return to rome he made an equestrian statue in honour of louis, which is now at versailles. besides his works ^^architecture, sculpture, and bronze, he appears to have had a decided mechanical turn; and, moreover, to have painted as many as five hundred pictures in the case barberini and chigi. he died in the year . francesco borromini was born near como, in the year . apprenticed at an early age to carlo maderno, he speedily became both a brilliant carver and architect. on maderno's death he italian ornament. succeeded to the charge of the works at st. peter's under bernini, with whom he very shortly quarrelled. from his fervid imagination and rare facility as a draughtsman and designer, he soon obtained ample employment; and in his capricious vagaries, every tendency to extravagance that bernini's style possessed borromini contrived to caricature. until near his death, in , he continued sedulously occupied in subverting all known principles of order and symmetry, not only to his own enrichment, but to the admiration of the leaders of fashion of the day. the anomalies he introduced into design, the disproportionate mouldings, broken, contrasted, and re-entering curves, interrupted and crooked lines and surfaces, became the mode of the day, and all europe was speedily busy in devising similar enormities. in france the fever raged speedily, and the popular style, in place of the quaint but picturesque forms to be seen in the engravings of du cerceau, —substituted the more elaborate, but less agreeable ones to be found in marot, —and mariette, - . borromini's works, which were published in the year —and bibiena's, which were not much purer, and which were given to the world in —had a large circulation, and tended to confirm the public taste in facility and elaboration versus simplicity and beauty. despite this debasing influence, many of the french artists of the time, both of louis xiy. and xv., in the midst of their extravagance, made many beautiful ornamental designs, showing in them a sense of capricious beauty of line rarely surpassed. in some of le pautre's designs (reign of louis xiv.), this quality may be recognised, as well as in many of the interior decorations given in blondel's works published during the reign of louis xv. de neufforge is, however, the master of the ceremonies in this latter court of revels, and does sufficiently graceful fooling in the plates comprised in his great body of ornament. to dwell upon individuals among the mass of clever ornamental designers, draughtsmen, and engravers, to whom the grand monarque and the brilliant court of his successor gave good pay and plenty of work, would be out of place here. there is one, however, jean berain, who cannot be passed over, seeing that he held the special appointment of " dessinateur des menus plaisirs du roi " (louis xiv.), and that to him we are indebted for the best designs which will render the name of buhl famous so long as a taste for beautiful furniture exists. he contributed materially to the decoration of the galerie d'apollon of the louvre, and of the state apartments in the tuileries, as is elegantly testified in a work published in the year . another large collection of his admirably sportive designs was engraved by daigremont, scotin, and others. with the advent of louis xv. to the throne, in , the manner of designing grew far more "rococo" and " barocque" than it had been during the greatest part of his predecessor's reign. in spite of the fine talents and good example set by the architect soufflot in his works, the twisted and foliated scrolls and shells of the former grew into frieze ornament, louis seize, by fay. italian ornament. the " rocaille" and grotto-work of the latter; degenerating at last into all the eccentricities of " chinoiserie." from this style of approaching inanition, ornament revived under louis xyi. to an elegant though liney style, corresponding in some degree to that introduced into this country by robert adams, principally in his buildings in the adelphi. the genius of three very able men exercised a beneficial influence over industrial design at a period shortly preceding the revolution— reisner, the cabinet-maker, celebrated for his exquisite marquetry; gouthier, brass-chaser to marie antoinette; and demontreuil, carver in wood to the royal family. during the revolution chaos reigned, and out of it came order in the shape of an utter abjuration of the " colifichets " of the monarchy in favour of the republican severity of a david. as the republic, however, ripened into the empire, the " mode " from stern republican grew magnificent imperialist. the best artists were liberally employed by napoleon i., and the talent of percier, fontaine, normand, fragonard, prudhon, panel suitable for reisner marquetry, designed by fay. frieze style, louis seize, by fay. and cavelier, developed in its highest perfection the graceful and learned, but stiff and cold, " style de l'empire." with the restoration the antique went out of fashion, and confusion again ensued. the native ability of the country, however, aided by judicious and liberally conducted educational institutions, soon revived the public interest, and an enthusiasm for rivals of a somewhat archaeological nature supervened. the monuments of the middle ages and of the renaissance were cared for, sought for, restored, and imitated on all hands; and out of the manifold studies so made, styles of eclectic character, but approaching originality, are rapidly forming themselves throughout the country. france is, it must be confessed, at the present time, master of the field in the distribution and execution of ornament of almost every class; but so rapid and hopeful is the progress now taking place in this country, that it is by no means impossible that an historian writing some few years hence may, happily, be enabled to place the allies, as they should be, upon a footing of equality. m. digby wyatt. italian ornament. books referred to for illustrations. literary and pictorial, adams (e.) the polychromatic ornament of italy. to. london, n. d. alberti (l. b.) de re jfidificatoria opus. florent. , in folio. albertolli. ornamenti diver si inventati, dbc., da. milano, in folio. d'androuet du cerceau. livre d?architecture. paris, , in folio. d'aviler. cours d'architecture, par. paris, , in to. bibiena. architettura di. augustse, , in folio. borromini (f.) opus architectonicum. romas, , in folio. clochar (p.) monuments et tombeaux mesures et dessines en italie, par. plans and views of the most remarkable monuments in italy. paris, . dedaux. chambre de marie de medicis au palais du luxembourg; ou, recueil d' arabesques, peintures, et ornements qui la decorent. folio, paris, . diedo e zanotto. sepulchral monuments of venice. i monu- menti cospicui di venezia, illustrati dal cav. antonio diedo e da francesco zanotto. folio, milan, . doppelmayr (j. g.) mathematicians and artists of nuremberg, &c. historische nachricht von den numbergischen mathematicis und kunstlern, &c. folio, niirnberg, . gozzini (v.) monumens sepulcraux de la toscane, dessines par vincent gozzini, et graves par jerome scotto. nouvelle edition, augmentee de vingt-neuf planches, avec leur descriptions. to. florence, . gruner (l.) description of the plates of fresco decorations and stuccoes of churches and palaces in italy during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. with an essay by j. j. hittorff on the arabesques of the ancients compared with those of rajfaelle arid his school. new edition, largely augmented by numerous plates, plain and coloured. to. london, . - fresco decorations and stuccoes of churches and palaces in italy during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, with descriptions by leivis gruner, k.a. - new edition, aug- mented by numerous plates, plain and coloured. folio, london, . ■—-- specimens of ornamental art selected from the best models of the classical epochs. illustrated by plates, with descriptive text, by emil braun. (by authority.) folio, lon- don, . magazzari (g.) the most select ornaments of bologna. raccolta de' piu scelti ornati sparsi per la cittd di bologna, desegnati ed incisi da giovanni magazzari. oblong to. bologna, . dffl neufforge. recueil elementaire cf architecture, par. paris ( ). vols, in folio. pain's british palladio. london, , in folio. palladio. architettura di. venet. , in folio. passavant (j. d.) rafael von urbino und sein vater giovanni santi. in zwei theilen mit vierzehn abbildungen. vols. vo. vol. folio, leipzig, . percier et fontaine. recueil de decorations interieures, par. paris, , in folio. perratjlt. ordonnance des cinq especes de colonnes, selon les anciens, par. paris, , in folio. philibert de lorme. ceuvres d'architecture de. paris, , in folio. piranesi (fr.) differentes manieres d'orner les cheminees, &c., par. rome, , in folio. and other works. ponce (n.) description des bains de tite. plates, folio. raphael. life of raphael, by quatremere de quincy. vo. paris, . recueil d* arabesques, contenant les loges du vatican d'apres raphael, et grand nombre d'autres compositions du meme genre dans le style antique, d'apres normand, queverdo, boucher, &c. plates, imperial folio. paris, . rusconi (g. ant.) delv architettura, lib. x., da. venez. , in folio. scamozzi. idea delv architettura da. venez. . vols, in folio. serlio. (seb.) tutte le opere cf architettura di. venet. , in to. - libri cinque d'architettura di. venet. , in folio. terme de tito. a series of engravings of the paintings, ceil- ings, arabesque decorations, &c., of the baths of titus, en- graved by carloni. vols, in , atlas folio, oblong, rome, n. d. tosi and becchio. altars, tabernacles, and sepulchral monuments of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, existing at rome. published under the patronage of the celebrated academy of st. luke, by mm. tosi and becchio. descriptions in italian, english, and french, by mrs. spry bartlett. folio, lagny, . vignola. regola dei cinque ordini d"architettura, da. in folio. volpato ed ottaviano. loggie del raffaele net vaticano, &c. roma, . *zahn (w.) ornamente aller klassischen kunst-epochen nach den originalen in ihren eigenthiimlichen farben dargestellt. oblong folio, berlin, . zobi (ant.) notizie storiche sulv origine e progressi dei lavori di commesso in pietre dure che si esequiscono nelv i. e r. stabilimento di firenze. second edition, with additions and corrections by the author. to. florence, . * from this interesting work the materials for plates lxxvil, lxxviii., lxxix., have been derived. italiehi ch tafel lxxxyi. italian n° i.	italien . t _ jr _ ir . jfc pi.. lxxxyi. m i : < • ' ' ; ™ p*slw jhph \ r d ]i _ v* > mm'■ . ii if ' - italienisch tafel lxxxy * italian ng italians pl- lxxxyi j w ■» <* y irkr ca is t i ie  r tauenisch. i tali ens tafel lxxxyii pl uofxyii ■mb italienisch tafel lxxxyih. italian ng i-taliehs. pl uxkyii a c ¥ * italiehisgh.	italian n . \	italians y > y y yyyty taf£l lxxxix.	* ^   chapter xx.—plates - . leaves and flowers from nature. plate xci. horse-chestnut leaves. full size, traced from natural leaves. plate xcii. vine leaves. full size, traced from natural leaves. plate xciii. . ivy palmata. , , , and . common ivy. full size, traced from natural leaves. plate xciv. . scarlet oak. . white oak. . fig-tree. . maple. . white bryony. . laurel. . bay-tree. all full size, and traced from natural leaves. plate icy. . vine. , holly. . oak . turkey oak. . laburnum. all full size, and traced from natural leaves. plate xcvi. . wild rose. . ivy. . blackberry. all full size, and traced from natural leaves. plate xcvji. hawthorn, yew, ivy, and strawberry-tree. all full-size, and traced from nature. re	 leaves and flowers from nature. .	isis. .	white lily. .	daffodil. .	narcissus. .	onion. .	dog-rose. plate viif. plans and elevations ot flowers. .	mouse-ear. .	honeysuckle. .	mallow. .	ladies' smock. .	speedwell. .	harebell. .	glossocomia clematidea. .	convolvulus. .	primrose. .	periwinkle. .	clarkia. .	levcesteria formosa. plate xcix. . honeysuckle. . convolvulus. full size. plate c. passion flowers. full size. leaves and flowers from nature. we have endeavoured to show in the preceding chapters, that in the best periods of art all ornament was rather based upon an observation of the principles which regulate the arrangement of form in nature, than on an attempt to imitate the absolute forms of those works; and that whenever this limit was exceeded in any art, it was one of the strongest symptoms of decline: true art consisting in idealising, and not copying, the forms of nature. we think it desirable to insist rather strongly on this point, as, in the present uncertain state in which we are, there seems a general disposition arising to reproduce, as faithfully as may be possible, natural form as works of ornament. the world has become weary of the eternal repetition of the same conventional forms which have been borrowed from styles which have passed away, and there- fore can excite in us but little sympathy. there has risen, we say, a universal cry of " go back to nature, as the ancients did; " we should be amongst the first to echo that cry, but it will depend much on what we go to seek, how far we may succeed. if we go to nature as the egyptians and the greeks went, we may hope; but if we go there like the chinese, or even as the gothic artists of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, we should gain but little. we have already, in the floral carpets, floral papers, and floral carvings of the present day, sufficient evidence to show that no art can be produced by such means; and that the more closely nature is copied, the farther we are re- moved from producing a work of art. although ornament is most properly only an accessory to architecture, and should never be allowed to usurp the place of structural features, or to overload or to disguise them, it is in all cases the very soul of an architectural monument. leaves and flowers from nature. the chief features of a building which form a style are, first, the means of support; secondly, the means of spanning space between the supports; and, thirdly, the formation of the roof. it is the decoration of these structural features which gives the characteristics of style, and they all follow so naturally one from the other, that the invention of one will command the rest. it would appear, at first sight, that the means of varying these structural features had been ex- hausted, and that we have nothing left but to use either the one or the other of the systems which have already run their course. if we reject the use of the column and horizontal beam of the greeks and egyptians, the round arch of the romans, the pointed arch and vault of the middle ages, and the domes of the mohammedans, it will be asked—what is left ? we shall perhaps be told that all the means of covering space have already been exhausted, and that it were vain to look for other forms. but could not this have been said in all time ? could the egyptian have ever imagined that any other mode of spanning space would ever be found than his huge blocks of stone ? could the mediaeval architect have ever dreamed that his airy vaults could be surpassed, and that gulfs could be crossed by hollow tubes of iron? let us not despair; the world has not seen, most assuredly, the last of the architectural systems. if we are now passing through an age of copying, and architecture with us exhibits a want of vitality, the world has passed through similar periods before. from the present chaos there will arise, undoubtedly, (it may not be in our time), an architecture which shall be worthy of the high advance which man has made in every other direction towards the possession of the tree of knowledge. to return to our subject,—how is any new style of art or new style of ornament to be formed, or even attempted to be formed? in the first place, we have little hope that we are destined to see more than the commencement of a change; the architectural profession is at the present time too much under the influence of past education on the one hand, and too much influenced by an ill- informed public on the other: but the rising generation in both classes are born under happier auspices, and it is to them we must look for hope in the future. it is for their use that we have gathered together this collection of the works of the past; not that they should be slavishly copied, but that artists should, by an attentive examination of the principles which pervade all the works of the past, and which have excited universal admiration, be led to the creation of new forms equally beautiful. we believe that if a student in the arts, earnest in his search after knowledge, will only lay aside all temptation to indolence, will examine for himself the works of the past, compare them with the works of nature, bend his mind to a thorough appreciation of the principles which reign in each, he cannot fail to be himself a creator, and to individualise new forms, instead of reproducing the forms of the past. we think it impossible that a student < fully impressed with the law of the universal fit- ness of things in nature, with the wonderful variety of form, yet all arranged around some few fixed laws, the proportionate distribution of areas, the tangential curvatures of lines, and the radiation from a parent stem, whatever type he may borrow from nature, if he will dismiss from his mind the desire to imitate it, but will only seek to follow still the path which it so plainly shows him, we doubt not that new forms of beauty will more readily arise under his hand, than can ever follow from a continuation in the prevailing fashion of resting only on the works of the past for present inspiration. it will require but a few minds to give the first impulse : the way once pointed out, others will follow, readily improving, refining upon each other's efforts, till another culminating point of art shall be again reached, to subside into decline and disorder. for the present, however, we are far enough removed from either stage. we have been desirous to aid this movement to the extent of our power; and in the ten plates of leaves and flowers which accompany this chapter, we have gathered together many of those natural types which we thought best calculated to awaken a recognition of the natural laws which prevail in leaves and flowers from nature. the distribution of form. but, indeed, these laws will be found to be so universal that they are as well seen in one leaf as in a thousand. the single example of the chestnut leaf, plate xci., contains the whole of the laws which are to be found in nature; no art can rival the perfect grace of its form, the perfect proportional distribution of the areas, the radiation from the parent stem, the tangential curvatures of the lines, or the even distribution of the surface decoration. we may gather this from a single leaf. but if we further study the law of their growth, we may see in an assemblage of leaves of the vine or the ivy, that the same law which prevails in the formation of the single leaf prevails also in the assemblage of leaves. as in the chestnut leaf, plate xci., the area of each lobe diminishes in equal proportion as it approaches the stem, so in any combination of leaves each leaf is everywhere in harmony with the group ; as in one leaf the areas are so perfectly distributed that the repose of the eye is maintained, it is equally so in the group; we never find a disproportionate leaf interfering to destroy the repose of the group. this universal law of equilibrium is everywhere apparent in plates xcviii., xcix., c. the same laws prevail in the distribution of lines on the surface of flowers; not a line upon the surfaces but tends more surely to develop the form,—not a line which could be removed, and leave the form more perfect, and this, why % because the beauty arises naturally from the law of the growth of each plant. the life-blood,—the sap, as it leaves the stem, takes the readiest way of reaching the confines of the surface, however varied that surface may be; the greater the distance it has to travel, or the weight it has to support, the thicker will be its substance. (see convolvulus, xcviii., xcix.) on plate xcviii. we have shown several varieties of flowers, in plan and elevation, from which it will be seen that the basis of all form is geometry, the impulse which forms the surface, starting from the centre with equal force, necessarily stops at equal distances; the result is symmetry and regularity. who, then, will dare say that there is nothing left for us but to copy the five or seven-lobed flowers of the thirteenth century; the honeysuckle of the greeks or the acanthus of the romans,— that this alone can produce art ? is nature so tied ? see how various the forms, and how unvarying the principles. we feel persuaded that there is yet a future open to us; we have but to arouse from our slumbers. the creator has not made all things beautiful, that we should thus set a limit to our admiration ; on the contrary, as all his works are offered for our enjoyment, so are they offered for our study. they are there to awaken a natural instinct implanted in us,—a desire to emulate in the works of our hands the order, the symmetry, the grace, the fitness, which the creator has sown broadcast over the earth.    blatter nach dee hatur leaves from nature n° . fehilles carres hatixre tafel xcv	' _________fl xcf _i_i_ blatter kach der hatiir leaves from mature; n° . feiiilles b'apres mature. pl. xcyii tafel xcyii  hidi hw zrp k harvard university library london: printed by gilbert and kivington, limited, kt. john's house, clerkenwell road, e.c, preface. this book has been compiled because of a strongly felt want of a complete text-book upon the subject of theory and analysis of ornament, the author having been asked by his own and other students, why he did not write a book more in advance of the teaching of the present time. the study of ornament has made such rapid progress during the last twelve years, that those books which were previously quite efficient have become obso- lete. so far as the author's knowledge extended, there seemed a very large demand for books of an explanatory nature, as applied to the work of elementary and technical schools. this work is published with the object of more completely developing the various sections of the subject hitherto dealt with. the arrangement is such as a introduction. to present the entire subject in the simplest and most easily to be understood form. the present minute of the education department on science and art, encouraging technical work in the schools, promises great results ; and the author has endeavoured to produce a book of practical use to teachers, in their preparation for the tuition and examination of schools. françois louis schauermann. contents. chapter page first part. .—theory and analysis of ornament . ii.-order, form, relief, colour . . iii.—monumental and decorative art . . . . · · second part. first section. .-fundamental notions . . ii.-size, quantity iii.-extent-co-ordinated . iv.- measure and graduation . . second section. linear extent and delineation i.--straight line and rectitude . . ii. & iii.-curvity and curved lines iv.–figurative elements v.- Æsthetical affections vi.-delineations. third section. superficial extent and plane surfaces . . . fundamental forms of superficial extent : ii.--generation of the fundamental plane surfaces. iii.-fundamental dominant lines of plane surfaces iv.-fundamental forms of plane surfaces . . contents. chapter v.-harmonical lines of the fundamental forms . vi.–variation in the fundamental forms ' . . vii.-polygonal plane surfaces . . . viii.—polygonal figures and lines derived from them . . . . . ix.-derived polygons . . . . . . x.-derived polygonal plane surfaces . . xi.--rhombical elements and cuneiforms of poly- gons . . . . . . . xii.-assembled polygons . . . . . xiii.—derivative polygonal declinations . : : fourth section. extent and corporeal forms . i.-- followed or linear forms . ii.- declined forms . . iii.-spheroidal forms . . iv.-varied forms . . . . . . . . . . . : . : . . . fifth section. regularity and symmetry .-symmetry . . . . . . . . . . third part. order and disposition in ornament and forms. first section. unlimited dispositions . . .-order of disposition in series . il.–ranges . . . . . iii.—conjugations of ranges . . iv.–varied dispositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second section. multiplied dispositions . . i.-networks . . . . . . . . . . . . contents. chapter page ii.-grouping of circles iii.--repartitions · third section. agglomerated dispositions . . . . · . . . · · .. fourth section. figurative dispositions . i.-linear dispositions . ii.- peripherical dispositions iii.—orbicular dispositions . iv.-radiated dispositions . v.-pennate dispositions . vi.- palmated dispositions. vii.-curved dispositions , viii.-branched dispositions : ix.- assembled dispositions . + . · · · · · . . . · . . . . fifth section. co-ordinated dispositions sixth section. constructed dispositions . . . . . fourth part. developments and references . .- application of quadripartitions ii.—partitions of the coat-of-arms. iii.-imbrications . . . . iv.-compartments and adjustments . . . . . . : list of illustrations. . greek scroll with acanthus leaf. . oak-leaf bracket. . flemish renaissance panel (in time of holbein). . louis xvi. astronomical panel. . flemish renaissance panel. . panel from nature. . modern renaissance panel. . flemish. renaissance panel. . egyptian capital. . japanese rail. . cinquecento capital. . louis xiv. pane!. . japanese rail. . greek scroll and acanthus-leaf panel. . . modern english panel. . italian capital. . cinquecento bracket. . greck scroll and acanthus leaf (larger scale). . japanese rail (larger scale). . japanese rail (larger scale). . bold specimen of italian scroll-work. . byzantine panel. . louis xiv. panel (larger scale). . elizabethan panel. . egyptian scroll panel. . perpendicular gothic window. . modern english panel. . louis xvi, flower panel. theory and analysis of ornament. part x. chapter i. . diapered forms are productions of the artist, and are in contradistinction to those produced by nature. forms produced by nature bear the mark of a first creative power; whereas, the diapered forms, produced upon those original forms, are the pro- ductions of the human brain assisted by certain tools employed, which are themselves in turn the pro- ductions of mechanical skill. the two things necessary to bring about or carry out the artist's work, are material and industry. industry is, then, the “ways and means” by which the artist brings about the productions of his art. nature furnishes the raw material, art produces form, in the raw material, necessary to the wants of man, both artistic and useful. . the artist's work can easily be distinguished from that which shows mere mechanical skill. mechanical skill can be recognized as proceeding · from practice in a certain art or industry; the artist's work indicates a higher inherent power, but can easily be distinguished from an untutored pro- duction of the brain. theory and analysis of ornament. the diapered form, independently of its beauty and usefulness, is a compound of three elements, viz., material to be used, mode of manipulation, and, thirdly, its relation to art. the material to be worked furnishes its plastic and decorative qualities. the types depending on art are form and decora- tion. form is the result of particular modifications wrought in the material by the workman, and is necessary to the satisfying of the ästhetic taste of the worker. decoration is an addition made to the first form, as produced by the artisan, and is the work of the artist. the following table should be carefully studied, as giving the principal forms and types as brought into existence by the artist or mechanic. the mechanic's work must be acknowledged as a very necessary adjunct to the complete production of the diapered forms produced by the inborn genius of the artist himself. forms. modelled ( modelled (plastic). turned (ceramic). (i.) forms. blown (glass works). (plastic.) (hammered (brass ware). carved (carving (carving). (ii.) forms. sculptured (sculpture). chiselled (toreutic). (schipture.) ( engraved (glyptic). (iii.) assembled forms (joinery, iron-foundry, &c.). (iv.) built or added forms (construction, architecture). (v.) weaved forms (weaver's trade, basket trade). diapered forms. . materials produced by nature are peculiarly theory and analysis of ornament. n s adapted to the manipulation of the artist, and the latent qualities afford the genius in man an op- portunity to exercise its powers of producing decorative forms and types so pleasing to the mind and necessary to the true enjoyment of nature. man sees the raw productions of nature, and, concurrently with sight, springs up a desire to beautify, which desire calls forth an inherent talent capable of being more highly developed in those whose natural qualifications are those of an artist apart from or above those of the mechanic. the following table should be carefully studied, as giving the different modes of decoration. (i.) the illuminated, painted or enamelled de- coration ; which refers to the modelled, carved, assembled, builded and weaved, diapered forms. (ii.) the modelled or sculptured decoration ; which refers to the first four, viz., modelled, carved, assembled and constructed forms. (iii.) the engraved and carved decoration ; which refers to modelled, carved and assembled forms. (iv.) the embroidered decoration, which refers exclusively to the weaved forms. ornamentation. . form and decoration are so closely allied that the one naturally forms part of the other; that the blending of the two makes one quality, viz., that of ornamentation. under the generic name of orna- ment, we must consider the numberless variety of drawings, forms, reliefs, coloured prints, &c., by which man has surrounded himself, and which b theory and analysis of ornament. nces vey carull, at that age, the decorations being principally the productions of those monks possessed of artistic ability, and who were almost the sole representatives of the refining influences of education. in the middle ages the artisan was employed for carrying out the work of genius as dictated by it, and it is no less now the labour of the mechanic that supplies the apparatus for the artist's use, by which he can transform nature and convey correctly the produc- tive forms of one country to another, however far apart upon the face of the earth. nature has two distinctive characteristics ; those perceptive and those conceptive—those in actual being and those that we can conceive as possible, to understand which, we must conceive four worlds. . existing world (the actual universe). . historical world (world of names and events). . fabulous world (mythological world). . ideal world (imaginary world). to the existing world belongs the actual universe, the physical formations, moral and political govern- ments, &c. the historical world is that which records events and tells of the great movers in those events, with their epochs. the fabulous world is that which is full of imagi- nary gods, beroes and heroines. the ideal world is that where beings exist only in imagination, and who are, with imaginary objects, treated as having real existence. the artisan or the artist has a limited horizon, he must confine himself and his art to things theory and analysis of ornament. ms strictly terrestrial, leaving for the philosopher a separate field for the exercise of his learning and study. the artist must have reality in his model, that is to say, his conceptive powers must be limited to those objects that can be imagined as forming a part or parts of the existing universe, yet his imaginative powers must not be so much circumscribed as to injure his form, type or picture. he must leave telescopic worlds and microscopic nature free from his portrait or diapered form or type. the theologian, the moralist, the poet and other learned men may treat of the actual universe, and yet seek further by the aid of telescope, microscope and imagination to embellish their works; but in material forms the true artist will confine himself to the copy of real nature, and any introduction to his world must be actual and not imaginative phe- nomena. the painter artist has a world even less limited than that of the sculptor or carver. the painter finds many of his finest touches from the clouds as governed and tinted by the varied con- ditions of the atmosphere ; but as the sculptor or carver cannot diaper light or colour, his world is necessarily more limited tban that of the landscape painter. . form may really be said to have a threefold existence, viz., natural, diapered and ästhetic : the natural form being that in which nature produced it ; the diapered form a result of the artist's skill ; and the æsthetic form that produced under varied degrees according to the imaginative powers of the artist. theory and analysis of ornament. do i the technical mode of decoration must be strictly applied in ornament for producing a thorough harmony; ornament wrongly or carelessly applied to the diapered forms produces discord, and is therefore repulsive to the aesthetic eye of the art critic. the æsthetic eye sees in the natural form the diapered form or type produced, and fancy adds ornamentation to be carried into effect by the industrial application of skill. the natural artist, upon first contemplating original form, perceives every geometrical figure, geometry forming, as it were, a most important constituent of his brain-power; therefore geometry must be cultivated for the complete reproduction of objects of nature in diapered forms or types. . as all objects in nature possess peculiar powers of motion under the heads generation, pro- gression, concatenation, variation, &c., the artist's mind must associate these powers with geometry as necessary to the successful delineation of his work. suppose for instance, that the artist diaper the form of a horse ; for the true reproduction, his diapered form must bear out the notion of move- ment, and the prominent features of the diapered form must convey an idea of the exercise of the five senses. the abstract, rational science called kinematics, is the power of transforming or reproducing, in the diapered form, the true compositions of varied motion. thus the idea of motion, in the abstract, enters into combination with geometry in the mind of the artist. the idea of motion, independent of the theory and analysis of ornament. es ys notion of actual movement, combines with geometry, and this combination being correctly delineated produces, in the diapered form, the nearest approach to actual life. in short, all the attributes of life must be as correctly copied as possible, and be projected as prominently in the figure as art can produce in the way of actual creation. the ideas of motion and swiftness must not be associated with the idea of strength. the practical kinematic plies his skill upon the basis of motion and swiftness, but it remains for the genius of the artist to convey the notion of existing strength. thus, the idea of equilibrium, separate from the ideas of strength and motion, combines with westheticism, and shows by the neces- sary use of the words balancing, ponderation, proportion, &c., the æsthetic determination of forms. the idea of equilibrium, apart from the idea of motion but associated with the idea of strength, or rather the idea of occult and permanent endeavour or stability, is the basis of operation by the mecha- nical architect. the idea of disposable or exhaustive strength is the basis of operation by the mechanical engineer. it must be realized by the student, that the idea of strength hides itself behind higher ideas which become indefinite in ordinary logic as produced by scientific construction. where language is employed to explain, scientific construction conveys, by expressive metaphors, the idea of strength, activity, attraction, intensity, energy, &c. theory and analysis of ornament. the following table must be studied in order fully to grasp the meaning of the foregoing remarks. pure geometry. analytic geometry (kinematics) = the artisan's mechanics. ' descriptive geometry (statics) = the architect's mechanics dimensive geometry (dynamics ).- the engineer's mechanics. . every motion, instinctive or derived, contains two or more elementary parts, viz., simple motion and movement in straight or circular lines, which may really be reduced to two simple motions, or technically speaking, helicoidal and volubilial motions. the three geometric elements, having the property of constant juxtaposition (slippery relief on incrusta- tion), are, the straight line, the circular line and the spiral line. the straight line, the circular and spiral lines, are the fundamental, simple and irreducible elements of geometry. the rectilinear, circular and helicoidal motions are the three fundamental, simple and irreducible elements of kinematic or theoretical geometry as applied to motion. the two rectilinear motions, circular and transla- tory, can be continuous or alternative, i.e., constantly directed one way, or alternately directed over a plane surface; thus, from the four elementary motions, which form the basis of industry in the theory and analysis of ornament in surfaces, specifications, &c., together with motion upon planes, may be estimated with great exactness. among the different properties of figurative extent are lines and surfaces geometrically deter- mined alike in plane surfaces as in solids, the geometrical lines being employed in every case as determining the extent or volume of the figure in question. these two kinds of geometry may again be classed as elementary or euclidian, and modern or general geometry. these divisions in geometry inust be recognized in order that the student may grasp the full reason why science must be applied to art, mechanical or inherent, for the full develop- ment in production. . now, instead of accepting, indefinitely, the dogmatic as adhered to, generally, by teachers and lecturers, we will consider the subject as a whole. a full acquaintance with the following paragraphs will assist the student in grasping the meaning without encumbering his mind with the sub-divi- sion. four heads : analytic, synthetic, descriptive, dimensive. pure geometry, as established by the greeks and adopted as classical in our schools, places before the eye of the student, logical strictness and perfec- tion : it teaches demonstration, concatenation, and subordination of proportion; it teaches also the laws of definition and classification geometrically considered. such logical foundations constitute the real establishment of geometry as a science. geometry, studied under the four heads given theory and analysis of ornament. above, leads the mind to admiration of the broad field for expressed exactness opened by its study. no science is more adapted to the establishinent of logic, the science being logic itself, and where logic exists, the mind endowed with it must manifest its capability for applying it to objects more or less artistic. the practical artist is, in his works, an illustration of the useful application of pure geometry. analytical geometry. the mathematician applies the science of algebra to the working out and proving of the truth of problems in geometry, and consequently truths are, by analytical geometry, proved, as relating to questions based upon the science of geometry, and to which that science must be applied for perfect elucidation. descriptive geometry is the application of special and artificial methods, viz., the methods of projec- tions, as applied to frames and solids. by descriptive geometry we understand the theory of intrinsic composition of forms, and the defini- tion of different particularities of the lines and surfaces. this statistical contemplation of the forms of extent is not at all subordinated to a particular drawing method, nor to a spiral ter- minology. the geometric, like all other forms, might be described by ordinary language, and might be drawn up by the usual artifices of the drawing art. the ideas of generation and description are so closely allied that analysis does not separate the e s theory and analysis of ornament. . ideas advanced under each head, yet it is necessary to distinguish the two orders of perceptions, as the one goes to the root of the science and separates the parts so as to give explanation to their generic independence, the other explains the simultaneous presence of their dispositions. perhaps the dis- tinction is vague, and the language employed must, of necessity, be somewhat vague also; yet a study of the matter will throw light upon the somewhat clouded expressions, for geometry is a science well adapted to prove its genuineness in its own un- uttered language. when the science of geometry is applied, as it must be, to the true production of nature, the artist may apply under the several sub- divisions, and yet keep aloof from the idioms or rubrics of the science, simply applying the abstract to the correctness of his art. . geometry, as taught by mathematicians, forms an important branch of the general system of mathe- matics, which contains the three following theories:- . the theory of numbers. . the theory of figures. . the theory of sizes. pure mathematics are absolute and rational, and most perfect examples of form and construction, and form the secret of pre-eminence in the scientific art-roll. the perfection of the mathematician has proved his license to intrusion into the artistic world, either to the damage or benefit of the latter (?), and the exactness of his calculations presents a formidable critique upon the work of the artist and compels him to stoop to criticism. theory and analysis of ornament. . the teacher of geometry employs, of necessity, a rude method of drawing, and the science he teaches admits of dogmatic sanction of the clumsy and inartistic method called linear drawing. linear drawing may be classed as an intrusion upon the artist's freehold. the student in geometry requires ruler and compass, and upon their use depends the success of his linear drawing; the artist sup- plies these necessities by the natural and artistic effort of his brain. the student in mathematical geometry can, with the help of the ruler and compass, produce neatly- effected work, yet he must admit that his produc- tions are chiefly the result of the instruments he employs. the careful student in geometry carries, in his work, the power of imposing upon the unartistic world—he is deemed, by a credulous public, an artist, whereas his productions are by no means resulting from artistic genius. until art has passed through, or proved itself above this sham, the artist must be in constant rivalry with the pretentious linear drawing student. that the cause of true art must ultimately triumph is certain : as a consequence, theoretical education in art must assert superiority over those who have passed by the preliminary education and taken their first step half-way up the ladder, from which they cannot rise nor will their bigotry admit of descent. the student will perceive that the science of geometry is only shown in its true beauty when applied to art productions. theory and analysis of ornament. co . science may be said to be knowledge logically organized, and logical organization is based on the concatenation of propositions. logic reduces the initial notions as much as possible, thus covering much important matter and difficult questions under a few words, questions the solutions of which can- not be arrived at but by logical argument. those geometrical propositions, logically formed, can be stated thus :- . to reduce the fundamental notions as much as possible under the dogmatic form of axioms, definitions and postulates. . to satisfy logical rigour by giving demon- stration to all that is susceptible of it. all geometrical teaching is founded upon the foregoing method, assisted by numerical calcula- tion, applied to geometrical sizes, and propositions in illustration. geometry, as a science, does not admit of exercise in what has been described as “ mathematical joy." the logic applied, and the application required in the solution of its problems, take up the whole attention of the student, who must bend his efforts to his work, leaving no spare time or energy for devotion to the work of pure art; in other words, did artistic ability exist, it is destroyed or negatived by the arduous work of the student in geometry. before the intervention of measuring and count- ing and mechanical linear drawing, the first principles of geometry were acknowledged to be abstract ideas, which predominate in all branches of mathematics. true artistic study can produce the theory and analysis of ornament. es same result, although the artist does not, for be must not undertake to plunge too deeply into the maze of abstract ideas, figures or measurements; his mind supplies spontaneously much that the geometrical student acquires by hard study. in short, the student in geometry is one being, and the artist another. . the materials, of the science of geometry, are sizes or mathematical quantities, conceived in all simplicity, classified and constructed upon the general principles of order and form. if, in the attempt to study art, the student in geometry isolates the susceptible forms or figures of mathematical propositions, he leaves the world of human conditions, and plunges into a maze of logical abstractions. the attempt results in failure. the work of the artisan preceded the science of geometry, therefore, science may be called “a knowledge of knowing.” its place is in the rear of poetry, art, history, moral and philosophical com- positions, thus showing that science is only regu- lated argument upon facts established. science cannot be maintained but by profound study of truths recognized, and following the rules strictly laid down under the terms assiduous and disciplined application. . geometry may be looked upon as suddenly springing up from a latent existence, and as suddenly presuming to govern the arts. the pre- sumption is, that as art existed without practical geometry, science presumes a right to govern the arts. ea us theory and analysis of ornament. all that was produced by moral activity, now forms objects for special and necessary culture. methods and systems have been arranged to pro- perly develop the intellectual faculties, and the earlier the mind is called upon to learn those methods and systems so as to become acquainted with the field, the sooner can the matured mind be brought to grapple with the facts hidden underneath. science, then, developed by education and intellect; it is inborn in man, and its full development depends upon the strength of brain-power assisted by applica- tion; and the more advanced one becomes in scientific knowledge, the further away does he remove himself from the real sentiments of life. the scientific mind sees order and neatness in everything in creation, it detects disorder in every- thing that has passed under manipulation; and although removed from the real sentiments of life, it finds a world of thought and beautiful reverie as a result of study and appreciation of the beautiful which is always present in god's creation. this, then, is the rule of science, and under this rule there is no place but for organized activity. the humble artisan and the busy mechanic must sub- mit themselves to the guidance of men who are scientifically capable of directing their efforts. however distasteful to the worker, such a situation must be considered as an unavoidable con- dition of modern life. the art student goes into the past for his lessons, he takes the great masters of by-gone ages for his guides, his deductions from their works are brought into actual contact with theory and analysis of ornament. and made to bear upon modern ideas; and such a blending of the past and present cannot but be productive of greater perfection, and that this perfection should reign supreme should not be looked upon with dissatisfaction, but rather rejoicing, seeing that science adds to the com- fort and blessings of all living under its bene- ficent sway. when we extol the cause of this, we must not be led away to forgetfulness that much is due to the artisan, much improvement has been made as the result of skill, exercise and persever- ance, and, in many cases, great inventions have been made by the mechanic; yet it must be acknowledged that where the mechanic's mind has attained to such scientific perfection, he has been assisted by an inborn artistic nature which would have quali- fied him for a place among the artists, had he been allowed to follow the dictates of nature rather than been led off to a mere mechanical exercise of his faculties. the world cannot rest, science must have its sway, and however much the mechanical mind revolts, its masters and best pro- fessors of mechanical skill must acknowledge the power of the scientist. should it be so ? yes, unless pride bars the advance of progress so neces. sary for meeting the enormous requirements of a thickly-populated world. chapter ii. order, form, relief, colour. . the idea of form corresponds with the natural, diapered or inventional, which have three theory and analysis of ornament. dimensions. we will call the “ fixing of limits," “extension of form; " the figure ending in out- lines or lines of delineation. this figure is the representation ; the image or the drawing of a diapered form, or it may be termed a purely inven- tional figuration. . the idea of order governs the constitutive parts of form, that is, it implies a diagram or plan of disposition of purely intelligible type of real form. the idea of order is more particularly the idea of arrangement of parts distinguished only by analysis ; it constitutes the disposition of asthetic form and ornament, and consequently the law of monu- mental art. . the notion of form has two acceptations. . the abstract, figurative and geometrical form. . the ästhetic or concrete and the expressive form. all particular forms are diapered or described- . by geometrical types based upon terms of geometrical exactitude. . by picturesque types, for the definitions of which are employed numerous arbitrary metaphors, which explain forms in nature as well as in art. the idea of abstract form, at first purely geo- metrical, contains particular points of view : . material, or corporeal forms. . ideal, configurative and enveloped forms, which embrace the most showy points of material, organized or diapered form. the notion of concrete form contains the material, is . theory and analysis of ornament. it also contains the special points of view of organ- ized form, of diapered and, in fact, all æsthetical form. . the following table arranges the different accepted notions of form and shows their order of mutual dependence :- Æsthetic form. monumental, plastical, picturesque, decorative, ornamental. diapered forms. organized form. assembled. (morphology of built. animals and weaved. vegetables.) material., envelope form. carved. diapered form. modelled. (organized form.) (minerals.) material forms. abstract forms. . the abstract form is more particularly geo- metrical, when it can be defined by the rigorous methods of mathematical science. the abstract plan of construction must be distinguished from the concrete or æsthetical. the abstract disposition depends on the intellect strictly defined by scientific theory. scientific theory must be acknowledged as the spirit of art. the æsthetic disposition depends on sentiment. it is the object of chief appreciation which depends upon tact and artistic imagination; it is particularly the collective genius of mankind and the special genius of individuals. it is obtained by nicely balancing the particularities of form, size, relation and proportion. these can be regulated and classed theory and analysis of ornament. the ornamental, together with multiplied figures and motives. permutation is an operation by which things of the same class can be arranged one with the other. such are the rational foundations of the syntactic or science of order, i.e. exclusively logical and mathe- matical developments. . order is form in discontinuation. form is order in continuation. the idea of order intervenes for architectonic determination to appear in reality on the combina- tion and arrangement of materials. this is the ab- stract or artificial bond which binds discontinuation and determines groups or architectonic compositions. this relation is more or less essential or homo- geneous, accidental, or heterogeneous, according to the degree of independence, of unity, or individuality of each of the terms. the determination or exact combination does not take away the beauty of idea though logically and mathematically formed ; on the contrary, exact com- binations become soft and moving by the express intervention of the æsthetical causes of variation, and are made the base of disposed form and ornament. combination is as essential in material as it is in the individual. by combination of material, high buildings are reared, and a multiplica- tion of edifices makes a city; man populates, and combination enacts laws, elects rulers, and thus the town and its occupants are an example of combina- tive power : untie the knot or disintegrate the atoms, and the individuals stand apart, lacking order as a result of a lack of combination. theory and analysis of ornament. the superior idea of order, which is the spirit of artistic humanity, has not yet been drawn up methodically. to logical and mathematical science we will add the architectural; these are not only positive but rational and ästhetical. following the method of an eminent philosopher, m. cournot, we will classify as follows: order and form. order purely intelligible. phenomenal order. mathematical science. architectural. logic, materials of institution. i signs of convention. | language. | algorithmy. | signs of institution. draught. | drawing. logic, mathematical and architectural meta- physics have for their object the pure ideas of ab- stract nature. Æsthetics have for their object the sensible ideas of human nature. each and all these sciences have, for their general organ, language; indeed language in a general and abstract sense is the principal instrument employed in conveying logical expressions. mathematical science has for its object, the theory of numbers and their applica- tion to the theory of sizes; its particular instrument is algorithmy. draught has for its object the pro- perties of extent, while drawing treats of archi- tectural science. if we turn back to the last table, we shall see that architectural science employs, in different degrees, drawing, draught, algorithmy and logic. arith- metical geometry employs draught, algorithmy and logic, only. all these numerated sciences have multiplied proportions common to them. archi- theory and analysis of ornament. tectural science is so complicated, so many ideas intervene, that only the practical man can over- come its complexity. . real form is characterized, in its in- dividuality, by shades immediately perceived. we will treat these shades as so many units; they can be grouped systematically, or used in logically con- structing other forms. if the codification of these objects were scientifi- cally realizable, they could be theoretically defined and classed with other scientific and positive theories, susceptible of perfection. all that belongs to art would, then, form a systematic and regular doctrine, which would pre- side over the whole system of forms. it would substitute a uniform method of combinations and deductions for the occult power of invention, which has added so materially to the world of thought and enhanced the particular and collective genius of the artisan, giving him a false position as viewed from the standpoint of pure art. if my plain speaking, in defining mechanical and comparing it with the natural productions of the artist, has been thought somewhat egotistical, i must plead my excuse in a desire to show, that while there is a certain combinative principle, there is never- theless such variance that the two must be con- sidered as having entirely separate existences. as we proceed it will be seen that i shall bring both art and science as proof of the assertions made at the commencement of this book; also, as we go on we may consider ourselves as being doomed to follow a regular and systematic line of thought, and is ka theory van ат man te and analysis of ornament. to give explicit obedience to certain laws, which tend to curtail freedom and subject us to the dictates of sentiment. the tendency of art is to escape from a categorically pre-conceived programme, as the result of a want of formulæ to define, and geo- metrical method to limit it. . one man may remain primitive, taking naturally what of nature presents itself without questioning the giver or the manner of bestowing ; he is content to see himself surrounded by nature and his desire reaches no further than to be able to distinguish, by name, one thing from another; logic and mathematics are no part of his existence. another man, from his earliest being, calls for assistance in primitive distinction, yet, not being satisfied, an inborn inquisitiveness prompts him to seek the why and the wherefore : here logic plants her foot, followed by mathematical reasoning, to be perfected by a desire for a re- production, &c., &c. here follow the arts and sciences. as the tilling of the soil presents itself as the first duty or man's first natural employment, so does formations upon that surface occupy the mind naturally born to become nature's student. archi- tecture is one of man's first studies, and archi- tectural science cannot be pursued to efficiency without calling in the aid of kindred arts. as one science is, in a great measure, governed by or dependent on others, so is architectural art in alliance with logic and mathematical science; they are necessary to its solidarity. the fundamental ideas of the three sciences mentioned are the same, red theory and analysis of ornamentan re . though essentially different in their results accord- ing to the groove one choses for his special employ- ment. the aristotelian logic, taught in our schools, is the highest order of philosophical criticism, and that alone produces æsthetic architectonic science in true perfection. we will go back to m. cournot's theory for all that concerns philosophical developments of logic and the sciences, but for what concerns the archi- tectural we must confine ourselves more particularly to study the past with the present. we will choose a study familiar to so many, as an illustration. music. the first elements in music are sounds. sound, considered as homogeneous sizes, is sub- jected to variations, and these variations are the results of vibration. vibration, reduced to numbers, is the mathematical material of acoustics as a branch of physics, these being ail which intrude into this science. sounds are, with the æsthetical particularities which follow them, the real materials of musical art. when the instrument, as a result of handicraft, is considered in connection with acoustics, mathematical and experimental science claims a place in such construction, the combination of the three being necessary to produce the result as an unit. logic, mathematics and architecture may, to the philosopher, be three sciences of co-equal importance and equally important one to the other, which is but natural, seeing that the philosopher's art is an abstract one, weighing and judging the pro- in theory and analysis of ornament. ceedings of humanity. but the artist, who has personal experiences, only finds, in his inborn artistic nature, precepts, indications and prescrip- tions which guide him to the completion of his work. . the idea of order and form has been ex- plained in the preceding chapters, yet it will be taken up again as we proceed. . the idea of order and the notion of form once well understood by the help of tables and signs, notations and figures, will remain a fixed element in the mind, forming a source of supply when necessary as we pass on to other categories of art work. colour and relief are necessary elements in a work of art. the idea of relief is correlative to the idea of form, but the idea of order is foreign. all the particu- larities of forming and modelling adhere to and command each other without having an abstract and independent bond. the idea of size and quantity, according to the æsthetic sense, mingles with the idea of proportion and measure. a work of art contains the idea of proportion which exists between the projections and the reliefs of the same form. the particularities of relief and modelling must not be considered as units or as different elements to be grouped or combined systematically, as is the case with different forms and colours. again, the power of modelling or sculpturing correlatively with the faculty to con- ceive or imagine space, belongs to certain privileged races. the greeks possessed this faculty to a great extent, while the semitic races were utterly lacking in it. theory and analysis of ornament. n in . the sensation of colour is purely effective ; it has not in itself any representative virtue. sensation distinguishes colours and gives them specific names as a result of its distinct character and special qualification. exact demonstration in small numbers serves for comparison, to which it adapts desinences, a mode of flexion, position and syntax, by which means we can express, in language, all the best varieties of decoration. when we look upon colour in nature, or when we conceive the philosopher's optical phenomena, we raise scientific questioning of a theory con- cerned with the solar spectrum, which furnishes images always the same in themselves. in all other types the elements are chosen and compared in an arbitrary manner, seeing that there is no other bond that unites them but the frame of human invention. out of this property of form that pervades the solar spectrum, and which is produced in a manner always identical, theories arise to mea- sure the number of vibrations peculiar to each colour, and count and measure by refraction that which is produced by those colours. but all this scaffolding of science, strong though it seems, does not show how the accident of colour is bound up with the swiftness and vibrations of ether; or in what proportion it exists in every luminous ray. we will no more introduce the solar spectrum in this work, but we will and must use the colours generated from that system, as an all-important element in art, i.e., the colouring or coloured materials, but not the purely figurative, theory and analysis of ornament. phenomenal images, which may be considered as simple appearances only. we must accept the colours as they are in their substantial and tangible reality, with all their cortège of sensible and phenomenal particularities, and use them without putting them under scientific analysis—unimportant here. the theory of colour is immediately bound up with the notion of form. the extent of colour and the form of separate delineation, determine the sensations of harmony and contrast of colour which would otherwise depend upon physical and physio. logical theory, useful and interesting in itself, but not necessary to proof in the course of reality. the notion of form is not only inseparable from decora- tive notion, but it contains substantial and material qualities-colouring and coloured properties. . the notion of colour is bound up in the notion of form and the two are bound to the idea of order. let us take, for example, a palette ; here we have distinct elements in the abstract considera- tion of order; here, a number of colours, which establish variety in combination, two by two, three by three, and these again present themselves under our powers of sensorial impression. we may agree that relief is necessary to order and form, and also a necessity in order, form and colour, for nicely determining and specifying. the particulars of colour are subordinate to order and form, as are also the particularities of relief to form. lan theory van . and analysis of ornamentchapter iii. monumental and decorative art. . ornament is constituted by a harmony of conditions, which can be shown in four parts. relief and colour form the basis of decorative ornamentation, when the relief and colours are fixed by form, and are distributed strictly according to the idea of order. . the idea of order is specialized in ornamentation and becomes a disposition. the idea of form is specialized in ornamentation and becomes a motive. . decorative art is determined in three parts, viz., form, relief and colour. the essential foundations of decorative art are relief and colour, which are stronger than form. decorative art is an extension of decoration, which, at first, belongs to diapered forms, and has taken up a strong position wherever architectural art has become developed. an ornament is more particularly decorative where colour and relief are a lesser part than the form, surpassing it in luxuriance only. diapered forms which depend upon decorative art are the modelled and carved and the assembled and weaved forms. . monumental art is governed by conditions of form and order. of monumental art, diapered, modelled and carved, constructed and superposed forms, the monumental stands highest. modelled and carved theory and analysis of ornament. forms, in conjunction with diapered forms, con- stitute the ornamental. therefore modelled and coloured decorations, with other modes, constitute, only in combination, the ornamental. order has a special growth in ornamental form, and, as such, is an all-important factor of the whole. order, as a growth in orna- ment, proves itself above logic; the one becomes a reality while the other remains as existing only in conceptive form, being, however, essential to true harmony and artistic ornamentation. theory and analysis of ornament. part xi. definition and analytical materials. this part is divided into five sections, treating of-( ) fundamental notions; ( ) linear extent and delineation ; ( ) superficial extent and plane surfaces; ( ) extent and corporeal forms; and ( ) regularity and symmetry. first section. fundamental notions. chapter i. number. . there are two fundamental acceptations of the word number. . concrete, which is bound up with objects. . abstract, which is conceptive and applied to objects in a logical form, susceptible of different uses in the reunion of groups. . theory touches the very essence of number, and must therefore be treated as having three im- portant applications. . its employment for designing quantities from cardinal numbers. . its employment to measure and continue sizes and to form correct ideas of quantity and measure. im- theory and analysis of ornament. . its employment to indicate or fix order from cardinal numbers. the idea of number is logic employed to deter- mine numerical and conventional signs therefore ; it must be considered as an alphabetical idea of abstract numeration, an esthetical contemplation of things. it might be called a mental guess, under the ideas of unity, plurality, simplicity, &c. i will give the term “indetermination " to the abstract idea of number, for by this term alone is it ex- pressive of actual signs. . number known, ideas follow; united ob- jects existing under different numbers, give the relation of nuinbers. under arithmetic and mathe- matics the relations are determined, and they have or bear the name of proportion, such, for example, being fractional numbers. but, under æsthetic view, they are distinguished in three kinds of re- lation, viz., multiple, determined and undetermined. this idea of numerical relation pertains to concrete notion of disposition; it is the one which characterizes rhythm in ornamental disposition, the composition in ornamental forms, and ordinance in monumental art. in multiple relations, the number of a series is sometimes twice, sometimes three or four times the number. in the determined relations, the numbers are fixed and determined, but have no proportion between them. in undetermined re- lations the particular numbers are not certain or correctly discernible, and a vague eurhythmy presides as a balancing power in particular numbers. the idea of order united with that of quantity, is theory and analysis of ornament. forming a unity, gives the esthetic notion of rhythm, which has remarkable interpretations in the musical and poetic arts, as also in monumental art. after rhythm, which is special, comes accord, which rules the co-existence of the different parts, ordered or disordered, and blends them in superior unity. it is eurhythmy or accord which rules the ordinance of an edifice or poem and forms the par- ticular rhythms and constitution of the work. chapter ii. size, quantity. ded por- . mathematically considered, the idea of size is an idea of homogene, susceptible of being divided by thought into such divisions that we should like to have similar or identical parts : the divided por- tions may grow indefinitely. with the notion of size springs that of measure. when size is known and determined, it may be taken as a term of com- parison or unity. size thus expressed in number has the name of quantity. size also determines form and extent. in archi- tecture, mathematical quantities do not operate so much as æsthetic quantity. figures and forms are turned into one changeable and movable unity, which is intermixed with the specific graduations corresponding with the extent of man's natural grasp of the nature of objects. from this we may distinguish two fundamental acceptations of the word size, viz., mathematical and architectural. a third acceptation is found, æsthetically, mixed with e theory and analysis of ornamentaz . the architectural size; this is also mixed, geome- trically, with mathematical size. . mathematical, architectural, and aesthetic acceptations of the word quantity correspond to or with the three acceptations given of size. these ideas given of size, measure, unity and quantity, constitute the basis of the science of sizes, which is an important part of the general system of mathe- matics. architecturally considered, each quantity or quality embodies its own measure, and forms unity as producing the one impression of unity. adopt the test of mensuration, and you will find unity in size, and that number takes the place of extent. . mathematical quantity is, then, determined and fixed, and is reduced, in regular method, by numbers. architectural quantity is, on the con- trary, the object of particular determinations which suffer variation following the quantity. chapter iii. extent-co-ordinated). . geometricians distinguish two kinds of quantities, the one permanent, which is called extent ; the other successive, which is called duration all that which refers to extent is the object of immediate intuition, and the notions which result from it participate in the firmness which is essential to it. all that concerns duration is the object of perceptions whose intensity is changeable ; those elements and their co-ordination being engraved on theory and analysis of ornament. m the mind, we can henceforth recognize them in- stinctively and finally as necessary to the creation of works artistic. . the notions of extent and duration lead us to the idea of space and time, whose forms rule all that happens in the spheres of phenomenal and sensible things. the notions of extent and duration im- plicate the idea of continuity which is suggested by the contemplation of form and extent of movements in space. the idea of continuity, which is inherent, leads us, by logical necessity, to the institution of mathematical science, and, by an æsthetical necessity, to the institution of architectural science. the one is built on the idea of homogeneous discontinuity, the other upon the artisan's particular genius and the collective genius of mankind in general. space has three dimensions, time has but one. the three dimensions in extent possess changeable quantities, but all that which denotes duration has but one dimension. following the proportion of three dimensions, we arrive at the three fundamental determinations, viz., quantity, size and extent, or linear quantity, superficial quantity and corporal quantity. . we conceive, in the idea of mathematical con- tinuity, that linear extent and lines are involved in linear element; that superficial extent and the surfaces are involved in the superficial element, and that corporal extent and space are involved in the solid element. these conceptions are, however, exclusively mathematical. these elements may be said to accent works of art. real and corporal forms exist in extent, but ms theory and analysis of ornament. bave no important place other than that they harmonize the condition of specific co-ordinations, as essential to the ideal nature of form, and con- formable to the æsthetical co-ordinations of extent. all directions, orientations and oblique positions are composed of fundamental co-ordinations, and implicate them, even absolute as they appear. chapter iv. measure and graduation. . the idea of order and quantity is what deter- mines rhythm. the idea of order, with the idea of quantity, determines proportion. in the first case, discontinuity is real. in the second, the ideas of quotiety and quantity are sometimes separate and sometimes assembled; for example, we do not count corn-grains but measure them. measure may, then, be looked upon as an unity, and is called the unity of measure. quantity is, however, the proportion of unity of measure. the proportion of sizes is measure, and the proportion of numbers is rhythm. the complicated propor- tions may be fixed in three measures, thus, the sub- ject is round when its dominant is circular; long, · when its dominant is linear; oblong, when its dominant is oval. in the prosodic quantity, it is necessary to account for the very nature of the subject, which has, for an enveloped form, a circle or an oval; for the position or orientation of the subject, the па theory and analysis of ornament. vertical or horizontal. it is also necessary to account for the real size, or graduation, which modifies the accentuation of forms. . graduation, or the notion of graduation, embodies the aesthetic measure of size, and is of changeable extent, comprised between limits upon and under. it is necessary to distinguish three distinct and fundamental graduations, viz., personal, monumental and ornamental. tlie personal is the normal graduation which extends to the size of man; the monumental is adapted to the exigences of locomotion and cir- culation, and depends principally upon man's eye. normal graduation is somewhat abstract, it is a contraction of the object to within mental sight. . the ideas of measure and graduation regu- late the expansion and development of form and ornament, necessary for detail, and to form con- cordance in general harmony. this metric rigorously and geometrically engenders the mono- tony which characterizes the academic art of the past century. since artists have left this rigidity and called to their assistance tools, as for example the ruler and compass—these constitute a machine similar to the successive parts of a drawing or composition governed by geometrical lines-faith has been slower, feeling a secret despair. we should, then, hold fast to the ideas that seem rapidly becoming extinct. theory and analysis of ornament. spirals, changeable in size, circular curvity, spiral curvity and declined curvity. chapter i. straight line and rectitude. . the perfect quality of a straight line is rec- titude. a straight line is the abstract image of linear continuity and only changeable as to its size. the straight is still the unity of direction, it indi- cates order and situation. to form a correct idea of a straight line, we must distinguish the straight edge which limits spaces and forms. an ideal line of rectitude is absolute, as being founded upon reason. in edge-lines, rectitude is relative, the impression being changeable as belonging to the phenomenal world. in the stripe line, the figuration is relative, the impression being absolute for the kind of materiality; this gives to this line an apparent and sensible breadth, which is, necessarily, imposed. rectitude may have a tendency to pre-occupy the mind, we may instinctively take the image at first sight, which would be pretext in reality, and, in its dispositions, totality. we get from either or both sides the idea of a straight line or æsthetical idea of lectitude. the first is absolute; the second is changeable. motion is found under most circumstances, and this is particularly essential to artistic work. theory and analysis of ornament. . the metaphysical consideration of the straight, that pretends to add transcendant and sovereign qualities to the abstract idea, confers by that means an operative virtue from which, where the notion of rectitude exists, comes all the apparent and actual qualities of artistic work. chapter ii. curvity and curved lines. . it is necessary to distinguish two things in curved lines, viz., the line or draught, which is mixed with the linear element, and that remarkable quality of curvity. curvity has the quality of con- tinuation, and it requires a mathematical expression -size. in architecture, curvity is a particular quality which changes; yet, still, architectural quantity of the curvity can be uniform or variated from one point to another, or un-uniformly variated from the starting to the arriving point. a line possesses uniform curvity in all its parts and belongs to circumference, and so, in variation, it is one with the bend or the rolling according to the degree of intensity of variation. a curved line, coming from the left side, can become more and more variated till the rolling is most accentuated. if a curved line be divided into segments, curvity is more sensibly impressed; with necessarily small curves, it appears in progressive, modified form, and varies in the direction of each seg- ment. this small curviture can be seen if the theory and analysis of ornament. rou segment be denoted by a regular accumulation of points. curvity, in a circumference, is uniform, each of its segments forming an equal radius from a centre, and in this case the curve corers a strictly uniform line of points. . we have a distinct impression of curves in every point of a curved line, rolling in any way, but we mentally associate them in one curved and interminable line—the circumference. each of the segments of a curvity has linearly a direction determined according to the next segment and corresponding with the entire line. curvity being subdivided into segments, and each one being uniform in the circumference, rays, from the centre to the points in each segment, will be equal, and their being so proves the uniform nature of each segment in the circumference. by the angle formed at the centre, by any two rays, or radii, can be determined the extent of the curve. as in the circumference of a circle all lines from that circumference to the common centre are equal, therefore, any two of those lines may enclose a segment, small or large, yet uniform with the regular rolling line forming that circumfer- ence.. . after a circle, the simplest curve is the spiral, which is uniform in its composition. the spiral has a double curved line which necessarily embraces the three dimensions of space. straight, circumference and spirals are clear and definite ideas, upon which we can base our conceptions of curvity and curved lines. үе theory and analysis of ornament. we will now pass on from these fundamental and uniform lines to the equally fundamental but va- riated lines; from the straight, and the arc, to the bent, and from the bent to the rolling lines; from the spiral to the voluble and declined spirals, i.e. to spiral rollings in space. . lines are formed by the combination of two fundamental movements, the rectilineal or translatory, and the circular or rotatory movements. . the rectilineal movement is that made by a ruler and can only be a straight line. . the circular, or that line made by a compass and which must, necessarily, be circular. . two rectilineal movements make a number of lines. . circular, rectilineal movements make bent lines, spirals, rolling and declined spirals, and a number of geometrical lines, as spirals, conchoid, cycloid, &c., &c. . conic sections can be made by combined rectilineal and circular movements with determined lengths and fixed points. . two circular movements make an epicycloid or trochoid, and all curled curvities resembling starred polygons. . . we will now treat of descriptive geometry and of the description of forms, i.e. the specification of different particularities which characterize them, holding each other by an abstract bond, contained in its construction. there are three kinds of affec- tion for the linear form. . the analytical elements, or those which refer to the nature of lines. theory and analysis of ornament. . the figurative elements, or those which refer to variated lines. . the æsthetic affection, viz., those introducing accent and agreement, and which are subordinate to the general form of lines. these peculiarities hold together as a part of the solid construction, and are expressed by real form, and constitute a product of art. . lines are, in their fundamental specification, unlimited. we will give here some examples of segments of straight lines, arcs and curvities. . straight lines are changeable only in size. . arcs, of uniform curvity, are changeable both in size and curvity. all arcs of uniform curvity form parts of a cir- cumference. all arcs coincide when their radii are equal. the size of an arc is dependent upon two particulars, linear extent and curvity. as an abstract figure, a circle is always a circle, the absolute size counting for nothing but a subject, i.e. real form, and is subordinate to graduation. all that has been said of circles can be applied to arcs and, indeed, to all curvity. in an arc the curvity can be short or long. when short, it is accentuated; when long, it is feeble. . curved lines. the curvity of a line being varied, and a product of a straight line becoming more accentuated by rolling, points out or indicates a variety of solid lines of motion. . there are three distinct parts in a curved line. . the extremity, or starting-point, where the curvity is least. theory and analysis of ornament. those joined and continued by a starting-point and a summit (d). . those even and symmetric curved lines called the handles, which are of two kinds or forms : the curved lines joined (fig. ) and continued by the summits s'f"''''; and those continued lines joined by starting-points (c). they follow the accent of the primitive curved line. the handles or curved lines being continued and joined by the summits give rise to three kinds: the first is quite rectilinear, with a small circularity, or the hyper- bolical or angular handle (f), the branches being undefined. the second is curvilinear, with a small rectitude, or parabolical oval handle (f'). fig. . the third one, which arises from the first and second, has the elliptical or rounded handle (f"). the branches are oval and ended. . the oval or closed curved lines (fig. ) which are even and symmetrical when the two curved lines are different but directed the same way ( ), or even and symmetric when they are constructed by the turning of the constitutive varied curved line (h). this regular form of oval can be made by joining two curved lines or handles (i). those theory and analysis of ornament. two handles being different give rise to a number of ovals, and establish continued transition of the oval (j). . closed or curved ovals can be even or uneven or quartered. ovals are even when the four curved lines forming them are different (l). this form is intermediate between the regular and the irregular oval. the even oval is determined by the diagonal turning of a varied curved line; the symmetry there is diagonal ( ). when the oval is quartered it pre- sents the regular, typical form, and is then composed by the turning and joining of an even symmetrical handle, or by the quartered turning of a simple curved line (j). the form (m) (fig. ) is composed regularly by the repetition and joining of a curved line, whose symmetry is diagonal, preserving the transition from the oval to the circle. . the draught of a curved line is quite inde- pendent of the construction of open or closed curved lines. . a curved line, whose curvity is varied by rolling round a real or imaginary point, produces a rolling ; and this rolling can also be conceived as a backward draught, i.e. starting from a real or imaginary point. here we conceive a line growing up linearly at the same time that it forms a rolling round this point, in such a way that, while the line is developed, the bend suffers variation, decreasing and progressive. the most simple idea that can be gained of such a graduation is, to imagine that a straight line turns round a point, incessantly moving, while the moving theory and analysis of ornament. len if in such determined delineation we notice all these remarkable points, the parts of lines situated between them do not contain other variations than those relative to the bend; these are the straight and the bent lines, and the arcs. if we isolate all these linear segments of delineation, we break continuity, and produce discontiguous delineation. we must, then, consider it of importance that we form a correct idea of continuity and discontinuity, of contiguity and discontiguity. linear continuity is maintained by joining in- o= ,yaxi fig. . flections and bucklings. the angular branches and tactions break the continuity but preserve con- tiguity. tactions and crossings are the result of discontiguity. conjugated straight lines. two lines can be either crossed or cut, which determines a crossing- point ( and ) or contiguity, one touching the other at their extremities. this determines linear angulation and a summit ( ); or, like a branch, one line reaching the other in its course, being con- tiguous by one of its extremities, which produces particular and complete angulation, that is, when the two lines meet together and form a right angle ( ). when the two lines are separate, they have a parallel conjunction ( ). theory and analysis of ornament. two conjugated arcs. two conjugated arcs following their reciprocal positions, determine- . a joining-point, when the arcs follow each other yet forming a break or curvity between them; though these lines may join, a long line may be imagined that would contain both of them, fig. ( ). . an inflection occurs when the two arcs are joined linearly, having their cavities directed back- wards or directed from concavity to convexity, and reciprocally. at the point of inflection ( ) an in- version is formed in the cavity. . the extremities of two contiguous arcs deter- ma fig. . mine curvelined angulations, at the point of con- tiguity, or at the angular point. these angulations are of three kinds, corresponding to the three fundamental conjugations. . the first one, fig. ( ), where the two arcs have their convexities set back to back ; the second, where the two arcs have their concavities set face to face ( ); the third, where the two arcs are turned the same way. if the arcs are equal, they produce thus two even or symmetrical angulations. the separation of the arcs is quite determined, and, if we conceive these two movable arcs round the angular point, a fixed form is apparent between all ; as ( ) and ( ) the joining of the two arcs, and ( ), an theory and analysis of ornament. idea of their inflection. the angles ( ) and ( ) possess an axis of symmetry, or a linear diameter ( '); ( ) has a diameter, but it is curvilinear, caused by the junction of the normal line ( '), by the centres of a series of parallels ( ''), or by the centres of a series of oblique lines ( ''). if instead of looking at the angulation, we follow the course of the line, we get, in each angular point, a turning-point. "a "a" av u v fig. . . contact or taction (fig. ). two arcs, one touching the other at their extremities, can be equal ( ) or unequal ( ). if they are equal, they. give a particular figure ( ), symmetrical or quartered, when the arcs touch one another at their centres of figure. we can conceive that these two figures ( ) and ( ) are determined by the cross- ing of the two arcs, inflected at the point of contact, or by the joining of two appointed angulations. two arcs, being unequal, give rise to a particular form of contact, which is inside ( ), the arcs being directed the same way. this particular form may be considered as a result of the intersection of two arcs, and where one cuts the other at the point of taction. ♡ x fig. . i theory and analysis of ornament. . crossing two arcs (fig. ), where one cuts the other in a point, determines a crossing-point ( ) and three kinds of curvilinear angulations ( ') ( ") ( ''). two different or equal arcs (fig. ) can also be cut in two points when the convexities are turned back to back, fig. ( ). if the arcs are unequal and turned in the same way, they produce a figure ( ). m xx xx xx x cs fig. . . branchings (fig. ). two arcs meeting at extremities produce a branching ( ). if the arcs join together, they form a branching-point, a join- ing-point, a point of inflection, and a point of con- tact ( ). the branchings of the figure ( ) contain the forms of angulation. . two arcs are discontiguous, or separated ( ), and are yet alike, being symmetrical or parallel. vn ) ) fig. . . two conjugated curved lines (fig. ).- figures produced by curved lines are varied by the accent of curvity, although it may not widely differ from the preceding one ; but starting from the theory and analysis of ornament. curvity, two curved lines or figures appear individu- ally. these figures are rolling or curling. the curl determines a closed figure (fig. ) and a crossing-point, ( ) and ( ). in the case of regu- larity, the curl has an axis of symmetry which passes by the crossing-point ( ). as rolling is a mode of figuration belonging to linear continuity, it gives rise to different forms. the course of a straight line can be stopped by a round or oval curl ( ); so also the course of an axis ( ) by means of this intervention of inflection they pass from convex angulation to a curl, by two inflections, which meet at the crossing-point or curling ( ), or from the crooked angle to the curl nv figs. , , . by one inflection ( ''). they pass from the concave angle to the curl by four inflections ( '). it is necessary to distinguish both curling and inter- sections. chapter iv. asthetical affections. . these affections are of two kinds, linear and figurative. they are linear when subordinated far from the pace of the line and introduce variety by discontinuity. they are figurative when they determine ornamental delineations in engrailing, lacing, twisting, &c. theory and analysis of ornament. . for restoring the pace of a line of form ( ), we determine some attractive points which follow their approaching, and interrupt the very law of form. these points, bound by straight lines, determine a polygonal line which, in the limit of our perception, is equal to a perfect line. they substitute discontinued variation for continued varia- tion. this discontinuity is realized by the artisan in carved, turned and hammered forms. these dis- continued variations are so many accents, so many marks, from which the figure is determined and which presents to the mind a real subject which reveals the handiwork of the artisan. chapter v. delineations. . there are two kinds of delineations. . delineations of profile and outlines of form. . simple delineations. profiles and outlines of form are the conventional and abstract delineations, which have no existence independent of form. the fundamental disposi- tions are the joinings, inflections, and angula- tions. the joinings are the starting-points, which represent linear construction. the inflections are not reduced to a point; they can be either short or long, so that two curved lines are abruptly drawn closer or otherwise, that a straight line may separate them. all the particulars which characterize extent and linear form are found in the simple delineations with accentuations infinitely theory and analysis of ornament. varied, though they may arise from the technical mode of decoration. these delineations constitute the drawing of ornament and form. in ornamentation these particulars, in their essential and proper nature, give rise to a number of dispositions, although without any accession of æsthetical ideas or abstract principles of monu- mental co-ordination. theory and analysis of ornament ece . . the label or linear space. . the angle or angular space. the superficial size or plane surface is homo- geneous and uniform. an uniform and declined curvity is not the same as a plane surface, for a number of plane surfaces can be held within the limits of the form which contains them. this essential uniformity in superficial extent necessitates the idea of co-ordination, . the plan. the harmonical, co-ordinate lines of the plan, are the horizontal and the vertical. these correspond with the two dimensions of the plan. oblique and diagonal lines also participate in the fundamental dimensions of the plan. oblique lines have two fundamental positions. horizontal, vertical and oblique lines determine four systems which cut the plan into quadrilateral segments, when combined two and two, three and three, and so on. it is this harmonical decomposition of the plan which gives a particular quality to monumental decoration. . the circle. suppose superficial extent to be contained in a point, and then suppose this point to extend uniformly, then the correct idea of a circle is formed. the harmonical, co-ordinated lines of circular space, are those striking off from the point and cutting the infinity of concentrical circumfer- ences which fill the whole circular space. these concentrical circumferences liinit the circular space, although in itself unlimited. the rays from the .centre cut the circular plan into angular spaces or sections. these two systems of co-ordinated lines, reunited, cut the circular spaces into four-cornered theory and analysis of ornament. СОЦе and curvilinear segments, which are the segments of the wreaths, determined by the system of con- centrical circumferences. . the label. superficial extent, being reduced to a straight line, is indefinite, although limited. the co-ordinated lines of the label are those that run parallel to the head straight line, also the trans- verse straight. these two systems of co-ordinated lines cut the label into four-cornered segments, like those of the plan. . the angle. in angular space, the super- ficial extent is declined from the opening to the summit of the angle, wbere this extent comes to nothing. it is necessary to know, by angle, the superficial space which lies between the two oblique straight lines, or the space formed by the fold of a straight line. . in order to value the sizes, mathematically or architecturally, we must reduce them to unity of measure or appreciation. the unity of measure, for valuing sizes, is the square. the unit of appreciation, for the contemplation of sizes, is the circle. . in architecture, where the elements so differ, analogy is held as necessary to distinguish the two methods of appreciation. . applying the general method of appreciation to the fundamental forms or spaces-i.e. to the label and circle only—we shall arrive at an exact defini- tion of what delineation of a plane surface means. all circles described and united within the limits of the label are equal, fig. ( ). this is an artificial theory and analysis of ornament. method, for we have immediate perception of linear and uniform extent, as the unnecessary aid to the true artist. this is also artificial when applied to the angle, yet it has the advantage of placing before the eye the essential quality of the angle, that is, its deline- ation ( ), ( ). if the angle is either acute or obtuse, a ooooo fig. . the declination of the space is continued, i.e. uni- lateral or collateral. chapter i. generation of the fundamental plane surfaces. . the architectural unity of appreciation of plane surfaces is the circle, where the extension goes round an actual or vertical point. the extension of size is, determined by combination of circular ex- tent and linear translation, the centre of extent going over all the points of the headline. the head. line is the head-point. these are the irreducible and last foundations of the generation of forms. we conclude that the correlation from the superficial extent to the linear is absolute. a proportion esta- blished between the circular extent and the head- i theory va . and analysis of ornamentline is what determines the fundarental form of the plane surfaces. the general terms of this proportion are- i. a fixed circle and a headline; the form of the circle is then determined by the translation of the circle, following the course of the line. ii. a changeable circle, whose size changes har- monically with the form of declination and a head- fig. . line; the form of extent is then determined by the · translation of the circle in all successive points of the line. i. a fixed circle and a headline. . straight headline. the straight headline, being indefinite, is, by the translation of the circle or the label, indefinitely symmetrical in all its parts, and is thus uniform. this is the third fundamental form of superficial extent. if a straight line be finished, we can have a figure, equally finished, and ended at its extremities by a circular form, fig ( ). circular headline. the circumference being closed, we get a circular label; the arcs being finished, we get some figures finished and ended at the extremities by a circular form ( ), by the closing of the arcs. curved headline. the bent line being finished, we get the figure ( ). the handle will give the figure ( ) theory and analysis of ornament. further explanation is unnecessary upon this subject of the mode of generation, applied to simple lines, composed or composite, i.e. to handles, ovals, ovates, undulated lines, either turned back, buckled or polygonal. Æsthetically finished plane lineary surfaces are segments of indefinite lineary plane surfaces; the full arc is a finished plane cir- cular surface; therefore it will be seen that we must not confound physical with æsthetic termina- tions. the extremities of lines are physical termi- nations as opposed to harmonic. a fig. . lin ear plane surfaces are composed of rectangular segments, with æsthetic ideas of centre and circle overruling the notion of lines. ii. a variable circle and a headline. . straight headline. taking a fixed circle and passing its centre over every part of the headline, the decreasing circle gives a correct idea of what is termed a declined plane surface, presenting, at the same time, angular declination. again, take a straight line as a declinator, and recline it to the headline, or part of the arc, and you have exhibited specimens of rectilineal, raised and sharp angula- tion, fig. ( ), ( ), ( ). we must form ideal circles at all points of the theory and analysis of ornament. declinator. we must also realize the idea of tangent circles, which are the essential types of declination. in fig. ( ), the declination is regular, and shows the ordinary rectilineal angle. in ( ), the de- clination is rapid and the appointment accentuated. in ( ), the declination is slow and hesitating, and the plane surface is stronger than the angular declination. order of forms should, therefore, be , , . in these figures the declination is pro- longed, although following the inclination of the envelope-line. the declination changes the type, for if the angles be very open, the declination is blunt ( ), ( ), ( ). this declination becomes symmetrical or re- current, and goes by each side of the headline. these declinations belong to the horizontal order, conforming with the second type of a straight line (symmetrical at every point). the first belongs to the vertical order, and conforms with the first type of the straight line (a successive line from one point to another). following their graduation, these declinations are forms or desinences. these desinences give detail to form and impart degrees of accent. . arched headlines. the progression of a circle following an arc determines a particular form of angular declination—circular or hooked ( ). from this declination we must distinguish two fundamental forms. . the angular declination, where the figure ends in nothing, and the headline going as far as the summit of the angulation. . the oval declination, following the head- theory and analysis of ornament. line at the extremity of which, rays, a circular plane surface, goes round the desinences. in angular declinations the headline can either be a straight line or an arc. the series of circles is indefinite on the open side of the handle, but finished near the summit, in a fixed point where the circle is osculatrix of the curvity. the oval desinence is more or less accentuated, and changes from the arc of the circle as far as the angular desinence. though the handle may be hyperbolic, parabolic or elliptic, and the headline curved or straight, we es fig. . get (fig. ) the figures ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ). the elliptic form ( ) is half an oval. the curved form ( ) has an inflecting point. with obtuse angulation, we get oval declinations, resembling the handle of a basket. all the forms of plane figures are synthetically made up of the following elements. . the circular extension. . linear prolongation, either uniform, recti- linear or curved. . angular declination, rectilinear or curved, straight or bent. . the angular declination, rectilinear, straight or bent. angular declination is physically finished, theory and analysis of ornament. and its plane figure is of the same form in all its parts. the oval declination is harmonically finished, and its plane figure is composed of circular extension and angular declination. chapter iii. m a fundamental dominant lines of plane surfaces. . extent, being essentially uniform in all its parts, is harmonically composed of two dimensions ; all fundamental forms of extent, and segments of them, participate, at all points, in its essential nature, and depend, in a general way, upon the two principal dimensions, length and breadth. these two dimensions determine the plan. seg. ments of the plan are simple plane surfaces, whose actual dimensions are determined. these segments are, generally, polygonal. if in a plane surface one dimension overrules the other, we get a third form of superficial extent, or label. the segments of a label possess a funda- mental character, viz., linear prolongation following the course of the line. this is a particular kind of plane surface, uniform in all its points, but where a dimension is reduced the other grows up slowly, and is the circular space for immediate contem- plation in all the successive points of the headline. in the label, the plane surface is indefinitely symmetrical from both parts of the point under consideration. we will imagine, by proportion to the dimension, which characterizes the label, that the space is not theory and analysis of ornament. uniformly divided, but goes on decreasing from one extremity of the line to the other until it ends in nothing, and we get here a fourth form of super- ficial extent, or angular declination. all segments of this extent possess angular plane figures. . spaces being theoretically undefined and of homogeneous composition, an architectural deter- mination is fixed for imagining the existence of harmonic segmentation in these spaces. each of these gives rise to particular and proper segments, which participate in its fundamental nature. . segments of the plan. the extent of the plan being sub-divided by harmonic lines, gives rise to polygonal, four-cornered segments, the dominant line being in the plane surface. . segments of the circle. the circular space being reduced, regularly or irregularly, in segments, by straight lines, polygons are produced. the dominant line is circular. . segments of the label. linear space being separated by straight lines, we obtain four-cornered segments. their dominant line is linear. . segments of angles. angular spaces pro- duce proper triangular segments. the dominant is angular. resuming the fundamental forms of extent, it is necessary to conceive the following correlations, viz. :—to rectangular space corresponds arranged repetition, or simultaneous order, correlative to the system of lines and network which bind the different points of extent. to circular space corresponds circular order, cor- relative to regular repetition of points round a centre. theory and analysis of ornament. to linear space, or label, corresponds uniform linear order, i.e., indefinitely symmetrical form on both sides of each point. to angular space, or angle, corresponds successive linear order, i.e., everything on one side and in the way of the line, or from one point to another. chapter iv. fundamental forms of plane surfaces. . combining the fundamental modes of genera- tion of plane surfaces with the diagrams, we obtain n oh oh oh fig. . fig. . linear prolongation, and declination of the simple or compound lines which form the plan of disposition, and numberless figures which are proportional to the following fundamental forms (figs. and ). . the circle. absolute unity or fundamental bases of forms are entirely centred in a head-point; its length varies with the ray of extension, fig. ( ). . the angular oval. starting from the circle, theory and analysis of ornament. we conceive the declined fluxion of a plane surface. following a head-line, coming from the head-point and finishing at the other extremity, following also the form of delineation, which can be rectilinear, sharp or swollen, we get the three principal forms of the angular oval ( ) ( ) ( ). these angular declinations form desinences for the plane surfaces. if we take a head arc, or a curved line, instead of a straight line, we get the fourth form of the angular oval, i.e., the curved or broken oval ( ). . the oval proper. if starting from a circle we conceive the declined fluxion of the plane sur- face, following a head straight line, coming from the head-point and harmonically finishing at the other extremity, i.e., forming at the extremity of the head-point, from whence it arises, a new circle, we get the oval properly so called ( ) ( ) ( ), which, at the joining of the angular oval possesses a higher character of unity, i.e., harmonized form the unity of angular ovals consists in an actual ending of the plane surface. the circular exten- sion of the extremities of the headline can pass, together or separately, by all the kinds of size. if the circle of desinence be small, the proper line is inclined towards the angular oval. if the headline be an arc or a curved line, we get the curved oval ( ). . the oval. starting from the circle, we con- ceive the oval fluxion as going symmetrically on each side of the head-point, following a diameter, we get the oval, fig. ( ) in its quartered form, and possessing a centre of figure, and two head-points f theory and analysis of ornament. in uneven i . which are symmetrical with it. if the circles of the extremities are reduced to a point, we get the angular oval ( ). . the hooked line. the straight line and the arc, being in uniform composition, are symmetrical or even. the curved line, being infinitely varied from one point to another of its course, is an uneven or un- symmetrical line. if, then, we conceive a circle at one of its extremities, and the declined fluxion of the plane surface following the course of the line, we shall be able to determine two distinct forms, fig. ( ) ( ). in ( ) the size of the space is declining from the starting point to the desinence; in ( ) the size of the space is declining from the point of desinence to the starting-point. if the circle of the extremi- ties were reduced to a point, we should get hooked lines, with a regular desinence. if the headline became rolling, declination would take place, ex- clusively, from the starting-point to the desinence. the ionic style is a remarkable example of this form. a rem chapter v. harmonical lines of the fundamental forms. . harmonical lines of a circle. the circle possesses two systems of harmonical lines, viz., the rectilinear rays coming from the centre, and the concentrical circumferences which limit the exten- sion of circular space. . harmonical lines of the oval. the har- theory and analysis of ornament. monical, co-ordinate lines of the oval are, the principal centre and a headline, i.e., the centre of extension and a prolonged line. if we wish to mark the lines of radiation, we will trace a tangent on a point of a headline, then the normal line which will cut the next oval, and, at this point, trace a new and normal line which will cut the third oval, and so on ; we shall thus get curved lines coming from the principal point, producing a palmated harmony. we have, then, the harmonical lines of the oval and circle; some of which are curved lines fig. . fig. . of changeable declination, and some concentrical lines which are handles of declination of curvity- also changeable-depending harmonically on the handle-envelope of the oval, fig. ( ) ( ). the form of the oval being essentially changeable, this harnionic sub-division is essentially a subject of tact and artistic feeling it is necessary to conceive that, starting from the circle subdivided harmonically, the head-point comes successively in all parts of the headline, carrying away with it all the lines of the primitive network which do not modify the general co-ordi- theory and analysis of ornament. nation of the form. the fluxion or the declination of the parts is not thus harmonically equal at what makes the essence of the oval, as a result of the uniform mechanical movement, fig. ( ) ( ). but if we choose the head linear line and propor- tion the oval, we notice that that oval is determined by the successive transfer of a circle of extent, changeable in all points of the headline. the harmonical lines are the head- line, or virtual, and some sym- metrical branches on each side of it. the harmonic lines are subordinate to the centre. the branches have their con- cavity turned towards the axis. the curvity of these nerves varies with the curvity of the fig. . outlines, the outline being recti. linear like the nerves. by this second sub-division, the plane surface (fig. ) is pennate with a propension at the palmation, i.e., at the occult convergence of the nerves on a secret point ( ) ( '). . the harmonic rays of the hooked line. the course of a hooked line being linear, it is necessary to conceive that the successive centres are multiplied and separated in proportion with the curved line, and with intervals which follow, in this variation, the laws governing the declination of the head curved line. here we get (fig. ) the headline and those embracing it, together with the nerves which cut them. the nerves on the side of the cavity, dive ch theory and analysis of ornament. and those on the side of the concavity have their curvity turned the same way. . we now pass from the consideration of the hooked lines to that of the forms and pennate sub-divisions which are correlative to the oval or fig. . angular declination. in oval declination, at the point of ovalation, stands a centre of palmation ; and following the curvity of the branches, two collateral series of curved and rectilinear rays follow in a fig. . slanting direction towards the occult convergence. in the angular and convex declination, the collateral nerves of oval declination follow the laws of declina- tion, except in the palmation of the summit. in convex declination the collateral nerves follow the laws of variation of nerves in the oval. in recti- linear declinations, the nerves are rectilinear or curvilinear, but parallel. theory and analysis of ornament. from this we see that transition, which joins the circle and label, is continued, passing by the oval to the angular and oval declinations. these three diagrams should be noticed :- . the radiated disposition which is subordinate to the head-point. . the pennate disposition which is subordinate to the head-line. . the palmated, which is subordinate with a headline and point, and, therefore, is in connection with the others mentioned. chapter vi. variation in the fundamental forms. . . all forms have two dimensions of extent. three minor cases arise from these two, viz. :- . the two dimensions are equal. . the longitudinal dimension is the greater. . the transversal and longitudinal are equal. the types corresponding to these three cases are the circle, the oval, and the ovate. the two dimen- sions in a circle are equal; the shape is concen. trated entirely in a point. in the ovate the dominant dimension is longitudinal, and it is by this dimension that the oval shape is susceptible of determined orientation, straight or overturned, i.e., equal to vertical order, or slanting in every degree, and then reduced to a determined disposition. in the oval, the dominant dimension is transversal, and equal to horizontal or symmetrical order. a circle faintly depressed on one side, forms an theory and analysis of ornament. oval whose determined dimension is longitudinal and the sense vertical. a circle depressed on two of its parallel sides, becomes an oval whose dominant dimension is transverse and the sense horizontal. an oval lengthened on one side only becomes an ovate. angular or oval declinations, straight or bent, are forms lengthened and measured by the circle, the oval or the ovate form. if the curved declination becomes rolling, the unity of shape would be a circle, containing a cen- tral pole or point around which turns the line, while the curved lines possess poles which exist linearly. leas fig. . the head-point of a circle implicates a number of axes or rays crossing the point and terminating at the outline. the two head-points of an ovate pos- sess the variations of the circle; the headline can be either straight, arched, bent, polygonal, or broken. the oval participates in both circle and ovate forms, suffering all their variations in their determined dimensions. in the diagram, the head- line can be rectilinear or curvilinear, uniform or varied, &c. . the variations, which belong particularly to the outline, remain stationary in the, properly called, theory and analysis of ornament. plane surface. there are two ways to draw, viz., by designing all the parts of the outline by hard lines, and by following the whole outline by an un- interrupted line. in the first, we show the accent without losing the integrity of shape ; and, in the second, we lengthen the continuity and neatness of the touch. an outline may implicate a plane surface, real or imaginary, implicit or explicit. when the plane surface is real, it is the outline which is implicit or explicit, and the modes of ornamentation, following these conditions, shall vary. chapter vii. polygonal plane surfaces. ro. . the essential character of polygonal plane surfaces is that they are segments of plane sur- faces, i.e., portions cut out of the superficial extent. the number of segments which form the outline is indefinite ; and the segments, multiplied indefinitely, pass insensibly from a rectilinear to a curvilinear outline. what strikes the sight are figures of touch, or described polygons, in the rectilinear outline. here it is necessary to notice segments of straight lines, which meet together end to end, forming equal and unequal angulations at every point. ac- cording to the number, length and inclination of these segments, together with their general co. theory and analysis of ornament. no three variable, angular desinences. the absolute form is the trigon, which has three equal angles and desinences. every triangle, whose domination is a circular halo, if not absolute or trigon, is an irregular form. in the case where this form would be symmetrical, or isosceles, the impression should not be less dissonant, the type of the isosceles being angular, raised or elliptical. this form is, essen- tially, regular; the trigon has its angles equal as well as its sides, it is a central figure, which has no absolute orientation ; it envelopes a regular straight line. the natural lines of a trigon are (fig. ) the heights ( ), the rays ( ), the apothegms ( ); the so- Ø a a a a fig. . figure ( ) is the inscribed trigon, and figure ( ) has all these particularities. . if we establish a correlation between the base and the height, it is that the height is determined by the two rampings of the triangle. every inclined line being relative, having two absolute directions, the horizontal and the vertical; and further, these two rampings and these two inclined lines being of equal inclination and length, give a view of the vertical, which is their normal, absolute line. between the isosceles triangles, the geometrical form is the rectangular isosceles triangle. if we trace a series of isosceles triangles, whose heights and lengths are rigorously determined, starting from a base equal to the number , and giving the theory and analysis of ornament. > orics heights successively , , , , : : : raised from that base, we should get the following list (fig. ):— base. height. sides. : : pythagoras' isosceles triangle. . rectangular isosceles triangle. . egyptian triangle. . . . applying to a few isosceles triangles of different forms the general method of the inscrip- tion of tangent-circles (fig. ), we will consider what constitutes harmony, beauty and unity in that triangle, among others. ( ). rectangular isosceles tri. angle-abrupt bilateral declination. ( ). trigon—abrupt and divided in three part declinations. ( ). declination greater in height. fig. . ( ) and ( ). declination more or less accentuated in height. ( ). declination in height quite decided, the declination on the base disappearing. ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ). bilateral declination more and more prolonged. ( ). declination exclusively ramping and pro- longed horizontally, all vertical declination dis- appearing. the artifice of the inscription of circles has the advantage of showing how a form more or less favourably follows its graduation or actual size. when we say that the horizontal or vertical has disappeared, we mean that they are more or less mo theory and analysis of ornament un . - eclipsed. the erasure is seen in the preceding figures, but we must understand that if the figures were greater, that which remains, after the in- scription of the circles, would be perceptible and should leave a shade of indecision which would render the image not clear. if the isosceles is ramping, or on the contrary raised in only one vertical declination, we have fig, . two types, and we get æsthetical determinations quite distinct and heterogeneal; for example-in architecture the pediment, and in the particulars of ornament, the obtuse or acute desinences. ii. four-cornered surfaces. . quadrilaterals are regular or irregular segments of the four fundamental shapes of ex- tent, the plan, label, circle and angle. if they are segments of the plan, the dominant is the plane theory and analysis of ornament. surface circumscribed by the quadrilateral figure; if they are segments of the label, the dominant is linear; if segments of a circle, the dominant is circular ; if the segments at the angle, the dominant is angular. quadrilaterals have four sides, equal, unequal or varied, and are submitted to a plan of construction or to a diagram of symmetry which gives rise to eight kinds of forms (fig ). . the irregular ( ), unsymmetrical quadrilateral, or those without an axis. m ooo fig. . . the irregular ( , ), unsymmetrical trape- ziums, or those having no axis. . the regular ( ) and symmetrical trapezium, having an axis. . the variable and symmetrical corners ( , ', '), according to angle, with an axis. . the parallelogram ( ), whose symmetry is diagonal, and with axes. . the quartered lozenges, whose symmetry is diagonal, with two axes. . the quartered rectangle, whose symmetry is diagonal, with two axes. . the square with the symmetry, four axes. the quadrilateral has its four sides unequal and theory and analysis of ornament. articulated under unequal angles; the parallelo- gram has its sides equal and , and parallelly arti- culated under equal angles and ; the middle form between the quadrilateral and the parallelogram being the trapezium, which has two parallel sides. the two particular forms of the trapezium are the rectangular trapezium, and the isosceles or symme- trical trapezium. the rectangle and lozenge are particular kinds of parallelograms: the sides of the lozenge are equal, so also are the angles to . the sides of the rectangle are unequal, but the angles are equal and straight. the absolute shade iu . mb habh b at fig. . of the movable lozenge is the square, which has its sides and angles equal. symmetrical lozenges have their middle shade between the quadrilateral and the lozenge, their composition being varied according to the angles; an acute angle, an obtuse angle, two obtuse or two acute angles opposite the shade of the corner, is midway between the irregular quadrilateral and the lozenge. the above examples show the narrow correlation which exists between the rectangle and the lozenge. the natural lines are the diagonals, which join the summits, and the medium which joins the middles of the opposite sides. theory and analysis of ornament. these lines are axes of symmetry. in fig. , ( ) ( ') form a lozenge or rectangle ; ( ) ( ') reunite the diagonals and mediums; ( ) ( ') show the inscribed figure; ( ) ( ') unite the inscribed figure and the diagonals; and ( ) ( ') unite or show all the peculiarities. the square participates of the rect- angle, and the lozenge is the absolute form between the quadrilaterals. . the dominant of the square is the circle. the dominants of the rectangles, lozenges and corners are even ovals, quartered for rectangles and lozenges, and even for the corners. the dominant is even for an open space, i.e., the oval implicates the rectangle, and the rectangle implicates o kodom fig. . the oval, or the oval dominant which determines the æsthetical appreciation of the rectangle. the oval and the rectangle each have two axes, an oval with undefined axes, and an uncertain form whose dominant is a circular space; but if the axes become plainer, the dominant becomes linear. in the two cases the forms are extreme, one condition being exaggerated to the detriment of the other, which suffers for the want of development. this co- existence of two different conditions determines the variety of ovals and rectangles. in the lozenges, angular desinences are most impressive; if these are prolonged, the oval also is prolonged, and is less theory and analysis of ornament. adapted to the form. the corners and ovate figures have varied forms; the abside and desinence can be varied in every point, as the figure is lengthened or otherwise. entagons. ns are iii. pentagons. . pentagons are of three kinds, regular, semi- regular and irregular (fig. ). the irregular pentagon has sides and angies unequal and no axis of symmetry. the semi-regular pentagon has lines and angles equal, and the figure is symmetrical in proportion to an axis. fig. . the regular pentagon ( ) is a centred figure, and has for its dominant a circle, or circular arcola. the mid-regular pentagon ( , ') is an even figure, and has for its dominant the lengthened ovate or elliptic; a regular pentagon has for its dominant a plane surface, the circle and the angular desinences. iv. hexagons. . the hexagon (fig. ) can be regular or absolute ( ); in this case it has six axes of symmetry, three angular and three transversal ; its dominant is the circle. the semi-regular hexagon has two forms ( ) and ( ); the first has its sides equal and three angular axes; the second has its angles equal and three transversal axes; their g theory and analysis of ornament. dominant is the circle. the quartered hexagon is of two forms, one rectangular, the other rhomboidal ( ) ( '); their axes are quartered, one angular, the other transversal; and their dominant is the oval. the diagonal hexagon has several axes, or a circle of symmetry ( ) ( '). the even hexagon has an axis of symmetry, and an ovate dominant ( ) ( ') ( ") ( '''). lastly, we have the irregular hexagon ( ). fig. . v. octagons. . the number eight can be separated into mul- tiples as, = x , or = x . we get six distinct octagons (fig. ). the regular octagon ( ) has eight axes of symmetry, four angular and four transversal, and has for its dominant the circle. the semi-regular octagon ( ) ( ) is of two forms, one having two angular and two transversal axes, the other four angular axes; its dominant is the circle. the quartered octagon is of two kinds, one having a transversal axis, the other an angular axis ( ) ( ); the dominant is oval. the even octagon is of two forms, one having a transversal axis ( '), the theory and analysis of ornament. other an angular axis ( ); the dominant is ovate. the diagonal octagon has a number of axes, or a circle of symmetry ( ). lastly, we have the irregular octagon ( ). . fig. . an . we could extend this analysis and employ it for polygons of a greater number of sides ; it will be sufficient to remark,- . that a polygon of an uneven number of sides has but three forms, viz., a regular and centred, which has as many axes as there are unities in the number of sides; a semi-regular or even form, which has an axis of sympathy, and whose dominant is an oval ; and the irregular or undetermined form (fig. ). fig. shows, successively, the semi-regular forms of the polygon of , , , , sides. . that the multiples of uneven numbers give rise to resolved forms, and out of these forms rise a submultiple of axes, some even, some irregular. . that every even or multiple fig. . number gives rise to a number of figures, theory and analysis of ornament. is the rudimentor, being the simplest of all figura- tion. these points determine a direction. four lines in a quadrilateral, bound by the out- ward distances, form a lozenge, or trapezium, &c., and the distances which bind the opposite points, or outward distances, are diagonals. five points are placed in a straight line, determining a real or imaginary figure, like a t-form trapezium, cross, or polygon, &c. a number of points dis- tributed in a straight line determine a real or imaginary figure. if the form is real, we get, fig. . successively all the varieties of polygonal figures. if the figure is imaginary, the different arrangements of points are specified by number and situation. it is what appears in a coat of arms. in the repetition of the figures it is necessary to consider number and situation. upon situation depends the particular arrangement (fig. ), because numbers can be arranged diversely. gene- rally, the arrangements of points are designed and specified : st, by a series which indicate number and situation; nd, by the usual figures, determined as the cross and the chevron ; rd, by the geometrical theory and analysis of ornament. figures, such as the straight line, triangle, hexagon &c. . a determined number of disseminated points give immediately a proportional or corre- dav dodo ooloo o oo fig. . lative number of distances. when the number of points increase, the number of distances which bind them increase most rapidly-so three points give three distances; four points six straight lines ; five points ten straight lines, and theory and analysis of ornament. so on. all these straight lines are sides and diagonals of polygonal figures. a distribution of points is symmetrical when the distances are equal, i.e., symmetrically placed; it is regular when the distances are equal, as cut by points equally distant one from the other. this regularity is given in the circular arrangements of the points, from which polygons are or can be formed. . three points, regularly separated, determine the trigon ; four points, the tetragon ; five, the pentagon; six, the hexagon; and so on, following the ordinary series of numbers. the trigon can occupy four distinct positions (fig. ) :- . based on one side. . stood on the point. . turned to the right. . turned to the left. it can also occupy several inclined positions, in all of which the triangle is sensibly deformed, the base or point prevailing according to position, and main- taining the integrity of the line. the lozenge gives rise to three distinct figures : stood on the point ; cross or lengthwise; and stayed on the side, when the figure is undecided and forms a parallelogram. the rectangle has two positions : the square stood on the side, or on the point; this latter represents a lozenge. the hexagon has two positions as well as the octa- gon: the first represents the parallelism of the lines and the rectangular directions; the second is only a centred figure, when it is necessary to count the number of sides for determining the polygon. the pentagon can be easily deformed in each of the ca theory and analysis of ornament. ca ssa four cases indicated (fig. ), but it is necessary to notice that the changing of position alters only the regularity of form, without giving it a new aspect. the pentagon and other polygons are figures of uneven number of sides, essentially centred. . the heptagon, nonagon, decagon, and polygons of a greater number of sides, are cen- tred figures, the natural sense of which is the regularity of the distribution of the sides in pro- portion to the centre, or following circular order. chapter ix. derived polygons. . the trigon has no derived figure, nor has the square more than two crossed diagonals. the eight principal polygons, viz., the pentagon, the hexagon, the heptagon, the octagon, the nonagon, the decagon, dodecagon and pentedecagon, have some starred derived polygons of different kinds, as : the pentagon, a continued starred figure (fig. ). the hexagon, a starred figure formed of two trigons regularly crossed or intersected (fig. ). the heptagon, two continued starred polygons (fig. ). the octagon, a star formed of two squares crossed, and of a continued star (fig. ). the nonagon, a star of three intersected trigons, two continued starred polygons (fig. ). the decagon, a star of two intersected pentagons theory and analysis of ornament. -a continued starred polygon—a star formed of two continued starred polygons intersected (fig. ). fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . therefore we get the following table :- theory and analysis of ornament. polygons. crossed polygons. continued polygons. starred and inter- sected polygons. hexagon pentagon octagon heptagon decagon nonagon from each figure are derived some stars having a number of submultiples and semi-regular polygons; thus, from the dodecagon are derived the following stars :- . from the intersection of three squares, a star with six obtuse points and a semi-regular polygon. . from the intersection of four trigons, a star with four points. . from a starred' dodecagon, a star with six points, with straight angles turning inward, and a star with four points. in general, if we take two points on a circum- ference divided into equal parts, and we join them by a straight line, and then draw a perpendicular line through the middle of that line, all the points of this perpendicular on both sides being joined with the points of division of the circumference, we design all the possible varieties of polygonal forms, between which are placed the figures mentioned before, these being connected with geometrical modes of genera- tion. inscribed or concentrical polygons. . all polygons can be mutually inscribed, whether they correspond by their lines of diagram, ca m theory and analysis of ornament. or whether they are derived one from the other by the regular junction of points taken on the outline. fig. . chapter x. derived polygonal plane surfaces. . parallelograms, lozenges, rectangles and tri- gons are decomposed into small elements of equal * w ku xxx exon* kur fig. . theory and analysis of ornament. forms. this decomposition is established by the sub-division of the sides in a like propor- tion. if the lozenge is trigon, it is decomposed like a trigon, into elements of the same form; the square rectangle and the square are decomposed into ele- ments of the same form. this subdivision shows that the figure is a combination of harmonical net- work. from the hexagon we obtain a trigonal network which is or can be decomposed into six . fig. . trigons and three trigonal lozenges. polygons, trigons, squares, the pentagon, hexagon, &c., have each their own proper net-work, constructed on a uniform type, the centred polygonal net-work. this net-work is determined by polygons inscribed paral. lelly one in the other, with uniform or varied inter- vals, and intersected by lines coming from the centre. these net-works may be considered as projections in the plan of pyramids, whose faces are cancelled conformably with the net-works of the infinite plan. theory and analysis of ornament. figure into corners, which have for an angle that in the centre of the polygon, and for opposite angles, successively, all the angles of the generator polygon and some starred polygons derived from them. we have, then, for each polygon a finished **** fig. . series of angles. if we conjugate two and two the angles between them or with the angle of the centre, we obtain lozenges and corners (fig. ). chapter xii. assembled polygons. . from the preceding examination we con- clude that, on the reverse, some polygonal figures are assembled, and hence determine some composed figures. two triangles or four triangles will deter- theory and analysis of ornament. mine a quadrilateral. from isosceles triangles can be described convex polygons, and from corners or lozenges can be described starred polygons. but for synthetic composition, a condition is absolutely necessary : it is that the figures have angles in such a way that, assembled round a particular point, their sum may be equal to four right angles, i.e., placed side by side they do not leave any space, on this condition we arrange round the same point fig. . a certain number of equal figures, when the angle of the figure is an exact fraction of four straight angles, or if those angles together form a sum equal to four right angles. we can place round a point six trigons, six or three trigonal lozenges, three hexagons. the paral- lelograms, the rectangles and the squares are arranged four together, round a point (figs. and ). "o theory and analysis of ornament. for the different figures the fundamental assem- blages are as follows:- fig. . fig. . st. hexagons and trigons (fig. ). nd. dodecagons and trigon (fig ). fig. . fig. . res rd. hexagon, squares and trigon (fig. ). th. dodecagon, hexagon and square (fig ). fig. . fig. . th. octagons and square (fig. ). th. lozenges and squares (fig. ). th. rectangles and squares (fig. ). th. lozenges and rectangles (fig. ). th. decagon and pentagons (fig. ). h theory and analysis of ornament. th. pentedecagon, and i decagon, and trigon (fig. ). fig. . fig. . a hexagon surrounded by six squares and six trigons gives a dodecagon. the reunion of the dodecagon with the trigon is equal to the assemblage of the four figures of the hexagon, the square, the trigon, and the trigonal lozenge. fig. , fig. . the sixth assemblage is changeable, according to the accent of the lozenge. the seventh is change- able, according to the proportion of the rectangle. the eighth is changeable, by the simultaneous variation of a lozenge or a rectangle. these eight assemblages can be repeated indefinitely upon the whole surface of the plan. the ninth assemblage is finished, and composed of a de- cagon with a crown of penta- fig. . gons. the tenth assemblage is theory and analysis of ornament innan . equally finished, and composed of only four figures, a pentedecagon, a decagon and two trigons. we can arrange around the same point a dode- cagon, a mid-regular octagon whose axes are trans- versal, and an isosceles triangle. (see fig. .) . the polygons derived by the prolongation fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . of the angles can be assembled, and give rise to combinations infinitely varied. we shall take, for example, some of the figures derived from the hexagon and from the octagon fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . for the hexagon we join two hexagons and two hexagonal stars (fig. ); hexagon, a star and dodecagon with three inward-turning angles (fig. ); hexagon, a hexagonal pearl and a rose with six hexagonal projections (fig ); hexagon, a rose with seven assembled hexagons, pearl with four assembled hexagons (fig. ). for the octagon, we join octagons with two rose io theory an van and analysis of ornament. inward-turning angles (fig. ); octagons and stars with four points (fig. ); octagon, the starred octagon of two squares, and the polygon with sides with four projections (fig ); starred octagon, octagons, and ultimately a square (fig. ). this assemblage, reduced to the star and to the two octagons, gives a final disposition, composed of the star and octagons, circularly distributed; but with the aid of the insertion of a square, the assem- blage becomes indefinite, and applicable all along the extent of the plan. chapter xiii. derivative polygonal declinations. . it is necessary to conceive the outlines of polygonal figures as formed by two means: the first, similar in its linear course, treats of lines which follow each other under any inclination; the second, resembling the diagram of disposition or circular order, considers the sides or angular folds as regu. larly divided around a point or centre. i. general construction of the polygonal delinea- tions. the irreducible and last elements of the polygonal delineations are the angles and the sides or segments of straight lines. those segments follow each other by making angles between them. the segments are change- able in linear sign and the angles are changeable in angular sign, &c. it is necessary to consider, separately, the angles and segments which fix the limits of these angles. all segments can be uniform theory and analysis of ornament. or varied, which would give rise to four modes of generation of polygonal declinations. . equal segments and equal angles. starting from a fixed segment, or from a fixed angle, then tracing or repeating successively the segment and the angle, we obtain, generally, two kinds of polygonal figures ;, regular convex polygons, or continued starred polygons. if, for example, it be the one in the octagon, we should get the fig. . convex octagon; if the angle is the one in the starred pentagon, we should get the starred pentagon. equal segments and varied angles. . if the uniform segments follow each other by reclining under angles, successively smaller and smaller or greater and greater, we obtain a declined polygonal outline, which inscribes or circumscribes a bent line (fig. ). the angles can be varied in fig. . every way, whether uniformly or by a regular declination, or by a varied way, the angles being equal two and two, &c., &c. . equal angles and varied segments. the segments regularly decreasing in size while they theory and analysis of ornamentan . octagon and hexagon (fig. ). starting from the octagon, if we abate two opposite folds, we get ( ); if we abate the four folds we get ( ); if, taking the middle points of the sides, we abate the eight angles, we get ( ) ; if we only abate and we get ( ). the figure ( ) is obtained from ( ) by the re-abatement of all the angles turning inwards ; ( ) is obtained from ( ) by the re-abatement of the angles two in two; and ( ) is obtained from ( ) by the re-abate- ment of all the angles. the figure ( ) is made from ( ) by the re-abatement inside the projecting fig. . angles; and ( ) is obtained from ( ) by the re- abatement of the straight angles turning inwards. starting from the hexagon, and taking the middle points of the sides, by abating the angles we get the figure ( ); abating them only two and two, we get ( ). separating the sides in three equal parts, and abating the angles, we get ( ), ( ), &c. from the dodecagon, and generally every other polygon, we obtain infinitely varied figures; but the detail would be too tedious, and not absolutely neces- sary. . if after having divided the sides of the figure into two parts, we prolong the outline in a straight line, we get a series of broken lines, theory and analysis of ornament. chapter ii. declined forms. . these forms are produced by the declined progression of a generating line following a headline. the generating and head lines are equal to the preceding, only the principle of declination inter- venes for the determination of the forms. so, taking a straight headline and a circular generating line, and guiding the progression by a straight inclination of the headline, we obtain a cone, whose volume declines from the opening of the angle to the summit. the progression taking place along a curve or arc, every other condition being the same, we get an ovoid form. if starting from a circular generating and from a spiral headline, and the pro- gression be declined instead of being uniform, we get instead of a cylindrical serpentine a conical serpentine. symmetry in these two classes of forms. . symmetry in solid forms refers to a point or a straight line, or one, two or three plans which are rectangularly cut. by the point, a number of plans pass arranged in every possible way. by the straight line pass an equal number of plans, but all these plans containing the straight line are directed in the same way. thus the sphere and the regular poly- pedrons have centres of symmetry; the cylinder, the cone, the prisms, the pyramids, &c., have centres of symmetry. the ovoids and the ovaloids have one, two or three plans of symmetry. from that and that which concerns the cylindri- co theory and analysis of ornament. as lowing arcs or curved lines; but if, instead of these simple lines, we employ varied declining lines, which should contain a number of funda- mental affections of the lines, we should obtain a number of varied forms, in general, such as the diapered forms, the essential parts of the vases parts of architecture, &c., &c. according to the relative situation of the head and generating lines, and the reciprocal nature of their form, we obtain the elements of certain forms essentially different. for example, taking for the head a straight line, for generating a circle, and for declining or profile a curved line, according as that curved line turns its concavity or convexity on the side of the headline, we obtain a conical, convex, or open form. in the torns we get these two sys- tems of curvity; in the ordinary cylinder all the sections, perpendicular or slanting to the headline, are curved lines. all the sections, on the contrary, which pass by the headline, or are parallel to it, are straight lines. from that we distinguish three kinds of curved surfaces :- . those which have all their curvities in the same way, starting from the same point, as the sphere, the oval, and generally the convex surfaces. . the curved surfaces which have their cur- vities always in the contrary way, as the torns, the serpentine, and generally the inflected sur- faces. . those surfaces simply rounded, or having curvity only in one way, as the cylindrical or conical surfaces. theory and analysis of ornament. car . the superficial extent has two dimensions and two co-ordinations; the corporeal extent has three dimensions and three co-ordinations. a dimension predominates, or is harmonically lost in giving the circle; again a dimension pre- dominates, the two others being lost or distinct, or the three dimensions are lost harmonically in the sphere. the fundamental forms of the linear extent are the plan, circle, label and angle; the fundamental forms of corporeal extent are the cube, sphere, and the prismatical parallelogram. the seg- ments of the fundamental forms of extent which are superficial are the triangle, the quadrilaterals, and polygons. the dominant of the plane surfaces are circular, quadrangular, linear and angular; the dominant of extent are cubical, spherical, prismatical or linear, polyhedrical or pyramidal. in general the regular polygons correspond to the regular prisms, the regular pyramids, and the spherical polyhedrons. the starred polygons correspond to the prisms and pyramids with sides, and to the starred polyhedrons which are produced from the ordinary polyhedrons by diagonal plans, as well as to the starred polygons which spring from the ordinary polygons by diagonal lines. the circle corresponds with the cylinder and the cone or the sphere. the outlines of the plane surfaces correspond with the surfaces of the solids. . all the preceding theoretical considerations belong to elementary and general geometry. . in the arts and handicrafts the surfaces and forms are diapered directly, and plainly, by model- ling or sculpture. the mode of manutention is theory and analysis of ornament. more or less definite, according as the form is more or less definite; but all the mechanical im- provements given to the tools, or engines, do not add anything to the notion of the form. it is not in the industrial improvement of the mode of elabora- tion that the development of the art of form lies; on the contrary, this improvement, which is quite in the economical sense, and organized for a rapid, abundant production, is really prejudicial, though it assists the power of invention and creation. theory and analysis of ornament. fifth section, regularity and symmetry. . a drawing, whether it be touch, delineation, figure-form or ornament, is simple, composed, complex or composite. a drawing is simple when we can separate it, still keeping a form, or when it is the starting points of compositions or arrangements, or when this form is always found in definite drawing. it is composed when we can distinguish distinct parts which assist in its formation, but so united that we cannot separate them without breaking the unity of form. it is complex when it is formed of different parts, and the bond which unites these different parts is apparent. it is composite when the parts determining it are of different sorts, and the part is prominent or dominant. . a form is regular or irregular. it is regu- lar when it is constructed in accordance with an apparent law, when we can distinguish regularity in the arrangement of the disjoined parts, and when we can conceive a barmonical bond in the arrange- ment of its different parts artificially separated or only distinguished by analysis. the idea of regularity has two distinct accepta- vil. theory and analysis of ornament. a tions, according to what they depend on. the harmonical bonds which unite the different parts of the disposition, and which consist in a regular declination, are:- . the position following the curved line. . the size of the parts. . the accentuation of form, which is of a special nature, and does not depend upon the idea of a developed law, for which could be substituted sensible and immediate form. a regular form can be symmetrical, declined, or varied, so that the ornamental regularity is separately or conjointly determined- . by the symmetry. . by the declination. . by the variation. chapter . symmetry. . a "form, whatever it may be, has its con- stituent parts referred to a diagram, also its geometrical plan of construction, or this form is repeated in proportion to a geometrical diagram of disposition. accordingly as the parts of a figure or disposition are assembled at a point, line or plan, the symmetry differs. the solid forms of uniform constitution have all their parts drawn up in a point, as in the poly- hedrons and spheres; in the straight line or axis, as the prisms, pyramids, cylinders and cones; in one or several plans, as the sphere, cube, ovoids, &c. let u theory and analysis of ornament. us now .examine the different cases of symmetry without separating them from the forms which con- tain them. . seeing the forms in their formal unity and in the integrity of their image, we are obliged to distinguish them, and to define them, in the follow- ing manner: a form is uneven, even, diagonal or quartered, revolved or radiated, ternary or senary. . uneven forms. a form is uneven when it has neither axis nor centre of symmetry. an uneven form is regular or irregular; the regularity con- sisting in a progressive and harmonical variation xto ao in .. x fig. . of what constitutes the essence of form : for ex- ample, a curved line is regular because there is a continued change and progressive modification in the curvity. an uneven form is simple or com- pound, being simple when its principle of unity holds entirely to its essential nature; thus a curved line is a simple form, because there is continuity in the declination of the curvity. an even greek parallel is complex, because the parts which compose it are different and form each a unity or simple form. to speak correctly, it is not a form but a disposition. . even forms. a form is even when it has an axis of symmetry which separates it into two equal theory and analysis of ornament. parts, and these correspond by turning. the arcs, handles, ovals, straight angulations, isosceles triangles, &c., are even forms, and the simplest of all. generally, symmetry separates the object into two parts, places in the middle the unique parts, besides those which are repeated, and which form a sort of equilibrium, giving order, liberty and beauty to the object. (fig. .) xx asxf . fig. . . diagonal forms. a diagonal form is con- structed by reference to a point : it has its halves placed in the inverted way in proportion to one of the straight lines, which pass by the centre or sym- metrical point. in general, a diagonal form is *** - -x fig. . determined by the doubling of an uneven or even form; it bas always a figure which repeats itself by invertion, fig. ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ). . quartered form. the two even and diagonal symmetries together determine the quartered sym- metry. a quartered form has two symmetrical axes which are crossing at the point of the sym- metrical centre. (fig. .) theory and analysis of ornament. there is a straight symmetry in cross and diagonal figures (symmetry at cross-wise). the straight, the cross-wise, the rectangle, lozenge, oval, &c., are forms as well quartered as are those of diagonal compositions. . quarternary form. a form is quarternary * ** * * * fig. . when it has four symmetrical axes crossing or radiating at a point. (fig. .) . ternary or senary form. a form is ternary or senary when it has three symmetrical axes which cross at a point or which radiate from this point in number three or six (fig. ). a senary form has for form-envelope a hexagon or a circle. a ternary form has for form-envelope a trigon or a circle. the quarternary, ternary, senary, quinary e * a * * fig. . forms, &c., are forms whose pieces are circularly turned down; so also is the quartered form, but this last implicates two axes rather than a centre and rays, in the case where the number of pieces is uneven, or the multiple of an uneven, and a centre and axes in the case where the number is even, or the multiple of an even number. . revolved form. a form is revolved when it theory and analysis of ornament. has all its parts circularly arranged round a real or imaginary point, and turned in the same way (fig. ). a revolved form is an uneven one if the number of pieces are uneven ; the imaginary point is then a centre of disposition, seeing that the figure has neither axis nor symmetrical centre. a revolved form is of diagonal symmetry if the number of pieces is equal or even, the centre of disposition being then a symmetrical centre by which passes a number of axes. generally, a diagonal form is one composed of two pieces. . radiated form. a form is radiated when the symmetrical axis is an indefinite number too fig. . great for counting. the simplest figure is the circle which has a number of axes. . every even, uneven, diagonal, or quartered form has a degree, the idea of the figure-envelope which contains it, and which can be an irregular figure, or more particularly the isosceles triangle, the quadrilateral, triangle, or the circle. every revolved and radiated form (i.e., every form circularly con- structed round a point) implicates a figure-envelope the image of a regular polygon, from the trigon to the circle. for seeing the question in all its gener- ality it is necessary to consider two very important points :- . the different positions which a determined form can occupy. . the reciprocal positions or conjugations of i theory and analysis of ornament. two identical or different positions of a determined forni. ns i. positions of the forms. . . radiated forms. a radiated form, hav. ing more than four axes of symmetry, and whose form-envolope is a polygon of more than eight sides, or a circle, is not susceptible of direction, and remains indifferent. . revolved forms. a form revolved of one piece is uneven ; a form revolved of two pieces is uneven and diagonal; a form revolved of three pieces, having for form-envelope a triangular outline, can occupy eight positions, as the triangle. a revolved form of four pieces, having for form-envelope a quadri. lateral, can occupy four positions. . quarternary and ternary forms. a quar- ternary form, which has four axes of symmetry, and for form-envelope an octagonal or circular outline, can occupy two positions. a quarternary form or senary form, which has three symmetrical axes, can occupy eight positions, as : an axis being horizontal, the points turned on the right or on the left; an axis being vertical, the point turning up or down; and an axis being oblique, in two positions, on the right or on the left, can get a point turned in one way or in the other. . quartered forms. a quartered form, or one with two axes, has two positions if the form- envelope is a square ; or four positions, one hori. zontal, the other vertical, and the other two oblique, if the form-envelope is a lozenge or a rectangle. . diagonal forms. a diagonal form, having a theory and analysis of ornament. . the reciprocal positions. the two forms being considered only for their directions, the conjugation two and two of these directions determines the reciprocal positions. . the reciprocal situations. a form occupying a determined place, the second form, which is con- jugated, occupies a different place, which is, with the first one, in a relative situation whatever it may be. it is the reciprocal position which determines the sort of conjugation, the number of directions or the kind of form determining the varieties of the conjugation pertaining to this form; and the reciprocal situation determines the figure or actual form of the conjugations; and more, they obtain varied images, according as the two forms may remain different, or separated by an interval, what- ever it may be, or are touching one another. st. uneren forms. taking for example the rolling, and putting together the different positions of this form, we obtain from them six sorts of definite conjugations :- . the uneven conjugation, where the two pieces have not any definable relation. . the revolved conjugation, uneven or unsym- metrical, but regular, because the points are cir- cularly corresponding together by proportion to an axis or curvilinear diameter. . the followed conjugation. two forms being repeated, the distances of the corresponding points are all equal and parallel between them, i.e., these distances are directed in the same way and follow- ing a linear head-line (fig. ). this conjugation is equal to its precedent; in one case the forms are theory and analysis of ornament. circularly followed, in the other, they are linearly followed. . the diagonal conjugation. two forms being diagonally repeated, or in situation reciprocally contrary, have all the distances of the correspond- ing points equal and are crossed in the middle by the same point which is the symmetrical centre (fig. ). . the conjugation in the wrong way. two forms being symmetrically repeated by proportion to an axis have all their corresponding points equally distant from this axis. the distances are all parallel and crossed in their middle by the symmetrical axis which is perpendicular to them (fig. ). . the contrary conjugation. two forms being aa a cata fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . repeated and contradicted, have their corresponding points equally distant, but those distances are not all directed in the same way; they are sometimes parallel, sometimes crossed in a changeable manner and in different places (fig. ). it is necessary to observe :- . that a followed conjugation is uneven, i.e., has neither axis nor symmetrical centre. . that a conjugation in the wrong way is even, i.e., has a symmetrical axis. . that a diagonal conjugation is diagonal, i.e., it has a symmetrical centre. theory and analysis of ornament. nin . that a contrary conjugation is uneven, but has a transversal axis or a diameter which separates the figures in two equal parts as quantity, and superposable by moving and turning. each of the conjugations is, for situation :- . separated (fig. ). . contiguous (fig. ). . crossed (fig. ). e g fig. . they can be defined simply and briefly by saying of a form that it is followed, even, diagonal, or contrary; and more, add that each of them is separated, contiguous, or crossed. cros oo oo or do fig. . to construct these different conjugations, it is necessary to place the initial form in proportion with the square touch. on sa ora fig. . nd. even forms. an even form has its axis vertical or horizontal; if the position of the axis is oblique, the form can be considered as uneven. the symmetrical axis can occupy some positions and directions which are changeable: we obtain, by theory and analysis of ornament. the reciprocal combination of those positions and directions and following the relative situation of the parts, the following conjugations :- . i. axes are parallel, straight or oblique. . directed in the same way (fig. ). . directed in the opposite way (fig. ). kran c ba fig. . fig. . wro ms the first follow in the wrong way if the forms are directly corresponding, a; the second follow and alternate if the forms are obliquely following one another, b, c. the first is an even form, the second an uneven form. the third conjugation, d, where the axes are turned in the contrary way, is always diagonal, whatever the relative situation may be. fig. . fig. . ii. axes are in prolongation. . directed in the same way (fig. ). . directed in the opposite way (fig. ). in the first case the conjugation is followed, and is an even form; in the second, it is the backward conjugation, and a quartered form. theory and analysis of ornament. a one with the other, the conjugation is then in the opposite way; and if the forms are crossing by the centre of the figure, we get a quarternary form. when the axes are oblique the one with the other, we get the symmetrical or opposite conjugation. th. revolved forms. revolved forms are uneven or diagonal. uneven revolved forms of more than five pieces are almost indifferent, and determine the followed and opposite conjugations. the revolved form of three pieces determines all the conjugations of the uneven form; the simplest, the opposite conjugation, being regularly crossed, determines a senary form th. ternary and senary forms. one of these forms which has less than four symmetrical axes, gives rise to the followed and reciprocal conjuga- tions. a ternary form, or one with three axes, which has a triangular form-envelope, must be con- sidered as even. a senary form which has a hexagonal or circular form-envelope, gives rise to two followed and opposite conjugations. th. radiated forms. a radiated form can only be submitted to the followed conjugation, or to the principle of repetition ; it is and remains indifferent in every situation, being exclusively constructed by reference to a centre. in general, and considering all the forms as having at least three axes, a radiated form of , , , .... pieces is even; a radiated form of , , . . . pieces is quartered; a radiated form of , ... pieces is quarternary; a radiated form of , . ... pieces is radiated. . theory and analysis of ornament. part #fx. order and disposition in ornament and forms. ud . generally, the differences in the modes of construction of the ornaments have importance only by their relation to the proper genius of mankind, and their neatness and logical or geome- trical strictness are not the measure of superiority of one style or another. this appears from the following brief comparison of three particular styles of ornamentation. . japanese ornamentation is disjoined without regular co-ordination. it is composed of forms taken from nature, arts, and society. all these forms, which have very accentuated profiles, are mixed in confusion. it is the habit of these people to give the forms of ornamentation neatness and precision, which are the modes of perception and consisting in the immediate determination of forms in plane surfaces and under a correlative graduation. . the ornamentation of the asiatic is regular and continued upon all surfaces. it is a multi- plied and luxuriant ornamentation, which is not strictly disorderly, but which yet is not quite orderly. on theory and analysis of ornament. . the ornamentation of the greek, or more generally the classical ornamentation, is essentially ordered and regular. this ornamentation is con- tained and distributed under the form of ranges, which follow the great lines of edifices. classification of dispositions. . forms and ornamentation regularly con- structed have all their varieties divided in two classes. first class : unlimited dispositions. . order. dispositions in series. . , multiplied dispositions. . , agglomerated dispositions. second class: limited dispositions. . order. figurative dispositions. . „ . co-ordinate dispositions. . „. constructed dispositions. s. k theory and analysis of ornament. tion has a period, or a changeable cut, with a number of forms (fig. ). nm fig. . four forms give a period of eight elements; one form being repeated four times, another twice, the other two occurring only once. this cut is com- uuu fig. . posed of two periods, which is equal to an alterna- tion of the two groups (fig. ). the disposition can be infinitely varied. thus the recurration fig. is varied by taking for fig. . one of the forms the symmetrical grouping, taken from the intercalation one composed of eight sections. the recurration fig. is composed fig. . of five elements, two of which are repeated three times, and one twice. in fig. we have three elements, one of them being repeated three times, and one twice. nan theory va . and analysis of ornamentfig. is composed of four elements; it can be considered as derived from a recurration of three elements, of which one would be repeated twice, and which would be cut in the intervals by the repetition of the fourth form. by combining two and two and by intercalation of two sorts of arrangements, we obtain a great variety of ranges (fig. ). uvodopu fig. . the combination of an alternation of two forms, with a repetition of a group of three forms, gives fig. . . the inevitable idea of number has a variable and relative importance to the mode of arrangement. in simple and uniform repetition the number is unlimited. in the alternation it is necessary to distinguish the parity and imparity, but only when the series is limited enough to be fig. . appreciated at once. alternation being correct, and finished, produces an uneven number of elements; it is then that a finished disposition is contained in the second class of dispositions. but if the series is sufficiently prolonged in order not to have to count the elements, the idea of number is nil. in inter- calation, if the group of one and the most important element is composed of a great number, the inter- theory vl amen . and analysis of ornamentcalary form should be insufficient; it would be repeated and the disposition be reduced to an alternation of groups. still, the idea of number is secondary, and the essential idea which intervenes in this case is the one of measure or quantity. the number, very far from being an active and direct principle of harmony, is, on the contrary, quite subordinated to the aesthetical con- ditions of this harmony. in the periodical repeti- tion it is necessary to maintain the whole period, only, if these were too many, the continuation or line becomes indefinite. in the recurration, which is a disposition relatively complicated, the necessity to maintain the symmetry is still more rigorous; it is in this disposition that the ideas of number expressly intervene, as well as symmetry, gradua- tion, size, quantity, and æsthetically the ideas of relief and colour, whose different particularities show the different accents of the whole dispositions. chapter ii. ranges. . the repetition and line of a form determine ranges, where it is necessary to recognize two parts, the headline and the composing forms. we dis- tinguish two kinds of forms: the linear forms or touches, and the superficial forms or plane figures. generally, considering the relative situation of forms, they can be separated, continued or crossed in the simple ranges, and articulated con- jointly, or separated, continued or crossed in the theory and analysis of ornament. composite ranges. these ranges are divided into two general classes : the marginal ranges, or those only upon one side of the headline, and the diame- trical ranges, whose parts co-exist on both sides of the headline. i. marginal ranges. . the marginal and lateral ranges have no axes of symmetry. they contain two varieties :- a cecce - oooooooooooo -- - - - --- - fig. , st. the uneven ranges, equal to the lateral order, or upon only one side, left or right. these ranges are determined by the followed repetition of an kkas m fig. . uneven form, and by the followed repetition of an oblique even form. they can oocupy four posi- tions, viz. two situations, above or below the head- line, and two directions, to the right or to the left (fig. ). nd. the even or straight ranges, equal to the m . van theory and analysis of ornament. vertical order, i.e., from top to bottom. these ranges are obtained by the followed repetition of a straight even form, and by the backward repetition of an oblique even form. these ranges can occupy two positions, the one on the top and the other under the headline, as in fig. . ii. diametrical ranges. . the diametrical, collateral ranges have symmetrical axes which are confounded with the head- line. they contain four varie- ties. ใด ป° st. contradicted ranges. these are determined by the contradicted repetition of an "eccococo a- uneven form, by the following n or alternate repetition of an gegerecr even form whose axis is hori. fig. . zontal, and by the constructed repetition of an oblique even form. these ranges can occupy four positions, which are reduced to two when the continuation is unlimited; the difference of one position from the one which is symmetrical, or backward, consisting only in the moving of the form, the two symmetrical positions would be confounded by the removing, lengthwise, of the interval of a form (fig. ). nd. diagonal ranges. these are obtained by the followed repetition of a diagonal form, a revolved, even or quartered form obliquely placed at its axis. these figures can occupy two posi- tions (fig. ). in theory and analysis of ornament. the alternate ranges can occupy only one position (fig. ). th. the opposite or straight ranges are- . even when the range is obtained by the following repetition of even form, or of a backward form whose symmetrical axes are confounded with the headline; these ranges can be directed on one side or the other. . quartered, when the range is obtained by the followed or reciprocal repetition of a quartered form. . centred, when the range is obtained by the followed repetition of a radiated form. the quar- tered or radiated ranges cannot occupy more than one position (fig. ). chapter iii. conjugations of ranges. . by combining the positions, or different directions of the ranges two and two, we obtain conjugations similar to those of the conjugations of isolated forms. generally the conjugation is ( ) followed, when the ranges are parallelly repeated ; ( ) returned, when the ranges are symmetrically repeated; ( ) diagonal, when the ranges are diagonally inverted; and ( ) contradicted, when the ranges are contra- dicted. the conjugations are, for the reciprocal situation, ( ) straight or directly corresponding; ( ) alter- nated, when forms of a range are corresponding to the intervals of the other; and for reciprocal correla- theory and analysis of ornament. nate, when the juxtaposition is produced by the retardment of a form, one of the labels being changed in the longitudinal way of an interval of form ; and it is half alternate when the juxtaposition is immediate, between the straight and alternate juxtaposition, the moving being reduced to the fraction of interval. သာသာ သ fig. . fig. . fig. . hence, and taking for example the linear and geometrical figuration, or composed arcs of a circle, we obtain six conjugations : a (fig. ), }} (fig. ), c (fig. ), d (fig. ), e (fig. ), and f (fig. ). the conjugation a is obtained by the lateral con- jugations of two even foliages; by alternate con- ccc ССС do fig. . fig. . jugation of two diagonal even ranges; by the straight conjugation of two diagonal even foliages; by the half alternate conjugation of two diagonal incomplete ranges; and by the straight conjugation of two uneven ranges with longitudinal turnings. the conjugation b is obtained by the conjugation of two ranges with lateral turning; by the conjuga- theory and analysis of ornament. tion of two uneven ranges with alternate juxta- position ; by the conjugation of two even ranges with straight juxtaposition; by the conjugation of two incomplete ranges with half-alternate juxta- position ; by even and half alternate ranges with straight juxtaposition; by diagonal conjugation of two straight uneven ranges and of two alternate even ranges ; and figs. , . by the conjugation, backward and longitudinal, of two uneven ranges, even and incomplete with alternate juxtaposition. the conjugation c is obtained by the lateral back- cccccccccc coco b fig. . fig. . ward conjugation of two half-alternate, even and alternate incomplete ranges; and by the diagonal conjugation of half alternate uneven and straight incomplete ranges. the conjugation d is obtained by the lateral and straight backward juxtaposition of incomplete ranges; by the diagonal and half alternate juxta- position of incomplete ranges; by diagonal and alternate juxtaposition of incompelte ranges; and theory and analysis of ornament. by the juxtaposition of a longitudinal and half alternate turning of u neven ranges. the conjugation e is obtained by straight juxta- position with a lateral turning of uneven ranges ; and by the straight juxtaposition with longitudinal turning of incomplete ranges. the conjugation f is obtained by juxtaposition with lateral and half-alternate turning of uneven ranges; by followed and half-alternate juxtaposi- tion of uneven, even and incomplete ranges; and by juxtaposition with longitudinal and half- alternate turning of even and incomplete ranges. uuuoo ff ffa privace cyff $ ŏo fig. . . diagonal ranges. two diagonal ranges de- termine the followed and backward conjugations, which can be straight, alternate and half alternate, distinct, contiguous or crossed. by conjugating the diagonal ranges obtained from a revolved or quartered form, we should obtain the same ranges, but particularly the backward conjugation; alternate or intersected, determines an alternate diametrical range. two diagonal ranges obtained from a simple diagonal form being conjugated backward and of half-alternate juxtaposition determine an even marginal range. . alternate ranges. the alternate ranges being l theory and analysis of ornament. mine conjugated, determine the followed and backward conjugations, whose correlation of position can be straight, half alternate, or alternate. the half alternate crossed conjugation is alternate diametri- cal, g (fig. ). the alternate followed conjuga- tion and the straight and backward conjugations are quartered diametrical, d. xxxxxx mm - لا لا لا fig. . . opposite or straight ranges. two even diame- trical ranges determine the followed and backward conjugations. the followed conjugation is even diametrical if the juxtaposition is straight; it is contradicted, diametrically, if the juxtaposition is alternate. the backward conjugation is diagonal diametrically, if the juxtaposition is straight, half alternate or alternate (fig. ). two quartered diametrical ranges, or centred theory and analysis of ornament. these two dispositions, simple and varied by inclination of forms on the headline, being doubled in the same way by superposition or intercalation, determine the following dispositions :- . straight superposed disposition. . alternate superposed disposition. ooooo oooo o o q q to fig. . fig. . ii. collateral dispositions. the two dispositions, up and down, being con- jugated backward, determine the four distichous ranges :- ဝဝ၃ ဂဝဝဝ်ဓဝ bobobbo fig. . fig. . . straight opposite disposition (fig. ). . straight face to face disposition (fig. ). . alternate opposite disposition (fig. ). . alternate face to face disposition (fig. ). these diagrams, simply figurative, have a real or imaginary axis. if the axis is real, its form can be varied; it is then a delineation. we have supposed theory and analysis of ornament. hitherto that the ranges are uniform and composed with only one form; it is necessary now to examine ဝဝဝဝှိုဝ၃ဝဝ όόόόόόόόό fig. . boooooooo ooo fig. . the different positions given by the conjugation of varied forms, i.e., composed of different forms. chapter iv. varied dispositions. le . the five fundamental rhythms, combined two and two, and referred to in the six preceding diagrams, determine ninety dispositions. to avoid dwelling too long on this paragraph, we shall limit our examination by the two following conditions : by taking for example only the different combinations and ranges having at most three different forms, and referring to the construction in only one diagram of the straight, opposite disposi- tion. we shall thus get the following arrange- nanien theory and . analysis of ornamenteven, period of disposition is of the same number ; if it is uneven, a period of disposition is of a double number. removal gives two varieties. (fig. .) o o o o o o o o o o fig. . . . alternation recurrence has a period of four elements if recurrence is of three forms, and a period of eight elements if recurrence is of four forms. transposition gives three varieties. (fig. .) o o o o o o o o o fig. . . intercalation period gives a period of three forms if the cuttings of the two composing ranges are of three forms. generally, if the periods are of the same number, they determine in disposition an oooooooooo fig. . equal period ; if there is discordance, the composed period is of , . ... &c., elements. by trans- posing the period, six forms are produced from the dispositions. (fig. .) theory and analysis of ornament. . intercalation recurrence produces a period of four elements if intercalation has a period of four elements; and a period of twelve if the period of intercalation is only of three elements. transposi- tion gives three varieties. (fig. .) o o o o o o o ooo soooo fig. . . period recurrence has a cutting of four ele- ments if the period is of four forms ; and a cutting of twelve elements if the period is of three forms. transposition gives three varieties. (fig. .) o o o o o o o o o o fig. . the dispositions repetition alternation, repetition recurrence, and alternation recurrence are the simplest and most regular. theory and analysis of ornament. second section. multiplied dispositions. all the possible diagrams of plane co-ordinated dis- positions have for their essential basis the theory of networks. chapter i. networks. . when points are disposed in a regular manner on the whole extent of a plan, they form immediately real or imaginary lines which bind them together in finished or indefinite lines, crossed, and regularly bound, and determining points regularly disposed. these points and lines determine net- works. moreover, the points determine distances, and these distances are straight lines, and together they determine polygonal spaces, which are seg- ments of the plan. for determining networks we start indifferently from the distribution of points, from the crossing of the straight lines, or from the repetition of polygons. the networks can be seen under a triple point of view : st, points ; nd, lines; rd, meshes. theory . ana ате and analysis of ornamenti. generation by points. . a series of points placed in line can be put near another similar series in two ways. the first, where the points are directly corresponding and . © ..-q.....- -.-.--- -- -- -e.. on.......... @-- -- - --o-o-o -- - -- - - - - - od ... - --@--- i b . - . - - .- b.-- -- -- fig. . fig. . following lines perpendicular to the headline; this is the straight repetition (fig. ). the second, where points change places on the right or left side and correspond to the intervals ; this is the -ot - - - : :-! q .. . - . .. * - - . fig. . fig. . alternate repetition (fig. ). distances can be smaller, or of the same size, or even greater than the intervals of points on the range. from the regular seed-bed of these points come horizontal, vertical or oblique lines (figs. , ); or four systems for theory and analysis of ornament. . parallelograms. the centres of figures deter- mine the same network; the diagonal lines deter- mine a network equally parallelogramic, but not of the same form (fig. ). . lozenges. the centres of figures determine harta fig. . figs. , . the same network ; the diagonal lines determine a rectangular network (fig. ). . rectangles. the centres of figures determine m fig. . the same network; the diagonal lines determine the lozenge network (fig. ). . square. the centres of figures determine the same network, and the diagonal line determines a squared network (fig. ). all these networks can be varied in every degree, namn theory and analysis of ornament following the uniform separations; and varied in every system, following the similitude or diversity of separations from one system to the other. class ii. senary networks. . all the networks of this class are determined by three systems of lines, the third crossing the two first ones in their intersecting points. the elenientary meshes are the scalens and the isosceles triangles and trigons. in all the networks of this class it is necessary to distinguish between the ecess ca * fig. . fig. . isosceles networks, whose mesh is isosceles, and the diagonal networks, whose mesh is trigonal. these first two classes of networks are reduced to three principal systems :- . trigonal network, with trigonal mesh (fig. ). . squared network, with squared mesh (fig. ). . isosceles and conjugated networks, with rhombical mesh, or lozenge with rectangular mesh (fig. ). class iii. disjoined network. . if we consider only the joining of polygons, e cons theory and analysis of ornament. we obtain, with the polygonal figures, at first the networks described above, and then the disjoined networks. efte fig. . . lozenges. assembled lozenges give, by fol- lowed juxtaposition, the ordinary network where the lozenges have all the same direction; by juxta- position backwards, the lozenges have two direc. iiiiii fig. . tions; by centred juxtaposition, the network has three directions, a varied network by combination of three first juxtapositions; and also the juxtaposi- tion determined by three lozenges assembled in point and in side (fig. ). . rectangles and squares. the rectangle and the square determine the followed and rough juxta- position (fig. ). theory and analysis of ornament. . trigon. the juxtaposition of trigons is fol- lowed and turned, and contains a particular case and varied groupings of the different networks of trigonal lozenge. if we do not pay attention to this condition of perfect juxtaposition we get other arrangements which depend on the relative position of figures. fig. . fig. . fig. . . lozenges. the lozenges placed alternately one way and the other determine the followed grouping, which is the same as the juxtaposition of a lozenge and a square (fig. ). fig. . fig. . fig. . . rectangles. two rectangles whose positions are contradicted give the combined network of a rectangle and a square assembled (fig. ). . square. the two positions of a square, placed on the point or side, determine the contradicted grouping (fig. ). the followed positions of theory and analysis of ornament. res the square, with removal, give a figuration equal to that of grouping two conjugated squares (fig. ). . hexagon. like the square, this form has the contradicted grouping and the followed grouping, which coincide with the juxtaposition of a trigon and a hexagon (figs. and ). . trigon. the figuration obtained equals the juxtaposition of the trigon with the hexagon, con- jugated, i.e., one being given, the other is not arbitrary (fig. ). fig. . fig. . fig. . . octagon. we obtain figures analagous to the preceding (figs. and ). all the forms of juxtaposition that we can refer to polygons are very simple. class iv. composed polygonal networks. . the condition of perfect juxtaposition, with only one polygon, is produced by a hexagon whose juxtaposition follows the position, disjoined for lines of network, and polygonal because the figure has more than four sides. the network of a hexagon and succeeding networks (figs. , , , , m a theory and an . analysis of ornament ) are constructed on the type of the trigonal net- work. the network of the square and such like (figs. , , , , ) are constructed from the type of square network. . hexagon (fig. ). : fig. . . hexagon and trigon (fig. ). fig. . theory and analysis of ornament. are continued, following the complete network of lozenge and square (fig. ). ii. lozenge, lozenge-rectangle. the example chosen contains a lozenge of four trigons, a lozenge of two trigons, and a rectangle of two squares. this disposition has two assembled groups of lozenges composed of nine tangent circles, or even groups of lozenges and hexagons (fig. ). fig. . fig. . iii. hexagon, square, trigon. this disposition results from a grouping of hexagons composed of seven circles (fig. ). iv. hexagon, trigon, rectangle. this disposition results from hexagons composed of nineteen circles. hexagons, trigons and squares could be composed of a number of circles (fig. ). v. hexagon, square, lozenge. this disposition is the result of a varied group. theory and analysis of ornament. ing composed of three circles in trigon and seven circles in a hexagon. fig. . fig. . vi. dodecagon and trigon. the agglomeration results from a complete grouping of hexagon, rectangle, trigon, or grouping of hexagons and two circles in line, &c. (fig. ). vii. dodecagon, hexagon, square. viii. dodecagon, hexagon, square, trigon. this agglomeration results from a complex and discontinued grouping of dodecagon and re o trigon (fig. ). as to the other polygonal networks, we can add equal circumferences fol- lowing the line of network or the sides of polygons; but such arrangements leave variable inter- fig. . theory and analysis of ornament. vals. following the figure the interval is smaller than the circle of grouping for the trigon, square, fig. . and pentagon ; equal for the hexagon ; and greater and greater for every other polygon, as heptagon, octagon, nonagon, &c., &c. (fig. ). chapter iji. repartitions. . the theoretical and general notions once established, the application to ornamentation soon results. this application is explained in the three following categories. . ornamentation by separated forms and placed with order, following the points of networks. these repartitions are varied according to the different rhythms of ranges, and determined by isolated op- position of forms in each of the head-points of the network. . ornamentation by rays or separated and directed ranges, following the harmonical lines of plan, which determine three systems of rays or ranges—the horizontal, vertical, and oblique or diagonal. theory and analysis of ornament. . ornamentation by squares and stripes crossed. these crossings are determined by combination two and two, three and three, four and four, of the different systems of stripes, horizontal, vertical, or oblique. the squares, ranges or rows, and separated forms being combined in every possible manner, determine maps of ornament which we call tapestry. . at first the points are placed at random and cover the surfaces; these surfaces are destitute of order and represent nature. each of them having fig. . been under man's manipulation, it is then exclu- sively decorative. stuffs or kinds of decoration in colour imitate them; they dispose or separate the seed-bed by being in contact with diagrams of disposition. the diagrams are of several kinds : here are the principal. . diagrams determined by square network, rectangles or lozenges. the points are placed following the points of network, or following the centres of meshes, every touch disappearing. . diagrams determined by networks disjoined, theory and analysis of ornament. ranges are alternations in the great network, and the diagonal ranges are repartitions. . following the trellis-work and the varieties of this network. the figure is a series of repar- .-.-.-.-. lv--..--- ...........................“ -.-o ..................... . o................ fig. . fig. . fig. . titions or ranges, the oblique ranges being uniform and the horizontal alternations. the figure is a figured or poised repartition, and it is com- posed of hexagonal repartition centred by trigonal ** o... .... ...... . ....... . -- -- - - ó... ... citi.... .. fig. . fig. . fig. . repartition. all the rows are intercalations two and one. the figure is a repartition figured and composed of a polygonal, trigonal, and hexagonal network, whose hexagons are centred by a trigonal network; the ranges are alternately repetitions theory and analysis of ornamentvale . and alternations. these three figures are analo- gous. ii. repartition of three forus. . . following the square network and varieties of this network. the figure is a ...o.. o . . . . • o o . ·. . . . . . • . . • . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . s.......... . •ỏ, vỏ • o.o • . o.o .o . . . o . - o . . . , . . . . . ......... o fig. . fig. . fig. . figured repartition whose rows are all alternations, or three alternations resulting from the combina- ... o . o. • • • ... ... o . o. o . • .o. • o.o.o . o o.o.o.o .o. .o .o . . . .o .o . . ... . o'. q.o.g.o.o. o • . . o ooooooooooo ooooooooooo ooooooooo • ooooo.oooooo oo • ooooooooooo . . . . . . ..•°•@. . . . . . . . .•°•.. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . @ .o . . ••• o ••••• . . .o.o . a .. .. .. ... • .. . ... . . . ... fig. . fig. . fig. . tions two and two of three forms. the figure is a figured repartition of which all rows are recur- rences. the figure is a figured repartition, all of whose straight rows are alternations. the inter- calary and alternate ranges are repetitions. the figure is a figured repartition which has all its theory and analysis of ornament nan . straight rows alternately one alternation and one intercalation, its diagonal rows being alternately one alternation and one repetition. the figure is a repartition by series or ranges, the vertical alter- nately repetitions and alternations, and the hori. . • • o ooo @ o ooooo a . o . o o. @ o o o o o . . 'o.o @oooo: ...oooooo • oo • . • o . . o ooooo oo . ooooooo . . . . . . . . . . . © ... o • oo • oo • " o o fig. . fig. . fig. . zontal recurrences. the figure is a reparti- tion by series. all the horizontal and vertical rows are recurrences, the diagonal ranges being .. o. o o . . . . .. ooo ooo oo. .. .. . oo.oooo.o . . oo.oo.. ..oo.ooo . • • • • io · ©.o.oo fig. . fig. . fig. . from left to right alternately alternations and re- petitions, and from right to left repetitions. . following the trellis network, and varieties of this network. the figure is a figured discon- tinued repartition, determined by the summits, the siliit theory and analysis of ornament, middle of the sides and the centre of the mesh. the figure is a figured repartition, trigonal; a form is placed at the summits, another at the centres, and the third at the triparted sub-division of sides. all the rows are intercalations. the figure is in series; all the rows are alternations or repetitions. this figure can be considered as ordered following a trigonal lozenge network; one form placed at the summits, another following the middle of the sides, and the third at the centres. . ? x! .-.. -- -- qa ó-e.... fig. . fig. . the figure is in series ; the horizontal rows and the oblique from left to right are recurrences; the other oblique rows are alternations and repeti- tions in alternate succession. the figure is figured ; all the rows are periods or a repartition following the summits of trigonal network, then alternately from trigon to adjacent trigon, and are the repetitions of the second and third form. the figure has its horizontal rows alternately alternations, repetitions and periods of three and one ; the oblique rows are alternately alternations and recurrences. theory and analysis of ornament. iii. repartition of four forms. . . following the square and correlative networks. the figure and the figure have intercalated a fourth form, following the centres ; all the diagonal rows, in , are recurrences. the figure is a mixed repartition with quartered symmetry ; all the straight rows are alternations. . following the trellis and correlative networks. the figure is analogous to the figure , all the rows being alternations. the figure is a figured . - - - -- - -- - - -- mb fig. . fig. . tows & repartition ; all the rows are alternately periods and varied seriations resulting from the intercalation of two series, one periodical, the other repeated. iv. repartitions of five forms. 'on e- . the figure is a figured repartition. the horizontal and vertical rows are following in order of recurrence, the rows being of three kinds : re- currence of three forms, repetition of one form, and alternation of two forms. the diagonal rows are alternately one recurrence of four forms, one alter- e pc rrence n theory and analysis of ornament. os-o... a. so nation of two forms, and one recurrence of three forms. these diagonal qa. . do .- rows are disposed, like the straight rows, in re- current succession. the figures , , , , are squares, whose abatements should determine other reparti- tions; thus, the figure fig. . is the square of the figure . os.. o--o? . - .... n. i. . - ...... ...... . ...q. . ... .. © .--.-.-.-.-.;; --- --- ở...cho ..... .... ..::: . . fig. fig. . fig. . o. o .::: . : : fig. . fig. . theory and analysis of ornament. third section. agglomerated dispositions. . this order of dispositions contains :- . hypothetical or real agglomeration of atoms, molecules or particles, which constitute the material in its different specifications. . composition of organized tissues or materials of organism, which constitute the tissues or bodies of the animal and vegetable world. . natural or artificial agglomerations, deter- mined by joining distinct elements, without any bond other than the external cause constituting them. from the indefinite agglomerations to the de- finite or figured dispositions there is a continued passage preserved by indefinite or uncertain groupings. hence the three terms: agglomera- tions which are indefinite; uncertain groupings; and definite dispositions. these last form a dis- tinct class, supplying itself by the principle of unity or individuality which separates and determines the individuals which compose it. this principle of unity is organization in the case of living beings, and composition or ästhetical elaboration in the case of artistic works. uncertain groupings are portions or limitations n theory and analysis of ornament. of indefinite agglomeration, and constitute a form-envelope independent of the inner arrange- ment. these limitations are analogous to material forms; and both are specified by the conditions of an inner symmetry and regularity correlative to the form-envelope. the form-enve. lopes being brought into contact with the abstract and geometrical forms essential to the uncertain groupings and definite dispositions, a tree can present a pyramidal configuration as well as a heap of sand or a constructed pyramid. theory and analysis of ornament. vern ovals and circles. they have a real or imaginary head-centre which governs the outline; and they have not angular summits. marginal or diametrical ranges, instead of being constructed by proportion of the straight headline, can be by circular headline, i.e., a circumference. continued marginal ranges go either way; straight marginal ranges have their axes directed externally, or from the centre of circumference. continued diametrical, even or alternate, diagonal or contra- dicted ranges go either way. straight, quartered, alternate or centred diametrical ranges have their rectilinear headline bent, following the circum- ference, and the axis perpendicular to this headline coinciding with rays. starting immediately from a circumference, we can virtually find , , ... ... middles; we can also suppose , , ... or more. the case of only one middle is a ring; two middles are directly opposite, and placed at the extre- mities of the diameter; four middles at extremities of two crossed diameters; six middles at the ex- tremities of three diameters or six rays, and so on. we can also divide the circumference in uneven numbers of middles, , , . . . &c.; only one or two different middles for the arc, two or four different ones for the oval, are the first division adapted, naturally and simply, to the constitutive symmetry of these figures. chapter iv. radiated dispositions. . . this class contains all the dispositions at theory and analysis of ornament. col corresponding on both sides by straight, opposite and alternate symmetry. these pennate forms are articulated under angles which are, generally, acute, and which determine a principle of general unity; if the angles were straight they would have a quartering centre which breaks the unity, because it introduces two horizontal and vertical axes where the vertical line prevails. one portion of even, straight, alternate, dia- metrical range can be considered as a pennate dis- position. there is not, however, the declination of size of compound forms; it is an essential declina- tion which gives unity to disposition by making it finished though it seemed indefinite. then, pennate disposition is determined by one headline, one form-envelope and the principle of declination, which has reference to size of forms, to their inclination, and to their form and their accentuation. chapter vi. palmated dispositions. . palmated dispositions have a point or head- centre and a headline which co-exist. the form- envelope changes with co-ordination of disposition, and with co-ordination of symmetry. it is necessary to distinguish palmated dispositions from angular desinences, and full inside palmated dispositions from inside desinences and full outside dispositions. palmated dispositions are even or uneven. in the first case the headline is an axis, the starting- theory and analysis of ornament. point a radiating centre, and the figure-envelope a symmetrical outline. the figure-envelope is, generally, a handle or oval. it is necessary to distinguish three principal varieties in this class of dispositions: ( ) digitate disposition, when all composing forms are of the same form, gener. ally rectilinear; declination is only relative to the respective size of forms. ( ) palmated disposi- tions, properly so called, where declination is in size, then inclination of accent and variation in form of integral parts. and ( ) palmated dispositions where composing forms are continued under a radiating centre; in this case the point of insertion is inside the figure-envelope, which is either poly- gonal or oval, or rather an open arc or handle. two other varieties are also contained in this order :- . uneven palmated dispositions, which have no rectilinear symmetrical axis, but an imaginary head- line, on both sides of which the forms follow the same or two different declinations. . spread disposition or acanthus, which has a symmetrical axis and imaginary centre, if it is the diagram of every acanthus of ornamentation. chapter vii. curved dispositions. . curved dispositions come from pennate and palmated dispositions; they are realized by articula- tion of forms following a curved headline. these theory and analysis of ornament. dispositions have neither symmetry nor centre. by supposing a real curved line, this headline subordinates the forms on either side, or both at the same time; and the declination being traced from starting-point to sunmit there are six principal dis- positions, as :- , . forms articulated in convexity of the head- line, and declined in one way or the other. , . forms articulated in concavity of the head. line, and declined in one way or the other. , . forms articulated on both sides of the head- line, and declined in one way or the other. according as the curve is rolled more or less, they have curved, long, hooked and round disposi- tions. ca- chapter viii. branched dispositions. . starting from declined polygonal delinea- tions, or from a single touch, and symmetrically repeating the successive branches, we get branched dispositions, very varied, simple or compound, following the mode of symmetry and uniform number of successive parts. to this class of dis- positions we can add the nerves of leaves or sub- division of composed leaves, plane figurations of trees, &c. the essential unity of this class of dis- positions consists in declination of size or number of integral parts, which are placed one on the other. this declined ramification has, however, an actual end, though we may conceive au indefinite sic- theory and analysis of ornament. cession. in a word, it is necessary to distinguish the physical from the theoretical termination. closed figures, like polygons, circles, ovals, have theoretical and physical limit. chapter ix. assembled dispositions. . the essential unity of these dispositions is in the diagram, forms generally being distinct and fig. . isolated one from the other. the unity of form surpasses the unity of grouping, and generally re- mains distinct. that, however, does not stop the articulation of parts, the one in proportion to the other, or altogether in proportion to a figurative diagram. groupings of leaves on the branches belong to this class. . combined by syncretism, combination, con- jugation, articulation, &c., these important definitions theory and analysis of ornament. fifth section. co-ordinated dispositions. . this order contains all dispositions refer- ring to the superficial extent of plane surfaces and superfices of solid definite forms. all plane surfaces with rectilinear outline, without radiating centre, such as rectangles, lozenges, squares, &c., are limited portions of multiplied dispositions. poly gons with circular dominant lines have outlines, radiating axes, inscribed and derived figures, with a proper centre, which governs all the system, the diagrams of polygons are analogous to the diagrams of circles; as : . centred network. . the trellis networks. in all these networks we can put the diagonal of meshes, which forms three sorts of rows:- . circular rows. . radiated rows. . spiral or diagonal rows. such are the essential foundations of disposition co-ordinated of circles and regular polygons. . generally, all the rounded and regularly- constructed forms have lines of curvity or repartition, which are joined to them. these lines of repartition are the same as those of the plan, but changed by theory and analysis of ornament. sare continuity or curvity inherent in the corporeal form. let us make use of these considerations with a few kinds of surfaces. . a cylinder is capable of development; its sur- face being the portion of a plan, its lines of reparti- tion must be of three kinds_vertical, horizontal, and oblique or diagonal. it results that the dis- positions in series on the cylinder are :- rows following straight lines rings following circles. spirals following spiral lines. . a cone is capable of being developed, and its surface is a portion of a circle; the lines of reparti- tion are convergent straight lines, circles, and spiral declined lines. the divided dispositions are the same as those of circles. . spheroidal surfaces. a sphere is not capable of being developed, but its curvity being uniformi, the lines of repartition determine uniform networks like those in the plan. the sphere, like polyhedrons, cannot be an aesthetical form. . inflected surfaces. the lines of partition are identical with the preceding; the only difference consists in those lines which are abstract imagina- tions, having opposite curvity. . all the indefinite dispositions of the first class have their analogies in every disposition that we can apply to forms or definite surfaces, as well as to plain networks ; we can distinguish in these repartitions crossing-points, lines and meshes, and the ornamentation of surfaces is the same as plain ornamentation. cal theory and analysis of ornament. sixth section. constructed dispositions. lat . the disposition of this order results from juxtaposition of definite solid elements, whether these may have a determined form referring to the grouping in which they occur or not; or, on the other hand, the co-ordinated disposition may result from the grouping of distinct elements. generally, the agglomerations, groupings and constructions of a number of objects or materials, brought in contact, determine definite disposition, according to one or several of the following conditions:- . the number of objects is limited. . the objects have definite forms, and are correlative one with the other. . a headline determines the grouping or organization. . the will and power of man, put in work, juxtaposes materials. the arrangement of foliages, branches, bouquets, garlands, wreaths, &c., is contained in this order of dispositions. theory and analysis of ornament. range (see fig. ) is obtained by alterna- tion of two quartered and even forms. range the same as . range by alternation of quartered and re. volved forms. . these ranges are the result of the repetition of close forms of the sixth class. by following the continued delineations, it is easy to see that the ranges are intersecances, deter- mined by the conjugation of the forms shown in fig. . denticulation (fig. ) is even marginal, wherefrom are two figures or positions. & &srs fig. . are uneven denticulations and , and , are uneven marginal, wherefrom are four positions. denticulations and are diametric alternate, wherefrom are two positions for each of them. denticulation is diametric diagonal, wherefrom are four positions. denticulation is diametrical contradicted, wherefrom, are four positions. from these figures, which combine two and two, and are intersected, we may determine a number of ranges, in which are contained the preceding examples. these denticulations are themselves determined by the conjugation and repetition of the small number of forms shown in fig. . theory and analysis of ornament. map (fig. ) is obtained by followed repeti- tion of a quartered form and the straight abate- ment of range (see p. , and fig. ). map by followed and turned abatement of range . map by followed and turned abatement of range . map by followed abatement of range . fig. . map (fig. ) is obtained by followed abate- ment of range or (fig. ). map by returned abatement of range . map by followed abatement of range . map by followed and turned abatement of range . fig. . map (fig. ) is obtained by followed abate- ment of range (fig. ). map by followed alternate abatement of range . map by followed alternate abatement of range . theory van . nan and analysis of ornamentmap by returned or alternate abatement of range . map (fig. ) is obtained by abatement of range (see fig. ). map by abatement of range . map by abatement of range . map by alternate abatement of range . fig. . the repartitions being conjugated two and two by intersecance, we should get, for example, fig. , obtained by intersecance of repartitions and fig. . ; or on the contrary, these repartitions could be divided into two, as no. , which is composed of two repartitions (figs. and ). the fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . figures and conjugated by intersecance, produce repartition no. . theory and analysis of ornamentnan . tions (fig. ); , the segment being even, simple or varied, and the lozenge being a square, we get the third form of imbrication, the one of four directions (fig. ); and , the segment being even or uneven, simple or varied, and the lozenge being trigon, we get the fourth form of imbrication, the one of three directions (fig. ). this form is analogous to the third one, and can be conceived as constructed by the successive and return abatement, in two directions of a revolved form inscribed in the square. the three forms of imbrication, with one, two, and three directions, are corresponding to the three moods of juxtaposition of lozenges. chapter iv. compartments and adjcstments. . all the denticulations, varied as they are, are reduced to three fundamental linear elements: uneven touches, even touches and diagonal touches, whose forms or figures can be very different. these touches succeed regularly in a straight line and follow the different moods of conjugation to determine the denticulations. the crossing of these denticulations, following the lines of net- works, determines trilateral or quadrilateral meshes, whose outlines are formed by fundamental touches. taking, for example, , of even form, an arc which would be the fourth part of a circumference, and inscribed, following the diagonal of a square ; , of theory and analysis of ornament. uneven form, a curved line inscribed in a rectangle ; , of a diagonal form, two arcs joined by inflection; then constructing the figures following the four quarters, determined by the axes which are cut at right angles, we obtain the following meshes :- i. mesues obtained from even form. . two rounded forms are conjugated, i.e., are implicated. the networks which result from them have thus two sorts of meshes; the last two forms are also conjugated. the third form, which is diagonal, determines a network with mesh of one kind. the fourth form, which is even, determines network with mesh of one kind. if the even form were oblong, i.e., inscribed in a rectangle, it would be an uneven form. ii. meshes obtained from uneven form. . the two first forms are of quartered sym- metry, and are both conjugated in one uniform net- o oooooo fig. . work (fig. , ) analogous to one of fig. , . the next two forms are even, and separately determine two varieties of imbrication with one direction; but they are also conjugated, and deter- mine conjointly a network or varied imbrication, with two kinds of meshes (fig. , ) analogous to the figure . the fifth form is diagonal, and determines a network with mesh of one kind. theory and analysis of ornament. iii. meshes obtained from diagonal form. . the figures obtained by the quartering of diagonal touch are only four. these figures are o ♡ ♡ fig. . round if the touch is inscribed in a square (fig. ), and oblong if the touch is inscribed in a rect- angle (fig. ). fig. . , l' is quartered; it determines the first form fig. . one adjustment or uniform network, composed of only one sort of mesh (fig. ). the second form , ' is even ; it determines two no. .-greek scroll with acanthus leaf. xocowo) me no. .-flemish renaissance panel. no. .-modern renaissance panel. no. .–flemish renaissance panel, va no. .- moderÁ english pantl. no. .-byzantine panel. no. .—modern english panel.. nypl research libraries c the philosophy of ornament: eight lectures on the history of decorative art, given at university college, liverpool. by w. gershom collingwood, m.a., late scholar of university college, oxford. george allen, sunnyside, orpington, kent. . . bibre ator nov . poby hazell, watson, and viney, printers, london and aylesbury. to kind hearers and kindest helpers : this book is dedicated. prefatory note. the following pages are nothing more than rewritten notes of popular lectures delivered to a mixed audience. · being such, they are not offered as in any measure supplying the place of exhaustive and authoritative cyclo- pædias of ornament; but as suggesting more comprehensive views and more philosophic principles than are ordinarily obtained in this department of study. it was hardly necessary, therefore, to refer by the way to the source of each scrap of information or illustration introduced. the south kensington handbooks have been freely used; especially those of sir g. birdwood, professor worsaae, and mr. pollen; together with such standard works as owen jones' “ grammar of ornament," racinet's “poly- prefatory note. chromatic ornament,” dr. birch’s “ancient pottery,” the writings of the messrs. audsley, and others; supplemented by original research both in and out of museums; especially in the liverpool mayer collection, to which, and to the kindness of its able and learned curator, mr. charles t. gatty, f.s.a., i am greatly indebted. the illustrations (except plate ii.) have been engraved by mr. w. h. hooper ; whom i have to thank for the great care and skill with which he has imitated my slight pen- drawings. the reindeer (plate i.) is an astonishingly accurate facsimile of a rough sketch from an illustration in one of professor geikie's books. but beyond all i am grateful for the teach- ing and encouragement of my best friend and kindest patron, professor ruskin; though the reader will not hold him responsible for the sayings and doings of his self-willed scholar. w. g. c. contents. page introduction. . . . . . xlll lecture i. the beginnings. . the art-instinct. - . a paläolithic masterpiece.- . four canons and a definition.— . barbaric style.— . conditioned by material and meaning. - . flint, wood, and bone.— . clay.- . basket- work and cordage.- . metal.- . all ornament adapted to represent objects of worship.- . resultant typical motives or devices.- . defi- nitions of art and decoration.– .-canons : i. adaptation.– . ii. significance.— . iii. con. ventionalization, true and false . . . . lecture ii. egypt and assyria. . religion and art.— . egyptian ornament.— . assyrian conventionalism.- . bells and pome- granates.— . other assyrian motives.- . symbo- lism.— . moral philosophy of style.— . egyp- tian symmetry.- . assyrian strength. . . viii contents. lecture iii. page asiatic ornament. . the great races.- . persian art history.- . persian style.— . arabesque and moresque.- . indian art-history.- . indo-aryan style.— . dravidian style.- . circumstances of art-production in the east.- . china and japan ; style.- . history lecture iv. greek. . artistic character.— . harmony.- . design.- . analysis of decorative composition.- . com- parison with music.— . period i. : archaic greek decoration.— . ii. severe.— . iii. florid.- . iv. decadent.– . pompeian.- . byzantine.- . spread of greek influence in the dark ages.- . continuity of art-history continuity of art history . . . . lecture v. gothic. . seed and soil.— . parallel progress of celts and teutons.— . the viking's lion.— . irish and norse interlacing.– . morals of northern art.- . anglo-saxon ornament, native and exotic. — . spread of northern motives throughout europe.— . gothic inheritance from rome; . architecture and sculpture.- . from byzantium ; design of drapery and foliage.- . from the east; decoration of textiles and pottery.- . contents. ix pagb monasticism and chivalry.- . four periods : i. romanesque.-- . ii. severe.— . iii. florid.- . iv. decadent.— . transition to renais- sance . . . . . . . . . lecture vi. the cinquecento renaissance. . the classic revival in italy.— . true character of sixteenth century art.- . vulgarity of aim.- . cheapness of production.- .-indelicacy of subject.- . scientific spirit.— . machiavel. lianism.- . effect on art of these moral characteristics.- . mediæval survivals and orien- tal importations.- . venice glass.- . mar- quetry and cabinet-making.– . majolica.- . silk.- . renaissance in france.- . in eng. land.- . in germany and flanders . . . lecture vii. the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. . apology for the age.— . its contrast with the preceding.— . its features ; court and fashion.- . general history in france and england. - . cabinet-making : marquetry, boule, and the ebenistes.- . chinamania and lacquer.— . ro- coco.- . baroque.— . dresden china.- . sèvres china.– . chelsea china.– . nymphs and shepherdesses.— . stuart styles.— . grinling gibbons.— . queen anne and georgian styles.- . the gothic revival . . . . . illustrations. to face page fig. . from a cyprus vase ; early greek. fig. . from a sculpture at mycenæ ; early greek. fig. . from a chinese plate ; turanian. fig. . from an italian carving : cinquecento. plate vi.-line-harmony. . . . . . fig. . hera's hair. fig. . “god save the queen.” (note. this cut misses my original intent to show dif. ferences of interval between the stave-lines; but is given here without more ado, as sufficiently suggestive, if not scientifically accurate.) plate vii.-celtic and teuton art. . . . fig. . british bronze mirror; "late celtic” triquetra and basket-pattern. fig. . gotlandic brooch ; teuton “ flamboyant” monsters. fig. . scandinavian “ heraldic ” lion. fig. . scandinavian debased figures and knotted monsters. fig. . king david, from an irish eighth-cen- tury ms. introduction. in biographies of the olden time it is often told how the hero, “impelled by an ardent thirst after information,” faced pain and peril, destitution or death, to find some fountain- head of knowledge. the student of to-day cannot complain of such a drought, cannot even comprehend it. so far from thirsting after knowledge, he lives under a perpetual shower of facts, over head and ears in a rising tide of information. we have good reason to be proud of our museums; but they are sadly bewildering. we are anxious to understand art; we gladly give spare hours of busy life to visit this collection and that; we buy catalogues, pry into glass cases; see things that we suppose xiv introduction. we ought to admire, and things we fear we ought not to dislike; and go home with tired heads and tired feet; feeling that a great many people have been very clever,—too clever for us to fathom their meaning, or follow their example. but a stranger could as soon learn london without the map, as we can under- stand art without some chart of its history and guide to its value. we have still better reason to be proud of our handbooks, especially the splendid series issued at south kensington. authoritative, entertaining, inexpensive, well illustrated, they are all that handbooks on special subjects can be. but suppose we buy them all, and read them all, and remember them all, we still want a simple scheme of successive periods to frame our scattered information into an orderly whole; some clear conception of the right and wrong in art, and of the reasons why. with such general outlines firmly laid down, every added detail will fall readily into its place. we shall be no longer bewildered on- lookers, but clear-headed philosophers: for what is the profoundest philosophy but the introduction. xv clearing up, the arrangement of informa- tion ? there is a right and wrong in decorative art: but it does not depend upon anybody's dogmatism. we say a thing is right because we know the reasons of it, and approve their necessity. we call a thing wrong because we see that its aims or its means are mistaken. we can judge a man only when we understand his circumstances, and we can judge a style of art only when we understand the circum- stances in which it was created. to be critics we must be sociologists; we must find the character of a nation, and in it we shall have its artistic aims; we must examine the practical needs and natural surroundings of its daily life, and then we can estimate the means it had for attaining its aims. a mere catalogue of results is not history; the mere description of a museum-full of specimens, with a nod to this and a frown at that, is not criticism ; and hinders rather than helps our clear conception of the progress and value of decorative art. to emphasize this principle at the outset xvi in'troduction. let me quote a most emphatic passage from professor ruskin's first and most valuable lecture at oxford. “now listen to me," he says, “if i have in these past details lost or burdened your attention : for this is what i have chiefly to say to you. the art of any country is the exponent of its social and political virtues. i will show you that it is so in some detail, in the second of my subsequent course of lectures; meantime accept this as one of the things, and the most important of all things, i can positively declare to you. the art, or general productive and formative energy, of any country, is an exact exponent of its ethical life.” it was to illustrate this principle in one special department that these lectures were given,-treating the subject tentatively and historically; for the sake of shortness avoiding dogmatic discussions, and not dwelling too long at any single point to interrupt the story of the universal, necessary, and continuous development of decorative art. ' the philosophy of ornament. lecture i. the beginnings. . the art-instinct.– . a palæolitbic masterpiece.- . four canons and a definition.- . other barbaric orna- ments.- . conditioned by material and meaning.– . flint, wood, and bone.— . clay.- . basketwork and cordage.- . metal.- . all early ornament adapted to represent objects of worship.- . resulting typical motives of ornament.- . the definition discussed. - . the canons : i. adaptation.- . ii. significance. - . iii. abstraction or conventionalization, true and false. . there is a pretty tale told in more than one poet's verses, how a greek girl of the Ægean, sitting in the firelight with her lover, caught a brand from the hearth to sketch his shadow on the wall; and how wise men, wondering at the inspiration, carried out the idea ; and that, they say, was the birth and beginning of art. the philosophy of ornament. but long before greece, or even egypt, was, art began in a ruder and humbler way,—began not once for all, but over and over again. for no sooner does man appear on this world's stage, than he sets to making something, and never finds his work finished until it is decorated; as if there were some dim desire in him to create as he too has been created; as if, made in the image of god, he must imitate his maker, who has made everything beautiful in its time. . curiously enough, we have examples still left of the actual beginnings of art; relics treasured up for us in the caves and mounds that are the only monuments of prehistoric peoples. one such (plate i.) is pictured in popular works on geology, coming to us from the south-west of france. there, in the date- less dawn of history, when the british lion and the cave-bear actually fought one another on this very soil we tread, a scattered savage folk lurked in the caves and hunted in the woods; hardly less untaught than the brutes they pursued. but those of france and england were a fine race compared with some the beginnings. of their contemporaries, compared even with some of modern days, with good crowns to their heads, and good chins, sturdy-shouldered and long-limbed. a family of this race kept house in a cave of the dordogne, living even a wilder life than imogen's brothers; they had flint knives and clubs to slaughter elks and elephants; they ate raw flesh, and drank warm blood. one day, the father (i suppose) of this palæolithic household brought home a fine reindeer for dinner; and having for his part smashed the big thigh-bone, and sucked the marrow, con- templatively sat at the cave's mouth, whittling with his chipped flint. he had made the broken end of the bone sharper, to stick into hogs or hyænas, and was trimming the lumpy end to suit his palm. “why,” said he, “i can make it quite pretty; this knob is like a reindeer's haunches; and”—with a chip or two _“there is the knee, bent as if it were going · to sit down; there are the horns, laid along its back, i can't carve their little branches; no matter, they would only prick my hand when i come to use the dagger. there is its throat, the philosophy of ornament. shaggy, stretched, and lowered ; its muzzle, snuffing the air; its eye, as big as a baby's. what do you call this thing i have made, children ?” “a reindeer!” . and so it was,--the very soul and spirit of a deer in the substance and for the service of a dagger; the whole nature of true and right decorative art being then and there discovered, at once ; and if not for ever, only because nature is so lavish of life that she sows it broadcast among thorns and on the wayside, and broadcast, too, on the good ground. think how many eggs never become chickens ; think how many brains there are to one idea in the world; and you will not be surprised if the same necessities and the same instincts have caused art to be invented over and over again. the wonder is that this reindeer is so perfect a type of rightness in ornament. our palæolithic predecessor knew he must preserve unspoiled the utility of the article on which he applied his art; adapting his ornament to its necessary construction and practical purpose : there is the first canon of decoration. he felt that, to be interesting, his handiwork must plate .-palÆolithic reindeer. [to face page . the cast grar the beginnings. suggest nature's, that it must mean some- thing,-a natural object, or what not: there is the second canon of decoration. he was forced by circumstances to limit his repre- sentation of nature to a simplified rendering of the structure and the gesture of the animal; he caught the expression of its neck and knees, disdaining the imitation of its fur and mere external detail: there is the third canon of decoration. and the result as a wbole is the expression of his pleasure in nature, and of interest in his work : and that is the definition of decorative art. here is this poor prehistoric savage evolv- ing the complete theory and practice of art. if not quite spontaneously, at least with the smallest imaginable amount of traditionary teaching. indeed, civilization rather hinders than helps the craftsman. the earliest ornament is as complete a subject for our analysis as the latest, and gives us all the definition we shall ever get of decorative art, and all the canons we shall ever need; namely, those of adaptation, having in view the material in which the philosophy of ornament. the artist works; significance, referring to the meaning he wishes to introduce; and abstraction, or “conventionalization” as it is called, estimating the amount of meaning he can put into his material. but it would be well to defer the discussion of them till we know a little more about barbaric ornament; and indeed we can never fully feel their force till we have seen how universally they control and test all decoration from then till now. . this reindeer-hilt is by no means our only relic of the early stone age. preserved in museums and pictured in manuals, we can see a long series of carvings in the round and on the flat, done by the earliest known races of men; pictures of beasts and birds, patterns of leaves and lines; most with a decorative intent, and all with an artistic interest. and in any collection, from savage lands of the present day, of costumes, ornaments, fetishes, idols, the same motives of decoration are continually re-appearing, perpetually redis- covered. for the primitive savages of to-day are in their own stone age, just as our predecessors were, ages ago. the beginnings. if to these we add the remains of historic nations in their prehistoric times, as the celts and teutons of the stone and bronze ages; elementary forms of egyptian, assyrian, and greek work; the rude beginnings of art in mexico and peru; we shall have a large field for the historical study of ornament in its first stage. from this we shall observe the consistent carrying-out of this law of apparently spontaneous development of art, in every race and at every age; each beginning at the beginning, at the same beginning ; and proceeding by slow degrees of natural development, aided by the teaching of previous styles and neighbouring nations; until, by regular and ascertainable roads, the highest goal is reached of greek or gothic master- pieces. . the rudiments of decorative art commiin to all races in their earliest stages are con- ditioned by the material in which their ornament was wrought, and by the meaning which it was intended to convey; resulting in definite typical motives of design, of which all later work is only an elaborated develop- the philosophy of ornament. ment. in philology we trace the continuous identity of a word from a remote root to the current conversational idiom; so in art-history we trace the continuous identity of a pattern from beginnings even earlier than any we know of language, down to their present form in the very carpet on which we tread, or on the very plate from which we ate yesterday's dinner. and all the while, we are studying, not barren facts, but the whole history of the world, the quintessence of its ideas, the story of humanity; and furnishing ourselves too with materials for a useful and fruitful criticism, not only of ornament, but of ethics. . first, of savage design as conditioned by material. the earliest material used in any manufacture is flint or other hard stone from which knives can be chipped: the rough work marking the early stone age, palæolithic; the neat and polished, the later or neolithic. to produce a spear or arrow-head, the flint was chipped to a leaf-shaped point, leaving a thick- ness, or ridge, like the rib of the leaf. by dexterous alternate strokes the rib, which a clumsier workman would make, not straight fig.i. from new zealand. fig. . from central america. plate ii.-barbaric ideals. [to face page . the beginnings. but vaguely crooked, is shaped into a regular zigzag, seen in an early flint implement from denmark. that is about the only ornament possible to so uncouth a material, before the invention of metal tools. with a flint knife, wood, bone, or hom can be carved, if not delicately, at least adequately for true decorative purposes, as we have seen in the reindeer-hilt. wood carving in the round is also practised by the rudest tribes; and, in the hands of the south sea islanders, reaches a high degree of perfection; it is but a step from the palæolithic style to the elaborate carvings of fijian canoes or the new zealand house at south kensington (plate ii., fig. ). in the flat, we find eskimo ivories scratched with figures resembling the palæolithic mam- moth-etching, illustrated in professor geikie's “ prehistoric europe." . then follows the invention of pottery. once given the idea of making a clay vessel, the mere passing of the hand round to smooth it leaves a ridged ring, which would suggest further ornamentation by scratching. ac- cordingly we find, on early british and savage the philosophy of ornament. jars, lines of scratches; a long one all round, and a little cross hatching here and there. that would suggest the imitation of a fish's skeleton, or bird's feather,—the herring-bone or feather-stitch pattern. from that to more complicated cross-hatching and zigzag is a simple step, and every possibility and combina- tion of such ideas can be seen on early and savage pottery, culminating in the elaborate but still barbaric ornament on cyprus vases. then a chance thrust of the operator's knuckles would leave a hole, the clay thrust out of it being heaped like a dyke-wall on - one side. rows of such dents and knobs are seen on ancient british pottery, and might have suggested the earliest idea of bosses and rings. to produce these, scraps and strips of clay were pressed on the damp surface, like strips of paste upon a jam tart; with that idea the way is open to some simple forms of oriental pottery, ornamented” with snaky patterns in clay strings laid on. and from that to some rude imitation of natural forms, plants, animals, and men, is but a step: thence to the artistically modelled and moulded the beginnings samian ware the progress is easy. finally, the notion of painting lines upon pottery is a late improvement upon scratching it; and the combination of the two leads to the highest efforts of greek fictile art. all such inven- tions as glazing and enamelling imply a knowledge and ingenuity proper to a later stage and considerable civilization. . basket-work and cordage, made in very rude times from such vegetable fibres as nature supplies to hand, offer endless play of pattern, from the mere necessities of plaiting (the earliest form of making cloth), netting, and weaving; and these patterns suggest further elaboration of incised ornament. indeed, it is supposed that the interlaced design of the later period of celtic and teutonic art is based ,on the baskets and plaids for which britain was famous, all europe over, under the roman empire. . metal w 'k is a later, but still barbaric, stage. at first. thin hammered plates of gold or bronze were engraved or incised, like early pottery; such occur among the finds of the bronze age in northern europe; and as far the philosophy of ornament. as mere technique goes, the assyrian bronze bowls, and even italian niello, are little more. next, the thin plate can be repoussé, or beaten from behind into knobs and figures, as in mexican amulets. then, with further aid of fire, melted droplets can be made to ornament the surface; that is etruscan work. with the invention of solder, wires can be affixed, which naturally lend themselves to circles and spirals, rather than to the style of ornament suited to engraving or repoussé ; this is illustrated in a little gold idol (pl. ii., fig. ) from central america, in the liverpool museum, where the features are outlined in wire on a flat surface; the arms are similar wires, curiously knotted to form the hands and fingers; and on the breast is a great spiral. lastly, in barbaric times, we have the fine gold thread of danish sword-hilts, wound and woven like so much cordage. . thus we see that the first possibilities of design were hinted by the materials in which the work had to be done. but these hints, even if accidentally obtained from such necessities, produced shapes which were at the beginnings. once recognized as resembling natural forms, and embodying a symbolism of early nature- worship. and thus barbaric design is con- ditioned by the meaning which it was felt to imply. · a savage, like a child, has a lively imagination; he sees in a rude zigzag the waves of the sea; in a circle, the sun; in a spiral, a snake. now all these were objects of worship to such people; and the man who could put the sun upon your jar, or a snake upon your bit of gold, was, if not a sacred person, at any rate a big “medicine-man.” so the art of early times was a priestly craft; its style, natural and free at first, as in egypt, became gradually rigid and hieratic; and ornament, as representing powers which all feared, was a mystic agency. even to-day there is many a one in christendom who looks upon the rudest sign of a cross as not only a memento of the saviour, but an actual sancti- fying power, or even protection from evil spirits, and evil men. it was even more so in these early times; and in the relics of the bronze age of the north, described by mr. worsaae and dr. the philosophy of ornament. hildebrand in their south kensington hand- books, you can trace the development of re- presentative into conventional symbolism ; into the plain ring for the moon; the ring and cross, representing its rays, for the sun; thence the wheel of the sun-car, a rude boat (like the golden bowl given to heracles by apollo), is the sun-ship, doubled and complicated into elaborate devices. three converging lines mean the mystic triad, and bent or hooked at the ends become the triquetra, a sacred emblem in many mythologies, and handed down to us in the three legs of the isle of man. a figure of s is the sun-snake, connected with several sets of early cults, and repre- senting the vivifying powers of nature. these combined into a line make a rope pattern, into a double line the plait; which, however readily derived from other necessities of manu- facture, are thus adapted and adopted into the service of mystic symbolism. the feather pattern, standing upright, is a tree—the tree of life,—the date-palm to the southerns stand- ing for the nourishing power of the earth ; to the northerns, the ash-tree of existence. the beginnings. and the zigzag, the sea's billows, toppling over into breakers on the shore, combines itself with the spiral ; hence the greek wave pattern, or kymation, found on their earliest monuments, no doubt with its symbolic signi- ficance, especially among a seafaring folk. this, done in straight lines for convenience of rude painting and incision, is at once the mæander or greek fret, which we know means a river, winding through the plain. other instances could be adduced to show how simple forms, necessitated by the material in which the earliest races of men wrought their manufactures, suggested resemblances which were at once invested with a meaning ; that meaning always significant of religious mysteries. . we have in result a limited number of typical motives, bases of all ornament. the feather or tree; the zigzag for water; the triangle and triquetra, for the early mystic number and triad of deities common to many religions. the circle, or set of concentric circles, variously and significantly combined with straight or hooked lines; the spiral or the philosophy of ornament. treats his child, his work, as mother nature treats her children, her work,—by adorning it. he treats mother nature as his own children treat him, by imitating her. decorative art is, then, the expression of the workman's interest, or pleasure, in nature and in his work. you cannot have a simpler or truer test. you are told by critics that a common machine- printed calico is not art. why? because it is not the expression of the workman's pleasure in his work, but an unwilling drudgery of degrading mechanical toil. they say such and such a design is not artistic. why? be- cause it is not the expression of the designer's interest in nature, but only a stupid cobweb spun out of a dull, thoughtless brain. on the other hand, an indian carpet, a persian plate, a greek coin, a gothic carving, these are decorative art, because they were made under the strongest feelings of pleasure in nature and in work; and they interest you because you discern, dimly or clearly, that human happiness, human heart's emotion, is stored up in them,-latent, so to speak, like lightning the beginnings. in a leyden jar; quiescent, hidden, but ready to be revealed to any other human heart that beats in sympathy with the artist. in this alone lies the value of art. the real worth of anything you have is not what it will bring, but what it costs to procure or replace. my old coat to me is worth a guinea (though it would fetch only half-a-crown if i sold it), for it would cost me a guinea to buy another. and the real value of a work of art is not its selling price at an auctioneer's, but depends on the thought, the truth of observation, the depth of emotion that was put into it by the artist, and that a sympathetic spectator can get out of it. that is why the ornament of barbaric or half-civilized tribes is better than the me- chanical manufactures of our enlightened land. for they put their soul into their work; we put only our capital into ours, and as little of that as possible. . but there is a good and bad in deco- rative art, and these can be judged by the three canons already suggested. these canons are just the simple statement of the intentions the philosophy of ornament. common to all good decorators in all great ages and nations. wherever these canons have been neglected, there results a fallacy or failure in the work, generally recognized, though not always understood. the first is the canon of adaptation : that ornament must not hinder, but rather help, the usefulness of the thing ornamented; must not conceal, but rather express, the construction of it; that, after all, it must only be the out- ward and visible sign of the worker's interest in his work, never the mask of his contempt for it. the most rudimentary instance of this canon is when the threads of the fabric or joints in the structure themselves so happily unite use and beauty as to need no added labour for decoration, nor added material for ornament,-for this is a distinction not uncom- monly made; ornament being misunderstood as a separate, applied thing, like removable jewels of a roman cup, or removable idols of a south-indian shrine. so far as these are separable from the main purpose, they show luxury and decadence in the makers, the beginnings. with want of unity and consequent want of harmony and repose either in the sentiment or style of the work. the name “ applied” art is, from these reasons, a little unsatis- factory: because it suggests that one person can make it, and another stick it on; that a little extra charge to the nation for art-schools will produce artists; and a little extra charge to the customer will induce these artists to add a little beauty to the vulgar manufactures of the drudging million. nothing is more fallacious than such an idea ; and we shall see that a great decorative school only exists where the workmen are artists, and the artists workmen ; where the adaptation of beauty to use is planned and performed by those who themselves create the useful articles. it seems almost absurd to mention that ornament must not be an extraneous ex- crescence, an encumbrance to the article it professes to adorn. but how often do we find a thing is “ too good to use," or overlaid with glitter and carving, pattern after pattern piled on like a caddis-worm's nest, until it is obviously useless, being made only for show. the philosophy of ornament. such things—and there are many in the shops -are not good decorative art; they offend against the first canon. early barbaric deco- ration, so far from this, in many cases no doubt was actually adopted to increase the utility; as the roughening of a sword or axe hilt by a relief-pattern, to offer a firmer hold. most satisfactory is that style and spirit of design which seizes upon salient points of construction, and heightens their interest by suitable decoration. the maker of the reindeer noticed the knob—the trochanter, i suppose—which he found on the bone, and felt that it was useful in the construction as well as necessary in the material: so he worked it into his design. the greek and gothic architects are pre- eminent at this adaptation, which looks like so much mere luck; but that luck is genius. what is it you notice most in a greek temple ? the pillars: what most in the pillars ? the capital: so on the capital they spend their design. what are the most obvious con- structive points in a gothic church ? the buttress, porch, and window: upon these, the beginnings. then, they lavish their ornament, expressing and adorning the construction to the best advantage. this leads to a minor law, that of economy. while every part may be beautiful, some parts must be su. there is no use in a quantity of delicate decoration where it cannot be seen; while the most prominent point, the place where your eye frequently rests, is worthy of most elaborate adornment. . the second canon is that of signi- ficance; and forbids the attempt to decorate with nonsense ornament-expressing no in- terest in nature, and more self-conceit in the workman than pleasure in his work. it says, ornament must have a meaning, must be significant of the worker's interest in nature; otherwise it will have no tale to tell, it will only serve to cover a space and hide the dirt. everything in the world has a duty, and that is, to do its best: ornament can do, ought to do, something better than just cover a space; and in fact all good ornament has a significance more or less distinct. what that significance is will be our the beginnings. representation of nature in late stages of society; and in early stages sacred symbolism of nature, to which is occasionally added symbolism of abstract ideas, like the “three legs” for the triad of divinities. and we shall find that the neglect of this canon occurs only in periods of corrupted society and art. . the third canon is that of abstraction, or simplification of natural beauty to suit it to the purposes of art. this is often called conventionalization : a word to which unfortu- nately a double meaning attaches, which renders it dangerous to use. the good and useful meaning, applicable to this canon, and to all decorative art, is this: if you make your ornament in all respects exactly like the natural object copied—reindeer for instance, or rose—you must sacrifice some of the utility of the article, some of the suitability (whether practical or sentimental) of the decoration to its purpose: therefore adapt beauty to use, not use to beauty. the reindeer's hide and horns are left un- finished: why? because a higher finish would add little beauty, and would subtract from the the beginnings. silk, the greek with his ccin, the gothic artist with his marble; and in all decoration imitate only those points in nature which you can imitate successfully under the circumstances. thirdly, it suits the use. not only would elaborated and successful imitations of real roses and birds be too costly for most people, but they would spoil plates for eating from, knives for handling, and so on; and that is against our first canon. false conventionalization is the contradic- tion of the second canon; it does not tell you to adapt beauty to use, but to adapt natural to ideal or academical notions of beauty; “ don't copy anything as you see it, but as you think it ought to be.” well, are your ideas likely to be best, or are nature's ? these preliminary notions will be illustrated in our review of the history of ornament, in which we shall see how universal and necessary a thing is art; how impossible to remove, to ignore; it is everywhere around us, like the air we breathe. those people who pretend to set utilitarianism against art, who set charity against culture, who cry for comfort, the philosophy of ornament. “and let us hear no nonsense about architec- ture;” those people are simply attempting the impossible. their own houses are crammed full of ornament, which would make them better if it were good; but being as it is, works an insidious mischief which they will find out all too late. we have, at last, some hopes of health in the house for our bodies; health in the house for our minds we shall never have without as much thought given to art as is given to sanitary reform. some art we are bound to have; why not see that it is worth having ? no one has ever succeeded in expelling it altogether, as plato expelled the poets, and perdita the gillyflowers. and indeed of decoration, neces- sitated and conditioned as it is by strictest laws of human life, it is most profoundly true that “ nature is made better by no mean, but nature makes that mean. ... this is an art which does mend nature,-change it, rather : but the art itself is nature.” lecture ii. egypt and assyria. . religion and art.— . egyptian ornament.— . assyrian “ conventionalism.”— . the knop and flower pattern. - . other assyrian motives.— . symbolism.— . ethics of style.— . egyptian symmetry.- . assyrian strength. . the ornament of all early ages, notably that of ancient egypt and assyria, was a sacred and mystic symbolism. its use was primarily for religious purposes, to adorn the tem- ples, the sacrifices, the priests. secondarily it was applied to domestic uses,—not for mere luxury's sake, as men grew richer and could afford fine houses and fine clothes ; but as a sign of the sanctification of daily life, by the introduction of divine symbols, protecting amulets and ever-present tokens of ever-present powers. just as in india a sacred name is given to a child, that the parents the philosophy of ornament. may utter a prayer whenever they utter their child's name; or in ancient greece and modern christendom, that the child might be under some god's protection, or influenced by some saint's example; so early ornaments were shrines set up in the house, or charms worn about the person, as a witness between god and man. further, the ornament was a beautiful thing, and, so derived, nobly beautiful; it raised emotion, and, with such associations, noble emotion. with us, art in the house means luxury, and too often suggests vice; with them it meant religion, and suggested virtue. every pattern to them was like a little oratory, or like those texts which people hang in their rooms and call them “silent com- forters." that such was the case universally in early civilization is proved by the sacred character of all motives of the european bronze age; by the hieratic adornment of egyptian mum- mies ; by the continual introduction of the figures of deities and other attributes in such assyrian art-work as we have left to us; by egypt and assyria. the “tree of life,” and many another inotive of asiatic design. we, who are accustomed to meaningless or vicious ornament, and who are unaccustomed to allow that these ancient heathens had either hopes of heaven or fear of heaven before their eyes, may find it hard to realize. but as we examine the decoration of egypt and assyria, we shall see that these peoples, in their prime, were seriously reli- gious, and both wittingly and unwittingly expressed their seriousness in their art. . the egyptians are remarkable for their want of strictly ornamental motives of pattern. they have abundance of decoration, but it consists chiefly in figures of deities, and in hieroglyphic writing, itself consummately or- namental, full of beauty and variety,-fuller of meaning. having this, they needed no further ideas from flowers or birds or geometrical arrangements, until in a later age they learnt the arts of other nations under the dominion of rome. in their architecture, however, the sacred lotus and papyrus are frequently introduced, severely and formally cut, not for the sake of the philosophy of ornament. conventionalization, but simply because their eye was satisfied with a simple rendering, and their hand must suit itself to the hard syenite in which they carved. in painting and textile work, spare spaces are filled with squares, the squares with suggested flowers, or monotonous lines of simple zigzag, varied by the merest hints at a leaf pattern. this sometimes rises to recurring lotus blossoms, arranged in the zigzag; alternate blossom and bud (pl. iii., fig. ); basis of the knop and flower (fig. ), bell and pomegranate, greek honeysuckle, and infinite variations of this simple theme which the assyrians developed and handed on to persia and greece. in egypt itself we find this pattern varied later by the introduction of grapes, bulls' heads, papyrus, date palm and fruit, but hardly attaining the ornamental richness suggested by the remains of assyria and babylonia; which with all their archaic stiffness were even then oriental, standing to early greece just as bagdad, their successor on the same site, stood to early europe; and the “goodly babylonish garment” of three thousand years ago was no doubt as picturesque egypt and assyria. and brilliant a fabric as any syrian shawl you can buy in the shops. the egyptians are powerful designers of figures, but their figures are all drawn to stringent rules, which prescribe proportion and position even more severely than the academic theorists of last century. this is not a mark of the infancy, but of the decrepitude, of a style, and means that the age in which we best know egypt, early as it was, was already an age of decadence. in fact, extremely ancient wooden statues have been found of surprising life-likeness in attitude and ex- pression; suggesting that the egyptians began with naturalism, like all other good artists, and only gradually fell into the timidity and thoughtlessness which shirks reference to nature,-into a prudish style, which fears to shock conventionalities of custom by the slightest betrayal of emotion or reference to life and action. . from egypt is derived the culture of assyria, babylonia, and ancient syria; through whom, or with whom, are influenced the phænicians, hittites, medians, and indians, the philosophy of ornament. . whose animal and flower patterns show the same degree and style of decorative treat- ment. the assyrians decorated, like the egyptians, with pictorial relief, whose aim was not to give the appearance, but the facts of nature ; not attempting deception, but offering informa- tion; not imitative, but symbolical. this way of work is nowadays called “conventional," and by a mistaken analogy from the mistaken principles of modern decorators, is supposed to be an intentional falsification of nature for the purposes of art; but to them it was neces- sary and natural, from the limitation of their material, and from the liveliness of a childlike imagination, which was easily satisfied with the rudest hint of life-likeness, so long as the meaning was made clear. for example, they had to carve on a hard stone wall a multitude of captives dragging a winged bull. the special artist of the illustrated news would draw in full a figure or two in the foreground, and by dexterous but entirely conventional loops and knobs over the heads of the front rank, would give you the crowd behind. .egyptian flowered zigzag. .egyptian lotus blossom and bud. .indian honeysuckle or lotus. .assyrian soma,flower and fruit. . assyrian "grove or palm and soma, . indian iris. co m vox vo . early cyprian lotus. . greek palmette and honeysuckle . renaissance shell egypt and assyria. but the assyrian wants you to know how many diffe:rent nationalities of captives are in that crowd; their costumes, characteristics ; how some work with a will, some are lazy, some faint, while the taskmasters ply their whips, and the overseers look on under the eye of king and court. so frankly sacrificing all attempt at landscape perspective, which he does not feel nor care for, he gives a dia- gram, or bird's-eye view, of the scene. we may call it conventional, but the intent of this treatment is quite different from that of a modern designer of impossible shapes, vaguely, if at all, suggesting natural objects. . the assyrian writing, though used like egyptian hieroglyphics where it may decorate surfaces, is less varied and picturesque. so they amplify the rudimentary patterns just described into more interesting and elaborate arrangements. the egyptian flowered zigzag may be the basis of that universal device known as the knop and flower (plate iii., fig. ). first we have the lotus and bud, palmette and date, leaf and cone, bell and pomegranate, much as in egypt (plate iii., the philosophy of ornament. fig. ). the palace of koyunjik is decorated with lotus buds and blossoms of almost egyptian severity. then connected with this arrangement comes the important device of the palm and soma tree, described at length by dr. birdwood in the south kensington handbook on the industrial arts of india. the soma is a leafless bindweed with fanlike flowers and conelike fruit, which supplied the intoxicating juice used before the vine was known, as the palm around which it twined afforded the date, the staff of life. the flower and cone have mystic meanings of their own like the thyrsus of bacchus, and the lotus in egyptian and indian art. the stem with its snaky convolutions has significance too: for serpent-worship is one of the oldest cults ; in phoenician monuments snakes are the attributes of moloch or death, as the lotus of life; even if snakes symbolize life they generally convey some malign underthought. the palm twined with the soma represent then the trees of eden; indeed there is a famous relief of sardanapalus' feast, where the snake himself twines in the tree of life, lilith- egypt and assyria. headed, eating the fruit in the garden, exactly as he appears in mediæval missals. in assyrian religion these trees form the “grove,” asherah, sacred to their great god asshur. the figure of them, and combinations of this figure into a pattern, are common in all their work : thence carried to media, -you read in herodotus of the golden tree of the persian kings, and adopted as a common motive of decoration. look at almost any persian rug: you will see it covered with a rude semblance of a tree, liker the seven- branched candlestick of the jewish tabernacle than any natural tree, or likest of all to a number of capital y's in apparently meaning- less confusion; but these are a dimly remem- bered tradition of the trees of eden. and the swinging wreaths of soma-stalks, festooned from branch to branch of the palm, and fringed with blossom and fruit, are adapted to that typical pattern known by the curved line joining alternate knop and flower beneath (fig. ). this pattern travelled farther east- ward: in persia and india it reappears, sometimes in a highly conventional, sometimes the philosophy of ornament. in a naturalistic form (figs. and ), and is found even on chinese pottery. it travelled westward : we see it on fragments dug up at cyprus (fig. ), and it develops in greece into the well-known palmette and honeysuckle (fig. ). thence to rome, recurring con- tinually in mediæval textiles, renaissance shell mouldings (fig. ), and recognised most unex- pectedly in rustic traditions of popular design, as the silver bells and cockle or pilgrim's scallop shells of the nursery myth. many such unnoticed vulgar motives of ornament originate in some sacred symbol of early ages; and the history of decorative art in this department might be made as curious and as interesting as the history of common words, or myths, or ideas, in the hands of philologists and sociologists. . what may have been the richness of decoration in the coloured tiles of babylon, of which we hear vague traditions, is beyond our knowledge; but from the fragments of pottery, ivories, and 'bronze vessels in the british museum, we gather that other common motives for continuous patterns are based on egypt and assyria. a more or less complicated cord, related to the greek wave-pattern (pl. v., fig. ), the northern line of “sun-snakes" (pl. vii., fig. ), perhaps parent of such later ideas as the collar of ss. also stars and rosettes, singly or in rows, frequently occur without great play of invention. a round bowl, for instance, has a star in the centre, round it a rope, a ring of rosettes, a ring of little figures, a ring of dots ; then the same over again, thrice repeated. there is also a simple wreath-moulding or laurel-leaf pattern, adopted like all the others by the greeks, who learnt from their prede- cessors, altering what they took but very slightly indeed; for the childhood of a nation prefigures its later development as definitely as a boy's tastes foreshadow the man's life-work. . in studying the philosophy of ornament we must clearly grasp and bear in mind the two different modes in which the human mind manifests itself in art. there is, first and simplest, the expression of definite intellectual ideas in symbolism, and secondly, the uncon- scious betrayal of national character in style. of symbolism enough has been said to show the philosophy of ornament. that all early art is meant to mean something, some mystery of life or nature or divinity at first; and later, some token of ownership or advertisement of use which we now should express in plain writing. beside that of egypt and assyria, much of the decorative art of japan, for example, is heraldic or allu- sive; a chrysanthemum is the badge of the emperor, a crane the emblem of longevity, and so on. gothic and renaissance artists, even when playing most carelessly with the motives of their purely decorative patterns, keep sight of the original meaning of these motives, attributes of saints, or heroes,—tudor rose, french lily, and all the “totems" or animal cognizances of noble families,—boars, bears, lions, salamanders, eagles, vipers, and the rest. ornament based on these motives has an interest unfelt in our wall papers and carpets, and a fitness and propriety which we can hardly realize, overwhelmed as we are with machine-made goods, and commonplace patterns indefinitely reproduced, adapted to everybody and everything in general, but to nobody and nothing in particular. egypt and assyria. . of style, as betraying national character, we find abundant evidences in egypt and assyria ; whose strongly-marked features, both mental and moral, afford a good field for the study. here, as in every case, we must be- ware of taking a symptom of national deca- dence for a point of national character; and our notions of the true spirit of these great nations in their prime must be drawn from what we can gather of their own literature and history, not from the warnings and threats uttered against them by the hebrew prophets, long after the real national greatness of egypt and assyria had passed away. we find that in their best time their culture was high, their moral ideas healthy, and their religious beliefs both lofty and sincere; equalled and expounded by their dignified and powerful decoration. the rudimentary motives of design, discussed in lecture i., are common to all the world, like the rudimentary conceptions they express. but different nations develop them differently according to varying national character and circumstances. out of the common elements of architecture the egyptians make a pyramid, the philosophy of ornament. the assyrians a “ tower of babel” in diminish- ing stories (the eastern pagoda), and the greeks their pillared portico; each race assimilating the special feature most suited to its wants and ideas. out of the common idea of the knop and flower, the egyptians make a stiff and solemn hieratic ornament, the assyrians a springy and sturdy moulding, the greeks an abstract, and the indians a natural pattern (plate iii.) it is all summed in the axiom, “ art is nature plus man;" for the varieties of style depend on the varying aspects of nature in different lands, together with the still more varying dispositions of different races. . reflective and solemn minds cannot help being impressed by the reflections of quiet water or echoes in quiet air. in music, the recurring insistance of a lullaby's refrain has a power that no melody or words could give; in painting, the repetition of a violent shape or tint calms down its violence into grandeur; and the silence of turner's twilights (mr. ruskin has observed) depends on doubled cuckoo-notes of colour, re-echoed over and over and over again. egypt and assyria. recurrence in art expresses repose; reflection or symmetry, solemnity. this idea was caught by the egyptians, and carried out to express their own feelings. just as some oppressed nations have created a plaintive music of their own, so the egyptian tone of mind, submissive and awed before unapproachable, implacable rulers of earth and heaven, finds its outcome in subdued and solemn symmetry, broad, massive, pensive, like trees at twilight reflected in a quiet pool. you see the artistic character of the egyptians in everything they touch. no figure so small but it conveys this solemn sense of something beyond the turmoil of daily life; no ornament so slight but it suggests a re- verential gloom, the reverse of greek gaiety or modern recklessness. and their ethical character you see from beliefs in stern divinities who bring the soul to judgment after death; from the hieratic nature of their art itself, regulated by rules, whose breach was not merely an error, but a sin; and from their sacred psalms, in which the recurring rhythm of the sonorous invocation, quite apart from the philosophy of ornament. any sense or meaning carried by the words or images used, beats down the wandering thoughts of the listener to silent and reve- rential awe. such fragments of egyptian liturgy as we possess reflect egyptian deco- rative art as exactly as sophocles reflects phidias, or rossetti's poems illustrate his pictures. . the assyrians were religious, but after a different sort; and their art, as art always must, expresses their character, whatever their creed may be. they were warriors and conquerors, leading an active and varied life, holding less rigid traditions and moral code. they felt, not so much the awfulness as the might of deity; their epics (like those of the greeks) tell of the battles of the gods, and achievements of the mighty hunter nimrod. and their art depicts the might of their kings; spearing the lion, for instance, not in violent motion as with the greeks, but in irresistible power, calm but energetic, with michael angelesque muscles, and attitudes of grandeur. egyptian solemnity was learnt by them, but informed with a strength of action egypt and assyria. which makes even their slightest ornament powerful, and yet not restless or spasmodic. from them the persians learnt their grand but lively designs; and from them the greeks learnt their first lessons, which, carried out among new surroundings of Ægean isles and parnassian peaks, culminate in the majesty of the parthenon and the deities of phidias. as we already may discern, the course of art-progress runs through history like a triple thread, with these three strands :-instinct, spontaneously generating the elements of design; imitation, obediently learning from the experience of predecessors; and style, unconsciously betraying national character in the combination of the two former. if instinct gives its strength to the cord, imitation secures continuity to its length; for though the imagination is always recreat- ing and remodelling the material of art in new forms, yet in this material there is nothing new under the sun. every pattern is the child of some earlier device; so that all the ages and stages of art are “ bound each to each by natural piety.” lecture iii. asiatic ornament. . the great races of asia.— . persian art-history.- . persian style.- . arabesque and moresque.- . indian art-history.- . aryan style.— . dravidian style.- . circumstances of the art-workman in india.- . china and japan, character and— . history. . by the examples given in the first lecture, it has been seen how, all the world over, what- ever the age, race, climate, or circumstances may be, the first rudimentary ideas of art arise out of similar wants and wishes, and develop into similar typical forms, ruled by three canons. by examples in the second lecture, further development is shown to be conditioned by the moral and intellectual character of each race. now we shall see still more striking examples of this; for we have in asia two great races, radically different in body and mind, aryan and turanian : the asiatic ornament. former akin to us celts and teutons, and to the greeks; the latter embracing turks and tartars, mongols and malayans, chinese and japanese. ethnologically, there are these two great styles of intellect and of art in asia. geographically, there are four great art-pro- ducing lands,-persia, purely aryan; india, mixed aryan and turanian, the first predomi- nating ; china, turanian with strong aryan influences; and japan, turanian nearly pure and simple. all other asiatic nations are either insignificant as producers or incomplete as types of artistic development. . persia has always claimed an individuality of its own: there, the aryan mind caught and carried out the lessons of egypt through assyria, at a very early age; imparting to primitive strength and solemnity an elegance which we aryans generally recognise as the beautiful. the love and appreciation of beauty, rather than grandeur or grotesque, can be traced, degenerating into mere display, in everything persian,-poetry, art, manners, religion, ancient and modern. and this is the special gift of the race; for while every the philosophy of ornament. true-born persian is an artist, the turks in persia do not share their talent. and in ancient times their various conquerors patronized, but only partially could imitate, their arts. very early they learnt valuable secrets of decorative manufacture, such as that of lustre- glaze for pottery, practised there until the end of the sixteenth century. and long before the making of fine porcelain was introduced from china (from the thirteenth to the six- teenth centuries a.d.), persian ware was refined and artistic. indeed, chinese influence did more harm than good to their design, whatever it did for technique; as you can see in many specimens in which true persian grace is deformed by an attempt to imitate chinese grotesque. in persia, though we can detect a transition (more striking when we have a completer historical series of remains) from severe to florid style; and yet the fixity of their dis- tinctive character is shown by the stucco stalactite ornament familiar in vaults and niches; and which has been found in the ruins asiatic ornament. of rhé or rhages, destroyed six hundred years ago; and carried abroad through the levant and arab and moorish lands, testifying always to the presence of persian artists. for the arabs were rather patrons than pupils of persia, and the mohammedan caliphs of the east, and conquerors of the west, employed persian workmen wherever they went. a colony of such went so far as spain, and called the name of their new home xeres, after the old one, shiraz: an even wider ex- tension in europe is hinted by a tradition which connects the hermitage vine of france with shiraz, as well as the sherry of spain; and “saracens " settled, not only in southern italy, but even in savoy. but the hispano-moresque and siculo-arabian arts, with all their imitations by european designers, must be assigned to persian in- fluence more or less direct. their artistic nature renders the persians unable for the most part to adopt the extreme tenets of mohammedanism, which forbid the making of images ; so that the nation as a whole is of the shi’ah sect: and even strict - - - - - - the philosophy of ornament. sunnis in persia relax so far as to draw figures -but they leave the faces blank. the great period of persian decoration was the reign of shah abbas, time of queen elizabeth ; since the conquest by the afghans last century it has declined, and is declining still farther and faster wherever european influence can introduce the machinery and competition so dear to british interests, and so destructive to art. . the character of persian ornament is beauty, and the balance between restraint and freedom, symmetry and picturesqueness. it aims at producing the richest possible effect with its means; at giving the flowing curves of the rose and its leaves, rather than the harsh angles of its stalks and thorns. but with the greatest possible grace it does not fall into languor, being rather bright than voluptuous; the lines springing, not falling. . the persians in old times were taught to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth; and saving the truth—these are their accomplishments now. and the spring of their line, the brightness of their colour, are asiatic ornament. just the artistic outcome of an active if not heroic life, under a bright sky in a land of flowers. flowers are generally their motives of ornament; naturally grouped as they grow, with the springing lines sympathetically given. or else the patterns derived from earlier art blossom out into flowers; mæander, egg and dart, knop and flower, wave-spiral or kymation, all brightened and blooming with floral detail, though keeping the orderli- ness and restraint of antiquity. the rope and plait, they use; and especially a starry cross, which often forms an outline to be filled up with elaborated design. writing with them is ornament, its free flowing curves making every letter almost a flower. a special and delightful manner of covering a large surface with varied and yet harmonious decoration is to break it up into spaces,—not straight panels, as in english perpendicular, but “arches on arches,” round or pointed; or a network of loops elliptical or irregular, and filled with little figure-subjects. from this style some ideas of the later mediæval the philosophy of ornament, church windows may have been derived, when they show loopsful of saints, surrounded by flowing foliage. . arabesque and moresque are adaptations of the persian; developing geometrical elements at the expense of natural. stricter iconoclasts, like arabs and moors, were bound by their religion to avoid, not only the “lust of the eye,” but any form of ornament whose associations might, consciously or unconsciously, carry them back to the old- world worship they had left. we have seen how all ornament was symbolical of some religious idea; therefore, to break with the old religion meant to break with the old art; except in certain cases, where through wisdom or weakness the new religion sought not to break with the old, but to emphasize its development out of it, in which case earlier art was retained and transformed. . of the four chief asiatic races, the indian is the least homogeneous, and yet, with all the complexity of its ethnology and politics, something of a uniform spirit pervades the whole peninsula, and marks off asiatic ornament. its art from that of other parts of the world; for it is not only the origin but the circumstances of art that determine it. dr. birdwood, from whose “ industrial arts of india” most of my information is drawn, says (p. ): “many separate elements have contributed toward the development of the decorative arts of india. there are the simple archaic forms of the aboriginal negroid tribes, who are now found only on the hills, or in the more inaccessible parts of the upland plains of central india; the wild fantastic forms of the indo-chinese tribes of the eastern himalaya and burmese frontier; the monstrous [ swami'] forms of the dravidian races of the dakhan ; and the primitive aryan beast and flower forms of hindustan, and revived aryan knop and flower pattern reintro- duced into india by its persianized afghan and mongol [turkoman] conquerors." putting aside the merely savage, as well as distinctly foreign influences, imported in historical times, and on historical occasions, we have the dravidian decoration of the south and the aryan of the north, both indian, and the philosophy of ornament. running into one another in central india. the aryan art came in no doubt with the aryan race; and as it seems to have done in other parts of the world, so probably here transformed the pre-existing turanian art, by the introduction of a more human and beau- tiful ideal. so that practically both persia and india start from the same point,-savage conceptions, enlarged by the teaching of egypt through assyria, and enlivened by aryan culture. alexander's conquest of the punjab, fourth century b.c., introduced ideas of greek art, eagerly caught by the imitative hindoos, to whom nothing in the way of copying seems difficult, and who can assimilate with ease greek, mohammedan, or british culture. remains of thoroughly græcized indian art have been discovered, throwing light upon the almost byzantine draperies of early buddhist figures, and the palmette ornament of late goldsmith's work,—for instance, on lucknow vases. then came periods of less archaic persian influence, leaving examples in early buddhist asiatic ornament. vases wrought before the christian era. in the eighth century a.d. hindostan was added to the mohammedan empire by the saracen caliph valid, eighty years before haroun-al- rashid of bagdad and of the “arabian nights.” again, during the whole eleventh century, the seljukian turks ruled hindostan as a part of their vast asiatic empire, reaching from the wall of china to the mediterranean. then at the end of the fourteenth century timur lang and the mongols (or moguls) overran the country; and at the close of the fifteenth century his descendant baber founded the empire of delhi, ruled afterwards by akbar and aurungzebe, and finally overthrown by the persians and afghans in the middle of the eighteenth century, and by the english at the end of it,—six successive invasions. all these conquerors—not to mention quieter immigrants—brought new ideas into india, kept up a continual stream of influence from without; but these ideas were only such as they themselves had acquired in their contact with persia or europe, so that during its whole history, aryan india has been only the philosophy of ornament. more thoroughly aryanized, and the lessons its art had already learnt from persia still more thoroughly enforced. in spite of the slow changes of oriental civilization, a development can be traced, parallel to that of persia, from archaism to severity, and thence to a florid style. vases of even the mogul period are almost classic in their graceful formation, while nothing is too florid for the more modern taste. . though so perpetually under persian influence, hindoo art has a character of its own. the indians are less interested in flowers, and more in figures, than the persians. their figures are often well drawn, and show an appreciation of the nude in relief-sculpture, though treated in a special style. the greeks delighted in a round surface, sinking gently and with picturesque varieties of steepness into the background. the lines of a greek design are at one time marked, at another lost, and the masses so undulating that you can never find a square inch of flat surface. early gothic sculpture delights in picturesque light and shade; the highlights are more asiatic ornament. relieved than in greek work, the darks more sharp and deep. but indian sculptors feel no necessity for the connection of the subject and background, nor much for gradation, or variety of light or modelling. the outline everywhere is equally relieved from the deep and dark ground, and the subject is flat, even though the relief be anything but low. so that, for want of a picturesqueness, such as euro- peans and persians in their flower-modelling feel and give, the clever design and charming motives of much indian sculpture do not show to the best advantage. the colour of indian work is hot and gaudy, compared with persian brilliancy; but there is a still more striking difference in their feeling for line. there is a spring about the persian design, a natural living growth, as in gothic leaf- cutting. the indians love a more languid line, beautiful in its way, but recalling sultry skies, and expressing a less energetic and vivacious race, a more submissive spirit. if you compare the borders of indian sculpture on the stairs of the british museum, as an acces- sible example, with such a specimen of their asiatic ornament. —a want of repose and breadth ; a predomi- nance of hard lines; a fretful insistence on recurring forms, generally the least graceful in the design, something akin to the hard strap work, straight framing, and cartouches of the renaissance. flowers are less fre- quent; their place is taken by geometrical, monotonously conventional, often rectangular patterns; and very rich but coarsely felt fluting is prominent. and in central india you see the junction of north and south ideas in the combination of pretty floral ornament with this southern fluting on the vases of hyderabad, figured in dr. birdwood's work. indo-chinese ornament is a third style: in nepaul you have it, with much of the grotesque inconsequence of true chinese. but rounding the bay of bengal into the malay peninsula, we find new circumstances and a new style,-bred, in a way, between india and china, but still different from either; a style of hugeness without power, of elaboration without interest, at once uncivilized and unpoetical : at least, that is the philosophy of ornament. the impression given by the specimens of carving and sketches of architecture from burmah and siam. . as in egypt and assyria, so in india, the original motives of decoration are sym- bolical of religious notions. as time went on, and as the old devices were imitated for new patrons, or by pupils who admired the beauty but did not fathom the meaning of early ornament, this intensity of poetical significance to a great extent died away. no doubt the indian artificer of to-day weaves many a carpet and chases many a brass vessel without being fully alive to the historical meaning of the patterns he depicts. still, the figures are images of gods or heroes; and most aowers and animals and other objects are sacred emblems of ideas or of divinities both in the brahminical and buddhist religions;—the shell, wheel, and mace, for example, of vishnu; the trident, thunderbolt, and bell of buddha; the lotus of both. this fact of the significance and propriety of eastern ornament is emphasized and illus- trated in the interesting work already quoted ; asiatic ornament. one other point of extreme importance to us is insisted on,—the artistic life of the indian decorative workman. each trade is, or was till within the last few years, a hereditary mystery, exercised in the security and freedom from all worry of competition insured by the almost parental patronage of the wealthy. the artificer lived, if not always in the house of his patron, yet in perpetual employ- ment by customers who appreciated his work, and whose maxim was not to buy in the cheapest market, but to pay any price for the best possible work. and so, freed from all anxiety but the anxiety to please his own taste and his patron's, living a healthy and happy life, among beautiful surroundings, respected if not rich, skilled in his own speciality, with the accumulated tradition of his forefathers,—the workman had all the advantages which the poor english artist lacks; whose life is a nightmare of hurry and worry and disappointment, separated from the bountiful beautiful nature who is his only instructor and comforter. now, however, the old order is passing away. the philosophy of ornament. competition and machinery are being intro- duced into india : and already result in the rapid deterioration in the design, the execu- tion, the very materials of her once magnificent manufactures. we cannot perhaps prevent this; but in our own efforts for decorative art in england we can learn a lesson or two from india of the olden time. we can, in the first place, learn to know a good thing when we see it. a little more thought given to art would give many of us a little more taste in art; and an appreciative public is the first need, more important than the founding of schools, or the subsidizing of manufactures. for if the rich who buy know what to demand, the poor producers will soon learn what to supply. again, we can learn to want little, but to want that little good. an indian house is not overcrowded with furniture, nor that furniture necessarily overcrowded with ornament. but whatever decoration there is, how slight soever, or sketchy in the execution, it is the work of thoughtful care and of a trained hand guided by a trained eye; for . aryan. .turanian. plate iv.-asiatic contrasts. [to face page . asiatic ornament. of their tone of mind from that of the aryans. not only do they dislike elegance, but they abhor symmetry. you will never find in turanian decoration anything approaching to classic balance and repetition; and this liberty and caprice has been one of the chief recom- mendations of japanese design to europeans, tired of renaissance formality, both in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. but you recollect what was 'the ethical meaning of symmetry,-how the egyptians being a solemnly-minded people designed symmetrical ornament. now the japanese are anything but a solemnly-minded people. they have their old state religion, and imported buddhism; but the real popular mythology of the country consists in the recognition of seven allegorical deities, the gods of longevity, of daily bread, of riches, of contentment, of learning, of military glory, and of love. and all those ridiculous old men and women, hideous but not awful, the butts of japanese designers, are no other than these seven deities. well ; europe will never .. the philosophy of ornament. be in a state of mind to assimilate japanese design, until the european public shall have stooped to laugh at a comic crucifix; which even nihilism cannot seriously desire. but irreverent as japanese design is, it is not, like our european, meaningless. the plants and animals upon which their patterns are based, all have some significance, heraldic, allegorical, or fabulous; and this significance gives an individuality, an interest, both to the artist and the spectator, which cannot attach to ornament that is merely meant to cover down a wall, or to prevent a sofa-cushion from “showing the dirt.” the fir, bamboo, and plum, for instance, signify longevity, like the crane ; fishes are the attributes of the god of daily bread. then there are monsters—by each hangs a tale ;—the dragon, the phonix, the unicorn, the hairy-tailed tortoise, and the tufted lion, whose head appears among the scrolls in plate v., fig. . this illustration is chinese, but typical enough ; for while the japanese have more wit and humour, more imagination, more shrewd observation of nature, the general description rar libr the asiatic ornament. of turanian motives applies to both; japan standing to china almost if not entirely as hindostan to persia. here is an interest- ing example of the power of evil express- ing itself in mere lines and colours, not in the subject, which represents only half- a-dozen of these little monsters, like mangy skye terriers, among a score of scrolls. but just as the tiniest egyptian scarab, spreading his poised wings, impresses you with a solemnity beyond the power of many a modern church; as a worn greek coin touches whatever notes there are in your heart, to respond to the nđusic of intellectual beauty; so these wormy, squirmy imps, blotched with coarse green, crude red, and the colours of corruption, reveal, in the mere drawing of their outline a diabolic potency of loathsomeness hard to be believed ; and but faintly echoed in the unctuous vulgarities of renaissance strap-work, and the franker brutalities of doré’s black-and-white, or black without the white. that such things are not felt to be evil and the outcome of an evil nature, argues a curious want of thought- the philosophy of ornament. fulness, if not, of sensibility, on the part of many who might be supposed to reflect and to feel. we hear often of the significance of musical sound: the significance of deco- rative line is even more striking to those who give it their attention. the general meaning of national or indi- vidual moral character, in its broader sense-- the sense in which it influences art, is not just the attempt to resist certain definite temptations to petty crime which present themselves to individuals in this or that society. it means an inbred quality of nature, noble or base, generous or mean. the ethical character of an age or nation is not in the keeping of a few individuals, though combined efforts may influence it; nor can one or two artists, however pure their lives or high their aim, express othér than the feelings of their age, or they cease to become artists, and are mere experimentalists or theorists. and what- ever be their private virtues or vices, michael angelo interprets the vice of renaissance rome wherever you find his line is coarse in its power ; and turner interprets england in asiatic ornament. nelson's age wherever his line is lovely in its caprice. and so in china and japan, the thing we must specially note and beware of is the absence of sensibility to seriousness and sweetness, which renders it unfit for our imitation or even our pleasure, in so far as we believe that seriousness and sweetness are qualities worth having in ethics or in ornament. with these limitations, we can enjoy to the full, if we like, the humour, the liveliness, the picturesqueness, the tenderness of colour where it exists, and shrewd observation of nature which we find in their design; and imitate to the best of our power the thorough- ness of their workmanship. . as elsewhere, by slow degrees only has their art risen to its excellence. the earliest known inhabitants of japan, akin to the present race of the ainos, made pottery resembling that of prehistoric europe, or savage america. the universal barbaric symbols of the sun, moon, snake, and other nature-powers which we have seen to be the basis of art all the world over, are preserved the philosophy of ornament. in japan as ancient heraldic charges and staple motives of ornament. thus the crest of the prince of satsuma is nothing else than the sun-cross, of kuwana the moon-ring, of asiu the straight swastika, common to all barbaric cults, and remarkable especially in india and scandinavia. japanese history is said to begin b.c., but it was not till our era that the antecedent culture of china was introduced by way of corea, the bridge between asia and japan. then, in a.d. , the japanese empress jingô invaded corea, and thenceforward a more or less continuous stream of influence seems to have set in from the mainland. later on, the japanese learnt directly from china, glazed pottery being introduced only in , and porcelain in ; while in the following century the dutch traders introduced or encouraged imi- tation of chinese and aryan design. old hizen ware, figured by messrs. audsley and bowes, exhibits a thoroughly persian tulip design: and all the stock patterns of greek ornament are found, in one shape or other, on japanese pottery. they may have been asiatic ornament. independently invented, but both probability and possibility suggest their importation from the west, and their adoption by this pre- eminently imitative nation. the chinese, though earlier civilized than the japanese, cannot date their history before the fifth century b.c., the era of confucius; and the art of printing, and with it, i suppose, much of their ancient culture, does not reach further back than the third century b.c. we find such western motives of ornament as the knop and flower pattern in china, which point to intercourse with earlier civilization. if not before, such an opportunity was given when the moguls united china to their great empire. by that time chinese art was sufficiently advanced to teach many improvements of technique to persia. but ancient as the art of china is, it is only the child of egyptian and assyrian design. and as a whole, the most valuable art work of the east seems to have been subsequent to and derived in great measure from egypt and assyria, byzantium and italy, in contradiction to the old adage that civilization travels westward. lecture iv. greek. . artistic character.— . harmony.- . design.- . ana- . lysis of decorative composition.- . comparison with music.- . periods : i. archaic greek decoration.- . ii. severe and central.- . iii. florid.- . iv. decadent.-- . pompeian.– . byzantine.- . spread of byzantine influence in the dark ages.- . con- tinuity of art history. . the greeks were not great decorators. to be a decorator, you must linger lovingly over the touching and retouching of completed work, and the greeks had far too much work in hand for that; to be a decorator you must love ivy-wreaths and galaxies of daisies more than the “human face divine,” and creeping and flying things more than the “ quicquid agunt homines” of human nature. but the strength of the greeks lay in a keen eye for commerce, a strong hand for statesmanship, neat dis- criminations of character in their drama, or of the philosophy of ornament. manliness at the expense of godliness. this is the greek ideal, unattained, unsought indeed, by any other race; this is the greek culture of their gymnasia by which their youth was trained to “grace-and-goodness," the fair mind in the fair body which our notion of “gentlemanliness ” but inadequately renders. harmony, their moral characteristic, shows itself in their philosophy, in its attempt after well-balanced and rounded systems; in their literature, in the perfect proportions of their plays, the crystalline “form” of lyric and elegiac verse, the antithesis and plot of their rhetoric. it would indeed be surprising if their art did not exhibit this quality, even beyond the life and power which it learned from assyria, and the solidity and solemnity of egypt. as it is, the one great lesson which all the world must learn from greece, and from greece alone, is not truth, is not beauty, is not colour, is not chiaroscuro, is not "chic," is not finish- all these can be better learned elsewhere; the one thing the greeks teach in their decorative greek. necessarily classic high art; but to design with classic feeling, whether locks of hair, folds of drapery, trees in the valley, clouds on the hill, daisies in the meadow, pebbles by the brook, to compose their lines and masses in such perfect harmony as a greek artist of the great time would instinctively have done, —that is the true high art, the only art indeed much worth having. for portraiture may possibly vanish before improved photography, history painting be found useless and vain, symbolism and allegory be no longer accepted in the naïve spirit in which early ages. offered it; but this art of decorative com- position is not only compatible with the highest imaginable attainments of moral and intellectual perfection, but would be actually necessary to their complete expression. it would be the counterpart, the visible image, of that “ unimagined song of pure concent aye sung before the sapphire-coloured throne.” . by this decorative design or line- composition is meant something quite different the philosophy of ornament. one from the picture-composition adopted by razzi and raphael, and formulated by a dynasty of theorists from leonardo to burnet. greek design has no reference to angular or circular arrangement, to relief of the nearest part of the subject from the remotest of the background, to highlights on the principal head,—and all the other tricks that make a picture “tell.” if you observe any good greek coin, of which examples are plentiful, and of which one is rudely sketched in plate vi., fig. , you will see how the mass of hair is divided into unequal masses, beautiful in themselves, and at the same time beautiful in their relation to one another. see how the line which divides them and that which bounds them is full of life and interest, divided into intervals of which no two are alike, either in length or direction. see how every mass is again subdivided down to the smallest detail; every line, however unimportant, being beautifully related to every other line, or set of lines, and every mass beautifully pro- portioned to every other mass or group of . hera's hair. . "god save the queen” plate vi.-line-harmony. [to face page . rary libr sto hl greek. inasses. no two lines parallel, yet each growing out of the other; no two masses equal, yet every one necessary for the balance of all the rest. and in a good greek com- position, however extended, you will observe the same freedom, the same absence of stiffness and formality, the same apparent unrestraint of every part, from the greatest down to the smallest ; and yet a complete inter-dependence of everything upon every- thing else. so that there is no greater folly than to alter or mutilate a greek composition, and no greater impertinence than to pretend to rival it without consummate grasp of the intention of a whole and unflagging intelli- gence in the elaboration of detail. compare with these greek coins the design of any ordinary work which satisfies modern requirements; for example, a penny, or a penny stamp. see how the masses of hair are not considered in relation to one another, nor as needing any well-defined shape of beauty for themselves; how the locks are thready and parallel—with a feeble crookedness, rather than significant curvature. look at britannia, the philosophy of ornament. whose trident is the radius of the formal circle which bounds the english coin ; a radius—the ugliest relation, to a circle—the ugliest curve (no greek coin being perfectly circular, and that not from accident, you may be sure). see again how the most salient lines, in the figure of britannia, are those forming the rigid right angle enclosed by her trident and her knee. and then search for such a blunder in any collection of greek coins ! . to justify the name of harmony as applied to linear design, let me draw your attention to the curious possibility of reducing to its terms the admitted harmony of music. the scale, scala, or “ladder," upon which its intervals are measured, is, in our notation, represented as a geometrical diagram, and the notes as geometrical points in a sequence proportioned to their duration. now by joining these notes you get a curve such as a thermometer or sphygmograph traces, and the four curves of the four parts of harmony exhibit accurately the continuous relations of their intervals. here (plate vi., fig. ) are the first few bars of “god save the queen” greek. treated in this way. do you not feel that these lines are as harmonious as the chords they represent, with most of the elements of grand design ? might they not have been copied from the hair of some greek statue ? and on the other hand, if you should take the trouble to draw out in this fashion the tedious consecutive thirds which do duty among an unmusical congregation for “seconds," or the trombone accompaniment of a street brass band, you will recognise at once the dulness of the musical effect in the insipidity and mechanical parallelism of the curves you obtain, and their likeness to a cheap stucco moulding, or the ill-com- posed hair on the penny stamp. this interest in abstract beauty, harmony, sequence,-as it is the highest human pleasure and noblest profit in philosophy, in science, and in music, being an end in itself beyond all grosser material and practical aims,—so in art nothing can replace it. it is this that is meant by classicism, by the spirit of greek beauty or art; this that our decorators have to study and steal, if they can, from ancient the philosophy of ornament. ornament; not its technical tricks, nor its motives of pattern, mere and mean accidents, which have been the bane of misled theorists ever since the cinquecento renaissance. . mr. ruskin says in his first series of oxford lectures : “the progressive course of greek art was in subduing monstrous con- ceptions to natural ones: it did this by general laws : it reached absolute truth of generic human forces, and if its ethical force had remained, would have advanced into healthy portraiture. but at the moment of change the national life ended in greece; and portrai- ture, there, meant insult to her religion, and flattery to her tyrants. and her skill perished not because she became true in sight, but because she became vile in heart." the steps or stages in the history of greece, which suffice for a right understanding of the art which illustrates it, are few and simple. i. there is first of all the archaic time- the age of beginning: when throughout scattered aryan tribes of the Ægean sea the greek spirit sprang up, from seed sown broadcast. in many a highland or island, the philosophy of ornament. grow by continual combination of qualities and ideas previously supposed irreconcilable. in this case barbaric greece is the soil upon which falls the seed of egyptian and assyrian culture, together producing what each alone could never attempt. the greek character sympathised with life beyond everything else: it did not so much seek solemnity, strength, elegance, richness, grotesque; but it loved life, spirit, action, motion. the greeks were a lively restless race of rovers by land and sea, paralleled only by the scandinavians, but surpassing them in natural advantages of geographical position and climate. for ornament, they like waves and whirlwind, auttering hair and flying drapery, twining plants and meandering streams; and every mode of expressing these ideas they eagerly caught, from whatever source. archäologists dispute as to the relative influence upon greece of egypt and assyria; but for every token of the one we have evidences of the other. the homeric epic is a glorious outcome of the martial legendary ballads of assyria ; pythagoras' philosophy, of greek. in the supernatural. so greek art very soon adds to its interest in nature, a more special interest in its work; it regards the very lines and colours not merely as representing nature, but as being themselves matter of study; and finds new occupation in arranging and contrasting these curves and spaces, as if they had no farther raison d'être. this is abstract art; this is greek design; the mathematical or musical intellect showing itself in decoration. for example, the kymation, they know very well, represents waves; but they get interested still more in the delight of being able to arrange their waves, to curl them about, and confine them in neat order, and yet with subtle variety of fold and fall. as if, when a greek watched by the seashore and the wind was fresh from over the sea, it was not the glassy green transparency and glitter, nor blazing white bursts of foam, that arrested his fancy ; it was not merely the thunder on the beach or the sails in the offing that struck his imagination, mariner as he was, till he would that his tongue could utter the thoughts the philosophy of ornament. that arose in him ;—but one thing above all, the rhythm of the breakers, transfixed his attention; the break,-break,—break,—third crash louder, ninth crash loudest of all; each mob-like insurrectionary billow charging the land half undecidedly, but at a certain instant of the charge transformed, with the same tactics always, into a rising, leaping, threaten- ing wall,—the same wall always; bursting into foam along the crest, as if the word of command passed down its ranks; curling, coiling, plunging, crashing on the shore,—the same breaker always; washing its fretted froth up the sand on the same lines always, the more fixedly so on greek coasts, for theirs is a tideless sea. and the circumstance that struck the greek mind was the law of the sea's life; the restraint of its motion, the orderliness of its irresistible impetuosity, the constancy of the invariable curve, and the limit imposed upon its licence by some mightier power, who stood by saying, “thus far shalt thou go, and no farther.” it was not, then, the concrete representation of sea- waves that they sought, but the abstract greek. mathematical or musical law of their rhyth- mical motion. to express this abstract law in line is greek design,-is “ classic” art. in the case of this scroll pattern, based as it is upon the breakers, whence its name, the interest in it as abstract line leads to two developments. the greek scroll is either a whirlpool, gradually narrowing into a vortex; or a maze,—involution and evolution. in either case the delicate narrowing of the spiral to the centre, and delicate varying of each wave along the line, is delightful as you follow it with eye or finger; and expresses a new intellectual pleasure akin to that derived from the thoughtful “classic” music of bach or beethoven ; unlike the interest and surprise created by suggestions of concrete symbolism, profound or startling as these may be. so that to symbolic art of former nations, with whose intentions holman hunt elaborates the significance of his sacred pictures, the greeks added an intellectual art of design; which is the especial charm of all their sculptors, of the florentine masters, and of burne-jones,—the spirit of the philosophy of ornament. harmony, whose connection with the ethics of greece we have already hinted. . ii. out of these archaic times early greece developed, by decay of ancient here- ditary monarchies, increase of popular life, extended intercominunication of this little group of islands and valleys, upon whose con- sciousness it began to dawn that it was one - hellas. with the new society came political changes; popular despots, phidon of argos, who introduced coinage; periander of corinth and pisistratus of athens, patrons of art and literature. with these, a new style of art, now distinctively greek, but young, stiff, unformed, timid, schoolgirlish, early greek. then the persian wars: the greek spirit realized, politically in the union of greece against persia, artistically in periclean athens, its parthenon and its pottery. the great central age is of short duration ; at its furthest stretch but a century ( - b.c.); but the best work was all done in the few decades between salamis and arginusæ; that is, during the transient supremacy of athens ; greek. greece, the maid athena, in ripened charm, but still fancy-free. these two periods, the early and the central or perfect, contrast so strongly with previous archaism and subsequent florid and decadent ages, that they may be put together, for the sake of clearness, as the serere period. for, in spite of development of style and increase of knowledge, between and b.c., the aim of art throughout shows the same nobility and truthfulness, culminating in phidias. during this severe period, the arts of pottery and metal work were brought to a high state of development; and these are the chief remains of their ornament we have to judge from: sufficient, because terracotta was used freely,—for architecture, statuary, studs, spindles, tickets, dolls, lamps, and a host of domestic purposes. athenian pottery was the “china” of ancient europe and the south ; its exportation was a source of national wealth, and carried it to remote lands : it was welcomed throughout italy, and so successfully imitated, that archæologists have never been the philosophy of ornament. able authoritatively to distinguish etruscan from greek wares. to us, accustomed to the facility of modern china-painting, it seems rough and rude in execution. this is owing to the extreme difficulty of painting on a dark absorbent ground, where the lines are no sooner laid than they swell, shrink, disappear: so that the work must be rapid, decisive, and dexterous; the style simple monochrome; and the work as much done in the dark as etching would be, if no proof could be taken. greek pottery was made, on egyptian models, in the archaic age: first, uncoloured ; then, all black, and called libyes -- negroes. then the uncoloured pot was ornamented with black or brown lines. as people acquired more skill or more confidence, figures, chiefly of animals, later only of men, were done in the same black or brown; but as these lines could not be made fine enough for outlines, the whole mass of the figure must be put on with a clever touch, as you might paint with a brush on blotting-paper, greek. leaving a light for the eye. no guide to keep the drawing right was possible beyond a scratched sketch with a sharp point, which itself must be lightly and rightly done on pain of spoiling the neatness of the painting. the early dionysiac and panathenaic present- ation vases are in this style: stiff black figures on a light red or buff ground. this restriction of the figures, faces and all, to uniform black patches, was felt to be unsatisfactory; and so the idea was conceived, about the time of the persian wars, of painting the ground, and leaving the figures; requiring even more thought and skill in the artist, but producing a more natural result. by the invention of an opaque white paint, the faces and arms of goddesses and women could be better represented, the men always being left hrown and sunburnt. so that there are two periods important to remember in greek vase-painting: the early, black figures on light ground; the later, beginning with the central or perfect period, light figures on dark ground. the other great art from which we can the philosophy of ornament. judge the development of greek design was that of die-sinking and coinage. a complete discussion of the laws of design as applicable to coins is wrought out in mr. ruskin's “ queen of the air," the standard work on the spirit of greek art. it is enough here to say that the canons of ornament are exemplified in greek coins, by perfect adaptation to their use, by most observant significance in their representation of nature, and by a right and wise conventionalization, or selection of the qualities and elements of natural beauty and interest proper to the designer's purpose. there are few greek coins illustrating archaic design, because it was not till the close of that archaic period that coinage was intro- duced from lydia to argos, b.c. but the two steps in the severe style are clearly marked; the early athenian owl exhibiting a naïve attempt to give the spirit and ex- pression of the creature, especially the eyes, its most noteworthy feature and connecting link with their goddess athena. the central style is illustrated by the well-known “rose greek. of rhodes,” and the “ thunderbolt of elis”; which retaining the directness of expression, add a picturesqueness and correctness of design unsought before the periclean age. examples of this standard decorative art are now so easily to be had, in the photographs and reproductions of british museum specimens, that it is needless here to give woodcut illus- trations, which would be but rude reminders of the infinite, inimitable grace and delicacy of the originals. . iii. then follows the florid style ( to b.c.), outcome of an age of wasted effort, state against state, man against man, style against style, school against school ; each alternately winning and losing in struggles which, unlike those of the earlier age, brought art no nobility of character, and left no sta- bility of result. the art of this time, though infinitely interesting with its euripidean “touches of things common till they rise to touch the spheres,” yet wearies us with its attempts at effect, and cloys us with its competitive elegance. but so far as it is more than ever realistic, catching expression, rival- the philosophy of ornament. ling nature, there is life in it, and hope for it. think how the highest results of the greatest european art could have been sur- passed, had it been possible for the greeks themselves to superadd to the knowledge and nobility of phidias the intimity and life- likeness of florence and flanders. but there seems to exist some law of unsuccess which prevents every individual—whether wave, or crystal, or animal, or society—from completely realizing perfection; and at the moment when greece might have reached a greater than her greatest, she fell under the foreign yoke of alexander, and thence from bad to worse. the florid style shows itself in pottery in less thoughtful and more ornate design, and in attempts to make things prettier by poly- chromatic decoration. the background is black, the figures yellow, with white flesh for females, and draperies of blue, vermilion and green. but no prettiness can compensate for the weakening of that grand design which is the chief attraction in all ornament, and most of all in greek. in its sculpture this age seeks picturesqueness at the expense of greer. any longer possible? the artists who designed and executed the paintings of pompeii and other such monuments of so-called “classical ” art, did slaves' work for slaves' wages. the masters for whom they worked had no eye for the beauty of greek work, only for its piquancy; no heart for its nobility, only for its effect; and to please such patrons as these, their greek slaves chose from debased tradition just what was weak, just what was affected, whatever was poor and pretty, mechanical or obscene. this gradual corruption of the greek spirit, of the maid athena, is like the most hideous dream come true: “cæli, lesbia nostra, lesbia illa ”-if you know the rest, you know the passionate pain with which a lover of greece regards her degradation, . . and yet there was redemption even for her: for the redemption of the world was the redemption also of art : how could it be other- wise ? to get a clear notion of the change, look at any well-known illustrations of pom- peian style. take the prettiest examples; take baby cupid in his bower of vine; it is greek art, greek in whatever interest varies the the philosophy of ornament. symmetry of the leaves and ribands, or en- livens the design with fluttering folds or graceful alternations of line. but compare this starved wreath, clipped and trimmed into poverty-stricken parallelism, the meaningless drapery, the foolish bows and useless buckles, the pointlessness, the triviality, the insipidity, alike of conception and execution—with the interest, the variety, the life, and the meaning of any coin or vase-design of the great ages. and setting aside decorative figure-composi- tion it is curious to note how the romans in their purely ornamental design have chosen out and insisted upon whatever was feeblest and weakest in the greek. there is an ordinary mosaic pavement of pompeii, too often thought worth copying, in which the greek mæander, their dullest idea, is not only copied but emphasized; not only elaborated, but vulgarized into an illegitimate appearance of relief, with the greek vine tendrils debased into atrocities of whip-cord penmanship. but take, on the other hand, such a specimen of byzantine ivory-carving as exhibited in the liverpool museum, or figured in mr. maskell's the philosophy of ornament. christian greek art of all those mosaics, paint- ings, and ivory-carvings called byzantine ? it is sometimes said that christianity killed classical art in byzantium; this is no more true than that realism killed it in athens. not only did the christian spirit raise classical design from the low state to which it had fallen by reviving the great traditions of the periclean age (thus creating the first renais- sance), but by the building of churches and their decoration on a grand scale a very strong material impulse was given to all the fine arts. constantine himself built st. john lateran and old st. peter's at rome, not to speak of magnificent works at constantinople, whose art and artists thenceforward became authoritative even throughout india and the east. and this artistic activity was only one side of the intensely energetic life of the time during which the theology of the christian church was discussed and determined, and the whole of europe brought out of barbarism into civilization. there were two important stages which mark the decline of art in italy and greece. greek. first, the disunion and dismemberment of the roman empire after the death of alexander severus, that is, in the third and fourth centuries a.d. a hopeless insecurity of life and property made the production and collec- tion of all works of art impossible; while the rapacity of the powerful and insolence of the ignorant destroyed and dispersed those temple- treasuries which had always been standards and schools of right classical tradition. . a still heavier blow was struck at the byzantine renaissance by the iconoclastic heresy, which for a whole century ( to a.d.) burnt, broke, overthrew, and utterly rooted out every image, every work of art, in fact, within the limits of the byzantine church. under such circumstances it was obviously hopeless to cultivate any artistic pursuit, and the ivory-carvers, painters, and designers of the east migrated westward; some few to italy, which was not only far from peaceful, but had its own art-traditions. but in north- western europe, the barbarians, who soon after were formed into the civilized empire the philosophy of ornament. of charlemagne, and at that time were developing an aboriginal archaic art of their own, welcomed the byzantines, employed and imitated them; so that all the early religious art-ideas not distinctly scandinavian or celtic, all those missals and carvings, frescoes and monuments of the dark ages, in germany especially, and in england, are greek. . it is most interesting to note, and most important to remember the continuity of art-history. so far from greek art being a mysterious and spontaneous growth, we have traced its development out of natural barbaric motives, common to the infancy of all nations and individuals, but impelled and instructed by egypt and assyria. so far from its extinction under the roman empire, we have shown its vitality, degraded though it might be, until the christian byzantine renaissance, which restored it, if not to all its former glories, yet to its highest walks and worthiest aims. so far from the total disappearance of living byzantine art, which the exclusive study of the history of italian painting leads one lecture v. gothic. . seed and soil.- . parallel art-progress of celts and teutons.— . the vikings' lion.- . irish and norse interlacing.– . the ethics of the same.- . anglo- saxon art; native and exotic.— . spread of northern motives throughout europe.- . inheritance of gothic art from rome, in sculpture and architecture.— . from byzantium, in design of drapery and flowers. - . from the east, in decoration of textiles and pottery.– . monasticism and chivalry.- . the four periods : i. romanesque.- . ii. severe.— . iii. florid.- . iv. decadent, and . transition to renaissance. . it is too little noticed by those who profess to trace the history of events that for every plant there must be both a seed and a soil, for every effect a plurality of causes. and in the history of art we find that no style ever develops out of a different one preceding it, without co-operation of one or more foreign influences. in the case of greek art, we saw that the soil was the greek spirit, naturally gothic. developing the natural beginnings of universal decorative art, while egypt and assyria supplied the seed; in byzantium, the debased greek traditions of the empire were the soil upon which fell the seed of christianity. and now in the middle ages the soil is the native art of the celts and teutons, the seed survives from greece, rome, and the orient. students of painting and architecture- that is to say, most art-historians—have found no materials for their study among the early celts and teutons, and the impression left upon the mind of the general reader has con- sequently been that there is no art-history of these races or of these periods; but a slight acquaintance with their decoration, especially in metal-work, shows that not only had these nations, commonly called barbarous, great capacities and instincts for art, and a culture of peculiar interest; but that we can trace the history and fix the periods of its development, and find from it exactly those motives which need to be added to the traditions of the south, in order to completely explain the origin of gothic ornament. the philosophy of ornament. . it would be interesting, and some day perhaps will be possible, to unravel the con- fused ethnology and archæology of our ances- tors before the christian era. we can see, however, that they slowly emerged from the lowest barbarism by the same stages, and with much the same ideas of religion, manners, and art, as the early greeks,-indeed as the earliest races everywhere. celts and teutons grew up side by side, apart though not without intercourse (as indeed they live at this day); into a comparative civilization of practically the sañe character. for example, in denmark and scandinavia the stone age, the bronze and the iron ages follow upon one another irrespective (so far as we can find) of the races which appeared on the scene in successive acts of the drama. in britain we know at what period the teutons replaced the celts; in ireland we know that the teu- tons never replaced the celts; and yet the history of the development of native art in these three countries was substantially the same. in all cases the beginning is out of universal rari libr tha ova oooo . british bronze mirror, "late celtic" triquetra & basketwork. .king david from a manuscript. irish. viii. century. .gotlandic brooch. teuton "flamboyant" monsters. ( . . "heraldic" lion. . debased figures & knotted monsters. scandinavian. plate vii.—celtic and teuton art. m. fons occa gothic. barbaric motives, the sun-symbols and snake- signs described in lecture i. through at least a great part of the bronze age all ornament is made up of a repetition rather than an elaboration of the circle, cross, spiral, triangle, and triquetra, or three-rayed sun, together with early attempts at figure and animal drawing (e.g., plate v., fig. ). in the iron age, if not before, these ideas are combined and elaborated, the rays of the triquetra, for example, ending in a spiral (fig. ), or more artificially combined curves, curiously fascinat- ing in their apparently free and yet actually limited scope, form trumpet-shaped devices, mystic in their aim, and mysterious in their suggestiveness; the triquetra so treated, with a basket-work background, is here figured from a british specimen in the liverpool museum (plate vii., fig. ). the next example (fig. ), from gotland, very early the home of teutons, shows another stage in the general development; the pattern is believed to be based on corrupted animal forms; but is little but a study of harmonious curvature in thoroughly flamboyant feeling; and mr. gatty, the philosophy of ornament. in pointing out that resemblance, suggests that the french gothic designers may have been led to some of the features of their style by the survival of early celtic and teuton ideas and character. but none of these show full involution as yet; for the basket-work of fig. is not at all the same kind of thing with the knotting of figs. and . and yet it is supposed very generally that the runic knot-work is based on british plaid and basket-work. but it is not enough, in explaining a national style, to find possibilities of its suggestion ; for these are generally common to all the world: and if the britons were famous for their weaving and plait- ing, yet these processes were perfectly well known, ages before, to every other nation ; and south sea islanders actually use a plaited pattern of the simplest style. but from whatever hint, the northerns, both celts and teutons, found this involution ex- press some feeling of their own, found it suit their character,—and that was cause enough for employing it. . there are three distinct types of this gothic. vii., fig. ). it becomes the typical heraldic charge of later times, lancelot's lion, to whom sir gareth cried :- “ramp, ye lance-splintering lions, on whom all spears are rotten sticks ! ye seem a-gape to roar !” then the lion's body becomes elongated, he becomes a very lithe lion, a very lean lion, he writhes, he lashes himself with his tail into such a fury that he is everywhere at once, like the piano-playing virtuoso on the german fly-leaf; he ties himself into knots inextricably; the eyes drop out of his head to stud his strap-like body; he becomes a very debased lion, of whom you can make neither head nor tail (figs. and ); and yet, beneath these lowest depths, are lower depths of nonsensical conventionalization. . all scandinavian metal-work of the viking age ( — a.d.) shows this gradual degradation from more or less natural animal forms, and corresponding development of intricacy in the interlacing of netted and knotted mazes. but just as the flamboyant and trumpet-patterns of an earlier age were the philosophy of ornament. teutonic as well as celtic (fig. being a goth- landic, fig. a british example), so during the dark ages, as they are called, interwoven design is as characteristic of celtic as of scandinavian work. the book of kells, that great irish manuscript which the late professor westwood has made famous, is full of the most elaborate interlacing; and this example (fig. ), taken from an eighth-century irish psalter, shows the celtic style of convention- alized figure-drawing which corresponds to the debased scandinavian figures and lion (fig. ). you may not believe it, but this is king david, playing upon the actual "... harp that once through tara's halls the soul of music shed”; lles and while one admires the ingenuity of labyrinthine convolutions, one cannot but feel that people who had the hand to draw and the head to design with such skill and ingenuity, must have been guilty of wilful neglect and culpable ignorance in remaining content with so absurd a caricature of the human form in a man, a king, and a saint. gothic. and though the scandinavians had no lions to copy, their design also of this period shows not childishness but decrepitude, not archaic ignorance but the listlessness, the carelessness, the insincerity of a debased decadence. many hundred years before, even in their bronze age, they had designed figures of their gods with naïve vigour, and copied southern sculp- ture with life and expression; just as the egyptians, at the dawn of their history, seem to have carved statues with surprisingly life- like qualities. we saw that the first effort of an individual or a race is in the direction of naturalism, not of conventional ornament, and sure to be highly successful, because com- pletely frank and painstaking; it is only as these efforts of primitive genius are imitated by later dullards,—who get to regard them as supernatural, and their own imitations as something sacred,—that we get the hieratic egyptian figure-drawing, and worse still, the wormy and spotty nonsense of the wall-paint- ings at veii (figured in dr. birch’s “ancient pottery'), which have close resemblance to the scandinavian animal-drawing at the period the philosophy of ornament. when it was changing from childish naturalism, or copies of the classic, to the vagaries of the viking period. . this knotted and tangled design reflects the intellectual character of the society in which it was produced. among the scandi- navians, paganism expired in almost metaphy- sical speculation : it was not replaced by the simpler creed of christianity until it had lost itself in mazes of thought too deep for northern knowledge, and in self-torture of puzzles too abstruse for the northmen to grapple with. the greeks had loved abstract thought, but they had kept it clear and orderly; the northerns wanted that grasp of the classic mind; and so the self-analysis which was play to the greeks was death to them,—the more so for the physical energy and practical vigour of their character. . now these mazy patterns, in which abstract composition of line overwhelms concrete re- presentation of fact, far more than was ever the case with the greeks ; in which everything is a puzzle, a perplexity; fascinating with weird power, but requiring, even to look at, the philosophy of ornament. actually became debased in corresponding decadence; so that by the time of the intro- duction of christianity, it was simply "played out,” having lost all reference to nature, and exhausted its repertory of ideas. for each development of art is based on a preceding style; superseding it when it has done its best and lived its life to the end; then only, then necessarily, replaced by a new order of things. in the north, as in byzantium, christianity was the saviour of society, and with it, of art. . before this late or viking iron age the anglo-saxons had invaded britain, and there established a power remarkable for culture much beyond its age. it is noticeable that they did not bring with them the interwoven patterns, and never adopted them in their extravagance. the anglo-saxons had the northern vigour, but not the norse wildness; and their love of order, which led to our english law and constitution, led also to a singularly neat and tidy school of design, as may be seen on anglo-saxon brooches in our museums. they are partitioned out into gothic. symmetrical panels, filled with not very original devices; and almost modern english in the trimness, the solidity, the respectability, the “philistinism," of their ideas. saxon england of the ninth and tenth centuries was far from being a mere abode of barbarians; in spite of danish invasions, and before the danish conquest, it had a national culture and national art. on the breaking out of iconoclasm in byzantium, the artists fled to charlemagne's rhineland; thence, on his death, and the dismemberment of his empire, greek art and learning found its way to england; which thereupon took, if not the lead, at any rate high rank, among european nations; for the civilized saracens were disappearing in spain, and central europe was in the greatest commotion throughout these dark ages. . the union of northern decorative prin- ciples with greek design of figures, drapery, and floral ornament is the beginning of gothic. in irish and norse ornament, figures are ridiculously conventional; and foliage does not appear. the combination becomes at once the philosophy of ornament. gothic. this combination occurs very early in russia, through which there was a much- frequented route of commerce between the north and the east; whose national exist- ence is believed by some to centre upon a scandinavian colony; and where the earliest manuscripts of greek liturgies show northern knitted designs. but byzantine art was patronized and im- itated more eagerly and not much later (ninth and tenth centuries) by germany and england, and very soon“byzantine ” ivory-carvings are found in their turn to be leavened with a celtic character; until all over the north of europe a new style springs up, in which ideas from both sources coexist, but do not coal- esce; like “a clear stream flowing by a muddy one.” this is practically the first stage of gothic, and grows into the great romanesque style, so called, of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. in that age, northern involution penetrated far southward, as greek draperies had pene- trated to northward. not only do we find the double style splendidly illustrated in the gothic. boulogne psalter, with its deftly ravelled sleaves (as in plate vii., fig. , only more elaborate and graceful), and elegantly con- ceived figures; but the builders of early italian cathedrals, with remains of classic art before their eyes, and byzantine teaching in their ears, now run wild with the northern tangle-tailed mysteries. on the facade of the duomo at lucca, one of the piers is ornamented with a bas-relief of the garden of eden. the serpent is twined in the tree, the branches of the tree are all twined together; adam and eve are somehow woven up with every- thing else; and eve's flowing hair is a wonder- ful study of ingenious involution. and in strictly gothic art for a hundred years to come, and more, the northern “worm- twist” is a distinctive feature. . such then was the soil upon which fell the seed of southern art, to create the great gothic styles of the middle ages. the seed was threefold, being the inheritance of europe from byzantium, as we have seen, and from rome; that is, the two great results of classical art; and the various saracenic, the philosophy of ornament. arabian, and moorish styles, derived from the persians. the remains of roman civilisation, which for centuries had filled europe, were not de- stroyed, if dispersed, by the barbarians. the story of the rude soldier who broke a precious vase rather than relinquish it to his captain, is exactly a case of the exception which proves the rule; and when the arabs invaded spain, they found, admired, and recorded marvellous relics of roman art which the rapacious but not iconoclastic vandals had carried thither; less barbarous than those too politely called vandals to-day, who not only remove but destroy the most precious relics of the past; and add, to the injury of unjustified violence, the insult of impertinent restoration. every student must be grateful to mr. morris and the society for the preservation of ancient monuments; and to signor boni, the able venetian architect and earnest defender of the remains of early italian art. that the goths learned from roman remains the construction of the arch is admitted. they also learned what they had never known gothic. before, what they could not learn from the portable ivories and textiles of byzantium, or the potteries of the east, and what played so important a part in all the architectural ornamentation of after ages; namely, the idea of leaf-sculpture, which they saw in profusion in the capitals and cornices, tombs and temples of the previous age, and which certain features of their character enabled them to assimilate. for the transition from the dark into the middle age is in fact a renaissance five centuries before the greater renaissance; and all throughout these centuries we find an uninterrupted out-crop of a vein of classic feeling tingeing the surrounding soil, so to speak, with the unmistakable warmth of paganism. not only in leaf-sculpture is this manifest; the front of the cathedral at sens is covered with carvings of figures treated in a thoroughly antique roman style, which cannot be mis- taken for byzantine, so different is the plump surface of the one from the hard though well-disposed lines of the other; exactly the difference which niccola pisano felt between the philosophy of ornament. his roman sarcophagus, alive with round, supple, ripe-limbed nymphs, and the starved and meagre severity of his late byzantine models. at sens you have a nude female figure treated as no byzantine ever ventured to treat such a subject; but evidently motived from some roman venus. you have in- numerable draperies in high relief, a roman herodias separated by a tuscan pillar from a roman executioner and st. john, and con- trasting in the strongest manner with the centaur on the porch at avallon, done after the best byzantine traditions, with the greek fluttering fringe of shaggy locks around his loins. one other important industry of the middle ages, undoubtedly derived from roman re- mains, was that of tile-making, extensively practised in england, as can be seen from many relics in the floors of abbeys and castles ; and roman patterns, copied along with the roman technique, by this channel entered largely into the composite european ideals of the middle ages, roughly grouped together as gothic. the philosophy of ornament. composition, which depends on the relative disposition and weight of the flower-masses (plate iv., fig. ). in short, the greeks looked for line, the persians for point and mass. and all through the middle ages, flower patterns are of one kind or the other : in glass and earlier embroidery and missal- painting, generally greek; in pottery, and in later fabrics and illuminations, generally oriental; while the architectural carving, based on roman festoons and corinthian capitals, has a separate development of its own. . from the east, beside these motives of flowering, the mediævals possibly learnt the hint of those loopsful of saints, common in the glass of the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- turies ; and the panelling of gothic deca- dence; though direct imitation of orientalism was confined to the south in general decorative art, and in the north extended only to embroidery most names of stuffs and styles of textile art are oriental; for example, baudekins, baldacchino—the gold tissue of baldac, or the philosophy of ornament. down to the last century,—was a reminiscence of orientalism. similarly the pottery of southern europe was formed and ornamented on eastern models: the great italian majolica wares show their origin in every leaf and flower upon them, if by no other sign. and the extensive import of southern wares into northern europe would have been quite enough to have kept up a perpetual interest in orientalism, even had there been no crusades. . gothic art, then, has for its elements the savage strength of celts and teutons, shown in irish and scandinavian interlaced abstract design ; the sweetness, the surface, the foliage of rome; the seriousness, the line, the figures, and leafy stems of byzantium; the richness, point, and disposition of masses of the east. there is another of the many elements which combine into that complex ideal called gothic, — their childlike en- joyment of nature, their interest, whether serious or humorous, in expression of human, animal, or vegetable life. and this is a home- bred influence, the effect of monasticism and gothic. chivalry; and these, in their time of strength, results of sincere and healthy christianity, sincerely and healthily accepted. monasticism and chivalry in their decay and downfall, no doubt offer lamentable and ridi- culous spectacles. but throughout the central period of modern history, when the nations of europe were being formed, and their cha- racters fixed, like lads fresh come to a great public school,-at that critical period, monas- ticism and chivalry, with their christian code, were at once the exponents and the instructors of society. the monk and knight were both the result of, and the incentive to, very high aims and ideas; and gothic art is their monu- ment, their record. we do not often grasp the sort of life spent by cultured men in the olden time, who were not town dwellers, but tillers of a wild wood- land or unvisited vale; who were pioneers of civilization like american backwoodsmen, but, unlike them, pioneers of culture also, and of art. we educated moderns know the country, especially forest or mountain lands, as a place of utter ennui, or exhausting excitement; as the philosophy of ornament. a place to shoot in, to fish in, for pedestrianism or bicycling; as interminable railroads and hotels. we civilized moderns rarely know the country as a place to live in; we rarely know the feeling created in a thinking, read- ing, literary, and artistic man, who carries on his intellectual studies, together with daily necessary labour—not mere athletic exercise- by land and water, in wood and wild ; and that, remote from the competition and high- pressure-life of towns. it is a totally different thing from the squire's life, or the peasant's, or even the parson's ; still more different from the townsman's or gownsman's hurried holi- day: and leads to curious contemplative moods, together with the most active energy of mind and body—to a sort of wordsworthism. so in the time when monks were the salt of the earth (there was such a time, but it is a long while ago), their life, “exempt from public haunt, found tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, sermons in stones.” yes, and fixed these sermons into stones with an iron pen. for theirs was peculiarly gothic. the art which was at once didactic and de- corative, hinted indeed by roman models, but based on deep sympathy with the tongues that are in trees, or the leaping lines of the brooks, expressing aspirations born of forest and mountain, powers of the rugged strength of the rocks, and rich redundance of their ferneries and foliage. you have noticed that in the scandinavian metal-work there is never a flower or a leaf; that the greeks adored the forces, but rarely loved the facts, of nature. the monks, by whom and for whom gothic art was created out of all those elements we have just recounted, were the first to see in landscape artistic possibilities of expressing human thought and emotion which had hitherto been found only in man and the animal creation. as modern art is especially landscape painting, so gothic art is landscape sculpture. a gothic cathedral's lines are mountain lines; its pillared aisle differs from the greek portico in being the image of a forest glade; whose sunlit leafage suggests like emotions with their window- traceries; whose rock foundations match their the philosophy of ornament. buttresses and porches, over-grown with inex- haustible wealth of wild flowers, and festoons of the ivy-tree. no wonder we, who know so little of their feelings, can grasp so little of their faculties ; when we pretend to imitate the work, but never imitate the workers. a part of monasticism, rather than its counterpart, was chivalry. the knight and monk were brothers, sworn to similar vows, and bred in the same belief. both have the same spirit of solemnity, both are accustomed to the same woodland wildness; and if the monk loved order and quiet, while the knight loved variety and adventure, both had before their eyes the same presence of death and diabolic powers, but the same hope of resur- rection. gothic art, then, as all other styles of decoration, is simply and fully the reflex of the mind of the age: in reading the ethics of gothic ornament you read the ethics of the middle ages. and as this was true in its origin, so we shall find it true throughout its history. . the history of gothic ornament falls into four periods—romanesque, to the end gothic. of the twelfth century; severe, thirteenth century; florid, fourteenth century; and decadent and transitional of the fifteenth century: and these periods advance in simul- taneous progression, all europe over. the romanesque of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, developed in france and england as norman, includes in the south the lom- bardic styles, and whatever other name is given to the round-arched architecture of tuscany and provence. in this period the various motives which afterwards coalesced to form the more popu- larly known pointed styles are seen side by side,—roman arches, byzantine mosaic, north- ern interlacing; roman foliage, byzantine figures, northern grotesqueness and gloom. in missal and glass-painting, you see, for example, a greek king david, far different from the irish one, sitting in a web of scan- dinavian device; the elements being not yet entirely fused. the ornament peculiar to the norman style, both in architecture and other art-work, con- sisted in mouldings, zigzag, chevron, or billet- the philosophy of ornament. pattern; very little leafage yet, but grotesque heads of monsters, birds, or beasts, or rudely- drawn figures copied from the warriors and hunters of the time. the colour, rich with blue and crimson and vivid green. . the severe, or thirteenth-century, style is known in england as early pointed gothic, and characterised by its stiff foliage. the norman dog-tooth moulding blooms out into delicate four-leaved flowers ; and the hollows, before filled with grotesque beakheads, are overlaid with tendrils of twining plants and creepers, deeply and delicately cut to show the dark background. circles filled with flowered trefoils and quatrefoils, tufted finials, and capitals of upright leaves; stiff springy curves in painted books and windows, outlining strange creatures, whose twining limbs betray their northern origin,—all these ornaments mark the severe gothic style, in the age of st. louis and edward i. . the florid art of the fourteenth century is seen in our decorated gothic; in its free foliage, flowered mouldings, no longer tediously undercut, but woven and tossed about in gothic. natural profusion and superb redundance; in traceries, showing elaborate ingenuity of geo- metrical arrangement; in painting of natural vegetative form, always arranged with the most acute sensibility to beautiful composi- tion. for these decorators desired not only truth, but beauty; and feeling both so keenly, seeing both in nature, reproduced not only the actual semblance of her shapes, but also the delicate disposition of her lines and masses; knowing that a mere crude vulgar photogra- phic realism is not all in all, any more than a mere cold vulgar academic idealism. it is only when both these facts of nature and feel- ings of the human heart co-exist that you can expect a true and complete decorative art. . during the fifteenth century gothic art expires; or rather suffers a change into something rich and strange,-a transition which goes on simultaneously, but differently, in england, france, and italy. the history of this period of art and the true relation of the middle ages to the renaissance has yet to be written in full; for the attention of his- torians is soonest attracted to definite central the philosophy of ornament. styles and ages ; and only after these have been described and defined, have people leisure and material to map out the borderlands. in england, between the decorated and the tudor styles, we have the perpendicular, worked out in that unhappy age of the wars of the roses, reflecting their anarchy in its aimlessness, their rudeness in its rigidity, their commotion in its inelegance, and their divisions in the broken, reposeless wastes of its interminable panelling, overblown flowers, and spotty crockets. in france, the thoughtful geometrical traceries of florid gothic lose their character in the fantastic free curves of flamboyant architecture. all the ornament of this age follows suit in rejecting anything that might seem to suggest formalism, and in substituting a picturesque grace with realistic details, the rococo of gothic. manuscript illumination of this period is still more florid than before; covering large cantles of margin with long acanthus-leaves running into daisies on- a spotted and dotted ground, or with unsteady useless tendrils here and there attached to . the philosophy of ornament. between distinct gothic and distinct renais- sance as we shall find it to be, on closer examination, is a period when the seriousness of the middle ages had not given place to the despairing levity of the sixteenth century, nor early earnestness, though leading to re- formation, to the party quarrels which marked the post-reformation era. the gothic love of wild nature, of strange and subtle thought, of adventure in things terrestrial and celestial, was now fanned to its fiercest flame, in marked contrast to the callous and calculating spirit of the sixteenth century. the quattrocentisti showed gothicism in its last and most vigorous effort, straining every nerve to grasp at a great ideal, an ideal to which all the greatest minds had been always tending,—that of the per- fection of humanity by means of a knowledge and beauty yet beyond it. the object which the fifteenth-century students of greek philo- sophy had in view was the same with that of the schoolmen (the fact that they did not recognize the relationship makes no difference whatever, and must not mislead us), wholly different from the aims of modern post- gothic. renaissance science: it was the search for a mysticism or pantheism—to know god, and nature as his manifestation of himself. the earlier mediævals sought the key to the mystery of the bible in aristotle ; these later ones in plato and plotinus ; and the revival of classical general search after a rational theology. what was the end and result of it was never to be known till the sixteenth century showed the futility of the attempt, and the disappointed world of thinkers fell back upon party dogmat- ism and diplomacy, or upon baconian method- ology and cartesian positivism. so, in art, the quattrocentisti work with a boy's ideal before them, like all their prede- cessors of the middle ages, the ideal of classic perfection; which we have seen to be a motive of gothic throughout. they knew of the glories of antiquity just so much as to fire rome- “where the domed and daring palace shot its spires up like fires o’er the hundred-gated circuit of a wall, bounding all, the philosophy of ornament. made of marble, men might march on nor be pressed twelve abreast. . . all the mountains topped with temples, all the glades' colonnades, all the causeys, bridges, and aqueducts,—and then, all the men !” glorious figures of heroes and heroines of old, and the life they led, the more glorious to them that they knew so little of that life,- these were the ideals for the imagination, not the models for the imitation, of the last of the gothic artists. it was not the mere copying of scraps of the antique that created the great florentine schools of design; little they knew of the antique but its fame; but if that could stimulate them to lay out their whole energies of passionate power and emotion, what more did they need ? as the century closed in, the great idea was grasped. rome was rediscovered; the casket of classical learning was unlocked, and, like nitocris' 'tomb, contained nothing but dust and ashes. ancient art was pieced together in exhumed palaces and galleries of restored statues; there was the reality, and the dream was over. to have an ideal before you, that gothic. makes life worth living! but the sixteenth century's ideal was behind it; it could only look back, criticise, and copy. the middle ages spent their whole strength, from abelard to pico, in the pursuit of knowledge, which they believed was laid up for them in the store-houses of antiquity. they staked heart and soul in search of beauty, which they ever hoped to find in the art of greece and rome. but all the knowledge, all the beauty they achieved for us was won by the way, and cast by the wayside ; they found indeed what they sought, to their own bitter surprise, since it proved valueless for all those purposes they had planned. plato brought them no nearer god's truth, and the baths of titus brought them only farther from his beauty; and so the sixteenth century fell back disillusioned from the search. i suppose the first intimation one has that one's boyhood is gone is a great disappointment about something or other, and a little cynicism as the result. with the fifteenth century, the world's boyhood was gone, and with it the high aims and hopes of boyhood. as for the ✓ the philosophy of ornament. splendid vision by which the middle age was on its way attended, the renaissance “perceives it die away and fade into the light of common day.” lecture vi. the cinquecento renaissance. . the classic revival in italy.— . true character of the age.— . vulgarity of aim.— . cheapness of produc- tion.– . indelicacy of subject.- . scientific spirit. — . machiavellianism.- . effect on art of these moral characteristics.- . mediæval survivals and oriental importations.— . venice glass.- . marquetry and cabinet-making.- . majolica.- . silk.- . re- naissance in france.- . in england.– . in ger- many and flanders. . many of the popular names for leading ideas or complex movements prove, on analysis, to be misnomers. why should all the art of athens be called “classic”? why should that of the middle ages be called “gothic,” except by the most arbitrary of conventions ? and when we group together the many-sided life of the sixteenth century under the title of “renaissance," let us clearly understand that the revival of classicism played but a the cinquecento renaissance. middle ages we find the classic spirit con- tinually manifest; when we note the free thought of an abelard, the antinomianism of provençal poetry, the ripe modelling of a niccola pisano, touches of classic tenderness or classic truth here and there throughout the middle ages,—all these are just as truly part and parcel of that complex mediæval age as similar motives are of the hardly more complex renaissance. in a word, it is not classicism that makes the renaissance, if by classicism one means a respect for the antique, and a reference to it. . nor was it a superior sweetness or light which made the sixteenth century what it was. continually, throughout both earlier and later art and literature, lurking traces of tenderness and hidden springs of strength are to be found for the seeking. nor, again, is the renaissance in any exclusive and especial degree an age of luxury, of crime, of cruelty, or of impiety. all these are only too rife in every age; cer- tainly, it is not to any of these that the six- teenth century owes its remarkable distinctive character. the philosophy of ornament. for a hundred and fifty years greek learning had been cultivated throughout europe among scholars ; by the beginning of the sixteenth century its ideas had become popular and common. for fifty years printing had been practised; by the year it was becoming common. during all the previous century maritime discovery, mechanical invention, ideas of social democracy, habits of free thought, means of scientific investigation, all those things which make modern life different from ancient civilization or patriarchal simplicity, had been gradually creeping into every- day use, and were become common. and decorative art became—not more classic, not more refined, not more powerful; but decora- tive art became common, and—well, and unclean. . the sixteenth century was the age, in the first place, when things that had hitherto been secret were laid open; when things that had been sacred were made profane; when private rights were publicised; when princely prerogatives were usurped by the bourgeoisie (then first to any great extent); when the the cinquecento renaissance. decorative art hitherto treasured in churches, in abbeys, or in palaces, hitherto applied with reverence to objects of reverence, hitherto con- sidered as something in itself sacred to heaven or to heaven's lieutenant,—now was simply vulgarised, that is, spent on unworthy objects for the satisfaction, not for the enjoyment, still less for the instruction, of an unapprecia- tive public. renaissance decoration is essentially a style applicable to the houses and furniture of the well-to-do bourgeois, of the great middle class, which in that age for the first time rose into being, partly owing to the long comparative peace following long universal war. descen- dants of the men who had looked with awe and wonder upon the painted windows, the embroidered vestments, the chased armour of the church and the castle, now in all the pride of new-gotten wealth sought to rival what they had formerly revered; forgetting that the art-treasures which they only half appreciated were the work of long ages and produced at untold expense. and so in filling their houses with ornament supplied in a the cinquecento renaissance. guarantee of thorough and thoughtful design. for its only law is strict repetition, that is, cheap production, and its unlimited licence allows the introduction of any object in earth, or heaven, or hell; for a characteristic feature is its insistence upon hideous indecency-not in alluring forms, but in the combinations of everything that can disgust a healthy imagina- tion, and fascinate a diseased fancy. this revolting indelicacy of the sixteenth century ideas-gratuitously degraded, for they teach no moral lesson, and raise no hearty laugh, as do gothic grotesques—need not be further insisted upon, but is too universal to be passed in silence. . and yet, for fear you should suspect special pleading masked under the cloak of modesty, look in any museum, or in the illus- trated catalogues to any museum, and you will see that almost anything dated from the sixteenth century is ornamented chiefly with a particular style of nymphs and satyrs. now a truly classical artist makes of his nymph the ideal of beauty; of his satyr the perfection of the picturesque. but the renaissance the cinquecento renaissance. minate application of all kinds of ornament to all kinds of common use, and, as further study shows, of unsuitable material; and secondly, a new feeling of unrest, of feverish energy, of haste and hurry, fatal to many of the higher qualities of decorative art; which flourishes most among those who have leisure to add beauty to use, thought to beauty, and truth to thought. . there are two other signs of the time, which have very strong bearing upon renais- sance art. the first is the scientific interest, new lights, adventurous free-thought, inquiry into the nature both of things in general and of things in particular, leading to the re- formation, to baconian philosophy, to para- celsus and chemistry, and so forth. in art, this leads to a desire for correctness,—that is to say, for muscular anatomy, for a style of drawing the figure with which the man of science, the surgeon, will be content; however little it may satisfy the psychologist, the poet, the lover of human nature, the designer of fine abstract form,-in fact, either the true gothic artist or the true greek sculptor. the cinquecento renaissance. the case of keats, or they come to a compro- mise to keep apart, as in the well-known amateurs of the present day. correctness, cleverness, “cock-sureness,” has other dangers. aiming at a low standard, try- ing for a hard-and-fast quality which he can attain without much reflective thought, without any sympathy or imagination, the artist is soon content, and no sooner content than dissatisfied. so that he cannot rest with nature, and accept her suggestions from leaves and flowers for ornament, relying upon her hints for perpetual variety and perennial interest, but he must have material upon which to show off his cheap cleverness and conventional correctness. and so, ornament in the renaissance gives up natural forms of vegetation to hunt for violent combinations of impossible associations, of sur- prising monsters, of scrolls and straps, acanthus and the nude torso, at which you never are, because you always expect to be, astonished. one does not tire of copying gothic ornament, any more than of copying nature; but a very few hours exhaust all the impressions that can be obtained from even the finest renaissance i the philosophy of ornament. detail. the truth is, that physical science, and all work done in its spirit, takes in only half of what is possible for us to know and feel; while art, even decorative, should touch the whole diapason of human emotions: and cleverness, correctness, perfection, carried up to a low standard only, make one feel more keenly the absence of a higher ideal. . one more trait of the cinquecento is its machiavellianism. with whatever motives of purely scientific principle, machiavelli formu- lated into a consistent philosophy the dia- bolically selfish and cruel maxims of statecraft current in his time; and his time accepted him as its typical philosopher, as readily as the past generation recognised its own spirit in john stuart mill. in so doing, that age stamped itself with a self-conscious character of deliberate departure from a religious and moral standard which it did not deny, but which it defied. selfishness, cruelty, want of faith in god and man, have always existed, but it was reserved for this sixteenth century to approve them as motives and to adopt them as means. the cinquecento renaissance. with all their cleverness, such men could not but become callous to suffering, cold to enthusiasm, insensible to all finer feeling, unsympathetic to goodness, beauty, and truth; with seared conscience and sealed eyes. now the chief thing needful for worthy art is sensitiveness, sympathy, quickness of appre- hension; and a clever but callous man can never become an artist of any high order. more than that, callousness in action goes hand in hand with coarseness in passion ; and coarseness in life with coarseness in line, that is, want of refinement in curvature, want of thoughtful gradation, of spring, of sweep, of rush, of fall, of tension, of play, of power. now the very stamp and seal of six- teenth century ornament is a certain sort of dull, stupid, uneventful, brutish line; hard, cold, strictly symmetrical fore and aft, star- board and larboard ; compounded of circular, and straight, and feebly crooked; a line like the raucous voice of some argumentative bully, from whom pleasant conversation shrinks in a numb despair. so is this renaissance line like a torpedo-shock to all the faculties and the cinquecento renaissance. refined line and modelling, and yet, contrasted with any earlier ornament, is a cheap thing to produce. take paper and pencil, flourish at haphazard in one corner of the page; rule vertical tangents to these casual curves, double the paper down the middle, and rub off a reversed impression,—you will have a capital tudor linen-pattern, produced without the slightest thought or feeling. unconsciously but seriously one tires of such ornaments; one soon sees the trick of them, and could oneself add “ the superimpending eighty thousand lines, which might, odds bobs, sir ! in judicious hands extend from here to mesopotamy!”. life, in nature and in art, is the thing which defies analysis : to analyse a motive, whether of ethics or of ornament, is to anni- hilate it. and only that decoration will give living pleasure which is beyond analysis, whose secret cannot be found out, but only felt. that can always be, if the decorator lives the life of an artist, loves nature, and loves his work; seeking thought and imagination, the cinquecento renaissance. so to resist the prevailing tendency; and just as examples can be shown of thoroughly bad work in the best periods of gothic art, so examples can be given of good work in the midst of this age of vulgarity, callousness, coarseness, hurry, indelicacy, and licence in thought and in execution. and in the teu- tonic countries, where the older traditions were still strong, german strength and dignity, flemish solidity, english humour and good sense, often overwhelm the worse tendencies of the time. so that we have our nuremburg school, our flanders woodwork, our tudor style, and our shakespeare, to contrast with the mass of corruption in art and literature from which this account of the character of the renaissance sixteenth century has been drawn. there were some industries, too, in which either the traditions of the trade or the nature of the material kept the motives of ornament more or less pure. such were the venice glass works and marquetry, the urbino potteries, and the lucchese and lyons silks. . venice glass—factories at murano exist- ing from time immemorial, but now most the philosophy of ornament. active and widely known—was, from the nature of its material and working, kept from the hardness and coarseness of current ideas. like coils of their fishermen's ropes and swathes of their nets, the ductile “metal” could only be drawn and blown into such whorls and wreaths as the curves of tension regulate, and therefore certainly beautiful. and the translucency of the material, tempered by an undulating surface, which focusses every light in delicate gradation, goes far to trans- form even the most gaudily or clumsily devised glass ornament. to take an interest in it one need not be a connoisseur or collector. it is enough to know that there are six possible sorts,-clear, enamelled, crackled, marbled, flowered, and netted, of which the first sort shows all the virtues of the manufacture; the rest being freaks and fancies more or less imitated from the shards of ancient glass found among roman ruins. . of the venetian marquetry we shall have more to say in discussing the earliest work of next century, which takes its rise now the philosophy of ornament. ings, and their proper use and construction is disguised and invalidated by extraneous orna- ment of brackets and columns, and so forth. so that you are to sit on a tomb, to eat off a triumphal arch, to drink out of a shrine, to wash your hands in a sarcophagus, and brush your hair before a pediment. see how whatever nobility and removedness stirred the imaginations of the quattrocentisti now are vulgarized'; how ideas which should be specially elevating are now, as i said, made common and unclean! . a quite unique combination of classic and oriental ideas is found in the majolica, of the sixteenth century, made in many towns, but chiefly and principally in the territory of urbino, under an enlightened dynasty of dukes; whose court is celebrated in castiglione's “cortegiano,” a platonic dialogue on courtesy, about which there is accessible gossip in mr. j. a. symonds? “renaissance in italy.” during the fifteenth century, these manufactures grew; introduced proximately from sicily or majorca (whence the name majolica), and more re- motely from the arabs and persians, retaining the cinquecento renaissance. english travellers, who have wondered at the gorgeous restorations in the salons of blois, the picturesque pile of chenonceaux, the romantic and historical associations—balls, burials, massacres—of amboise, and wondered most at the finish of everything; which catches an english eye, sympathetic to sand- papered smoothness. but a tourist's hasty inspection does not reveal the superficiality, the haste, the mechanical repetition of their redundant detail, and when the conception is finest it leaves no guarantee that the exe- cution shall be thoughtful and satisfying. indeed, nothing is more disappointing than the arabesques of the loire; if you attempt to draw them in the same spirit of admiration and affection with which you approach the grotesques of normandy and champagne. . england, with france, received direct influence from italy. torregiano came from florence-after breaking michael angelo's nose -and built henry vii.'s tomb. we had other masters, as holbein, for instance; but we pre- ferred to develop our own art in our own way; and so the renaissance ideas made very slow the philosophy of ornament. progress. the perpendicular style was an english style, and the few new ideas sufficed only to turn perpendicular into tudor. the tudor, whatever be its shortcomings, was the style of a noble age in england—the age of elizabeth, of drake, of spenser, and of shakespeare ; holding its own individuality while not refusing whatever of real progress it learnt from its neighbours; and cultivating the substantial, if too rustic, comfort of merry england in those moated granges which a generation ago were the delight of painters and novelists. and the types of ornament belonging to the tudor style, inferior as they are to the grand gothic religious design, are neither so degraded nor so degrading as the stucco and sensuality of contemporary france and italy. the linen-pattern was a little wearisome, but not disgusting; and the abuse of heraldry in tudor decoration betrayed pride, but not licentiousness. it was distinctly a step downward from this to the palladian mouldings of the stuart style, and the “five orders” of the oxford pigmarket. . in essential respects, spain imitates the cinquecento renaissance. italy in cinquecento work; while germany retains much of the gothic power, showing, even in compositions most influenced by classicism, rough dignity and picturesqueness, remarkable in the nuremberg carvers and metal-workers, of whom peter vischer and adam kraft are most familiar names—contem- poraries with dürer, and illustrating, in their materials, the same general impulses as he in his engraving. side by side with nuremberg and the german merchant towns, commercial flanders received the new light; not shining as elsewhere upon a chamber empty, swept, and garnished, but upon the storehouse of gothic tradition, which it lit up into clear- ness and correctness, without swamping all the past in its blaze. the great merchants of antwerp were almost the richest people in the world; their wives were all like queens, the french queen said, and their houses like palaces. so that there was great stimulus to the arts of domestic decoration, which pro- gressed, however, rather in quantity than in quality. flemish renaissance wood-carving and glass-painting are familiar enough to the philosophy of ornament. us through their extensive importation into england during the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth centuries. at oxford much of the old furniture in halls and chapels is of this type ; stained windows of a homely humour, whose quaint mirth does not at all contradict the sanctity of the subject, if one accept it in the childlike, spirit in which it is offered. one of the quaintest pieces of flemish fun is in a french country church, which crowns the ruins of an ancient city set upon a hill, still by tradition montréal, the royal mount; though crumbling cottages niched into crumb- ling ruins of sculptured oolite, and deep wells, choked with ivy, capped with rope-worn cornices, are all that remain. up the solemn street you climb, and everything as old as the hills, as quiet as death. from the overgrown churchyard you see a forlorn valley, treeless côteaux, and granite tors of the silent morvan. inside it is strange and cold—norman arches and massive piles; something oppresses you in the place; it is cramped and closed in. but just under the pulpit are carved stalls, the cinquecento renaissance. and ramping along the edge of one, aloft, à jour before the congregation, two lions tugging at a bone. and one of them is winning it, ecstatic and triumphant; and the other of them, writhing in an agony of despair, knows that the prize is slipping, slipping, slipping from his weakened grasp. nothing could be more ludicrous than this pure northern humour, which alone rescues teutonic art from the blight of the romance renaissance of the sixteenth century. nore lecture vii. the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. . apology for the age.- . its contrast with the cin. quecento.— . court and fashion.— . general history in france and england.- . cabinet-making :-mar- quetry, boule, and the ebenistes.— . china-mania and lacquer.— . rococo.- . baroque.- . dresden china.— . sèvres china.- . chelsea china.- . nymphs and shepherdesses.- . stuart style.— . grinling gibbons.— . queen anne and georgian styles.- . the gothic revival. . the nineteenth century is accustomed to look down upon the eighteenth, as a freshman at college looks down upon the still un- emancipated schoolboy. but there are things to study in a schoolboy; and a freshman is not the highest evolutionary outcome of the human species. we call the age of our grand- fathers the age of shams. poor grandfathers ! and happy grandsons to live in an age of realities—such bright realities too! seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. an apology seems almost necessary for drawing your attention to the arts of this age, which are often thought to be represented only by the caracci, by spagnoletto, by dutch landscapes and flemish kermesses, -and by that dreary gallery at the louvre where every academic insipidity crowds the walls. to be sure there were great artists even then,- vandyke, velasquez, hogarth, reynolds. but every age has its special department of art, beyond which one must not too confidently expect excellence; its one industry, on which all its power is spent, leaving little for other artistic aims. the egyptians could build; the greeks carve statues, the byzantines inlay mosaic, the scandinavians work metal; the gothic artists were supreme at strictly deco- rative stone and glass-work; the cinquecentisti at painting the figure. and as the nineteenth century is a landscape age whose king is turner, so the seventeenth and eighteenth were greatest at cabinet-making; whose king was boule. . considering the new order of things, the new wants and new domestic life, now that the philosophy of ornament. people really lived in houses, and not only crept into them at night like foxes into their holes and birds into their nests, considering in short that houses were now seen rather from the inside than from the outside, it is not surprising that domestic furniture of all sorts, and cabinet-making in particular, should assert itself as a great branch of art, hitherto un- recognised, but no longer unrecognisable. as to style, it must be understood that the renaissance of the cinquecento was a very definite and limited affair, dependent on style, not on subject; on manner, not on matter. it is confined to the century of which the last lecture treated, except for a dribbling vein of dull classicism, surviving indeed to this day, but not truly characteristic of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. renaissance ornament, properly so called, was marked by a vulgarization, a cheapening of ideas; which made its lines coarse, and its figures meaningless : poor reproductions, at best, of a poor class of degenerate roman work. the next centuries are marked by the abandonment of these to the lower orders, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. and the rise of a refined but domestic deco- ration for princes and palaces. . each idea was promptly imitated by the vulgar; no sooner imitated, than abandoned for a fresh fashion : and here we trace the beginning of the age of fashions as distinct from the ages of natural and national styles. at the french court, and elsewhere, refine- ment was an aim; refinement of deportment and conversation was the study of society from louis quatorze to marie antoinette. and the standard was kept up by continual fresh starts and new departures, each one farther and farther away from the cinquecentist ideals. many of these fashions were anything but greek; were chinese or what not: some were classical, but not the classicism of the renais- sance,-fresh discoveries of new ideas in the old mine of græco-roman culture. and throughout all, since rome was, the mere fact of doing nymphs and cupids does not constitute classicism nor even renaissance, in its true sense. it all depends on the way in which such subjects are treated, on the style; of the philosophy of ornament. which one definite kind only is peculiar to the sixteenth century. the study of this period is useful to sociology, as showing how different modern times are from antiquity, in the self-conscious changes of fashion, as opposed to quiet development of national ideas ; exactly the difference between the hot-house cultivation of exotics and the spontaneous sowing of wild flowers. and yet political changes and national character are not without their influence on art. it is from political reasons that france takes the lead throughout ; italy and spain gradually sinking, and germany too troubled generally with war to attend to the arts of peace. england, however, along with imita- tions of france, and a survival of late-imported renaissance motives, has ideas of her own; a healthy common-sense naturalism, gradually rising to the great gothic revival. . the useful racinet tells how the artists of the sixteenth century, after having recon- structed the art of the ancients, wanted a fresh start; and so the volute scroll, the “greatest seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. glory of the italian renaissance," was substi- tuted for the leaf scroll,—" the volute scroll, so logical in an age of woodwork,-like natural rolls of fine shavings.” we have seen, however, that the volute scroll was logical in more ways than one; the logical outcome of an age of coarseness. that was the beginning upon which the next age had to work. then under louis xiii. ( - ; see the historical scheme overleaf), europe was convulsed by the thirty years' war; france not so disturbed. the volute scroll died out; the strap be- coming less hard and parallel, becoming free and foliated : the shell appearing as a motive of ornament, and afterwards developing into rococo. the architectural models till then used as furniture disappeared ; nor was the idea revived till the nineteenth century, when the gothic revival took it up. england flourished under james i.; the riches of the spanish main went to enhance the comforts of a healthy country life. inigo jones adopted as much palladianism as the british philistine of that day would endure ; seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. but most of our decoration was that sort of admixture of gothic and renaissance variously nicknamed stuart, jacobean, baronial or nash- and-cattermole style. then under louis xiv. ( – ) a great activity in building and decorating was displayed. his minister colbert established the academy of design in ,—the gobelins tapestry-works in . marot and berain imitated, but with a difference, the renaissance grotesques; and robert de cotte made carpets and tapestries, pink and blue. now we trace the gradual inroad of eastern motives; in his marquetry, boule brings into play new luxuries of colour and curvature ; but more of him when this rough description of the historical scheme is completed. in england, in the later half of the seven- teenth century, sir christopher wren cham- pioned classicalism ; upon which grinling gibbons grafted his naturalistic carving, and saved much english decoration from that dulness to which pedantic architecture tends. in the reign of louis xv. ( - ) the oriental idea culminated in chinamania and the philosophy of ornament. lacquer, ending in rococo. gillot, watteau, and the panel-painters came to the front; and the porcelain factories, begun at st. cloud and vincennes in , were transferred to sèvres in , thereupon doing their finest work. in england it was the time of hogarth and thornhill—the dullest time, in original deco- ration; for french fashions were the rage, and chinamania at its height; which, however popular, could not be, and cannot be, acclima- tized. all the grand houses were dismally classic; but under queen anne there came into prominence the middle classes, whom the restoration had crushed, as being the movers of the commonwealth. their houses were simply palladian cottages, whose virtue was a homely absence of pretence,-cosy red brick with a little green paint here, and white paint there, harmonizing with the duck-pond in the foreground, and the elm trees behind. inside simplicity itself,—necessary furniture, as useful as possible; a few dutch tiles, brought over in the days of dutch william, and a bit of gibbons carving; chippendale furniture and chelsea pottery for the better sort later on. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. with louis xvi. came the discovery of pompeii ; rococo was brought back to severity and a new classicism, done in white and gold, but admitting painted panels by boucher and fragonard, and neat luxury of movables, all changing with the revolution. then, the republican ideal fell back upon classicism, but of a sturdier sort,—the phrygian bonnet-rouge, fasces, and the triumphal arch, leading to the style empire ; laurel-wreaths, low necks, high waists like greek statues, and hair worn à la grecque. during this time the gothic revival timidly creeps in; beginning under the georges, fostered by sir walter scott and pugin, caught up in france at the reaction to old traditions of monarchy, and of late dominant. . such being the general course of events, we can retrace the several strands of the rope, so to speak, -noting in the various depart- ments of industry their motives of ornament; taking in greater detail, but still as mere sketches, cabinet-making, chinamania, rococo and baroque, pottery, pastoralism, and the english styles. the philosophy of ornament. chasers. and it is always the best work that is the object of criticism; you must judge neither men nor styles from their libellers. under louis xv. boule grew heavier, and furniture larger. the renaissance edgings and mouldings were brought back, till super- seded by rococo, in which violent effect was an object, and portliness rather than elegance ; so that the chased metal was replaced by gilded wood-carving, and the surface of every- thing thrown into “bombé” or bossy un- dulations. with this, lacquer was in vogue, of which more, in connection with chinamania; superseded by the new marquetry of the pompeian period of louis xvi., done chiefly in ebony, whence its artists (of whom the best known names are riesener and roentgen) are called the ebènistes. they used tulip, rose- wood, holly, maple, laburnum, and ebony from ceylon and madagascar, to inlay wreaths or bouquets on a flat surface, with diapered sides and corners to their cabinets; which were designed to harmonize with a new, daintily severe classicism, suggested by discovery of the philosophy of ornament. of louis xiii., silk and textiles, and rouen faience. during the seventeenth century, dutch commerce had opened out the far east, and a new orientalism was introduced to europe, hitherto taught chiefly by. aryan persia, but now saturated with turanian china and japan; that is, we substituted a grotesque for a noble school of teachers, and changed our standard from grandeur of design to cleverness of manu- facture. the jesuits in japan (before the great massacre which closed those islands to euro- peans), and travellers in asia, like bernier, created a great interest in oriental work; and with the eighteenth century chinamania set in. hogarth's pictures show the mantel- shelves crowded with blue china; contempor- ary satire ridicules the rage, and contemporary art reflects it. a sign of the entrance of the asiatic idea, some time before, is the introduction in gillot's tapestry, otherwise the worst sort of renaissance arabesque, of moguls, tents and armour of the east, instead of nymphs and cupids. and even the porcelain and lacquer- seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. interest of society in the philosophy and antiquarianism of the pre-revolutionist illu- mination. . the counterpart of rococo in other branches of art-industry is baroque, whose home is dresden. throughout germany, the successors of dürer and vischer, who worked in that unique and interesting style which tempered the gothic with italian tenderness and classic correctness,—all these schools had been swept away by the thirty years' war of gustavus adolphus, which destroyed old art- guilds as well as the resources and houses of patrons, ending only in . not only the workers, but the work was destroyed, just as in , in france, louis xiv. melted down all gold and silver plate upon which he could lay hands, to pay the expenses of war. about this time, in germany, frederick augustus the strong, elector of saxony and king of poland, held his luxurious and disso- lute court at dresden, for whose delight the gay and affected art of the meissen porcelain was practised; and goldsmiths and jewellers threw off the last remains of classic simplicity the philosophy of ornament. to adopt the style called baroque, still to be studied in the green vaults at dresden, where all manner of monstrosities may be seen,- ostrich eggs, shells, mis-shapen pearls, and so forth,—worked up into vases and jewels. much of this is attributed to johann melchior ding- linger ( — ), an extremely clever man, but one who spent his cleverness not in furthering art, but in elaborating toys and trifles, such as the model of the court of aurungzebe, his masterpiece. . associated with these “chinoiseries” is dresden china, charming in fresh colour and suggestive naturalism; but coarse in curve, and vulgar in conception; without the serious satire and noble grotesque which made earlier german art more valuable even than aristo- phanes or hogarth. the exact value of dresden china is better understood by a comparison of its character with the french and english porcelain of the eighteenth century-sèvres and chelsea. . of sèvres china, as everyone knows, and indeed few but bric-a-brac specialists know much more, there is the hard and the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. soft paste ; the hard most scientific, the soft most artistic. the latter manufactured during the whole eighteenth century, the former only since . the central time lasted for twenty or thirty years after the middle of the century, after which the artistic value declines. during this time the commoner pieces were made with a plain ground painted with flowers or fruit, presentation pieces with coloured ground, as turquoise, rose pink, called rose dubarry, and mostly royal blue, relieved with arabesques or veining of gold. later on, gems and enamel were inlaid. beside vases and table services, were made especially plâques and slabs for .furniture and statuettes, of all of which ex- amples are to be seen in the south kensington museum, in the splendid collection lately left by mr. john jones. and if such hurried hints as are here stolen from generally ac- cessible sources serve only to awake an intelli- gent interest in these different departments of art, that is all they mean to do; for a series of more appreciative studies would be quite out of perspective in the limited space we have for review of the whole range of decorative history. the philosophy of ornament. for natural imitation, the eighteenth century work can well be surpassed; for ideal grace, not at all. now there is a fitness for deco- rative purposes in frank abandonment of attempts to imitate nature, as you feel on seeing real flowers in a vase decorated with lifelike porcelain ones; and beside that, a rightness in the ready subordination of frame to picture, which you do not see when both are equally natural and equally attractive. this it is which fixes the superiority of sèvres and even chelsea as decorative art over dresden china. .. . the illustration of pastoral poetry is too prominent in decorative art to be passed over without some remark on the history of the nymph and shepherdess which adorn, in very different forms, most pieces of seventeenth and eighteenth century work. we have seen what cruel treatment these amiable heroines received from the renaissance designers, who turned them into the most insipid or unde- sirable monsters that a delirious fancy could suggest. in the time of louis xiii., how- ever, lepautre's friezes are raphael grotesques seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. by hand, evidently without hesitation and without mishap. country houses abound with this fine though unpretending work.” that is exactly the sort of work nowadays wanted. there is good carving done, but it is preten- tious, expensive, and highly finished: but the time may come when both the public and the profession will learn to value ornament in which there is more intellectual power and less mechanical drudgery,—sketches in wood by real artists; less expensive because less laboured, while infinitely more valuable be- cause more thoughtful and skilful, than any- thing that is in vogue at present. . middle-class domestic furniture of queen anne and the early georges followed france, though wrought by carvers with some of the traditions of gibbons, degenerating into rococo. later in the eighteenth century the chippendales produced a great variety of designs, sometimes french, sometimes after sir w. chambers and the adains, who kept to a certain classical severity. thomas chip- pendale published his patterns in , and after him his son carried on his work; making the present day. reckoned, not by the number of articles turned out, but by the number of decorative ideas. in barbarian polynesia or uncivilized asia every new mat or bowl is a new design, not quite intentionally so, perhaps, but so by preference. in the ancient empires, in me- diæval europe, every workman left upon every work the stamp of a human life and a human love given to nature and to art. this straightforward sincerity was a constant factor, so to speak, toward the production of decorative art-work; and, working together with the varying conditions of life and social character, formed spontaneous national or epochal styles. . in this sense there is no modern decor- ative art. what is so called is imported from barbarians, mere plagiarism; or copied from the ancients, mere affectation. of these stolen or affected ornaments, there are five classes, none of which are national or epochal, even in the sense of being acceptable equally to rich and poor, educated and uneducated, common-sense natures and poetical; and all these fashions are appreciated only by a the philosophy of ornament. clique, and hardly accepted by the crowd, which cares for none of these things. . the first is gothicism, advocated once by men who were generous enough to believe that the nineteenth-century british public had that seriousness and sturdiness of character which made gothic art the expression of mediæval england, but without which gothic art is only an archæological pastime, or an insincere affectation. it is useless to copy the work, and not to copy the workman. to be a gothic artist does not mean to make an inadequate reduced model of some ancient cathedral, and drop it down into the slums or the squares of a modern manufacturing town or commer- cial city,—it means to live up to the standard of the men who made old england in their working days of war, and made the old english churches and castles in their holiday intervals of peace. a modern gothic designer, however high may be his own private aims, is not the full and true exponent of society, not the artist of his age. however great may be the educational influence of such the present day. isolated endeavours, they cannot be called national, except so far as they hint at national regret for national decadence. . another kind of ornament in vogue i do not know whether to call parisianism or philistinism. by a meretricious mixture of staring realistic iinitation and gaudy worn-out renaissance motives, it appeals to the vulgar, whose chief notion of being pleased is to be surprised, and whose chief notion of being surprised is to be deceived. deception, whether in morals or in art, is evil, and is no less indefensible in decoration, where it sins against those laws of constructive fitness and utility, which, we have seen throughout, rule all noble ornament. a carpet that pre- tends to have real flowers upon it, or a wall that pretends to have real panels and pictures upon it, is so much the less a wall or a carpet ; and if want of sensibility did not go hand in hand with want of sense, such attempts at imitative deception would not be easily tole- rated. when, however, the luxury, for which this style panders, demands in addition sug- gestions of sensuality, as in the art of the the philosophy of ornament. sixteenth century, one feels that the only claim of such design to represent the age is based on its representation of the age's lowest passions. . a third style, now very generally ac- cepted, and so to speak the official or academi- cal state style (for there can be a state art as well as a state church), is that encouraged by the government schools. it was evolved out of gothicism, adapted to the conveniences of mechanical manufacture; and formulated by eminent and enlightened men, now passed away, in the hope of making the best of a bad business, by producing articles which would content the unappreciative, while not offending the educated. it was a reacticn from the school of philistinism which accepted wax- work and the old berlin wool patterns. it was based on remnants of mediæval tile- designs and such like, where the intent and mode of working enforced a simplification of natural objects; and all the little varieties (accidental or intentional, but always encou- raged) of gothic expression were “corrected” according to rules of symmetry supposed to be derived from the greeks. the present day. the society that best represents the present age ? the intelligent art-loving man of the world admires the cinquecento, and its ideas ; literary and artistic circles are now tending to sixteenth-century motives of thought, of economy, of art; producers are catching at the idea, and renaissance patterns are driving out all others. the populace take kindly to the hard lines and harsh colours which express their own lives and feelings,- and we all congratulate ourselves upon the “ spread of art among the masses”! in a word, we are playing over again the drama of the cinquecento; only the cry then was for culture, and now it is for “science.” we are all, in spite of ourselves, children of the age ; and except by special and strenuous efforts, blind to its faults and tendencies. the reader no doubt resented that severe criticism upon sixteenth-century ornament in lecture vi. we all of us resent criticism upon the re- naissance, little remarking the reason. but recollect the character of that age, and com- pare it with the character of this, and there the presen't day. create and be the symbol of pride, of ennui, or of immorality. does any one sit before a machine-made pattern and gaze at it with pleasure and profit ? if not, for what is it there ? and further, do not second-rate things offend you when they are found out and fathomed? is not second- rateness one of the great torments of life to anyone who has ever taken deep delight in what is true and great ? after once you have felt tears start at the pathos and passion of shakespeare, can you be thrilled by eliza cook ? when you have known the supreme joy of owning the unapproachable power of a great master, can you go phrasing compliments to any incapable conceited dauber and fiddler ? to those who know what is good in art, inferior decoration is impertinent; to those who don't, no decoration is any use at all. there would be no artistic or economical advantages sacrificed in any catastrophe which should deprive decorative art of machinery and all the mean material of display which machinery introduces. the buyer could con- centrate his ornament upon the few points the philosophy of ornament. in a house which demand it; and make sure of a high quality rather than a distracting quantity; content with distempered walls, and simple furniture for the most part, like the greeks and romans, the mediævals and orientals. the producer, in becoming an artist or art-workman instead of a machine-minder (or little better), cannot help being improved intellectually and socially; and the frequently discontented or drunken operatives of the decorative trades of england and france would be replaced by men who were encou- raged to think and to love their work, and consequently had everything to make them sober and satisfied. for you can only make folk live rightly if you let them work rightly; and social reform is wasted, if spent on re- gulating their holidays, while their hours of toil are uncheered and misdirected. . but supposing we should find a number of people untainted or less tainted by the faults and follies of the age, willing to lead honest and true lives, working for a good time coming in hope and heartiness and there are such, here and everywhere), what would be their the present day. attitude towards decorative art ? some of them would reply, with various ascetic reformers, but in grave error, that they shun art, as being mixed up with the vices and falsehood of the world which they have left. but we have seen that it is simply not in our power to shun art. art follows us wherever we go; in whatever way ascetic, we can no more do without it than without food. clearly, then, it must be recognized, and put into its right place. what would be the place and nature of the right decoration for such healthier and better lives of to-day ? not a copy of any old- world style, simply because we are not the exact copies of any old-world people. but we should watch how they set about it, and do likewise, or at least beware of doing otherwise. the art we hope for might express the better life of any better class or community in which it was practised, but only on con- dition that it sprang up naturally; being neither unwisely fostered nor unkindly re- pressed. it is impossible to manufacture a style of art; as impossible as to manufacture the philosophy of ornament. of flowers or birds or beasts for the sake of con- ventionalization or “good taste.” if you had pointed out to them any mistakes in "drawing," they would not have scorned you for a fool or philistine, or have muttered mysteries about high art, but would have sought to “mend their line and sin no more.” and if we would work as the great greek or gothic schools worked, we should do our best, so far as our material and useful purpose will allow, to make a rose the shape and colour of a rose—not of a bunch of ribbon ; to make a bird like a bird, not like a dragon ; to copy nature, in accord- ance with our second canon. all modern conscious and wilful departure from this aim has proved morally false and artistically fatal; everybody, in his heart, laughs at the affectations of the academic schools, and rightly, too. . on these terms, and on these only, our decoration will be art. but how can we make our art decorative ? how exactly apply the canons of adaptation and conventionalization ? for this we must study the experience of our masters. the soil alone without the good the philosophy of ornament. suggestive likeness to nature. that we must not falsify natural form and colour; but at the same time we must not falsify the use, material, and construction of our decorated article. without study of the decorative art of barbaric tribes and ages, we should not feel the interest and use of ornament in symbolism, and the didactic expression of thoughts often too deep for words. without study of egypt and assyria we should not readily discover the secrets of solemnity and symmetry, of vigour and breadth. without study of indian and persian art we might never guess what beauty lies in well- disposed masses of colour; in steady sweet curvature of graceful contours and noble surfaces; in harmony of tone. without study of the chinese and japanese we might still be strangers to the charms of freedom, fun, variety, expression, deftness, finish; and clear, delicate or strong colour apart from tone. without study of greek we could not know the meaning of great design, of harmonious lines and masses, of proportion and composi- the present day. be impossible to make it so; for we cannot make ourselves, nor do more than train the faculties which our fathers and our country have given us. but we can train them aright, or train them wrong; and whatever the training be, it will show itself in the work, at unawares to the worker. if your hand is thoroughly trained to greek draughtsmanship, your drawing will show it; if you have eyes accustomed to asiatic glow or gothic glory of colour, your design will show it. but there is no trick to make a drawing greek, no dodge to make colour gothic, except such shallow charlatanism as will soon be discovered, scorned, and ridiculed. there is nothing more lamentable than the attempt to teach design by rote and rule. it can only be taken in by natures which are born for it, and at the expense of serious study of ancient masterpieces. . what we desire, says everyone, is to do great things like the greek and gothic masters. very well! and how did they do great things? they lived artists' lives of love to nature and their work, of acute sensibility to all that was good or beautiful, among a public the philosophy of ornament. as ready to discern the good and beautiful, and to abide by it. they studied the best possible examples to begin with, and then copied nature as they saw it. we english have not their capacity; but if we can and will do this,-in spite of foggy skies, of smoky towns, of grimy homes, of social errors; in spite of vulgarity, of greed, and the rest of our national shortcomings, -a school of honest and honourable decoration, representing the best of english life and the sum of human experience, is possible, however small its beginnings: and once begun must rise to claim a place,-and why not a very high place ?-in the history of decorative art. hazell, watson, and viney, printers, london and aylesbury. но aug . text books of ornamental design. the planning of ornament. lewis ff^day, i author of 'every-day art,' 'the anatomy of i'attern,' etc. illustrated. london: b. t. batsford, , high holborn. i . i ; i text books of ornamental design. by lewis f. day. ii. the planning of ornament. text books of ornamental design. by lewis f. day. now ready, i. the anatomy of pattern. illustrated with plates. ii. the planning of ornament. illustrated with plates. in. in preparation. this third volume of the series will treat of ornamental design in its relation to materials, tools, and the process of its execution. preface. the- second of a series of text books stands scarcely in need of preface. the aim and scope, as well as the origin, of this series was duly set forth in 'the anatomy of pattern.' what was there said applies for the most part to the present volume. it was not possible in this case to make the plates speak quite so plainly for them- selves as in the former handbook; but i have made a point of referring to them specifically at every turn, at the risk even of tiresome iteration. they are arranged strictly in the order in which mention is made of them, and placed as near as possible to the allusion to them in the text. the fact that on the publication of 'the anatomy of pattern,' i was invited by the department of science and art to deliver a short course of lectures on the subject at y ry jul - ? vi preface. south kensington, leads me to hope that these text books are likely to fulfil the educa- tional purpose i had in view in undertaking them. lewis f. day. i , mecklenburg square, london, w.c. november lotk, i . table of contents. page i.—introductory i ii.—the use of the border iii. —within the border i iv. —some alternatives in design v.—on the filling of the circle and other shapes vi.—order and accident list of plates. xi . door decoration—in which the larger panel is broken up, to bring it more into scale with the smaller panels. . carved dado—with square panel shapes within the panels. . design—in which the borders are interrupted. . door—in which the disproportion of the panels is recti- fied by borders supplementary to the mouldings. i. panel—where the borders round a central medallion interrupt the borders of the panel itself. . subdivisions—each with its own ornamental filling. . panel—eccentrically cut in two. . broken surface—japanese diaper without repeat. . stencilled roof decoration — designed in cross bands to correct the parallel lines of the joists. . diagrams—explanatory of the subdivision of the circle. . old glass — showing interlacing or overlaying of shapes. . panels—jointly symmetrical. the planning of ornament. proceed, the better; and if it can be shown (as it can) that these are, comparatively speaking, few and simple, so much the easier will it be for him to make up his mind promptly and determinedly which of them he will in any given case adopt. the shape of the actual space to be filled will oftentimes determine for him, more or less, the distribution of his design. that is to say, it may very likely render certain schemes altogether unavailable, and perhaps even limit his choice to a single plan; but at his very freest he is limited, in the nature of things, to certain methods of procedure presently to be defined. plainly it would be out of the question to discuss at length the relation of every possible plan to every possible shape. i purpose, therefore, to take the simple parallelogram (which may stand for panel, page, floor, ceiling, carpet, curtain, wall, window, door, facade, no matter what), and to show the possibilities with regard to the distribution of ornament over its surface. it will then remain only to explain how the same princi- ples apply, no matter what the shape to be filled. the planning of ornament. use be in itself of some intrinsic interest. it is distinctly not desirable to mar the surface of beautiful wood or richly varied marble with added ornament. and, for example, with the cabinet maker it resolves itself pretty generally (unless he should once in a while mean to indulge in ultra lavish enrichment), into a question of whether he shall enrich his panels or the mouldings bordering them. the proportion of a border is of more importance to a scheme of design than might be supposed. it makes all the difference whether it is simple or elaborate in character. a very deep rich border has such an entirely different effect from a moderately simple one, that it looks something like a different treat- ment altogether. compare plates , , and , and see what a different part the border plays in each. the ornament on plate might appropriately enrich a page of text: that on plate requires obviously some more substantial filling. the strength of the border goes for something as well as its depth. borders may easily be so schemed (and should be so schemed) as to give panels of proportions calculated to allow of the decora- tion proposed for them. if, for instance, a ^plate c.r ktu, 'moto-uitho. •.(.uhmival f holimke.i- fplate ate . j akerman photo litb london the use of the border. panel is to be filled with a diaper, arrange- ment should be made, as in plate , for the "repeat" of the pattern within it. if it is to contain a figure or a figure subject, it should be of a proportion and size not too difficult to occupy with a figure or figure subject. in the case of an isolated panel, this is perhaps of less importance—the artist ought to be equal to the occasion—but in the case of a series of panels to be treated in accord, the problem is made infinitely more difficult when they are of all manner of shapes and sizes. it is no easy matter to scheme even the simplest ornament into panels of such widely different shapes and sizes as occur in the section of a staircase on plate . awkward framing enough, it may be said; but it is with such framing that the decorator has only too frequently to deal. again in plate the necessity of accommodating one's ornament to shapes so unequal as the panels of the door, has obviously to a considerable extent controlled the design. but for those small upper panels, it would never have occurred to one to break up the longer panels in that way. the planning of ornament. there is a salon in the palace at fontaine- bleau in which the proportions of the panel- ling prove to be due almost entirely to the painter, who has brought the larger panels into scale with the smaller by means of a series of borders within the actual mouldings. it is much less trouble of course for the joiner, when he has an awkward space to panel, to determine the width of the stiles, and let the panels come as they may. but a very little consideration on his part would save the decorator, who comes after him, an infinity of pains. and though it may be the business of the decorator to get over difficul- ties of the sort, his work is not so easy that there is any occasion to put difficulties in his way. the stiles which frame a panel may be con- sidered as its border; the mouldings again, are so many borders within borders. a border which is made up of many lines really constitutes a series of borders one within the other. the use of border within border as a deliberate scheme of ornament is common enough, as was the case in certain tooled bookbindings of the seventeenth cen- tury, one of which is represented on plate . (plate fp ate the use of the border. you may even add border to border until the whole field is occupied. it is not altogether uncommon in renaissance cabinet-work to find the panel encroached upon by border after border of mouldings until it dwindles practi- cally to nothing. the obvious and simple thing to do with a border is to keep it of one uniform and equal width. but such equality of width is by no means essential. you may see in mediaeval illuminations the effect, more or less satisfac- tory, of emphasising two sides of the page. nor need the border necessarily be continued all round the space at all. curtains have often a border on two sides only, and some- times only on one, marking what one may call the lips of the hangings. you may look upon the architrave of a door as a border on three sides of it only. and in the same way a mantelpiece partly frames the fire-grate, the fender completing the scheme. a certain reasonableness is the most complete justifica- tion of such partial bordering. every frame is a border. no matter how irregular the shape of it may be, a frame's a frame "for a' that." it may take the archi- tectural form of cornice, pilasters, and dado, the planning of ornament. or it may be arched; and in either case the architectural members are but unequal borders. all this applies, it need scarcely be said, not only to an architectural picture frame, but to architecture itself, and to whatever may be framed. something like a new departure occurs when the border, so to speak, invades the field or centre of the panel, as it very often does in french renaissance work, sometimes to such an extent that little or no further decoration of the field is necessary. there is an indication of such trespass in plate , where the "swag" and corner ornaments, which belong to the border, cut boldly across the face of the panel. in some of the inter- lacing strap work of the henri ii. period (the french equivalent to our elizabethan ornament), you cannot always clearly tell where the border begins and ends, or even whether a border was intended at all. it looks sometimes as if the designer had started with the notion of a border, but had allowed it so to encroach upon the field, or the field upon it, that in the end it is not at all clearly recognisable as such. an example of the kind occurs in plate i . you may ti ate . or t lia . photo-litho, b,rurhival st ho li uh, e . o cplate *p»oto-timt" by junes alcerm»n io the planning of ornament. well able to take care of itself. in the case of a panel in which the enrichment only partially occupies the ground, it is often advisable to introduce a subsidiary border, losing itself behind such more prominent enrichment. one appreciates the freak of the japanese as a relief from the monotony of absolutely formal disposition; but it is not a thing to indulge in very freely. it is refreshing to see that a man is not afraid of infringing occasionally upon the margin—on sufficient grounds; but the licence needs always to be justified by some excuse other than the artist's impatience of order. we have to be on our guard against a certain spirit of anarchy which appears to have taken posses- sion of so many a modern artist. there is a class (one cannot call it properly a school) which will repudiate, not only all the laws of art, but the need of all law whatsoever. urgent need there may be of reform in our ideas of art, perhaps even of revolution; but sobriety recognises in the artistic anarchist only the enemy of art. there is no peculiar sanctity implied in a margin, that it should be held inviolate; but !ate . <?la,te . t.r. k«u, photo-litho.a.fuhmrval ft mm >m,i o the use of the border. i they who least like formal lines are bound to adopt it; although they are perpetually re- belling against its formality, and doing their best to break it up, as in the case of the encroaching and interrupted borders already mentioned. the very naivest way of getting over the difficulty—it is a difficulty, there is no denying —is by, so to speak, snipping a piece or two out of the panel, and carrying the border round the incisions, so as to get a more or less irre- gular central space instead of the four-square parallelogram. in the certosa near florence, there are some windows by giovanni da udine (the border of one of them is illustrated on plate i ), in which he has deliberately snipped pieces (a) out of the space to be filled, and left them as so many gaps in the design. we can forgive this kind of thing once in a way; but it stands very much in need of justifi- cation. where a gap has some meaning it is different. in the case where there is a square block or patera occupying the corner, as you sometimes see in seventeenth century wood-panelling (and on plates i and i ), u f?late the use of the border. i the margin, diffusing itself, and giving a less definite central shape. but it is not so much the design of the border that we are considering at present as the place of the border in design—on which point enough for the present has been said. i the planning of ornament. iii. within the border. though you abandon all idea of bordering, and elect to place, as you well may, some arbitrary shape within the parallelogram, the space round about that shape may indeed be considered as an irregular border to the same. if, for example, you plant in the centre of the space a medallion, and round that medallion sketch a cartouche, after the manner of jost amman in plate i , the cartouche and the rest of it,may be called the frame or border of the medallion; and, again, the ground beyond the edge of the ornament may be taken to be the margin or border to that. but it is going rather out of the way to look at amman's design in that light. in the example chosen for illustration we have arbitrary shapes, one within the other; byt one might just as well have two or more such independent shapes. nothing is easier lan to take a simple field, and to spot about the planning of ornament. the central feature need not, of course, be a frame of any kind; it may be a figure, a spray of flowers or ornament, a vignette, a spot, a spray—as free as painter's heart could wish. or, just as in the case of the closely- packed border, whose shape was marked without the aid of boundary lines, so any central sprig of ornament or foliage may be so densely massed within a square, circle, quatrefoil, or other imaginary form, as to assume a quite regular outline. such group- ing of the ornament is shown very plainly in plate , where the circular shape is emphatically pronounced without the aid of any enclosing line. you see the same thing very commonly in indian art. a number of sprays, or other features, free or formal, group themselves into a sort of diaper. such diaper should naturally have some reference to the space it fills, or it will appear less than trivial. the design on plate forms a panel, plates i and are only bits of diaper work. whether the com- ponent units of such a decoration be all alike, or of various design, is a question independent of the lines of their distribution. the variety in plate is at all events amusing. one wate . c r nui rkotp-utko. b.rurhivm s* hohjhn: within the border. i does not readily grasp all that is in it. there is always something to find out; which is just what there would not be in a simple and orderly geometric pattern of the european type. a mere series of bands or stripes across the field (vertical, horizontal, diagonal, waved, or in whatever direction), is an obviously simple way of getting over the ground, about which not much further need be said. as the filling of a panel, such a treatment as that shown on plate is not very adequate. rightly employed it forms, however, a very fit and proper method of decoration: for the slight enrichment of a vase, from which it is taken, nothing could well be more apropos than this banded scheme of ornament. such filling as a scroll or anything of the kind may be quite freely drawn, as on plates i and , or disposed symmetrically in rela- tion to an imaginary central line or spinal cord, as in plates ir, i , i , &c. ; or it may radiate from the centre, as it naturally would in a ceiling, pavement, carpet, or other object demanding an all-round treatment. radia- tion of the design occurs in plates and i . the scroll work, or what not, might equally c the planning of ornament. proceed from two ends of the panel, as in plate , or from the sides, or from both sides and ends, either symmetrically or at irregular intervals; or it might spring from the corner or corners, as in the lower half of plate . the treatment from the corners is, again, adapted to, and often adopted in, ceiling decoration. in principle it is very right indeed; but in practice it is not invariably all that decorator could desire. the "line and corner" tune, as it may be called, has been harped upon until one is chronically sick of it, even when it is played in time—which is not always the case. a corner-wise treatment is seen to advan- tage when it has been suggested by use, as in the metal garniture of old book bindings, and in the clamps of coffers such as german smiths of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries elaborated with such workmanlike pride. in the tooled binding of the henri ii. period, given on plate i , the corner is very carefully taken into consideration, such consideration being very possibly a survival from the times when the corners were habitually protected by metal-work. you see also in book covers f? a,te doot\s; ofolcf i uriels itjcom-plefe or the planning of ornament. front of the box is not enough for the dragon on plate . yet you will observe that there is a certain consideration for ornamental pro- priety in the disposition, for example, of the creature's claws. there also, the artist, in his very different fashion, chooses to consider the whole object his field, and not just the portion of it.he sees before him. there is a certain logic in his licence, too; but the more restrained manner of the mediaeval workman is, in proportion to its restraint; the more to be preferred. where the design—scroll, foliage, or what- ever it may be—bears no relation at all to the shape or space it occupies, like the diapers on plates i and , it ceases to be surface design, and is merely a means of breaking the surface. it is only as a background that such hap-hazard distribution of forms has any meaning. but then a good deal of decorative design pretends to be no more than back- ground. a very satisfactory and effective result is sometimes reached where the artist starts, as it seems, with the idea of a diaper, more or less geometrical, and, as he approaches the centre of the panel, gathers together the within the border. pattern, so to speak, into points of emphasis. you see this in the roman pavement repre- sented on plate . that is a case in which the design was unmistakably set out first of all in geometric divisions, certain of which divisions were afterwards grouped together to give point to the pattern. if you analyse any of the old jacobean ceiling designs, or the italian originals on which they are but variations, you will find that many of them may be resolved into very simple diapers, on a rather large scale, adapted to the space they fill, and emphasised here and there by figure subjects or other special filling of some of the more prominent geometric compartments. the difference between the method of design employed in plate , and the plan adopted in the kind of design shown on plate i is, that in these last the central shapes appear rather to have suggested the corresponding interlace- ments than the interlacements to have led up to them. but even* in such a case it seems desirable that the artist should have in his mind from the beginning some kind of idea of geometric construction. the longer he can manage to keep that geometric notion in his the planning of ornament. mind, without putting it on paper, the more freely he can go to work. that same faculty of holding a design, so to speak, in solution in the mind, is most invaluable to the designer. a notion is so much more manageable in its fluid state. once an idea is allowed to crystallise into definite form, it is no easy matter to modify it should the space to be decorated be very considerable in extent, it is often necessary to cut it up into sections, otherwise than by merely marking off a border. a wall, for example, is divided into cornice, frieze, wall space, dado, and so on. some such sub- divisional process may be adopted in the case of a smaller panel, with a view to modi- fying its proportions, for any reason, as in the centre panel of the door on plate . or the space may be divided vertically into panels, of equal or unequal width. a building in several stories is an instance of the one kind of division, a colonnade of the other. if the subdividing lines take both direc- tions, the result is a scheme of panelling, such as was commonly adopted in the domestic wainscoting of some centuries ago. 'ate ffl r -; :i m i! ; ^ ! w • ! ii ;i hi c r kill, fh t -lhho.a.ru«mvftl s' holiohn.k within the border. further, by the introduction of cross-lines at various angles, or of curved lines, we arrive, by a different road, at panelling of more com- plicate character, and at something like the interlaced patterns to which reference has already been made, or like the setting out of plate . it is clear that these various ways and means may be associated; and under the complex conditions of the times, they usually are more or less " highly mixed." thus one may, as i have said, begin with a border, and then treat the space within it in any of the ways already described; one may divide a wall horizontally into two, with a diaper or frieze at the top, and panelling below; or into three, with frieze, wall, and dado, either one of which may again be broken up, like the dado on plate ; where the up- right panels into which it is divided are broken by small contrasting inner panels of flat carving. one may plant upon the field any independent feature, frame, shield, tablet, or such like, and then fill in the background without regard to it, as though a portion of the design were lost behind it. as many as three, or more, plans may be associated. for the planning of ornament. example, one might, as on plate , stretch across a title-page a tablet, then introduce a border disappearing behind it, and the spaces enclosed between the border and the top and bottom of the tablet one might treat again either as one interrupted panel or as two independent parts. the fact, however, that they are both, as it were, on one plane in the design, seems to require that they should both be treated in much the same way. the possibilities opened out by this associ- tion of various plans, are obvious. some alternatives in design. iv. some alternatives in design. the use of the border is not, of course, con- fined to the outer edge of the main space to be filled. every sub-section of the design may be provided with its own border, as you see in the case of panelling, where each separate panel has its own border of mouldings. plate shows two panels only of the design emphasised by independent borders within the outer frame. on plates and , the mouldings round the door panels are supple- mented by additional painted borders. a central feature, such as the medallion on plate i, may have its border or borders, interlacing with, intercepting, or intercepted by, the borders which mark the space or panel itself. a surface, once subdivided, as already described, two separate courses are open to the artist. the one is to accept each com- partment as a separate panel, designing his the planning of ornament. . ornament into it; in the manner shown on plate . the other, which is no less reason- able, is to make his ornament continuous throughout; allowing it, that is to say, to cross the dividing lines or to interlace with them; more in the manner of plate i . again, the two plans may be combined, certain prominent parts being reserved for individual treatment, and the subsidiary spaces only being linked together by the forms of the ornament, as though in plate the pattern had been allowed to meander through the lesser panels, the central diamond only being reserved for the grotesque head. which of these plans may be the better to adopt is a question of some nicety, not always easily to be decided. what rational ques- tion is? in proportion to the importance of the framing lines, it becomes dangerous to overstep them. who ventures nothing runs no risk of failure; but neither will he achieve any great success in art. and then there is the charm of danger. soldiers, sports- men, and mountaineers, are not the only class of persons privileged to run a risk. it is a luxury we may all indulge in on occasion —were it not so, art would be no congenial the planning of ornament. of the unpardonable sin, the sin of disobedience to the conditions of design. an actually hap-hazard or eccentric scheme of composition, such as a japanese will some- times affect, is hardly in contradiction to what i have laid down. when a japanese artist cuts a panel quaintly into two, after the manner of plate , and treats each part of it as seems good to his queer mind, he is only doing what the greek did when he cut off a portion of his wall space, and treated it as a frieze; though he does it more energetically, not to say spasmodically, and with less appreciation of grace. so, again, when the said japanese strews buds and blossoms about a box top, and breaks up the ground between with conven- tional, though very accidental, lines of crackle, as on plate , or when he crams all manner of geometric diapers into a panel, as on plate , he is only doing in a more eccentric manner what the european artist does, with greater regard for symmetry, when he disposes his sprigs or what not on a geometric basis. if only he arrive at balance, which he almost invariably does (so little is his instinct, in this respect likely to err), there is no occasion to some alternatives in design. cry out against him. we, on our part, are perhaps too much disposed to design as though there were no possible distinction between symmetry and balance, between bulk and value—as though the little leaden weight did not balance the heaped-up pound of fruit, or feathers in the scale. design apparently quite unrestrained, such as the men of the renaissance habitually indulged in, proves very often, upon exami- nation, to be constructed upon one or other of the systems i have described. sometimes, indeed, the system of construction is very frankly indicated, though not precisely de- fined—the confession, that is to say, is full enough to ensure absolution for any offence there may be against strict order. on plate i there is blotted in a panel of ornament somewhat on the lines of androuet du cerceau, in which the central feature is an echo of the medallion treatment, whilst certain vertical and horizontal lines recall, however vaguely, the notion of a border. such reminiscences of severely constructional lines give additional charm, as it seems to me, to design otherwise fanciful, and even fantastic in character. it is as though a man said in some alternatives in design. to shorten. there is a case in point given on plate , where the disproportionate, though constructionally very proper, length of the panels of a roof is mitigated by the band-wise arrangement of the stencilled ornament. a similar system was found by the greeks to be the most satisfactory way of dealing with draperies. their pet idea of decorating a full skirt seems to have been by means of so many parallel patterns. you have only to refer to the terra-cottas at the british museum to see both of these uses illustrated, often in a single vase. what one would do, then, is not the same thing as what might be done. the possi- bility, as distinguished from the expediency, of distribution, is in all cases much the same. but there must necessarily be some correspon- dence between detail and its distribution. for all that, there is no cut and dried rule as to the association of this kind of detail with that kind of distribution, or vice versd. it does not even follow that the descrip- tion of detail usually found in connection with a certain order of composition is the only detail appropriate to it. the connection of the one with the other is evidence only of d the planning of ornament. their conformity, not at all of the incongru- ity of other combinations. it is just possible to fry without bread-crumbs. is it not chiefly laziness (where it is not a suspicion of our own incompetence) which tempts us to adopt bodily what has already been found to suc- ceed? there are so many people in the world to whom it comes easier to take what there is than to give what is theirs. a design is in harmony, not when it is strictly according to greek or gothic prece- dent, but when the parts all fit. suppose, for instance, the lines in a compo- sition lead up to some prominent feature, that feature must be of sufficient interest to justify the attention it attracts. there are positions so prominent they almost demand figure design properly to occupy them. such central features as those in plates i, i , and i are bound in consistency to be of more importance than their surroundings. i don't mean to say that an heraldic shield like that on plate is essentially of pro- foundest interest; but in the eyes of its owner at least it is worthy of all prominence. in like manner also, if it is proposed to introduce the figure, or anything of that on the filling of the circle, &c. v. on the filling of the circle and other shapes. having discussed so far the various lines on which ornament may be distributed over a simple panel or parallelogram, i propose now to show how the same principles apply to the covering of all manner of shapes. evidently it makes little difference at all, and in principle none whatever, whether it is four sides of a figure we have to deal with, or three, or five, or how many. in either case you proceed in the same way; you work from the centre or from the sides, as best may suit; you divide your space into regular or irregular compartments, on the systems already ex- plained ; you overlay one feature with another, or interweave this with that; you interrupt a border, or encroach upon a field, according to the circumstances of the case; and so on, just as though it were a square shape you were dealing with. the planning of ornament. in the case of anything like an awkward shape, you have even an opportunity of correcting it, by introducing into it some pro- minent regular figure, which, if you insist upon it, will occupy attention, whilst the irregular surrounding space will go only for margin or border; just as in the case of the regular panel you had the option of discounting its severity through the agency of any irregular feature it seemed good to you to insert. the management of the circular shape, and of the irregular forms of vases, seems to present a more serious difficulty; but it is more apparent than real. the simple treatment of a vase is (i) ac- cording to its elevation, as may be seen in any striped venetian glass, or ( ) according to its plan, as exemplified in the rude earthen- ware of every period. the glass-blower falls, in fact, as naturally into the one scheme of lines as the thrower or turner into the other. a third way is to cross the shape diago- nally, which gives the appearance of twisting, to be seen very often in silversmith's work. two or more of these systems may be asso- ciated; and they often are; as in so many a the planning of ornament. discretion which is reputed to be its better part. what is said with reference to the vase shape applies equally to balusters, columns, and cylindrical shapes generally. when we come to the circular shape, as of coins, plates, medallions and so on, its decoration involves new forms rather than new principles. the circle is most naturally divided either into rays or into rings. in the one case the radiating lines may be said to answer to the division of a rectangular space by vertical lines; in the other the rings would answer to the horizontal lines dividing a panel. a reference to plate will make this more clear. imagine a series of upright lines (a) to re- present the folding of a sheet of paper. you have only to gather the folds together at one end, after the manner of a fan (b), and you have the system of radiation: repeat the fan shapes side by side, and you soon arrive at a circle divided into rays (c). again, in the case of a series of horizontal bands (d), you have only to suppose them elastic enough to be bent, and you have a series of concentric arcs (e), so many slices, (plate . o r mil, rhoto-uiho.a.rukkivm. «■ hoi»o«h,b.c order and accident. vi. order and accident. entirely apart from the question of the skeleton of a design, is the consideration as to whether it shall be looked at primarily from the point of view of line or of mass. in any satisfactorily completed scheme, lines and masses must alike have been taken into account; but the artist must begin with one or the other; and the result will probably be influenced by the one or other consideration which was uppermost in his mind. which of the two it may happen to be, is more often a matter of temperament than of choice with him. the primary consideration, whether of line or mass, will always lead the designer, though perhaps unconsciously, to adopt a plan accord- ingly. that is to say, the preference for mass will lead him to attack his panel resolutely, planting shapes upon it, which it will be his business afterwards to connect by means of the planning of ornament. one scheme, by another, is the merest make- shift for design. the apparently "accidental" treatment, when it is at all successful, is not quite so much a matter of accident after all. you will find invariably, if you inquire into it, that there has been no disregard of the laws of composition, but only the omission of some accustomed ceremonial. to take what might seem a flagrant instance of the disregard of an obvious rule of art:—an artist like boulle would sometimes boldly treat the doors of a cabinet as one panel, notwithstanding their actual separation by a pilaster between them. however wicked this may be in theory, his practice proved it to be not so unsatisfactory. and for this reason—that the upright inter- vening space was, as a matter of fact, very carefully taken into account in the design. he only goes a step further than the obviously permissible treatment shown in the double panel on plate , where the two one- sided panels are jointly symmetrical. boulle chose to make a constructive feature less em- phatic than its position would have suggested to most of us it should be. but he did not really ignore it. very far from it. had he ^plate i r kill. pk«to-utiw.«.ru««iv*l f mlilm.i c order and accident. disregarded the construction, the error would have been very perceptible. if he succeeded at all in satisfying the eye, it is because he did with great deliberation and judgment what might easily be mistaken by the inex- perienced for an inconsiderate thing. giants can afford to be daring. it is when dangerous liberties are taken by the novice, without forethought and without discrimination, that they become offensive. when there is no offence in the lapse from what we had thought a wise rule, be sure it was designed, and designed with more than ordinary skill. it is only a master that can reconcile us to something which, until he did it, we did not think could properly be done. there is nothing careless or casual in the art of design—not even in the little art of orna- ment. e printed by william clowes and sons, limited, stamford street and charing cross. s - te nk .d برنامه ها - - - - - the nciples op form in ornamental art. by charles martel, pseud. thomas ielf. author of "the principles of colouring in painting.” fourth edition. ars probat artificem. london: vinsor and newton, , rathbone place, anufacturing artists' colourmen, by special appointment, to her majesty, and their royal highnesses the prince and princess of wales. preface. a scientific basis, and any attempt to elucidate them without it, can only lead the student to confusion and disappointment. so far as the very limited space at command has permitted, the following pages will be found to contain a summary of the most important canons of ornamental · art in connection with form and its treatment, in · architectonics, and in the ceramic art. these sub- jects are chosen for their primary importance in ornamentation, and the community of principles exist- ing among the various arts permits their application to the technic arts generally: to all works, requiring or admitting of embellishment. it has not been thought necessary to enter upon the question of colour, as that subject has been fully discussed in a scientific manner, by m. e. chevreul, to whose work the student is referred. a book on so vast and comprehensive a subject as ornamentation, admits of an infinite amount of illus- tration. ornamental art is best illustrated, not by engravings, but in the original works upon which it has been applied. the student will find abundant illustrations of the most instructive character in the treasures of art contained in the british museum, in the ceramic collection at the geological museum in jermyn street, and at the south kensington museum, all that relates to architectonics receives most valuable illustration from the materials of the courts of the crystal palace at sydenham, explanation of frontispiece. generic forms. a. straight line and cube. z. curved line and sphere primary forms. straight lines. b. . cylinder. b. . conoid. b. . clavoid. curved lines. c. . spheroid. c. . ovoid. c. . ogivoid. mixed forms. participating of the cylinder and the sphere, the curves being directed inwards. d. . canopian. e. . phocian. d. . napiform. e. . lacrimiform. d. . turbiniform. e. . pyriform. explanation of frontispiece. mixed forms, participating of the cylinder and the sphere, the curves being inclined outwards. f. . corolla widening from the upper third. f. . corolla widening from the lower third. f. . corolla widening from the upper third and narrowing from the lower third. crateroids, having a breadth of two to five times their height. g. . segmentary crateroid. g. . crateroid of five heights. canopian. g. . crateroid of three to four heights. campanuliform. discoids, having a breadth of at least five times the height. h. . segmentary discoid. h. . canopian discoid. torus of the doric capital. h. . tectiform discoid. covers, feet of vases, &c. stems, having a height of more than three times the diameter. j. . stem widening from the upper third. j. . stem widening from the lower third. j. . stem with double curve. campanuliform of double curvature. introduction. a love of ornament seems inherent to man’s nature; the character of his ornamentation is mainly dependent on the amount of civilization and refinement he enjoys. in the savage state he tattoos his skin, deforms his features, paints his body, and decks it with flowers, fea- thers, shells, &c. he next extends this ornamentation to his weapons and utensils : his calabash and tomahawk are tattood like his body: the ornamentation of the new zealander and the south-sea islanders, with other savages displays great taste and skill. in the pastoral state, the shepherd, while tending his flocks and herds, seeks to beguile the weary hours by ornamenting the staff of his crook with carvings sym- metrically disposed, and pleasing to the sight, by which he expresses his instinctive feeling for ornamentation, subsequently extended to other things. ornamentation is superadded to utility. the denizen of the valley kneads the clay, and models an utensil; he dries it in the sun, or bakes it in the fire, and fetches water in it from the distant spring. in the first essays of his intelligence and activity, the forms he produces will probably be imitated directly from the models supplied by nature, such as the shell or the gourd. introduction. but soon his artistic faculty is developed; he adopts certain proportions of height and breadth; he mingles the curved line with the straight in suitable propor- tions, adds handles, and lo! a vase is produced. the utility of the utensil for its destined purpose remains, the alterations introduced have not impaired its unity, and a work of art is the result. in genial climes, the dwelling man originally provided for himself was of minor importance; he constructed it simply and rudely of wood : but on the temples dedicated to his gods, constructed of the more enduring stone, he lavished all his skill and taste. the roof that sheltered his family rested upon pillars formed of the trunks of trees: in the temple, these pillars become columns. marble replaces wood : bronze in sheets is substituted for the bark or tiles which covered the rafters. on the stones of the temple, he carved in relief, processions, dances, victories, &c., the admira- tion of future ages. then arose sculpture, the new product of a new art. the house was a shelter, a simple fact-the temple, the work of a higher intelligence, is a work of art. architecture unites with sculpture as theory with practice. to architecture all the arts of imitation and ornamentation are allied. the ceramic, or potter's art, (from the greek ceramos, clay), receives its name from a quarter of athens where corcebus invented and established the art of working in clay. a street in athens was called ceramos, from the name of ceramus, son of bacchus andariadne. besides athens, the cities of corinth, Ægina, and introduction. samos, celebrated for their architecture, were equally renowned in the remotest times for ceramic productions. before the time when demosthenes ruled the athe- nians by his divine eloquence, before phidias created his immortal types of perfect beauty, or his rival apelles had attained to the pinnacle of art environed by a glory more durable even than his works, there existed at athens a feeling of devout admiration, and perhaps of gratitude, for the ancient art of the potter. the portion of athens we have named was the first school of taste, the primitive sanctuary where abstract form unceasingly elaborated and studied under the eyes of an inquisitive and free people, was revealed to the first architects. it is the ceramic art that inspired the authors of those antique structures, which, renewed at a later date with the marbles of mount pentelus, became temples worthy of the gods to whom they were dedi- cated. the souvenirs of these primitive times are effaced : the greeks, vanquished by the romans, transmitted, of all their arcana, only the sight of their works. after so many ages have passed away, these precious remains appear to us like the tables of a mysterious law, which succeeding generations believe they understand because they measure the structures. we are told—such and such are the proportions of a greek order, there is our guide, such is the law : but we are not told from whence the law-giver derived his measures : from whence came to him so pure, so perfect a taste, or from what source he derived the feeling and sentiment displayed in his works. introduction. it appertains to the artist to discover this germ, and fructify it by ingenious developments. but whatever be the invention, the purity of the contours or the rich- ness of the ornaments, it is to general laws that every work of this nature we would compose must be sub- mitted. so far froin considering utility as foreign to æsthetics, we must make it the basis, the exponent so to speak, of works of art. thus, a vase, whether it be of gold, silver, marble, ivory, clay, or glass, must have the power of containing, otherwise it is only a deceitful appearance, a work without object. a vase, even if it is never utilized, must be capable of being useful. an edifice without an object, one into which we cannot enter, that is useful neither to the living nor to the dead, fails in the chief of architectural conditions. equilibrium and stability are also laws of beauty and durability. solidity is a principle of art; strength does not exclude elegance, it is not even incompatible with lightness, from which results a kind of beauty. the harmony of the different parts of a whole, and the suitableness of its proportions are sometimes the effect of a happy accident, but always a necessary result of certain laws, which it is the object of these pages to unfold, and then apply the principles of analogy to the works of those great architects who, without models, con- structed edifices which we can now only measure and copy. principles of ornamentation. imagination, taste and fancy open to man the most beautiful and most difficult career, that of creation. the most remarkable inventional ornaments of antiquity are meanders, plaitings, astragals, flutings, waves, labyrinths, &c. we may also regard as ornaments, modillions, dentels, guttæ, triglyphs, and mutules, the fine effect of which has no connection with imitation, from which it is commonly supposed they are derived. the greeks ornamented the antefixæ of their temples with a very capricious variety of palm-leaf which strictly belongs to inventional ornament. the byzantine epoch is no less rich; the ornamenta- tion of the archevolts presents us with the undulating chevroned torus; with foliated and flowered columns, which are banded, contorted, and chiselled with a thousand fancies. diamond points, chequers, nail- heads, bezants, nebulæ, serrations, stars, &c., replace, in this architecture, the greek and roman modillions and dentels. the strange enlacings of the churches of norway, at urnes, find, hitterdall, borgund; the sculptures of the cloister of arles, of the baptistry and the white marble pulpit at pisa, although far apart, are none the less of the same nature. in other climes, in mexico, in yucatan, we find the ruins of mysterious cities of which no history exists. “in the midst of these ruins, monuments of an incalculable antiquity are covered with sculptured ornaments of most bizarre invention. the remains which bear the names of uxmal and labnah, are a mass of inventional ornaments. the beautiful ornamental mosaics of the churches of sicily and italy belong to the byzantine era. principles of ornamentation. of grinling gibbons (a dutchman), but he belongs to the past rather than to the present, which possesses a rival in wallis of louth. iii. mixed ornament. the ornament par excellence is the inventional. imi- tation of nature constitutes an ornament, the title of which sufficiently expresses its origin. by means of cer- tain fictions, lines and inventions, which fashion nature by combining imitation and invention, we produce mixed ornament, and no axion is more true than that of theo- philus: “however well the lines of demarcation be traced, something capricious always escapes the category.” the echinus of the corinthian cornice is a very simple type of the mixed ornament: a well imitated egg alternates with a dart and two purely inventional curves. the ornamentation of a frieze also, may, at the option of the sculptor, cease to be imitation of foliage without ceasing to be a beautiful ornament; human figures, animals, birds, may be added, and so compose what we call mixed ornament. in this manner, with the addition of some carving, arabesque ornaments may be mingled with natural leaves to form a mixed ornamentation. byzantine capitals often exhibit the example of birds mixed with enlacements which form a mixed ornament. if, to gothic tracery we join angels, flights into egypt, scenes from the crusades, processions, &c. a mixed orna- ment full of charms will result. the sculptures of many of our own and of continental cathedrals afford examples finally, we may rank among mixed ornaments a part composite ornament. - of the so-called renaissance inventions, but which in their principal models are derived from the baths of titus and the arabesques of raphael. in this elegant kind of open-work, human figures, birds, chimeras, &c., mixed with foliage, exhibit purely fantastic convolutions. in ornamentation fancy is liberty. provided this liberty be maintained with good taste, and do not degenerate into absurdity, fancy is the first qualification of the ornamentist. if in a piece of architecture or in a ceramic work we superpose different classes of ornaments, the result is a composite ornamentation. iv. composite ornament. one of the finest examples extant of this kind of orna- ment is the maison carré in the city of nîmes, built in the time of the romans, by greek architects, who, niasters of eurythmy, were the depositaries of the purest tradi- tions of analogical proportion. the flutings and lions' heads, the annulets and aquatic leaves, the modillions ornamented with foliage and geometric dentels, the ovoli and principal ornaments of the frieze unite in the most eurythmic combinations to the splendour of a whole, which may be submitted as the most perfect model of composite ornament extant. the capitals of the columns at nîmes were worthy of the homage of the greeks of phigalia and corinth. the ornamentation of the ceramic art is generally composite: some lines of inventional ornament are de- veloped on the edges, necks, collars, and shoulders of a law of suitability. generally, the architrave formed by the inclined lines of the roof, is an admirable crowning to the portico; it derives a portion of its value from the expression which it gives to the edifice, in indicating not only the façades, but also the middle of these façades. if the architrave raises itself too much at its summit, approaching the equilateral triangle in shape, it loses its expression; an architrave is so much the more beautiful, as the lines of the side differ more palpably from those of the base, up to a determinate point, where the pyramidal effect ceases. the law of suitability alone can account for the beauty resulting from depressing the architrave. in cold climates the feeling of comfort leads man to prefer high pitched roofs, which quickly carry off the rain and snow; never- theless, this vivid feeling is combatted by the evident beauty resulting from lowering the architrave; so power- ful is the influence of suitability in producing beauty. to distinguish the anterior from the posterior façade, the greeks placed acroteria on the former; such as statues, sphinxes, bucklers, &c. it is in virtue of the law of suitability, that in the ceramic art, a flattened spheroid is more agreeable than the sphere ; for the same reason, a regular ellipsoid or oval, will please less than an ovoid ; if this truth was not proved by a thousand examples in human works, it would be by the works of the creator, by the contours of a handsome face. we exclude the geometrical cube from beautiful forms, because it has no expression. we consider the square an ungrateful form destitute of expression, which should be spheroids. the subject of conoids, the clavoidal form is but little employed in architecture. the laws of stability ex- clude it in the exterior construction of edifices. the ensemble of the corinthian capital may be con- sidered as a chiselled clavoid ; the mason delivered to the sculptor a regular clavoid; the sculptor brings out the capital, executes the details, but the principal salients border on the contour of the primary clavoid. the torus of the capitals of the portico of thoricus, that of the temples of sunium and of eleusis, is a clavoidal disc. we may also rank among the number of clavoids the corbelling of some edifices of antiquity and of the middle ages. those of hadrian's tomb or the castle of st. angelo at rome, certain gates at avignon, the tower of beaucaire, &c. it has been stated, that the key of the vault is the re- presentation, par excellence, of the clavoid. it often figures in relief on semi-circular arches. the egyptians, greeks, and romans attached a just importance to the key of the vault, and to its ornamentation. this im- portance the greeks called hurmonia. the romans placed on it, in their triumphal arches, a statuette of victory, or of a conqueror. iv. spheroids. the sphere and spheroid are primary forms. like the cube and the square, the sphere belongs more to geometry than to the beautiful formıs of art. in the same manner that the straight line is the primary forms. shortest road from one point to another, the sphere is the form which contains the greatest quantity of matter within the smallest possible extent of surface. this consideration has a certain importance in ceramic art, from which utility is not excluded. the sphere is, in every respect, the emblem of the most complete curve. the execution of a sphere, in sculpture, is a work of extreme difficulty. all that can be said of the form of domes, arcades, spherical vaults, all that we can describe of the intelligence, taste, and feeling necessary to the outline of the regular hemispherical curve, so much employed in architecture, is contained in a single precept:-take a compass. it is true that the section of the sphere, or rather, the roundness in a horizontal direction, is an elementary condition of all the ceramic forms made on the potter's wheel. therefore, this condition comes not in question, as we have considered form only as profile and in eleva- tion. for here the wheel perforins the office of com- pass; instead of turning around the object to describe it, we turn the object itself under mechanical pressure, from whence results a circular form, foreign to taste or feeling, and of abnormal intelligence. the sphere may combine with other elements in a composite vase ; its developments can only take the name of proportions relatively to the various elements of the composition in which the sphere is employed. the flattened spheroid (frontispiece), having an aspect which distinguishes its breadth from its height, is in some of the conditions which bring it within the category of intelligent forms. it is the same with the ogivoid. ellipsoid, which is distinguished from the sphere by different relations of height and breadth. yet these spheroids of limited fitness, present few resources in fine ceramic compositions. a circle inscribed in a square, modifies its sterility by the effect of contrast. from a similar feeling, architects surmount a ball upon an isolated column with an elongated cone. the acute form of the cone stimulates, and the straight lines which form it, correct the nullity of the geometric block. the straight lines and the right angles of a cross being combined with the sphere, produce an effect of contrast still more satisfactory, and compose, as to art, an emblem of universality of forms; an emblem that is placed in the hands of kings as a symbol of their power, and also of the universality of the christian religion. v. ogivoid. the ogivoid is to the sphere what the conoid is to the cylinder. it is a spheroid, smaller at its summit than at its base; it is the egg, with the small end uppermost. the ogivoid is as important in christian architecture, as the conoid (column) is in grecian architecture. an ogival (gothic) window presents the profile of an ogivoid with cylindroidal base; in the same manner as the gates of mycenæ, or the propylæ of eleusis, re- present the lines of a conoid. an ogival window will have the finest proportions, if the part we name cylindroid has a height of three times its diameter. it will also be well proportioned, if it has e primary forms. diameter at the summit, relatively to the base. the one is the cone reversed, the other the egg reversed—the small end downwards; we might also call it reversed ogivoid, which we no more approve of than reversed ovoid for ogivoid. the ovoid is one of the forms most employed in the ceramic art of the greeks. the ruins of nola, vulci, tharros, polentia, milo, samos, &c., have opened to us the most ancient products of greece and etruria. tombs filled with ceramic offerings, the last testimony of the affection and recognition of the living for the dead, of a parent, child, friend, benefactor, or inaster, have been brought to light. vases of the most varied forms have been exhumed. we may perceive that the ovoidal form, with large mouth, was, if not the most used, at least the most regarded, since it was reserved for the highest honours, and for the finest works of the ancient potters. among the athenians, the panathenian vase, filled with the oil of the sacred olive, and awarded to the victors in the solemn games, was ovoid, with straight neck, of well proportioned length, and discoid mouth. its elongated ovoid rested upon a foot formed of two discs of unequal diameter and thickness. the verses of pindar, as well as the greek medals, have immortalized the panathenian vase. a general observation results from the examination of collections of antique vases, and from this observa- tion we deduce a precept useful to ceramic art. among ovoids, some have large mouths, others straight necks. we may remark that generally, the larger the mouth, primary forms. truly beautiful, whatever may be the beauty of its con- tour, and of its ornaments. if the neck is twice as high as the vase, a good abnormal effect may result. if the body is twice, or three times as high as the neck, the law of proportion is satisfied, taking into considera- tion the principle above stated. the ovoid, as we regard it, is a form exclusively ceramic; it has no significance in architectural con- structions. the domes of st. peter's at rome, of st. paul's at london, of the panthéon at paris, generally regarded as ovoids, are sublime ogivoids. as an ornament in architecture, the ovoid, under the name of egg, is frequently and usefully employed in entablatures and eurythmic compositions; it corres- ponds agreeably with the modillions and dentels, which it embellishes by contrast. considered alone, the egg ornament also produces a good effect by the interposi- tion of slender lines and acute forms. the eggs of the temple of concord are intermixed with points. in the temple of jupiter tonans, the arrrow-point contrasts with the curve of the egg. finally, we see that the ovoid has been chosen by the creator for the form of a young and beautiful face. this consideration, which is a law of general beauty, explains the success of the ovoid vase and the beauty of the egg, for man esteems above everything the contours which reproduce his own image. mixed forms. things from the egyptians, 'but the latter, in their turn, owe much to indian traditions. the design representing the cano- fig. . pian form, a, and the phocian form, b (these two mixed forms par excellence), superimposed, will render apparent, much better than a long discourse, the influence of the contours of the human form upon our predilections and judg- ments in producing ceramic forins of abstract form and beauty. these forms have been indicated (frontispiece, d , e ), as the types of the mixed form; the first, a, having given rise to the contours of the doric capital of the most beautiful greek temples, was consecrated by phidias, either in the torus of the parthenon,. or in the portion of the frieze where we see four amphoræ, found in the ruins on the north of this temple. the second, b, has produced the capitals of the temples of elephanta, of karnac, and also a form of the most ancient supports of the indian temples. this design, a b, far from being the result of subtle research, or of slight analogy, represents, in an analytical point of view, a profound and important observation. as to the truth of these analogies, they will be demonstrated to the reader who attentively examines the egyptian antiquities collected in the british museum and elsewhere. aliwa corollÆ, campanulÆ, and stems. art, shines with all the beauty of a field flower, and alone, without ornament, without any addition what- ever, forms an elegant vase. when the curvature of the sides commences at the lower third (frontispiece, f ), the form, approaching more that of a clavoid, without ceasing to be beautiful, requires less height relatively to the diameter, and now the want of a base begins to appear evident. this second corolla is that which forms the sides of the composite vase called the medician. lastly, when the cylindroid is inflected outwards, com- mencing with the upper third, and inwards, commencing with the lower third (frontispiece f ), this mixed form, which is that of a bell, is called campanula. it resembles the flower of the lily of the valley; but stability requires that the campanula should have a base, or a foot. considered by architects as an integral part of the corinthian capital, the campanula goes back to the epoch at which callimachus lived; and, as a ceramic work, having preceded the capital of callimachus, its origin is lost in the darkness of ages. we may regard the stems, or elongated corollæ, in ceramic art, as members of a composite work, or as ex- ceptions which fancy can oppose to the rigorous prin- ciples of art, but which good sense and good taste admit only when provided with members which ensure their stability. the intimate union of the straight line with the curved line in the same contour, is the principle which must preside in tracing corollæ, campanulæ, and stems. mouldings. but its effect will especially depend upon the law of proportions (p. ), by means of which a mass governs the details which are subordinated to it in volume, in light, and in importance. this law being unknown or misunderstood, a suc- cessful moulding is the result of accident; and in almost every edifice, we perceive the uncertainty that prevails in this particular. fig. . if we analyse the profile of this torus, which is only a simple circular moulding, we find a straight line b a governing by its extent the curves b c and a, which are attached in unequal quantities, in place of a quarter circle as used by the romans and the italians vignola, palladio, and sca- mozza, and in place of the profile of the capital of the mouldings of the carpenters of all times; we see the intelligent application of the finest and profoundest arcana of the science of forms; the mixture, in certain quantities of plane and curved surfaces in the same contour. let us examine a moulding among a thousand, that of a structure dating from the finest period in ancient art, in order to demonstrate the little use made of the compass by the great masters of architecture. the rounded parts e d of this moulding, are re- markable in this-their contours, as those of the columns at eleusis. laws of ornamentation. tions results from the complication of the relative parts, from the contact of the different members composing the whole. strength and weakness, order and dis- order, symmetry and non-symmetry, cross, bind, and unite to form unity from variety. the beauty of an ornament, of a theorem in geo- metry, of a dramatic, oratorical, or musical composi- tion, depend on the same law. the word complication suggests the idea of order, of clear solution, and, at the same time, of obscure combination; it indicates at once the knotting and the unknotting; lastly, and always, diversity and union. as to beauty, which acording to diderot, resides in “a word, an idea, a part of an object,” to which we see nothing analogous in archi- tecture, it corresponds to a primary or mixed form : it has its particular law, which is the law of fitness. complication is also a phase of art, which is derived from the sentiment dedalus has expressed in the plan of his labyrinth ; solomon in his mysterious seal; the greeks in their interlaced meanders; the byzantines, the moors, and the architects of our cathedrals, in their most beautiful works. the interlacings, the mosaics, the intersection of ribs and fillets, are the results of complication. complication charms us, in presenting to our notice the material formula of intelligence in labour; of in- telligence combining without separating the different or opposed parts of a whole. complication, considered as a work, and as a prin- ciple, is a visible glorification of the human mind, raised to divinity by the infinite perception of regular repetition. of a melody. we admire the beautiful arrangement of the consecutive metopes, the regularity of their periodi- cal movements, the proportion of the intervals, the accuracy of the time, the perfect harmony of the concerting parts—i say, concerting, for the object of eurythmy is the uniting in a general concert the varied members and ornaments of an edifice. if we approach nearer, we perceive the mouldings and their reliefs, the meanders which harmoniously roll and unroll themselves, in spaces at learnedly cal- culated distances; heads of growling lions, the salient forms of which are spirited notes in the midst of crepi- tant palm-leaves; the flutings of the columns appear like the vibrations of the male voice; the capitals, by their rounded form, convey to the mind an impression of the lugubrious drum—they contrast, in their re- sonance, with the large triple band of the architrave, which extends like the line of a long recitative, and combines the unequal tones of a monumental concert in a unity. such effects are not due to a capricious imagination ; they proceed from science-- from a law - from eurythmy. they explain why music formed a part of the education of an athenian architect, the possessor of the secrets discovered by pythagoras. iii. repetition. repetition is justly considered as one of the principles of ornamentation. a common-place object-a small cube, for instance-being repeated, and formed into a alternation and intersection. continuous series, produces an agreeable effect in a moulding; such are dentels. a channel, a leaf, &c., being repeated, become architecturic ornaments, which derive all their value from repetition. the corinthian order demonstrates this truth in its minutest details. iv. alternation. repetition may be simple as just described, it may also be alternating when, for example, the spaces between the leaves of ivy on a moulding, are filled with leaves of another kind, elongated, for instance, the pointed form of which produces alternation : or when square discs or rings are placed between elongated pearls, or when the egg or ovolo is repeated alternately with a leaf or dart. alternation is a formula of repetition, which has its rule; this rule is, that the alternating parts must vary in volume and in extent, as well as in form and in design. symmetry and variety, repetition and in- equality are the rules, the principles of alternation. v. intersection. the greeks, in the ornamentation of a moulding, had recourse only to repetition or alternation: imitated by the romans, who, in their turn, are imitated by the moderns, we must not be surprised that words are wanting to express unknown facts. it then becomes necessary to employ the word intersection, to designate the extension of an eurythmic cadence, and the beats .neon . crumplet rule - the principles of ornament - - ne wan f richard clay & sons, limited, london & bungay. the university of chicago library hlim editor's preface as examiner on the principles of ornament at the science and art department, i found there was no good english text-book on the subject, so the necessary information could only be picked up by extensive reading and independent observation, and these are not to be expected from young students. certain parts of the subject have been admirably treated by moody in his lectures and lessons on art,-in fact i know of no book where the subjects treated show such keen observation and profound knowledge, but they are embedded in lectures on other subjects, and the book has no index. having written the original syllabus on the principles of ornament, i was disposed to write a text-book, had not other avocations prevented me. last year mr. ward's book on the elementary principles of ornament was sent me, and though it was a useful book and had a glossary, it contained some doubtful passages, and being printed from a course of lectures it was a little too discursive. in writing the new syllabus this year i could not recommend it for a text-book as it stood, but as i thought it would be unfair to mr. ward for me to write a text-book after viii editor's preface the trouble he had taken, i consented to edit a new edition. i may here say that i have left mr. ward's musical comparisons as i found them, and have not revised his views on ogham, and runic, nor those on the symbolic ornament of the egyptians, assyrians, siamese, burmese, japanese, hebrews, buddhists, and brahmins. george aitchison. х editor's preface to second edition quantity employed no time could be spared to perfect the ornament. the power of abstracting and applying the beauties of floral form seems now to be entirely lost. the great art of the present day seems to consist in copy- ing nature as exactly as it can be copied in hard materials to make a colourable imitation ; but in such a way that its highest beauties are lost. mr. ward has added several illustrations which his experience shows him will be useful to students, and he has added an appendix on the construction of some geometrical figures, and the methods of drawing conic sections and spirals. george aitchison. author's preface in the preface to the first edition of this book, i stated that the contents consisted of a series of class lectures given to art students. these lectures were not originally intended for publication. i was, how- ever, strongly advised to publish them, and did so without any attempt at revision, under the title of elementary principles of ornament. although there are many excellent text-books on ornament published at the present time, there are none that exclusively treat of the theory, or what is known as the "principles of ornament"; this belief is shared with me by many of the principal art masters in the country, and by many gentlemen whose names stand high in the list of decorative artists, judging from the numerous letters and opinions i received after the publication of the first edition. i was gratified to find that the book received a favourable recognition from the authorities of the science and art department. the present edition has been edited and revised by professor aitchison, a.r.a., the government exam- iner in the subject and professor of architecture at the royal academy. to that gentleman i here xii author's preface desire to record my grateful thanks for his invaluable services in connection with the book, and, i am sure i shall be right if i add, the thanks of all students in ornamental art. professor aitchison has also written the new introductory chapter. i wish here also to express my best thanks to john vinycomb, esq., f.r.s.a.i., for his valuable sugges- tions to me in the chapter on symbolic ornament. the illustrations must only be accepted as black board diagrams, they are merely intended as aids in explanation of the text; more illustrations have been added to this edition, a few that appeared in the former edition have been left out. j. ward. contents page introductory chapter. by the editor i chapter i definition of ornament-methods of expression-out- lined, flat, coloured, relieved, and shaded ornament -definition of arabesques chapter ii elementary forms used in ornament-straight and curved line ornament–the greek honeysuckle, &c. ... chapter iii the laws of composition in ornament enumerated and explained chapter iv the shapes and decoration of mouldings-fluted and reeded ornament–treatment of floors, walls, and ceilings-relief work on ceilings xiv contents chapter v page outline and division of surfaces-proportion of rect- angular surfaces-spacing and decoration of cir- cular and curved objects--decoration of various shapes, of planes and of large flat surfaces- abuses of purely natural forms applied to articles of use-application of ornament and materials in wall decoration ... chapter vi the six classes or great divisions of ornament ... chapter vii the application of plants in ornament--plants used in historic ornament—the acanthus-its use by the ancients in capitals, candelabra, and on flat surfaces-modern use and treatment of the acan- thus ... chapter viii the symbolic and mnemonic classes of ornament ... chapter ix raphael's arabesques—christian symbolism--compari- son of symbolic and Æsthetic ornament appendix on the orders of architecture a chapter on the construction of figures and curves in practical plane geometry glossary ... index of illustrations figs. ... ... , acanthus leaf (greek), from a capital of the tower of the winds ... acanthus leaf (greek), with flowers from a capital of the choragic monument of lysikrates acanthus (mollis), from nature acanthus (spinosus), from nature acanthus, soft-leaved, from the soffit of the architrave at the temple of jupiter stator acanthus used on candelabra and small pillars acanthus, modern varieties of sea-weed and poppy- leaved acanthus acanthus, olive-leaf variety, from a roman capital acanthus, olive-leaf variety, from a capital of mars ultor ... arrangement of a wall-paper pattern ... arrangements for wall-paper or room decoration, improper astragal or bead moulding, with its ornament , - i - ... bead and reel book-cover (german), sixteenth century border, upright lily, greco-roman borders, greek borders of medallions in enamelled earthenware by luca della robbia ... borders, persian ... borders derived from the laurel bracts used for “clothing” stems in scrolls, &c. , , , xvi index of illustrations figs. ... .. , ... capital, greek doric capital, greek ionic - capital, greek corinthian , capital, roman tuscan ... capital, roman doric capital, roman ionic capital, roman corinthian , capital, roman composite , capitals (byzantine), from sta. sophia at constanti- nople, showing bossing out of ornament ... a and b catenary, explained at page cavetto and its ornament ceiling from serlio's architecture ceiling, portion from the vestibule of st. spirito (florence), by sansovino ceilings, fillings of - ceilings, panelling of, showing at a an improper and at b a proper arrangement checkers, carved ... , cinque-cento foral ornament composed of the acan- thus, oak-leaf, convolvulus and wild rose circle, ornament derived from - contrasting decoration on rectangular and circular borders counter-change counter-change pattern, saracenic cyma recta and its ornament , , cyma reversa and its ornaments. see ogee. diaper, saracen ... ..... diaper, italian, sixteenth century , , diaper, persian influence, sixteenth century diaper, italian, german origin, sixteenth century door case at the erechtheum, showing a portion of the architrave, with the pateræ on the fascia door panels illustrating improper division at a, proper division at b ioi С entablature of the erechtheum entablature of the caryatid portico attached to the erechtheum ... ... d xviii index of illustrations figs. opus alexandrinum, from a pavement in the church of san marco, rome ovolo, from the erechtheum, enriched ... ... panel ornament, renaissance panel (venetian), illustrating balance without sym- metry panel, cinque-cento panel with trophy of arms and armour panel, design for a carved wood panel from the lemon plant panel arrangement from the tiger-lily .. paperhanging, design from the wild rose patera frontispiece pear-tree, winter aspect, illustrating “balance” in nature pilaster, designed by donatello pilaster panel, cinque-cento pilaster decoration, italian placque, in silver repoussé work, german seven- teenth century powdering, japanese , i i ... ... e a, b reduction of similar ornament in different spaces reeded ornaments for flat bands, &c. root forms, mediæval and oriental rosettes (roman), composed of leaf and floral forms scarab, egyptian symbolic form scroll ornament on the roof of the monument of lysikrates shield (savage) made of cane and ornamented with cut shells and zig-zags spandrel (gothic), from stone church, kent spandrel, by alfred stevens spiral spiral curves, examples of ornament chiefly based on spiral curves , , , - spotting , , straight-lined ornament - index of illustrations xix superimposed japanese powdering symbolic ornament, the egyptian lotus and water figs. , tail-pieces, or “lamp bottoms” tchakra, sacred wheel of brahma and vishnu, also the “ wheel of fire" thyrsus, staff of the god bacchus tiger-lily from nature tree of life from an assyrian bas-relief with wor- shippers tripod stand on the top of the roof of the monument of lysikrates ... ... ... vase, from the hildesheim treasures vases (modern and greek), showing unequal divi- sions of the height and strengthening horizontal bands , ... wild rose from nature wine-crater. see vase. winged globe and asps, egyptian symbolic ornament introductory chapter it t may not be amiss to point out the advantages of studying ornainental art even to those who do not mean to be artists. the course to be adopted, after acquiring the necessary geometry, is to draw or model plants and to learn their anatomy. this will make the student accurately acquainted with the forms of plants and of their parts, and as he pro- gresses he will find out beauties which have escaped him in a cursory view; the further he proceeds, the more his admiration will be excited by those subtle beauties he finds so hard to render and so easy to miss. the student will then notice, how many illustrations of plants are near enough to the originals to be unmistakable, but that the grace of the plants has evaporated. as he is sufficiently advanced to study with advantage the best examples of ornamental art, he will find out the difficulties the great ornamentalists have overcome in applying the beauties of nature to works of art; and will then take a deeper interest in these masterpieces, and receive á corresponding delight. he will learn from these studies to reverence the artists and to admire the nation that produced them; for “art is the mirror of a nation's civilization." soon b gp introductory chapter i have spoken only of floral ornament, though the highest ornament is the human figure, and after that animal forms. the severity, however, of the requisite studies to become a figure draughtsman, which demand a knowledge of the skeleton and of the muscles, unfortunately deters amateurs, and not un- frequently ornamentalists, from learning to draw the figure, so that their works fall short of the excel- lence of the greeks and italians, who were above all things figure draughtsmen. amateurs too will greatly aid the art, for as a rule excellence is only attained when there are many educated lovers of it, who can appreciate a beautiful creation, and reward the artist by their judicious admiration. for twenty years i have pointed out that nature offers her beauties gratuitously to mankind for its solace and delight; perhaps, however, the following words of emile de laveleye, in his book on luxury, will have more weight :- "might not the man of the people, on whom the curse of matter weighs with so heavy a load, find the best kind of alleviation for his hard condition, if his eyes were open to what leonardo da vinci calls la bellezsa del mondo--'the beautiful things of the earth'? pindar says, 'in the day when the rhodians shall erect an altar to minerva, a rain of gold will fall upon the isle.' the golden rain which falls on any people when literature and the fine arts are en- couraged ... is a shower of pure and disinterested delights." i am tempted to say something on the prospects of ornamental art. nothing in this world can be had without paying for it, but though we must all live, introductory chapter those who have devoted their lives to the creation of the beautiful, look more to the delight they give and the admiration they excite, than to mere pecuniary rewards. no art will ever flourish unless there are educated and enthusiastic admirers of its master- pieces. the artist will never devote his talents to an art, and undergo the ceaseless toil requisite to create beauty, unless he be rewarded by the praise of real judges. i fear we cannot as yet make the greek boast "that we love the beautiful”; but until we do love it, we can hardly expect to rival those who did. the whole ornamental art of the world is now before us, and it is not to be believed that artists would not elaborate something new and beautiful from all the knowledge they have gained, if there were a passionate desire for it among the people. this can never be so long as the public is content with paraphrases of deceased art, or merely asks for a jumble of discordant scraps. novelty we must needs have, for this generation does not inherit the precise tastes of former days, not even those of its immediate predecessor, and it is this generation that wants to be charmed: it is true that it gets novelty, but it should want beautiful novelty, and not that which is common- place or ugly. novelty in art is not an absolute difference from what has gone before, for that is sure to be bad, but only that difference and that improve- ment which one instructed generation can give to the past excellence it builds on. it is therefore necessary for the student who is born an artist, and hopes to create new loveliness, to be steeped in the beauties of nature and of art. to attain this a profound study introductory chapter . of nature and the masterpieces of former art are wanted, for, as sir joshua reynolds said, “invention is one of the greatest marks of genius, and it is by being conversant with the inventions of others that we learn to invent”; while to express our knowledge and invention admirable draughtsmanship is requisite. we have a novel phase of ornament, which consists in twisting or arranging certain plants into the shape required, to make them fit their places. much of this work is flabby or wire-drawn, and often omits the highest beauty of the plants it uses, but even when the beauty of the plant is not left out, the ornament is infinitely below the highest fights of former art, in which the artist had absorbed the graces of floral growth and had properly applied them. the highest ornament, by its abstraction, is closely allied to architectural art, while all its higher achievements are in conjunction with architecture; consequently there should be a harmony between the decoration and the framework. natural foliage arranged on a geometrical basis makes a poor contrast to noble architecture. all ornamental arts, that are not realistic imita- tions, must be founded on precedent art. we have only one complete system of decorative art that took an entirely new direction besides gothic, and that harmonizes with its architecture-the saracenic—and that art is not congenial to our taste, feelings, or desires. gothic ornamental art is mostly too barbaric or too realistic to suit us, except when it is borrowed from roman, byzantine, or saracenic sources; in fact, we have nothing but roman, byzantine, and introductory chapter renaissance art to fall back on for ornament; of greek ornamental art we have some carved stone- work, moulded metal-work, painting on vases, incised work, and the traces of painting. little of secular byzantine art remains, though it is not probable that it materially differed from the ecclesiastical art of its period; it was roman art modified by the new religion and by greek and oriental taste, in which saints and martyrs, with their attributes or symbols, took the place of the antique gods and goddesses ; while the renaissance was an attempted revival of roman. we cannot expect to equal at once the master- pieces of greek, roman, or renaissance art; we have neither the centuries of experience nor the cultivated public. every artist, however, can, by the means before mentioned, be sure of having conquered the preliminaries of his art, and he can be sincere ; he can give us those beauties from nature that have captivated him, and have been transfused into orna- ment by the alembic of his mind; such ornament will be sure to find some congenial spirits to admire tesi de milioane it: and i think i may say that a public sufficiently cultivated to appreciate real art is gradually being formed. the highest art is undoubtedly that which is the simplest and most perfect, which gives the experience and skill of a lifetime by a few lines or touches; and this art is more calculated to captivate the best taste of the day than the complex or the intricate. however, there will even now be ample recognition of the creations of any skilled artist who is sincere, let his genius take him where it will. there is, too, this consolation for every true artist introductory chapter whose works remain : that if there are few judges of . his work now, there may be more hereafter-judges who when they look at his work will say, this is the work of a true artist; and he may confer delight on unborn thousands, and direct attention, in after ages, to those beauties of nature that have been overlooked. i will now revert to the book, and confine myself to such remarks as i hope may be useful to those who study it. the student, when he has learnt and comprehended the laws, should observe growing plants, and notice that every plant illustrates some, and mostly many, of the laws; and when he has clearly distinguished them, he should examine the best ornament of antiquity and the renaissance, and satisfy himself that the laws, involved in the particular example he is studying, have been followed. when he has done this, he should note any divergence from the laws and endeavour to understand the reason for it. to ensure the effect they intend, great artists sometimes ignore the ordinary laws. it is well that he should consider that the main object of every plant is to live and propagate itself: to live it wants air, moisture, and nourishment, and mostly sunshine, and it must strive to get these necessaries amidst a crowd of competitors.' in this struggle the plant is often dwarfed or distorted, and still more frequently some of its parts are deformed; its flowers must attract insects by their colour or scent, and must allure the insects by the honey they distil to fertilize them ; so that beauty, except in the colour of the flowers, is for the plant a secondary consideration. introductory chapter in ornament, on the contrary, beauty is the only consideration, except perhaps in mnemonic and symbolic ornainent; and these must have beauty, or they cease to be ornament. ornament has also to be portrayed on some material, or carved in it; it should conform to the shape of the object, be governed by the quality of the material, and by the use to which the object is to be put-.g. a leaf may be carved in certain woods, almost of the thinness of the real leaf, but then it must be preserved in a glass case, this thinness is not to be got if the leaf be carved in stone; the artist must therefore see what beauties he can abstract from the plant he has chosen or from floral growth generally, so that it can be carved, he should in all cases know that his design can be expressed in the material to be used, that it will ornament the object, will not be easily destroyed, and will not interfere with the use of the object. if he succeeds in doing this, his skill, taste, and judg- ment will be admired. this necessary abstraction we unfortunately call convention, and when it makes good ornament, and shows the characteristic beauty and vigour of plant form, it is of the highest sort; this is found in the best greek, roman, and renais- sance ornament, while when a coarse and clumsy imitation of nature is made, with all the beauty left out, it is the lowest sort of convention. any cheap speculative houses that have carving upon them, will afford ample illustrations of con- temporary convention in its worst form. gothic ornament was quite new; for no sooner did the architects, carvers, masons, carpenters, and others introductory chapter find that they had surpassed the old world in con- structive skill, than they looked down on all the old world arts, and would not be beholden to them. they were determined to begin afresh ; they had human beings, animals, trees, plants, and flowers, as well as the romans and byzantines; why should they not make as good statues and ornament? there is much to be said in favour of this contention, for every one must desire to see his house, his town- hall, and his church ornamented with the flowers and plants that he knows and loves, instead of with the conventionalized plants of other countries that he does not know, or that he has gazed on to satiety. but it is one thing to have a longing, and another to be able to bring plants, leaves, and flowers into the domain of high art. the early gothic sculptors did give a certain crispness, and in some cases even a monumental air to their carved flora, and sometimes they got that mys- terious look of infinite complexity that is found in nature, and they had invention to a marvellous degree. from the sculptors working on the spot, and being able to see each figure and piece of ornament in its place, they never missed their effect. all their ornament answered its main end, of giving a broken mass of light and shade to contrast with plain surfaces, mouldings, or shafts, while much of it was vigorous, but some of the early gothic foliage has no grace, is often destitute of aloral character, and might be mistaken for hanks of string on pieces of firewood, or worm-eaten wigs. the first touch of the renaissance brought a sweetness of proportion to architecture and a grace to floral ornament that is most striking introductory chapter good traditional ornament has these inestimable advantages, that it has been treated for ages by skilful men, so that its faults have been corrected, new graces have been added to it, and it has been fitted to properly fill the requisite shapes. from the first, the artist must have noticed some special beauties and fitness in the plant he chose, and the ornament must have had some striking qualities to make it popular; for why else should it have been preferred and persisted in, when so many other plants had great beauty? there is, however, some ornament that, after it has once been perfected, seems incapable of further improvement. the egg and tongue may be cited as an instance. it has never been improved since the perfecting of greek architecture, nor has any good substitute for it been found. a coarse caricature of it is still the most popular ornament of the ovolo. the romans converted it into a floral form at the temple of jupiter tonans, with marked want of success. the greek honeysuckle and the acanthus are the most striking examples of good traditional ornament. to take the acanthus first, it was started by the greeks, continued by the romans, and used by the byzantines with a different character, then adopted by the renaissance artists, and has been treated in an entirely novel way by alfred stevens in our own day. stevens has given a peculiarly plastic character to its leafage in the wellington monument. that form of it which is used in the corinthian capital has had such an infinity of pains bestowed on it, that improvement on the old lines is scarcely to be expected, though new floral capitals may be invented. o introductory chapter we can every portion of the leaf, down to its rafflings, has been perfected to the end the romans destined it to fulfil, though, as in all human inventions, some- thing was sacrificed to attain it. the greek capital was rather deficient in outline, but it was possessed of the most exquisite floral grace, and this was sacrificed by the romans to attain distinctness, strength, and dignity; these qualities being par- ticularly necessary when it was used in colossal monuments. even when it was on a smaller scale, see the advantages of the change. in some byzantine buildings, old greek and roman corinthian columns have been used together. as an isolated ornament the greek capital is greatly to be preferred, but when the two are seen in con- junction as parts of the building, the roman capital is clear, distinct, and dignified, while the greek one is a confused mass. in their colossal capitals, the romans mostly substituted the olive-leaf for the natural raffle, and used but four or five in each leaflet; though the oak-leaf, the parsley, and the endive were occasionally used. each raffle of the olive-leafed variety is hollowed by a curve without ribs, the only lines being those made by the edges of the hollows, and each leaflet is hollowed out like a cockle-shell as well. in the best examples, the upper edges of each leaflet are mostly clear of the one above or overlap it; in the first case they are thrown up by the shadow behind, in the latter the edges of the raffles are bright against the half light of the leaflets above, and are also thrown up by the shade in their points. the top of the complete leaf curls over, and thus introductory chapter ii throwthdown the part bew, there is the contrast between masses of light, graduated shade, and graduated shadow. the back of the leaf was used to get a wide stem, and this stem tapers ward, while the pipes,that come from the between the leaflets, taper downwards, are nearly parallel with the stem, and are deeply undercut, thus making the wholaf distinctdgrug. ). if examples are compared, the superiority of the parallel pipes over those that run into the stem is at once seen. the lower leaves are cut through horizontally in the middle, and come straight othecking which gives much more vigour to the capital, than when the bell turns inwards above the necking. the student will do well to carefully draw a good example, then model it, and then carve it, for it has been the type from which most good floral capitals have been derived. the acanthus and other floral ornament used by the italian renaissance artists deserve quite as much attention as the roman; for though their ornament was not on the same colossal scale, it was done by excellent figure sculptors who had studied ornament, and were of finer artistic fibre than the romans, besides having the best roman examples for their models. the italian artists were, too, nearly as fond of the human figure as the greeks, and introduced it wherever they could do so appropriately. there is perhaps but one other ornament that is worthy of the profoundest study, the radiating ornament of the greeks, known as the greek honey- suckle. this ornament is full of subtle devices, in introductory chapter the elegant graduation of its forms, in the proportion- ing of the masses, in its even distribution, and in the making of the different curves enhance the value of one another. there is often, too, a suggestion of horizontality or verticality introduced, that gives the highest value to the composition; all showing the intimate acquaintance with nature that the greek artists possessed. many of the greek running patterns are both original and effective, and in some of them tangential junction is distinctly avoided, to attract attention to the ornament. the greeks, too, were pre-eminent in knowing the use of restraint and the value of plainness. when the sculptor had carved his ornament on an architectural monument he seemed to say, “better this if you can!” the byzantines understood the value of gradation, and when they wholly ornamented a profile, they made some parts in bold, some in low relief, and engraved or sunk other parts. the saracens learned this art from them, and so improved on it, that the general effect of their best work resembles greek art; at the proper distance the subordinate ornament looks like a mere difference of texture. saracenic ornament affords the only instances of complete floral decoration without the figures of man or animals; and although it is inclined to be monotonous, and geometrical forms are dominant, it is, when coloured and gilt, saved from monotony by the magical change of the patterns on the beholder shifting his position. this effect is ob- tained by trilling differences of level in the planes of the ornament and by gilding. its floral forms, however, are usually coarse and poor, and have no refined graces. too pre- introductory chapter there are a few points not touched on in the book which it may be well to mention. one is a device that was, i think, only used by the byzantines, i.e. bossing out ornament to catch the light. constantine the great, when he had the church of the holy sepulchre at jerusalem built, had the capitals of the sanctuary columns made of silver, and doubtless the silversmiths in working them hammered out some bosses to catch the light. this device was seized on by the sculptors of sta. sophia at constantinople, and used in the marble capitals of its columns and pilasters (figs. a and b). i may also draw attention to another byzantine device, which charmed mr. ruskin at st. mark's- the leaves of capitals caught by the wind and blown aside. capitals with a similar device existed in sta. sophia at salonica, some of which were partly calcined by the late fire. the propriety of using such an incident in the conventional stone ornaments of a supporting member may be doubted, still we must admire the observation and genius of the sculptor; and there are many opportunities of using such an incident when the ornament is not on a supporting member. i point it out to show what fresh resources for the ornamentalist are to be found in nature, when he has the industry to observe and the talent to create. there are cases where architectural features have to be reduced, and at the same time to be emphasized too. no better example of this is to be found than in the caryatid temple attached to the erechtheum. its entablature was below the main one, and so had to be smaller, and yet was wanted to be important od famim granit talent figs. a and b.-byzantine capitals from sta. sophia at constantinople, showing the bossing out of the ornament. - avalavavavavarvavatavavavavavavavav fig. c.-entablature of the erechtheum. fig. d. -entablature of the caryatid portico of the erechtheum. introductory chapter and weighty enough for the figures. all the frieze but the capping was consequently left out, the top fascia of the architrave was enriched with circular discs, and between the cappings of the architrave and frieze a deep dentil band was introduced. mainly by these means the due effect was gained (figs. c and d) ornament has sometimes to be repeated in a composition on a smaller scale, and this should not be done by merely reducing the scale so as to have a diminutive reproduction, but by keeping the general form of the ornament with fewer details. several ex- amples may be found in m.mayeux’s book. instances of the same motive being repeated in the same height and in a narrower width are sometimes found. an example may be seen beneath the double and single windows of an hotel in the rue dalbard, toulouse (fig. e). fig. e.-reduction of similar ornament in different spaces. much might be said on the subject of materials, but i will only make a few remarks. in making a design, due consideration should be given to the material employed, so that the natural ornamentation of one material may not be put on another; pottery is turned on the wheel, and is adapted for painting, while hollow metal vessels are embossed, but it is m. henri mayeux, la composition décorative, svo, paris, s.a. % see m. césar daly's motifs historique, fol., paris, . introductory chapter appropriate and beautiful, and has been evolved from nature by the mind of man. i would suggest to the young artist that the flora of the world is not confined to the lotus, the honeysuckle, and the acanthus ; that if accident caused the original choice of these plants, it was the infinite pains bestowed on their treatment that caused their persistence. there are, too, thousands of beauties still to be culled from plants and flowers that now remain outside the domain of art. let the student remember that knowledge, skill, truth, and sincerity are the main roads to real success, and that real success is, to have produced some beauty that has captivated or will captivate mankind. g. aitchison. - the principles of ornament chapter i o rnament is the proper enrichment of an object or surface with such forms, or forins and colours, as will give the thing decorated a new beauty, while strictly preserving its shape and character. it is the function of ornament to emphasize the forms of the object it decorates, not to hide them. decoration is not necessarily ornament; for instance, the lovely sprays of plants with birds and cognate subjects, painted on japanese pottery, may be called beautiful decoration, but cannot in our sense of the word be called ornament; for however realistic ornament may be, it must show that it has passed through the mind of man, and been acted on by it. this kind of decoration might be a literal transcript from nature, and neither emphasizes the boundaries of the decorated surface nor harmonizes with them. it possesses an exquisite beauty of its own, for the drawing and colour and the style of execution are good. with the exception of frets and diapers, the principles of ornament true ornament is rare in japanese art. fig. i is a japanese decoration on an oblong surface. such a design is pretty, but we can hardly call it ornament. something must be done with it before we can give it that name. fig. .-japanese decoration. to make an ornamental design, the units of the decoration must be arranged and brought into order ; repetition and symmetry may not be required, but even distribution, order, and balance are indispensable. j.w. fig. .- japanese decoration altered. on the whole too must not appear to be accidental but designed for the object, while no. i might have been made from a shadow cast a window. the sketch at fig. is an attempt to illustrate our notion of ornament by using the elements in fig. i evenly distributed, having at the same time a due regard to the boundary-lines of the panel. - methods of expression ap ed ornament is that which is specially designed and fitted for the position it occupies. independent ornaments are such things as shields, labels, medallions, &c., with or without enclosing frames ; pateræ, festoons, and other loose ornamental objects, which may be attached to a surface, and may be used alone, or in combination with applied ornament (fig. ). numerous examples may be given of inappropriate ornament. as a rule, any kind of ornament that is not suited to the surface ornamented, or is falsely constructed, may be called inappropriate. for in- stance, if upright panels and pilasters were decorated with ornament running in oblique lines, or with a strongly-marked series of horizontal bands; or if a carpet pattern were designed to run in one particular direction; or, froin an architectural point of view, if columns supporting nothing were used in decoration ; if consoles or brackets were turned upside down ; or if curved mouldings were decorated with frets; or panels were overloaded with mouldings; if forms, organic or otherwise, were used together, but out of scale with one another; or things were made to simulate what they are not; or there were a great excess of enrich- ment; each of these examples might be considered as inappropriate ornament. methods of expression.-ornament is expressed in three different ways: firstly, by pure outline, as traced with a point; secondly, where breadth is added, by flat tints as in painting with the brush, or by shading, hatching, spotting, or stippling; thirdly, by relief, or sinking, as in modelling and sculpture. the principles of ornament these three divisions may be subdivided, but all the subdivisions are but varieties or combinations of the first three genera. relief modelled or pierced orna- ment has no other outline than that given by light and shade; but it may also be coloured, i.e. in two shades-one for the ornament and one for the back- ground, or with the forms and background “picked out” in a variety of colours. shaded or painted orna- ment in the flat is an imitation of relief work, and will be noticed again. ornament expressed in outline.—all the early decorative work of mankind, both the prehistoric etchings on bone and on pottery, the line decoration on assyrian cylinders, bronze dishes and tablets, and the incised work on the greek, etruscan, and roman cistas, hand-mirrors, and vases come under this head ; as well as sgraffito-work when expressed by outline, cut in plaster showing a different-coloured plaster beneath. ornament expressed by flat tints, in monochrome or colour, with no shading and without shadow, is a common method of ornamentation. this class in- cludes painted ornament on the flat, whether poly- chromatic or in "grisaille"; inlaid wood-work, called parquetry when used for floors, and marquetry when used for other purposes; inlaid marble, stone, tile and plaster work, mosaic, tesselated, sectile and alexandrine pavements; damascened metal-work; some enamels, lac-work, and painted pottery; woven, embroidered, printed, and stencilled stuffs, including oil-cloth; enamelled glass; and some sgraffito-work. it is convenient to class under this head certain methods of expression work of slight thickness or relief, such as lace, ap- plied work of paper, stuffs, velvet, &c., fine filigree and wire-work. inlay under the name of “tarsia” was greatly used by the italians in the decoration of cathedrals and churches and in fittings and furniture; in cathedral stalls and sacristy fittings, boxwood was commonly inlaid in walnut, but ebony and ivory were largely employed for house furniture and fittings, and many different substances were sometimes employed. tortoiseshell, gold, silver, ivory, mother-of-pearl, and different coloured woods are largely employed for the same purpose by orientals and others. a species of inlay composed of white and stained ivory, ebony, and silver, in geometrical patterns, is much used by the cabinet-makers of india-our tunbridge ware is supposed to be an imitation of it. flat tints enriched by outline were sometimes used in greek vases, and are often used in inlays and damascened work; very pretty examples may be found in old chinese lac-work, inlaid with figures and land- scapes in black mother-of-pearl, the features, &c. being outlined. relief-work.-ordinary modelled and carved work, either in relief or sunk, is too well known to need description; but under this heading are included pierced, open, and turned work, and such compound work as may be pierced, or turned and carved or incised as well. coloured relief-work.--all egyptian, greek, and mediæval bas-reliefs, and some if not all of their figure sculpture in the round, were coloured, but when the figures were of white marble, the colour was the principles of ornament generally confined to the flesh, eyes, and hair, and to the stripes or patterns on the dresses. in one of the white marble sarcophagi from sidon, now in the museum at constantinople, while figures of half life- size are left wholly white, smaller figures are wholly coloured and gilt, like the terra-cotta ones of tanagra, and some of the ornament is white on a purple ground. all the italian renaissance bas-reliefs in "gesso duro” were wholly coloured. in greek temples the carved ornament was coloured, including the triglyphs, and parts of the ornament were often gilt, the uncut mouldings too were mostly ornamented in colour. in some enamelled pottery in relief, the figures or ornament were left white on a coloured ground, or the drapery of the figures and the ornament were coloured, as in some of the della robbia ware. all roman embossed plaster was coloured and gilt. much relief-work in bronze and the precious metals has been coloured by means of enamel, or alloys in the metal; coloured mosaic has been used to clothe columns, and some mosaic and pietra dura is in relief, as well as lac and ivory work inlaid with fine stones, mother-of-pearl, and ivory; all moresque and some saracen embossed plaster- work, and probably carved stone-work, was coloured and gilt; some burmese plaster-work in relief is gilt and inlaid with coloured glass, and certain stuffs have had raised ornament upon them, formed by stuffing with wadding the applied pieces, which sometimes were embroidered. shaded or painted ornament on the flat in imita- tion of relief-work.—this is probably the largest class, and includes engraving, shaded ornament in methods of expression chiaroscuro, and shaded and coloured ornament with or without cast shadows; in it are included the chinese, persian, mediæval, and renaissance translu- cent enamels, which are laid over sunk (intaglio) work, and painters' enamels; boule work, which consists of brass, tin, or pewter, inlaid in ebony or tortoiseshell with the metal-work engraved; wood inlay in the shape of shaded natural flowers, landscapes, architec- tural views, and figure subjects; shaded ornament on woven or printed stuffs, and embroidery; and shaded painting on china and glass, and in ara- besques. what we now call arabesques were para- phrases of roman painted decoration, of which pompeii offers us so wide a knowledge. these decorations consisted of fantastic buildings, inter- spersed with figures, animals, landscapes, and foliage. the discovery of this kind of painting in the baths of titus at rome led raphael to adopt it and to improve on it. the culminating point in arabesque painting was the decoration of the loggias of the vatican by raphael and his pupil, giovanni reca- matore, commonly known as giovanni da udine. the mohammedans, from whom the name derived, mostly avoided the figures of men and animals, even in their secular buildings or furniture, it being feared that the portrayal of living creatures might lead them to idolatry; so spaces were filled with intricate geometrical patterns and coarse foliage. the chambers under titus’ baths in which the paintings were found, were originally parts of nero's golden house. there are, however, figures of men and animals occasion- ally found in their carved wood-work, tiles, damascened work, carpets, and embroidery. chapter ii. - thekedivision he elementary forms used in ornament form the next division. it is assumed that the space is given that we are required to ornament; for example, a ceiling, a wall, a frieze, a panel, or a carpet. the boundary-lines are the enclosing lines of our space or field, which may be subdivided. this subdividing is called the setting-out. we have now to think of the forms and character of the ornament we propose to adopt. it is now advisable to give illustrations of the various elementary forms used in ornament. as lines, either straight or curved, are the basis of all ornament, we begin with the straight line.' it would be difficult to overrate the value of the straight line in ornament. the qualities of stability, firmness, and repose given by upright and horizontal lines are well illustrated by the mouldings round rectilinear panels, by cornices and pilasters, and by reeded and futed ornaments. all frets are composed of straight lines. the illustrations from fig. to fig. are specimens of straight-lined ornaments. taking the band or two horizontal parallel lines in fig. , and marking off equi- distant points on the upper and on the lower one, only alternating, and drawing vertical lines from these elementary forms points, we obtain the basis of a large class of frets. figs. , , , and show further developments of the fret. figs. and show the elements of some saracenic or moresque frets, of which figs. ii, , and are developments. figs. , , , , and ते pse figs. to .-straight-lined ornaments. are greek frets ; and are chinese. fig. is a gothic nail-head ornament; io is of german origin; is a japanese key pattern ; and fig. is derived from the plaiting of rushes, ribbons, straws, or from herring-bone brick-work, and is common to prehistoric and byzantine work. frets are more appropriate to flat surfaces than to the principles of ornament concave or convex ones; they may, however, be used on slightly concave surfaces, such as the inside bevels of plates or dishes ; then their vertical lines will compose well, by radiating from the centre of the plate. the square within square, and double and single frets, shown at figs. and , were often io mwony ii figs. to .-straight-lined ornaments. used in conjunction by the greeks, and earlier by the egyptians, on the ceilings of their tombs (fig. ), both singly, and alternating with spirals and circular ornaments. (see fig. .) the zigzag is another straight-lined form largely used as ornament; it was used by the egyptians and early greeks as the symbol of water (figs. , ). lozenges and diamonds are other elements of elementary forms; frets straight-lined ornament, and form the basis of many repeating patterns in woven stuffs, paper-hangings, and tiles. triangles, squares, hexagons, octagons, s and figs. to .-greek frets. as fig. .-fret and panel border, greek. and other polygons are also used largely as con- structive bases in pattern-designing. the principles of ornament after the straight line, the curved is the other element in ornament. it is pre-eminently the type of grace, and the “line of beauty." whether seen in the outline of the cloud, the wave, or the rounded limb of the human figure, the eye takes a delight in x * fig. .- egyptian ceiling fret. tracing out the flowing curve. we have closed curves in such figures as the circle, ellipse, oval, figure of eight, and in the vesica piscis, or fish-shape, the latter being composed of two arcs of a circle of the same radius, touching each other at their opposite ex- tremities. the parabola, hyperbola, &c., are open curves; such figures as the meander (fig. ), the elementary forms; curved lines spiral (fig. ), the scroll (fig. ), and the swag or festoon (fig. ), are also open curves. when the festoon is formed of links and hangs like a chain from two points, it is called a catenary, and is practically identical with the lines of festoons and the loopings of drapery. į хох hghỊ selg figs. to .-straight-lined ornaments. in the illustrations, we have at fig. circles touching each other, this is the framework of some diapers and repeating forms." next we come to circles intersecting each other. fig. is a pattern the principles of ornament common alike to saracenic, egyptian, and japanese diapers. fig. is a border ornament of the same pattern with a centre. be figs. to .-straight-lined ornaments. an effective disc border, like that made by savage tribes from cut shells, is shown at fig. , and a development of the latter is that of fig. , taken ☺ figs. , .-spiral and scroll. from assyrian tesseræ, small oblong pieces of stone or metal, on which the pattern was incised, and often alternating with the guilloche (figs. , , , and ). the guilloche was an important pattern in assyrian work, in greek moulding decoration, and in their flat painted ornament, ornament from the circle b e d fig. , a, b, c, d, e.-scale-work (imbricated). fig. .-festoon (catenary). fig. .--zigzag. fig. .-meander. d the principles of ornament figs. and are further examples of ornament obtained from the circle and its segments; the former being the gothic ball-flower. imbricated or scale ornament was much used for roofs, to ornament small columns and circular mouldings. examples are given at fig. , a, b, and c. o ype m figs. to .-ornaments mostly derived from the circle. we now pass from the circle to the spiral, from which a great part of ornamental forms are derived. fig. is an egyptian wave scroll, and is the familiar greek wave. fig. is from an egyptian many of the frets are woven spirals. vy a figs. to .-greek borders from vases. the principles of ornament u m fig. .-scroll ornament on the slope of the roof of the choragic monument of lysikrates. tripod stand fig. .--portion of the tripod stand on top of the roof of the monument of lysikrates. laws of ornament ment of proportion is generally called even distribu- tion, and is found in all good work; at the same time it admits of a variety of treatment: in some indian, chinese, and saracenic ornament it is painfully mono- tonous, while in good roman and renaissance work, though the law is observed, there is such variety and contrast, that it never becomes tiresome. ornament to be satisfactory must have stability, and not look as if it would fall down. after these preliminaries, repetition may be looked on as the first law; as anything repeated forms elementary ornament. contrast comes next, as the mere alternation of upright and horizontal lines form a contrasted orna- ment - l | symmetry per- haps comes next, and is the repetition of any form on its axis ; even the rudest blot so doubled makes ornament. radiation alone is the basis of much ornament, and directly we get as far as the scroll, we must have tangential junction, for broken-backed curves are hardly ornament. next comes repose : any decoration that seems to crawl is not pleasing but distressing. as we advance we want variety and subordination. an unsymmetrical ornament generally requires balance ; unity is necessary in any complex system. series adds a new element by the repetition at stated intervals of a succession of different objects, or of similar ones of increasing or decreasing size. growth gives us one of the most vigorous and de- lightful elements in nature, and superposition may be looked on as the last addition to ornament yet made by man ; while fitness may be said to include all before-mentioned and more. the descriptions just given will serve for the the principles of ornament definition of some of the laws, but others require further explanation. proportion, by which "harmonic proportion is meant, applies also to the architectural features of a design, and is indispensable in designing borders, composed of lines or mouldings, and in panels. the width of such border, or series of mouldings, should be a proportionate part of the narrowest width of the space or panel. there are certain distances between lines that are more pleasing than others, and as a rule, one space should preponderate. in mouldings the same thing is true, but in addition to the spaces, there are the projections and contours to be studied. the study of greek profiles (figs. c and d, p. ) is most valuable, though greek mouldings are unsuitable for external work in this climate. the methods of pro- portioning cornices given in vitruvius are useful (the application of proportion to surfaces will be found at chap. iv.). stability.—instability is mostly found in creeping or twining plants, put vertically, and not attached to a central stem, or to the framework of the panel ; also to bulky forms put on slight ones, that from their size seem unable to support the weight. we know from experience that trunks of trees support the enormous mass of branches and foliage above them by their solidity, and bear the strain of winds by their strength and the spread and tenacity of their roots. in the rare case in which such an arrangement is wanted in ornament, we must resort to some device, such as difference of texture between the supports and the mass above, to indicate superior supporting power. laws of ornament repetition is the first method by which things were turned into ornament, but if it be carried too far it produces monotony; this may be seen in a long succession of similar windows in factories, and the endless rows of iron railings to parks. a little more thought would put in proper places a larger or more ornate window; and in the case of railings would afford a larger and more important post or a group of them : this infusion of variety would correct the monotonous appearance, and greatly add to the pleasure of the beholders. the ornaments on mould- ings, patterns in checkers, net-work, or diapers may be repeated up to a certain point without being tiresome, but symbolic and distinguishing forms must, as a rule, be used sparingly. one human figure is mostly enough in an ornamental panel, because the figure absorbs the attention, though cupids or very young children may be repeated; the former are imaginary creatures, and the latter sportive ones, but even these should be so arranged as to compose with the foliage, which should be an open screen they are seen playing through. the difficulty of prevent- ing even cupids from absorbing all interest, was probably the cause of the ancients so often making them half-floral. contrast in form or colour imparts vigour to the composition; the commonest illustration of contrast in form is the circle and the straight line, but more subtle contrasts are found in nature's works, very flat curves being contrasted with sharp ones; and in colour, besides the contrasts of the leaves and flowers, there are often spots of contrasting colour on flowers to the principles of ornament heighten their brilliancy, though this is mostly effected by the pistils and stamens. the “egg and tongue,” one of the most effective ornaments invented, has the smooth curved eggs contrasted with the thin lines of the shells, and the curved eggs with the straight edge of the tongue. (fig. .) renaissance and rornan ornament (see fig. ) give the amplest illustrations of contrast; varieties of foliage contrasting with vases, labels, shields, armour, masks, animals, and human figures. (see figs. , , , , , , , and frontispiece.) symmetry has been defined before as the mere doubling of a form on its axis ; it is one of the most important means of producing ornament, as well as one of the laws most commonly found in nature. nothing in nature, however, is absolutely symme- trical, though there is a suggestion of symmetry about the bulk of its works. radiation is the spreading out of lines from a point, like a fan, and these lines may be straight or curved, and the axis of the radiating lines may be vertical, horizontal, or oblique. it is found in the human hand, in the wing feathers of birds, in the scallop and simi- lar bivalve shells, in the umbels of flowers, and in much other plant growth. the greek honeysuckle is the most beautiful instance of its adaptation as ornament. (see figs. , , , , and .) if the centre of the radiating lines is kept below the springing line, it adds greatly to the interest and beauty of the ornament. a succession of festoons or of drapery hanging from two points are examples of one species of curved radiation. laws of ornament tangential junction.—euclid's definition of a tan- gent is as follows :-"a straight line is said to touch a circle, when it meets the circle, and being produced does not cut it,” and is obtained by drawing a line perpendicular to any radius from the point at which it touches the circumference. in ornament, tangen- tial junction means that where two curves of opposite curvature meet they are to meet at the tangential points of each (fig. ), and in the case of a curve being continued by a straight line, the point of junction is the tangential point. a curve, however, should never be continued by a straight line, but by a flatter curve. the beauty imparted by following this rule is seen in the ionic capitals of the temple of apollo at bassæ, where the two volutes are joined by a curve instead of by the usual straight line (see fig. in appendix). repose.—the absence of a look of motion in orna- ment; this appearance of motion may be seen in some flamboyant tracery and saracenic patterns, in some modern paper-hangings, and in patterns in woven and printed stuffs. the word repose is sometimes used to denote an absence of spottiness. in the best pilaster panels, horizontal lines are introduced partly for contrast, and partly to give repose by checking the appearance of motion in the curved plant forms. (fig. .) variety is a difference of form or arrangement in the ornament from that which immediately precedes or follows it. in nature we see that every leaf varies from every other by subtle differences, though the foliage is roughly alike, and it is for this reason that the principles of ornament nature's works never pall upon us. general similarity with slight variety is the most proper for the highest and most dignified ornament. in other cases absolute variety is permissible. variety is the salt of ornament that takes off the insipidity of repetition. subordination.—the state of being inferior to another, a regular descending series. in any complex system of ornament, one part should be chosen as the most important, and all the rest should lead up to it ; but certain distinct parts, such as masses or flowers, may re-echo in a fainter way the main motive. in drawing, subordination is obtained by the principal mass being larger than the rest, and by its details being larger and more pronounced; in painting, by the above and by the principal part being more vivid in colour; in modelling, by greater size and relief. the romans and cinque cento artists were great masters of this art. in some panels, though the highest relief is not great, there is an infinity of gradation, the lowest relief gradually sinking into the ground. in a renaissance bas-relief of a full face the greatest pro- jection is about the sixteenth of an inch, and yet the face is perfectly modelled. modern english carved ornament is too frequently deficient in this quality. balance.—the making unsymmetrical masses of equal weight. in the creations of nature we see balance employed in trees, shrubs, and plants (fig. ); in leaves, made as it were on a symmetrical basis, balance is equally employed. in simple oval leaves, for example, one side is more convex than the other, and the balance is got by the curve in the rib, laws of ornament unity, is the completeness of any system of orna- ment not marred by incongruous elements or forms.. series is the repetition of a limited succession of different forms: in the egg and tongue, of two ; in the bead and reel, of three; in branches of plants when the leaves regularly diminish in size, of many. (fig. .) long series may be seen in saracenic ornament, where the same text is repeated sometimes with ornament between the texts. growth.this is at once the rarest and most delightful of the hints taken from nature by great ornamentalists. in climbing plants, whose stalks are polygonal, and that twist to reach an object, or for the flowers to get the sun, the edges of the stalk are seen to form a spiral. sometimes this vigour of growth is seen in the turn of a leaf or the clasp of a tendril round a twig. the capitals and the tripod stand of the choragic monument of lysikrates are good examples. (figs. and .) superposition.—this is most frequently seen in saracenic ornament, but it is also found in renais- sance ornament. the simplest form is in the case of meanders of different curvature when one is put over the other, the upper one being more vigorous in form and colour. the next case is where larger ornaments of a more striking colour are put over a smaller and less obtrusive pattern, as in the persian windows of the suleimanyeh at constantinople ; but the com- monest case is that of inscriptions over floral orna- ment, examples of which are without number in saracenic work. this, like nearly all other inven- the principles of ornament we see tions in ornament, is taken from nature. twining or creeping plants overgrowing trees or bushes, and parasitical plants overgrowing others, from which they get their sustenance, and have therefore roots, stems, and flowers, but no leaves. saracenic diapers frequently have many planes superposed, and as each pattern is differently coloured and gilt, any change of position in the beholder brings out a new pattern. this may be seen in the alhambra court at the crystal palace. (fig. .) fitness, in its most obvious sense, is arranging the ornament so that it may not interfere with the proper use of the thing ornamented. the enrichment of a sword-hilt must not hurt the hand, nor render the proper wielding of the sword difficult or impossible ; and the same canon applies to the handles of flagons, jugs, or drinking vessels, &c.; in a secondary sense it is a due consideration of the qualities of the material to be ornamented, and of the appropriateness of the ornament to the purpose for which the article is intended ; and thirdly, it supposes a well-ordered design, whose completeness would be marred by anything being added or removed. the want of what is called "alternation” in design is analogous to a surface that is so elaborately decor- ated with a uniform repeating pattern that it is wearisome to look at. the value of plain spaces in design is enormous. charles lamb, in one of his delightful letters to coleridge, says in finishing—“i will leave you, in mercy, one small white spot empty below, to repose your eyes upon, fatigued as they must be with the laws of ornament wilderness of words they have by this time painfully travelled through.” to the designer this analogy will be obvious and useful. plain spaces as alternations in design, are the oases in the desert, and may be compared to a refreshing silence after a continuous chatter or deafening noise. it is easier to do too much than to know exactly where to stop. excess of ornament defeats its own end, there is no foil to set it off, and it must be guarded against. the saracens, by the relative weight of their ornament, have to some extent obviated this objection. to know the value of plainness is to enhance the ornament used. to have this vividly brought home to you, the best greek architecture should be compared with late roman. in the greek you see a very small quantity of exquisite ornament surrounded by plainness, which makes it doubly precious; in late roman, every surface is covered without a spot to rest the eye on, so that the whole becomes dull, confused, and monotonous. e chapter iv efore speaking of the decoration of mouldings, a few words must be said on the mouldings themselves. the greeks were the first people who carried the art of moulding or profiling to any per- fection, and they are still supreme; they mainly used straight-lined sections for strength, but added a few curved sections to prevent monotony. the air of greece is pellucid and the sunshine brilliant, so for their curved sections those that approximated to conic sections were preferred as having more subtle shade, segments of circles being rarely used. (see figs. - .) the greatest efforts were made to have these mouldings as exquisite as possible, so as to get variety of shade and shadow, and mouldings of the same species were rarely or never alike. the romans, who had much coarser artistic sensibilities than the greeks, and were slaves to easy rules, used segments of circles for their mouldings instead of the greek curves. (see figs. – .) they also had an atmosphere less clear, and their sunshine was not so brilliant. the mediævals, who lived in misty climates with little sunshine, were as logical in their methods, but were not possessed of the artistic sensibilities of the greeks, so, although their mouldings answer the roman mouldings i . ovolo. . cavetto. . ogee, or cyma reversa. . cyma recta. . scotia. . torus. figs. to .- profiles of roman mouldings with their fillets. . ovolo. . hawk's beak. . ogee, or cyma reversa. . cyma recta. . scotia. . torus. figs. to .- profiles of greek mouldings with their fillets. greek mouldings and at fig. is the bead and reel ornament. (see also figs. and for examples of greek bead and reel ornament.) figs. , , and are examples of ornament used for flat bands or fascias. when these are sunk with semi-circular or elliptical channels they are called "fluted," and when raised in relief "reeded.” vo fig. . —decorated mouldings from the temple of minerva polias at athens, ogee ovolo, and beads. we may next briefly speak of the ornamental treatment of floors, walls, and ceilings. beginning with the floor, it must be remembered that in floor decoration the sense of flatness should be preserved ; raised and especially angular surfaces are to be avoided, and what is unpleasant to use is unpleasant to be suggested for use, though the assyrians used relief on their floors. whether the van johc fig. .-greek cyma reversa or ogee decorated with the water leaf, a fret ornament carved on upper fillet, and a bead and reel below. nom . from jupiter tonans. . from the forum of nerva. . from the temple of jupiter stator. figs. to .–fluted ornaments. the principles of ornament decoration be obtained by carpets, rugs, floor-cloth, inlaid marble or metal, mosaic, tiles, or parquetry, nothing should be introduced to disturb the flatness, ii unt hilton in tout a. b. figs. a and b-reeded ornaments for flat bands. by shading the forms or by imitating mouldings, or a ridge and furrow. all realistic renderings of animals oooooo oooo o ООО fig. .--astragal or bead moulding. domo fig. .- bead and reel. or plants should be carefully avoided. the colour may be varied, but evenly distributed, and mostly sober; though the romans sometimes used lapis the principles of ornament ordinary rooms. mosaic may be treated with borders and lines like the framing of a picture, with the field (or central space) either plain, powdered with spots of decoration, or covered with a pattern. black and white is the most dignified treatment. if other colours are used, black with pale red or cream colour, or low-toned reds, greens, greys, and yellows are to be preferred. opus alexandrinum is one of the most magnificent floor decorations yet used ; rectangular or circular slabs of porphyry are surrounded with bands composed of geometrical figures in purple, green, and black porphyry, on a white marble ground, though marble occasionally takes the place of porphyry in the smaller geometrical patterns. (see fig. .) floor-cloths and linoleums are of modern introduc- tion. the decoration of these coverings is best when it is of subdued colours treated flatly. in carpets, the pattern should, as a rule, radiate from geometric points; at least the more important spots should be on a circular, lozenge, or square basis, so that the eye should not be carried in one particular direction. if animals are used, they should have a simple outline, and should be treated fatly. realistic flowers, birds, human figures, landscapes, and architec- ture are out of place on carpets. a border always improves a carpet, if properly designed to harmonize with the centre, or to enhance its value. walls may be decorated with metals or marbles ; with wood panelling, either plain, moulded, inlaid, carved or incised; with plaster flatly embossed or sunk, or in which stones, shells or looking-glass, &c. is embedded; with plain colour, with painted or stencilled patterns; with furs or feather work; with hangings of the principles of ornament they should have a uniform pattern and be free from spots; for the eye should not be arrested by any particular form, nor be forcibly carried in any direc- tion. in illustration of this, we may suppose the diagrams, figs. , , , and , to represent decorated wall spaces. all these decorative arrange- ments are bad as wall-coverings; but by combining their elements, at fig. a tolerably good paper- hanging is produced that will form a background for furniture and pictures. fig. .- arrangement for the lines of a wall-paper. the diagram, fig. , arrests the eye; and tend to exaggerate the height or breadth of the room ; for patterns in which vertical or horizontal lines predominate will have the effect of lengthening or widening the surface of the wall; whilst the dia- gram , being composed of oblique lines, will not only give a look of weakness to the wall, but will lead the eye from one corner of the room to the other. a pattern, to be satisfactory as a background, should neither arrest the eye nor carry it in any particular direction. the height of a real dado generally depends on the height of the chair-backs, but it may be influenced by the height of the ceiling, and partly by the use to ceİlİng decorations which the room is put; high wainscoting prevents small-sized pictures from being seen. if the wainscot son se lut figs. to .-fillings of ceilings showing various schemes of all-over effects. be higher than the centre of the wall, the upper part of the wall may have a stronger decoration with a more flowing pattern than would be admissible on a - the principles of ornament - mootoroloon! لللللللد toxoxoxotos moms pours onromma jon nreliquis victor erre ercin ククククク ​card tonus errrrc rouvidou fig. .-portion of the ceiling of vestibule of sacristy of s. spirito (florence) by sansovino. ceiling divisions wall with lower wainscoting. if there be a frieze in the room, a still freer and more pictorial treatment may be allowed on it. the greeks called the frieze zoophoros, or life-bearing, because it was generally . o do aus huo fig. .-ceiling from serlio's architecture adorned with figures of men or animals. wall spaces need not be panelled in small rooms, as the window- openings, doors, and fireplaces mostly break up the space sufficiently. if the rooms, though small, are high, a dado and a frieze are improvements. on ceilings there is more room for variety and elabora- f the principles of ornament tion. there are many ways of decorating ceilings. we may take the cornice as the frame, and regard the ceiling as the space to decorate ; the simplest way is to powder it (fig. ), or to cover it over with a scroll-work pattern (fig. ). an effective treatment consists in lightly covering the field with a pattern steadied by labels, shields, or medallions (fig. ). in dividing a ceiling into panels, either by painting or by relief work, the centre panel or compartment should generally be larger than any of the others (see fig. , and at b), though there are excellent renaissance ceilings divided into equal panels. when the ceiling is unequally divided, the spaces should be in harmonic proportion, so that no two series of panels shall be the same width; this, however, does not apply to the widths of the stiles and rails, which should be alike. figs. and show such arrange- inents. care must be taken in designing the sub- divisions of ceilings that the panels, interspaces, and mouldings are well contrasted. a safe guide for the designer in obtaining the requisite proportions is to be found in the roman ceilings, although those of which drawings are preserved were mostly vaulted. for flat ceilings, good examples may be studied of the best period of italian renaissance (fig. ), and in both cases the mouldings of the panels are usually given. where a ceiling to be decorated is divided by beams, the panelling, if admissible, should be repeated in the different compartments. ceilings of corridors or long rooms may be harmonically divided across at discretion. relief work or modelled ornament on ceilings should be so regulated that the light from windows ceiling decoration or from artificial illumination should cause little cast shadow, only enough to define the outline; the forms should be carefully rounded off in the more important masses to lessen the abruptness of cast shadow. a preponderance of light in the larger masses, connected and softened by lower tones, is commonly adopted. on the carved surface itself, the play of light and shade should be quite secondary, and not compete in strength with the deeper shadows cast by the orna- ment on its ground. if this be not attended to, confusion and obscurity are apt to be produced. a nice balancing of light and shade is of the greatest importance in relief ornament. it may here be remarked, that for outdoor work in a sunny climate, a lower relief in the carving and more delicacy in the mouldings is admissible, than in a misty one like ours, where strong sunlight rarely occurs; and for this reason a bolder treatment of relief is necessary, which allows of a coarser material being used. before leaving the subject of relief ornament, it would be as well to state, that no carved decoration should be fastened on to a ceiling or panel, but should be worked out of the material itself; and also that where human figures are used on ceilings, they must be so arranged as to be seen from the heads at the most important point in the room ; seen from the feet the figures appear to be upside down. chapter v n setting out spaces for decoration the chief aim i shetting beteget them in harmonic proportion. the greeks were the great masters of this art, the most subtle proportions being chosen by them, but there is not space here to enter into refinements. roughly speaking, the proportion of to is fairly agreeable; when the space required approaches a double square, it looks better if it somewhat exceeds or falls short of that figure. as a rule, a marked preponderance in the height or length should be given to every oblong used in decoration, and with those rough rules, an educated eye can mostly, after a few trials, obtain harmonious proportions. those forms about which there is an uncertainty always look feeble and unsatisfactory, e.g. an oblong that approaches the square, or an ellipse that approaches a circle. in the case of the square there should be no doubt about its being a square, so it is necessary that the ornamentation chosen be calculated to em- phasize the shape and not give it the appearance of an oblong, i.e. the ornament should be symmetrical on both the axes, and it is often useful to accentuate the corners as well; if the square be surrounded by proportion, etc. a border it is sometimes advisable to strengthen its corners by knees. if this be done it is necessary to have them at the four corners ; if they be applied to the two upper or the two under corners, the square will be taken for an oblong. the repetition of squares is much more endurable than a repetition of similar oblongs. a common case of the monotonous effect of similar oblong panels is to be seen in a four- panelled door with the middle rail in the centre, so the middle rail is commonly put below the centre to get variety in the panels. even in so graceful a form as the human figure, sculptors rarely represent it in a perfectly symmetrical attitude, particularly in bas-relief, unless it be to express some marked emotion, or for the sake of the composition; there are, however, a few figures in front view, symmetrically arranged, that form the centres of ornamental com- positions : the front view of animals in bas-relief is still less admissible. the circle is by far the most beautiful and useful closed curve, but it is not always available, as in the case of a central feature in a very long ceiling or in oblong panels, and its place must be then supplied by an ellipse, which has this merit, that its proportions are infinite, the straight line and the circle being only extreme cases of the ellipse; but when the choice is unfettered the long (major) axis should so far exceed the short (minor) as to afford a contrast; an ellipse that differs but slightly from the circle too much resembles one that is ill- drawn. when an ellipse is .placed with the long axis vertical, which is sometimes necessary in oblong panels, looking-glasses, &c., it should be tied to the vertical and horizontal framework to prevent an the principles of ornament legkeitoteatri de sta meny fig -vase by stevens showing unequal divisions of the height, and strengthening horizontal bands. appearance of instability, and when this cannot be done it should be supported by foliage. vase decoration in horizontally dividing objects circular in plan and curved in section, such as vases, with lines or bands, several things have to be considered. the lines themselves have a strengthening effect, but the question is where they are best applied: if the curves of the object vary considerably, the points at which the variations begin are the proper places, and in this case, as in all others, variety and the predominance of one division are to be adopted ; if, however, the vase fig. .-vase showing unequal divisions of the height, and strengthening horizontal bands. is to be decorated, the predominant space for the most important decoration must be placed where the curve is nearly uniform, or else the ornament will be distorted. the greek painted vases, with a few ex- ceptions, are the best examples of excellence in their divisions (figs. and ). due consideration must also be given to the placing of the vase; some of the greek vases, intended to stand on the ground, have the main ornament confined to the shoulder. the principles of ornament lines, such as entablatures, and some door and window architraves, have a severity, that borders upon the monotonous, that is sometimes called dryness. the greeks corrected this defect in their entablatures by introducing figures in the frieze, while the romans mostly ornamented their friezes with festoons and foliage. in the door architrave at the erechtheum circular pateræ are used on the fascia for this reason (fig. ); modern ornamentalists have introduced curved figures to correct the dryness. archivolts to circular openings without imposts, and not enclosed by straight lines, lack firmness and rigidity, which may be imparted by inserting frets or flutes radiating from the centre, on the fascia of the archivolt (fig. ). similar devices may be employed to correct weakness in planes of varied outline. in the shield of the savage (fig. ), made of black and yellow cane ornamented with cut shells, the two horizontal bands, just below the junction of the semicircles with the straight lines, strengthen the composition ; there is a fair amount of contrast between the oblique lines of the ornaments, and the circular, slanting, and horizontal lines ; though the circular cut shell-work of the ends is excessive and monotonous. extreme repetition is a common fault of savage art. when a surface requires ornament and yet to be kept flat, the painted or inlaid ornament upon it should not be shaded nor have cast shadows, or when carved it should be sunk: what beauty can be got by flat colours may be seen in the tiles from rhodes, cairo, and damascus. on large surfaces the best forms of applying ornaments is within lines of checkers, network (figs. and ), or ornament in contrast with boundaries diapers, and except in the case of very large surfaces, where striking variety may be introduced at set intervals, the ornament should be uniform in general ume g fig. .-contrasting decoration on rectangular and circular borders. effect, leaving the varieties to be discovered by closer inspection. one of the best examples of this, though it is not in diapers, is in the medici chapel at florence. michael angelo enriched a string there with copies the principles of ornament of antique masks; in looking at the sides of the chapel the masks seem all alike, but on going near them, each one is seen to be different. innumerable examples of ornament within network, checkers, and diapers, may be found in saracenic, moresque, gothic, and renaissance work. to adopt forms directly from nature for the shape of any article of use is rarely successful, though the best shapes have mostly been suggested by natural fig. .- door case at the erechtheum showing the pateræ on the fascia. forms. the orientals, especially those of the extreme east, have been very fond of this direct imitation, as in vessels made in imitation of a piece of bamboo, of gourds with both single and double bulbs, of eggs, cocoanuts, the horns and hoofs of animals including the horn of the rhinoceros, of shells, flowers, &c., but they mostly want stands or feet, which partly removes them from pure realism, except in the case of the contrasting forms . bamboo, the form of which too is not particularly beautiful. when the ancient traditions had died out in england, and the proper application of ornament v tun july vola home la no kukusjuk tdm fig. .-shield made of cane and ornamented with cut shells and zigzags. to articles of use was unknown, it occurred to many that such objects might be directly imitated from nature. sprays of fuchsia with a large flower on each were used for curtain hooks; branches of plants the principles of ornament were used for gas brackets with the flame coming from the flower; and vases were made in imitation of the blossom of the arum. sometimes nature itself was not vast enough for imitation ; earthenware bowls and wine-coolers were made in imitation of wickerwork, gold brooches in imitation of twisted bread, and other adaptations were made that were equally incongruous. it is true that the japanese sometimes protect their porcelain with an outer covering of woven cane, and wicker-covered bottles figs. and .--carved checkers. are not unknown here. the kafirs, too, carry their milk in woven baskets; yet in spite of these cases, there is an apparent absurdity in such designs, not to speak of the poverty of invention they betray. such vagaries are happily disappearing, since the creation of museums and schools of ornamental art, but they are by no means extinct. every article, whether for use or ornament, should first be constructed as elegantly as possible for its purpose, or supposed purpose ; and only be orna- mented when the ornament does not appear incon- gruous, and does not interfere with its use, but only wall decoration emphasizes its form or relieves it from monotony. although this chapter is mainly confined to outlines and divisions of surfaces, something has been said about the application of ornament, so it may be remarked that the lower part of a wall should be treated with more severity and sobriety than the upper part; for the lower part is partly hidden by furniture, and is most liable to injury. the romans and byzantines mostly used marble for the lower parts of walls in magnificent buildings, though in houses of less magnificence marble was either imitated by painting, or else simple floral decoration was used. the saracens also employed marble, but when that was not easy to obtain, tiles took its place. the medievals used marble, wood panelling, or tapestry, and when the walls were wholly painted, they often imitated the more costly materials. geo- metrical figures or diapers are most appropriate for this part, when it is painted or papered. the part of the wall above this may be treated with greater freedom and elaboration. the part of the wall on a level with the eye should have greater finish bestowed on it, unless there be a frieze with figures or a higher class of ornament to a larger scale. - chapter vi h aving previously considered the principal ele- ments of ornament, it is now advisable to classify ornament in accordance with the spaces it has to fill, and these may roughly be divided into six classes or great divisions, as follows :- . uniform surfaces, as floors, walls, and ceilings. . horizontal bands, as friezes, &c. . perpendicular bands, as panels of piers, pilasters, stripes, &c. . symmetrical arrangements, as panels, either rectangular or of closed curved figures. . symmetrical arrangements composed of straight and curved lines or of compound curves, as span- drels, panels of curved and straight lines. . unsymmetrical spaces founded by straight or curved lines, or by both. the uniform surfaces of large undivided areas are mostly decorated in the following ways: by all-over patterns, by diapering, checkering, powdering, or spot- ting. all-over patterns may be symmetrical, balanced, or one-sided, and are drawn, painted, modelled, or carved. the typical pattern, if symmetrical, has no fig. .-waving pattern, stamped velvet, th century. · italian, showing saracenic influence, g diapers, checkers, and network exe are found on the walls of gothic cathedrals and churches (figs. , ). when the space covered with checkers, network, or diapers is not too large the patterns should so far resemble one another as to give a uniform appearance, the variations being only enough to prevent disgust on a near view. two patterns may sometimes alternate, but in very large surfaces another distinct pattern should be introduced, at certain intervals, to relieve the liz od toxx xoxoxo dodo d xoxo too olo fig. .-moresque diaper. fig. . :- japanese network. monotony. care must be taken to make the net- work and pattern of the proper scale for the building or room, and for the other decoration. diapers are found in chinese and japanese decora- tion, although rectilinear network is more common (fig. ), but powdering is most favoured by them (figs. - ). sometimes it is put over a pattern (fig. ). powdering was, too, a favourite method of ornamenting in the middle ages. the second division is ornament arranged in hori- zontal bands. the greeks were pre-eminent in the use of horizontal bands in their sculptured and * fig. .- japanese powdering. fig. .-superimposed japanese powdering. hun o huru numt o o fig. .-- japanese powdering. fig. .-diaper, italian brocade, th century fig. .-diaper in velvet brocade, th century. italian (german origin). the principles of ornament painted decorations. the embroidered or woven patterns on their dresses, shawls, and curtains, and the beautiful ornament on their vases, were mainly fig. .- construction lines of fig. . designed on this system. the frieze is a character- istic feature in greek architecture; and if you take the band ornaments out of greek work there is very little orna nt left. figs. , , , , , , , the principles of ornament are , and some of their favourite band patterns. figs. and show some of the patterns on dresses taken from the greek vases. the shawl (peplum) of demeter on a vase at the british museum has chariot races, winged cupids, animals, birds, and dolphins in the successive bands; the sacred shawls of minerva at the parthenon (pepla) are only known by description. one had the battle of the gods and giants woven or embroidered on it, and another was ornamented with the portraits of antigonus and demetrius poliorcetes (plutarch's demetrius). spotting at regular intervals was the favourite way of decorating the larger surface of dresses. the circular flower that usually formed the spot in greek ornament was composed of a greater number of petals than the roman, and is probably of assy- rian origin. (see fig. .) saracen work also affords good examples of horizontal band treatment. (see figs. and .) the third division : perpendicular bands are not so common in decoration as the former class; they are mostly architectural in character, and usually form divisions between wall-spaces in the shape of panels in piers and pilasters. triglyphs in friezes may even be classed in this division, and so may the soffits of arches in the classic and renaissance styles; the decoration of the soffits of beams and of ribs and groins in gothic, though some purists say it gives a look of weakness to the arch. when the soffits of arches are wide in proportion to their height they may be panelled, and if narrow be treated like pilaster panels, the bottom of each side , "y fig. .-diaper in silk brocade. italian or spanish, th century; formerly used for dress purposes, but now only employed for furniture. se fig. .- stamped velvet, th century. italian. the principles of ornament figs. and .-greek borders. pilaster decoration being at the springing ; the tops may nearly touch at the crown, or be separated by a circular panel. the decoration of pilaster panels in relief should be comparatively low, and although some of the minor details may almost sink into the ground, there should be nothing vague; the danger to be apprehended being a loss of architectural severity j.w jw. figs. and .-persian borders. in this supporting feature. the ornament on a pilaster must be symmetrically built with the strong- est elements at the base and the lightest at the top. the best examples of this kind of decoration are roman, italian, and french cinque-cento work, the latter may be seen in the well-known pilasters of louis xii. the artists of those times paid the same attention to pilaster decoration that the the principles of ornament उट suhawa fig. .- - upright lily border. greco-roman. tahun fig. .-italian cinque-cento pilaster panel. fig. .-italian pilaster decoration, - fig. .–german book cover, date , in four enamel colours and gold h the principles of ornament fig. .—plaque in repoussé work. german th century. panels and borders ings have been treated in chapter iv., and floors cannot have real panels, so upright rectangular panels may be taken first. their simplest ornamentation is by moulding; if the mouldings have stopped ends, they are known as linen panels. when narrow and un- moulded they may be filled with symmetrical ornament ktm fig. .-venetian panel illustrating “ balance" without symmetry. on either side of an upright stem, either purely floral (figs. and ), or after the manner of pilaster panels, or the ornament may spring from vases at the bottom (fig. ), or they may have central medallions circular or oval, pateræ or bosses; and in cases where these narrow panels are in a long succession, each one may be varied, or the centres alone may be varied, if the panel ornament ΙΟ! albania fig. .--renaissance panel ornament. the principles of ornament fig. .-wine crater in silver from the hildesheim treasures. antique roman. panel ornament must never be wholly ornamented (see fig. ); sometimes they may be wholly plain, but if there be several mouldings, it is well to slightly enrich one member to connect the frame with the panel and detach it froin the plain stiles and rails; these should fig. .—cinque-cento floral ornament composed of the acanthus, oak leaf, convolvulus, and wild rose, &c. never be carved when enriched panels are used. when great richness is required, and the panels are carved, inlay or incised ornament is the best form of enrichment for the stiles and rails. the fifth division.—compound shapes such as spandrels, segmental pediments, compound panels, and spandrel decoration ings are properly emphasized, the spandrels may have a free and unsymmetrical treatment, for they fig. .-spandrel by stevens. do not appear so constructively important as the panels of pilasters, and so greater freedom is allowed to the artist. the gothic spandrel (fig. ) from stone church, in kent, is a good example of balance. the principles of ornament the sixth division.—unsymmetrical spaces to be filled with ornament are rare, being mostly found in saracen work and in arms and utensils, except in the case of angular spandrels composed of a vertical and fig. .-panel with trophy of arms and armour. horizontal line and a segment (fig. ); in all these cases, balance must be the principle employed. fig. shows a well-balanced design for a right-angled spandrel between a round arch and a vertical line, the work of the late alfred stevens. fig. . figs. and .— tail-pieces (renaissance), or lamp bottoms. plant forms in ornament proper development into pure ornament, can be studied in the many rosettes of the various styles. these are circular in plan, and would appear at first sight to be derived from flowers, but are mostly a cluster of leaves, radiating like the spokes of a wheel, either straight or curved. there are many plants—for instance, the bedstraw and the madder—that have their sets of leaves ar- ranged in a whorl round the joints of their upright stems; looking down on these leaves we notice that the plan appears like a rosette. this idea may have occurred to the ancients when designing their rosettes. fig. .--rosettes or pateræ from roman ornament, composed of leaf and aoral forms. the results, obtained by grouping a cluster of leaves together in this manner, are finer and stronger in appearance than any imitation of flowers, particularly in sculptured work. (see fig. .) leaflets and bracts growing at the junctions of stems and leaves also furnished ideas and forms for the making up of rosettes and similar ornament; but more use is made of these bracts in what is called “clothing stems,” or sheaths, some varieties of which are illustrated at figs. and ; in fact, very good ornament is often composed of a stem or meander clothed with these bracts alone. root forms are not much used in european ornament, though indian, saracen, and mediæval decoration abound in examples of the iio the principles of ornament treatment of roots. (see fig. .) the objection to their use is this, that it gives the whole ornament the appearance of having been pulled up and hung to dry. this must always be an objection to their use, unless the root can be shown in the ground; consequently the roman and renaissance artists let their ornament fig. : .—bracts used for “ clothing" stems in scrolls, &c. spring from vases or clusters of leaves. when roots are used it is clear that the general outline of the root must alone be taken, and the character of the growth expressed simply, to prevent confusion and obscurity. fig. .-mediæval and oriental root forms. as a rule, all redundances, excrescences, and acci- dental waywardness of growth, that might be inter- esting to a botanist, ought to be avoided in the decorative rendering of plant form; the average form and the higher beauties should alone be expressed. though this may seem a paradox, the less realistic plant forms in ornament iii we make our designs, the more nature we put into them. we should strive to put the most perfect forms of nature into our ornament, avoiding those that are poor and stunted, as well as over-nourished and rank ones, though nature abounds in both. in persian ornament we find flower and plant forms treated in a thoroughly decorative manner fig. .- laurel from nature. (figs. and ); the pink and hyacinth were as great favourites with persian decorators as the maple and vine were in mediæval work, the lotus and there are many styles of persian ornamentation—that of the achæmenides, probably that of the macedonians after the conquest of persia by alexander the great, that of the sasanides, that of the saracens after they conquered the country, and their ornamentation was doubtless influenced by the subsequent mongul conquest. that ornamentation which is generally called persian, except modern work, seems to be saracenic, ii the principles of ornament papyrus in egyptian, the peony in chinese, and the chrysanthemum in japanese; while such styles as the greek, roman, celtic, and saracenic are more purely conventional, and, without having much realism, are still based on natural forms. students in design cannot be too strongly advised to cultivate the habit of making correct drawings of jw. figs. and .-borders derived from the laurel. all kinds of plants, both in flower and fruit, especially those of single flower and of simple growth, ac- companied by careful notes of the construction at the stem and leaf junctions. the botanical analysis of a plant may serve a scientific end, and be useful to show the student the construction of the plant, but it makes a very poor show in an artistic design. landor the poet said it borders fig. .–borders of medallions in enamelled earthenware by luca della rolbia, plant form in ornament are most suitable. (see for illustrations figs. and .) a trailing vine makes a good ceiling decoration, and was so used by the byzantine mosaic workers, fig. .— tiger lily from nature. fig. .-panel arrangement from the tiger lily. lastly, plants of horizontal growth, such as the dandelion, the daisy, &c., looked at from above, might be best adapted for a floor, a carpet, or a table- cover, the principles of ornament the well-known conventional acanthus and its varieties must now be described. there have been various suggestions concerning the identical plant from which the acanthus ornament is derived, but, like the anthemion of the greeks, there is some el fig. .--acanthus mollis from nature. obscurity about it. the story told by vitruvius of the sculptor callimachus having the corinthian capital suggested to him, by finding the plant growing round a basket covered by a square tile, is a plausible and certainly a pretty one (vit. lib. , cap. ). at any rate, callimachus is credited by vitruvius with the first use of the acanthus in capitals. the ornamental forms of the acanthus i the principles of ornament and the roman composite orders, is an artistic creation, adapted to suit the ends of a grand style of architecture, and not an imitation of a particular leaf. the characteristic difference of the classic ornament from the natural leaf lies in the "pipes” that start from the "eyes" at the base of the leaflets, fig. .-greek acanthus leaf from a capital of the tower of the winds, and, somewhat contrary to nature, taper downwards to the base of the leaf; these pipes, together with the central stalk, impart that strength and dignity which is necessary for architectural foliage, especially when it adorns the bell of a capital. (see fig. .) the pipes are less important, and are consequently less marked in examples of smaller work, such as may acanthus leaf ornament be found in the acanthus of candelabra and panels, in which constructive strength is not required. on the corinthian capital, the acanthus presents a simple edge exactly repeated on each leaflet, with far less serration than is seen in the natural foliage : this imparts dignity to the leaf. on modillions a fig. .-greek acanthus leaf with flowers from a capital of the choragic monument of lysikrates. more serrated and smaller variety is used, with the stalks and pipes still prominent; while on candelabra and small pillars the leaves lie flatter, and the leaflets overlap, and owing to the fact that the leaves are smaller in scale and nearer to our eyes, more ser- rations and more detail may be put into them, for the smaller the scale the more detail is necessary. i the principles of ornament titta fig. .-roman leaf of capital,—the olive leaf acanthus variety,--see introductory chapter plan showing stalk, pipes, and undercut channels of fig. . acanthus leaf ornament (see fig. .) to prevent the foliage in the latter examples from appearing flimsy, as it would naturally do with an overlapping edge much cut up, the edges of the leaves should be slightly thickened and rounded so as to catch the light, thus giving a rich quality to the decoration. the greeks mostly used fig. .-acanthus; olive leaf variety from a capital of mars ultor. that kind of acanthus that is known as the acanthus spinosus, or the prickly variety; the romans pre- ferred the acanthus mollis, or the soft-leaved kind. the olive-leaf has been used for the raffles of the leaves in the capitals of jupiter stator, mars ultor, and the pantheon at rome (see figs. , , and ), while at the temple of vesta at tivoli the ornament dÉrived from the acanthus plates and in painted decoration is of a very free character, but it only holds a secondary place, being generally found in combination with animal forms and grotesques. the utmost freedom in the curve and reflex curve may be allowed in the painted forms of the acanthus ; this being logical enough when we consider that the greater part of the leafage is generated by the free play of the brush. (see fig. .) the arabesques of the vatican, and the italian cinque-cento ware, afford the best examples of this painted foliage. the acanthus was the parent of nearly all the subsequent styles of decorative foliage down to the saracenic and late romanesque, and its modifications have shown the difficulty of improving on the classic type. we are advised by ornamentalists and writers on art to seek for a new leaf that might in time rival the acanthus in ornament. the advice may be good, and many have given their attention to it, but no lasting results have as yet been obtained. of late years there is a kind of scroll-work much favoured by some orna- mentalists. it cannot of course be called new, few things can be in this world; but its persistent application, from illumination to stone-carving, will perhaps in time stamp it with a traditional character. the foliage is more like sea-weed than anything else, but it also has a faint resemblance to the acanthus, the ox-eye, and the wild poppy (fig. ). we have no fixed principles of ornamental art; even ornamentalists themselves disagree as to what is good, and what is bad, so that nothing lives long enough to become national ornament. how can we hope to vie with the ornamental the princÍplÊs of ornament fig. .—winter aspect of a pear tree, illustrating "balance” in nature. acanthus ornament art of greece, when the artists disagree and the nation is indifferent; while the greeks enjoyed unity of artistic thought, and gloried in the worship of the beautiful? to gain a fuller insight into the delicate varieties of the acanthus, the student is advised to carefully examine and draw the foliage in the pilasters of louis xii.'s tomb. the late alfred stevens has done more than any one of late years to properly apply the acanthus. (see fig. .) is k chapter viii the he “symbolic” and “mnemonic" classes of ornament are large, and are interesting alike to the historian, the antiquary, and the student of art. it is not easy to draw the line between them, as the latter skirts the ground of the former so closely. mnemonic ornament is that class which includes written characters, signs, hieroglyphics, and natural forms as aids to memory. the scenes, facts, or ideas so recalled may or may not be in relation to the thing decorated; e.g. we see texts from the korân in kufic and other characters, used to decorate the walls and gateways of mosques, and dresses, vases, candlesticks, and other articles of domestic use. japanese ornament abounds in mnemonic characters with or without other forms. all writing came from the picture-writing of barbarous tribes; the symbols of these pictures were used on the one hand for letters, and on the other for ideas. in the decorative art of most nations, inscriptions can be found on their buildings, utensils, and articles of luxury; and as in the case of some illuminated manuscripts, it is not only difficult to know where the lettering ends, and the ornament begins, but symbolic and mnemonic forms whether the main end was not ornament rather than instruction. the art of illumination or decor- ative writing really begins when there is a desire to have the written matter presented in a beautiful form, and to those who could not read the illumination alone was of importance. in the hands of artists letters have often been arranged as a highly orna- mental cipher. monogram and cipher are almost synonymous terms; the former differs only from the latter in this respect, that a monogram may have different forms of the letters in different positions, and still have the same meaning, while a cipher cannot have more than one particular form or else it defeats its purpose, if used as a signet or as a trade-mark. the decorations found on the tombs, sarcophagi, and stone tablets, &c., of ancient egypt are mnemonical in character, and this was the primary reason of their existence: they were sculp- tured on the granite slabs, to record the names and virtues of the deceased kings and persons of note, but at the same time they were made pleasing to the eye; the perfect balance and even distribution of these inscriptions render them highly decorative, and they become mnemonic ornament. (see fig. .) this diagram is the hieroglyphic inscription taken from the famous “tablet of four hundred years.” it is the third line of the twelve on this monument, and is thus translated : “king of upper and lower egypt, ra-user-ma, sotep-en-ra, son of ra, ramases mer-amen, chieftain enriching the lands with memorials of his name.” the inscription at fig. occurs frequently in japanese pottery; it represents the word “ jiu," meaning longevity or everlasting life, the principles of ornament the japanese symbols of longevity are the following: the god of longevity, a very old man with a large head and merry countenance, holding a scroll in his hands, and accompanied by a crane, as an attribute and sometimes by a stork or a sacred tortoise. the crane itself is a symbol of long life; the bamboo, the fir, and the plum together make a second ; and the gourd is another. religion has had, from the earliest period of man's history, art for its earthly hand- maid, and nine-tenths of symbolic ornament pertains to religious ordinances and ceremonies. nearly all the beginnings of art expressed religious thought by means of symbols; the picture writing of barbarians, the hieroglyphic or priestly compositions of the egyptians on papyrus and granite, the runic and ogham inscriptions of the northmen and ancient celts, were alike endowed with an occult meaning, but they were symbols to the initiated only. a good example of symbolic ornament may be seen at fig. . the winged globe so common in egyptian art has been found sculptured on the lintels of temple doorways almost thirty feet in length. the globe is said to symbolize the sun, the outspread wings the overshadowing presence of providence, and the asps dominion or the monarchy. the scarab, or winged beetle (fig. ), is an emblem of the creator or maker. the disc or ball that it holds between its claws is said to represent the sun, from which all life is derived. another and more natural meaning attached to the disc is that it represents the ball con- taining the egg which the beetle usually rolls to a place of safety, where it is buried, and in course of time new life will spring from it. this emblem occurs as a egyptian ornament central ornament in some egyptian ceilings. nearly all egyptian ornament was symbolic. the canons or laws laid down by the egyptian priests and chief scribes for the guidance of artists were for centuries unvarying ; every ornament, including representations of the human figure, was drawn and sculptured by rule, and no one was allowed to alter the type under severe penalties. the blue nymphea or lotus flower is pre-eminently characteristic of egyptian ornament (see fig. ); it was sacred as the type of coming fig. .-egyptian scarabeus. plenty, as it appeared just before the springing of the crops, and immediately after the subsidence of the nile; it was therefore to the egyptians the harbinger of their daily bread, so there need be little wonder that it was worshipped by them as the emblem of earthly goodness. there is a species of lotus that bears fruit, and it is said that the form of the jewish seven-branched candlestick was derived from it. the lotus was used in the decoration of everything egyptian, the fresh flowers were used in garnishing the offerings to their gods, and was also presented as a peace offering to strangers and visitors. next allegorical painting sic. lib. iii. cap. iv.; ovid's metamor. iii. ). the vine and the ivy were also sacred to bacchus, and are symbolical of him in greek and roman decor- ation. early christian and mediæval art are also teeming with symbolic ornaments. these ornaments are often called indifferently “emblems," "attributes," “symbols,” &c. allegory is a kind of parable, and the word is often applied to allegorical painting or sculpture, which is a representation of one thing under the image of another, and is mostly expressed by human or animal forms. in a recent picture called “hope," by mr. watts, we have a fine allegorical illustration, in a figure seated on a sphere, or the world, bending her ear to catch the strains of a lyre which she plays, which has only one string left; there is a weird feeling of loneliness about the mposition, just relieved from utter desolation by the music that is left in the one string. .“ eve's tempter thus the rabbins have express’d, a cherub's face, a reptile all the rest.”—pope. chapter x 'he arabesques of the vatican have been noticed before ; there were, however, arabesques on the ceiling of the sala del cambio at perugia, painted by perugino, raphael's master, also in the borgia apartment at the vatican, and in the villa madama; arabesques of the latter are said to have been copied from the plaster work in hadrian's villa near tivoli. raphael, being one of the greatest modern painters, added to the beauty of this sort of decoration by the exquisite drawing and composition of the figures. some of the medallions at the loggias contain subjects said to be taken from antique gems, and scripture subjects are also introduced ; the expulsion of adam and eve from paradise is balanced by one of omphale and hercules, the queen having the club. when a cipher or a sign conveys to our minds an idea, or an association of ideas, we call it a " symbol,” particularly if the idea is connected with religion. the commonest form met with in symbolic art is the circle, as the symbol of eternity, from its having neither beginning nor ending; it often appears as a serpent with its tail in its mouth, for this, like many other pagan symbols, was adopted by the symbolic signs and forms early christians. the circle in the shape of a wheel has perhaps had the widest signification in art. the wheel of fire, or sun-wheel, was an emblem of the teutonic sun-worshippers. the tchakra, or sacred wheel, is the emblem of the religion of brahma ; it is the shield of brahma and vishnu, as a wheel of fire ; it is to the siamese a type of universal dominion, a sign of disaster, and the symbol of eternity. (see fig .) the wheel form at fig. is the kikumon or badge of the empire of japan; it is derived, however, from the chrysanthemum. fig. .-the “tchakra," or sacred wheel of brahma and vishnu, also called the “ wheel of fire.” fig. .- kiku-mon, badge of the empire of japan. christian art, from the beginning of the first century of our era to the fourth, consisted almost entirely of symbols. the first christians were fearful lest their new converts should relapse into paganism, and so avoided images ; and being persecuted they used only a few symbols such as the fish, the dove, the lamb, and the monogram of christ. this last consisted of two greek letters x and p (chi and rho), the chi forming the cross as shown at a in fig. ; another form of this is shown at b, in which a cross has the rho formed on the upright stem, and has the first and last letters of the greek alphabet (alpha symbolic signs and forms may have the word nave (of a church), from navis, a ship; naus, a ship, was also the greek name for the inner part of a temple. · the dove in christian art is the emblem of fidelity and of the holy spirit, the pelican of the atonement, and the phoenix of the resurrection. one of the symbols of our lord is a fish, because its greek name fig. .-counterchange ornament, spanish embroidery. 'ixoús (ichthus) contains the initials of " jesus christ, the son of god, the saviour.” it was also used as the symbol of a christian passing through the world without being sullied by it, as the fish is sweet, in spite of its living in salt water; it is found engraved in the soft stone of the roman catacombs (where the early christians took refuge), with the monogram and other inscriptions. the vesica piscis, or fish form, often encloses the virgin and child, and is the the principles of ornament common form of the seals of religious houses, abbeys, colleges, &c. the four evangelists are represented respectively as a lion, a calf, a man, and an eagle,-st. mark being the lion, the calf st. luke, the man st. matthew, and the eagle st. john. many plants are used as symbols in christian art : the vine, as typical of christ, during byzantine times indy fig. .-moresque counterchange pattern, inlaid marble. and the middle ages. in scripture we find frequent allusions to the vine and grapes; the wine-press is typical of the "passion," as we read in isaiah, the passion-flower, as its name denotes, was, and is, used as an emblem of the death of christ. the lily is the emblem of purity, and has always the iris or fleur-de-lis been used as the attribute of the virgin mary in pictures of the annunciation. we find this plant often engraved on the tombs of early christian virgins. from the iris, formerly called a lily, is derived the flower de luce, or fleur-de-lis, one of the finest con- ventional renderings of any flower; it was much used as a decoration in sculpture, painting, and weav- figs. and .- interchange ornament. ing during the thirteenth and following centuries. it was the royal insignia of france; mediæval florence bore it on her shield and on her coin, the fiorino; and it was used in the crowns of many sovereigns, from king solomon down to our own queen. the trefoil is an emblem of the trinity, and is a common form in gothic decoration. the symbolic and mnemonic classes have now beer the principles of ornament described, and the asthetic alone remains. Æsthetic form we owe to the clearness and directness of the greek mind. the greeks were contented with the simple solution of the problem before them, which was to beautify what they had in hand. if they wanted allegorical subjects they confined them to their figure subjects, and being thus freed from other disturbing elements, they concentrated their whole attention on perfecting floral form. they attained perfection in this as they did in their figures, by correcting the peculiarities of the individual by a study of the best specimens of a whole class; and thus succeeded in making the most perfect type of radiating ornament, and of adapting it to sculpture and painting, on flat and curved surfaces. this ornament has perfect fitness, for you can neither add to it nor take away from it without spoiling its perfection. the same may be said, only in a minor degree, of the colour applied to the carved patterns of the saracens and moors: they are both æsthetic works, solely created for their beauty. a symphony in music is a composition of harmonious sounds; it has little subject-matter, and is analogous to æsthetic ornament, only the ear is charmed by the former, as the eye is by the latter. appendix on the orders of architecture it scaune dhe use that a sludrer el poter on the cales t seemed to me that a short chapter on the orders so much ornament is used as an enrichment to architecture itself, but also because a very much larger proportion of it is used in conjunction with architecture, and without some slight knowledge of the subject, the ornament and the architecture, instead of setting off each other's characteristic beauties, are apt to spoil one another. the rigid lines of architect- ure should act as a foil to the graceful curves of ornament, and the plain faces should not only set off fretted surfaces, but make the undulations of carved ornament precious. when i speak of ornament, i include the highest form of it, the human figure, and i may point to the doric frieze of the greeks as a brilliant example of success. this conjunction of ornament and architecture, however, demands high qualities in the ornament, and insight in the artists as to what is wanted for mutual contrast or emphasis; and if this be successfully accomplished, i think it l the principles of ornament must be conceded that the combined work gives a finer result than the uncombined excellence of each. mean ornament, whether of figures or plants, tends to degrade the architecture with which it is associated, and may spoil it by the main lines not properly contrasting with the adjacent architectural forms, or by the ornament being on too large a scale. i have seen in modern work, the stately dignity of a grand room utterly destroyed by colossal figures. michel- angelo, in his superb ceiling at the sistine chapel, has by use of gigantic figures dwarfed the vast chapel into a doll's house. i may add that there is monu- mental colouring as well as monumental form: the finest examples of such colouring may be seen in many of the grand buildings in italy and at con- stantinople, notably at st. mark's and at sta. sophia ; but you may also see magnificent halls and churches, coloured to look like french plum-boxes. the elaborate system of proportioning parts to one another and to the whole, which is so important in architecture as to be its main characteristic, is equally valuable for the division of spaces for ornament. mouldings which form so great a feature in archi- tecture as to have given rise to the saying that "mouldings are architecture," give lessons in elegance of shape, and in the proper contrast of forms, that are useful to the ornamentalist who has to design the shapes of small objects; while the corinthian capital has been the prototype of most of the floral capitals up to the present day. it is admitted that in those periods of history when architecture, sculpture, and painting attained their highest excellence, the painter, sculptor, and orders of architecture architect have not only sympathized with one another, but each one has been no mean judge of the sister arts. at the renaissance, and immediately before it, artists are to be found who were goldsmiths, sculptors, painters, and architects, and some few who were poets, musicians, and engineers as well. the origin of the orders was probably in the verandah of the greek wooden hut. in some of the paintings on the greek vases may be seen the processes by which the doric and ionic capitals were evolved; but for our purpose, which is not archæology, only some of the best examples need be referred to, after the wooden hut had been converted into a marble temple. an order consists of a column supporting an architrave, frieze, and cornice, which is called the entablature. the column generally consists of a shaft, a capital, and a base, except in the doric columns of the greeks and early romans, which were baseless. the capital was the capping-piece which you now see put on the tops of story-posts by carpenters to shorten the bearing of the bressum- mer. the architrave was what we now call a bres- summer, and bore the trusses of the roof; the fascias of the architrave show that in some instances this bressummer was composed of three balks of timber, each projecting slightly over the one below. the frieze was the wide band immediately above the architrave and below the cornice, comprising the triglyphs or ends of the trusses, and the filling in between them, which is called the metope. the metopes were left open in early greek temples, but were eventually filled with sculpture. the cornice was the projecting boarded eaves; while the slanting А. a. fig. .— the parthenon. greek doric; enlarged section of annulets at a. the greek doric order undersides of the mutules were copied from the slanting timbers of the roof. i will speak first of the greek orders, not only because they were the earliest, but because the greeks showed the greatest artistic sensibility in their choice of forms, in the composition of lines, and in their arrangements for light and shade. i begin with the doric. the shaft is conical, and fluted with twenty shallow segmental flutes that finished under the capital, which consists of a thick square cap called the abacus, with a circular echinus under it, finished at the bottom with rings called annulets, and a little below them is a deep narrow sunk chase called the necking, and the shaft has no base. the greeks were a seafaring people, mainly in- habiting the sea-shore, the islands of the archipelago, and the edges of asia minor, and were thus acquainted with the forms of the sea and of shells. the echinus of the doric capital resembles the shell of the sea- urchin, or echinus, when it has lost its spines, and was probably called after it. the ovolo moulding that was most used was called the cyma or wave. at the parthenon, the finest example of the doric, the architrave is plain, and was once adorned with golden shields and inscriptions; it is capped by a square moulding called the tænia or band; the frieze, with its square cymatium, is capped with a carved astragal, and is divided longitudinally by the triglyphs, project- ing pieces, ornamented with two whole and two half vertical channels, from which the word triglyph takes its name ; below the tænia is a narrower square moulding the width of the triglyph, and beneath it, ornamented with drops called guttæ, i may point the principles of ornament to this as a most artistic device both to relieve the monotony of the tænia and to weld the architrave with the frieze. the triglyphs begin at the angles of the frieze, and range centrally over all the rest of the columns, with an additional triglyph between each, though in the frieze over the larger central open- ing of the propylæum there are two intermediate triglyphs; the nearly-square metopes between the triglyphs are filled with figure-sculpture. the cornice consists of the square mutule band, from which the mutules project, whose slanting underside is enriched with drops; and above the mutules is their capping, a narrow fascia under the corona; the corona or main projecting member of the cornice is throated at the bottom, and its capping consists of a wide fillet, deeply-throated, with a hawk's-bill moulding under it. these together form the most superb piece of archi- tectural work that exists, and has called forth the rapturous admiration of all the tasteful in the world, from the time it was built to the time of ernest renan, one of its latest distinguished admirers. i have lingered over this order because it is a masterpiece for all time. those who have seen it in england alone are possibly convinced that this praise has been ill-bestowed ; yet even these would change their opinion if they saw it when perfectly white on a clear day in bright sunshine; but in london, even at its best, the clear air and fierce sun of athens is wanting, as well as the pentelic marble, and the chances are that the sculpture in the metopes has been left out. this doric of the greeks is true architect- ure, fitted to the climate, and made by men of genius to charm the most gifted race the world has seen. to ܓܬܝܬܥܠܐ huuuuu fig. .– entablature, capital and base of the greek ionic temple on the ilissus, the principles of ornament ornaments on the mouldings are carved instead of only being painted, that in the entablature there are three fascias to the architrave, that the column has side elevation. plan, view : section. section. fig. .—side elevation, plan, and section of the ionic capital, from the temple on the ilissus. a neck carved with floral ornaments and a carved necking, and the sweeps of the capital as well as the spirals of the volutes are more numerous. the greek ionic order А fig. .-greek ionic; half of the capital from the north portico of the erechtheum at athens. a is a regular guilloche with coloựred glass beads in the eyes, the greek corinthian order forty years before alexander the great was born besides the beauty of this order of the choragic monument of lysikrates, it is the only undoubted and complete greek specimen that we have in europe. the main importance of the invention, besides its intrinsic beauty, is its being adopted by the romans as their favourite order and used throughout their dominions. i give you here the story vitruvius tells of its invention. besides the prettiness of the story, it serves as an incitement to the reflection, that if those whose hand and eye are trained will only observe what they see, they may get notions for inventions. "a marriageable maid, a citizen of corinth, was taken ill and died. after her burial, her nurse gathered the things in which the maid most delighted when she was alive, put them into a basket, and carried them to the grave and put them on the top, and so that they might last the longer in the open air, covered them with a tile. by chance this basket was put on an acanthus root. the acanthus root meanwhile, pressed by the weight, put forth its leaves and shoots about spring time; these shoots growing against the sides of the basket, were forced to bend their tops by the weight of the corners of the tile and to make themselves into volutes. then calli- machus, who from the elegance and subtlety of his sculpture was called catatechnos by the athenians, passing by that grave, noticed the basket and the tender growth of leaves round it, and charmed by the style and novelty of its form, made his columns among the corinthians after that pattern.” (vit. lib. , cap. i. pp. , .) cas fig. .-entablature, capital and base of the lysikrates monument. greek corinthian. fig. .- capital of the lysikrates monument. greek corinthian. the principles of ornament jugating, governing, and civilizing so great a portion of the world, and possibly on that very account, were fig. .--the tuscan order. not artistic in the sense that the greeks were. the romans were slaves to easy rules and methods; most, roman orders; the tuscan and doric if not all, the profiles of their mouldings were struck with compasses, and they were almost destitute of good figure sculptors. they had, however, a passion for magnificence, and for ornate stateliness and dignity, and they rarely failed to get these in their public monuments. besides the three orders which were taken from the debased greek examples of their own time, the romans added two, the order of the tuscans, and an invention of their own called the composite. the tuscan. the tuscan is described by vitruvius, lib. , cap. , as an incomplete doric, but with a base and a round plinth. the portico of st. paul's, covent garden, by inigo jones, is the best example we have of it in london. the example given is from the learned newton vitruvius. the roman doric. one of the earliest examples, with the exception of that at cora, which is rather debased greek than roman, is the example on the theatre of marcellus at rome, finished by augustus. the column is not fluted, and has no base, and the capital has been greatly altered from that of the best greek examples. the abacus has a cymatium ; the echinus has been reduced in depth, and is an ovolo, and the annulets are merely three plain fillets; the column too has a neck and a necking. in the entablature the architrave is zizantuz + fig. .- roman doric. from the theatre of marcellus. the crowning members of the cornice are conjectural, for the whole has been broken away see desgodetz. ne hchchcho tox nnnn jut fig. .-roman ionic. entablature, capital, and base of an angle column, at the temple of fortuna virilis, the principles of ornament shallower than in the greek examples. in the frieze the triglyphs are over the centres of the angle columns; the guttæ are the frustuins of cones, while those of the greeks were cylinders or with hollowed sides; the cornice has a dentilled bed mould ; and the mutules have disappeared, but their edge runs through and the soffit is slanting, and ornamented alternately with coffers and small guttæ, six on face and three deep; and besides, the cymatium of the corona is capped by a large cavetto; this in the greek examples was only the crowning member of the slanting sides of the pediment. there are roman doric columns at the colosseum, at diocletian's baths at rome, and else- where. the doric, best known to us, was elaborated by the italian architects of the renaissance. the roman ionic. the ionic was not much more to the taste of the romans than the doric, for, with the exception of the examples in tall buildings, where the orders were piled up one over the other, the temple of fortuna virilis is the only good example, although there is a very debased one at the temple of concord. the columns of the temple of fortuna virilis somewhat resemble the greco-roman ones of the temple of bacchus at teos; they have similar paltry capitals, and an attic base, but their truly roman entablature is very notably worse than that at teos, in fact, it might be used as an example of what to avoid in profiling. the cornice is crushingly heavy for the frieze and architrave, the parts are disproportionate, the corona having almost disappeared to make room for the m oxo fig. .—roman corinthian. entablature, capital, and base of the pantheon. oooon ver fig. .-roman corinthian. entablature of jupiter tonans. the roman composite a new ornament, but deplore his want of tasteful invention which has forced him to give a bad one. the varieties of leaves used in capitals have been mentioned in the body of the book. the roman composite. this order has been called the composite, from the mixture of ionic and corinthian motives in its capital. the example given is from the arch of titus, erected to celebrate the taking of jerusalem in a.d. the main thing to be remarked is the capital; for the entablature is corinthian, less ornate than that of jupiter tonans or jupiter stator, and very inferior to the latter in its proportions. it may be imagined that all the foliage above the upper row of leaves in a corinthian capital has been removed, that a carved ionic echinus has been put in at the level of the bottom of the corinthian cauliculi, that on the centre of the echinus there is a calix, from which a flower runs up above the top of the abacus, and from each side of the calix spring curved bands running into the hollow of the abacus and ending in heavy volutes coming down to the tops of the upper row of leaves, the lower parts of the bands and the spaces between the spirals being filled with foliage. the parts of the bell thus left bare by the omission of the sheaths of the cauliculi have two little scrolls of foliage to cover them. the worst fault of the capital is, that the upper part has no artistic connection with the lower, and taken merely as an isolated capital, its volutes are too ponderous for the rest. we must, however, give the romans credit for the merits of the invention. they avel women one fig. .-roman corinthian. half of the capital of mars ultor. ༨༽ ། ར རྣn duidi | ] t t ༽ ། fig. .- roman composite. entablature, capital, and base, arch of titus. text books on architecture it was the practical solution for a practical people of a want that was felt. artistically speaking, it was no solution, and we can imagine that if such a solution had been offered to the athenians in their palmy days, the author would have been howled at, and hunted out of the city. i may mention that the orders that have passed through the hands of the italian masters and been altered by them are not classical, but renaissance. those who wish to study this subject will find the greek examples in stuart and rivett's antiquities of athens; in mr. penrose's principles of athenian archi- tecture; in the books published by the dilettanti society; in cockerell's temple of jupiter panhellenius at Ægina ; in inwood's erectheion ; and in wilkins' antiquities of magna græcia. j. pennethorne's elements and mathematical principles of the greek architects gives many examples of profiles : “the roman,” in les Édifices antiques de rome, by des- godetz ; cresy and taylor's architectural antiquities of rome; normand's parallel of the orders; and mr. phené spiers' orders of architecture. a chapter on the construction of some figures and curves in prac- tical plane geometry useful in ornament. definitions and names of figures from to . an equilateral triangle is a triangle which has three equal sides. (fig. .) an isosceles triangle is that which has only two sides equal. (fig. .) a scalene triangle is that which has three unequal sides. (fig. .) a right-angled triangle is that which has a right angle. (fig. .) an acute-angled triangle is that which has three acute angles. (fig. .) a parallelogram is a four-sided figure which has its opposite sides parallel. (fig. .) : a rhombus is a four-sided figure which has all its sides equal, but its angles are not right angles. (fig. .) a lozenge is a square set angle-wise. (fig. .) note.—a square, an oblong, a rhombus, and a rhomboid are all species of parallelograms, fig. i fig. fig fig. fig. fig. fig . fig. n the principles of ornament a diamond is composed of two equilateral triangles set back to back. (fig. .) all other four-sided figures are called trapeziums. if one opposite pair of sides be parallel, and the other pair not, the figure is called a trapezoid. (fig. .) polygons.—a polygon is a plane rectilineal figure contained by more than four straight lines. a regular polygon is that which has its sides equal, and its angles also are equal. an irregular polygon may have unequal sides and unequal angles, or unequal sides and equal angles, or equal sides and unequal angles. in this chapter regular polygons are only treated of. polygons are named according to the number of sides or angles they may have. a polygon having sides is a pentagon. a hexagon. a heptagon. an octagon. a nonagon. a decagon. an undecagon. a dodecagon. sides is a tridecagon. a tetradecagon. a pentadecagon. a hexadecagon. a heptadecagon. an octadecagon. a nonodecagon. a bisdecagon. io ii i figs. , , and are self-explanatory. fig. . from a given point d without to draw tangents to a given circle a b c. join e the centre of the circle d. bisect d e in f. with fas centre and f e radius describe the circle d be cutting the given circle in a and b. draw the required tangents from d to touch the given circle at a and b. n.b.-a tangent to a circle or arc is always at right angles to a radius drawn to the point of contact. fig. fig. tangent segment lunette chord radius sector diameter ciacumfe crence fig. il figs. and a f e fig. the principles of ornament fig. . to draw an exterior tangent to two given circles a b and cdk. join the centres e and f cutting the circumference of the larger circle at k. bisect e f in g. from k in the line k f cut off a part k p equal to the radius of the smaller circle e b. with centre g and radius k f describe a semicircle ; with f as centre and radius f p describe a circle. the semicircle cuts this circle at h. join f h, and produce it to c. at e draw e a parallel to f c. join a c, which is the exterior tangent required. fig. . to draw an interior tangent to two given circles b e and f d. join the centres e and f. bisect e f in g, and describe a semicircle on ef. from k on the larger circle mark off k j and e f equal to the radius of the smaller circle, and with f as centre and f j as radius describe an arc passing through semicircle at h. join f h cutting the larger circle at c, and draw e a parallel to f h. the points of contact are a and c, through which the interior tangent is drawn. fig. . within a given circle to describe any regular polygon-say a pentagon. draw the diameter a f and divide it into the same number of parts as the required polygon is to have sides—in this case it will be five parts. to divide the diameter into the number of equal parts, draw a line a x any angle to a f. set off any convenient measurement five times on this line. join point to f, and draw the lines , , , ', &c., parallel to f to meet the diameter. with a and f as centre and a f as radius describe arcs intersecting at l. from fig. h fig. f fig. the principles of ornament cutting the sides of the square at f, g, h, k, &c. join these points to complete the required octagon. fig. . to describe a circle to touch two given straight lines a b and a c, one point of contact being given. bisect the angle bac in a d. at c draw a perpendicular to a c, meeting a d at d. with das centre and d c as radius describe the required circle. fig. . to inscribe a circle in a given triangle a b c. bisect any two of the angles as at b and c. the lines of bisection intersect at d. produce bd to e. with centre d and distance d e inscribe the required circle. fig. . a square being given, to inscribe four equal circles each touching two others and two sides of the square. draw the diagonals and two lines parallel to the sides through the centre of the given square. join the extremities of the latter lines to obtain the points , , , and . with these points as centres, and i e drawn perpendicular to c a as radius, inscribe the four required circles. fig. . a square being given, to inscribe four equal circles each touching two other and one side of the square. draw the diagonals and two lines through the centre parallel to the sides of the given square abcd. bisect any one of the angles made by a diagonal and one of the sides of the square, as at d. produce the line of bisection until it meets the vertical centre line at point . with the central point o as centre fig. fig. с e А b fig. fig. a b c e А. fig. fig. e fig. the principles of ornament fig. . in this figure the major or transverse axis of the ellipse is equal to x i. to find the minor or conjugate axis bisect x (fig. ) in h, draw through it f g parallel to a b, drop a perpendicular from f to f, and describe the semicircle fhg: from h drop a perpendicular to a b, and produce it to h to meet the semicircle, k h is then half the length of the minor axis of the ellipse, as c d. divide a e into any number of equal parts, and a g into the same number. draw from c lines through the divisions as , , &c., and from d lines to l' ' '&c. the curve of the required ellipse will pass through the intersections of these lines, as at " " ' &c. fig. . in this figure, the parabola, the line c d is equal to x (fig. ), while a b is twice the length of d (fig. ). divide g b into any number of equal parts, and join the points of the divisions to c. divide d b into the same number of equal parts, and draw lines from the points of division parallel to dc to meet the similar numbered lines drawn from b g; through these meeting points the curve of the parabola will be drawn. fig. . the only difference between the working of this figure—the hyperbola--and the parabola is that the lines which in the parabola were drawn parallel to g b, are here drawn to a point e on c d produced, c d being equal to x (fig. ). this point e is found by drawing the line from on d b to e on c d produced, where c e equals twice xo (fig. ). fig. . to describe an archimedean spiral of any number of revolutions-say three, the longest radius a b being given. the principles of ornament gنفذ f h लकेको b k b fig. fig. e С b b fig. fig. the principles of ornament divide the radius a b into three equal parts for the three revolutions. with b as centre and b a as radius describe a circle, and divide it into any number of equal parts—say eight, by drawing four diameters. each of the three divisions on a b is divided into eight equal parts. with centre b and the point of . fig. .–archimedean spiral. each succeeding division as radius, describe arcs, meeting in following order the next nearest diameter as shown at arcs i ", ", ', &c. through point with radius b , the second division, describe a circle, and through point with centre b describe a circle. in these two divisions arcs are drawn as the principles of ornament described above for the division a , &c., to the next nearest diameter. the spiral is then drawn through the points thus formed on the diameters, which mark its path as at ', ', ', &c., until it ends in its centre at b. fig. . to draw goldman's volute, the cathetus c f being given. divide cf into equal parts. with c as centre describe a circle a e b to form the eye of the volute, making the diameter } of these parts. bisect a c and c b in i and . on i draw a square, , , , . produce the sides i , , and to g, h, and i respectively. divide i c into three equal parts. draw lines parallel to i g through the points of division to p and l, which cut the line c in the points and . through these points ( and ) draw lines to m and q parallel to e h, cutting c in and . in the same way draw lines parallel to i from and to n and r. the points , , , , , &c., will then form the centres of the series of quadrants which are to form the outer spiral that begins with the radius i f. to describe the inner spiral. a' f' in fig. (a) is equal to a f (fig. ). f' s' is made equal to the breadth of the fillet at the top f s. v' f' is drawn at right angles to f' a' and equal to c . by joining v' a' and drawing t' s' parallel to v' f', then t's is obtained which will be the length of half the side of the square for drawing the inner spiral. the method for obtaining the inner spiral is the same as for the outer. fig. . there is no geometric means of drawing a perfect catenary curve; at best we can only obtain the principles of ornament ing circle is given. in order to find the length of the line a b on which the circle rolls, and which must be the length of the circumference of the given circle, we must first find approximately that length by b fig. .- catenary curves. m . fig. .-cycloid curve. the following method. draw the vertical diameter of the circle d c. draw d m at right angles to dc, and make it three times the length of the radius of the circle; make an angle of ° at e, and draw a line glossary a central axis ; in those of symmetrical outline with different fillings there must be equality of weight in the fillings. renaissance orna- ment affords many admirable examples of balance. see page , and figs. and . banding, decorating by means of horizontal stripes, mostly filled with ornament. figs. and . catenary, the curve formed by a chain hanging from two points. fig. . cauliculus, the shoot or stem of a plant forming the volutes under the angles of the abacus, and those in the centre of each face of a cor- inthian capital ; in modern works this name is mostly confined to the central spirals, the outer ones being called volutes. figs. , , , , and . checkering, covering a surface with a square pattern like a chess-board, in which the colour or the ornament alternates. the outline is formed by equidistant vertical and horizontal lines crossing one another. figs. and . colour, apart from the literal meaning of the word, is a vague technical term to express character and contrast in ornament. complexity, interweaving or intricacy; the opposite of simplicity. ornament in which the leading forms are not apparent, is mainly to be found in celtic, saracenic, moresque, and gothic ornament. it is also characteristic of the decadent periods of all historic styles. contrast, the opposition of dissimilar figures or positions, by which one contributes to the effect of the other ; e. g. the straight line with the circle, vertical and horizontal lines alternating ; in colour black with white, &c. ; ornamental forms where flat and sharp curves contrast with one another ; a plain space alternating with an ornamented one, or an enriched moulding round a plain panel, or vice verså, &c. see page conventional. this is a word of great elasticity. in early decoration natural objects were highly conventionalized through the want of skill in the artists, who could not copy, but only portray their im- pressions, thus the egyptians and early greeks represented water by the zig-zag. these early conventionalized forms were sometimes perpetuated through religious conservatism, after the artists had become skilful. all ornament is more or less conventional, but the term is usually applied to designate that ornament in which the most beautiful and characteristic floral forms have been abstracted and adapted to the material employed and the effect wanted. the styles most characterized by conventional ornament are the greek and the early gothic ; they are equally effective as ornament in their respective countries, but the greek has all the grace and vigour of the highest plant form, while gothic has mostly only the vigour, ! glossary figs. - . the romans and the renaissance architects also successfully conventionalized. figs. and . convention now too often means leaving out all grace and vigour. saracenic-persian ornament is perhaps the least conventionalized of fairly good orna- ment. figs. , , , , and . conventional is also used in opposition to realistic ornament. counterchange, a pattern in which the ornament and ground are mostly similar in shape but different in colour and alternate with each other. see figs. and . cymatium, the capping to a vertical member, as the cymatium of the abacus of the roman doric, of the architrave, of the frieze, of the corona. see appendix on the orders. diaper, derived from jasper, originally employed to designate those coloured patterns on stuffs that suggested the flowerings of jasper ; subsequently a pattern enclosed in repeating geometrical forms not composed of straight lines; but unhappily employed of late years to designate any repeating patterns enclosed in geometric forms, in- cluding checkers and net-work. figs. , , , and . emblem, in latin, means embossed ornament on vessels, inlaid work, and mosaic. in modern english it is a device, and was the animal or thing that was painted on a shield to show the temper or striking quality or achievement of the warrior. it is also used as an allegorical representation of some virtue or quality. we say the cock is an emblem of watchfulness; the lion, of courage; the scales, of justice ; the lily, of purity; but the latter may be used as a symbol of the virgin mary. equilibrium. see balance. also figs. and . enlargement of subject, e. g. the figure of bacchus is wanted for a given space which it does not fill ; the due filling of the space may sometimes be attained by the addition of his attributes, as a leopard, a thyrsus, a vine and grapes ; accessories even may be wanted, as a satyr, mænad, rocks, trees, &c. eurythmy, harmony or elegance in ornament; a quality obtained by the use of contrasted but harmonious and dignified forms, expressed in a measured or proportionate quantity. even distribution, the plain space and ornament proportionately arranged ; indian ornament gives the most mechanical instance of this, while good roman and cinque cento pilaster panels give the most artistic examples of this arrangement. it is sometimes im- properly used to designate the balancing of masses in a design. figs. , , , &c. expression, the method of representing ornament by various means, as in outline by the pencil, pen, or point ; in painting, by the brush ; glossary by the bending of ropes round circular pins so as to cross one another. see figs. , , , and . hieroglyphic, sacred carving, mostly applied to egyptian picture and symbolic writing. see fig. . idealistic used by some writers as equivalent to conventional, in opposi- tion to “realistic.” imbrication, overlapping scale-like ornaments; as seen in fir-cones, the hop, and curved tiles on roofs, are examples of imbrication. the bark of the chili pine is a peculiar instance of horizontal im- brication which is something like that of a roman roof. it is used as decoration on roofs, torus mouldings, and small columns, and is a common way of filling certain spaces on italian majolica. see fig. , a, b, c. inappropriate ornament, that which is improperly applied, so as to spoil the appearance, or interfere with the use of an object ; is false, out of scale, or redundant. see page . independent ornaments. things that are beautiful, quaint, or curious, that may be attached to a wall or surface, as festoons, shields, me- dallions, trophies, &c. see page , also fig. . interchange is when running vertical or horizontal patterns are divided by a vertical or horizontal axis, the colour of the ground on either side of it being different, the ornament on each side of the axis being of the colour of the opposite ground. see figs. , . interlacing, ornament composed of bands, ribbons, ropes, rushes, osiers, &c., woven together, or crossing at intervals, as seen in celtic, byzantine, and saracenic ornament; among examples of interlaced work may be mentioned braided, trellis, basket, and woven work. figs. , . intersection, the points at which lines or other forms cut one another. monotony, sameness of tone ; often shown in excessive repetition ; a very undesirable feature in ornament : patterns within diapers with- out contrasting elements; mouldings coming together whose widths and profiles are nearly equal ; panelling without sufficient variety in size ; carved ornament of nearly equal relief-in short, any lack of variety in the composition, modelling, or colour of ornament produces monotony. mnemonic, ornament in which written signs or other elements are used for the purpose of aiding the memory. see page . figs. , . naturalistic, those forms that are used for decoration, that resemble the spots and eyes on butterflies' wings, or the markings on the skins of reptiles and quadrupeds, or on the feathers of birds ; mostly found in the ornament of savage tribes. glossary of the door or shutters. the scale employed in the decoration of rooms, of floors, or of pieces of furniture, may increase or destroy their importance; hence, except in rare instances, the human figure should not exceed its natural size, and may want to be much smaller. and this precaution is equally important in the use of plants ; if the flowers or leaves in ornament are made gigantic, they destroy the scale of the room or floor; though it may be known that leaves four feet in diameter or six feet long actually exist. scalloping or scolloping, forming an edge with semi-circles or segments, the convex side being outwards. scroll, a roll of paper or parchment. as a unit in ornament, it is usually applied to two spirals, each attached to the opposite ends of a curved stem, each spiral coiling the reverse way, but the word is often applied to ornament composed of a meander with spirals. series, usually the sequence of several dissimilar forms at regular intervals, as the bead and reel in bead-mouldings, the sequence of the same text in saracenic work, and also a sequence of forms similar in shape but in an increasing or decreasing order, as branches of plants with leaves getting smaller from bottom to top. setting out, the planning of a scheme of decoration ; the first construct- ive lines or marking-out of the ornament; the skeleton lines of a design. see pages , , and . soffit, an architectural term applied to the under side of any fixed portion, as the soffit of a beam, an architrave, a cornice, an arch, or a vault. spacing, the marking of widths in mouldings, panels, stiles and rails, borders, &c. equality of division in decoration is, in most cases, ineffective, and should be guarded against ; harmonious variety in such widths and distances is desirable for getting a good effect. see pages , , , and – . also figs. c, d, and . spiral, the elevation of a wire continuously twisted round a cylinder, or cone, also the plan of one twisted round a cone ; in ornament the word spiral, when used as a substantive, mostly means the latter form. the curved line forming a volute (as in the ionic capital) and the outline of the wave ornament; the line of construction in univalve shells. see figs. , , , , , &c. stability, firmness and strength in the general appearance of a design ; in climbing plants this appearance can only be given by their attach- ment to a central upright or to the vertical sides of the frame; the straight line is the chief factor of stability in ornament. . where many curved lines are used in the decoration of long panels, straight-lined forms must be introduced to counteract the effect of instability in the curved ones. see figs. and . see page richard clay & sons, limited, london & bungay. april, a general catalogue of books published by chapman and hall, ld. chapman skal london ii, henrietta street, covent garden, w.c. agents for the science and art department, south kensington, and messrs. john wiley & sons of new york for list of different catalogues issued, see page notice. messrs. chapman & hall now hold the exclu- sive agency for the sale in this country, on the continent, and in the colonies, of the important scientific, educational, and techni. cal works published by messrs. wiley & sons, of new york, an agency hitherto distributed among several of the chief london publishers. the various publications of messrs. wiley & sons deal with military and naval engineering, astronomy, chemistry, assa ying, civil and mechanical engineering, metallurgy and mineralogy, and physics. messrs. chapman go hall have a spacious and well-appointed book room on the ground floor of their premises in henrietta street, covent garden, where any of the books named in this catalogue can be inspected, as well as those published by messrs. john wiley & sons, of new york, together with a varied display of models, diagrams, drawing examples, instru- ments, mechanical and other apparatus, &c., &c. a list of special catalogues will be found on page , copies of which will be forwarded to any address on application. books published by chapman & hall, limited. about (edmund).—handbook of social economy; or, the worker's a b c. from the french. with a biographical and critical introduction by w. fraser rae. second edition, revised. crown vo, s. adams (henry), m.i.c.e., &c.—machine construc- tion and drawing: a key to the examinations of the science and art department (subject ii.). elementary. with numerous illustrations. crown vo, s. d. advanced. with illustrations. crown vo, s. d. building construction. key to examinations of science and art department (subject iii.). with numerous illustrations. crown vo, s. aflalo (f. g.) and paske (surg.-gen. .—the sea and the rod. with illustrations. crown vo, s. d. agricultural science.—lectures on agri- cultural science, and other proceedings of the institute of agriculture, south kensington, - . crown vo, sewed, s. aÏdÉ (hamilton).—elizabeth's pretenders. a novel. second edition. crown vo, s. andrews (t. n.).—a complete and comprehen. sive course of scale drawing. for students, civil engineers, and others. crown to, s. bd. angel (henry).—practical plane and solid geometry. a key to the examinations of the science and art department (subject i.). crown vo, s. d. ashton (john).-in the days of william the fourth. with illustrations, crown vo. aveling (edward), d.sc.-mechanics and experi- mental science. as required for the matriculation examina- tion of the university of london. mechanics. with numerous woodcuts. crown vo, s. d. key to problems in ditto, crown vo, s. d. chemistry. with numerous woodcuts. crown vo, s. d. key to problems in ditto, crown vo, s. d. magnetism and electricity. with numerous woodcuts. crown vo, s. d. light and heat. with numerous woodcuts. crown vo, s. d. keys to the last two vols. together. crown vo, s. d. bailey (captain h.).–congo free state and its big game shooting, travel and adven. tures. illustrated from the author's sketches. demy svo, s. a . books published by chapman & hall, ltd. bailey (john burn).—from sinner to saint; or, character transformations. crown vo, s. modern methuselahs; or, short biographical sketches of a few advanced nonagenarians or actual centenarians. demy svo, s. d. baker (w. l.).--the beam; or, technical elements of girder construction. crown vo, s. beatty-kingston (w.). - a journalist's jot- tings. vols. demy svo, s. a wanderer's notes. vols. demy vo, s. bell (james), ph.d.—the chemistry of foods. with microscopic illustrations. part i. tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, &c. large crown vo, s. d. part ii. milk, butter, cheese, cereals, prepared starcies, &c. large crown vo, s. bentley (h. cumberland).-songs and verses. illustrated by finch mason, and dedicated to j. g. whyte melville. crown vo, s. bingham (capt. the hon. d.).—recollections of paris. vols. large crown vo. s. billington (mary frances). —woman in india. dedicated by permission to h.r.h. the duchess of connaught. with an introduction by the marchioness of dufferin and ava, c.i., and numerous illustrations by herbert johnson and others. demy svo, s. birdwood (sir geo.), c.s.i.—the industrial arts of india, with map and illustrations. new edition. demy vo, s. “black and white,” stories from. by grant allen, mrs. lynn lynton, j. m. barrie, mrs. oliphant, w. clark russell, thomas hardy, w. e. norris, and james payn. with numerous illustrations. crown vo, s. d. bloomfield (lord).-memoir of benjamin lord bloomfield's mission to the court of ber- nadotte. with portraits. vols. demy vo, s. bonvalot (gabriel). through the heart of asia over the pamir to india. translated from the french by c. b. pitman. with illustrations by albert pÉpin. vols. royal vo, s. bos (dr. j. ritzema). — agricultural zoology. translated by professor j. r. ainsworth davis, b a., f.c.p. with an introduction by miss e. a. ormerod, f.r.met.s., f.r.m.s., &c. with illustrations. crown vo, s. boyle (frederick).—from the frontier: sketches and stories of savage life. crown vo, s. d. about orchids. a chat. with coloured illus- trations. large crown vo, s. the prophet john, a romance. cr. vo, s. books published by chapman & hall, ltd. cervantes.-the life of miguel cervantes saavedra: a biographical, literary, and historical study, with a tentative bibliography from to , and an annotated appendix on the “canto de caliope." by james fitzmaurice kelly. demy svo, s. character in the face. physiognomical sketches. our looks and what they mean. crown vo, s. chapman's magazine of fiction. monthly. d. volumes bound in decorative cloth, in colours and gold, gilt top, s. cases for binding, s. d. see page . chapman's story series. a series of short novels of adventure, action and incident. each volume contains a frontis- piece and will be of about pages in length. small crown vo. . the long arm. by mary e. wilkins, and other detective stories by geo. ira brett, roy tellet and professor brander matthews. with a frontispiece by adolph birkenruth. s. d, in cloth; 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book shelf art library nk .w ward, james the principles of ornament university of chicago libraries , - . / central university library university of california, san diego date due mar q r-r- mm) ' mar qqn ,vi/ik > | ip mar .jb u. c. s. d. ji ji fi ii i roffi*—_ iju* a ucsd libr. the styles ' of ornament r the styles   of ornament from prehistoric times to the middle of the xixth century a series of examples arranged in historical order, with descriptive text, for the use of architects, designers, craftsmen, and amateurs by alexander speltz r. phene spiers, f.s.a., f.r.i.b.a. revised and edited by full page illustrations bruno hessling new york, east jth street berlin s. w. , aniialtstr. / . paris, rue de savoie t editor's preface. the first german edition of this work was published in and met with such signal success that its author herr alexander speltz was called upon to bring out a second edition two years later. in this edition the number of plates was increased from three to four hundred which enabled the author to give a more complete representation of ornament as developed in england and america than had been at first contemplated. the original work was undertaken with the object of representing the entire range of ornament in all its different styles from pre-historic times till the middle of the th century and to illustrate the different uses to which it had been applied. the whole of the illustrations which were taken from the best authorities on each subject and period were drawn specially for the work and evince the remarkable industry and knowledge of the author and his artistic power in representing ornament. in fact it is only necessary to glance through the several plates to see how closely the author has caught the style and character of each period. acknowledgments of the sources are made throughout the work and in addition a special list of books of reference, including those which have been drawn upon for illustrations, has been inserted at the end of the volume. an english edition was published in america in for sale in that country only, but the historical accounts were not in accordance with the latest research and many of the descriptions to the plates had suffered so much in translation that very considerable revision was necessary in preparing the present issue. three new plates of english ornament have been added to this edition taking the place of others which it was found necessary to delete, various changes have also been made in the headings to some of the chapters and in the terms employed, more particularly in the section devoted to the renaissance period; for instance the term "barocco", which although well-known and recognised throughout germany is but seldom used here, has been replaced by vi editor's preface. "later renaissance" which is more familiar to the english student and includes that which used to be known as the pure italian style introduced by inigo jones. the term rococo has been retained as it would have been difficult to find any other to suggest the vagaries of the louis xv. style which spread through italy, france, spain, germany and flanders and here in england led to chippendale's work; the terms adopted to distinguish the later periods are adhered to as in the original edition. the plates and their accompanying descriptions being arranged throughout in chronological sequence renders an index a very important adjunct and special care has been taken in preparing that given in the work. the examples are entered according to both subject and material and the periods to which they relate are indicated, thus enabling any particular object in any style to be immediately referred-to. the plates in which the several styles of ornament are illustrated contain a larger and much more varied series than in any work hitherto published, indeed the volume forms a veritable encyclopaedia of the evo- lution development and application of ornament in architecture and the decorative arts throughout the ages, and it should prove of great value to the architect, craftsman, designer and student. london, january . » r. phene spiers. contents. plates page introduction — prehistoric and primitive ornament — antiquity - egyptian ornament — babylonian-assyrian ornament — persian ornament — phoenician-hebraic ornament indian ornament — greek ornament — etruscan ornament — roman ornament — pompeian ornament — celtic ornament / — the middle ages - early-christian ornament — lombardo-byzantine ornament in italy — visigothic ornament in spain italo-byzantine ornament in italy , frankish ornament byzantine ornament — byzantine ornament in spain . . — romanesque ornament — romanesque ornament in germany — romanesque ornament in france — romanesque ornament in upper and middle italy .... — saracen-norman ornament in sicily and lower italy . . — romanesque ornament in spain — romanesque ornament in england — romanesque ornament in scandinavia — viii summary of contents. plates page russian ornament" — mahometan ornament — arabian ornament — moorish ornament — saracenic ornament ottoman ornament — . persian ornament — indo-saracenic ornament — gothic ornament — gothic ornament in france — gothic ornament in the netherlands — . gothic ornament in england — gothic ornament in germany and austria — gothic ornament in italy — gothic ornament in spain' — chinese ornament — cambodian ornament — japanese ornament , — renaissance and modern times - renaissance ornament — renaissance in italy — florence — . rome — venice; — various — renaissance in/'france — renaissance ornament in spain and portugal — renaissance in germany, austria and switzerland .... — swiss renaissance wood buildings — renaissance ornament in hungary renaissance ornament in the netherlands — ornament of the northern renaissance — slavonic renaissance ornament — renaissance ornament in poland renaissance ornament in russia — renaissance ornament in england — later renaissance ornament — later renaissance ornament in italy — later renaissance ornament in france (louis xiv style) — later renaissance ornament in germany, austria, and switzerland — later renaissance ornament in the netherlands — later renaissance ornament in england — summary of contents. ix plates page rococo ornament - rococo ornament in italy rococo ornament in france (louis xv. style) — rococo ornament in germany and austria — rococo ornament in england (chippendale style) — colonial style ornament in the united states .... - ornament of the classical revival of the «i century - * century ornament in italy — th century ornament in france (louis xvi. style) — th century ornament in the netherlands th century ornament in germany — th century ornament in england — examples of the work of r. and j. adam — furniture made from designs by sheraton — furniture made from designs by hepplewhite work prepared from various designs — / empire ornament — empire ornament in france — examples of the work of percier and fontaine — various designs , later empire empire ornament in italy — examples of the work of giuseppe borsato . . . . empire ornament in germany — biedermeier or old fashioned style in germany . , neogrec ornament in germany — list of reference books index of illustrations according to subject and material errata. page , lines from bottom, for she read the. page , plate , fig. , for baylonian read babylonian. page , lines from bottom, for babyllonia read babylonia. page , plate , fig. , for column read altar. page , lines from top, reverse the order of former and latter. page , lines , and , bring twelfth century to line before b. c. page , plate , fig. , for candelabres read candelabrum. page , plate , fig. , for bronce read bronte. page , plate , fig. , for watering-can read flagon. page , plate , fig. , for veval read reveal. page , middle of page, for development read developments. page , plate , fig. , for lover read lower. page , plate , fig. , for tympanum read spandril. page , plate , fig. , for key read escutcheon. page , plate , fig. , for chain mail read cloisonne inlay. page , plate , figs. i, , should read , /, . page , line , for claissic read classic. page , plate , fig. insert table after console. page , plate , fig. , for cast iron read wrought iron. page , line , for plate read plate ^ . page , plate , fig. , for mantel piece read page , plate , fig. , for secretary read secretaire. page , line , for quilloche read guilloche. page , plate , fig. , for foxed read /.r*/. introduction. ightly understood, the conformation of an ornament should be in keeping with the form and structure of the object which it adorns, should be in com- plete subordination to it, and should never stifle or conceal it. as varied and as many-sided as it may be, still, the art of ornamentation is never an arbitrary one; besides depending on the form of the object, it is influenced also by the nature of the material of which the same is made, as well as by the style or manner in which na- tural objects are reproduced in ornamentation by different peoples at different times. the art of ornamentation, therefore, stands in intimate relationship with material, purpose, form, and style. the oldest forms of ornamentation consisted of geo- metric figures, small circles, bands, straight and curved lines, &c, all of which were drawn with categorical regularity and according to a certain rhythm. with the advance in the intellectual development of mankind, artists acquired more technical skill, and ventured even to make use of animals, plants, and, finally, of the human figure itself, for ornamental purposes. a plant or a living being can be employed in ornamentation in two ways, firstly, just as it is formed by nature—which is naturalistic ornament, and secondly, in a form which reflects the spirit of the times, speltz. styles of ornament. initial from a german manu- script. 'h century (dolmetsch). introduction. the political or religious ideas of the peoples, or the effects of foreign influence—where by was formed the stylistic ornament. each style exhi- bits one and the same plant and one and the same animal in a different fashion. each country sought the models for its own ornamentation in its own fauna and flora, and each style had certain plants and animals which it preferred to all others. style is really more the product of one epoch of time rather than of a single people, and it is according- to this chronological standpoint that the present work has been ar- ranged. in keeping with the tendency of the work, it may be remarked that the illustrations, are all reproductions of such objects only as were really produced at the period for which the style is characteristic. stonehenge near salisbury. prehistoric and primitive ornament. ivided according- to the periods of deve- lopment during which it existed, prehis- toric ornament extends over two great epochs: the stone age and the metal age. it is, however, characteristic not alone of all peoples who lived on the earth in prehistoric times, peoples sepa- rated by thousands of years from each other, but even of people who exist at the present day. we find the prehistoric ornament not only amongst the remains of those races of people who lived along the mediterranean over years ago, but also the primitive ornament amongst different people who inhabit cer- tain parts of the earth at present but who have not yet advanced beyond that stage of civilisation to which this style of ornament is peculiar. prehistoric ornament embraces two periods: the stone age and the metal age. the stone age is generally supposed to have begun at the end of the last period of the tertiary age, distinct proofs place it at the last epoch of the diluvian era. during the paleolithic or ancient stone age, stone was habitually used as the material from which tools were made; in the neolithic or later stone age the tools were polished and given an artistic form, and vessels made of clay decorated with simple ornamentations were manufactured. lake dwellings, the burying of the dead in caves, middens, barrows, cromlechs, and other numerous mega- lithic monuments, the use and purpose of which are still matter of specu- lation, are all characteristic of this era. in the course of time these early inhabitants arrived at a stage of development which enabled them stonerelief from yucatan (globus ). * prehistoric ornament. to make use of metals, bronze being- first employed and later on iron, the different periods being designated as the earlier and later bronze age and the earlier and later iron age. the use of bronze was introduced from the east throughout the entire of europe at about the year b. c. the later bronze age extended only over the middle and north of europe and dates from about to b.c. iron was however already worked during this period in the countries bordering on the mediterranean, and was besides extensively known to the assyr- ians in the ninth century before christ. in all probability the use of iron was introduced from assyria into europe, where, in consequence of its introduction, new forms were given to arms, tools, and implements of all kinds. iron was now used almost entirely for arms and tools, bronze being employed for artistic work. the earlier or ancient iron age is called also the hallstadt period, hallstadt being a locality in the salzkammergut where all the greatest and most important discoveries dealing with this period were made. the later iron age, designated also as the la tene period in consequence of the discovery of remains found in the castle in the island la tene in the lake of neuchatel, dates from to b. c, and is confined generally speaking to the gallic races. even in those prehistoric times a very lively commercial intercourse existed between the different peoples. the locality, therefore, where a certain article has been discovered cannot by any means be accepted as the country of its origin. it could just as well have been manufac- tured by another people more advanced in civilisation, and have been brought by itinerant traders to the locality where it was eventually found. the stone and metal periods, however, are not confined alone to those prehistoric peoples who have long since passed away, and of whose names or descent we have never been able to acquire the slightest knowledge. there are people in asia, africa, america, and australia, at the present day, who have not even yet arrived so far as the metal period. the inhabitants of america at the time of its discovery had not yet advanced beyond the stone or metal age. examples of their work are therefore included in the two plates dealing with these periods. prehistoric and the primitive ornaments may be said to be purely geometric ones, the artists of the time rising very seldom to such heights as to try and imitate in their work the figures of men, animals, or plants. altough there cannot be any mention of "style" in connection with it as it was so disconnected, and so widely separated by time and space—still, prehistoric ornament as such formed the foundation upon which genuine styles were constructed later on. prehistoric ornament. plate . prehistoric ornament. . . ivory carving found in a cave in lourdes (hoemer, urgeschichte). . ivory carving found in arudy (basses pyrenees), france (hoerner). . ivory carving found in brassempoy, france (hoemer). . clay statuette found in budmir, bosnia (hoemer). . and . earthenware vessels found in budmir, bosnia (hoemer). . vessel found in the pile-dwellings on laibach moor, later stone age (hoerner). . bronze object from the first iron age found in hungary (hoerner). . bronze jewel found in hungary (hoerner). . bronze needle (broekhaus, konversationslexicon). . earthenware vessel found in odenburg, first stone age (hoemer). . urn found in west prussia (hoemer). . urn found in borgstedfeld, holstein (hoemer). . bronze plate found in glarinoc, bosnia (hoemer). . bronze greave found in herzegovina (hoemer). . weapon found in hungary (hoemer). . iron dagger found in the lake of garda (hoemer). . fragment of an engraved bronze girdle found in chodschali in trans- caucasia (hoerner). . jewel from the gold-discoveries in vettersfelde (hoerner). . lance-head, germany (hoemer). . , and . wicker-work found in the swiss pile-dwellings (labke, die kunst des altertums). . border ornamentation of a bronze basin found in the wies, styria (hoerner). . clay figure found in a boeotian grave (hoemer). . stone axe of montezuma (sir john evans). . sword of the bronze age (labke). . needle of the bronze age (labke). . and . bronze clasps (broekhaus). . scabbard (broekhaus). . figure of charon on a bronze relief plate found in north syria (hoemer). . bronze fibula (broekhaus). . double earthenware vessel found at langenlebron in a grave of the hallstadt period (hoerner). . scissors (broekhaus). . bronze wedge (broekhaus). . neek ornament (labke). . needle (labke). . bronze sword (labke). . stone spear-head (broekhaus). . bronze fibula (broekhaus). . stone knife (broekhaus). . stone sickle (labke). . iron spear-head (broekhaus). . iron vestment pin (broekhaus). prehistoric ornament. plate . prehistoric ornament. fig. . ancient peruvian vase (brockhaus konversationslexikon). . granite vase found in honduras (brockhaus). , , , , , , and . bronze weapons (labke, kunst des allertums). , urn found in the district of the elbe (reichhold, flachornament des altertu ns). , , and . knives found in the swiss pile-dwellings (reichhold). , relief on the monolith gate of tiahuanaco (labke). , and . wedges of the inkas period (brockhaus). , , , and . earthenware vessels found in america (reichhold). . . relief from a mexican temple (brockhaus). „ . earthenware vessel found in the island of cyprus (reichhold). „ . sepulchral urn found in england (reichhold). „ . sepulchral urn found in sweden (reichhold). „ . ornament from a building in prinxillo (labke). „ , , , and . earthenware vessels from the middle rhine (reichhold). „ . old italian sepulchral urn with engraved ornamentations (reichhold). „ . relief cut in the rocks in izamal, yucatan (brockhaus). „ , , , , - , and . bronze jewels (labke). „ . fragment of a column (american), found in tula (brockhaus). „ to . metal-vessel ornamentations of the bronze age (labke). „ - . idol. plate . primitive ornament. fig. . mat from the southsea (finsch, erlahrungen und belegstocke aus der sildsee). „ . fan screen of painted feathers from australia (racinet, l'omement poly- chrome). , and . painting from an australian canoe (racinet). . painted woodcarving from central africa (racinet). . model of a house of the haida, queen charlotte's islands, in the anthro- pological museum of berlin. „ . ebony spatula with incrusted work from new guinea (reichhold, kunst und zeichnen). . specimen of. woven work from australia (racinet). „ . club from new zealand (racinet). ,. . native chair, camerun. in the anthropological museum of berlin. ,. . woodcarving from a canoe in new zealand. in the louvre (racinet). „ , and . terminal heads of paddles from polynesia (glazier, a manual of historic ornament). door of the grand theocalli of uxmal, yucatan (gailhabaud, denkmiler). frame: mexican ceramic ornaments in the british museum (owen jones, grammar of ornaments). egyptian wood columns (prisse d'avennts, hist. d. l'art egyptien). egyptian ornament. egyptian dress (i.ubke). ong before civilisation was known in egypt there existed at one time in ancient syria and babylonia, countries once so rich and flourishing, a civilisation much older than that of egypt. proofs of this civilisation have been brought to light in the excava- tions carried out in recent years in these two countries. it is, however, egypt that has supplied us with those series of monuments by means of which the most ancient historical facts now in our possession have been put together and verified. even so far back as b. c. an extensive artistic spirit reigned throughout egypt. the historic period of the country, which dates from about the year b.c. when mena was king, comprise thirty dynasties, and is divided in accordance with the records of the priest manetho into four principal periods, namely: . the ancient kingdom dating -from about b.c. to about b. c. this period, reached its highest glory under khyan, the last king of the tenth dynasty. the city of memphis in lower egypt flourished during this period. egyptian ornament. . the middle kingdom dates from to b.c. the prin- cipal centres were in middle and upper egypt with the capital thebes. the highest period of development characteristic of this epoch was reached about b. c. during the th dynasty, the decline and decay of this development being brought about by the conquest of the country by the hyksos who had their centre of government in the city of tanis. . the modern kingdom dates from the year to b.c. the principal city was thebes in upper egypt. the highest period of development was reached in the years to b. c. under hat- shepsut, rameses, seti, and rameses ii., of the th and th dynasties. the decline began about the year b. c. . the later period dates from the year b.c., the period of the restoration by psammeticus with the capital sais. the final development took place under the th dynasty between the years to b.c. when the country was conquered by the persians, during whose occu- pation few buildings were erected. in b.c. a revival took place under the rule of alexander the great which was continued by the ptolemies from the year b.c. and by the romans from b.c. the life led by the ancient egyptians was characterised by distinctly marked order and regularity, and to this is due the clearness, exactness and dignity, which distinguish egyptian works of art. they are deficient however in that warm spirit which animates grecian art, and are in con- sequence cold and stiff. owing to the scarcity of timber, all the great enclusures of temples, palaces, and domestic structures generally were built in unburnt brick, a material which necessitated a much greater thickness for the lower part of the wall at the base, and this type of construction would appear to have been the model on which all the great monuments in stone were based, thus accounting for the raking walls given to the pylons and temples. apart from a pure geometrical setting-out, egyptian ornament consists of a rigidly systematic arrangement of plants native to the country. the well-known egyptologist, louis borchardt, has arranged a clear classification of egyptian plant-ornamentation, and the complete plants used as models being arranged by him as follows: . the lotus-flower, nymphaea lotus l., nymphaea cerula l., and nymphaea nelumbo l. . the lily, the botanical name of which has not yet been fixed. . the papyrus flower, cyperus papyrus l. . the date-palm, phoenix dactylifera l. . reeds and a kind of withe* were also often employed as can be seen from certain fragments discovered in the excavations. * probably the leaf of the maize or indian corn. i egyptian ornament. the lotus and papyrus flowers were, however, used the most often by the ancient egyptians in the ornamentation of all kinds of work, from the most colossal egyptian columns down to the smallest objects. borchardt denies that there is any constructive importance to be attached to the egyptian plant-column. to the ancient egyptians, the temple meant the world, the ceiling was the heavens, under which the columns, made to represent plants, rose up from a mound of earth. that the imitation of a plant was used as a support for the ceiling is an idea which cannot be accepted. as, however, supports for carrying the ceiling were necessary, there was placed, as connecting link between the sup- ports and the burden, an abacus, which on account of the strong swell of the capital, was invisible from below. in this way, the idea of having again flowers under the open skies was realised. it is therefore, accord- ing to this, evident that the ornament was used as a support and not that the support was ornamented. the principal features characterising the manner in which egyptian artists wished to represent the lotus flower were, first, the elliptical form of the buds with stalks, then the calyx of the flowers rounded off above, and the intermediate petals rounded off in a similar manner. the lotus- flowers have no foot-leaves, these being peculiar to the papyrus-shaped columns only. there are closed and opened lotus and papyrus columns, as well as simple and compound ones. although stone is the material which predominates, columns and vessels in wood have also been discovered. casting in metal, clay and even glass-blowing, were known to the ancient egyptians, and they were adepts in the textile industry. in the ornamentation of egyptian build- ings, more especially in temples and tombs, painting was the predomi- nant characteristic. plate . border: column with closed lotus capital from a mural painting found in the tomb of the kej of bersche. it dates from the middle egyptian kingdom (borchardt). fig. . column with closed lotus capital from the middle kingdom, found in benihasan. horizontal section is also given. (lepsius, tagebuch.) like all lotus columns, this one has neither foliage nor entasis. from the stone base, on which the column is raised, rise main stalks. these, and the intermediate stalks, are held together by means of chaplets. the capital is made up of lotus- buds with longitudinal convex bands. the abacus is small and square. . closed lotus capital dating from the ancient egyptian kingdom, found by de morgan in the tomb of the ptah-schep-ses near abouklr. hori- zontal section of the column is also given. (revue arch. .) the column consists of principal and intermediate stalks, held together by neck-bands. the capital consists of very sharp-pointed buds. the intermediate stalks end above in open lotus-flowers. the whole column is painted over in a naturalistic manner. egyptian ornament. fig. . closed lotus capital from the ptolemaic epoch, taken from the temple of isls-us-ret in philae (borchardt). columns with closed lotus capitals did not exist in the modern kingdom. this kind of capital, like all capitals from the time of the ptolemies, was peculiar in the fact that the stalks were allowed to appear below the bands of the necking. in this example, furthermore, the triple intermediate stalks do not rest between the main stalks. the shaft is smooth and completely covered with hieroglyph cs. . open lotus capital in edfu, dating from the time of the ptolemies (prisse, histoire de l'art egyptien). this capital consists of large lotus-flowers standing close to each other. between each pair of these flowers are others—one large and small ones—which rise from small intermediate posts, and between these flowers are other extremely small ones. open lotus capitals of columns dating from the ancient kingdom have not yet been discovered in a perfect condition. , and . open lotus capitals decorating piers from the ancient kingdom, found in the tombs and of the hepl in sawijet el meitni (borchardt). . symbol of the union of upper and lower egypt from the throne of a cephren statue in gizeh (borchardt). the symbol of upper egypt was the lily, the botanical name of which cannot, however, be even yet fixed, and the symbol of lower egypt the papyrus. . . thothmes pillar of granite dating from the new kingdom, found in the sanctuary in karnak (lepsius, tagebuch). . open papyrus capital in philae dating from the time of the ptolemies (prisse). „ . papyrus ornament from a mural fresco found in a tomb in beni-hasan (prisse). „ i . osiride pillar from medinet habu (perrot and chipiez, history of art). plate . border: papyrus column with closed capital from a mural fresco found in the tomb of kha'-em-het at gurna. this example dates from the later egyp- tian kingdom (borchardt). fig. . papyrus column with closed capital in front of the pyramid of amenem- het near hawara. this column dates from the middle kingdom (prisse). from the stone base on which the column rests, spring stalks arranged in regular order. the horizontal section of the column given in the same figure will make this clear. as is the case with all papyrus columns, there are, at the foot of the stalk, sheathing leaves which enclose the lower portion of the column. under the capital, the stalks narrow off, and are bound together by fillets. over these fillets, closed buds, each with a head-foil, develop themselves. the section of the buds and stalks is triangular. under the neck-band are clusters each having stalks. these capitals, however, gradually lost their characteristic form, until finally, they became completely changed as in fig. . „ . palm-leaf capital of a column at philae dating from the later egyptian kingdom (prisse). here, also a space exists between the capital and the neck-band. „ . capital in the palace of thothmes, — b. c. in karnac (lepsius). „ . palm-leaf capital of a column in bersche dating from the middle kingdom (borchardt). speltz, styles of ornament. egyptian ornament. fig. . papyrus column with open flower capital from the granite pilasters in front of the sanctuary in karnac (lepsius). . open papyrus flower capital at karnac, dating from the middle king- dom (prisse). pictures and inscriptions are worked in between the painted flower stalks. „ . clay mould with lily from tell-el-amarna dating from the middle kingdom (petrie, tell-el-amarna). „ . turned papyrus-capital of a column with closed flower, at karnac, dating from the later egyptian kingdom (prisse). , . decoration of a figured dish in the british museum (borchardt). „ . figured frieze—flowers and buds from the same plant—from the palace of amenophis' iv. in tell-el-amarna (borchardt). „ . papyrus ornament on a figured dish in the british museum (borchardt). „ . papyrus thicket from the mural fresco of a tomb in benihasan, dating from the middle kingdom (borchardt). „ . withe from a painted wreath of a coffin, dating from the middle kingdom. . . palm-shaped column in process of manufacture from a mural fresco at gurna; dating from the middle kingdom. plate . border: closed lotus capital from a mural fresco (borchardt). fig. to . egyptian mural fresco (uhde). . woven-work sandals (prisse, hist, de 'art egypt.). „ , and . sphinx in red granite in the museum of the vatican (tatham, anc. ornam. arch, in rome). „ . scent-spoon from collection in the louvre (perrot and chipiez). „ . egyptian dagger (perrot and chipiez). „ . leather sandals (perrot and chipiez). „ . egyptian bronze knife (perrot and chipiez). „ , and . egyptian lions in green basalt before the capitol in rome (tatham, anc. ornam. arch, in rome). „ , and . egyptian heads in relief dating from the later kingdom (lubke). , . egyptian sewing-needles (perrot and chipiez). „ , and . old-egyptian wooden chairs (koeppen und breuer, geschichte d. mobels). „ , , and . egyptian furniture (canina, arch. ant.). plate . border: columns with open lotus-capital from a painted canopy in a tomb at gurna, dating from the middle kingdom (borchardt). fig. . painted bouquet-column in the tomb of sennundem. dates from the egyptian middle kingdom (berlin museum, ph. ). „ . breast-plate of gold with incrusted enamel bearing the name of rameses ii. (perrot and chipiez!. . . head of nofret (labke). „ . egyptian clay jar (libonis, les styles). - egyptian amphora (libonis). plate . egyptian ornament. egyptian ornament. fig. . bhyton, an egyptian musical instrument (libonis). , . celling ornamentation from memphis and thebes (prase). . . winged sun, the symbol of royal dignity dating from the ancient kingdom of the egyptians. „ . gold necklace (libonis). . . girl with guitar from a mural painting in thebes (perrot and chipiez). „ . ornament (libonis). „ . ring of rameses ii. (perrot and chipiez). „ . transporting a mummy, from a mural painting. . . harness (prisse). „ . engraved ring in the louvre, paris (perrot and chipiez). . . egyptian doors of wood (prisse). . . bracelet of prince psat, dating from the new egyptian kingdom. babylonian-assyrian ornament. long- the banks of the euphrates and tigris, in the sacred land of mesopotamia, and under the special influence of these two streams, a characteristic civilisation deve- loped itself more than ooo years ago — much the same as the civilisation which was developed in egypt under the in- fluence of the nile. the results of the latest excavations in tello, niniveh, nim- roud, koyunjik, khorsabad, and other places,-have afforded proofs of the exis- tence, even as far back as b. c. stone imbossed work, representing of the sumerians, a non-semitic people the surrender of lachls to sen- nacherib ^roger-miles). who became afterwards united with the assyrians. it may therefore be accepted as certain, that in this river valley a civilisation existed which was older than that of egypt. the language of the sumerians long after it ceased to exist as a living tongue was spoken as a dead language by scholars. the bible itself mentions the colossal buildings erected by the babylonian and assyrian kings at that remote period. in this particular country, there was such a mixture of peoples, one alternately subjugated by another, that the art of the epoch must be regarded as one common to the people as a whole. the people themselves appear to have been more of a sensible and practical, rather than of a poetic turn of mind. they were at once commercial as well as warlike, keeping material gain and their own supremacy above all other matters. babylonian-assyrian ornament. in the third thousand before christ a number of small principalities... such as shirpula, ur of the chaldees, isin, larsa, etc.... existed in south babylonia, but were f nally conquered by khammunurabi, king of north babylonia in the year b.c. after this conquest the city of babylonia was made the capital. the kingdom of the semitic assyrians was founded and began about the year b.c., developing into a powerful state about b.c., the principal cities being ashur and xineveh. this kingdom reached its highest glory in the reigns of assurnasipal ( — b.c.), shalmaneser ii.( o— b.c.), sargon ii. ( — b.c.), sennachirib ( — b.c.), esarhaddon ( — ), and ashur-bani-pal (sardanapalus) ( — ). under this latter monarch assyria became the principal world-power, being however deprived of this supremacy by nabopolassar of babylonia and cyaxaras of media in the year b.c. the new kingdom now established nourished for a short time, to b.c., under nebuchadnezzar, being itself finally conquered by cyrus king of persia in this year b.c. while structures built of stone predominated in egypt, in these districts on the tigris and euphrates the buildings were almost always constructed of air-dried bricks, which accounts for the fact that so few of them have remained intact. walls made of these unburnt bricks were first coated with stone slabs, plaster, or asphalt, and then covered with mosaic-work formed of glazed pieces of terra-cotta. most of the discoveries, therefore, made in this region, consist of these fragments of glazed terra-cotta, in which work these people excelled. the specimens of sculpture which have come down to us are mostly all in relief, few of them being in cavo-relievo. many of the art objects discovered in recent excavations show egyptian influence, but there is no proof of any kind at hand pointing to the supposition that such objects were brought into assyria by egyptian traders. as in egypt, so here also she lotus-flower played a very important role in ornamentation. there must be a distinction made between a specific babylonian period and a specific assyrian period, the ruins of which were disco- vered at different levels in the excavations in nimroud, khorsabad, nine- veh, and koyunjik. it must be regarded as certain, that, next to the egyptian, baby- lonian-assyrian art exercised a very great influence, on the one side, towards the east and north, that is, india, china and persia, and on the other side, towards the west, especially in the mediterranean islands. babylonian-assyrian ornament. plate . fig. . assyrian relief in alabaster from nineveh, taken from the palace of king ashurbanipal ( — b. c), after a photograph from the english excava- tions. what is very remarkable in this example is the extremely soft outlines of the lioness as she lies stretched at the feet of the lion; the lithe grace and lissomness of her body are in fine contrast with the strongly-marked, swelling, and powerful muscles. . bas-relief showing a wounded lion (libonis). in the british museum. , , and . capital in ivory from the ruins of nineveh. in the british museum. (dieulafoy, i'art antique). . window with balustrade under cill, from the ruins of nineveh (dieulafoy). „ , and . relief in ivory from the ruins of nineveh (dieulafoy). in the british museum. „ . capital of baluster. . . assyrian bowl (semper, der stid. „ . the assyrian winged-globe (perrot). „ . the assyrian mysterious tree (perrot). „ . siren (babelon, archeologic). „ . assyrian pedestal (dieulafoy). „ . vessel resembling a basket in the hand of a sacrifleer (semper). „ . the baylonian lion. bas-relief made of glazed bricks from the temple of ninmach (gurlitt). the babylonian lion was white with a yellow mane, or yellow with a green mane, the background being light blue. plate . fig. . floor ornament from koyunjik (lobke, kunst des altertums). the motif in this ornament appears to have been copied from a very ancient piece of textil-work, which, notwithstanding its antiquity, shows highly-developed artistic workmanship. . capital or base of column at khorsabad (uhde, architekturformen des klas- sischen altertums). „ . mural decoration made of burned, glazed stone, from nimroud (uhde). . assyrian relief in alabaster, showing king ashurbanipal ( — b. c.) hunting. taken from a photograph at the english excavations in nineveh. . assyrian wall decoration made of enamelled slabs (labke). . from an assyrian embroidery (perrot and chipiez). . bronze fragments of chairs found in nimroud (uhde). „ . ornamentation on glazed, coloured bricks from the wall of a court in the palace of king nebuchadnezar at babylon. from a photograph taken in the recent german excavations in babylon. „ . assyrian standards (libonis). „ . arched portal from koyunjik (labke). „ . horse bridle (brockhaus). „ . bronze lion from the palace of sardanapalus (libonis). « . winged steer with human head, in the louvre, paris (libonis). babylonian-assyrian ornament. plate . border: flag-post on palaces (uhde). fig. . ancient babylonian female head in diorite. a genuine original is preserved in the berlin museum. a similar head was discovered in the excavations carried out by the french in tello (south-babylonia). » . assyrian chair (perrot). . . bronze tripod in the louvre (perrot). . carriage-pole (perrot). . . bronze sword (perrot,). . . footstool (perrot). . . beaker (perrot). . . bracelet (perrot). . , o, and . ear-rings (perrot). , . metal bucket (perrot). . , , and . amphorae of clay (perrot). . , and . goblets (semper). . . bronze fragment from a chair of state (babelon). . . washhand stand (semper). . . dish (semper). . . metal bucket (semper;. . , and . fork and spoon (smith, assyrian discoveris). » . gold buttons, in the british museum (perrot). . . harness (perrot). . . gold ear-ring (perrot). . . embroidered breast-piece (layard, monuments). . . royal necklet of gold (perrot). assyrian lighting car (l'art pour tousj. persian ornament. isunion and a continual state of unrest were the conditions permanent in the south-western part of asia in ancient times. the supremacy was ever chang- ing and never fixed, and, as a conse- quence, the peoples who inhabited it were not in a position to develop any independent art distinct from each other. the conquerors or the conquered were always naturally influenced by the more advanced section of those with whom they were brought into contact. for these reasons, it is clear that per- sian ornament can show but very little characteristic peculiarities, egyptian, assyrian, and hellenic influences being all plainly discernable. the beautiful buildings of the persian kings were erected by artists who were made prisoners in the wars in babyllonia, egypt, and in the grecian colonies in asia minor. the first beginnings in persian art were very probably made by the medes, a people who conquered the kingdom of the elamites with imbossed work, representing the king xerxes upon the throne (roger-milfes). persian ornament. its capital city susa in the th century b.c. and then founded a powerful state making egbatana the capital, but who were, later on themselves subjugated in the year b.c. by the persians under cyrus. no remains, however, of a special median art have ever been discovered. persia developed into the most powerful empire in the world under the reigns of cyrus ( — ), cambyses ( — ), darius ( to ), and xerxes ( — b. c), but was in its turn conquered by alexander the great in the year b.c. from the years to b.c. it was under the sway of the seleucidae, from b.c. to a. d. it was subject to the parthians, and from a. d. to a.d. to the sassanians. under the sway of the latter a new persian empire was established which flourished until it finally became subject to islamite supremacy. the islamites when in decided power changed entirely the character of art then flourishing, giving it an en- tirely new direction and turning it on to entirely different lines from those along which it had hitherto moved. persian art, which continued to develop for about two centuries, is the last echo of the art of the mesopotamian lands. with the destruction of the persian empire by alexander the great, hellenic art, already flourishing at that period, won the upper hand throughout the east. plate . fig. . lion frieze in the louvre (dieulafoy). . lion and griffin frieze (dieuiafoyj. , , and . columns from persepolis fuhde). . , and . column in the hall of xerxes in persepolis (uhde). . detail from the tomb of king achemenides in the necropolis of takhte- djemschid (dieulafoy). . floor of stairs in the palace of artaxerxes (libonia). . frieze, a winged steer (libonis). . . relief at persepolis (u bke). „ , and . persian bases (dieulafoy). plate . fig. , and . persian wall decoration of glazed terra-cotta (libonis). „ . head of a steer in the louvre (terrot and chipiez). , , and . persian pottery (perrot and chipiez). . - from a bas-relief in the hall of the columns, persepolis (flandin et coste, perse ancienne). „ . persian silver coin (perrot and chipiez). . . bas-relief at persepolis. . . head-dress of cyrus (dieulafoy). plate . persian ornament. mm persian ornament. . fig. , and . fragment of an enamel bas-relief from susa (dieuiafoy). , , and . bas-reliefs from the graves of naksehe roustem (dieuiafoy). , . mosaic from the floor of stairs in the palace of artaxerxes (libonis). „ , and . utensils in chased silver. dating from the sassanian period. in the paris medaillon-cabinet (havard, histoire de l'orfevrerie fran^aise). curtain over the throne of achemenides (dieuiafoy). speltz. styles of ornament. phoenician-hebraic ornament. n phoenicia lived a distinctly commercial people, full of the spirit of trade, thinking of nothing but gain and commerce and keeping their commer- cial interests always above other interests of any kind whatever. in the second thousand before christ they were already settled on the coast of syria, had trading-stations and colonies in greece, italy, gaul, hispania, and africa, and in their intercourse with the various peoples with whom they traded paid attention only to such matters as were best likely to forward their own commer- cial interests. to this commercial spirit is due the fact that there is no strictly phoenician art. in the phoenician ornament evidences of all kinds of decoration can be recognised, egyptian- assyrian influence being specially predominant. the most characteristic examples of phoenician art which have come down to us are their jewels. these imply that the phoenicians lived in a high state of luxury, and prove also that they had reached a high state of development in the art of working in gold. the hebrews in palestine were entirely dependent on the phoenicians for their technics and their art. the mosaic law for- bidding pictures and images prevented the free development of art amongst the jews. in the reigns of david and solomon, that is, about the year iooo b.c., hebrew art was in its highest glory, and remained so until the destruction of jerusalem by nebuchadnezar in the year b.c. the principal buildings of king solomon's palace, and of the temple, were however the work of phoenician artists and arti- sans. numerous tombs cut into rocks at this time and characteristic a phoenician in the time of king thoutmes iii (roger-mites). phoenician-hebraic ornament. of this period are still preserved. in north syria along- the upper euphrates and in cappadocia lived a people called the hittites who were neither of aryan or hebrew stock. they were settled here since the year b.c., and, from b.c. were continuously attacked by the assyrians, being finally conquered and destroyed by sargon in the th century b.c. these people had a special, characteristic style of their own, a style, however, which shows traces of egyptian and assyrian influence. the art of the hittites, however, on the other hand played an important part in and powerfully influenced the deve- lopment of persian art. only very few remains of this civilisation are now in existence. with regard to the other races who also lived in asia minor, it may be remarked that, the remains which have come down to us from these peoples are so few that it is not possible to deduce from them any distinct, characteristic style. plate . fig. . frieze hewn in stone (renan mission, libonis). , . capital found in cyprus (vogae mission). , and . phoenician capitals (libonis). , , and . phoenician jewels (libonis). , , , and . phoenician vases from dali (labke). . . vase from larnaka (labke). „ . glass vase from jerusalem (libonis). „ . pigmy in burnt clay, in the louvre (libonis). „ . head of a sarcophagus in clay from carthage (libonis). ., , , and . phoenician vases from alhambra (labke)- , . phoenician glass vases (libonis). „ . phoenician column (cippe), (libonis). „ . silver dish from curium in cyprus (graul, bilderatias). „ . coffin plate (libonis). painting from an old cyprian clay vessel representing tree adoration (seesselberg, frahmittelalterliche kunst). indian ornament. is generally believed that indian civilisation dates back to a very remote period, it was not, however, till about the year b. c. that the aryans who had emigrated from central asia settled in the south of india and reached the plenitude of their power. the archaeological discoveries made in india reach no further back than a few centuries before christ. a close observation bas-relief from ellora. of old-indian ornaments shows us that in- dian art was by no means free of foreign influences, more especially persian, and later on, greek. india is but a purely geographical expression, and has no ethnographical signification whatever. it is inhabited by races of people so different and distinct from each other that to class them together as the indian race would be incorrect. to speak of a homogeneous indian art is therefore impossible, the more so, as each race which inhabited the country had its own art history. the general history of indian art may be divided into the following periods: . the vedi-brahman era extending up to the middle of the rd century b. c. there is perhaps no monument from this period in existence. . the buddhist era which extends to the th century a. d., and began when buddhism was raised to be the established state religion by king asoka in the year b.c. . the new-brahman period which began on the restoration of the brahma religion in the th century and continued up into the th cent- ury a. d. this period reached its highest glory between the th and th centuries a. d. indian ornament. . the period of the dominion of islam to the present time. the spread of buddhism helped most materially in giving- a great impulse to the development of art. indeed the progress made in art in other countries besides india has always been greatly influenced by religious fanaticism. the style of decoration used at this period, although worthy of admiration, was so fantastic and bizarre, that the form was completely overspread and hidden by the ornamentation. the oldest monuments from this period at present in existence date from the reign of king asoka — b.c. with the spread of islam, indian art took a new direction based on arabian art. this part of the subject will be treated of later on when dealing with the art of the mahommedans. plate . fig. . comer-pillar of the temple in nljamizzur <uhde, die konstruktionen und die kunstformen der architektur). , and . details from temple in ahmedabad (uhde). appears to have been made after textile samples. . capital from the temple in kumurpal, palitana (uhde). this capital shows clearly defined traces of grecian influence. „ . isolated monolith column near the temple at peroor luhde). the use of metal in this example strengthens the impression that the ornamentation was copied from a textile sample. . b. capital from bharhut (liibke). . . isolated stone-column from the cave at karli (uhde). hewn out of the solid rock. the lion signifies the victoy of bhuddism. . . pillars from the chaltya cave in karli (uhde). . . pilaster, with crest, from the temple in bhagovati (rajendraiala mitra). » . west portal at sanchi, tope (uhde). this is one of the oldest stone monuments in india. it is however an imitation of wooden architecture. , . iron memorial column commemorating the victory of buddhism (uhde). this column dates from the reign of king asoka in the third century b. c. „ . detail from the temple in mukteswara (rajendraiala mitra). , . column from the rock-temple in lauka, ellora (uhde). „ . capital from the kutub near delhi (uhde). dates from the later period — . „ . column from the rock-temple of indra in ellora (canina, architectura antica). „ . column from the vihara in ajunta (uhde). „ , and . details from the temple at bailur. appears to be copied from a carpet pattern. plate . fig. . window from the temple of muktes'wara (rajendraiala mitra. the other illustrations in this plate are all from the same authority). . moulding from the temple of bhagovatl. „ . detail from the tower of bhuvanes'war. . . medaillion from the temple of sari deul. . moulding from the temple of muktes'wara. indian ornament. i fig. . statue of the province from a niche in the temple of bhuvanes'war. . relief from the same temple. . . pillars from the rock-temple of uday-agiri. . . lotus ornament from the temple of rajerani. „ . relief from the temple of bhuvanes'war. „ . base of a pilaster from the great tower of bhuvanes'war. „ . cornice from the temple in parasurames'vara. plate . fig. , , , and . old indian furniture (rajendraiala mitra). . ornament worn by females of the middle class (raj.). . club found in bhuvanes'war (raj.). . - bas-relief from bharhut representing an indian of the '"' century b. c. (lebon). . . club found in purl (raj.). . flag found in sanchi (raj.). „ . javelin from cunningham's bhilsa topes (raj.). „ , , and . tridents found in the same place (raj.). . . wooden jewel-case found in amravati (raj.). . . wooden box found in bhuvanes'war (raj.). . . antique fan (raj.). „ , and . ear ornaments (raj.). . . four sided clay vessel (raj.- . . . urn for holy water (raj.). ., . guitar from amravati (raj.;. „ . metal shield found in konarak (raj.). ,. . short club (raj ). „ , and - battle axes (raj.). . . crown for a goddess (raj. . . . gold bracelet (raj.). . , , and . clay vases (raj.). ,. , and . samples of antique textiles (raj.). . , and . bow and arrow (raj.). greek ornament. t has been clearly and defi- nitely proved, both from discoveries made in exca- vations, as well as from certain significant state- ments made by homer himself, that even in pre- historic times several cen- tres of art existed in greece grecian women at home and in the elands lying in (gerhardt, auserlesene vasenbilder). its neighbourhood. these centres were chiefly found in the peloponnessus, in attica, in miletus, ephesus, chios, samos, and many other islands, as well as also in southern italy. the prehistoric greek ornament, which was brought to light by schliemann in the excavations undertaken by him in troy', mycenae and tiryns, contains so many egyptian and assyrian motifs that no doubt can be enter- tained, that egypt and asia minor exercised a most powerful influence on its early beginnings. that an intercourse existed between these countries is beyond doubt, for, even in prehistoric times, the waters of the mediterranean were alive with craft trading in all directions. in its primary stages of development, greek art in the islands of the aegean sea was subject to oriental influences. the greek style was developed from wooden structures, the constructive forms, in many cases, changed into ornament in the stone masonry. greek ornament. the national character of the greeks was very different from that of the egyptians, the cold severity peculiar to egyptian art was anta- gonistic to the sense of beauty characteristic of the greeks, and the latter, consequently, soon changed the egyptian form into one more genial, pleasing, and agreeable. style is after all but the truthful ex- pression of the character and perceptions of a people or of an historical epoch. greek art can be divided into four epochs: i. the mythical period or the heroic epoch which continued up to the migration of the dorians to the year b. c. the aryans, a tribe of people of the same stock as the hellenes and designated by the latter under the general title of pelasgians, were without doubt the original inhabitants of greece. this period is confined to that prehistoric era when stone and copper predo- minated, and to the bronze age of the mycae- nean epoch. the principal centres of the artstyle of this period were found on the coasts and islands of the aegean sea but especially in argos and crete. ii. the doric, or archaic period, from to b. c. the national hellenic period began about the year b. c, when the hellenes had taken up permanent residence in the country, at which time the monarchy was changed into a republi- can form of government. the mythology which arose at this period kindled the spirit of art and gave it that predominating ideal character which afterwards distinguished it. the hellenes themselves on the other hand brought with them into the country their own peculiar style which they further developed by allying it with the ancient mythic art existing at the time of their settle- ment, and by making new use of egyptian, assyrian, and hettite influences. from the th century b. c. downwards, when oriental art began to decline, hellas took up the leadership in art and civilisation, developed its own style in a characteristic manner and made it the ruling one throughout all the civilised countries existing at that time. three orders of columns were etablished, the doric, the ionic, and a later one, the corinthian. iii. the period when greek art reached its principal development from to b. c, during which time the doric and ionic orders exercised their influence mutually one on the other. the centre of this flourishing period was that reached at athens under greek ornament. pericles in the years — b. c., when the doric and ionic styles, which developed together, evolved the attic-doric and attic-ionic styles. the former excelled in elegance, the latter in manly strength. the erechtheion which was begun in the year b. c. but not completed till b. c, is one of the most beautiful monuments of greek art in existence. iv. the alexandrian period from to b.c.; this included the development of the corinthian style down to the destruction of corinth, which was followed by the downfall of greek indepen- dence and the union of grecian with roman art. although the two great styles of greek construction were developed simultaneously still the general employment of each separate style en- ables a chronological division to be made. the doric must be described as the oldest style, but its strongly marked, earnest character, unsuitable for rich ornamentation, failed to give pleasure to the gay spirit of the luxurious athenians who lived at the time of pericles when greek art was in its glory. the doric was, therefore, partly superseded by the ionic, and, later on, by the corinthian style. the ornamentation in these two styles allowed more play to the artist's fancy, and was not so bind- ing in its rules as the doric. the quiet harmony peculiar to the doric was, however, lost, ornamentation became predominant and, later on, tended to mask the masonic form in roman art. late doric frieze, found in the wall of a church at athens. greek ornament. plate . greek pre-historic ornament. fig. . mural frescoes in the palace of tiryns (schliemann). „ , — , , and . gold jewels found in graves in mycenae (schliemann). „ . bronze plate from olympia (labke). „ . dipylon vase (baumeister). n . cyprian coin. „ . capital of column from the tomb of agamemnon (canina). . . kyanos frieze from tiryns (schliemann). „ . ceiling in relief from orchomenos (schliemann). plate . doric ornament. fig. . angle of pediment of the temple in the island of aegina. (mauch, archi- tektonische ordnungen.) this temple is an example of the doric order architecture at the period of its highest splendour, that is, after the defeat of the persians, and when pericles stood at the head of the government of athens. pericles fully under- stood, at this period, the great importance of art and its influence on the state. all the works of art designed by him were carried out by phidias the renowned sculptor, with the assistance of ictinus and callicrates, the best architects of the time. these men succeeded in bringing greek architecture in all its parts to the highest perfection. the temple was erected, probably in the th olympiad, and was dedicated to aphaea. the columns have an entasis of '/so of the lower diameter, and present much more pleasing proportions than those from paestum. this is especially so in the capital; here, the strong, sharp-angled projection produced by a swelled cushion is avoided, and the capital formed of cornicelines which rise delicately and gracefully from the flutings. in this way, an echinus is formed, which, while being strong, is not bent and swollen out under its burden, and in which the effects of light and shade are most attractive. the fillet under the echinus displays that delicate formation peculiar to the time of pericles, the ehannels in the neck alone being the only parts which remind one of the ancient columns from paestum. the profile of the cyma over the sloping gable-cornice is very beautiful, and was painted with an ornament which the greeks called anthemion. the griffin on the roof of the gable has been reconstructed after discovered fragments. the whole structure was built of polished and painted sandstone. traces of yellow and green foil have been found on the architrave. the taenia was painted in vermilion, the regula, triglyphs, and mutule, in blue. the plain bands were red, with traces of scrolls having been painted on. the cymatium above these was decorated w th red and blue foil, the same colours being given to the flowers on the cyma. the back ground of the pediment was blue. . angle of pediment from the temple of the apollo epicurius near phigalela in arcadia. (mauch, architektonische ordnungen.) this temple, which was built by ictinus, the architect of the parthenon in athens, was with the exception of the temple of tegea, one of the most beautiful throughout the entire peloponnesus. it was constructed of bluish-white limestone, the sculptured frieze inside being of white marble. the entire proportions resemble those from the time of pericles in attica. the cyma over the gable - cornice is, however, entirely different. it is ornamented with the acanthus-flower in relief. greek ornament. fig. . capital from the temple of ceres in paestum (mauch, architektonische ord- nung). this temple was in all probability built under the rule of the sybarites, about the year b. c. certain peculiarities point to etruscan influence. . . ante-flx from temple of the apollo epicurius near phigaleia in arcadia (mauch, archit. ordn.). this ornament is beautifully sculptured in marble. (see fig. .) . acroterlum of the pediment of the temple on the island of aegina (mauch, archit. ordn.). see fig. , o. profile of the capital from the same temple (mauch, archit. ordn ). see fig. . . under surface of the corona from the parthenon in athens (mauch, archit. ordn.). . . ante-fix from the parthenon in athens (mauch, archit. ordn ). „ . capital found in paestum (mauch, archit. ordn.). this capital shows undoubted evidences of etruscan influence. „ . anta-capital in athens (mauch, arch. ordn.). the cymatium of this capital is painted with the foil peculiar to the ancient doric anta capitals. „ . anta-capital from the temple of nemesis in rhamnus (mauch, archit. ordn.). „ . doric cymatium (labke, kunst des altertums). plate . ornamental mouldings. (from uhde, architekturformen des klassischen altertums.) fig. — . ancient bead and reel. — . ogees from the ptolemeion. , and . ogees from the erechtheion. „ . painted ogees from the theseum athens. , , and . painted ogees from the propylaea. „ . ogee from mausoleum at halicarnassus. plate . ionic ornament. (from mauch, architektonische ordnungen.) fig. , , , and . pilaster-capitals from the cella of the temple of apollo didymaeus near miletus. fig. shows the front view of half such an ionian capital, and fig. , the side view. figs. and are ornaments of the space between other capitals with the same cella. „ , , , and . angle columns from the temple of minerva pollas at prlene this temple is one of the most beautiful examples of ionian architecture. fig. is the section of the column at the neck, with the capital, seen from below. fig. is the pedestal with four-cornered plinth. this description of base is rare, being found only in the ionic column. fig. shows the ornament on the under side of the cornice. details as to the helicoid of the ionic capital will be found in "speltz, stulenform der schneckenlinie des jonischen kapitals". . capital and plan from the temple of apollo didymaeus near miletus. . . capital of the central column of the temple of minerva polias in priene, with plan. speltz. styles of ornament. greek ornament. fig. . capital from the aqueduct of hadrian at athens, with plan. „ u. ornament between the capitals in the eella of the temple of apollo didymaeus near miletus. .. . side-view of a capital in the propylaeum of the temple of minerva polias at priene. „ . and . side and front-views of a pilaster-capital at priene. • plate . ionic ornament. fig. , and . capitals and pedestals of columns in the temple of minerva polias at athens (mauch). in the acropolis at athens were erected numerous buildings of which the parthenon and the erechtheion were the most important. the columns in the latter, with their energetic, double-fluted volutes, the bra ded torus over the echinus, the latter be,ng visible in its entire round, the finely moulded cu-hion, and the delicately ornamented neck, display structure of the purest and most refined style. instead of the sanctuary which formerly stood here, and was destroyed during the persian war, the erechtheion was erected, but was not completed until after the year b. c. in the back wall of the north portico, was the celebrated beautiful door, details of which are given in figs. , , and . at the west end of the south side is the caryatide portic . this portico, which is covered with marble tiles, is carried on supports, called caryatides (fig. ). they probably represent pan- athenaic virgins. the entablature over these figures has no frieze. . pilaster-capital from the hexastyle or eastern portico of the erech- theion, athens (mauch). „ , , and . details from the door of the erechtheion in athens (mauch). . capital from the interior of the temple of apollo at bassae, near phiga- lela (mauch). „ . capital from the temple of neandria (labke). , , and . grecian anteflx of the time of pericles (libonis). . . caryatid of the erechtheion at athens (mauch). . , and . capital and anta from the temple of minerva polias at athens (mauch). „ , and . grecian coins (labke). plate . corinthian ornament. fig. . capital of temple at patara (semper). . capital from the tower of the winds in athens (mauch). this corinthian capital, which is ol the simplest kind, has been found with but very slight changes all over greece. it was even employed in byzanthine architecture. . capital and entablatures from the monument of lysicrates at athens (mauch). this tower-like structure, which dates from the year b. c, is built of pentelic marble, and is still in existence although in a very damaged condition. a six-columt ed circular pseudo-peripteral, rests on a substructure built in the form ol a podium. on the roof are three caulicoloe (plate , fig. ) with central finial gref.k ornament. - or crest (plate , fig. and ). this crest, which is of one piece, is one of the most wonderful examples of greek sculpture. the three wide projecting scrolls of the same were at one time supported by consoles, but these have now entirely disappeared. the capital approaches more to the real corinthian capital than that of the tower of the winds. fig. . capital of a column from the ruins of the temple of apollo near miletus (mauch). . . upper part of the tower of the winds in athens (mauch). this is an octagonal tower of pentelic marble, on the sides of which, under the cornice, the figures of the eight winds are shown in relief. on the pyramidal top of the roof was a brazen triton which served as a weather-cock. the tower itself contained a clepsydra or water clock. „ . base of a column of the lysicrates monument at athens (mauch) (fig. ). „ . capital of portico of the temple of jupiter olymplus at athens (mauch). . pilaster capital from paestum (mauch). . upper part of the lysicrates monument in athens (mauch) (fig. ). „ . crest of the same monument (mauch) (fig. ). . . p an of the capital in fig. . „ . capital at eleusls (mauch). plate . fig. . terra-cottas from olympia (botticher, olympia). .. . frieze from a portico on the island of delos, built at the time of philip of macedon - b. c. (uhde). . mosaic flooring in the temple of zeus at olympia (graul). . lion from the tomb of mausolus, in the british museum (roger-miles). . bronze plate, representing the dispute on the tripod (roger-miles). , and . fragments of a grecian frieze in the v lla albani in rome (tatham). . * , and . columns from portico on the island of delos, front and side views (uhde). . . head of zeus in bronze from olympia (lnbke). . . roof of the monument of lysicrates in athens (mauch). see plate , figs. , , , and . . . painted clay anteflx (reichhoid). plate . {from c. thierry, classische ornamente.) fig. , and . bas-reliefs from the kircher's museum, karlsruhe. „ . bas-reliefs from the national museum, karlsruhe. plate . fig. . bas-reliefs suggesting oriental influence (thierry). . marble ornament from branchidae (thierry). . marble bas-relief in the villa poniatowsky in roma (thierry). . painted terra cotra dish (doimetsch). . s- marble seat or throne (thierry). greek ornament. l plate . principal examples of the grecian vase from baumeister. the principal centres of pre-historic ceramics was in troy and in the islands of cyprus and mytilene. the real grecian ceramics are distinguished as follows:. . vessels of the geometric style (about — b. c), which have been discovered principally near the dipylon gate in athens, hence the title dipylon style. the colouring is dark-brown on yellow clay. . vessels showing oriental influences, dating from the , to the th century b. c, the principal centre being in corinth. . attic black-coloured vessels which were developed in athens from the , century b. c. downwards, the clay is red. . red-coloured vessels which were developed from the fore-going style in the fifth century b. c, the entire vessel being painted over with black varnish, thus enabling red figures to be made on a black ground. the ceramic art entirely disappeared from greece about the year b. c, being afterwards revived in lucania, campania, and apulia. fig. . vase from the island of mytilene, dating from the beginning of the last millenium, b. c. the surface is gray, painted of a dull brown. . vase, lacquered, from the greek islands, of mycaenean origin. . athenian vase from the "> century b. c. . phaleronian jug from attica, found in grave near phaleron. » . attie amphora from the th century b. c. . vase of later date from the island of rhodes. » - cor nthian vase. „ . chaldaean vase. „ . vase of gamedes from boeotla. „ . vase on three feet, boeotia. . attic amphora. . black figured amphora, athens. " . attic oinochoe. » . attic kylix. „ - amphora by nieosthenes. . krater or mixing bowl for wine. - . pyxis or toilet box. plate . frescoes and vase-painting. fig. , , — , — , , — , , , , , — . greek vase paintings (ubonis, reichhold, meyer). ■ . , — , — , , . fret-work fillets, principally from greek vases (meyer, reichhold). . team of carriage horses from the older grecian period, from a black figured vase (gerhard, ausserliche vasenbildung). n . grecian war-ship from a vase-painting (baumeister). , — , . coffer-work from the ceiling of the propylaea in athens (meyer). . vase-painting, ceramic work from the grecian islands (reichhold). ,> . ornamental work on the ears of a greek vase (reichhold). - ornamental work on the neck of a greek hydria (l'art pour tous). » o- ornamentation of a coffered work ceiling from the parthenon, athens (meyerk greek ornament. plate . fig. . grecian mirror (reichhold). this is given as an etruscan mirror, bout it would perhaps be more correct to consider it as having been produced in greece. . female apparel dating from the time when greece stood at its highest splendour (.reichhold). . and . furniture inlay from the greek colonies in the crimea (semper). . marble chair of state (baumeister). . . bronze leg of an arm chair (reichhold). , , , . chairs (racinet and baumeister). . . bronze tripod from the geometrical ornament period (reichhold). . . fans (racinet). . kylix or dlsh found near kertsch with engravings showing the furniture ot greek lady's boudoir (antiq. d. bosph., cymm.). . — . lyres (racinet). . . drinking-horn (racinet). „ . small table (racinet). . . marble arm-chair (dorpfeld and reich, theater). „ . couch with table after copy from the industrial art museum in dresden. plate . fig. . helmet from samnium (baumeister). , and . helmets of gladiators baumeister). , and . relief, arms and armour (baumeister). . dagger (baumeister). . iron helmet (baumeister). . bronze figure from a carriage-pole, in the museum dutuit, paris. . relief, weapons, from pergamon (baumeister). „ . iron helmet with silver ear-laps ibaumeister). i . bronze greaves (baumeister). , . bronze shield (libonis). « . heln et from the time of homer racinet). „ . bronze tripod from metapontum (reichhold). „ . bronze handle of a lcoklng-glass, from the dutuit museum, paris. „ . spear-head (baumeister). . . coins stamped with the olympian zeus, from elis (labke). ., . fragment of statue of a woman, from the acropolis in athens (lubke). . . stele of aristion by aristocles, athens ^labke). . , and . arrow heads (baumeister). . , and . theatre masks for men and women (baumeister). „ . box, from a vase-painting (gerhard, etrusk sche spiegel!. plate . greek ornament. greek ornament. plate . fig. — , and . ornaments (libonis). , and . foot-gear (renard). . cymbals (renard). „ . gold belt-clasps (libonis . „ . tambourine (renard). „ , and . sacrificial knives (renard). „ . sunshade (baumeister). „ . girl with embroidery-frame (baumeister). „ , , , and . coiffures with ornamentation (racinet). „ . torch (renard). „ . horse-bridle i racinet). „ , and . necklaces (havard). the first is considered by some to be etruscan work, it is, however, in all probability grecian. „ . sliver vase with relief in gilt (havard). greco-phoenician bust. (l'art pour tous.) etruscan ornament. truscan was the name given to a people who lived in what is now called tuscany at the time when rome was founded. it is impossible to trace the origin of their descent, but it appears as if they had wandered down from the north east twelfth century, and took forcible possession of the country about the b. c. in which they after- scene of a banquet wards settled and which was inhabited by (martha, l'art etrusque). samnites, umbrians, pelasgian and other races. the period of the highest develop- ment of the etruscans dates from to b.c. they were subjugated by the romans, after which they gradually disappear from history, the only traces of their once having existed being some few architectural monuments, chiefly tombs, which have come down to us. although the monuments left behind by the etruscans show most decided traces of grecian in- fluence, still, the hypothesis that the etruscans were of grecian origin cannot be accepted on that account. the racial differences between them and the grecians were so marked, they were so totally different in their physical constitution from the latter, that it is impossible to regard the etruscans as of hellenic origin. it is possible that in their wanderings towards italy they came into intimate contact with the grecians, and thus brought with them the elements of grecian art into their adopted country. their art was in all probability subject to influences proceeding from phoenicia and carthage, but more especially to ancient ionic in- fluence. they understood, however, how to change all these influences in such a way as to give them the stamp of their own national art. at the period of their subjugation by the romans, the etruscans had brought their own (art to such a high state of development that it was able to exercise an influence by no means small on the development of roman art which was at that time in its infancy. roman art came afterwards, of course, entirely under the influence of grecian art. etruscan ornament. plate . fig. . relief, travelling-carriage (baumeister). „ . anteflx of a tomb (martha). , and . etruscan bigas with bronze casing. these were found in norchia and purchased by the metropolitan museum in new york. , . etruscan frescoes (martha). . bronze candelabrum (martha). . from the facade of a tomb in norchia (labke). . . clay sarcophagus from cervetri, in the louvre (labke). , and . marble altar from the collection in the villa borghese near rome (tatham). . . terra-eotta altar (tatham). plate . fig. , and . swords (baumeister). „ , and . helmets (libonis). . . link for the handle of a bucket. th century b.c. (reichhoid). , , , , , , and . ornaments (libonis). . , , and . greaves (libonis). . . fibula (libonis). . . fighting warriors (racinet). „ . etruscan peasant (racinet). , . razor (libonis). . . etruscan mirror in the numismatic collection in paris (gerhard, etruskische spiegel). this is considered by some to be grecian work. . . tripod (reichhoid). . . tripod (martha, l'art etrusque). . . dagger (baumeister). . . heating-stove (martha). . . antique bronze cist (gerhard). . . spear-head (baumeister). etruscan tomb in cervetri (renard). roman ornament. ith their art the greeks conquered the world, the romans with their politics and their legions. the whole civilized world at the present day is striving- to emu- late the works of art of the former, the laws of the latter are considered throughout the world as the foundation upon which all laws must be esta- blished. in these facts lie the difference in character between the two peoples. those romans who lived at the beginning of roman history were unable to develop an independent art of their own, for all their endeavours were directed to amassing wealth, and increasing their lands. they were obliged therefore to take the motifs for their art from etruria and continued to do so until grecian art became predominant. becoming more accustomed to luxury from the conquests which they made, the roman began gradually to form a national art of their own under the guidance of greek teachers. the practical spirit of the romans and their taste for monumental work are naturally to be seen best exemplified in their architecture, a science in which they have performed most magnificent work especially in connection with the monumental development of temples, basilicas, thermae, theatres, etc. the romans furthermore took up and accom- plished the task of combining numerous elements in a homogeneous whole, and of developing them further. in this latter art they became the teachers of future generations. the romans adopted the three columnar orders of the greeks retaining however at the same time the etruscan column. to these four orders they added the composite order. roman ornament. besides bringing- architecture to a high state of development, the romans also succeeded in bringing the art of sculpture to a great degree of perfection. in this latter, however, they had the assistance of greek artists. the manner, however, in which the romans enriched their ornament was detrimental to the characteristic greek outlines, and the insatiable luxury predominating during the time of the caesars finally destroyed completely the exquisite harmony of greek art—the form was entirely overgrown by the ornament. the art of mosaic work, which had its origin in the orient, was brought to its highest perfection by the romans, all the old roman mosaics now in our possession prove this beyond any question. the fall of the roman empire, and the victory of christianity, marked also the decline and fall of classic art, for this art could no longer appeal to those christian barbarians who now poured into the country from all sides. the eastern roman christian empire exercised a very great influence on the development of a new art amongst the christian states which rose from the ruins of the western roman empire. from the so-called early christian and byzantine style shortly afterwards developed, the romanesque style which from the th to the th centuries spread through all the newly constituted states. roman labrum tatham. roman ornament. plate . fig. , . , . capitals and entablatures of the doric order, found in albano, near rome (mauch). it appears as if vignola organised his doric order according to this fragment. the entablature produces a specially fine effect by means of the under aspect of the corona soffit, fig. . there are two fascias to the architrave, the upper one projecting infront of the lower. figure gives a view of the capital seen from below, and fig. , the base of the column. „ , , . doric capitals and entablatures from the thermae of diocletian (mauch) which were erected about joo b. c. the delicate profile of the cornice, the decorated members, and the fretwork denticulations in meander form, belong really more to the ionic order. figure shows the capital seen from below, and fig. , the soffit of the corona. . from a white marble altar in the vatican museum (tatham). „ , . from a white marble altar in the museum of the capitol in rome (tatham). , , , , , . foil for cyma (mauch). . . bead-moulding (mauch). . . arch with rustication from the amphitheatre in pola. completed a. d. (uhde). » . frieze ornament (tatham). plate . fig. , , . square angle pier with principal cornice from the thermae of diocletian in rome (mauch). this pier, which is of the ionic order, and was placed on an angle, is an example of the questionable inconsistency of employing the capital of a column on a square pier. this is seen in the fact that the echinus, which is rounded above, s forced, below, together with the astragal, to sink into the straight lines of the body of the column. the frieze is pulvinated, a form often used by the romans. figure shows the base of the p laster, and fig. a view of the capital seen from below. , , . columns and entablatures from the temple of fortuna virllis in rome (mauch). this temple was tetrastyle pseudo-peripteral with a portico two intercolumniations deep. its erection took place towards the close of the republic. the entablature is by no means free from objections, for, besides other errors, the bed moulding is heavy, the frieze and the architrave poor. figure shows the base of the column, and fig. , the capital seen from below. . . column in the court of saint hieronymus in rome (piranesi). . capital of a house on the bridge of gratianus in rome (piranesi). . . capital from the temple of procedis (piranesi). „ . capital from the basilica of san clemente (piranesi). „ . capital from a house in rome (piranesi). „ . -capital from the palace pionetti in rome (piranesi). „ . capital from the temple of priscae in rome (piranesi). „ . capital of a column in the villa negronia in rome (piranesi). roman ornament. plate . fig. . soffit of the corona from the temple of castor in the forum romanum (mauch). , , , . capitals and entablatures from the interior of the pantheon in rome (mauch). this building is still well preserved it was built by hadrian a. d. on the north side of the thermae of agrippa. figure gives a view of the capital from below, figure , the base of the column, and fig. an under view of the corona. , fragment from the villa borghese in rome (piranesi). , , . fragments found near s. gregorius (mauch). „ . fragment from the villa albani piranesi). „ . fragment from the villa borghese piranesi). „ . capital from the temple of castor in the forum romanum (mauch). plate . fig. , . capitals and entablatures from the arch of septimius severus in rome (mauch). this is an example of the composite order. figure is a view of the capital from below. . from a roman sacrificial altar (piranesii. marble fragment from rome (tatham). plate . roman ornament. roman ornament. fig. , , , . base, capital, and entablature from the temple of vesta in tlvoll (mauch). this temple was circular and peripteral with columns, o of which are still in good condition. the columns are not perpendicular but inclined to the axis in fuch a manner that the inner lines on the tapering shaft receive almost a vertical direction, thus increasing not only the apparent but the real stability of the whole. in order to produce this effect, the fillets under the base and above the capital are somewhat wedge-shaped. the capital, which differs in form from the usual normal capital of the corinthian order, has a very pleasing shape with a large centra'.-flower between the volutes. the leaves also bear more resemblance to the curled cabbage rather than to the acan hus. figure shows a section through the corners of the capital and one at the roots of the leaves. figure gives an oblique view of the capital. the base on podium in fig. has no plinth, possibly on account of the circular form in which it is constructed. the frieze is most effective being decorated in a naturalistic manner with ox head, rosettes, festoons, and patera, instead of the usual ox-skull. „ . roman egg and dart moulding (mauch). plate . fig. and . pedestals from the villa of cardinal alexander albanl before the solarian gate in rome (piranesi. the remaining examples are all from the same authority). . base from the villa barberini. „ . base from the temple of nero. . base from the mausoleum of augustus. „ - capital from the villa farnese. „ . base from the church of s. s. quattro coronati. „ . base from the basilica of s. bartolomeo all' isola. . pedestal from the church of s. prassede. plate . fig. , . pilasters of veined marble in the cloister of the convent of ara coell near rome (tatham). „ . fasces from a bas-relief in the massimi palace in rome (tatham). . ancient marble altar from the collection in the villa borghese in rome (tatham). „ . fasces from a bas-relief in the capitol (tatham). „ . fragment of an antique frieze found in tivoli (tatham). „ . fragment of a frieze in high-relief from the villa aldobrandinl in rome (tatham). speltz. styles of ornament. plate . roman ornamfnt. roman ornament. plate . roman chairs and seats after tatham. fig. . white marble arm-chair from rome. „ , . foot of a white marble sarcophagus in the vatican collection. front and profile. . half of a green marble tripod from the vatican collection. . , . ancient bronze arm-chairs from the museum in portici. the covering is modern. front and profile. „ . ancient marble stool from rome. „ , - ancient bronze stools from rome. front and profile. , . chairs of state in white marble from the vatican collection. front and profile. plate . roman sculptures after piranesi. fig. . marble tripod in the capitol museum at rome. „ . marble vase in the farnese palace. . terra-eotta vase in the vatican library. the chimerical figure has reference to human life. „ . marble candelabrum in the piranesi museum. , . marble vases from the villa of hadrian. plate . fig. . skull ornament (baumeister). „ . copper axe (racinet). . . sheath for the sacrificial knife (baumeister). . incense box (racinet). . handkerchief of the sacriflcer (baumeister). „ . marble table from rome (tatham). , , , . ancient foot-gear (racinet). , , . female coiffures (racinet). „ . silver spoons (baumeister). . sacrificial axe (baumeister). . memorial wreath of gold plate, from lower italy (baumeister). . key (racinet). s- priest's ladle (baumeister). . wine-jug of clay used in religious rites (racinet). . ivory figure of an actor (baumeister). . weight in form of skull (dutuit). . fumigating altar baumeister). . sacrificial knife (baumeister). „ . sprinkler (baumeister). „ . priests of cybele in full canonicals with sacrificial implements (baumeister). . wine-jug for use in sacrifice (baumeister). . priest's mask (baumeister). „ . incense-box for use in sacrifice (baumeister). roman ornament. plate . fig. . marble candelabrum (canina). , . marble table (canina). . fragment of a bronze candelabrum from naples (libonis). „ . silver dish found in the silver discoveries in hildesheim (havard). . marble candelabra (canina). „ . roman scales (dutuit). . roman satyr (baumeister). . . amulet with head of mercury (dutuit). . . roman sedan chair (baumeister). „ . portrait of julia, daughter of titus _ , a. „ . j on cameos, found m horence (l bon s). „ . portra t of augustus j „ . clay oil-lamps (libonis). „ . bronze toilet-vase (dutuit). „ . roman coins as (baumeister). „ , , . silver forks (baumeister). „ . vase in chased silver (martha, manuel d'archeologie etrusque et romaine). „ . bronze from naples showing hercules fighting with the snakes (bau- meister). „ . bronze wine-jug (baumeister). plate . fig. , , - hair pins (libonis). . medallion with picture of hercules (libonis). . massive gold necklace (libonis). — , , . ear-rings (libonis). . bronze candelabres from naples (libonis). . bronze lamp in the louvre (libonis). „ . terra-eotta lamp (libonis). . , . rings (renard). „ — , . pins (renard). „ . needle (renard). „ . quiver with bow (renard). „ . bronce comb in the mayence museum (renard). „ . head of medusa (libonis). „ , , . silver vessels discovered in hildesheim (havard). plate . fig. . costume of a consul from the later period (baumeister). , . a roman helmet found in germany (baumeister). . . relief from the mayence museum showing a rider leading his horse (baumeister). . . bronze ribbon brooch or clasp (lindenschmitt). o roman ornament. fig. . iron dagger-sheath in the mayenee museum (baumeister). „ . shield (renard). , . bronze tripod from naples (libonis). . , , - roman military badges (racinet). . . ivovy sword-pommel (baumeister). . . bas-relief from puteoli, showing a trireme (baumeister). „ . helmet of a centurion (libonis). » . marble statue of titus in state armour, in the louvre (baumeister). ancient chimaera in white marble, rome (tatham). pompeian ornament. n the neighbourhood of mount vesuvius on the bay of naples stood the cities of pom- peii, herculaneum and stabia. these three cities were destroyed by an eruption of vesuvius in the year a.d., and were so thoroughly and completely buried that for centuries no trace of where they stood could be found. their position was, however, accidentally discovered in the year . the city of pompeii became subject to the romans in the * century b. c, and, having been thoroughly romanised, grew to be the favourite summer residence of the wealthier classes. the characteristic tendency of the romans towards luxury soon made pompeii a special centre, greek artists were introduced, style was given to classic art, and, finally, a special pompeian style grew into existence. the small arts and work in metal were brought to a very high state of perfection. the remains of objects of this class at present preserved in the museum at naples, more especially those vessels found in the silver discoveries in boscoreale, are extremely beautiful and worthy of the highest admiration. peculiarly characteristic of pompeian art are the mural paintings and the coloured stucco ornamentation. similar work might of course have also existed in other roman cities, all traces having disappeared in the course of time. four distinct and regularly consecutive periods can be distinguished in these mural paintings, the incrustation style, already used in hellenic-oriental art, consisting of imitations of many- coloured marble ashlar-work combined with ornament worked in stucco. after this came the pictorial architectural style which consisted in exhi- biting, in perspective, on smooth surfaces, paintings of fantastic architec- pompeian ornament. tural pictures. the wall was divided into panels in free ornamental style and decorated with small figurative centre pictures. the type which appears to have been in most general use was the prospect style, here, the straight wall, was so changed by a rich play of delicate stone architecture that the chamber had the appearance of being larger than it really was. these types, as far as their collective arrangement goes, show decided leaning towards hellenic proto-types from alexandria, at the same time, however, very many single ornaments show, in their pure naturalistic style, very great artistic independence. although the al fresco mural paintings, which were coloured by simple handworkers, are of a most dazzling brillancy of colour, still, the gradations are toned off so regularly and legitimately that the effect of the whole is soothing and pleasing to the eye. this style of art was, in all probability, well known to a large circle. it is impossible to form an exact picture of roman life in any roman city, but this is more especially the case with pompeii which was completely overwhelmed in one night. it is impossible also to differentiate exactly pompeian from roman art, for it is highly probable that many objects discovered in pompeii were manufactured in other parts of the empire, and that other articles discovered in various other cities had their origin in pompeii. plate . fig. . column from the house of the tragic poet in pompeii (uhde). . mural ornamentation from the house of m. lucretius in pompeii (uhde). . mural ornamentation from the house of modestus in pompeii (uhde). , . capitals from the basilica in pompeii (uhde). , . pllastercapital, and column from the house of the colours in pompeii (uhde). „ . capital from the house of the faun in pompeii (uhde). „ . capital of column from the house of actaeon in pompeii (uhde). „ . podium from the tomb of naevolela tyche in pompeii (uhde). plate . fig. . mosaic from pompeii, showing a theatrical scene (libonis). „ . mural frescoes from pompeii (reichhoit). » , , - mosaic floors (d'espouy). „ . mural fresco, the holy marriage of zeus and hera (baumeistcd. „ . from a mural fresco, illustrating mediation (roux ainek . mural fresco with theatrical mask (baumeister). celtic ornament (france and germany). frank ish warrior (hottenroth). i oubts no longer exist as to the fact that before they came into contact with the romans, the celts and germans had their own characteristic national art, even, although the same had not advanced beyond the bronze and iron periods. it is difficult to strictly separate celtic from germanic ornament, the connections between the two races were so varied and so intimate, that what was characteristic of the one was transplanted to the other. the celts, who had occupied the whole of europe, were after a time driven out from germany and austria by the germans, there must have been there- fore ample opportunity, before the romans came into contact with the germans, for celtic and germanic art to exercise mutual and abiding influence on each other. the romans be- came, afterwards, the instructors of both in ornamentation, and under the influence of roman art, celtic and germanic art came closer to each other, the relationship developing into a most intimate connection at that period when the germans held possession of the western empire of the romans. after the fall of the roman empire, byzantine influence predomi- nated, and as the roman style became developed, a new art period made itself manifest. pure celtic ornament, far purer than in france, existed in the british islands up into the th century. this part of the subject, however, is dealt with in the next chapter, although it would * oo plate . celtic ornament. celtic ornament. loi be perhaps more correct chronologically to refer to it in treating of the art of the middle ages. germanic ornament was entirely confined to the decoration of weapons and useful articles. nothing was known of architecture, not even of architecture in wood, even rites and ceremonies were never held within doors, but in the open air under a tree. n their first attempts at architecture, which were made soon after the introduction of christianity, the celtic artists confined themselves almost entirely to the build- ing of wooden churches and oratories. all their splendid triumphs as seen in the development of the celtic church architec- gallic warrior (racinet). ture were achieved a few centuries later. plate . fig. , and . breton embroidery from pont l'abbe, finisterre (racinet). . bronze ornament, found in castel near agen, in the cluny museum (racinet). . bronze buckle, cluny museum (racinet). . belt-buckle, cluny museum (racinet). . bronze brooch, cluny museum (racinet). . neck ornament of bronze (racinet). . . and . belt buckles from the merovingian period (racinet). .. . bronze fibula, in the louvre (racinet). ,. . bronze fibula from the merovingian period, cluny museum (racinet). . bronze belt-buckles (cluny museum (racinet). . +, and . heads of gallic chieftains from the time of the romans, after bronze medals (racinet). „ . silver brooch from goldborough in yorkshire (racinet). ,. . remnant of a reliquary of iron with bronze and silver ornament from cashel, c . tipperary, ireland (racinet). .. . brooch with granate and gold flligree-work, found near abingdon (racinet). „ , and . bronze fibulae (racinet). . . bronze brooch with silver ornamentation, found near lincoln (racinet). „ . bracelet from pont-audemer (havard). . . bronze brooch found in the churchyard at blasion (havard). „ . buckle found in the churchyard at chisell-down, in the isle of wight (racinet). .. . bracelet, found in reallon, hautes alpes (havard). „ , and . bracelets from caranda (havard). plate . celtic ornament. celtic ornament. plate . fig. . prankish weapons, from the museum at st. germain (barriere-flany, les arts industriels peubles barbares de la gaule. all the following figures in this plate are from the same author). . burgundian ornaments from elisried (canton bern). . necklet, same origin/ . neck ornament in the museum at st. germain. . burgundian ornament from delle near belfort. . west gothic buckle from jean-le-pouget, in the museum at cluny. . burgundian buckle from fierier near tonniges (haute savoie). . frankish glass bottle from achery-magot (aisne). . burgundian clay vessel from tournus (saone et loire). . frankish glass dish from anguilcourt-le-sort (aisne). . west gothic clay vase from herpes (charente). . frankish comb. . burgundian clay vase from chamay (saone et loire) in the museum at st. germain. . anglo-saxon knife. . west-gothle buckle from flgoret-guzarques (herault). plate . the merovingian period. fig. — , — , , and . ornaments (havard). „ . sword of the childerlch (roger-miles). „ . cross from st. martin, limoges, made by saint eloi (havard). . . chair of dagobert, made of gilt bronze (havard). plate . fig. , and . german sword in the mayence museum (lindenschmitt, aus der heid- nischen vorzeit. the following are all according to the same authority). . . silver needle from the frankish graves near neuhofen. „ . frankish fibula. . half-drawn dagger from the graves at hallstadt. . frankish bracelet, museum in may ence. . bucket with bronze mounts and iron handles from the frankish graves near monsheim, in the mayence museum. „ . bucket with bronze mounts found in the graves oh the schiersteiner wege. wiesbaden museum. . ear-ring from the graves near worrstedt. „ . dagger from sprendlingen, rheinhessen. „ m. german ribbon clasp, mayence museum. . . fibula from the graves near nordendorf. „ - necklet from a grave in wurmllngen, warttemberg. plate . celtic ornament. o celtic ornament. fig. . ear-ring in the wiesbaden museum. „ . shoe found in the turf moor friedeburg, west friesland. hannover museum. , . frankish belt-buckle, mayence museum. . . glass vase found in grave near kreuznach. „ . clay vase found in grave near ulm. „ . clay vase found in graves at osthofen, mayence museum. . , and . coffins of gypsum. „ . clay urn found in graves near remingen. „ . ring from the mayenee museum. anglo-saxon baptismal font (mqller and mothes). celtic ornament (great britain and ireland). rnamental art, such as was developed in the british isles, but more especially in ireland, even during the sway of heathenism, was, without any doubt, a pure celtic art of its own, without any traces of byzantine or south european influences. the very same ornamental work which we find in the old heathen stone coffins are also to be seen in the manuscript paintings of the celtic monks of the sixth century. celtic artists show a most astonishing and extraordinary skill and variety in the delineation of orna- mental tracery, in which the bodies of birds, dogs, snakes and fantastic animals are most skillfully interwoven. vegetable ornaments were entirely absent in the earlier specimens of this work, appearing first in the th century, very probably as the result of roman influence. the very great similarity existing between scandinavian and celtic ornament points to a very close connection between the two styles of art, a fact which is all the more evident when we remember that christi- anity was introduced into norway and sweden by irish missionaries. initial from the th century (owen jones). m.n kvnmo du d i io celtic ornament. plate . fig. . manuscript painting from the th century (dolmetsch). . . initial from a psalter, th century, at present in trinity college, dublin (owen jones). , and . manuscript paintings from the th century (owen jones). „ . the aberlemno cross (owen jones). „ . initial from the * century (dolmetsch). „ — . manuscript paintings of celtic-anglo-saxon origin (owen jones). „ . ornament from base of cross in the church of eassie, angusshire (owen jones). „ . ornament from base of cross in the church at st. vigean, angus- shire (owen jones).' „ . ornament from base of cross in the church at meigle, angusshire (owen jones). plate . fig. , , , and . specimes of manuscript paintings from the th century (dolmetsch and owen jones). . manuscript paintings from the th century (dolmetsch). „ , , and . manuscript paintings from the th century (dolmetsch). „ . manuscript painting from the th century (dolmetsch). . initial from the franco-saxon bible at st. denis, from the th century (owen jones). „ — . specimens from manuscript paintings of celtic-anglo-saxon origin (owen jones). plate . fig. — . specimens of manuscript paintings from the th century (dolmetsch). , . manuscript painting from an irish gospel of the th century. the border is copied from the gospel of st. cuthbert now in the british museum, and known as the book of durham, a book which was written between the years and . (henry shaw, mediaeval alphabets and devices.) from an irish spelllng-book (mothes and mailer). plate . celtic ornament. roman marble vase (piranesi). early christian ornament. from a carolingian gos- pel in the british museum (mailer and mothes). radually, as the political supremacy of a country begins to decline, art in that country begins also to decay. the decline of classic art was the natural conse- quence of the political weakness and final decay of the western roman empire, as well as of the decisive victory which christianity finally obtained over heath- enism. in all the old historic styles there exists an intimate connection between religion and art. art developed under the aegis of religion and was so strongly influenced by it that a style of art produced under the influence of a certain religion could never harmonise with any other religion except that from which it sprung. when, therefore, christianity received into its hands the remains of classic art, it was obliged to change and harmonise them into a style in unison with christian ideas, tastes, and necessities, without at the same time entirely freeing itself from classic influences. on the ruins, therefore, of the western roman empire, the christian states erected a new civilisation changing everything they found to fit the new condition of affairs, and making use of the peculiar elements of byzantine art, then in its full glory to form a new style of art of its own. the byzantine influence was so powerful at that time, that it is often a matter of real difficulty for the art historian to say whether certain works of art belong to the early christian or to the byzantine style. the antiquities discovered in the ancient city of ravenna show most remarkable traces of byzan- tine influences. early christian art may be regarded as a period of transition the tendency of which was to free itself alike from classic and byzantine influence. it was only when this latter influence had been entirely over- early christian ornament. j come, when, about the year a. d., the romanesque style of architec- ture began to develop itself, that art began again to move along secure lines. the attempts to change classic art into forms more suitable to christianity were, however, not confined to the western roman empire. attempts in this direction were also made in asia minor, but were finally rendered unavailing by the spread of islamism. before their contact with the romans, the art of the celts, if we exclude architecture and sculpture, even though primitive, was still a thoroughly characteristic, peculiar one. the eastern goths, who ruled italy from to , but who soon, lost their peculiar individuality, did not cherish this style of art as the lombards did. these latter, who settled in northern italy under alboin in the year , preserved it carefully, and to such an extent that it actually exercised a very remarkable influence on the development of italo-romanesque art. mural painting from the coemeterium majus, rome (wilpert, malereien der katakomben roms). * i g early christian ornament. plate . lombardo-byzantine ornament in italy. (e. a. stqckelberg, longobardische plastik.) fig. . circular pattern braided work from ventimlglia. . diamond pattern braided work from ravenna. . bottom of a basket from rome. . relief from ventimiglia. . and . interlaced work from milan. . relief from spalato. . interlaced work from como. . processional crucifix from milan. . interlaced work from valeria. . lattice work from milan. . church altarscreen from aquileja. . relief from altar in orvieto. plate . lombardo-byzantine ornament in italy. (after professor karl mohrmann and dr. eugen ferd. eichwede, germanische frohkunst.) fig. , , and . capitals from the church of s. ambrogio, milan. ,, . fountain, in the museum at venice. „ . from a balustrade in the cathedral at aquileja. „ — . portals from the church of s. ambrogio, milan. „ . capital of column from the church of s. ambrogio, milan. crucifix in the museum at ravenna (dehli). early christian ornament. plate . plate . early christian ornament. early christian ornament. plate . visigothic ornament in spain. (after monumentos de espana.) fig. . cross from the crown of reeeswint. .„ . crown of suinthila. „ . votive crown. „ . votive cross. „ - arm of a processional crucifix. plate . italo-byzantine ornament in italy. fig. . frieze from the church at dana in syria (vogae, la syrie centrale). „ . capital from the church of st. apollinare nuovo, ravenna (dehli). „ , , and . capitals from the church of st. vitale in ravenna. the church of st. vitale in ravenna was founded by the treasurer julianus argentarius being moved thereto be the exhortations of bishop ecclesius ( — afte^christ). the strongly marked byzantine character of this church is easily explained when it is remembered that very intimate relations existed at that time between ravenna and byzantium (dehli). „ . marble panel from ravenna (bilderatias). „ . monogram of christ in a sarcophagus in the church of st. apollinare- in-classe, ravenna (dehli, selections of byzantine ornament). plate . frankish ornament. fig. . gospel of charles the bald in the national library in paris (havard). . sword of charlemagne in the imperial treasury in vienna (havard). „ . chair of the statue of st. foy in the treasury at conques (havard). „ . gold crucif x, presented to the monastery of st. denis by charles the bald (havard). „ . crown of charlemagne in the imperial treasury in vienna (havard). „ . crown of the statue of st. foy in the treasury at conques (havard). „ . reliquary medallion of charlemagne in the monastery at aix- a-chapelle (havard). „ . throned christ from a gospel of charlemagne (mailer and mothes). „ . hunting horn of charlemagne in aix-la-chapelle (maiier and mothes). „ . madonna from the catacomb of st. calixtus in rome (mailer and mothes). plate . fig. . diptych from the th century, supposed to be the cathedra of maxentius (libonis). „ . sarcophagus of the exarch isaac, representing the adoration of the three magi (libonis). early christian ornament. ig. . ambo in salonica (gagarin, russische ornamente). „ . bookcase in church in ravenna (havard). ,, . chalice, presented to the monastery of kremsmunster in by duke tassilo (mailer and mothes). „ . reading desk of st. adelgundi (libonis). „ , and . sarcophagi in ravenna (d'espouy). „ . mosaic flooring from the church of st. vitale in ravenna (d'espouy). „ . the empress theodora and her suite. mosaic from the church of st.vitale, ravenna (libonis). altar in the museum at ravenna (dehli). byzantine ornament. jyzantine is the title given to that conglomerate style of art which was developed in the eastern roman empire from all the diffe- rent styles which were in existence at that early period. the first impulse to the development of a byzantine style was given in the year a.d., when byzan- tium or constantinople became the seat of the royal residence of the emperor constantine, and when christianity was made the established state religion. byzan- tine art may be said to have reached its highest standard in the th century when it spread throughout the whole empire and extended to north africa. its influence however was not con- fined to those regions for already in the same century it had reached as far north and west as scotland and ireland, in which countries it is found intermingled with celtic art. it also penetrated through the balkan states and italy, and, from the ath century when under the influence of the macedonian empire, it took fresh life, down to the middle of the th century, it permeated the ornament of all the romanesque styles of europe, whilst even in con- stantinople when taken by the turks, in , the church of sancta sophia became the model on which all the turkish mosques were based, so far as their main features are concerned. initial from a breviary in the mazarin library (libonis). plate . byzantine ornament. byzantine ornament. it was in fact the political influence which the byzantine empire enjoyed during- the period of its supremacy, together with the low standard of civilization existing at that period in the christian states of the west, which caused the new christian art, whose development had already commenced, to be strongly influenced by the byzantine style, more especially in its ornament. plate . fig. . arch and column of the lower gallery in the church of st. sophia, constantinople. (salzenberg, altchristliche baudenkmale von konstantinopel.) this church, erected in place of a basilica destroyed by fire, was built under justi- nian in the years — > after plans designed by anthemios of tralles assisted by isidorus of miletus. the church has been used as a mosque since . ,. — . details from the facade of the church of st. marks in venice (gagarin). the church of st. marks, although a prototype of romanesque architecture, contains many features peculiar to byzantine art. though founded about a. d. the five domes were not commenced till a. d. and the sumptuous marble decoration not completed till two centuries later. ,, . bronze door in the church of st. marks, venice (gagarin). „ . arch and capital in the baptistery of the church of st. marks, venice (gagarin). „ , . capitals in the church of st. marks, venice (gagarin). plate . fig. . arch from a gallery in the church of st. sophia, constantinople, from the th century (gagarin). „ , . bronze knockers from the door of st. marks, venice (dehli, byzantine ornament). „ . capital from the church of st. marks in venice (dehli). „ — . capitals from the church of st. marks in venice (gagarin). plate . after dehli, selections of byzantine ornament. fig. . stone panel from the atrium of st. marks in venice. „ . baptismal font in the vendramin palace, venice. ., . sarcophagus from the church of st. antonio, padua. „ . relief from the church of st. pietro in verona. „ . from transept of st. marks, venice. „ . frieze over door of the zeno chapel in st. marks, venice. spei.tz, styles of ornament. plate . byzantine ornament. * i byzantine ornament. plate . fig. . gold ring from the collection of rollin and bourdent (libonis). „ . border of a manuscript of the th century (libonis). „ . stone panel in the gallery of the church of st. marks, venice (dehli). ,, . ivory bookcover in the south kensington museum (libonis). ,, . marble mosaic (libonis). „ . mosaic panelling in the triforium of the church of st. sophia, con- stantinople (bilderatlas zur geschichte der baukunst). ., — . marble mosaics from the church of st. marks in venice (dehli). ., . letters from a manuscript (libonis). „ . stone relief from the church of st. sergius in constantinople (krauth und meyer, steinhauerbueh). plate . fig. . well head from venice, now in the south kensington museum (delhi). „ . cover of an ivory reliquary in the south kensington museum showing john the baptist between saints philip, stephen, thomas, and andrew (libonis). „ . byzantine ivory coffer. „ . cover of book of the four gospels owned by st. john of besancon, showing the crowning of romanus iv and eudoxia. dates from the * century, at present in the national library, paris (libonis). „ . byzantine miniature-painting (libonis). „ . leaf of a diptych in the british museum showing michael the archangel (libonis). plate . fig. — , — . miniature paintings from manuscripts in the national library, paris (gagarin). „ . lectern, from a manuscript in the national library, paris (gagarin). „ . byzantine crown (hottenroth, trachten). „ — . byzantine coiffures (hottenroth). „ . reliquary (hottenroth). „ - chalice (hottenroth). „ , , . arm chairs (hottenroth). ,, . consular chair of state. > plate . byzantine ornament in spain. (after monumentos de espana.) fig. . ruins of the ancient cloister of san roman in hornija. „ . capital from the same cloister. „ . fragment of parapet, preserved in the cathedral of cordova. i plate . byzantine ornament. i byzantine ornament. fig. . outer cornice of the camara santa in the cathedral of oviedo. , — , and . window from the church of san salvator in valdedios. con- cejo de villa viciosa. , and . capitals from the hermitage of santa christina in lena, oviedo. „ . medallion from the same church. ., . pulpit parapet from the same church. „ , — . capitals from the church of san salvador in valvedios. plate . byzantine ornament in spain. (after monumentos de espai a.) fig. , and . fragments from a building — called the cisterna — in merida. . fragment from the basilica in cordova. . enamelled work from a reliquary in the cloister of san domingos de silos. , , and . pillar from the transept of the church of st. miguel de lino, oviedo. romanesque ornament. o soon as charlemagne had succeeded to a cer- tain extent in consolidating his empire, he selected aix-la-chapelle as his place of resi- dence, and called around him in that city artists of all kinds both from the former western as well as from the eastern roman empires. these artists were engaged in deco- rating and adorning his palaces, and it was here that a new style, the romanesque style, based upon classic architecture, and very strongly influenced by byzantine art, which stood then at its highest glory slowly deve- loped itself. at first, after the death of charle- magne, art could not make much progress in the empire, a circumstance due to the fact that charlemagne's successor was an incapable ruler under whose dominion the land lay diseased and dormant, awaiting with dulled apathy the end of all things. it was not until the year ooo had come that new life began to be again manifest, and later on when the religious zeal was stirred up by the crusades that some really great and genuine works of art were produced. the romanesque style of architec- ture, whose earliest architects were priests and monks, the lay element being introduced later on, is a genuine orthodox style. in the beginning this style was heavy, but it soon developed, and reached its highest standard in the th and th centuries. the aftergrowths of the romanesque style in germany were produced by a combination of the same with the gothic, a style which came in from france, resulting in the pointed- arch style which sprung into existence. the romanesque style itself initial from a german xiith century manuscript (doimetsch). german romanesque ornament. spread rapidly into all those countries which were included in the former western roman empire, its character becoming changed in accordance with the character of the inhabitants of each particular country. in france spain and england the romanesque style developed into the gothic, and some time afterwards, towards the middle of the th cen- tury, germany, following the example of france and using the french gothic as a standard, began also gradually to develop, the gothic style of architecture. romanesque ornament in germany. plate . (heideloff, ornamentik des mittelalters ) fig. . keystone of a vault in the church of st. sebald, nuremberg. , and . arch frieze with consol from the same church. „ , and . bases of colums, from the convent church in hellbrunn, bavaria. „ . capital from the church of st. sebald, nuremberg. . view and ground plan of large column in the vestibule of the cathe- dral in schwabisch-hall. . shaft of column from the portal of the burggraf chapel in the augustinian cloister, esslingen. „ . capital from the same church. „ . capital from the benedictine abbey in murrhard. . . capital from the convent church in faurudan near goppingen. „ . cornice on the tower of st. john's church in schwabisch-gmund. plate . fig. . abacus from the church of st. michel in hildesheim, 't> century (raguenet, materinux et documents). this church, which was begun by bishop bernward of hildesheim in the year oo , and completed in the year , marks the transition rom the early to the late romanesque style. „ . abacus from the church of marmoutiers in alsace (raguenet). . capital from rosheim near strassburg, dating from the , century (raguenet). . stone cross in the market-place at treves (raguenet). . capital and base from eger (gruber, kaiserburg in eger). b. capital from the cathedral in limburg (opderbecke, bauformen). this church was built by konrad ii in the years — , and dedicated in o in the reign of henry iii. the building operations were conducted by the cluniac abbot poppo von stobl . „ . signature tablet from the th century (mall er and mothes). „ s. door-knocker in the cathedral at atx-la-chapelle from the th century (raguene ). „ — . mural paintings from the cathedral in brunswick (gaiihabaud ['archi- tecture). „ . frieze from mary's chapel in the cathedral in gandersheim (raguenet). german romanesque ornament. plate . . frieze from the burg at munzenberg in hessen (opderbecke, bauformen des mittelalters). . frieze from the church in denkendorf, th century (labke). . from a stall in the cathedral at ratzeburg (joseph). . ornamentation on shaft of a column from buchenberg near goslar, century (opderbecke). . capital from the church in brenz, worttemberg, * century (opderbecke). . base from the abbey church in laach, th century (opderbecke). . archivolte from the doorway of worms cathedral, th century (opderbecke). . capital from the scottish church of st. jacob in ratisbon, th century (opderbecke). . window from the church at laaeh (opderbecke). . window-column from the cathedral at worms, * century (opderbecke). . and . doorway from the church at gelnhausen, 'h century (opderbecke). . tympanum from st. michael's church in schwabisch-hall, th century (opderbecke). . base from the church at amsberg, ,h century (opderbecke). plate . . throne of emperor henry ii, after a miniature in the monarch's own book of gospels which is at present in the court library in munich (mailer and mothes). :. watering-can, in the royal imperial numismatic cabinet in vienna (mailer and mothes). . comb of henry i (hefener-alteneck, trachten). . wrought-iron candlestick (hottenroth). . seven-branched candlestick in brunswick cathedral (mailer and mothes). . bronze candlestick (hottenroth). . bishop's crozier from the church treasuries in deutz (mailer and mothes). . two-handled chalice from the marienstern cloister in saxony (mailer and mothes). . candelabrum from the cathedral in aix-la-chapelle (hottenroth). . reliquary of oak with gilt reliefs in lead, dates from the year , at present in the nuremberg museum. . glass painting from "»century in neuweiler, alsace (mailer and mothes). plate . . wooden coffer, th century (hottenroth). . initials from the time of joseph xiii (mailer and mothes). . candlestick, th century (hottenroth). . bishop's crozier, ,h century (hottenroth). . chalice, ,h century (hottenroth). . fragment of a small crystal bottle, th century (hottenroth). . initials from the bremer gospel, from the year (mailer and mothes). . thurible of gilt copper, th century (muller and mothes). plate . german romanesque ornament. german romanesque ornament. ■ fig. . writing-desk, after a manuscript in the national library at paris (gagarin). „ . bronze church lamp, th century (mqller and mothes). „ . stool (hottenroth). „ , and . beds, th century (hottenroth). „ . fighting warrior, th century (hottenroth). „ . cup (hottenroth). „ . bishop's chair (hottenroth). „ . imperial shoe (hottenroth). „ . clasp of imperial mantle (hottenroth). „ . sprinkler (hottenroth). „ . cover of the prayer-book of st. elizabeth (mailer and mothes). „ . bed, th century (mailer and mothes). plate . north-german brickwork. (after stiehl, backsteinbau romanischer zeit.) the romanesque style of brick architecture was introduced into the altmark, at jerichow, and into parts of mecklenburg, holstein, and pomerania, during that period of time when these wendic lands were being germanised. these districts being poor in stone and very rich in clay, necessitated the employment of burnt bricks. the origin of brick architecture has been traced to lombardy by herr o. stiehl, government architect, who carried out a series of careful and searching inquiries into this question (o. stiehl, der backsteinbau romanischer zeit, besonders in oberitalien und norddeutschland). from lombardy it was introduced into the wendic districts by missionaries. as the romanesque style of architecture was the prevalent one at that period, the brickwork was constructed in accordance with it. fig. — . capitals from the convent church at arendsee. „ . capital from the church at jerichow. „ . capital from the church of st. maria auf dem damme at juterbog. „ — . arched doorway and capitals from the church of st. nicolas in treuenbrietzen. „ . capital from the cathedral at brandenburg. „ . capital from the church at gadebusch. „ . arched corbel table from the church at molln. „ . rib mouldings from the convent church at dobrilugk. ,, , and . bases of piers from the cathedral at ratzeburg. „ , and b. compound piers from the church at altenkrempe. „ . window from the village church at grossmangelsdorf. „ . capital from the convent church at dobrilugk. plate . german enamel work in the middle ages. (after v. falke and frauberger, deutsche schmelzarbeiten des mittelalters.) the historic art exhibition held in dusseldorf in the year contained a most beau- tiful and unequalled collection of german enamel-work (rom the romanesque art-epoch. the different works of art contained in this collection have since been reproduced by otto von german romanesque ornament. falke and heinrich frauberger in their beautifully illustrated work ,.deutsche schmelza beiten des mittelalters". there can be hardly any doubt but that the german artistic enamel-work has its origin in the byzantine empire. in germany itself certain centres for this art were established in a few cities, the masters giving instruction each according to his own particular school. one of the most celebrated centres was at cologne, where the great and celebrated master frederick taught. celebrated schools were also established in treves, coblenz, and a few other places. fig. . plate from angle column of the maurlcius shrine in cologne by frede- rick; dates from the year . „ , , , and . enamel plates from the ursula shrine in cologne, done by frederick in the year . „ . the benlgnus shrine in siegburg. made in cologne, in the year . „ . bronze pillars from the anna shrine in cologne, . „ . reliquary plate in fritzlar, from the second half of the th century. „ . crest of the albinus shrine in cologne, from the year . „ . crest of the anna shrine in siegburg. made in cologne in the year u . „ , and . crest of the mauricius shrine in cologne, by frederick in the year . painting from bamberg cathedral (heideioff). french romanesque ornament. romanesque ornament in france. in the provinces of france, the romanesque style of architecture developed itself in a somewhat] peculiarly characteristic fashion, while the roman classic predominated in the south, more especially in provence, but the byzantine style held sway in the south-west. in the north of france, and in normandy, the two styles were blended together. plate . fig. . doorway of the church of st. ursin, bourges, th century (opderbecke). „ . column from the church of saint pierre, chauvigny (havard, histoire et philosophie des styles). „ . doorway of the church at surgeres, th century (opderbecke). „ . column from the church of st. lazare, avallon, th century (opderbecke). „ . base from the church at cusset, th century (opderbecke). „ . ornament on doorway of the church at suger, th century (opderbecke). „ . base from the church at polssy, th century (opderbecke). „ . shaft of column from the cathedral at chartres, th century (opderbecke). „ , and . base and carved string from church at vezelay, th century (opde becke). „ . corbel table from a chapel in laon, th century (opderbecke). „ . corbel table from apse of the church et leognon, th century (opderbecke). plate . fig. . frieze in relief from cloister at moissac (havard). „ . frieze from the cathedral at bourges (raguenet). „ . frieze from the museum at toulouse, th century (raguenet). „ . corbel table from the church at aulnay, charente inferieure (raguenet). „ . cross from notre dame du port, clermont-ferrand, th century (raguenet). „ . abacus from the museum at toulouse (raguenet). „ . abacus from the cloister of st. trophime, aries (raguenet). „ . capital from the cathedral at senlis, th century (v. pannewitz, formen- lehre der romanischen baukunst). „ , and . capitals from toulouse (heideioff). ,. . base from the church of semur in brionnals, burgundy (raguenet). „ u. capital from the church of st. severin, toulouse (joseph). plate . romanesque ornament in provence. (after m. henry revoil, architecture romane du midi de la france.) fig. , and . column and arch from the cloister of st. sauveur, d'aix, bouche du rhdne. „ . capital and principal cornice from the chapel of st. gabriel, bouche du rhdne. transition from the classic to the romanesque style. „ , , and . principal cornices. plate . french romanesque ornament. french romanesque ornament. fig. . compound pler from the abbey of montmajour. „ , , and . compound piers from the castle of simlane, basses-aipes. , . pilaster from the church at thor, vaucluse. plate . norman-romanesque ornament. (after v. ruprich-robert, l'architecture normande). f g. , and . pillar capital from the church of montevilllers, seine inferieure. „ . doorway of the church of anisy, calvados. „ - capital from the church of montevilllers. „ . tympanum from a door of the church at marigny, calvados. dates from the year , and represents the old custom of tree-worship. „ . doorway of the church at beaumais, calvados. .. . window of the church at saint-contest. plate . norman-romanesque ornament. (after v. ruprich-robert, l'architecture normaode.) fig . painted capital from the church of st.georges de bocherville, th century. „ . capital from the church at mont saint michel (manche). „ . capital from the church at breteuil (oise). „ , , , and i . columns from the church of st. gervals, rouen, th century. „ . norman alphabet, th century, after m. de caumont. ,. - column from the chapter hall of the abbey of hambe (manche). , . capital from the crypt of the cathedral of bayeux. „ . cross from the church sainte trinite in caen. plate fig . iron grille from the church of st. john of malta in aix, provence (havard). „ . wrought iron hinge on the sacristy door of the cathedral at noyon (havard'. „ - glass painting from the cathedral of chartres (havard). „ . baptismal font in the church at besme, champagne (raguenet). . bishop's crozier (l. roger-miles, comment discerner les styles). „ . grisaille in the church at bonlieu, creuse (havard). „ . cloth fabric from the abbey saint germaln-des-pres, paris, th cen- tury (roger-miles). „ . crozier of archbishop abaldos, who died in the year , in the cathe- dral at sens (roger-miles). „ . gold embroidered silk (roger-miles). „ . iron grille in the museum at rouen, th century (raguenet). „ . iron grille from the cathedral at puy, th century (raguenet). french romanesque ornament. i plate . fig. . wood coffer from the sacristy of the cathedral of noyon (havard). „ . chafing-dish from the archbishop's palace in narbonne, tn century (muller and mothes). „ . chalice and cover from the cathedral of saint-omer (havard). „ . initial letter from the prayer-book of charles the bald (roger-milts). „ . holy mass flagon from the church treasury of st. denis (mailer and mothes). „ . wooden arm-chair (roger-miles). „ . seal of the capitol of toul, — (ary renan, le costume en france). „ . stool (roger-miles). „ . jewel of the holy tear of vendome (havard). „ . eagle from hilt of a sword, th century (roger-miles). „ . small-writing-desk for writing on the knees (roger miles). „ . paten of open-worked silver, chased and gilt, 'h century (havard). plate . french enamel-work in the middle ages. in the middle ages, certain centres of art were formed in france as well as in germany, one of the most celebrated art-schools in the ,> century being established at verdun. the verdun altar is the most renowned work of art during this epoch.- it was prepared by nicholas of verdun in the year , and is at present in the religious establishment at kloster- neuburg near vienna (karl dreschler, der verduner altar.) fig. . enamelled plate from the verdun altar. „ — . details of border, etc., from the same. frieze from the church of st. pierre de maguelonne (hecourt). (revoil, architecture romane dans le midi de la france.) i o plate . italian romanesque ornament. italian romanesque ornament. l l romanesque ornament in upper and middle italy. the lombard-romanesque style shows evidences of germanic influence but does not evince such a high degree of development as the german-romanesque style. in tuscany and venice, this style had to give way before the florentine and byzantine style. plate . fig. . pulpit in the cathedral at bitonto th century (raguenet). . portion of arcade in museum at brescia (mohrmann). „ . carved string in museum at brescia (mohrmann). . rose-window from the church at pomposa (mohrmann). . fragment of column in museum at brescia (mohrmann). plate . fig. . blind arcade from verona (mohrmann). . relief from the cathedral in hatera (raguenet). „ . capital from the cathedral of torcello near venice, lh century (raguenet). „ . italian rose-window after rosenkranz (bilderatias der baukunst). „ . window from the church of st. abondio, como (joseph). „ , and . capital and archivolt from the church of st. zeno, verona (mohrmann). . . doorway from the church of the fathers in padua (raguenet). plate . (after prof. karl mohrmann and dr. eugen ferd. eichwede, germanische frqhkunst.) fig. , and . doorway from the church of st. stefano in bologna. „ . lion plinth from the principal doorway of the cathedral at verona. , and . lion plinths on the doorway of the church in modena. saracen-norman ornament in sicily and lower italy. the normans where originally a northern tribe which had settled in norway, and who afterwards, being forced through over-population to leave their scandinavian home, founded a colony in normandy. they conquered sicily and lower italy and established also colonies in these countries. in the th century a characteristic romanesque style had developed in nor- mandy. in the norman colonies in lower italy, this style, being very strongly influenced by the islamite style of the saracens, developed further into another most characteristic style, which reached its highest standard in the th century. from this combination of oriental and christian art, the only exemple perhaps of the kind in history, from this union of quick oriental fancy with the courage, strength, and power of the northman, have sprung works of art whose delightful, and entrancing beauty charm the beholder and excite his wonder and admiration. speltz. styles of ornament. l plate . italian romanesque ornament. plate . italian romanesque ornament. italian romanesque ornament. plate . fig. , , , and . nave arches and superstructure of the cathedral at mon- reale {]. j. hittorff et l. zanlh architecture moderne de la sicile). , and . ceilings from the same cathedral (hittorff). . arcade from the cathedral at monreale (camillo boito, architettura del medio evo in italia). this church was built between the years a"d , and restored between the years — . . arch from the cathedral at monreale (hittorfl). plate . (after kutschmann, meisterwerke der sarazenisch-normannischen kunst in sicilien und unteritalien.) fig. . relief on the front side of the altar of st. cataldo. „ . baptismal font in st. cataldo. — - window archivolts from the palace of st. antonio, palermo. . ear-ring from the coronation hood of queen constance ii. „ - mosaic from the capella palatina, palermo. . inlaid frieze from the same church. . mosaic from a window veval, same church. „ , and . mosaic friezes from the cathedral at monreale. „ . mosaic from the church of the martorana, palermo. plate . fig. , and . mosaics from the church of the martorana, palermo (kutschmann). . from the ceiling of the cathedral at monreale (hittorff and zanth). „ , and . fragments from archivolt in the side aisle of the capella palatina at palermo (kutschmann). . mosaic from arch soffit in the same church (kutschmann). „ , and . mosaics from the cathedral at monreale (kutschmann). . painting from the cathedral of messina (d'espouy). mosaic from monreale cathedral (hittorff and zanth). spanish romanesque ornament. romanesque ornament in spain. romanesque church architecture in spain was influenced by moorish architecture of which there are many remains. plate . (from monumentos de espana.) fig. . window from the church of san isidoro, leon. , and . strings from the same church. . capital from the same church. , and . capital and base from the church of st. lorenzo, segovia. . soffit from the same church. „ , and . capital and base from the gate of mercy in the same church. . . fragment from the old cathedral of salamanca. . . capital, corbel and base from the church of st. peter and paul, bar- celona. plate . (from monumentos de espana.) fig. . doorway from the church of san millan in segovia. „ . arch mouldings of doorway of church of san martin, segovia. „ , and . plan and elevation of window from the ancient cathedral of salamanca. ,. capital from the pantheon san isidoro, leon. — . panels from frieze in the church of san lorenzo, segovia. . stone sarcophagus in the pantheon san isidoro, leon. plate . (from monumentos de espana.) fig. . arcade in the interior of the apse of the church santa maria de villa mayor, concejo del infiest . „ , and . capital and base from the tower on the camara santa of the cathedral at oviedo. „ , and . corbel table from the church of santa maria de villa mayor. capital from tower in no. . „ . sarcophagus probably of king alphonzo the wise, in the cloister of santa maria la real de las huelgas, burgcs. corbel table of doorway of san lorenzo in segovia (monumentos dc espana). * o plate . spanish romanesque ornament. i english romanesque ornament. romanesque ornament in england. the art of the early middle ages in england can be divided into two periods: the anglo-saxon period from to . the art of this period consisted in an attempt to reproduce the remains of roman architecture in the country, or in italy. the norman-period from to . the art of this period was an imitation of the norman french, developing gradually into a characteristic national style. plate . . . norman mural paintings on the altar of our lady of pity, durham cathedral. dates from the year (antiqarian gleanings in the north of eng- land by william b. scott). . door in peterborough cathedral, lh century (raguenet). . column from canterbury cathedral, from the year (pannewitz). . arcade from the schools at canterbury, from the year . . capitals in the church of st. peter at northampton (graul, bilderatlas). . door-knocker from durham cathedral (scott). . tomb of an english knight, th century (hefener-alteneck). plate . . . capital and base from the church at lastlngham, yorkshire, * cen- tury (pannewitz). . capital from the same church (pannewitz). . capital from the church at dunfermline, scotland (pannewitz). . capital from the church of st. peter - at-gowts, lincoln, anglo saxon (baldwin brown, the arts in the early england). . capital from canterbury cathedral (pannewitz). . capital from waltham abbey (pannewitz). . capital from the white tower of the tower of london. . double window of the east facade of the tower at deerhurst (baldwin brown). . and . pyxes (hottenroth). i . from the chasuble of st. thomas a'beckett (hottenroth). . coffer from the church at brampton, northamptonshire, th century. . norman ornaments from st. saviour church, southwark (pugin, gothic ornament). . late-romanesque tiles, yellow and red, from the church at bloxham, th century (dolmetsch). plate . (after v. ruprich-robert, architecture normande du xi ct xii siecle en normandie et en angleterre.) . triforium arches of rochester cathedral, kent. . archivolt of doorway, peterborough cathedral, northamptonshire. . and . window shafts in the abbey church of st. albans, herefordshire. . baptismal font in sculthorpe church, norfolk. english romanesque ornament. fig. , and . baptismal font in winchester cathedral, hampshire. „ , and . mural paintings from same cathedral. „ . archivolt of doorway of st. peter's church, northampton. . . column from the crypt of canterbury cathedral, kent. plate . (after james k. colling, details of gothic architecture ) fig. . capital and base from the crypt of vestry in canterbury cathedral. „ , and . rose window from patrixbourne church, kent. „ . capital from the church at walsoken, norfolk. „ . south doorway of the small church at gt. totham, essex. „ , and . west-doorway in the tower of the church at etton, yorkshire. plate . fig. — . from norman cornices (parker's glossary of architecture). fig. . lincolnshire, c. , deeping st. james. „ . st. contest, caen, normandy. „ . corbel table, st. peter at gowts, lincoln. . transept of winchester cathedral, . „ . b llet, canterbury cathedral. „ . beak head, st. ebbe's oxford. „ . double square westminster hall, c. . „ . chevron, north hinksey, berks. ,, . rose, iffley, church oxon. „ . segmental billet, abbaye aux dames, caen. ., . double cone, stoneleigh church, warwickshire. „ . embattled, lincoln cathedral, c. . „ . grille in winchester cathedral (bailey scott murphy, english and scottish wrought ironwork). „ — . capitals and base in the western tower of the church at great hale, near sleaford, lincolnshire (baldwin brown, the arts in early england). plate . fig. . canon's staff (hottenroth). „ . ship in which duke william came over to england (hottenroth). ,. - anglo-saxon pyx (hottenroth). . . anglo-saxon sword-hilt (hottenroth). „ , and . pyxes (hottenroth). „ . norman shield (hottenroth). „ . mitre of thomas a'beckett (hottenroth). „ . norman sedan chair (hottenroth). „ . anglo-norman woman with water-jug (hottenroth). „ . cross from monasterboice abbey, ireland, dates from the year (margaret stokes, early christian art in ireland). .s 'eltz, styles of on amen:. * english romanesque ornament. plate english romanesque ornament. . anglo-saxon dagger, from the loth century (hottenroth . . and . candlesticks (hottenroth). . coronation spoon (hottenroth). . dragon ship, th century (hottenroth). ". lantern (hottenroth). . norman knight in chaln armour (hottenroth). f- plate . (h. shaw, mediaeval alphabets and devices.) , , , . letters from the works of josephus and other mss. th century. , , — . letters from the same period taken from manuscripts in the british museum. arched doorway from the church at framlingham, norfolk. from the middle of the th century (v. ruprich-robert). scandinavian romanesque ornament. [n norway, the scandinavian ornament stands in the most intimate relationship with the celtic, a circumstance which is due to the fact that christianity was first introduced into norway by the irish. in south norway, where english influence had to give way before the german, stone archi- tecture is predominant, one of the most beautiful examples of this style being the cathedral at lund, a basilica foun- ded in , but not completed till . archbishop eskill who consecrated it and presided over its completion came from hildesheim and it is to his influence that the pronoun- ced german character of the design may be attributed. the same is found in the large conventual church at dal- by, south of lund, which was consecrated in , the crypt however being of earlier date. besides being found in south norway, stone architecture of a most decidedly early germanic style is also predominant in sweden and denmark. in the north of norway, however, and during the same period, a typical style of wooden architecture was developed. this style in all probability had its origin in england, although at the present time, there is but one example of a wooden church throughout the whole country, namely, the wooden church at greenstead, near london. the greatest and most powerful influence, however, to which the romanesque-scandinavian wooden style of architecture was sub- jected during its development was the influence exercised by irish-celtic art. it must not be forgotten, at the same time, that the peculiar nor- wegian parish churches appear to have had an independent development from side doorway of the church at urnes (dolmetsch). scandinavian romanesque ornament. of their own, the richly decorated, ornamental doorway of these churches being very characteristic. three periods are noted in the construction of these churches. . the archaic form, or the period of irish influence up to the year a. d. . the period distinguished by the romanesque form, a style, which, in all probability was taken from the anglo saxons and anglo normans up to the year a. d. . the period of gothic influence up to the decline of art. the gothic could never entirely supersede the influence of the romanesque, a style which had already taken such deep root in the country. there are three styles of doorways: . the sognin type. this takes its name from a country district, and, is distinguished from the other styles of doorways by the delicacy and elegance of the tracery work, no different or distinct periods of development being apparent. . the thelmark type. this type of doorway may be seen in the church of christianasand. the traceries are broad, very often rough and coarse, and in strong contrast to the foregoing style. the develop- ment and decadence of the thelmark type of doorway can be much better observed and followed the sognin type. . the figurative portals. this style of doorway which belongs either to bible history or to mythology, is found only in south norway. the artistic treatment of the figures is inferior that of the ornament. plate . romanesque ornament in norway. (after sesselberg, skandinavische baukunst.) fig. . capital from the cathedral at nidaros, drontheim. this church was built in the year lb . . shaft of column from the church at wal. , and . window from the cathedral at lund. . . door from the church at torl&sa. . capital from the cathedral at lund. . interlaced work from the church at wal. plate . (after dietrichson and munthe, die holzbaukunst norwegens.l fig. . doorway of the church at aardal. at present in the museum at bergen. this church was built in the year , and is the most elegant example of the sogn- valdres type of ornament. i scandinavian romanesque ornament. plate . scandinavian romanesque ornament. fig. , and . column and capital from the church at urnes, one of the most interesting of irish wooden churches. it is very ancient. doorway of the andreas church in bourgund. this church lies on the road teading from christiania to bergen, and dates apparently from the year after christ. west gable of the church at urnes. remains of a ruined irish church in hopperstad. doorway from the church at hitterdal, dates probably from th century. mask from a wall pillar in the church at hegge. this church was first made mention of in the year - column from the aisle of the church at hitterdal. unrolled cylindrical capital from the church at hegge. part of a chair from the church at hitterdal. plate . (after dietrichson and munthe.) half of the outer west-doorway of the church at hegge in valdres, bishopric of hamor. half of the doorway of the church at hemsedal in hollingdal, bishopric of christiania. half of the doorway of the church at hitterdal in thelemarken, bishopric of christianasand. north doorway of the same church. doorway of the church at rennebo, orkedal, bishopric of drontheim, in the museum at drontheim. doorway of the church of tftnjem, sogn, bishopric of bergen, in the museum at bergen. plate . fig. , and . arm chair in the museum at christiania. „ . hanging bracket in the same museum (v. ruprich-robert). „ . prow of ship in the same museum (v. ruprich-robert). . . door lock in the museum at bergen (mohrmann). . . door handle in the hedal church (mohrmann). plate . romanesque ornament in sweden. (after mohrmann ) fig. , and . baptismal fonts in the museum at stockholm. „ . ornament from a baptismal font in the same museum. . . capital from the crypt of church in dalby, sweden. . inscription on a baptismal font in the museum at stockholm. „ - . columns from the crypt of the church in dalby, sweden. scandinavian romanesque ornament. plate . romanesque ornament in denmark (after mohrmann.) fig. — , and . incised border from altarplate in the church at sal, jutland. „ . doorway of the church at ripe, jutland. „ is. altar of the church at sal. stone ornament from the cathedral at lund (sesselberg). russian ornament. artaric influence—which dates chiefly from to , when the tartars were in power—may be regarded beyond any doubt as the chief cause why the pure byzantine style originally established in russia came to be changed later on into the ornament special to that country. there, as into every other country where they appeared, the christians brought with them a new style of art, which developed itself afterwards in accordance with the national character of the people. the commencement of russian art may be said to date from the end of the ioth century under the reign of vladimir the great. in the latter part of the middle ages and towards the beginning of the modern period, italian artists were invited in great numbers into the country and were engaged in the construction of numerous monumental buildings. the influence of oriental art, however, was already so very great, that even italian art was not powerful enough to entirely eliminate it from the country. wooden architecture plays a great part in russian ornament. there exist at present in russia some old-slavonian manuscripts dating from the th century. initial from a gospel in the rum- jantzow - museum in moscow (dolmetsch). fig. . . - . . - plate . (after e. viollet le due, l'art russe.) arch of a doorway in the cathedral of st. dimitri, vladimir. russian capital. cupola of the cathedral of st. basil. russian column. stucco ornament. plate . (after gagarin, russische ornamente.) fig. . from st. george's church in jurjeflf-polsky, government of vladmir; dates from tn century. „ . wood carving on an ikon, * century. „ . relief decoration of a stone wall in the church of st. george, jurjeff- polsky, government of vladimir. ,. . from a silver mounting of a picture of christ in antschishat, tiflis, th century. , and . entrance porch of st. george's church in jurjeff-polsky, th century. speltz, styles of ornament. i g plate iog. russian ornament. * russian ornament. plate . fig. , and . painted ornamentations from an old russian psalter, in the im- perial public library at moscow (dolmetsch, ornamentenschatz). . from a psalter, in the library of the holy trinity, moscow (dolmetsch). . from a prayer-book, in the miracle-cloister at moscow (dolmetsch). „ . from a prayer-book, th century, in the bjaloserski cloister in moscow (dolmetsch). . club in chased iron (libonis). . old russian helmet (libonis). „ . chalice of st. anthony of rome in the cathedral of the assumption, moscow. dates from , century (libonis). , . krubok (beaker) belonging to prince john iii. (libonis). „ . spoon belonging to bishop antonius, in moscow, th century (libonis). „ . eagle with victim in daws, made of siberian gold, at present in the museum of the hermitage (moscow.) „ . altar in antschishat in tiflis, * century (gagarin). „ . pew of the czar in the cathedral of the assumption, moscow. this church was re-built in the years —i by an italian architect named aristotle fioravanti, which accounts for the italian renaissance influence observable in the ornament. „ . details from the figs. . plate . (after e. viollet le due, l'art russe.) fig. . embroidery from a russian shirt. , , and . ornaments from throne of the czar alexis mikailowitch. . diadem in enamel-work, th century. „ . mural painting. the custom of tree-worship, transmitted from very remote periods, is here plainly discernible. from a gospel in the cloister at novgorod (dolmetsch). mahometan ornament. decorative fragment from tomb of the sultan ei-ghoury (prisse). in ancient times, art was the expression of the religious feelings of a people. when, therefore, a new religious faith was proclaimed, the development of a new art commenced. the proclamation of the peace of the church by constantine in a. d., led not only to new requirements to meet the demands of the new religion, but to great changes in design, and eventually to a style which differed materially from that which had gone before. the early christian style in rome and the west, and the byzantine style in the east gradually transformed the ancient classic art. a similar change took place shortly after mahomet carried the islamic faith through egypt, syria and persia. at first the conquerors and their new converts contented themselves with the structures then existing in the various countries subdued and converted, or, having no precon- ceived styles of their own, employed the native workmen to build for them, making use of the materials at hand, such as existed in profusion in the pagan temples and the coptic and byzantine churches. in course of time these resources were no longer available, and then commenced the gradual development of the mahometan style. this style varied in the several countries according as it was influenced by local traditions, and also in the periods when it commenced and when it reached its fullest developments. thus in syria, north africa and persia, the chief elements of the style are found towards the close of the fh century. in egypt it was nearly a century later, as also in spain, where it was mahometan ornament. introduced from kerouan in tunis, in asia minor under the rule of the seljuk turks of rum it began to flourish toward the close of the nth century, in india, at about the same time, but only in a small portion of the country, and in constantinople toward the close of the th century. in all these countries there was one universal rule which was rarely departed from, viz, the absolute prohibition of naturalistic representations of men, animals or plants. this led from the first to a purely conventional type of leaf design, which often served as back- grounds for the magnificent inscription in arabic characters, and to geometrical designs of immense variety, the followers of mahomet being the greatest geometricians of the world; and at a later period to the decorative treatment of constructional features, such as are shewn in the elaboration of the voussoirs of an arch and more especially in the so-called stalactitic vaulting, which, except in india, prevails through- out the mahometan style. originally evolved from constructive features of small materials, such as brick, it was imitated in stone throughout syria, egypt, asia minor and constantinople, in plaster in spain, and in all countries in wood. the titles of the several development of the mahometan style vary in the different countries: thus in persia, it is recognised as persian, in syria and egypt as saracenic, or arabian; in tunis, morocco and spain as moorish, in turkey as ottoman, and in india as indo-saracenic. in persia, syria, egypt and asia minor, and to a certain extent in india, the pointed arch, first introduced as an important constructional feature in the mosque of ibu tulun in cairo a. d., became eventually an emblem of the faith. in syria and egypt the pointed arches were also horse-shoe, that is to say, the arched from was continued below the level of the springing or centres. in persia and asia minor the arches were generally four centred and not horseshoe and the same is found in india. in tunis, morocco and spain the horseshoe arch with semi- circular head would seem to have prevailed, this would appear to have originated at kerouan in tunis and was carried into spain by the moorish followers of mahomet. to the moors, however, is due another development of the greatest importance from the ornamental point of view, they were the first to cusp the arch, in a. d., in the sanctuary of the mosque of cordova, and this, so far as decorative form goes, con- stitutes the leading characteristic of the moorish style in spain. plate . mahometan ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. arabian ornament. towards the middle of the , century the islamites developed in egypt a characteristic style of art of which the pointed arch was the distinguishing feature. plate . fig. — . columns and capitals from cairo, ,h century (prisse d'avennes, la decoration arabe). , and . windows from the mosque thelay-abou-rezyq, tl> century (prisse d'avennes). . parapet of the mosque of the sultan ibn kalaom (owen jones, grammar of ornament). . archivolt ornament from the same mosque (owen jones). , and . wrought-iron door knocker from cairo (owen jones). ., . soffit from the mosque el nasw (owen jones). , . stalactite ornaments from cairo (doimetsch). „ . frieze from the mosque thelay-aboy-rezyq (prisse d'avennes). plate . fig. — , — , and . decorative details from the interior of the mosque of ahmed-ibn-tulun, th century (prisse). , , and . wooden trellis work, thand th centuries (prisse). , from a wooden ceiling in the mosque at qous (prisse). , and . wooden trellis work from the mosque thelay-abou-rezyq, th century (prisse). . . from the mosque tekieh cheikh hacen sadaka, th century (prisse). „ . interior window decoration from the mosque queycoum, th century (prisse). plate . fig. . window of open-worked plaster in the mosque of el-ashraf, ,'cen- tury (prisse). . sample of stuft in the museum at utrecht, th century (prisse). . wall decoration in the mosque shekhun, th century (prisse). . wall decoration in the palace of ismail bey, ,h century (prisse). plate . fig. — . samples of mosaic work, '>' century (prisse). . , and . helmet and arms from toman-bey (libonis). . lamp from the mosque of kalaom. in the cairo museum (libonis). . lamp from the mosque el-ghuri. in the cairo museum (libonis). mahometan ornament. fig. . mosaic frieze from the tomb of bursbey, th century (prisse). . , and . deeorative fragment from the tomb of the sultan el-ghuri (prisse). „ , and . wood carving from the mosque at quos, lh century (prisse). „ , and . border of wall-tiles, th century (prisse). „ - carved joist from the hospital of the muristan, th century (prisse). enamelled glass lamp from the mosque of sultan barkuk th century (prisse). plate n . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. moorish ornament. in the wonderful buildings of the moorish kings in spain from the lh to the lh cen- turies, more especially in the cathedral at cordova, the alhambra in granada, and in the alcazar in seville, mahometan ornamental work may by seen in its highest splendour. in the artistic interlacing and interwaeving of geometric and arabesque ornament, moorish artists show extraordinary talent, and give free rein to the wonderful powers of fancy and imagi- nation which they possessed in such a high degree. despite the exuberance of the orna- mentation and the rich and vived colouring of the painting, moorish ornament never wearies or confuses the eye, the technical drawing and the colouring of each single system of ornament beeing so clearly defined and so distinct, that each can be distinguished from the other easily and clearly. the fine arabic lettering was often used by the moors as ornament. plate . ornament from the caliphate in toledo. in the old synagogue, new the church of st. maria de la bianca, toledo. fig. . capital from the central aisle. . capital of the lower story. . stueeo ornament from the arch of the central courtyard. — . console under the tie beams of the aisle. . capital and springing of the arch. . console of the gallery at the entrance. . capital from the upper story. plate . ornament from the caliphate in granada. fig. , and . arch panellings in the alhambra (junghandei). . capital from the alhambra (junghandei). , and . decorative details from the alhambra (junghandei). . capital from the alhambra (dolmetsch). . wall panelling from the alhambra (dolmetsch). „ . taken from portal of the mosque in tangiers (uhde). ., beginning of arch in the alberca court, alhambra (uhde). .. . beginning of arch in the myrtle court of the alhambra (uhde.) „ . corbels from toledo. in the archaeological museum, madrid (uhde). ., . cresting from the alhambra (uhde). plate . ornament from the caliphate in granada. fig. . wall panelling from the alhambra (dolmetsch). , and . decorative details from the alhambra (junghandei). — . wall panellings from the alhambra (owen jones). plate . mahometan ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. i plate . (after monumentos de espaf a.) fig. — . tile facings in the hall of the ambassadors, granada. . taken from the lover part of the mirador de lindaraja in the royal alkazar of the alhambra, granada. — - tile facings from the royal chamber of santo domingo in granada. plate . fig. . door from the alhambra (uhde). . boabdil's sword (libonis). , , and . mosaic borders (owen jones). „ , and . plastic wall-border decorations (owen jones). , and . enamelled glass bottles (libonis). „ . glass lamp from a mosque (libonis). „ . corner ornaments (owen jones). e t>:w:ta:wt:':i:^^^ cornice impost from the central arch of the court of lions in the alhambra, granada (monumentos de espafia). * plate . mahometan ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. saracenic ornament. the saracens, who originally came from northern arabia, like the moors of hamitic origin, were both for a long time the chief standard bearers of islam art. when sicily was conquered by the normans, the saracens placed their art at the disposal of the conquerors, in many cases christian churches were ornamented and decorated by mahometan artists. in this manner a peculiar saracen-norman style of art developed itself in italy (see page ). unfortunately, there are so very few remains of saracenic art in sicily now existing that we cannot form any general view of what it really was. plate . (after kutschmann, meisterwerke der sarazenisch-normannischen kunst in sizilien und unteritalien.) fig. . fragment of a wooden ceiling in the national museum at palermo. , and . panellings of a wooden door in the hartorana at palermo. „ . door soffit in the national museum at palermo. ottoman ornament. the term ottoman is given to the mahometan style as practised by the turks in con- stantinople. it has, however, a much earlier origin, having been fully developed by the seljuk turks, who towards the close of the th century had conquered a considerable portion of mesopotamia, syria and asia minor. one of their- earlier buildings is the medresseh, or col- legiate mosque at erzeroum, dating from the middle of the th century. all the arches are pointed and the capitals of the columns carrying them are decorated with stalactites. in this mosque and generally in those found at konia, nigdeh, kaisariyeh and other towns, the principal feature is the entrance porch, which is surrounded by numerous borders, either elaborately carved with conventional designs and inscriptions, or covered with persian tiles of brilliant colours in some cases probably exported from persia, so that the influence of their design is noticeable in most of their work. sometimes their mosques are preceded by an open arcade, with pointed arches, the vou'ssoirs of which are alternately of black and white marble at kaisariyeh in the mosque erected by houen in a. d., slightly horseshoe and ogee arches are found, but here, as also at nigdeh, the most beautiful features are the octagonal tombs, in the former of the founder houen and at nigdeh of havandah, the wife of ala-ed-din of the th century. these tombs are enriched in profusion with elaborate carving; with stalactite cornices and conical terminations. other seljukian monuments are the four mosques at sivas, built between and . amasia with th and th century examples, and divrik, where the entrance doorway with its boldly relieved ornamentation is of great beauty. the power of the seljuks lasted till their conquest by timur in a. d., who devastated the country, which eventually in' a. d. passed into the possession of mohamet ii the conqueror of constantinople. the turks followed the example of all mohametan rulers and adopted the architectural forms of constantinople, the church of sta. sophia, built by justinian becoming the model on mahometan ornament. which all their mosques in future were based. previous to the conquest of constantinople, the osmanli turks had already taken possession of nicaea in a. d., where there were many seljuk mosques, to which they added and enlarged, they took in , that they erected their finest mos- ques, such as the great mosque — , the green mosque a. d., a title given to it on account of the green glazed tiles with which its minarets and porch are covered, the tomb of mohamet i, a. d. and other structures, in some of which there is certain evidence of byzantine influence, possibly due to the fact that greek architects were employed. the employment of tiles encasing the porches and minarets gives a persian character to all these mosques. the first great mosque built in constantinople was the mosque of mohamet ii, built in — a. d. on the site of the church of the holy apostles, this %vas designed by christodoulos, a greek architect. this was followed by the bayezidiyeh, built —i o ; the selimiyeh — ; the sulei nanie ( — ) designed by sinan, who is said to have been an arme- nian architect, and the ahmediyeh erected by sultan ahmed — a. d. in all these mosques a central dome with great apses forms the chief feature, as in sta. sophia. the pointed arch, however, was adopted throughout and the de- tails were all based on the seljukian style with stalactitic capitals, conventional foliage decoration, and inscriptions in fine cufic characters. in the , century western rococo architecture commenced to influence the design, and although, as in the tulip mosque — , the central dome is fine in its contour, its details are of the most debased character. — the seljukian style was followed in the palace and public monuments, amongst which the numerous drinking fountains, with their rich ornamental decorations in inlaid marble are the most remarkable. in the cemeteries adjoining constantinople the tombs, consisting of vertical slabs of stone richly carved with ornament, are interesting examples of the ottoman style. it was, however, at brusa, which tomb stone at constantinople (normand). l plate . mahometan ornament. l plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. plate . elements of ottoman architecture. (after sebah, die ottomanische baukunst.) fig. , and . stalactite capitals, after sinan. „ , and . pedestal of column, after sinan. „ . stalactite capital and principal cornice. „ , , and . various capitals of piers. plate . (after sebah, die ottomanische baukunst.) frontal with ornamental cufle characters from the yeshil-jaml mosqe in brusa. this mosque was completed by the architect ilias aali in the year mahometan time, which in our time correspondends to the year a. d. border of a niche in the yeshil-jami mosque in brusa. and . portal borders from the same mosque. bronze trellis work in the taouk bazaar. plate . (after sebah, die ottomanische baukunst.) and . finials of ottoman cupolas. stalactite mouldings on the large window of the yeshil-jami mosque in brusa. glass window from the same mosque. decoration on bars of window in the same mosque. door panel from the same mosque. plate . (after sebah, die ottomanische baukunst.) frieze with glazed brick from the yeshil-jami mosque in brusa. , and . iron mountings. shaft of column from the tomb of sultan suleiman. bronze lattice work. window with pierced work dating from the time of sultan selim. ceiling from the yeshil-jami mosque in brusa. paving-tile ornament. mahometan ornament. plate . fig. , , and . taken from a fountain in pera, constantinople (owen jones). . from a tomb in constantinople (owen jones). „ , and . from the yeni jami mosque in constantinople (owen jones). „ , and . glazed elay ornaments from the tomb in mouradleh (doimetsch). „ , , and . glazed clay ornaments from the tomb of mahomet i. (doimetsch). „ — , , and . glazed elay ornaments from the mosque of yeshll-jami at brusa (doimetsch). „ , and . from tomb of the sultan suleiman i., constantinople (owen jones). „ . deeoration of the dome sultan suleiman i. in constantinople (owen jones). ornamental pea-tendril. transition from naturalistic to ottoman ornament (sebah, die ottomanische baukunst). plate . mahometan ornament. plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. persian ornament. although in its system of ornamentation persian-islamite art followed the fundamental principles of mahometan art, still, its most marked characteristic feature consisted in the employ- ment of richly coloured glazed tiles. the extreme loveliness and beauty of the architectural structures of the ancient kaliphate under haroun-al-raschid in bagdad and ispahan are due to this method of ornamentation. although the geometric ornament in this style does not show such prolific combinations as that of the saracens or the moors, its vegetable ornament, on the other hand, with its greater var ety while keeping close to nature, more than makes up for it. persian art reached its highest glory towards the end of the th century. plate . from ispahan. (after dolmetsch, ornamentenschatz.) fig. , and . spandrels from the college or medresse of maderi-chah-sultan- hussein. . openworked window-arch of stone. the dotted background is stained glass. , and . finials. „ . faience tile, th century. „ . border of faience. „ . openworked window-case of stone (belongs to fig. ). „ , and . columns. „ . minaret of the mosque mesdjid-i-chah. „ . wall border. plate . (after friedrich sarre, denkm&ler der persischen baukunst.) fig. . tile paintings from a palace of shah abbas the great. in possession of f. sarre. ,. . wainscot in the dome of the medresse of the kora tai in konia. , and . wainscot in the liwan of the court of medresse sirtscheh in konia. „ - brickwork mosaic from the mausoleum of mumine chatun in nakhi- chewan. „ . inscription from the same mausoleum. plate . (after friedrich sarre, denkmaler der persischen baukunst.) fig. . faience mosaic from the dome-chamber in the blue mosque at tabriz. „ . brickwork mosaic in the mausoleum of mumine chatun at nakhichewan. „ — . mural decorations in the dome chamber of the medresse of karl tai, in konia. speltz, styles of ornament. mahometan ornament. plate . fig. . copper vessel from kaschan (dolmetsch). » , and . ornaments from the british museum (owen jones). „ . wall decoration of faience tiles (dolmetsch). „ , , and . ornamental work on metal vessels (dolmetsch). . glazed ball (dolmetsch). „ , and . old-persian faience plate in the cluny museum, paris (dolmetsch). . , and . fragments of knives and forks (dolmetsch). ,. . persian carpet, * century (dolmetsch). „ . manuscript painting from the koran (dolmetsch). faience decoration from the mosque of sheik safl in ardebil (f. sarre). plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. indo-saracenic ornament. when islamism made is appearance in india in the th century, it found already there an ancient style of art which was characterised by great elaboration, a distinction which very naturally became also associated later on with indo-saracenic ornamentation. the buildings erected at this period display, however, a peculiar splendour entirely their own, a splendour which very often rises into the most luxurious beauty. this style of ornamentation, made up of ancient indian elements and of saracenic art, reached its highest glory in the l tn century, plants in natural style being preferred to the geometric ornament of the moors. the saracenic restriction laid down by the koran that living animals should not be represented artistically was not regarded either in the indo-saracenic or persian art. plate . fig. . from the temple at vijayananagar, dravidian style, (uhde). „ , and . from a minaret in ahmedabad, built in the years — (uhde). figure is to be placed above fig. . „ . principal entrance to the mosque at jaunpur, - (uhde). » . wood carving from burma (dolmetsch). plate . fig. . pierced-panelling in sandstone, from futtipore-sikri (dolmetsch). „ . window from a house in amrltza (indian architecture and ornament). . piers from the mosque ranee sipre in ahmedabad (indian architecture and ornament). „ . column from the palace of the shah jehan in agra (indian architecture and ornament). „ . arch from the palace of amber (indian architecture and ornament). plate . fig. . copper flagon in the munich museum (libonis). . dancer's costume from ceylon (libonis). „ . mahout's lance (libonis). „ . embroidered quiver (libonis). ,. - powder-horn (libonis). „ . faience plate (libonis). . battle-axe with etched ornament (dolmetsch). ,. . vase of incrusted silver (libonis). „ . faience jug (libonis). ., . damascened vase (libonis). plate . mahometan ornament. mahometan ornament. plate . fig. , and . ornament from damascened metal-work (doimetsch). . . mahout's lance, enamelled (doimetsch). „ . gold embroidered state sunshade (doimetsch). , , and . embroidered fans (doimetsch). ., . frieze from an iron, silver damascened, vase (libonis). ., . marble inlaid-work from the monuments of shah jehan and the begum muntaz-i-mahal (doimetsch). „ . ornamental work from metal vessels (doimetsch). decorative work on a damascened shield, gold on steel, in the ethnographical museum of the louvre (l'art pour tous). gothic ornament. orthern france began to evolve the gothic from the romanesque style when this latter had arrived at its fullest development. the new style, which spread rapidly over england, ger- many, italy, spain and other countries, owed its origin to that desire for a freer, more in- tellectual development which animated the peoples of europe about the year , and to a thorough change in the entire civilised life of the period. on one side were abstract intellectual ideas, on the other, intensive, im- pulsive emotionalism, and religious mysticism. these various feelings found their expression in the development of the gothic style, which, although it originally proceeded from northern france, was ultimately regarded as the ex- pression of a pure german style. with the exception of a few degenerate examples in later work, the ornament in the gothic style is always kept in strictest subordination to the form. it never over- grows or conceals the masonic substructure, but, on the contrary, is specially employed to supplement and complete the expression of the form in a harmonious manner. the principal ornament of gothic is the leaf-moulding, the plants being always selected from native flora, the manner in which they are worked being in nearly every case a pretty sure guide to the period in which they were produced. in early gothic, in the th century, the leaves were nearly always more or less conventionalized with a slight naturalistic leaning. later on, the leaves were produced with more force and energy, becoming finally, in late gothic, much more naturalistic in their form. during this epoch they were thick set in appearance, and were also sometimes very much under cut, two circumstances which resulted, first in imparting stiffness and rigidity, and secondly, from the sharp contrasts of light and shade which from an english th century manuscript (owen jones). gothic ornament. the hollow leaves produced, in giving them constantly varying movement. in the selection of plants, symbolic allusions were also often taken into account. the figures of men and animals made, use of in the gothic were employed in very many cases in a humorous and exaggerated manner. the name gothic has no connection whatever with the goths. already in the romanesque style will be found nearly all the essential principles of the gothic style, so much so that it was at one time suggested to give the term of round arched gothic to its complete development at the commencement-of the th century; the title roma- nesque is, however, that by which it is best known and therefore has been adhered to here. the term, however, is generally applied to all its phases, which vary in different countries; thus in north italy the term lombard is generally followed. in central and south italy it is known as central and southern romanesque, in sicily as siculo-norman. in north ger- many it is called rhenish; in north france, norman, in the south, pro- vencal or perigordian, and in england as saxon and norman. these various developments were all based on constructional requirements and the materials employed, but these elements form no part of the province of this work, dealing as it does with ornament only. at the same time it is impossible to dismiss some of the early evolutions which took place, as they form the ground work both in the romanesque and gothic styles for the ornament applied to them. the variety of the ornament which is found on the doorways and windows of the norman style, such as are illustrated on plates , , , and , and which eventually led to that of the great portals of the french, spanish and english cathedrals, and of which an example at beverley is shewn on plate , cannot be correctly understood without .some reference to their construction. in order to emphasize and give importance to the entrance doorway, a series of concentric arches were thrown one above the other, some times called "orders", each one projecting further than the one beneath, to this characteristic sir gilbert scott gave the title of "subordination of the arches". the roman, byzantine, and many ot the italian romanesque arches were all in one plane. in france, germany and england, and especially in the latter country, there are many planes formed by the concentric rings of masonry one on the other, and these are all moulded and sometimes carved with the designs shewn on plate , but the subordination of arches led to a subdivision of the piers carrying them and to the employment sometimes of shafts or columns as a means of decoration and accentuation. on plate , fig. for instance, are two angle shafts, each of which has a differently ornamented capital, and the same on plate , fig. . in the gothic gothic ornament. style fig. , , n, plate are examples of the variety of design of the capitals on compound piers and in fig. , plate , are illustrated many slender shafts, each with its respective capital, which gives variety and change to the main design. there is in fact in the evolution of the romanesque and gothic styles that characteristic to which reference has already been made, viz, that the ornament is specially employed to supplement and complete the impression of the form in a harmonious manner. in the earlier gothic style, the foliage has a certain conventional character, which will be seen in plates and . about the middle of the th century it became more naturalistic, as shewn on plates and , and this tendency increased in the th century, so that, as in fig. , , and , plate , the sculptor would seem to have imitated the natural leaves so far as the material would allow, this is specially the case in the porch of the chapter house of southwell cathedral. at a later period, and especially in germany, the ornament became very de- based, and what were originally constructive features, such as the shafts of compound piers, were looked upon as decorative features, as, for instance, the columns of st. blasius cathedral in brunswick, of the th century, fig. , plate , where they are carried spirally round the columns. the ribs of the tracery in panels were cut short, forming stumps as in fig. , plate , having no sense of fitness or beauty. on the other hand, in her wrought metal work germany takes the lead in the th century and it would be difficult to find more magni- ficent specimes than those which are illustrated on plate , where the decorative forms follow closely the nature of the material in wrought iron or bronze. the gothic lettering engraved on the bronze plates of tombs, as illustrated on plate shews how beautiful a surface or flat ornament inscription can become, having the additional value of being an historical record. in the german initial letters also represented on plate there is a plethora of design of the most beautiful character. from a german th century manuscript (dolmetsch). gothic ornament. gothic ornament in france. ery gradually from northern france, where its origin is to be found, gothic architecture spread over the whole of christian europe. after many constructive attempts made both at autun and vezelay, abbot suger finally erected in the years — the abbey church of st. denis. although this church shows very many traces of romanesque in- fluence, as do all early gothic buildings, and is a combi- nation of old architectural habits with new ideas, it is still the first and most important example of gothic architecture. that great master-piece of early gothic, the cathedral of notre dame in paris, was erected in the years — . towards the beginning of the * century the complete, fully-developed and fully-ripened form of the gothic was finally arrived at, from which time it began to flourish until it developed at last into the period of its highest glory. the after-growths of the gothic in the lh and tn century were called, in germany late-gothic, but were designated in france as the flamboyant style. the desire for greater lightness becoming now apparent, and the purity of design being neglected at the same time, it finally happened that the ornament grew apace and masked the form, a fate which in the end overtook almost all styles of architecture. from a th century manuscript (racinet). principal cornice from notre dame de paris (viollet le due). base from paris cathedral (viollet le due). cornice from the notre dame at chalons (viollet le due). plate . gothic ornament. * gothic ornament. plate . fig. . tympanum from the church of st. severin in bordeaux, (vioiiet le due). . stone vase, th century; found in aix, provence (raguenet, materiaux). . doorway of the church of st. genest at nevers, middle of the th century (viollet le due). . boss of vault from the priory of st. martin des champs, paris, th century (raguenet). . door-knocker from cordes, tarn (raguenet). . door-knocker from bayonne, * century (raguenet). . and . boss of vault from the church of st. severin, paris (raguenet). s. arcade from st. chapelle, paris, th century (raguenet). „ . doorway of the episcopal palace at beauvais, oise, 'i> century. plate . (gothic mural painting after p. gelis-didot et h. laffillee, la peinture decorative en france du xl« au xvi* siecle.) fig. . stencil painting from the church of chateloy near herisson, allier. . frieze painting from coney castle (aisne). . from the roof of the church at cunault, maine et loire, beginning of the th century. - . textile paintings in the chancel of amiens cathedral. these patterns, which have had their origin, without any doubt, in the orient, were also very frequently used in flat-painting. „ . from the chapel of st. antony in the cloister of the jacobines in tou- louse. , . from the church of the jacobins in agen. . from the church at romans (drome). , . from the chapel of saint-crepin in evron (mayenne). „ . from the church of saint-ours in loches dndre et loire). „ . from the sacristy of the cathedral at clermont. „ . from the chapel at prltz (mayenne). this represents the month of september, and is one of the panels which illustrate the twelve months of the year. plate . fig. , and . belt with knife, th century (viollet le due, dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier francaise). . reliquary, in the cluny museum, a crystal cylinder with gilt copper mountings (viollet le due). . coiffure of queen isabel of bavaria, (viollet le due). . buckle, , century (viollet le due). . embroidered prayer-book bag, th century (viollet le due). „ / purse, , century (racinet, le costume historique). . lock of coffer (viollet le due). . harness, th century (viollet le due). gothic ornament. plate . fig. , and . textile pattern, th century (gelis-didot et laffillee). , and . enamel-work on copper (roger-miles). . armour, th century (roger-miles). . glass painting from bourges cathedral (owen jones). „ . glass painting from angers cathedral (owen jones). , and . textile patterns, th century (gelis-didot et laffillee). plate . fig . painting from a prayer-book in the national library at paris. the latin text dates from the year , the painting, which has been ascribed to israel of mekenen, is, however, of a later period. . stall in cluny museum, th century (e. bajot, collection des meubles anciens). . credence table, th century (ragucnet). . stool from the bedroom of louis xi. „ . lorraine wooden coffer in the museum at cluny, th century (bajot). plate . fig. . napkin border, th century (raguenet) . printed cloth, th century (raguenet). . goblet, with transparent enamel (havard). . antique cameo, said to be portrait of king charles v (havard). . processional crucifix of beaten silver, chased and gilt (havard). . silver cooling-tankard (havard). . altar candlestick of chased silver (havard). . prayer-book belonging to st. louis (havard). . bread-knife, in gilt silver filigree-worked sheath (havard). ,. . wine cup in silver gilt, in the cathedral at reims (havard). ,. . neck ornament and goblet of the niveller rifle-corps ihavard). „ . ebony coffer in the cluny museum (l'art pour tous). rose window from the abbey at braisne (vioilet le due). base from the cathedral of meaux (vioilet le due). $q plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. gothic ornament in the netherlands. nto the netherlands, gothic architecture soon made its way, a most natural circumstance considering how near that country lay to france, the land where the gothic style had its origin. varied specimens of gothic archi- tecture appeared all over belgium, but in holland, where this style was latter on very strongly influenced by germany, and where, for obvious reasons, plain brick- work architecture had to predominate, the examples are far more simple and not so varied. one very remark- ^j^j^p^^^^o^^!^')^' able and most peculiar feature of the gothic style in belgium consists in the extreme care with which the entire decorative-work, even the very minutest details, is carried out. the most important cathedral in holland, utrecht, was built by bishop henry of vianden in the years — ; the most important gothic monument in belgium being the celebrated cathedral of antwerp, which was begun by jean amel of appelmans from boulogne in the year i$ . the finest examples of gothic architecture, however, were the town halls, the most beautiful specimen being in louvain. initial from israel of mekenen (hirth). plate . (after ysendyck, art dans les pays-bas.) fig. . embroidery-work from the froek of a king-at-arms, during the reign of philip ii. the spanish coat of arms are embroidered in coloured silk on a foundation of carmine-red velvet. two robes similar to this are still preserved in the arsenal at madrid. . window from the cloister of st. servais, maestricht, th century. . chimney-piece in blue stone from the pas-perdus hall in mons, th century. . balustrade of granite, lf>**> century. this is employed at present plinth for a copper grating in the church of walburg in fumes. wrought iron hinge on the door of the treasury chamber in the cathedral of st. paul, liege (l'art pour tous). gothic ornament. plate . fig. . flemish sculpture, th century (raguenet). . brass wine goblet, th century (ysendyck, art dans les pays-bas). . tabernacle door of wrought iron, th century (ysendyck, art dans les pays-bas). . wrought iron candlestick, th century (libonis). . lectern from the church at tongres, th century (raguenet). . fountain from quentin-yatsys, antwerp, th century (raguenet). gothic ornament in england. william of sens, an architect of french origin, gothic was employed in the cathedral of canterbury which was begun in the year . even in westminster abbey, which was erected in the years — is ! french influence is also plainly discernible. notwithstanding this, however, the gothic style in england soon learned to move along on independent lines of its own. the english gothic tudor arch and the ogee arch, are specially peculiar of late english gothic. there are three gothic periods in england. . early gothic (early english) in the th century, characterised by the lancet arch. . the decorated style, so-called on account of its rich decorative development. . the perpendicular style in the , century. in this style the tudor and the ogee arch predo- minate, and the forms become gradually more and more fantastic. the vaulting is carried to its greatest elaboration, and therewith begins the decline of this style. from a th century manuscript (owen jones). plate . fig. . from stone church, kent (owen jones). , and . from wells cathedral, decorated style (owen jones). . rosette from oxford (pugin, gothic ornament). , and . capitals from warmlngton church, northamptonshire (owen jones). „ . capital from wells cathedral, early english (owen jones). „ , and . leaf mouldings from trinity stratford-on-avon (pugin). speltz, styles of otnament. gothic ornament. plate . (after pugin, gothic ornament.) fig. . crocket from winchester cathedral. „ . finial to a stall in all soul's college chapel, oxford. . portion of stone canopy from york minster. „ . crocket from trinity church, stratford-on-avon, warwick. „ . finial of a stall in new walsingham church, norfolk. „ . capital from st. saviour's church, southwark. . stringcourse from winchester cathedral. plate . (after pugin, examples of gothic architecture.) fig. . turret over entrance gateway, east barsham manor house, norfolk. „ . window from the cloisters, new college, oxford. „ . monument of sir richard carew, beddington church, surrey. . oak tracery at the back of stalls in all soul's college chapel, oxford. „ . canopy to one of the stalls in st. catherine's church, tower hill, london. plate . (after pugin, examples of gothic architecture.) fig. — . sign bracket, george inn, glastonbury. „ . window in gable of the abbot's barn, glastonbury. s, , and . details from the abbot's barn, glastonbury. „ . window from raglan castle, monmouthshire. . canopy on the west front of the chapel at houghton-in-the-dale, norfolk. plate . (after pugin, examples of gothic architecture.) fig. . panel from the common room of the vicar's close, wells. » l > , , and . details from the banqueting hall of the manor house, great chalfleld, wilts. „ , , . details from the western doorway of magdalen college, oxford. „ . chimney-piece in the bishop's palace, wells. plate . (after pugin, examples of gothic architecture.) fig. . oriel window on the north side of the quadrangle of balliol college, oxford. „ . canopy in fakenham church, norfolk. . . door handle, temp henry vii. . . doorway at the westend of magdalen college chapel, oxford. „ - small lock for a chest, temp henry vii. o plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. fig. . fan vault from all souls' college, oxford. „ , , and . moulded tiles from chimney stacks, east-barsham manorhouse, norfolk. „ . oak ceiling, new walsingham church, norfolk. plate . (talbot bury, remains of ecclesiastical woodwork.) fig. — . roof of st. mary's church, bury st. edmunds. , and b. roof of lavenham church, suffolk. „ , , , and . roof of burford ehurch, oxfordshire. „ , and . roof of wantage church, berkshire. plate . fig. . finial from exeter cathedral, th century (raguenet). „ . solid springer from the same cathedral (raguenet). „ . rosette from chester cathedral, th century (raguenet). . . font from bradfleld church, suffolk (raguenet). . pulpit in bridgewater ehurch, somersetshire (talbot bury). „ . grotesque figure, oxford (pugin). „ . panel from the facade of wells cathedral (raguenet). — o. encaustic tiles, th century (owen jones). plate . fig. . from a stall in the church at weston zoyland, somersetshire (talbot bury, remains of ecclesiastical woodwork). „ . chandelier from church at piddletown, dorset. „ . goblet of silver gilt, * century (libonis). „ , , and . from a manuscript of the middle ages (owen jones). „ . coronation chair in westminster abbey (libonis). „ . stall in wantage church, berkshire (talbot bury). „ . stained glass window in merton college chapel, oxford (pugin). . . stained glass window southwell minster, nottinghamshire (owen jones). plate . fig. . middle gothic glass-painting in norbury, derbyshire. . lead glazing in brabourne church, kent. „ . head of queen of sheba in window at fairford. . , , and . grisaille glass from salisbury cathedral. . late gothic glass-painting in wells. . . glass painting, with figure of edward the confessor, st. mary's, ross. plate . gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . fig. . coffer in the sacristy in louth church, lincolnshire (colling). „ . panel from the church at trull, somersetshire (colling). , and . panels from the font in the church at great conerby, lincoln- shire (colling). „ . gilt iron loek from the hall of beddington manor house, surrey (p gin). plate . (franklin a. crallan, gothic woodwork.) fig. . bench end, breadsall church, derbyshire, * century. . . stall from st. andrew gatton, surrey. „ - canopy over the tomb of edward iii. in westminster abbey, . . door from the church of st. laurence, norwich. . end of a seat from witley, surrey, th century. ., . panel in tudor style from the south kensington museum. plate . fig. . west doorway of st. mary's church, beverley (colling). . gate of the bishop's chapel in ely cathedral (bailey scott murphy). . doorway of the presbytery at north petherton, somersetshire (colling). . door of the church at bocking, essex (colling). plate . (henry shaw, mediaeval alphabets and devices.) fig. . lettering from the monument of henry iii. in westminster abbey, . „ — , , and . letters from the monument of richard ii. in westminster abbey, . . letters from a benedictional, . . grotesque lettering from a printed book, th century. „ . signature of a wood-engraver, th century. „ . initial from a manuscript in the british museum. plate . ornament on english monuments. (from c. a. stothard, the monumental effigies of great britain.) from a tombstone in the ingham church, norfolk. crown of the earl of arundel, died . ladies' eoiffure, th century. sheath of dagger belonging to lord hungerford, died . crown of queen berengaria, wife of richard cceur de lion. shoe of henry iii., died , from a tomb in edward the confessor's chapel. and . bag and brooch of queen berengaria. gothic ornament. fig. . necklace, lj(h century. „ , and . heads of sir edmund de thorpe and lady in ashwelthorpe church, norfolk. „ . spur of sir hugh calvely, in bunbury church, cheshire. „ . belt buckle of the earl of warwick. „ . hilt of sword belonging to sir john peche, from his tomb in the church at lullingstone, kent. „ , and . sword-hilt and sword-belt belonging to john de la pole, duke of suffolk. „ . shoe of edward iii., died in , taken from his tomb in westminster abbey. „ . end of sword-belt, th century. „ . coiffure of the countess of westmoreland. « . glove of ralph neville, earl of westmoreland, from his tomb in staindrop church at durham. head-dress of beatrice, countess of arundel. from a statue in trinity church, arundel, th century (viollet le due). plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. gothic ornament in germany and austria. s soon as the gothic style had well entered on its victo- rious march throughout england, it began also to make its way gradually throughout germany, where, on account of its french origin, it became generally known under the title of "opus francigenum". although it had not completely won the victory over romanesque art until about the commence of the century, it was nevertheless, at this time, fully perfect in all its forms. the early gothic continued up until the beginning of the th century. the oldest gothic building in germany is the choir in the cathedral at magdeburg which was consecrated in the year . the most beautiful specimens of the gothic are however to be found in the rhineland where the gothic style reached its highest perfection, the cathedral at cologne, which was begun in the year , being its noblest work. from a "> century manuscript (dolmetsch). plate l l. gothic ornament. * gothic ornament. plate . (after heideloff, ornamentik des mittelalters.) fig. . frieze from the passage between the nicholas chapel and the cathedral- church at aix-la-chapelle, . . finial from the fountain in the market square at rottenburg on the neckar, late gothic. „ . crocket from st. kilian's church at heilbronn. „ , and . balustrade, and inscription from the court-yard of the house adler str. l , nuremberg. . capital from cologne cathedral. . finial from a stone tabernacle in the hospital church, esslingen, the work of matthaus von boblingen. . finial from the shrine of st. sebald in nuremberg, wrought in bronze by peter vischer and his son ( o — )- „ . corbel of vault from the lilienfeld cloister near vienna. , . baptismal font in munnerstadt on the lauer. plate . fig. , , and . capitals from the cathedral church of st. peter at wimpfen in the valley near heilbronn (zeller, st. peter zu wimpfen i. t.). „ . capital from the church of the cistercian cloister lilienfeld near vienna. . capital from the cathedral at frankfurt on the main, th century (raguenet). . column from the st. blasius cathedral, brunswick, th century (hartung, mittelalterliche baukunst in deutschland). „ . capital and base from the princes' tomb in the holy cross church near vienna (heideloff). „ . capital from a window of the saalburg on the saale (franconia) (heideloff). „ . capital from the cathedral at worms (raguenet). plate . fig. . door from ober-kraniehfeld (heideloff). . late gothic door from coburg fortress (heideloff). . portal of the elizabeth church in marburg (hartung). „ . bridal door on the north side of the choir in the church of st. sebald, nuremberg, th century. plate . (after heideloff, ornamentik des mittelalters.) fig. — . late gothic ornaments in flat wood relief in the gallery balustrade of a house in the hauptmarkt, nuremberg-. „ , and . wood-carving from a writing-desk in the rectory of st. lorenz, nuremberg. „ , and . panelling from stone gallery in the choir of the cloister church in blaubeuren. o gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. l fig. . from a stall in the cloister church of st. clara, nuremberg. . , and . wooden rosettes from the rose chamber in the princes house, coburg castle. „ . window head in the st. lawrence rectory, nuremberg, . , . window head of a private house in nordlingen. „ , and . window heads from the ruined hospital in esslingen. plate . fig. , and . glass window from the church at hundelshausen (ungewitter, land- und stadtkirchen). „ . relief over the door of the chapel tower in the parish church, rottweil (heideloff). , . stained glass from the cathedral at regensburg, now in the national museum at munich (doimetsch). „ . glass painting from the frauenkirche, esslingen (doimetsch). „ . pulpit from the church of the ursuline convent in fritzlar (ungewitter). „ , and . from the cathedral church of st. peter in wimpfen-im-tal (zeller, st. peter zu wimpfen-im-tal). window from the gable at the market from the south chapel stargard gate, side of the town hall of the katharlnen new brandenburg. of konigsberg. church, brandenburg. (fritz gottlob, formenlehre der norddeutschen backsteingotik.) plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . german gothic brickwork. (after fritz gottlob, formenlehre der norddeutschen backsteingotik.) the romanesque brickwork of north germany, which had its origin in north italy, be- came, naturally, when gothic architecture developed and became prevalent, gradually changed into the gothic style. the marked differences between the two were due, to the different materials used, and to the manner in which these materials, stone and brick, had to be treated. the brickwork was very probably prior to the stone gothic, and in the level plains of north germany, where sandstone is scarce, there gradually arose a special style of gothic brickwork quite in keeping with the peculiarity of the building material and the character of the people. fig. . window from the nikolai church in wismar. . . window from the town hall of lubeek. . . north doorway of the church of st. mary, kdnigsberg, prussia. „ . buttress in the same church. . rose window from the church at prenzlau. „ . principal doorway in the cloister church, berlin. plate . (after heideloff, ornamentik des mittelalters.) fig. . glazed heating stove in burg fussen on the lech. the stove contains the following inscription „dieser ofen wol-gestalt ward gemacht do man zalltjl jar bey hannsen seltzmann vogt zu oberndorf. — this stove was made in i by hannsen seltzmann, steward at oberndorf. . quiver, after a painting from albrecht dflrer, showing hercules conquering the harpies. at present in the burg at nuremberg. . late gothic double goblet in silver gilt, in possession of the family knopf in nuremberg. . monument to graf von henneberg, done in bronze by peter vischer, from a sketch by albrecht dqrer. . arms of wtlrttemberg and savoy, from a tomb in the stifts church in stuttgart. „ . late gothic ornament from the bridal-carriage of agnes of hesse, wife of duke john frederick of saxe-coburg ( ), i" "at relief, carved in wood and gilt. . eagle from panelling of the door of the emperor's room- in scheurlis house, nuremberg. plate . (after f. paukert, tiroler zimmergotik.) fig. . wood ceiling in jochlsturm, sterzing. , . tiles from the burg in meran. „ . marquetry from a table. — . from a wood celling in freiensteln. „ — . tie-beams of a wood ceiling in st. martin, ahrntal. plate i g. gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . fig. . late gothic arm-chair from the ancient armoury in nuremberg. . arm-chair from tyrol, th century. . door from kunkelstein castle (paukert). „ . late gothic lectern from the stifts church at herrieden, near ansbach (heideloff). „ . stall from the elizabeth church, marburg (e. wasmuth, aite und neue kirchenmobel). . table from the rhineland, th century (falke, mittelalterliches hausmobiliar). . church stall in oak. in all probability this belonged to the rival kaiser wilhelm of holland, and is therefore from the th century; it is now in the wartburg. plate . gothic flat ornament. (after e. paukert, tyroler zimmergotik.) fig. , and . ornament from kunkelstein castle. , , and . stuff patterns after paintings in the castle of trotzburg. . ornament from neustift. „ , and . wall-paper, printed on linen. plate . fig. i. wrought-iron candelabrum, end of the th century, in the national museum at munich (hirth). . , , and . crown and details in a picture of the blessed virgin in the church of st. martha, nuremberg (heideloff). „ . late gothic goblet in silver gilt (heideloff). . rosette of sheet-iron on the knocker of the sacristy door in the church of st. lawrence, nuremberg (heideloff). . badge of the confraternity of the "holy mount", with the symbol of st. aegidius (heideloff). „ . late gothic censer, from a copperplate by martin schongauer (heideloff). „ . chain of the order of the swan (heideloff). „ . spout of a water barrel (heideloff). plate . fig. — . late gothic inltals, from different parchment manuscripts (hirth, formenschatz). „ — . early gothic letters, from rhenish manuscripts (dr. karl lamprecht, initial- ornamentik). plate . gothic ornament. iiiumii }ihb; gothic ornament. plate . (after wilhelm weimar, monumental-schriften.) fig. . from a bronze plate in the monastic church at baden-baden, . . from the bronze tomb of bishop tilo of trotha in the cathedral at merseburg, died . . inscription, engraved in bronze, from the tombstone of anna von wiershausen (died ) in the church of st. elizabeth, marburg. . from the engraved bronze tomb-plate of the scholt in nuremberg, who died in . in the church at langenzenn near farth. „ . bronze tomb-plate of jakob von gulpen (died ) in the st. gum- bertus church, ansbach. window in bebenhausen convent, wurtemberg. window from the town hall at nuremberg. window in the reichenbach cloister, ulm, wurtemberg. window from the gable of the now ruined preacher's church in nuremberg. (heideloff, ornamentik des mittelalters.) gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament in hungary. dr. bela von czobor and emmerich von szaley, die historischen denkmaler ungarns.) . helmet of banus from croatia and helden, by szigetvar nlkolaus zrinyi (died ), in the court armoury collection, vienna. . helmet of georg castriota skanderbeg, duke of albania ( — ), ■ in the court armoury collection at vienna. . goblet of silver gilt, th century, was presented in to the protestant church in miskolc/ by gregor von miskolcz. . horn vessel for holding oil, silver gilt mountings, property of the eszertom cathedral. . reliquary hermes of st. ladislaus, of silver gilt, ornamented with chain mail. hungarian t th century work. in the cathedral church at gyorer. bronze baptismal font, made in for menardt church by johannes von novaviila. g gothic ornament. gothic ornament in italy. to italy gothic art made its way at about the same time as it did into germany. this style of a. first received the title of gothic in italy, a word which was used by the italians at that time to signify barbarian, or anything coming from the north. in italy more importance was placed on the horizontal than in either germany or france, and it was only very seldom that the vertical predominated in that country. the italians did not pay much attention to the development of the tower, which very often stands quite apart from the church altogether. the fransciscan and domini- can orders played a very important part in the spread of the gothic throughout italy. the italian gothic, however, could never free itself from classic, romanesque and byzantine reminiscences, and italian late-gothic is mixed with noumerous renaissance motifs. classic art had taken too strong a hold on the italians, it was so much a part of their life, they had become so imbued with its spirit that they really found it impossible to become true lovers of the gothic. as a consequence, gothic art rapidly declined, and, in the th century, a decided movement to break away altogether from the style of the period, and to turn back again to the old classic art began to make itself evident. from a th century manuscript (racinet). plate . (from rohault de fleury, la toscane au moyen age.) fig. , and . arch of the loggia of the palace of the signoria, florence. „ j. painting by piero dl guldo ( ) representing charity, in the loggia of the palace of the signoria, florence. „ . lion from the city wall in pisa. . pillar from the corn-market in florence. „ . mural painting from the city hall, florence. plate . fig. . window from a house in the synagogue street in trani, th century (raguenet). „ . crest of the church of santa maria del fiore in florence, th century (raguenet). . bronze knocker from florence, th century (raguenet). „ . window from the convent of st. theresa in trani (raguenet). . mosaic floor from florence cathedral (d'espouy, fragments d'architecture du moy en-age). „ , and . mural painting and pillar from the castle of pandino, . th century (camillo boito, arte italiana). plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . gothic ornament. plate . fig. , and . altar in the church of or san michele (d'espouy). „ . band-pattern, th century (raguenet). . door border from florence, th century (raguenet). plate . fig. — . locks and keys from the national museum, florence (boito). „ . credence from the villa reale del poggio near florence, th century (raguenet). „ . fragment of a fresco-painting by jacopo avanzi in the oratorium of the st. giorgio church in padua (boito). „ . from a monument by bonjacopo sanolta in the choir of the st. antonio convent, padua (boito). plate . fig. . tunic from the museo civico in turin, made of carmine-red velvet on a gold ground, '* century (boito). „ . carpet pattern from a tempera painting by niccolo alunno ( ) in the plnakotheca at perugia (dolmetsch). - from a tomb in fano (d'espouy). „ . mural painting from the castle of pandino, end of the * century (boito). . table-cloth border, th century, the pattern is blue (raguenet). . railing round the sealiger monument in verona (d'espouy). . reliquary in the treasury of the pitti palace, florence, end of the th cent- ury (boito). plate . the venetian gothic. (after cicognara, monumenti di venezia.) fig. . capital and base from the court-yard of the ca d'oro palace. „ . balustrade in the first story of the same palace. „ . window ornament, capital and base, in the first story of the same palace. „ - capital and base from the second story of the same palace. . capital and base in the first story of the doges palace. „ . ground plan of no. . r o plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . . manuscript paintings from the th and th centuries (racinet, l'ome- ment polychrome). stuff pattern from an altar in milan, with the badge of the duchess bonne of savoy. at present in the museum poldi pezzole, milan (l'art pour tous). w * o plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. gothic ornament in spain. from a th century manuscript (monumentos de espaiia). soon after it had begun to reach its highest development in france, that is, in the first half of the th century, and about the year , gothic was introduced from france into spain. it did not, however, undergo here that change in accordance with the national ideas of the people which it underwent in germany and italy, the very extensive number of moorish remains still existing in the country having made their influence felt. one of the oldest gothic monuments in the peninsula is the cathedral of burgos which was built under northern french influence in the th century. the western tower of this cathedral was completed in the years — by meister johann of cologne. plate . transition style (estilo mudelar). (after monumentos arquitectonicos de espaiia.) fig. , and . door and window heads from the palace de los ayalas in toledo. . door head from the chapel of santiago of santa maria in alcana de henares. . details from the house called de mesa in toledo. . decoration over the door in no. . „ . crest of the church of st. mark, seville. plate . (after monumentos arquitect nicos de espafia.) fig. , and . window from the house lonja in valencia. . window from the cloister of st. juan de los reyes in toledo. . middle column of a double window from the tower of the lonja house in valencia. . stair newel from the hospital de la latina in madrid. . tombstone of king don alphonso viii and his consort donna leonor, in the choir of the church of santa maria la real de huelgas in burgos. gothic ornament. plate . fig. — . details from the cloister of st. juan de los reyes in toledo (monu- mentos de espana). „ . baleony from the court-yard of st. gregorio in valladolid (raguenet). plate . fig. . finial from transept of the church of st. juan de los reyes in toledo (monumentos de espana). „ . linen hanging, •* century, blue pattern on a red ground (raguenet). . wrought iron chandelier from tarrasa, province of barcelona, th century (mira leroy). . window panel from the cloister of st. juan de los reyes in toledo (monumentos de espana). . back of a stall seat in the cathedral of leon, th century (mira leroy). „ . ceiling of the cloister of st. juan de los reyes in toledo (mira leroy). painted balustrade in the interior of the tower of santo domingo, called the hercules tower in segovia (monumentos de espana). plate . gothic ornament. i plate . gothic ornament. gothic ornament. plate . the manoel style in portugal. (after frei luis de souza, church of batalha.) an extremely peculiar gothic, influenced by moorish, and other foreign forms, developed in portugal, its most beautiful example being the church at batalha with its monument erected to the memory of king manoel. on the th august dom joao, king of portugal at the time, found himself opposed to a very powerful spanish army, far superior to his own in numbers, under the command of don juan, king of spain. dom joao turned to the virgin for help in this critical situation, and promised, if she would give him the victory, that he would erect a building in her honour which would far outshine in size and beauty any similar struc- ture throughout christendom. as the portuguese did actually beat the spanish, and gained an overwhelming victory over them, dom joao immediately proceeded to carry out his promise. he called together the foremost architects and artists from all parts of europe, and in the very same year, , in which he won his great victory, close to the scene of battle, laid the foundations of the famous and beautiful church at batalha. the mausoleum erected to king manoel, who reigned later, is the most beautiful item in this structure. it was, however, never finished and is still incomplete. fig. . arch over the door of the mausoleum to king dom manoel. . arch of one of the chapels in the same. . principal cornice of the same. „ . spire of the tower in the north facade of the church at batalha. . entrance door to the mausoleum. shaft and band on the south front of the church of santa maria in belem (haupt, baukunst der renaissance in portugal). chinese ornament. chinese ornamental frame (racinet). although the earliest record of chinese architecture dates back to the century b.c., when the baku tribes emigrated east from elam and babylonia, and introduced their systems of building, there are no examples of their archi- tectural ornament existing earlier than the th century a. d., owing to the ruthless destruction which has taken place at all periods of her history. in their temples and halls they would appear to have adhered to one universal type of design, the earliest example still existing of which, is that which was first built in japan in a. d. by koreans. it was then a comple- tely developed style, consisting of wood columns, carrying open timber roofs covered with tiles, and the principal ornaments were those found in the groups of brackets which carried the overhang- ing eaves and the ridge and hip rolls of their roofs: all in glazed terra- cotta of bright colouring. owing to the peculiar nature of the construc- tion of their roofs (of which an example is shewn in plate , fig. ), the horizontal beams, instead of being carried on the tops of the columns are tenoned into them. there are therefore no capitals so that the chinese and japanese are the only nations in the world to whom the capital—the principal ornamental feature of all styles—is unknown. at an early period also the chinese discarded in their pagodas the timber construction which they introduced into japan and built them in brick, covering them sometimes with porcelain and glazed terra-cotta plaques of the greatest beauty, and it is in this branch of art and in their ceramics that they excel, and in the plates devoted to chinese ornament are represented some of the finest works of this kind. in bronzes also they are very great masters, as also in gold and silver embroideries. i chinese ornament. plate . fig. . pillar crest of the pagoda of ho-nan. the chinese column has no capital, the beams and brackets being tenoned in at the sides (chambers, designs of chinese buildings). „ . from the colonnade in the court-yard of the pagoda of cochin-chlna (chambers). . corbel of a pagoda in the eastern suburb of canton (chambers). , , , and . chinese th century furniture (chambers). , and . bases of the colums in no. . „ . roof crest of a small temple in the western suburb of canton (chambers). „ . spire of a pagoda on the ta-ho, between canton and hoang-pou (chambers). „ . upper part of a pagoda in cochln-china (chambers). „ . part of a curtain of a canopy bed, embroidered in gold and silk, th century in his history of chinese ceramics, ernest grandidier divides the products of chinese ceramics, chronologically, into five epochs: . under the dynasty of sung ( — ) and the dynasty of yonen ( — ). . under the dynasty of ming ( — ). . from the end of the latter dynasty to the death of k'ang hsi ( — ). . under the reign of yung-cheng and kien-long ( —i ^). . the modern epoch. fig. . censer, used by the emperor fon-hi when making offering to the spirits of heaven and earth, dates from beginning of the th century. „ . vase with the mythological dragon, from the yung-tsching epoch ( — ). . vase with the goddess si-wang-mow, goddess of a long life, from the same period. „ , and . tea-pots, from the ming epoch, — . „ . vase, from the k'ang hsi epoch, — . . statue of konan-inn, goddess of charity. „ . antique vase in the museum adrien dubouchet, limoges. (dolmetsch). chinese ceramics. plate . plate . fig. , - . ' and . vases from the yung-cheng epoch. vase from the k'ang hsi epoch. wine-can from the k'ang hsi epoch. vase from the sung epoch — . plate i go. chinese ornament. plate . chinese ornament. speltz, styles of ornament. chinese ornament. plate . fig. . key from the k'ang hsi epoch. . cup from the same epoch. . vase from the sung epoch. . plate from the kien-long epoch. „ . vase from the same epoch. . fragment of table plate from the k'ang hsi epoch. . vase from the yung-chlng epoch, with raised gold meander, which, it is more probable to suppose, was discovered by the chinese themselves, rather than an imita- tion from the greek. the other patterns on the vase relate to buddhist mythology. plate . (alter l'art pour tous.) fig- — , and . ornamental butterfly from an antique porcelain plate, in the gasnault collection. „ . antique gold censer, in the possession of admiral coupvent des bois. „ . antique tea-pot, from the gasnault collection, now in the museum at limoges. „ . antique bronze vase from m. desaye's collection. „ , and . bronze ■ vases from the period of the ming dynasty, in the bing collection. „ . antique bronze candle-stick. ornament for laquer painting (racinet). * cambodian ornament. cambodian ornament. in the countries lying between india and china an extremely peculiar and very ancient art developed into existence, which may be regarded as a transition from indian to chinese art. it is but very little studied and was first made known in europe on the formation of the musee des antiquites cambodgiennes by m. louis delaporte, lieutenant in the french navy. similar to indian architecture, the cambodian is overloaded with ornament, but this overloading is, however, made up for in the regularity and harmony which characterises it. plate . (after l'art pour tous.) fig. . from the sanctuary of the temple of angkor vat, * century. . . upper portion of podium in the same sanctuary with mask of the god rheon. . bas-relief carved on the exterior of the same sanctuary. „ . mural decoration in the same with the brahma gods. plate . (after l'art pour tous.) fig. . doorway of the temple of loley, th or * century. . square pier and entablature with sculptured frieze representing the apsaras (celestial dancing girls) from the temple of angkor vat. „ . balustrade window of the temple of angkor vat. .^ -i.m wvn-h nviaosnvc japanese ornament. espite the fact that japanese art had its origin in china, it nevertheless represents a de- cided individuality peculiar to itself. this is due to the less strict manner in which they divided their work. the japanese ornamenta- tion is not so conventional as the chinese, as they took their models more from nature than the latter. it is perhaps remarkable and worthy of note that the japanese have adhered to the original models introduced from china through korea, whereas the chinese in some cases have entirely departed from them. thus the japanese pagoda re- presents the same type of design as that which was first built by korean carpenters at ho- riuji in a. d. and is still carried out at the present day, whereas the chinese gave up the timber structure a few centuries later, and introduced one built in brick, which in their country, at all events, was not liable to be overthrown by earthquakes, as it might have been in japan. in both china and japan the general tendency has been to over-elaborate the decoration, and in their temples the ornament applied to their columns and beams is very much the same in both countries. in their halls of state and domestic buil- dings the contrary is the case, those in china are overloaded with the actor tomedjuro nakamura in the role of the kaishl. painted by tori-i-kiyo- nobu (bing). japanese ornament. ornament, the great halls being painted and gilded in profusion and the residences of the mandarins enriched with marbles of various kinds and elaborate carved woodwork whereas in japan the greatest simplicity is observed, in the palaces of the mikado and shogun the woodwork is simply polished, shewing the grain of the wood, with mounts in gilt bronze. the oldest japanese art report dates from the th century a. d., when the buddhist religion was introduced into the country from china through korea: shortly afterwards the fujiwara family engrossed the power of the state for nearly four centuries, when they were displaced by the taira and minamoto clans. the former were overthrown at dan- no-ura in a. d., when yoritomo the chief of the minamotos obtained from the mikado and his court the title of shogun (generalissimo). later on, the ashigawa family ruled as shoguns from to a. d., and they were succeeded by the tokugawa family whose head iyeyasu was a scion of the minamoto family. they held power till , when the shogunate was abolished and the mikado again recovered his power and position as ruling sovereign. in the portuguese missionaries entered japan and endeavoured to convert the people, but they had brought discord into the country, so that in iyemitsu, the third shogun of the tokugawa dynasty expelled the missionaries and closed the country to all foreigners, the dutch only being allowed to carry on trade which was confined to the island of deshima. during the two and a half centuries of exclusion, the japanese made rapid advances in art and their lacquer and metal-work reached a perfection unknown in any other country, whilst their painting and printing, greatly influenced by the chinese school, are now recognised as the finest works of their kind. plate . fig. . lock mounting (l'art pour tous). . scabbard mounting (l'art pour tous). „ . from the eastern door of the temple shln-shlu sect in kioto (uhde, konstruktionen und kunstformen der architektur). , , and . ancient japanese vases (l'art pour tous). „ , and . sword scabbard and hilt (l'art pour tous). . . altar shrine in the temple of miyo-jin-akagi (uhde). plate . japanese ornament. plate . japanese ornament. ! plate . japanese ornament. japanese ornament. plate . (after justus brinkmann, kunst und handwerk in japan.) fig. . wooden ceiling in the temple of shogun tokugawa iyemitsu at uyeno near tokio. „ . posts at the entrance of the principal door of the temple nishi-hong- wanjl in kioto. the bases of the post and the cross bars are encased in bronze. „ . roofed public lantern in the province ise. „ . open timber roof of the hondo from o-baku-san in uji valley. „ - painted drapery on a wooden column of a nikko temple. above, is the three-leaved holly-hock of the tokugawa-shoguns. „ . bronze nail-head from the castle of himeijl. shows a branch of the holly hock (asdrum caulescens). „ —i . nail-heads from an old temple and old castles. „ . rolled-up window-blind, front and back views. plate . fig. . iron sword guard (tsuba) from the chaser kinai, l 'l> century (bing, japanischer formenschatz). , . painting on an ancient beaker-shaped vase (doimetsch). . from an embroided silk robe, th century (bing). „ . chain-mail from a copper dish decorated on both sides (racinet, 'omement polychrome). „ — . japanese lacquer painting. plate . fig. . domestic cock, from the book ye-hon sha-h -fu-kuro, beginning of th century. the text gives the names of the different colours (brinkmann). „ . ridge-tile, oni-gawara from the temple of horiuji, th century (baltzer, das japa- nische haus). . . ornamental phoenix head as ending of a projecting timber (baltzer). „ . leaf of screen, from the designs of the artist korin which were published by ho-itsu (brinkmann). . helmet of minamoto yoshi-iye, called also hochinamen-toro, conqueror of the tairi, about the year a. d., at present in the temple treasury of itsukushima. the rounded, turned-down sides of this helmet are of leather, on which is stencilled a picture of the god indra who is surrounded with flames. taken from the itsuku- shima meisho published in the year (brinkmann). „ . young girl painting, from a wood-cut in the ehon tama kadzura by nishigawa sukenobu, . plate . japanese ornament. japanese ornament. fig. . border-tile ornamentation (baltzer, das japanische haus). „ . border-tile ornamentation, with chrysanthemum and water waves, the arms of the renowned hero kusunoki (baltzer). „ . bronze vessel, chased, for storing the utensils used for smoking (brinkmann). plate . japanese textile designs. (after l'art pour tous.) fig. , and . carpet patterns. , , , and . stuff patterns, th century. » . pattern from the mantle of a bonze, or priest. sword and scabbard of a daimio, from the arima family, th century (bing). japanese ornament. pier decoration from the temple of angkor vat (l'art pour tous). speltz. styles of ornament. belgian tea urn in beaten copper, ghent (ewerbeck und neumeister, die renaissance in belgien und holland). renaissance ornament. from an italian manuscript (dolmetsch). the renaissance in italy in the th century may be regarded to a certain extent as a revolution in art, a peaceful revolution, of which the seeds had al- ready been germinating for many years in painting and sculpture, showing the tendency to revert to that earlier classic art, many of the masterpieces of which still existed and in greater profusion than at the present day. whilst in other count- ries the gothic style had always represented in its gradual development the true feelings of the people who produced it, in italy its principles had never been understood or appreciated, and although in the th cen- tury in florence, venice, verona, pisa and in the towns further south magnificent examples of gothic ornament were evolved, which hold their own in comparison with those in other countries, their beauty consisted chiefly in their exquisite detail as apart from the general design of the structures which they adorned and enriched. on the revival of letters in the th century, the italians began to recognise that they were the national descendants of those who had produced the master pieces in ancient italy, the art practised by them was not a foreign importation like that of the gothic style, but their own, an art which had been developed in their own country, which re- called the history of their own people, who were at one time the con- querors of the whole world. beyond this there were other changes, among which the advance of civilisation, the reformation in religion, the printing press etc., all of which contributed to new requirements, whilst the patronage of men of letters, such as those of the medici in q renaissance ornament. florence and later on that of the papal court in rome, all tending therefore and leading to the evolution of a new interpretation of classic art. all these considerations, however, belong more to the history of the renaissance style rather than to the actual results, the ornamentation which constitutes the principal object of this work. it has already been pointed out that the painters and sculptors were the first who in their works showed a tendency towards the resus- citation of classic art and this is specially the case with the latter, who, not only in italy but in france, spain, england, germany, and in the netherlands showed in tombs and other works of a decorative character how complete was the change in conception and execution. in architec- ture the construction forms of the gothic style, the traditional craft of the mason could not be thrown aside at once, but for a tomb in which, as an ideal subject uninfluenced by questions of utility or construction, the artist was free to mould his design in accordance with his imagina- tive powers there was no restriction. hence we find that not only in italy, but in other countries the earliest examples of the renaissance are to be found in tombs, as in those at le mans and nantes in france and in england, in torregiano's work at westminster abbey, . it was in the earlier renaissance that ornament received its chief development both in design and beauty of execution, and this not only in italy, but in france and spain. the examples on plate from the miracoli church in venice ( — ) by pietro lombardo, those on plate from the facade of the certosa near pavia ( ) by burgog- none and the pilasters of the town hall at brescia are among the more remarkable in italy, whilst in france, in the choir stalls and screens of some of the cathedrals and churches and in the chateaux of blois, cham- bard, and azay-le-rideau on the loire and in the south of france at toulouse and rodez (fig. plate ), and in spain in the university of salamanca (fig. plate ) will be found a richness and variety of design which is characteristic of the period. italian renaissance ornament. the renaissance in italy. the early renaissance commenced in the first quarter of the ll century in florence, whence it spread to milan, venice and other towns in the north of italy, and towards the end of the th century to rome. the first architect who studied seriously the monuments of classic art and transmitted their spirit into his own work was filippo brunelleschi, an artist of powerful genius, who in the construction of the cupola of the cathedral at florence ( — ) and the churches of st. lorenzo and st. spirito in the same town showed his great qualities as an artist and builder. he was followed by michelozzo, to whom we owe the chapel of st. peter ( ) in st eustorgio, milan, and the riccardi ( ) the first renaissance example of a palace of which the second was the strozzi palace by majano ( — ) and cronaca ( — ). then followed alberti ( — ), whose chief work was the front of the church at rimini ( — ) and the church of st. andrea at mantua ( ), giovanni de san gallo ( — ), antonio de sangallo (l — ), bramante d'urbino ( — ) the architect of the church at todi but better known in connection with his work of st. peter's, rome, which he commenced in and the cancellaria palace in the same city. peruzzi ( — ), the architect of the massimi palace in rome; the lombardi family in venice, pietro lombardo ( — ) the architect of the miracoli church, sante lombardo ( — ) who designed the vendramini palace and tullio lombardo ( — ) the cornaro-spinelli palace. to these must be added san micheli ( — ) the architect of the bevilacqua palace at verona and the grimani palace at venice; sansovino ( — o) who designed the library and the loggia at venice, vignola ( — ) whose chief work was the castle of caprarola, miles from rome, and palladio ( — ) the architect of the basilica and other palaces at vicenza. illustrations of the work of some of the architects above mentioned are given in the plates. thus in plate michelozzo and san gallo are represented, and in plate san gallo and sansovin . in plate illustrations from the loggia of the vatican are given which was painted by raphael, who drew his inspiriation from the rich decoration in painting and stucco found in the golden house of nero, which had been buried beneath the thermae of titus. to this type of decoration the title raphaelesque is frequently given. pietro lombardos work is shown on plate , end burgognone's on plate . plate . italian renaissance ornament. italian renaissance ornament. plate . italian renaissance ornament. fig. . sgraffito-work from the house no. , via glulla (dolmetsch). „ . sgraffito-work from the house no. , via dei coronari (dolmetsch). „ . sgraffito-work from the house no. , borgo al vlcolo del campanile (dolmetsch). plate . rome. fig. . marble frieze in the church of santa maria del popolo (hoitzinger). „ . mural painting from the raphael loggia in the vatican (l'art pour tous). „ . sgraffito-work from the house no. via glulio (dolmetsch). „ . mural painting by annibale caracci in the palace farnese (hirth). , . painting in the raphael loggia in the vatican (d'espouy). plate . venice. the renaissance did not make its appearance in venice until the year i o, dut m combination with the older architecture native to the city developed into a peculiar and charac- teristic style. (after cicognara, monumenti di venezia.) fig. , and . column and archivolt in the presbytery of the church of santa maria dei miracoli. plate . venice. (after cicognara, monumenti di venezia.) fig. . monument of generosa orslna, erected by her husband in the church of santa maria gloriosa dei frari. „ . door border from the royal chapel in st. marks. . . equestrian statue by bartolommeo colleoni on the piazza of san glo and paolo. „ . mantel piece in the sala del collegio in the ducal palace. plate . certosa of pavia. (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. . pillars from the niche with principal facade. the material used is white marble. the principal sculptor was ambrogio da fossano, called borgognone, but the work was begun in the year . in this master work of the italian early renais- sance, however, which was completed at the end of the , century, other sculptors also took part, amongst them being giov. ant. amadeo, christoforo da roma, andrea fusina, christoforo solari called il gobbo and agostin busti called bambaja. » . window in the principal facade, burkhardt calls it the triumph of all deco- ration work. „ . pilaster, frieze, and principal cornice. o plate . italian renaissance ornament. italian renaissance ornament. plate . sicily. (after j. j. hittorff et l. zanth, architecture moderne de la sicile.) fig. . door from the benedictine cloister in catania. . , and . fountain in the cathedral square at messina. , and . reliefs from the large fountain on the cathedral square, messina. „ . window from the benedictine cloister in catania. „ . statue of neptune from the large fountain on the quay at messina. plate . fig. . doorway from the church of st. andrea in mantua (nicolai, ornament der italienischen kunst des . jahrhunderts). . glass painting in the library at florence, painted by giovanni da udine ( — ), (hirth). . . small column from the palazzo municipale in perugia (raguenet). „ . inlaid marble-work in the floor of the cathedral of siena (dolmetsch). „ . flat-relief from the vendramini tomb in the church of san giovanni e paolo, venice (dolmetsch). „ . wrought-iron railing from venice (l'art pour tous). „ . telamonic support from the palazzo durazzo in the via novlssima, genoa (raguenet). . . ceiling in the ducal palace in mantua (nicolai). „ . stairs of a palace in florence (raguenet). plate . fig. . intarsia work from a stall in the church of santa maria novella, florence (teirich, intarsien). . . coffer in the parish picture gallery in spoleto, tt> century (boito). „ . table, italian-work, from the * century, at present in the arts and crafts museum in berlin (boito). „ . bronze knocker from the strozzi palace, florence (d'espouy). . wooden panel from the castle of salmes. piedmontese work of the ,> century. . . intarsia work, from a stall of the certosa near padua (teirich, intarsien). plate . italian majolica. fig. . faience dish from urbino (roger-miles). . majolica dish by maestro giorgio da gubbio, in the south kensington museum. dates from the year - the arabesques of this master are generally executed in yellow and green (jannicke, keramik). speltz. styles of ornament. italian renaissance ornament. plate io. * italian renaissance ornament. fig. . apothecary's vase from castel durante. in the british museum (jannicke). „ . majolica can by maestro giorgio da gubbio (jannicke). „ . venetian dish. in the south kensington museum (jannicke). „ . floor with marble mosaic in the cathedral of siena. the work of becca- fumi from the year (raguenet). „ . apothecary's pot from siena. in the south kensington museum (jannicke). „ . caffaggiolo. in the south kensington museum (jannicke). plate . fig. . sweetmeat tazza, after a drawing ascribed to benvenuto cellini (havard). , and . venetian glasses from the murano glass works, th century (l'art pour tous). , , and . venetian glasses (roger-miles and havard). „ , and . ewer of enamelled gold, at present in the uffizien, florence (dolmetsch). „ . goblet of beaten silver, gilt and chased, said to be the work of benvenuto cellini. , and . cut glass tazza with enamelled covef, l ,> century (havard). plate . fig. . court mantle of embroidered silk (roger-miles). . crotchet-work, & century (roger-miles). „ . venetian embroidery with raised embroidered flowers (roger-miles). . application embroidery, th century (dupont and auberville). . silk damask, th century (dupont and auberville). „ . genoese velvet pattern (dupont and auberville). plate . fig. book-marker from the milan chronicles of bernardino corio. milan, alexander minutiano, (hirth). „ . alphabet for embroidery from the year . from the work "esempiario di lavori" by nicolo zoppino, a venetian drawer and copper-engraver (hirth). . initial of johannes reglomontanus, taken from his work "epitoma in alma- gestum ptolemei", venezia (hirth). „ . head-dress, ^ century (roger miles). . . initial of the printing-office of ottavlo scoto. venice — (hirth). . . leaf from the works of nicolo zoppino, see fig. (hirth). . . venetian embroidery pattern from the year . from the work "esem- piario di lavori" by giovanandrea vavassore (hirth). italian renaissance ornament. plate . (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. . panel decoration (doimetsch). . venetian bellows, ^ century. „ . sword, said to be given by francis i to the graf von lannoy, vice-regent of naples. it is, however, italian work. „ . design for a harp, after a water-colour drawing in the uffizi in florence. . helmet of the archduke ferdinand of tyrol. italian gold-damascened orna- mented work of the year . in the art historical collection of the imperial house in vienna. french renaissance ornament. the renaissance in france. cxt into france during the last quarter ol the th century the influence of the renaissance movement spread; but owing to the still lingering vitality of the flamboyant gothic style, at first it was able only to modify the decorative details, forming that which is known as a transitional style, which lasted during the first quarter of the l lh century. on the accession of francis ist, the new art was devoted more to secular than to ecclesiastical architecture, and then arose printing' initial the magnificent palaces and chateaux of the loire at chambord, blois, (dolmetsch). azay-le-rideau, etc., which must be regarded as the masterpieces of the early french renaissance; it was also gradually employed in domestic architecture throughout the towns of france. here also, as in italy, the individuality of the architect or master mason became a real factor and the work produced was connected with their names. thus we have hector sohier, the architect of the chevet of the church of st. peter's at caen ( ); the chambiges, uncle and nephew, pierre lescot ( — ), the architect of the louvre. robert lerou, pierre fain, philibert de l'orme ( — ), who designed the tuileries for marie de medicis, jean bullant ( — ), and others, bring- ing us down to the close of the tn century. shortly afterwards follow the periods of louis xiii. and louis xiv., whose work comes more under the range of the later renaissance. in the latter part of the reign of louis xiv, when pomp and display were the fashion, the renaissance ornament degenerated, leading the way to the last change, viz, that of the rococo period. embroidery pattern (roger-miles). o plate . french renaissance ornament. french renaissance ornament. plate . furniture. (after bajot, musees de louvre et de chmy.) fig. , and . arm chair, 'h century. in the louvre. „ . oak buffet, l th century. in the cluny museum. . cabinet in walnut, from the time of louis xiii. (l'art pour tous). „ . arm chair, th century. in the cluny museum. „ . table, l tn century. in the cluny museum. plate . fig. . mural decoration in glazed terra-cotta, l th century. in the louvre (havard, dictionnaire de l'ameublement et de la decoration). „ . faience dish, by the celebrated potter bernard palissy, agen (jannicke). . jug in olron faience. in the south kensington museum (jannicke, grundriss der keramik). „ . terra-cotta figure. in the louvre (jannicke). . stoneware jug, l th century (havard). . small jug by bernard palissy, agen (jannicke). „ , and . inlaid noor-tiles after viriot-woeriot (roger-miles). . faience jug, bernard palissy, agen (roger-miles). plate . fig. , , and . halberds from the early renaissance ( — ) with distinctly marked gothic reminiscences (roger-miles). „ , and . helmet and sword hilt, probably owned by francis i. (roger-miles). „ . sword hilt, from the st half of l 'l> century (l'art pour tous). . wrought-iron candle-stick, th century (havard). . silver warming-dish (havard). „ . pair of scissors, »> century (havard). „ . tankard with eover, * century (havard). plate . fig. , , , and . silver knife, fork and spoon (havard, histoire de l'orfeverie franpaise). . neck pendant after viriot-woeriot (roger-miles, comment discerner les styles). . enamelled crystal glass (l'art pour tous). . figures engraved glass (l'art pour tous). „ . wine decanter of rock-crystal, ornamented with precious stones (havard). „ , and . fork and spoon, sliver gilt (roger-miles). » . enamelled plate, ascribed to meister jean penicaud (havard). „ . helmet of charles the bold, set with pearls and precious stones. from a drawing in the arsenal library (havard). „ . dagger-sheath (racinet). „ . costume as emblem of the jeweller's art, after larmessin (havard). * plate . french renaissance ornament. plate . french renaissance ornament. french renaissance ornament. plate . fig. . valenciennes laee. mailles doubles. in the dutuit collection. „ . valenciennes lace. mailles rondes. in the dutuit collection. „ . silk pattern, * century (dupont-auberville, collection of decorations). „ . wall tapestry in the palace of fontainebleau, * century (dolmetsch). . embroidery from the time of catherine de medicis, point coupe, that is, embroidery sewn on fine cambric (roger-miles). „ . embroidery from a bed. presented to the trappists near montague by henry ii. on his departure from the monastery (dupont-auberville). - velvet pattern, century (dupont-auberville). „ . gold embroidered cushion, th century (havard). plate . fig. . ivory fan, th century. in the louvre (hirth). . hand mirror from a design by etienne de laune. from a copper engraving from the year (hirth). „ . key by mathurin jousse de la fleche, of the year (hirth). . book cover with the arms of henry ii. (dolmetsch). „ , , and . dagger hilts etc. from designs by antoine jaequard, copper engraver and armourer in poitiers, st half of the th century (hirth). plate . fig. , — , , and . painted ornament from the castle of cheverny near blois (eugene rouyer, l'art architectural en france). , and . engraved frontispieces from the theatre des bons engins, published in paris in by guiuaume de la perrieire, and dedicated to queen margaret of navarre. , and . inlaid, gold in wood, from the castle of ecouen (eugene rouyer, l'art architecture! en france). . . inlay from the cardinal's room in the castle of ancy-le-franc. typographic ornamentation of the time of louis xiii. (dolmetsch). spanish renaissance ornament. renaissance ornament in spain and portugal. initial by juan de yciar (hirth). a, accustomed by moorish art to fantastic forms and configurations, worked the new italics, which came into the country from france and italy to- wards the end of the th century, at first into the plateresque or goldsmith's style in which form the early renaissance appeared in spain. it was not until the time of philip ii., after charles v. had a palace built by malchuca in the alhambra, that a pure renaissance style, called by the spa- niards, the graeco-roman, came to be established. the most magnificent structure of this period is the escurial ( — ), which was built by gian baptista de toledo, and his successor juan de herrera. plate . (after monumentos de espana.) fig. . head of a nail from the door of the university of salamanca. „ . corner-piece from the tomb of cardinal ximenez or cisneros as he is best known in alcala de henares. „ , and . pilasters from the door of the university of salamanca. „ — . details of the facade of the university in alcala de henares. plate . (after monumentos de espana.) fig. . figure from the facade of the university in alcala de henares. . . finial in the court of the archiepiseopal college, at present the irish college, in salamanca. „ . finial from the door of the vestibule of the ancient hospitales santa cruz in toledo. . doorway of a house in palma, majorca (prentice). . . pilaster capital from the gate of the university of salamanca. „ . bracket capital of the gallery in the archiepiseopal palace in alcala de henares. . cartouche from a house in palma, majorca (prentice). . £ ajbij .j.n kv.ntuo nvssivn >i hsinvjs plate . spanish renaissance ornament. spanish renaissance ornament. plate . fig. , and . details of the north facade of the royal alcazar in toledo (monu- mentos de espana). . order from the altar in the cloister of poblet, said to be the work of the spanish sculptor berruguette, a pupil of michael angelos (andrew prentice, renais- sance architecture in spain). plate . (after andrew n. prentice, renaissance architecture and ornament in spain.) fig. , , , and . ceilings in carved wood in the vestibule of the archiepis- copal palace in alcala de henares. „ . column of a wrought-iron grating in the cathedral of cuenca. j. pillar from the stairshouse in the cathedral of burgos. . coronal of an iron trellis-work in the baptism-chapel of the cathedral of toledo. „ . panel of a door in the palace of the duke of alba in pefiaranda. . . cornice of the consistory in palma, majorca. plate . (after andrew n. prentice, renaissance architecture and ornament in spain.) fig. . inner gallery of polentina house in avila. . gateway from avila. . iron railing from cuenca. . frieze from the stone door of the cathedral of siguenza. . iron railing from the cathedral of siguenza. . balcony from palma, majorca. plate . fig. . helmet from the armeria in madrid (l'art pour tous). „ . secretaire, ^'^century. in the south-kensington museum. transition period (libonis). . folding chair from the cathedral of toledo. of black wood incrusted with ivory, tn century (raguenet). „ . embroidered carpet, end of th century. in platersque style, from the collection of domingo guerrero y polo in barccl (mira leroy). . reading-desk of wrought chased iron, end of th century (mira leroy). . pendant ornament (l'art pour tous). plate . * fig. — . lettering from designs by juan de yelar, painter and writing master, born in durango, biscaya: "arte subtilissima por la qual se esenna a escrivir perfectamente, saragossa, °" (hirth, formenschatzl. speltz, styles of ornament. spanish renaissance ornament. plate . (after albert haupt, die baukunst der renaissance in portugal.) . silver filigree cross from the treasury in belem. . and . balustrades from the chapel of the new cathedral in cimbra. . window column in transept of the cloister dos jeronymos, belem. . tile wainscotting in the chapel of st. roque, lisbon. . mosaic in a chapel in penha verde near cintra. . court-yard in the benedictine cloister in porto. . wall tiles from the church of st. maria da monte in penha verde near cintra. application embroidery, tl> century (dupont-auberville). * o german renaissance ornament. the german renaissance possesses no monumental aspect its chief power lying in the artistic grouping and ornamental treatment of details. it was only in a later period that a correct architectural tendency became apparent, which, however, was brought to a sudden termination by the thirty years war. the german renaissance dates its commencement from the year , and it lasted up to , the oldest german renaissance monument, however, the entrance gateway of the castle of mahrisch-trqbau, dates from the year , as do also some other doorways. in germany as in italy, three periods are distinguished, the early, high, and later re- naissance, or rococo, the first dating from to , and the second down to . plate . fig. . column from ensisheim (lambert & stahl, motive der deutschen architektur). . hermes from the armoury in brunswick (lambert & stahl). . wooden column from the town hall at munden (ortwein). the construction of this building was begun in . „ . cartouche from the pulpit in st. george's church, wismar (ortwein). „ . fountain column from berne (lambert & stahl). . capital from the fountain in the market-place at berne (lambert & stahl). » - portal from the royal mews in berlin. in the year , the royal mews was burned, but afterwards rebuilt by kurforst friedrich wilhelm, who purchased the house of herr von ribbeck which lay next to the mews, and whose facade remained uninjured. the doorway here given is found in this facade (ortwein). . wooden pillar from church in cologne (ortwein). „ . plinth from the arcade of the church buildings in the castle at baden- baden (ortwein). plate . fig. . window from transept in the cathedral at ratisbon (lambert & stahl). . from the organ gallery in st. george's church, wismar (ortwein). . coat of arms from the monument to duke johann in oels (ortwein). . inner gateway of the castle at wismar, built in the years — (lambert & stahl). . . gable of a house in hellbronn (lambert & stahl). „ . from an epitaph in st. george's church, wismar (ortwein). . font in the parish church, gustrow (ortwein). . . balustrade of the pulpit in the jakob church, goslar (ortwein). plate . fig. , and . console brackets from the ceiling of the prince's hall in the town hall at augsburg (leybold, rathaus von augsburg). . wall-paper in the town hall at danzig (ortwein). „ . from the staircase of the town hall at bremen (ortwein). „ . finial from the town hall at bremen (ortwein). „ . portion of wood ceiling from the town hall at gorlitz (ortwein). plate . german renaissance ornament. plate . german renaissance ornament. german renaissance ornament. plate . (after ortwein, deutsche renaissance.) fig. , and . chairs in the historical museum, dresden. . . cabinet with inlaid work. this cabinet, which is in the wallraf-richartz-museum, dates from the year , and is made of seven woods, oak, sycamore, beech, and others each stained of a different colour. „ . consol from the kaiser house in hildesheim. „ . ornament from wall-panelling in the civil service office in luneburg. . panel from a stall in the ludgeri church at mqnster. . door of the tabernacle in the church of st. gereon, cologne. . panel from a screen in hildesheim. . cake mould in luneburg museum. plate . fig. . stove in the prince's hall of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). „ . stone jug from cologne. the ornamentation is done in blue glaze (ortwein). , and . terra-cottas from the castle in schwerin (ortwein). originally inten- ded for the furstenhof in wismar. „ . stone jug in the museum, at munich, from the beginning of the * century (hirth). „ . tin jug, ,> century. in the museum at lubeck (hirth). „ . chlmneypiece in the town hall at monden (ortwein). plate . fig. . mural painting in the golden hall of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). the town hall at augsburg was begun in the year , the architect being the munici- pal architect elias holl ( — ). it was completed, all except the interior fittings, in . these latter were, however, not carried out in accordance with holl's designs, but from designs by different masters, the most renowned of whom were the painter peter de witt, called the candid, the jesuit matthaus rader, and the augsburg painter matthias kager. „ . painting on ceiling in the knights hall of trausnitz castle near lands- hut (ortwein). these paintings date from the years — , the building itself being originally constructed in gothic, and later on changed to the renaissance style. „ . glass painting from the cupola of the chapel in the royal residence in munich. „ . book binding, th century, gilt and painted. in the nuremburg museum (hirth). . pilaster panel from wertheim castle (ortwein). plate . german renaissance ornament. plate . german renaissance ornament. german renaissance ornament. plate . fig. , and . bracket candle-sticks from the upper hall of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). . silver spoon in the luneburg museum (ortwein). „ . key in the munich museum (hirth). . figure of a woman holding a candlestick in the stertzing town hall, tyrol. the figure, which represents lucretia dying, is carved in wood, and taste- fully painted and gilt. it dates from the st half of the l 'h century (hirth). „ . chandelier in the church of st. mary at zwickau (ortwein). „ . iron cloth-shearing comb with etched design (hirth). belongs to the early renaissance. plate . fig. . hinge on door of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). . lock on the door of the prince's hall of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). „ . door hinge from the principal doorway of the town hall at augsburg (leybold). „ . from the lock of a chest in the munich museum, iron plate carved and engraved (hirth). „ - finial from the castle at munden (ortwein). „ , and . wrought iron railings, l th century. in the salzburg museum (hirth). „ . railing in the tower staircase, castle yard, dresden (ortwein). . door knocker from rostock (ortwein). plate . (after hirth, fonnenschatz.) fig. . hunting spear, l 'l> century. in the imperial collection in vienna. „ , and . ornament of a halbard, etched in iron, from the middle of the * cen- tury. in the munich museum. . ornament by peter flotner ( ). in the copper engraving cabinet, munich. „ . black and white drawing by albrecht durer. shows a cavalier on horse back in the triumphal procession of emperor maximilian. the original is in the am- brose collection in vienna. „ . bridle-bit from scutters "bit book", augsburg . plate . (after hirth, formenschatz). fig. . small book-cover of engraved silver plate with velvet ground. , , and . sketches for gold ornaments. black and white drawings in water- colour from hans holbein in the british museum. plate . german renaissance ornament. plate . german renaissance ornament. plate . german renaissance ornament. * german renaissance ornament. fig. . gentlewoman of the th eentury, after a drawing by hans holbein. . . gold chain with enamel-work. augsburg work of the l th century. „ . jewel of enamelled gold, th century. „ , and . samples of work of the goldsmith jacob von der heyden, from the year . taken from the book "suite de dessins d'ornements pour bijoutiers meilleurs et emailleurs sur fond noir", published in strasburg. , , and . samples of lace-work from the book "neues modellbuch" by johann sibmacher, copper engraver, who^died in nuremberg in the year . „ . ornament pendant by paul birckenhultz. plate . (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. . bronze clock with engraved and chased ornamentation, made by benedict fdrstenfelder at about the middle of the th century. „ . hock glass, th century. in the national museum, munich. . wedding goblet of gilt silver, th century. the large goblet is formed by the hooped iarthingale, the small one is moveable round its own axis. the bridegroom was obliged to drink from the large goblet and empty it without spilling any out of the small one. the bride drank from the small goblet. . silver spoon and fork, " century. in possession of the owner of the possen estate, kurland. . chalice by wenzel janitzer. „ . silver knives and forks from nuremberg (l'art pour tous). „ . silver drinking-jug, strongly gilt, nqremburg work from the l th or beginning of th century. plate . (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. . carpet pattern, from an oil painting by georg pencz in the royal museum, berlin. from the beginning of the tn century. the colours, exclusive of the black outlines, are a dark and a light moss green. „ . pattern of a gold brocade, from a picture by roger van den weyden "das christkind erscheint den drei heiligen konigen" — the christ child appearing to the three kings — in the royal museum at berlin. . gold brocade on black velvet, from a picture of the cologne school, in the royal picture gallery, munich. . green velvet on a green silk ground, l 't> century. in the national museum, munich. „ . black velvet on gold brocade, from a picture by dirk bouts in the royal picture gallery munich. . gold embroidery on black velvet, from the mantle worn by the pfalzgraf wil- helm beim rheyn on his marriage with renata von lothringen, on the "d february . in the national museum, munich. plate . german renaissance ornament. o german renaissance ornament. plate . plate . german renaissance ornament. german renaissance ornament. plate . (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. , and . initials by lucas kranach. „ , , and . letters from caligraphic work of paulo franken, writing-master and arithmetician in memmingen. from the year . . the hohenzollern arms by jost amman. . ornaments from the work imperatorum romanorum imagines, published in zurich in by gessner, and drawn in all probability by christoph schweitzer. „ , , , and . written text from the album of wolfgang fugger, nurem- berg, . „ . letters for embroidery, from the book: "ein new getruckt model buchli auf aus- suchen und bartten wicken", . „ . initials of lucas kilian, engraver at augsburg. plate . (after wilhelm weimar, monumentalschriften.) fig. . engraved solnhofer stone slab, of the year , formerly in the "getreide- kasten zum leeren beutel", ratisbon, at present in the municipal museum in the same city. . engraved solnhofer stone slab, from the year . in the collection of the historical society of the oberpfalz in ratisbon. swiss renaissance wood buildings. plate . (after e. gladbach, holzbauten der schweiz.) fig. . leaf-table from filisur in the engadine, . . door of the hospital in frutigen, canton berne. » . wall panelling in the drawing-room of the baron von reding-biberegg in schwyz. . view of the granary in langnau, canton berne, dated . plate . (after e. gladbach, holzbauten der schweiz.) fig. . panelled ceiling of the drawing-room of the baron von reding-biberegg, schwyz. (see also plate , fig. .) . . detail from the same room. , , and . carving from glion in canton waadt. „ , and . back of a child's chair in rotl, meiringen. „ . inn table in canton schwyz. plate . german renaissance ornament. dutch renaissance ornament. renaissance ornament in the netherlands. n belgium, renaissance ornament did not develop to the same standard as gothic ornament. the earliest work of the renaissance in belgium is the palace of margarete of parma in malines, built about the year by the french archi- tect beauregard. the most renowned is, however, the rathhaus, or town hall of antwerp, built in the years — by cornelius de vriendt or floris, a pupil of giovanni da bologna. the cities of ghent, ypres, furnes, and others, possess also remarkable specimens of town halls in this style. the renaissance appeared in holland later than in belgium, the most important buildings in hol- land being also the town halls, that of the hague ( — ), and leyden (i — ). the most celebrated architects of this period were hendrick de kayzer ( — ), and his colleague, cornelius dankerts ( — ), who succeeded in holland in directing art along italian lines, while in belgium the renaissance degenerated much sooner. there developed, therefore, in holland, a specific, dutch style which spread also through north germany and scandinavia. in consequence of the epoch-making introduction of the modern system of oil-painting by the brothers hubert and jean van eyck, which rendered it possible to give true reproductions of nature, so absolutely necessary for the development of realism, painting developed in a most magnificent manner in the netherlands. having its beginnings in flanders it grew to be the ruling style and fashion. door handle from ghent (ewer beck). plate . (after f. ewerbeck und neumeister, die renaissance in belgien und holland.) fig. . glass painting of the year . in the museum at middelburg. „ . stone arm-chair from the year . in the museum at bruges, originally in the church at damme near bruges. „ . console from a flre-place in the town hall at venlo, „ . column of the pulpit in the cathedral at hertogenbosch (bois-ie-duc). . iron tee on a house in zalt-bommel. „ . southern ornamental gable of the abattoir in haarlem. this is the most valuable monument of renaissance architecture in the netherlands. it was completed , but the name of the architect is unknown. „ . capital from a stall in the large church at dortrecht. plate . fig. . shaft of column after vrles, * century (libonis). „ . cartouche from the atlas of abraham ortelius, antwerp (hirth, formenschatz). „ . bruges guipure lace in the grunthuze museum. „ . cartouche from the atlas of waghenaer, amsterdam (hirth). plate . dutch renaissance ornament. plate . dutch renaissance ornament. i dutch renaissance ornament. fig. . brussels lace. point de bruxelles, "drochel", foundation. from the dutuit collection. . oak cabinet, * century. in the cluny museum (bajot). „ /. table, th century. in the cluny museum (bajot). plate . (after ewcrbeck and neumeister, die renaissance in belgien und holland.) fig. . balcony of the town hall at furnes, th century. . . wrought-iron door furniture, in the haller tor museum, brussels. „ . wrought-iron are-dog, etc., in the haller tor museum, brussels. „ . stalls in the stadtor of dortrecht. plate . (after ewerbeck and neumeister, die renaissance in belgien und holland.) fig. . wooden table in the town hall at oudenarde d.'art pour tous). „ , , and . glazed wall tiles of delft. . gold medallion (l'art pour tous). . gold pendant ornament (l'art pour tous). . delft plate (l'art pour tous). „ . brass fire dog (l'art pour tous). table from the salvator church in bruges (ewerbeck). northern renaissance ornament. ornament of the northern renaissance. the scandinavian lands the renaissance style of art did not become properly prevalent until the * century, being introduced into denmark from the netherlands, and into sweden from the hansa cities which were also, in a like manner, subject to nctherland influences. it did not, however, develop in any of these countries into a characteristic style. the early renaissance in sweden extends up to the year , and the later renaissance, which in consequence of the deeper study given by the artists, approached more the italian forms of art, from to . the renaissance did not begin to make itself felt in norway until the beginning of the th century. considering the lively commer- cial intercourse with holland which obtained at this period, it is easy to understand that norwegian woodwork architecture, besides being subject to swedish, german, and danish influences, was also especially influenced by dutch renaissance motifs, motifs which the skilled norwegian peasants knew well how to handle independently, and to transform, by grafting them on the ancient native forms peculiar to the country. book ornament (dahlerup). plate . (after dr. john bottiger, hedvig eleonoras drottingholm.) fig. . door. . celling in drawing-room. , and . frieze of chamber of state. . chlmneypiece in the lower retainer's hall. „ . celling in the south tower. . pilaster from the upper retainer's hall. plate . fig. — . norwegian wood ornaments of the th century (dietrichson und munthe, die hobbaukunst norwegens). . bronze chandelier with console of the year . . fire-dog from noergaard, denmark, of the year (dahlerup, holm und stork, tegninger af aeldre nordisk architektur). plate . northern renaissance ornament. slavonic renaissance ornament. slavonic renaissance ornament. baptismal font in the family chapel of the firlej near the parish church in bejsce, (odrzywolskv). to russia, and also into poland, the renaissance was introduced by italian artists who had been invited into both countries. these artists, however, were unable to resist subordinating themselves to the orien- tal influences already prevalent especially in russia, the result being the development of a native, national style, whose principal characte- ristics were the imperial roof and the ogee arch. the wood archi- tecture was also brought by the renaissance to a high state of perfec- tion, to which result scandinavian and lower saxon influences very probably also contr buted. in polish art, where local influences were not so powerful, the evidences of italian renaissance influences are far more apparent than in russia. renaissance ornament in poland. plate . (after slawomir odrzywolskv, die renaissance in polen.) kig. . gold reliquary, o , century, in the treasury of cracow cathedrall. . silver candle-stick from the sigismund chapel in cracow cathedral, dates from the year . . choir stalls in the king stefan bathory^ chapel, cracow cathedral. in all probability the work of santi gucci. . dutch-tile stove in the castle of podhorce. contains the arms of the rze- wuski krzwada family, very probably danzig work. plate . slavonic renaissance ornament. slavonic renaissance ornament. fig. , and . turret crest over the sigismund chapel, cracow cathedral. the angels and the crown are cast in copper, the cross and ball of wrought copper, all are richty gilt. window of the royal castle in cracow (odrzywoisky). plate . slavonic renaissance ornament. slavonic renaissance ornament. renaissance ornament in russia. plate . fig. , and . from a croatian peasant-house in progar near semlin, symrina (uhde, die konstruktionen und die kunstformen der architektur). „ . gable of a peasant's house in fataroff, russia (uhde). . window from the south side of the church at tscherewkowo, russia (sonslow, ancienne architecture russe). , , and . door wood-carvings, / lh century (sireitschikoff). to . table and ornaments from the nieolo mocky church (gagarin, russische ornamente). plate . (after n. p. sireitschikoff et d. k. treneff, ornements sur les monuments de l'ancien art russe.) fig. . chased ornament from a chandelier, th century. , , and . enamel ornaments, th century. . painting from a holy picture, end of 'i> century. b. painting from a holy picture, painted by simon ouchanoff in . . painting from a holy picture, painted by ninite pauloff in . „ . decorative design, of the year . . silver mounting from a holy picture, end of b'i> century. „ . wood-carving from a door, th century. english renaissance ornament. v renaissance ornament in england. initial, l/th century (gotch). the gothic style in england retained its vitality much later than in other countries, and in its last phase known as the tudor style, had already affected in domestic architecture the principal changes in plan and design which transformed the castle into the country mansion, the transitional period lasted for a much longer period. the first attempt to open the way for the introduction of the renaissance in england was made by the italian pietro torrigiano with the erection in the year i of the beautiful monument to henry vii. and his wife, and that to margaret of richmond, both in west- minster abbey. the employment of the renaissance in eng- land was however for a long time confined to the enrichment of the principal entrance door- ways of mansions. the artists toto dell' nunziata, theodore haveus and john of padua [also helped in bringing the new style into england. the real, characteristic english renaissance did not begin to develop itself until the reign of queen elizabeth ( — ) when it was known under the title of the elizabethan style, which was a transition style from the tudor or late gothic to the renaissance, similar to the transition in france of the style of francis i. from the gothic to the french renaissance. the english style resembled the german and french early renaissance, in so far as it too, in a similar, way confined itself more to secular buildings, castles and country houses, than to ecclesiastical, while, on the other hand, the latter were of the very greatest importance to the italian renaissance. even although the development of the elizabethan style was much influenced by italian art, still it cannot be denied that it possesses a genuine, national character peculiar to itself. as queen elizabeth brought german and flemish artists in the country for the o english renaissance ornament. building of the castles of the period, it is clear that german and flemish influences had also their effect upon the english style. the architect john shute, and the designer de vries of authory contributed much to the development of the elizabethan style. under the reign of elizabeth's successor, james i. ( -— ), the renaissance took on a still more classic form, owing to the more intimate and deeper study of classic architec- ture, to the removal of all gothic reminiscences, and to the labours of the architect john thorpe. the english renaissance was rendered completely free of all gothic elements by the two famous architects inigo jones and christopher wren, who may be considered as the founders of the pure italian style. inigo jones ( — ) studied in italy, especially in vicenza, under the personal supervision of palladio, and when be returned to england after a second journey to italy in the year he succeeded in introducing complete change in the archi- tecture, and became the founder, in england of the pure classical school after palladio. sir christopher wren ( — ) was professor of astronomy and mathematics in oxford, and, when london was almost destroyed by fire in the year , designed a plan for its recon- struction which although it was not carried out led to his employment in the rebuilding london. in consequence of his studies in paris, there is more of french than italian influence in wren's work. at this period, when vignola exercised great influence in f ance, and palladio in england, wren attempted to unite both styles. his principal work is st. paul's cathedral, london, which with his numerous other works, is now included in the later renais- sance style. plate . fig. . detail of tomb of henry vii., westminster abbey (h o. cresswell in archi- tectural assoc. sketch book). . balustrade audley, end, essex (richardson). . garden porch, coombe abbey, (richardson). . carved baluster, blickling hall, norfolk (shaw). . detail of balustrade, audley end, essex (richardson). . ceiling of great chamber in an old house formerly in gravel lane, houndsditch, london (richardson). plate . (after gotch, architecture of the renaissance in england.) fig. . door of dining-room in gayton manor house, northamptonshire. . top of bench end in leeds church, erected in the years — . — . celling decorations from the manor house, south wraxall, wiltshire. . staircase clare college, cambridge, erected after the year . . balustrade to terrace, claverton. . chimney-piece in bolsover castle, derbyshire, th century. . gable of rushton hall, northamptonshire, from the year . „ . balustrade to porch, cold ash ton. . . gatewey in garden wall, stibbington hall, huntingdonshire, erected in . plate . english renaissance ornament. plate . english renaissance ornament. english renaissance ornament. plate . (after gotch, architecture of the renaissance in england.) fig. . panel from a pew in leeds church. . part of arcade of screen in leeds church. „ . panel from a wood chimneypiece in burton agnes hall, yorkshire. erected in . . carved wood string from the neptune inn, ipswich, . . newel of staircase, aston hall, warwickshire. . wood work from astbury church. „ , and . balustrade in the library of merton college, oxford plate . fig. — . carved wood strings from houses in ipswich (gotch). . arch at end of terrace bramshill house (gotch). . pillar and vaulting in hall, bolsover castle, derbyshire (gotch). . wood panelling over a fire-place in hull, (the builder). „ . door to library of st. john's college, cambridge (gotch). . boss to vaulting in porch at bolsover castle, derbyshire (gotch). plate . (gotch, architecture of the renaissance in england.) fig. . roof of the hall, wollaton hall, nottinghamshire. . base to wood pilaster south wraxhall manor-house, wiltshire. . balustrade from st. catherine's court house, somersetshire. „ . panel from font cover in the church of st. hary-the-less, cambridge. „ . pew front lanteglos church. „ . panelling from burton agnes hall, yorkshire. plate . fig. . carved detail from chlmneypieee in old house formely in lime street, london (spiers and birch). . carved baluster pier, claverton, somersetshire. . portion of canopied chair, convocation house, oxford (j. gillespie in archi- tectural assoc. sketch book). . staircase at dorfold, cheshire (richardson). . portion of ceiling, sexton's house, st. james's, bristol (richardson). speltz. styles of ornamem. * plate . english renaissance ornament. english renaissance ornament. plate . fig. . detail of tomb, westminster abbey. . terminal to gatepier, claverton, somersetshire (richardson). „ . balustrade, with vase, duke's house, bradford-on-avon (richardson). . carved frame, crewe hall (richardson). . balustrade audley end, essex (richardson). „ . portion of ceiling at dorford, cheshire (richardson). . . detail from crewe hall (richardson). . detail from st. lawrence church, kent. plate . fig. . toft plate. from the bateman collection (jannicke). , . fulham pottery (stoneware). from the reynolds collection (jannicke). . drinking-beaker. from the mayer collection (jannicke). . stoneware jug. in the geological museum, london. . bed of oliver cromwell, carved in oak (bajot, encyclopedic du meuble). . red stoneware by elers. south kensington museum (jannicke). plate . fig. . oak cabinet at wingfleld manor (sanders, carved oak woodwork). . chair th century (a. e. chancellor, examples of old furniture). - head of oak cradle, th century (chancellor). . armchair from hampton court, th century (chancellor). - looking-glass in elizabethan style (chancellor). . oak chest, th century (sanders). . table and scholar's seat from the charterhouse, th century (chancellor). plate . fig. . from a damask chair-cover at knole park, kent. from the time of james i. (owen jones). „ — , and . wood diapers, from the time of james i. (owen jones.) , and . applique needlework, from the time of james i. (owen jones.) . portrait of jane seymour, wife of henry viii., by holbein. in the vienna gallery (hirth). plate . i english renaissance ornament. english renaissance ornament. fig. , and . needlework tapestry from a tomb in westminster. from the time of queen elizabeth (owen jones). . g, and . diapers from burton agnes, yorkshire (owen jones). „ o. plaster diaper from an old house near tottenham. from the time of queen elizabeth (owen jones). renaissance chair (bajot). later renaissance ornament. the term later renaissance is the title given to the second phase of the renaissance and is applied to those buildings which were erected subsequent to the attempt made by serlio, vignola, and palladio, to formulate principles which should govern the employment of the classic orders. in the earlier work of brunelleschi, michelozzo and alberti, the architectural design was ruled more or less by an adherence to those principles which would seem to have guided the roman architects, ornament was only sparingly introduced, and then only in such features as in the capitals of columns and friezes which required more decorative treatment. the tendency, however, in other work and more especially in those which were entrusted to sculptors, who paid but little attention either to the structural design of the building, to its setting out or to the principles of the classic models which they tried to reproduce, was to overload their structures with ornament. this would seem in the second half of the th century, to have led a reaction in art by the theorists, who attempted to formulate the tradition of classic art on fixed principles and to establish rules for the employment of purer architectu- ral forms. this movement was probably influenced by the example set by vitruvius, who in his manuscript, "de re aedificiatione", written about b. c. laid down rules for the employment of the orders of architecture. at all events it led to the publication of similar works, of which the first would appear to have been by serlio ( — ), who in publish- ed a work on the orders, followed by vignola in and by palladio in . vitruvius's manuscript, discovered about the middle of the th century, was accompanied by illustrations which have never been found; to supplement this loss these italian authors introduced orders of their own, based on the monuments of the first three centuries of our era, instead of those of greece, which vitruvius had described, as in his time the monuments of imperial rome had scarcely been commenced. vitruvius had described three orders only, the doric, ionic and corin- thian, to which he had added a primitive form of the doric order, which he called tuscan. the italians included that as a definite order, and added a fifth, called the composite order. these publications hence- later renaissance ornament. forth constituted a copy book which became a standard universally adopted throughout france, spain, england, and germany and led to what used to be called the italian revival, but which is now generally known in england as the later renaissance, and in germany as the barocco or barock; as this latter term is unknown in england, that of the later renaissance has been adhered to in this work. although in france the earliest influence in the louvre and at fontainebleau was that which must be attributed to serlio, in later times vignola became the chief authority, notwithstanding the fact that one of the greatest architects of the french renaissance, philibert de l'orme had published -a similar standard work in . in england palladio was generally recognised as the chief authority, owing probably to the influence of lord burlington, until sir william chambers in brought out his work on "civil architecture", which has since been regarded as the chief stan- dard. as on the whole the five orders of vignola are looked upon as better authorities not only in france but in america, they have been here reproduced. the five orders after vignola.*) *) this numbers given in the drawing are millimetres on the supposition that the total height is a normal height of one metre, divided into oo millimetres. to find the dimensions in centi- metres which correspond to this number simply multiply such with the height. for details see, "speltz, saulenformen der agyptischen, griechischen und romischen baukunst". italian later renaissance ornament. later renaissance ornament in italy. as with the earlier renaissance, the names of the architects were always associated with the build- ings they designed, so that the individuality to which reference has already been made existed in all their works. the chief followers of this school were do- minico fontana( — ) the architect of the lateral facade of st. john lateran, scamozzi ( — ) who continued sansovino's work along the south side of the piazza de san marco and published a work on the orders in , carlo maderno ( — ), ber- nini ( — ) the architect of the peristyles in front of st. peter's, rome, borromini ( — b l and pietro da cortona ( — ). coat of arms in the church sainte agnese by borromini rome, tfl century. plate . fig. . door in the entrance-hall of the palazzo cornaro della ca grande in veniee (gurlitt, geschichte des barockstils in italien). „ . corner pilaster-capital from the palazzo nonnnito in florence, commenced by briontolcnti and continued by scamozzi (gurlitt). . canopy over an altar in rome, th century (raguenet). . balcony support from the portal of the palazzo fenzi in florence, by raffaele curradi, of the year (hirth). . garden gate at frascati near rome (raguenet). . . window flnial of a palace in genoa in the via loncellini, th century (raguenet). . gate pier from the villa lodovlsi near rome, th century (raguenet). italian later renaissance ornament. plate italian later renaissance ornament. plate . (after raguenet, materiaux.) fig. . balcony and door-head from st. domenico square in nice, century. „ . shield from the palazzo riccardi in florence. . balustrade in the interior of the st. martlno cloister in naples, built by fan saga. . stair balustrade from st. domenico and sixto in rome, built by bernini. . door-knocker in florence (l'art pour tous). „ . fountain in front of brescia cathedral, ,h century. plate . fig. . coat of arms from a palace in the via ponta rossa in florence. marigno sculpture from the end of the th century (hirth). „ , and . lace work in the musee des arts d eoratif, paris (l'art pour tous). . faience vase by savona, from the gasnault collection, paris (l'art pour tous). , and . furniture from the mansi palace at segromigno near lucca (l'art pour tous). plate . fig. . arm chair from the cloister of st. martlno in naples, in the museum at naples, l th century (raguenet). . hanging lamp from bologna, th century. made of painted iron-plate, in the form of a o sided polygon. at present in the arts and crafts museum in berlin. (j. lessing, vorbilderhefte aus dem kgl. kunstgewerbemuseum.) „ . hanging lamp, beginning of the th century. made of gilt iron. at present in the arts and crafts museum in berlin (lessing). . . cresting of a cupboard in the parma museum, th century (raguenet). . state carriage, olh century. in possession of senator davia in bologna (hirth). » . from a bronze mantel-piece figure, th century. from giovanni da bologna school. at present in the national museum in florence (hirth). speltz. styles of ornament. . italian later renaissance ornament. plate . (after l'art pour tous.) fig. , , and . venetian lace collars, th century. . gold embroidery table cover, th century. . embossed genoese velvet, th century. . . genoese work, silk on gold ground, "> century. wheel of a state carriage by filippe passarini, born in rome, (hirth). french later renaissance ornament. later renaissance ornament in france. (louis xiv. style.) ,der the influence of debrosse (c. — ) and his pupil le- mercier ( — ), the former the architect of the luxem- bourg palace ( — ) and the latter of the sorbonne, a new development began at the commencement of the tl century, to which the title of the later renaissance has been given. the germs of the movement may really be traced in the louvre (where pierre lescot would seem to have been influenced by serlio), but it took a more decided form in the luxembourg palace, and in the palace of versailles and the chateau of mai- initial louis xiv. (petzen- sons sur-seine by francois mansard ( — ). then follow- dorfer, schriftenatlas.) ed perrault the architect of the east facade of the louvre which marks a return to classic principles, lemaire ( to ) the architect of the hotel soubise, marot ( — ) who designed the hotel de noailles, and jules hardouin mansard ( — ), the nephew of francois mansard, who may be said to have been the creator of the louis xiv. style, a style better fitted for rich internal decoration than for the exterior of a mansion. plate . (after cesar daly, motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture d'ornement.) fig. , and . balcony and doorhead from the house no. rue st. andre des arts, paris. , and . small consoles from versailles. „ . mask from the place venddme in paris. „ . balustrade from versailles. . console bracket in paris. plate . (after cesar daly, motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture d'ornement) fig. . side door of the church of st. nicolas-du-chardonnet, paris. . door of the hotel beauvais, rue st. antoine no. , paris. plate . french later renaissance ornament. french later renaissance ornament. fig. . balustrade parapet and dormer window rue st. guillaume no. , paris. „ . attic window from the marble court of the palaee of versailles. plate . fig. , , and . console brackets from a hotel in the rue st. louis en l'ile, no. , paris (daly). . war trophy in the park at versailles by francois girardon, born or in troyes, died in paris (hirth). . . ornament in wrought-iron, by hugues brisville, paris (hirth). . door of a confessional from the church of st. nicolas-du-chardonnet, paris (raguenet). „ , and . vases from the park at versailles. cast in bronze by claude ballin ( — ) (raguenet). plate . fig. . handle of an vase, by anton coyzevox, born in spain, but worked in paris from to (hirth). . acanthus of the later renaissance (raguenet). „ . mural decoration, after johann berain, born at st. mihiel, lorraine, in , died in paris, . taken from his work on ornament (hirth). „ . celling decoration, from an engraving by daniel marot, — , architect and designer in paris (hirth). plate . fig. . door-knocker from bordeaux, cours de l'lntendance n . , th century (raguenet). „ , , and . ornaments for rifle mountings, from an engraving by jean berain (hirth). , , and . locksmith's handiwork by hugh brisville, from an engraving by jean berain. brisville was a locksmith in paris about the year (hirth). plate . (after hirth, formenschatz.) fig. . mural decoration by jean berain. „ . design for celling, from an engraving by nicolas loir, painter and engraver in paris, — . . design for mural decoration by gilles marie oppenort. period of the regency. „ . design for mural decoration hy daniel marot. plate . french later renaissance ornament. french later renaissance ornament. plate . . door-knocker (l'art pour tous). . reading-desk of wrought-lron,. from the le secq collection of the tournelle (champeaux). . candelabrum of gilt wood, * century. from the collection of the duke de la tremouille (champeaux). . console for a mantel-piece in chased, gilt bronze, from the period of the regency. from the collection of the museum of decorative art, paris (champeaux). . sedan chair (havard). plate . . chest of drawers after jean berain (hirtht. . bracket-candlestick from the palace of versailles, probably after berain (l'art pour tous). . clipboard of ebony with copper open-work. meuble de boule from the th century (bajot, encyclop£die du meuble). . chair of carved wood in the mobilier national, paris (champeaux, portefeuille des arts dfecoratifs). plate . . window mantle by daniel marot, architect, paris, — (hirth). . canopy bed by the same artist (hirth). . design of a candelabrum by gilles maria oppenort (hirth). . console table, jean berain (hirth). . and . spinet with double keyboard, * century (bajot). . emblem by gilles maria oppenort from the period of the regency (hirth). plate . . beaten and chased silver ewer, by daniel marot, from the year (hirth). . faience jar of the apothecary of the duke of orleans, beginning of th century. in the gasnault collection (jannicke). . faience dish from moustiers. in the gasnault collection (jannicke). . faience jug from rouen (jannicke). . dish of beaten and chased silver, from a drawing in the robert colle album in the cabinet des estampes, paris (havard). plate . . embossed velvet (havard). , and . stuff patterns by daniel marot (hirth). . curtain by daniel marot (hirth). speltz, styles of ornament. jo french later renaissance ornament. fig. . curtain with ornament applique (champeaux). „ . carpet pattern, designed by robert de cotte for the manufacture de la savonnerie at the beginning of the l th century. the drawing is now in the cabinet des estampes, of the national library, paris (champeaux). vase in the park at versailles (daly). * german later renaissance ornament. later renaissance ornament in germany, austria, and switzerland. vase before the bridge in kuppenberg (ohmann). ne of the greatest enemies to the development of art is war. as soon as the horrors of the thirty years war were to a certain extent overcome, art began again to bestir itself in germany. the palladian classic style which ruled in holland established itself in north and south germany, on the rhine, and in austria. dutch classic was introduced into germany by johann arnold nering, who died in , in his famous building the berlin armoury, whose architectural reputation is only excelled by the work of his successor andreas schloter. schloter, born in hamburg , died in st. petersburg , is the real founder of the rococo style in berlin. in dresden, the foundation of the same was laid by george baehr, — , in the church known as the frauenkirche which was commenced in the year , and by matthaus daniel poppelmann, — , in his building of the zwinger palace. the court church in the same city was built by gaetano chiaveri of rome, — . the later renaissance dominated catholic south germany, where it was introduced by gaspare luccali, — , in his building of the church called the theatinerkirche in munich. in austria it was specially influenced by the architects dientzenhofer, and their pupil johann bernhard fischer from erlach, — . but in consequence of the powerful position held by france at the period, the influence of the french louis xiv style became felt in austria also. plate . fig. . carved wood door from the armoury in berlin, about the year (cornelius gurlitt, das barock- und rokoko-ornament). , and . braeket and cresting from archiepiscopal palace in salzburg (ohmann, barock). . pilaster and entablature in the imperial belvedere in vienna (ohmann). . mask of a warrior from the berlin armoury. by andreas schiater, — (hirth). © plate . german later renaissance ornament. german later renaissance ornament. plate go. german later renaissance ornament. plate . (after ohmann, barock.) fig. . window of a dwelling-house in stein on the danube. . balcony in the court library in vienna. . window-head from wendish seminary in prague. . window and door of a dwelling-house in prague. . wrought-iron candelabrum from elsgrab, austria. . window from a house in krems on the danube. plate . fig. . wrought iron grille in the serviten church in vienna (dr. a. iig and dr. heinrich kabdebo, wiener schmiedewerke des ". und . jahrhunderts). . lock of the principal door in the church of st. charles borromeo in prague (ohmann). . fan-light from the church of st. clementine in prague (ohmann). . wrought iron gate of the guild-hall at meise in zqrlch, from the * cen- tury (oberhausli, aufnahmen alter schweizerischer kunstschmiedearbeiten). . hinge of door in the church of st. charles borromeo in prague (ohmann). . door handle of the same (ohmann). plate . fig. . grandfather's cloek from the klosterneuburg monastery on the danube (ohmann). . chandelier of wrought iron, s,h century. in the arts and crafts museum in berlin (lessing). . reliquary from the church in heiligenkreuz, lower austria (ohmann). plate . (after fr. ohmann, barock.) fig. , and . gilt console tables from the imperial palace in vienna. . armchair from the emperor's room in the klosterneuburg monastery on the danube. . stool in private collection. - brass lock mount in the imperial court library in vienna. . upper part of are screen from the emperor's room in the klosterneu- burg monastery on the danube. german later renaissance ornament. plate . plate . german later renaissance ornament. german later renaissance ornament. plate . fig. — , and . goldsmith's work designed by friedrich jacob morisson, draughtsman and goldsmith in vienna and augsburg, — (hirth). „ . silver gilt jug, the work of the augsburg goldsmith johann heinrich mannlich, who died in . in the imperial palace at laxenburg (dr. albert llg, sammlung kunstindustrieller gegenstande des allerhochsten kaiserhauses). „ . sword hilt. from the work "neu inventiose degengefafj" by georg heumann, cutler in nuremberg, who died in (j. e. wessely, das ornament und die kunst- industrie). , and . goldsmith's work from "neucs groteskenwerk", engraved by l. beyer (wessely). „ . plant ornament by j. honervogt, draughtsman and copper engraver who lived towards the end of the , century (wessely). „ . door handle by j. c. reiff, copper engraver in nuremberg in the th century (wessely . „ . goldsmith's work, acanthus leaf work in the form of a goat by wolfgang hierony- mus v. bemmel, goldsmith, end of th century (wessely). plate . fig. . monstrance, end of th century. in the cathedral treasury in limburg on the lahn (hirth). . carved relief on door in the rochus church, vienna (ohmann). . church candlestick. in the deanery church in klattau (ohmann). „ . nautilus goblet, end of th century. in the grunen gewolbe in dresden (hirth). „ . carved mirror frame in the glankirchen in upper austria. plate . fig. . embroidered vestment in the collection of vaterlandischer altertumer, stuttgart (dolmetsch). „ . pattern of material dating from the end of the th century. in the pfalz arts and crafts museum in kaiserslautern (hirth). „ , and . wrought-iron candlesticks, — . in the nuremberg museum (hirth). „ . watch. in the munich museum. nuremberg work, beginning of the th century (hirth). plate . german later renaissance ornament. 'itartietqt [uius tiste-vlat xqestith ftic tumuli %st & gratiosus . ^ascys ffkjs jatnmraus et^cfuestr(s jecamls elec$usfie£ipolen sirfequi amans,£auper (juih \ a. jll l. v u. /mihu in atatis sljk.lxxi. ft nev hocl fcbligatiss :collegi /m.st r au b i> q fo£> magna ex parte fl/n tu viator defuncti nun)bus, artern^e faluiis ^ patria, precan german later renaissance ornament. plate . fig. . initial letter after lucas kilian ( ) (petzendorfer). . initial letter (petzendorfer). . from an etched solnhofer stone plate, in the "getreidekasten zum leeren beutel", regensburg, (weimar). . engraving on bronze by franz christoph von rosenbaeh, t . in würzburg cathedral (weimar). . etched on stone tomb of thomas von pirnitz, t . in the jesuist church at straubing (weimar). dutch later renaissance ornament. later renaissance ornament in the netherlands. arly in the th century began the great art epoch called into existence by peter paul rubens. this development favoured the introduction of the later renaissance style into the netherlands. cardinal granvella, who introduced italian artists into belgium, was most active, and succeeded in erecting a most important series of architectural con- structions. the jesuits erected also a number of most magnificent initial from the buildings in the rococo style; in holland, however, where rigid printing wopks of theology ruled, there was a tendency to more classical work, for which j. covens and c. mor- reason the former style never took root in the country. the chief tier, amsterdam exponent of the purer italian style in holland was philip vuyboons (ysendyck). ( — ). plate . (after ysendyck, art dans les pays-bas.) fig. . cartouche, e. , engraved by peter de jode for the portrait of the holland painter g. flinck. . . wall-paper from a sample book of the factory in malines. in the royal antiquarian museum, brussels. — . carriage of the duke of ossuna used when entering utrecht as extraordinary ambassador from philip v. of spain. from an engraving by picart, amsterdam . plate . (after ysendyck, art dans les pays-bas.) fig. . lace from the th century. is called "point de buiche", and is made with the spindle alone in one piece without any relief. „ . arm-chair from the book by crispin van den passe, printed in amsterdam in the year under the title of "boutique menuiserie" by m. w. silvius, antwerp. . chimney-piece. from the work "cheminees hollandaises" by g. de gaendel, drawer, born in middelburg. from the year o, published by martin gottfried crosphius. . wrought iron door knocker. dutch later renaissance ornament. plate dutch later renaissance ornament. plate . (after l'art pour tous.) fig. — . sign of the old inn "a l'etrille" in the market place at bruges. from the ttl century. „ — . wall tiles of delft from the inn "le diable au corps" in brussels. from the lh century. delft faience goblet in the collection gasnault (jaenicke). english later renaissance ornament. later renaissance ornament in england. initial letter l"th century (belcher). as already stated in the introduction to english renaissance ornament (page ) the later renaissance, which used to be known as the pure italian style, was introduced into england by inigo jones ( — l )- the first building of importance erected in that style being the banqueting house in whitehall ( ). the style was further developed by sir christopher wren ( — ), sir john van- burgh ( — ), nicholas hawksmoor ( — ), james gibbs ( - ), william kent ( - ), g. leoni ( — ), john james of greenwich (? — ), thomas archer (? — ); — ); george dance ( — ), henry flitcroft ( — ), ), sir robert taylor ( — ), john carrofyork ( — colin campbell (? — john wood of bath ( ), james paine ( — ), sir william chambers ( — ), robert adam ( — ), henry holland ( — ), james wyatt ( — ) and john nash ( — ). plate . (from john belcher and mervyn e. macartney, later renaissance architecture in england.) fig. . capital and cornice of the bastards'house, blandford. „ . details of stalls, trinity college chapel, cambridge. . capital and cornice of the "red lion", blandford. . details of window, town hall, blandford. . gate pier, from a house in west street, chichester. „ . lead rainwater head from the great hall of winchester college. plate . fig. . detail of overdoor in carved oak and cedar, cliiford's inn, london (henry thomson in "building news"). . detail of entablature of reredos, st. stephen's, walbrook, london (e. h. sedding). . detail of pulpit shaft, st. stephen's, walbrook (e. h. sedding). . detail of altar rail, st. stephen's, walbrook (e. h. sedding). . and . carved panel, s. margaret's church lothbury, london (h. inigo triggs in archl. assoc. sketch book). - detail of chimney-piece, clifford's inn (john barbour in "the builder"). „ . detail of frieze, north porch, st. pauls cathedral, london (r. w. schuitz in archl. assoc. sketch book). < „ . carved panel in chancel screen st. james's church, piccadilly, london, (c. l. gill in the archl. assoc. sketch book plate . english later renaissance ornament. english later renaissance ornament. plate . fig. . sundial from wrest, bedfordshire (belcher and macartney). . hexagonal revolving lectern in pembroke college chapel, cambridge (belcher and macartney). — , and . details of stall ends in st. paul's cathedral, london (george h. birch, london churches of the th and l th centuries). „ . carved open-worked wooden panel from st. mary abchurch, london (george h. birch). „ . organ in st. mary, woolnoth, london (george h. birch). , and . details of soffit of the gallery of the senate house, cambridge (belcher and macartney). plate . (from james gibbs, a book of architecture .) fig. and . pedestals for busts. . cartouche in the pediment of st. martin's church, london. , and . designs for vases. . cartouche for monumental inscription. . pedestal of sundial. „ . cartouche for wall tomb. plate . (from john belcher and mervyn e. macartney, later renaissance architecture in england.) fig. . wrought iron gate, fenton house, hampstead. . details of staircase from a house in the close, salisbury. . cloek of the town hall, guildford. . balusters of staircase from a house in great queen street, london. . chimney-piece in a house at epsom, surrey. . section of panelling in the chapel of farnham castle, surrey. . shield of arms over doorway in the same chapel. plate . fig. . carved oak desk, pembroke college, cambridge, (r. s. dods in archl. assoc. sketch book). „ . detail from chimney-piece, northgate club, ipswich (henry tanner, jun.). . upper portion of panelling brewers hall, london, c. (a. stratton in archl. assoc. sketch book). „ . terminal vase, north porch, st. paul's cathedral, london (r. w. sc*m l*z in arch. assoc. sketch book). plate . english later renaissance ornament. plate . english later renaissance ornament. english later renaissance ornament. fig. . detail of wrought iron gate, hampton court palace (hugh p. g. maule in archl. assoc. sketch book). , . side of canopy of pulpit, st. stephen's, walbrook, london (e. h.sedding). . side of bracket under doorway, hampton court palace (p. j. turner in archl. assoc. sketch book). plate . fig. . wall cupboard in the -hall of the haberdasher's company, gresham street, london, (chancellor). . mahogany table, beginning of l th century (chancellor). „ . china cabinet, middle of l th century (chancellor). „ . cushioned chair (bajot). . vase of english porcelain, chelsea. in the british museum (jannicke). „ . georgian settee of the time of chippendale (chancellor). . toilet chest of the time of queen anne (chancellor). plate . (from bailey scott murphy, english and scottish wrought ironwork.) fig. , and . wrought iron stair rail of the king's great staircase, hampton- court palace. end of the th century. . . wrought iron stairease in caroline park house, granton nb. erected by viscount tarbat in . „ , and . wrought iron balusters in south kensington museum. „ , , , and . details of the staircase in caroline park house, granton. „ . wrought iron staircase in caroline park house. plate . (from bailey scott murphy, english and scottish wrought ironwork.) fig. . sign of the "bell" inn at melksham, wilts. „ . wrought iron bracket in south kensington museum. . leg of a console table in south kensington museum. . lamp bracket in mleklegate hill house, york. „ . entrance gateway to a house in abbey street, carlisle. „ . sign of the "white hart" inn at gretton, northants. „ . lamp holder at the "white hart" hotel salisbury. speltz, styles of ornament. plate . english later renaissance ornament. plate . rococo ornament. country its chief exponent was chippendale whose name is generally attached to the style. shortly, however, after its introduction a reaction took place in which claissic work commenced again to predominate in the somewhat pedantic style of louis xvi. this again became influenced by a new phase in which for the first time greek art commenced to show itself, resulting in the development of what later-on became- generally known as the empire style. rococo forms. plate . fig. . after thomas chippendale (gentleman and cabinet makers director). „ . after meissonier (raguenet). . after houdon (raguenet). „ . after thomas johnson. . after habermann. . . after f. de cuvlu s (raguenet). . after josef klauber, augsburg (raguenet). . from a clock in the art industrial museum in milan (raguenet). . . plate . french rococo ornament. french rococo ornament. plate . french rococo ornament. plate . fig. . leaf from a book on ornament by juste aurele meissonier, born in turin in , died at paris (hirth). . . mural decoration (hirth). . design for a throne for louis xv. by rene michel slootz. from a drawing in the bibliotheque nationale, paris (champeaux). . . top of gold frame by meissonier (hirth). . console table of carved and gilt wood, from the regency (bajot). fig. , , and . samples of embroidery from coloured drawings by charles germain de st. aubin, — . in the bibliotheque de l'lnstitut national (champeaux). , , and . letters by laurent from a copybook by schenau: "l'alphabet de l'amour, ou recueil de chiffres a l'usage des amants et des artistes". paris (hirth). „ . monogram with ducal coronet, ascribed to st. aubin (champeaux). fig. . back of sofa from a coloured drawing by francois peyrotte. in the berard collection. „ . under mantle after a drawing by st. aubin. „ . arm-chair of wood gilt the seat and back of beauvais tapestry. „ . chair covering of embroidered silk, from the end of the reign of louis xv. plate . fig- , » , • o. , , and . embroideries of court dress. , , , and . ornaments. sleigh carved in wood gilt. and . spoon and fork by thomas germain, goldsmith in paris. plate . fig. . design for interior decoration by meissonier. * german rococo ornament. rococo ornament in germany and austria. from the year onwards the rococo held sway in south germany with more strongly marked peculiarities than in france, being more fantastic and more varied in form but not, however, so elegant as the french rococo. the first architects of this style were: johann balthazar neumann ( — ), and francois de cuvillies pere ( — ) in south germany, and georg wenzel von knobelsdorff ( —i ), architect of frederick the great, and carl von gontard ( — ) in berlin. plate . the royal castle in dresden. (after carl schmidt and schildbach, der konigliche zwinger in dresden.) this structure was begun by daniel mathaus poppelmann in the year , but upon completion of the south front in , had to be postponed for want of funds. this building is without doubt the most debased of the rococo period, but it evinces a creative fancy whose equal it would be difficult to find. fig. . corner cartouche in the south front of the wall pavilion. „ . pilaster decoration of the wall pavilion. . figure supports from the arch gallery. „ . acanthus spray on the wall pavilion. plate . (after p. halm, ornament und motive des rokokostiles.) fig. . city arms on the town hall at bamberg by meister bonaventura mutschell, . , , and . details from the pulpit of st. michaels church in bamberg, of the year . „ . garden figure from the cardinal's palace of seehof near bamberg, of the year o- . coat of arms on tomb in bamberg, of the year . „ . cast-iron cresting of a gate in wurzburg castle. plate . fig. . arm-chair of german work (champeaux). . . carved mirror frame (champeaux). . frame of fire screen (champeaux). german rococo ornament. fig. . balcony of carved wood, middle of th century. in george hirth's collection. „ . box by joh. leonard wost, engraver and goldsmith in augsburg in the year o (wessely). plate . design for interior decoration by habermann. plate . fig. . pulpit in the church at naumburg (raguenet). „ , and . sh e-buckl by jeremias wachsmuth, painter and engraver, born in augs' burg in , died (wessely). „ , and . sword hilt by the same (wessely). „ . handle of a key after gottfried forschter, mastersmith in brunn about the year (wessely). „ . stove from the castle of bruchsal by albert stucki (hirth). „ . rosette from a ceiling in the castle of bruchsal by albert stucki (hirth). plate . fig. — , and . meissener porcelain (dresden cluna) (champeaux). . meissener (dresden) vase from j. double's collection (jannicke). . meissener plate from the year (havard). plate . (after dr. albert ilg, sammlung kunstindustrieller gegenstande des allerhochsten kaiserhauses.) fig. — . articles belonging to the empress maria theresa. these consisted originally of articles in beaten gold for the toilet and breakfast table and were manufactured by the sculptor and goldsmith anton mathias joseph domanek, born in vienna , died . „ , and . gold boxes, presented by the empress maria theresa to duke charles of lorraine. after having been in the possession of prince kaunitz and later on of various private people these boxes were bought for the crown treasury by francis ii. they are the work of the court jeweller franz mack, born in tyrol i °, died , the portraits are from the artist antonio bencini, who became court painter in . „ . - grotesque figures, appear to have been the work of the dresden goldsmith melchior dinglinger, died . the bodies and legs are made of large pearls. . . sugar-tongs, after martin engelbrecht, engraver, died (wessely). english rococo ornament. rococo ornament in england (chippendale style). in the sth century art in england was influenced more by italy than by france and consequently the rococo style did not take much hold in the country. plate . (from chippendale, gentleman and cabinet maker's director, .) fig. . ribband-back chair. . oval glass frame. . design for a chair. „ . „ for a frame. „ . „ for a chimney-pieee. , , and . schemes for frets. plate . fig. . mahogany bookcase of chippendale period (chancellor). . design for a bed, by chippendale. „ . chair of the chippendale period (chancellor). . design for lantern, by chippendale. . chair with cabriole legs of the chippendale period (chancellor). plate (from chippendale, gentleman and cabinet maker's director, .) fig. . cabinet designed by chippendale. . mouldings of a cabinet designed, by chippendale. . design for cabinet, by chippendale. . „ for brass handle. , . „ for brass escutcheon. , and , , and . glass doors. „ , and . design for lamp stands, by chippendale. , q. design for pedestal, by chippendale. . . „ for upperpart of chimney-pieee, by chippendale. * plate . english rococo ornament. colonial style ornament in the united states. it is evident that the art of a new country like the united states must be in most intimate connection with the style of art which predo- minates in the original country of the artist. this is the reason why styles of almost all the european states were originally represented in america. after a time, however, all these different styles became united with one another forming themselves into the so-called colonial style. the buildings erected in america from to correspond some- what to the queen anne and georgian styles in england, a typical example of the symmetrical construction of this epoch being craigie house, cam- bridge which dates from the year . churches and meeting houses were constructed after examples by sir christopher wren. the best country houses were those found in virginia and maryland, while in florida and california, on the other hand, the spanish renaissance style predominated. from the declaration of independence onwards, the style in america became of a more monumental description but, after the fall of napo- leon, all the various historical styles in fashion in europe were also included. notwithstanding the european reminiscences which they contain, the artistic creations of the th century in the united states possess undoubtedly certain characteristic national traits of their own. plate . american colonial style ornament. plate . american colonial style ornament. plate . american colonial style ornament. th century ornament. the classical revival of the th century. the excavations in herculaneum and pompeii commenced in , but at first very slowly proceeded with, resulted in discoveries which stirred up the interest in ancient classic art and brought new life to it. this was accentuated by the publication of piranesi's engravings in italy and in england by those of wood on the ruins of palmyra and baal- bek ( — ) and by robert adam on the palace of spalato in . these two latter revealed the existence of the remains of imperial rome, other than those in the eternal city, and led to a further revival of classic art not so much in italy as in foreign countries, and more especially in england where the works were published. accustomed only to the copybooks of the italian theorists, the architects found a new field and although the buildings discovered belonged to a decadent period, they were at all events purer in style and much more magnificent than the phases of the later renaissance and the rococo. in england under the direction of robert and james adam and of sir william chambers, the new revival superseded that which is generally known as the queen anne style, the quiet and unpretentious architecture of the commencement of the i 'h century. in france it influenced the architecture and industrial art during the reign of louis xvi. creating a style to which that monarch's name is attached and this style introduced then into germany, led to what is known as the zopfstil period of which the palace at potsdam, sometimes called the german versailles, which was built in — , by the archi- tect carl von gothard ( — ) is the best exponent. of this style the examples from freising and schonbrunn (plate ), show a return to classic forms differing widely from the rococo style which existed in the first half of the th century throughout germany and the netherlands. fan in the carnavalet museum, paris. made at the death of mirabeau (l'art pour tous). italian th century ornament. th century ornament in italy. although the rococo style originated in italy, the tendency in that country was towards the further development of the later renaissance, which in the palace at caserta ( — ) by vanvitelli ( — ) was reduced to its lowest ebb as it would be difficult to find a more monotonous design than that immense structure. in the decoration of their interiors, and in furniture, however, owing to the genius of piranesi (l o — ) and followed by simonetti ( — ), piermarini ( — ) and guiseppe soli ( — ), a classic revival took place, not altogether however without some rococo influence as may be noticed in the mantel- piece on plate $- plate . mural decoration from the work "diverse maniere d'adornare i cammini,, by giovanni battlsta piranesi, architect draughtsman and etcher. plate . fig. . table by guiseppe soli, architect and painter. from the work "ornamentale entworfe fur mobel im stile louis' xvi." (hirth). . panel from a ceiling by albertolli (schoy, l'art de l'epoque louis xvi.). „ . bracket candlestick by albertolll (schoy). . . design for wall decoration with table and clock, by piranesi (hirth). . chest of drawers by soli (hirth). plate . (designs by giocondo albertolli after schoy, l'art de l'epoque louis xvi.) fig. . ceiling in the palace of prince belgioso d'este in milan. . corner ornament of the same. . candlestick. „ . interior decoration. . study for centrepiece. speltz. styles of ornament. - * jo plate . french th century ornament. plate . french ™ century ornament. french - 'h century ornament. plate . fig. . fire screen of embroidered silk in a frame made of carved and gilt wood (bajot). „ . console table in wood gilt (bajot). . salon decoration of the hotel d'hallwill, in carved wood. drawn by architect ledoux (champeaux). . hanging lamp (l'art pour tous). ., . chair, showing transition to the empire style (l'art pour tous). „ . chased door bolt by lalonde (hirth). . bronze door mantle (champeauxl fig. , and . stand and table by jean francois de neufforge. , , , and . doors by antoine joseph rouvo. , and . arm chair and sofa by bouehe le jeune. , and . furniture feet by neufforge. . mirror frame by p. ranson. „ . candelabrum by neufforge. fig. . window valence of embroidered silk in themusee desarts decoratifs(champeaux). . driving saddle of leather with bronze gilt ornaments (hirth). , and . knife handle and lid of box after lalonde (hirth). , and . dress of embroidered silk (champeaux). „ , and . aigrettes from the work "nouveau recueil de parures et joaille- rie", paris , by poujet flls, engraver and goldsmith in paris. (after scho plate . monogram in precious stones, by ranson (schoy). plate . english th century ornament. english th century ornament. plate . (after the decorative works of robert and james adam.) fig. , and . plan and elevation of design for table centre-piece. „ . design for frame and royal coat of arms. plate . (after the decorative works of robert and james adam.) fig. . ceiling of a room, called the "japanned room" in the queen's house, from a design by adam. „ . bridge in the park of sion house. plate . (after the decorative works of robert and james adam.) fig. . sedan chair, from a design by adam, prepared for the king. . console table with mirror over. - window mantle. „ . mantel piece in brass and steel, in library of luton, . plate . fig. . tripod and vase for candles (adam). . pier glass (adam). k . door knocker from the house of sir watkins williams wynn, st. james's square (adam). „ , and . sugar bowl and coffee-pot of the year (champeaux). plate . fig. , and . piano in wood of various colours, made in london for the em- press of russia (adam). . design for a panel by adam. „ . window mantle (adam). . . top of chest of drawers in the palace of the countess of derby (adam). furniture made from designs by thomas sheraton. (after sheraton, cabinet maker and upholsterer's drawing book, — ) plate . fig. . buffet or sideboard. „ . toilet table. . fire-screen. * o plate . english th century ornament. english th century ornament. fig. . inlaid table top. , . acanthus ornament. . arm chair. „ . sofa. plate . fig. . panel decoration. — . details of furniture. , and . window mantles. „ - head of doorway. „ . frieze in bas-relief. plate . fig. — . designs for chair backs. center for a pier table to be painted or executed in inlay. . design for a secretary and bookcase. . design for a cabinet. furniture made from designs by a. hepplewhite. (after hepplewhite, the cabinet maker and upholsterer's guide, — .) plate . fig. . canopy bed. . writing table with cupboard over. . chair. . terminal vase. — , — . cornices for furniture. „ . glass door of cupboard. work prepared from various designs. plate . fig. . design for ceiling by pergolesi. . mantel piece by g. richardson. . and . panels by pergolesi. . mantel piece with mirror by william th omas. „ . emblem by pergolesi. . celling by g. richardson. o plate . english th century ornament. english th century ornament. plate . (after bailey scott murphy, english and scottish wrought ironwork.) fig. i. wrought-iron gate in screen to dining hall, queen's college, cambridge, round which in the year the wood work in the prevailing renaissance style was carried out. . fan-light of a gateway in all soul's college, oxford, the work of hawksmoor. english th century pottery. plate . (after examples of early english pottery by john eliot hodgkin and edith hodgkin.) fig. . plate. cock pit hill of the year . black enamel with bronze-coloured flowers. „ . plate, of the same origin. brown glazing with yellow decorations, of the year . „ . drinking cup with handles, sgraffito ware, inscribed . . jug, sgraffito, inscribed . „ . drinking cup with handles from jackfield, , with gold ornamentations. , and . plates. delft porcelain, made in england, . . plate, staffordshire delft, about . . plate, lambeth delft, inscribed . mm design for a bracket candlestick by adam. empire ornament in france. frieze in mural painting (percier et fontaine). empire ornament in france. in the last quarter of the 'l century, greek art commenced to exert its influence on architecture and the industrial arts, and its development by percier and fontaine in paris tor napoleon i., resulted in that phase which is generally known as the style of the empire. although unable to supersede entirely the traditional crafts of the day, such as is found in the louis xv. and xvi. styles, it created a demand for decsration of a better character, and pure architectural forms were introduced in the place of the rococo scroll-work thus the greek palmette and acanthus, the egg and tongue, the quilloche and other decorative details came again into fashion and extended to furniture and other accessories, including also interior work and metal mounts. work made from designs by c. percier and p. f. l. fontaine. plate . (after percier et fontaine, recueil de decorations interieures.) fig. . capital and entablature. „ . soffit of cornice. . base of pilaster. . wall decoration from the cabinet of king joseph of spain, made in paris from designs by percier and fontaine, and foxed in the palace at aranjuez. plate . empire ornament in france. empire ornament in france. plate . fig. . ceiling painting in a studio at paris. plate . fig. . pier in the venus museum in the louvre, paris. „ . tribune from the hall of the marshalls in the tuileries, paris. plate . fig. . mantel piece in the louvre, paris. „ , and . mural paintings. . . book cabinet, made in paris for amsterdam. plate . fig. . branched candlestick, paris. . soup tureen, made in paris. . candelabrum, made in paris. . bed stead and canopy, paris. plate . fig. . throne of napoleon i. in the tuileries, now destroyed. plate . fig. . writing bureau, made in paris. „ , and . table, made in paris for st. petersburg. , . table, made in paris for count s. in st. petersburg. „ - arm-chair, made in paris for st. petersburg. plate . fig. — , — . furniture mountings (recueil des dessins d'ornements d'architecture de la manufacture de joseph bennot a sarrebourg et paris). „ . furniture mounting (l'art pour tous). „ . upper part of a chest of drawers (l'art pour tous) oo- plate . empire ornament in france. empire ornament in france. plate . fig. , , , n— . furniture mountings (bennot). . mirror from a drawing by p. p. prudhon, in the industrial art museum, berlin. „ . stand (beauvalet). » . sevres vase in grand trianon, after a photograph. . , and . silver cradle of the duke of bordeaux (l'art pour tous). „ , and . chairs of the directory period (l'art pour tous). bureau, made in paris (percier et fontaine). empire ornament in france. on the fall of the empire, the same style continued but was much inferior both [in character and execution. the neogrec movement of — led to more refinement in design, which after the franco-german war tended towards a revival of the louis xiv. and xv. style. plate . fig. . work table, of the year (bajot). . screen in mahogany, with gilt mountings (bajot). . arm-chair of the year (bajot). . console table, (bajot). . chair, (bajot). „ . key-hole plate (l'art pour tous). . . pilaster from the cafe oaulois, rue poissoniere no. , paris (thiollet et h. roux). key-hole plate (l'art pour tous). speltz, styles of ornament. io empire ornament in italy. plate . fig. . internal decoration of reception room in the royal palaee in venice, of the year . silver chandelier in the church of s. giorgio de greci, venice (percier et fontaine). empire ornament in germany. plate . fig. . branch bracket candlestick in bronze gilt (heider). „ . toilet looking-glass with bronze frame (heider). „ . bronze vase with the dance of the hours, in the royal residence in stuttgart (luthmer). „ . branch candlestick of bronze gilt (heider). „ , and . balcony railings in wickenburger gasse, vienna (heider). window of the husar inn in garmisch, upper bavaria (zell, bauemhauser im bayerischen hochland). t neogrec ornament in germany. plate . speltz. styles of ornament. neogrec ornament in germany. plate . fig. . drawing-room table by schinkel (l. lohde). „ . mural painting from drawings by stier (vorbilder). „ - writing table by schinkel (l. lohde). . . goblet-glass by schinkel (vorbilder). „ . wine cooler by ruhl (vorbilder). . . sample of stuff from bottieher (vorbilder). plate . 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unteritalien. lab arte, jules, histoire des arts ndustriels au moyen-agc et de la renaissance. lacrolx, p., les arts au moyen-age et de la renaissance. lambert, a., und stahl, b., motive der deutschen architektur. lamprecht, dr. karl, initial ornamentik. layard, sir a. h., monuments of niniveh. lebon, dr. gustav, les civilisations de l'lnde. lebon, gustavo, les monuments de l'lnde. lepsius, c. r., denkmaler aus aegypten u. aethiopien. lesslng, julius, ancient oriental carpet patterns. lesslng, mobel des , jahrhunderts. lesslng, italienischer mobel des r . jahrhunderts. lesslng, j., vorbilderhefte aus dem kgl. kunstge- werbemuseum. leybold, l., das rathaus von augsburg. libonls, l., les styles. llndenschmlt, l., handbuch der deutschen alter- tumskunst. llndensehmttt, aus der heidnischen vorzeit. lohde, l., sammlung von mbbel-entwurfen, erfunden von karl friedrich schinkel. luthmer, f., innenraume im louis xvl- und em- pires til, luthmer, biirgerliche mobel aus dem ersten drittel des . jahrhunderts. lilbke, dr. w., die kunst des altertums. macquold, percy, history of english furniture. martha, i., l'art etrusque. martha, i., manuel d'archeologie etrusque et romaine. martin, c, l'art romane en france. mau, a., pompei, ts life and art. mauch, j. m., architektonische ordnungen. meurer,m., vergleichende formenlehre des ornaments. meyer, f. s., a handbook of ornament mlddleton, j. h., lluminated manuscripts in classical and mediaeval times. migeon, s., manuel d'art musulman; arts plastiques et industriels. mllllngen, j. v., peinture des vases grecs. mohrmann, prof. karl und dr. eugen ferd. elch- wede, germanische fruhkunst. monumentos arqultectonlcos de espa a. muller, h. a. und mothes, ., archaologisches lexikon. murphy, ba ley scott, english and scottish wrought ironwork. nash, j., old english mansions. nlcolal, h. g., ornament der italienischen kunst des . jahrhunderts. nye, alvan c, colonial furniture. oakeshott, g. j., detail and ornament of the talian renaissance. oberhansll, aufnahmen alter schweizerischcr kunst- schmiedearbeiten. odrzywolski, s., die renaissance in polen. ohmann, barock. opderbecke, bauformen des mittelalters. ortweln, (a.)* die deutsche renaissance. onganla, f., basilica di san marco, venezia. pannewltz, von, formenlehre der romanischen bau- kunst. parker, j. h., glossary of terms used in architecture. paukert, f., tiroler zimmcrgotik. percler et fontaine, recucil de decorations interieures. pergolesl, m. a., ornamental designs. perrot and chlplez, history of art in ancient times. petrle (dr. hinders), tel el amama. pfnor, r-, ornamention de toutes les epoques. pfnor, palais de fontainebleau. plranesl, g b., antiquita romane. prentice, a. n., renaissance architecture and orna- ment in spain. prlsse d'avennes, histoire de l'art egyptien. prlsse d'avennes, la decoration arabe. pugln, a., specimens of gothic architecture. reference books. puffin, a.f examples of gothic architecture. pugln (welby), glossary of ecclesiastical ornament and costume. r&clnet, a., le costume historique. racinet, a., l'ornement polychrome. raguenet, a,f materiaux et documents. rajendralala, mltra, the antiquities of orissa. relchhold, k., griechische vasenmalerei. relchhold, kunst und zeichnen. revoll (henri), architecture romane dumidi de lafrance. revue generale de 'architecture. rhead, g. w., principles of design. r chardson, c. j., studies from old english mansions. richardson, c. j., architectural remains of the reigns of elizabeth and james. r chardson, c. j., observations on the architecture of the reigns of queen elizabeth and king james i. roger-mites, l., la bijouterie. roger-miles (l.), beaux-arts. roger-miles (l.), comment discerner les styles. rohault de fleury (g.)t la toscane au moyen-age. rouyer (eugene), l'art archi ectural en france. roux, h.t herculanum et pompei. ruprieh-robert (n.), l'architecture normande. saladln, h., manuel d'art musulman: architecture. salln, s>, die altgermanische tierornamentik. salzenberg (w.), altchristliche baudenkmaler von konstantinopel. sanders, w. b., carved oak woodwork. sanders, w. b.t half timbered houses and carved oak furniture of the ' ' and hl centuries. sarre (frledrlch), denkmaler der persischenbaukunst. schinkel (karl frledrlch), sammlung architekto- nischer entwiirfe, schllemann, h., tiryns and mycena;. schmidt, karl und schlldbach, der konigliche zwinger in dresden. schoy, a., die architektonisch-dekorative kunst der zeit ludwig xv . schutte, ornamentale und architektonische studien- blatter aus ltalien. * scott, w. b., antiquarian gleanings in the north of england. sebah, p., varchitecture ottoman. seesselberg, f., helm und mitra, semper, g., der stil. shaw, henry, handbook of mediaevael alphabets and devices. shaw, h. and madden, f., lluminated ornaments from manuscripts th to ih century. shaw, h., details of elizabethan architecture. sheraton, t., cabinet maker and upholsterer's draw- ing book. smith, george, assyrian discoveries. speltz, alex., saulenformen der agyptischen, grie- chischen und romischen baukunst. sp ers, r. phene, the orders of architecture. spiers, architecture. east and west. stlehl, ., das deutschc rathaus im mittelalter. stlehl, backsteinbau romanischer zeit. stokes, margaret, early christian art in ireland. strange, t a., english furniture, decoration. wood- work and allied arts. stothard, c. a., the monumental effigies of great britain. stueckelberg, e. a., longobardische plastik. suirelschchlkov, n. p., et trener, d. k., orne- ments sur les monuments de l'aucien art russe. suslov, v. v., monuments de l'ancienne architecture russe. tanner, henry jr., english nterior woodwork of the xvl xvh and xvt centuries. tatham, c. h., etchings of ancient ornamental archi- tecture. teirlch, v., ornamentc aus der bliitezeit italienischer renaissance. teirlch, v., intarsien. the builder. the build ng news. thierry, c, klassische ornamcnte. thlollet f. et h. roux, nouveau recueil de menui- se ie. trlggs, h. i. and tanner, h., some architectural works of inigo jones. uhde, constantln and spiers, r. phene, the architectural forms of the classic ages. uhde, die konstruktionen und die kunstformen der architektur. ungewitter, g. c, land- und stadtkirchen. van ysendyk, documents classes de l'art dans les pays-bas. vacher, s., fifteenth century italian ornament. victoria and albert museum, handbooks on art viollet-le-duc, e. e., l'art russe. vtollet-le-duc, dictionnaire raisonne de 'architec- ture franeaise du xi. au x . siccle. v ollet-le-duc, dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier f ancais. vogi e, comte de, la syrie centrale. vulllamy, l., and spiers, r. phen , examples of classic ornament from greece and rome. ware (w. rotch), the georgian period. colonial or xv ii-century architecture in the united states. waring, j. b., stone monuments, tumuli, and orna- ment of remote ages. war ng, j. b., llustrations of architecture and ornament. wamer, g. f., illuminated manucripts in the british museum. wasmuth, e., alte und neue kirchcnmobel. watt, j. cromar, greek and pompeian decorative work. weaver, lawrence, english leadwork. its art and history. weimar, w., ein fuhrer durch die sammlungen. we mar, monumentalschriften, wessely, j. e-, das ornament und die kunstindustrie. westlake,n.h.j., a history of design in paiutcd glass. westwood, j. ., paleographia sacra pictoria. westwood, facsimiles of anglo saxon and irish manuscripts. wornum, r. n., analysis of ornament. zahn, w., ornamentc aller klassischen kunstepochen. zahn, w., die schonsten ornamentc aus pompeji, herkulanum und stabiae. zeller, adolf, die romanischen baudenkmaler von hildesheim. zell, franz, bauerntrachteu aus dem bayrischen hochland. index of illustrations. bag. - assyr. p. . f. . - goth. p. . f. . balcony. — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. , . p. . f. , — . —emp. p. . f. , . baluster. — assyr. p. . f. — . — camb. p. . f. . —ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — lat. ren. p. . f. . — col. p. . f. . p. . f. . baluster pier. — ren. p. . f. . balustrade. — assyr. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , , , , . p. . f. . p. . f. — . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — coll. p. . f. . — neo g. p. . f. . — page . baptismal font. — byz. p. . f. . — romq>« p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , , .— goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — pages , . base. — egypt. p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. , . — pers. p. . f. , , . — ind. p. . f. , - p. . f , . — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. , . — p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. — , — . — byz. p. . f. , , . — romq"<= p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. .f. , . p- . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . — chin. p. . f. , - — jap. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — col. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . — neo g. p. . f. . — pages , . bas-relief. — preh. p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . — egypt. p. . f. , . — assyr. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. , . — pers. p. . f. , . p. . f. , n, . — phoen. p. . f. . — ind. p. . f. , , , o. p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. — . p. . f. . p. . f. . — etrusc. p. . f. - battle-axe. — preh. p.l. f. . p. .f. , . i — mahom. p. . f. . bead-moulding. — grec. p. . f. - . beaker. — assyr. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . bed. — romque p. . f. , , . — ren. p. . f. . - roc. p. . f. .- * c. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . — biederm. p. . f. . bellflower. — goth. p. . f. . bellows. — ren. p. . f. . belt.— goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . belt-buekle. — celt. p. . f. , — , . p. . f. . belvedere. — ren. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . biga. — etrusc. p. . f. , . bishop's throne. — rom. p. . f. . bishop's crozier. — rom. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . bookcase. — early chr. p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . bookcover. — early chr. p. . f. . — byz. p. . f. . p. . f. . — romq" p. . f. . - goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . bookmarker. — ren. p. . f. . border. — romq« p. . f. — . p. . f. . p. . f. — . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , . , . p. . fi , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. l . p. . f. , , . p. . f. — . p. . f. , , , . — russ. p.' . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. — , — . p. . f. — . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , , , .—goth. p. . f. , — . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. — . — ren. p. . f. , . boss to vaulting. — romqu< = p. . f. . goth. p. . f. , , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . bottle. — celt. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . bow. - ind. p. . f. . - rom. p. . f. . bowl. — assyr. p. . f. o. — mahom. p. f. . index of illustrations. f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — lat.ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . p. . f. — , . p. . f. . — col. p. . f. . — thc. p. . f. . chimera. — page g . chimney. — goth. p. . f. . chimney piece. — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. o. — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat.ren. p. . f.j. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . p. . f. . — col. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . — l thc. p. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . christ on throne. — earlychr. p. . f. . cimbal. — grec. p. . f. . cist. — etrusc. p. . f. . clasp. — preh. p.l. f. , .— grec. p. . f. . rom. p. . f. . - celt. p. . f. . — romque p. . f. . clock. — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. , . — page . cloth fabric. - ronrt»< = p. . f. . - goth. p. . f. . club. — preh. p. . f. . — ind. p. . f. , , . — russ. p. . f. . coat of arms. — goth. p. . f. . - ren. p. . f. . - lat. ren. p. . f. . - th c. p. . f. . - pages , - coffee pot. — th c. p. . f. . coffer. — byz. p. . f. . — romq"<= p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . coffin. — celt. p. . f. , . coiffure. — grec. p. . f. , , , . — rom. p. . f. — o. — byz. p. . f. — . — goth. p. . f. . coin. — pers. p. . f. . - grec. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. . column. — preh. p. . f. - — egypt. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — ind. p. . f. , , , , , , . — grec. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. . — pomp. p. . f. , . — rom ue p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , , , . p- . j f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , , p. . f. — . — russ. p. . f. . p. . f. , . - mahom. p. . f. , , - p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. - p. . f. . - chin. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . - pages u, . comb. — rom. p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. . — romq"' p. . f. . i console. — mahom. p. . f. — , . — goth. p. . f. — . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . console table. — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. . — thc. p. . f. . p. . f. . consular chair. — byz. p. . f. . consul's costume. — rom. p. . f. . corbel table. — byz. p. , f. . — romq« p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — page l g. cornice. — ind. p. . f. , , , , . p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f . p. . f. . — rom. p. s . f. , , , " . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , . — romque p. . f. . p. . f. , , , . p. .f. - . — mahom. p. . f. , — . — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. , . — neo g. p. . f. . — page . corona. — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . coronation chair. — goth. p. . f. . corsage ornament. — 'hc. p. . f. . costume.— rom p. . f. , .—romq« p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — pages , , , , . . couch. - egypt. p. . f. . - grec. p. . f. . index of illustrations. cradle. — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. , . credence table. — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . cresting. — romque p. . f. — . — mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . crocket. — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. - crotchet work. — ren. p. . f. . crown. — ind. p. . f. . — early chr. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — byz. p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . cross. — celt. p. . f. . p. . f. , - . — early chr. p. . f. . p. . f. . — romque p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . —goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . cross flnial. — ren. p. . f. . crozier. — romque p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. . crucifix. — early chr. p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — page u . cup. — rom. p. . f. . — romq"* p. . f. . — chin. p. . f. . — s* c. p. . f. l . cupboard. —lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. . p. . f. . — biederm. p. . f. . cupola. — russ. p. . f. . curtain. — jap. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . — page . cymatlum. — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. — . dagger. — preh. p. . f. , . — egypt. p. . f. . — etrusc. p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. , . — romv p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . dagger hilt. — ren. p. . f. — . dagger sheath. — rom. p. . f. . — ken. p. . f. . damascened work. — mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. , , , . — page . damask. — ren. p. . f. . decanter. — ren. p. . f. . delft plate. — ren. p. . f. . diadem. — russ. p.m. f. . diaper. — ren. p. . f. — , , , . diptych. — early chr. p. . f. . dlsh. — pers. p. . f. . — phoen. p. . f. . — grec. p. . f. . p. . f. . — celt. p. . f. . — chin. p. . f. . — — ren p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. - door. — egyp. p. . f. . — byz. p. . f. . — romque p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. — . p. . f. . p. . f. . — jap. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. . — col. p. . f. . p. . f. . — 'h c. p. . f. , , , . p. . f. . — neog. p. . f. . — page . door furniture. — romq«p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. , , , , , , , , , , , , .— ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . — page . door hinge. — romq« p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. , , , — page . door - knocker. — romq« p. . f. . p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — lat ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . doorway. — romqt« p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . — romq« p. . f. — . — goth. p. . f. . p. . f. p. . f. - . p. . f. — . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . — camb. p. . f. . p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p- . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. —col. p. . f. , . p. . j f. . — th c. p. . f. . p. . index of illustrations. j* sleigh. — roc. p. . f. . sofa. — lat.ren. p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — col. p. . f. , , . — l *c. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — biederm. p. . f. . — neo g. p. . f. , . spandrel. — mahom. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . spear-head. — preh. p. . f. , . — grec. p. . f. . — etrusc. p. . f. . sphinx. — egypt. p. . f. , . — pomp. p. . f. . spinet. — lat. ren. p. . f. , . spire. — goth. p. . f. . spoon. — egypt. p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. . — rom "c p. . f. . — russ. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. , . spur. — goth. p. . f. . stained glass. - romqu e p, . f. . p. . f. , .-goth. p. . f. , . p. .f. , . p. . f. — . p. . f. , — - - ren. * p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — page . stair-balustrade. — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . - lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. . staircase. — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . stair newel. — goth. p. . f. . stair rail. — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . stalactite. — mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. — . stall. — romq« p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. , , . p. . f. , - p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — lat.ren. p. . f. . p. . f. — , . standard. — assyr. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. , . statue. - egypt. p. . f. . - grec. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. . — etrus. p. . f. . — rom. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. , - p. . f. . p. . f. . — page , g . stele. — grec. p. . f. , , . p. . f. . stone figure. — egypt p. . f. , , , . p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. . — ind. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — page . stonehenge. — page . stoneware. — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. - , . stool. — assyr. p. . f. . — ind. p. . . — romq« p. . f. . p. . f. . — goth. p. . f. . — ren. p. . f. . — lat. ren. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. , . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . — page . stove. — goth. p. . f. . — ren p. . f. . p. . f. . — roc. p. . f. . — th c. p. . f. . — emp. p. . f. , . stueco ornament. — russ. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. — , — o, — . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. — , . p. . f. — . p. . f. , , , . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. — . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — roc. p. . f. . — col. p. . f. . — * g p. . f. . p. . f. , , . p. . f. - . p. . f. . p. . f. , . — page . stuff pattern. — jap. p. . f. , , , . — ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . p. . f. — . p. . f. — , - . — lat. ren. p. . f. , . p. . f. , . — biederm. p. . f. , , — . — neo g. p. . f. , . — page . sugar bowl. — p. . f. . sugar-tongs. — roc. p. . f. . sunshade. — grec. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . sundial. — ren. p. . f. . sword. — preh. p. . f. , . p. . f. . — assyr. p. . f. . — etrus. p. . f. , , . — celt. p. . f. . p. . f. , . — early-chr. p. . f. . — mahom. p. . f. . p. . f. — . — jap. p. . f. , . — ren. p. . f. . p. . f. . p. . f. , , . — page . the teaching of ornamentfred hamilton daniels the teaching of ornament by fred h. daniels, director of art education, public schools, buffalo, new york j j • - the j. c. witter company fifth avenue, new york city f .» : ■." r'ork •j. v.v. library copyrighted, by j. c. witter go. contents. i. art education ... ii ii. primary grades ..... < iii. general plan of work in higher grades iv. elements of beauty in nature and ornament v. the teaching and drawing of ornament vi. egyptian ornament . . . vii. greek " ... viii. roman ". . . . ix. byzantine x. saracenic" . . . . ' xi. gothic xii. original design ... . . xiii. color . . . . preface. are herein described; but as the teacher will naturally study most carefully that style which she is to teach, it has seemed best to repeat in several chapters some general prin- ciples and suggestions. the following books are recommended to those who have time for additional reading: historic architecture and ornament: "grammar of ornament," owen jones. "a history of art," goodyear. "history of architecture," hamlin. "architecture," in encyclopedia britannica. "history of art," lubke. "a history of art in all countries," ferguson. "the fine arts," g. baldwin brown. "prang's teachers' manual, part iv." design: "principles and practice of design," jackson. "studies in plant form and design," midgley and lilley. "nature in ornament," day. "the anatomy of pattern," day. "with brush and pen," hall. color: "elementary color," bradley. fred h. daniels. buffalo, april ist, . chapter . art education "the useful, in so far as opposed to the agreeable and the beautiful, is enjoyed merely in common with the lower animals; and if we love and prize what is useful to us in this sense, we do nothing more than what the ox and the ass would do for among all animals, man alone is gifted with a perception of order, beauty, and grace therefore it is also that the perception of the beautiful, in art as well as manners and morals, distinguishes the social, developed and civilized man from the savage and the barbarian beauty and grace are undoubtedly united by nature itself with the useful; but they are not, therefore, desirable because they are useful; but because from the nature of man, he enjoys a pure pleasure in their contemplation." — wieland. ost essential is it that we understand at the outset that art is not confined to the paint- ing of pictures and the carving of statues. from earliest times its scope has been universal. a study of the household fur- nishings of the caves of prehistoric races, or of the modern residences and their con- tents, will result in the conclusion that nothing made by man is satisfactory until it is so fashioned as to conform with the maker's notion of beauty—until it ex- presses an art idea. we are conscious of a certain joy in the mere contemplation of anything in which we recognize an understanding of beauty. to a greater or lesser degree an ideal has been realized. "art consists in the doing of each right thing well." art, then, has its organ in the every-day demands of man- kind. it cannot be disassociated from life, hence its im- portance in any complete scheme of education. the business of the school is to prepare for complete living; in other words, to present to the pupils the highest aspect of each study that they "may do each right thing well." a course in drawing which is planned with this end in view necessarily includes the best that has ever been pre- sented under the three headings, pictorial, decorative and constructive. it does not in any particular lessen the em- phasis which the manufacturer and workman demand for mechanical skill; it does add the thoughtful, the creative, the art element which makes the artist-artisan rather than the drudge, which transforms the imitator into the creator. un- doubtedly the home environment of the average american child tends to develop the mechanical rather than the artistic nature, hence the especial need—for complete living—of such art work in our schools as will encourage thoughtful, original productions. any curriculum which provides only for the obtaining of a meagre livelihood neglects to furnish occupation for a large part of each day's routine. it is nec- essary to provide means for the enrichment of life through a judicious employment of the leisure hours. to this end cul- ture studies were introduced into the schools. literature and music are not taught primarily to make writers and mu- sicians, but to educate toward a love for the best in these two departments. the course in drawing should aim to cultivate, refine and elevate aesthetic ideals. a study of theories and facts will never accomplish this end. we must do more than teach drawing. we must make our course so broad that the beautiful creations of god and man will be an eternal source of enjoyment. in a well-known high school, where drawing is optional, the question was asked, "why do you study drawing?" one girl wrote this: "the chief reason i study drawing is because i enjoy it so much. instead of seeming like a lesson it is almost the same as a recreation. it helps me in a great many ways, too. the more i study it the more beauty \ see in things i had never thought especially beautiful before, and the more i can enjoy and appreciate nature. i can not help thinking it makes us beautiful inwardly, and, as the poet says, 'inward beauty makes outward grace,' for there is no hurry, or worry, but just a kind of peaceful pleasure." drawing is rightly taught in that high school. nature drawing cultivates an appreciation of the beauties of nature. emerson has said, "we are immersed in beau - ty but our eyes have no clear vision." and again: "let us approach and admire beauty, whose revelation to man we now celebrate,—beauty, welcome as the sun wherever it pleases to shine, which pleases everybody with it and with themselves." the world of nature is our environment; i£ we would enjoy it we "must be musical, tremulous, impressional, alive to gentle influence of landscape and of sky." art is enjoyed according to the understanding and the im pressionability of the spectator. the story is beautiful to us is proportion to the degree that it arouses our thought activities. the greatest actors are recorded as saying that they but sug- gest and the imagination of the audience supplies the de- tails. a musical composition often appeals to us because oi the thought or sentiment which it excites. to the general public in this country the pictures of native hills and of home life are more interesting than those representing foreign scenes. art is used to express ideas. if we do not compre- hend in any degree the thought which the artist would pre- sent, then the theme or object is not artistic to us. if it be a real work of art, it is our misfortune not to be able to enjoy it. what is true of the drama, of literature, music and paint- ing is equally true of architecture and ornament. in the architecture of our towns and cities we find scarcely any- thing which is not interesting because of its relation to the great historic styles. we know the stories of the origin and early uses of the arches in this church; yonder columns re- minds us of the culture of the greeks, of their athens; here is an acanthus scroll which surely is borrowed from roman ornament, and the very character of roman art starts an- other train of thought regarding ancient rome and her peo- ple. thus through the study of historic ornament and design our modern architecture is revealed to us anew. what was formerly but a mass of stone becomes alive with meaning. every column and window and dome and bit of ornament challenge our attention because in them we recog- nize old friends. they have a suggestive message of the good and true historically—they are beautiful to us. an attempt to reproduce the second, etc. (fig. ) by working in this way the spirit of the flower has woefully degenerated in the last units. "keep this in mind, that it is the definite individual character of an object which makes beauty." talk with the class about the manner in which plants grow. we do not see flowers growing in the fields each isolated from all others, but rather in groups springing from a common root. flowers seem to like the companionship of congenial friends, as do the children in the school-yard. "and 'tis my faith, that every flower enjoys the air it breathes." look out of the window at the play-ground: here is a group of boys discussing some scheme for the future, there another smaller gathering, and away in the distance are to to be seen one or two who appear to be coming to join the merry parties. we can not always see the root of the flower but all the lines of the plant point to it. all flowers are n®t of the same height, some lift their heads higher than others. some boys and girls are taller than their neighbors; it would not be very interesting to watch a passing throng on the street if all were exactly of the same build. again, as with people, some stand up straight and stiff, while others seem to say, "i'll hold my head up as high as any, but i can do so a little more gracefully." these plants curve gently in the stem. while the child is considering these few interesting phases of nature he is in reality learning the laws of beauty as expressed in good design; the principles of growing plants, of radiation, of strength, of rhythm, of curvature. these are the elements of beauty which are conspicuous by their ab- sence in the designs of the older boys and girls. in the pla- cing and veining of the leaves and the arrangement of sepals and petals, he sees beautiful illustrations of repetition and alternation. (see chapter iv.) the arrangements in figs. and seem to confoi m with the first step toward the making of a designer. this method will not, perhaps, produce as pleasing "result sheets " as can be obtained in other ways, but growth is the work of the lower grades, results will follow later. for surface designs, let the pupils arrange flowers in groups in a frame and copy the same upon another sheet. (figs. , and .) here is opportunity for original thought in grouping and the work is a continued study of nature. the stem of each flower ought to be entirely removed before placing the flowers in the oblong. a surface pattern made with the stems of flowers floating out in all directions is very unsatisfactory because it is untrue to natural growths, it sug- gests movement—sometimes such drawings are very like an aquarium of pollywogs—and we are perhaps disappointed that these long-tailed things do not move, whereas a design should give the impression of being still, of repose. figs. , and are pictures of flowers similar to the views we should obtain, omitting details below the flowers, in a walk through the fields or woods. and now, what school of ornament shall we study to illus- trate this kind of design? the japanese prints give us the best examples of non-conventional decorative arrangements. they are artistic and—they are cheap. (fig. .) by all means use the brush and color or colored crayons in the lower grades. the painted form is far more interest- ing, more like the original and therefore easier to criticize, and the brush and crayon furnish the best mediums to train the child in direct free expression. there are many who think that the colored crayons are preferable to water-colors in the first year or two of school life. the pencil is the most uninteresting medium to children. if crayons are used, chalk can be given out to draw flowers having white petals. after the flowers in the border or surface pattern are drawn, a background may be added even by children in the first grade. show the class how to put on a background by making parallel strokes with the crayon (figs. - ), or byput- ting on a wash with the water-colors. (if water-colors are used the background should be put on first.) primary chil- dren can understand, through class criticisms, that if the background is stronger in color than the flowers, it becomes of more importance than the latter, and they know that the flowers ought to be the more prominent. each child may decide what color he will use. at the close of the lesson pin up some of the drawings and have a class criticism with a fig. . fig. chapter iii. general plan of work in higher grades "to much learning stifles the soul. we toil only to stuff the memory but leave the conscience and understanding empty."—montaigne. he director of art education should con- sider four factors in planning a course in historic ornament and design: the pupil; the amount of time that can be devoted each year to the subject; the relative importance of the various schools; and the correlation of the or- nament with the work in original de- sign. each of the following plans has its advantages and objections. one method of teaching historic ornament involves the study of elements from any and all schools without regard to the history of art until the sixth or eighth year of school life, when there comes a general summary of all the historic styles. another method begins with egyptian art in the fourth year and continues in a chronological order, taking greek in the fifth year, etc. child-study has shown us that some sub- jects can best be taught to children at certain periods of their school career. certainly the ideas of time, space, re- ligion and symbolism, which permeate egyptian art are not wisely presented to the child in his fourth year in school. nor can any comprehension of the beauty of greek art be secured in the fifth. it would be most interesting to know how many of the children, who have been told that the parthenon was a very beautiful building, could honestly say: "i think it is beautiful." undoubtedly, the large majority of learners accept the fact that it is so called, try to remember the name of the architect, the date and where it was built—and this is called "art education." our time ■ is wasted in the copying of meaningless forms and names. some one will say that a child cannot appreciate the subtle beauty of such a creation as a greek temple. then let us leave the subject for consideration in a higher grade. the world's legacy of art provides enough that will appeal to him. the fact that many pupils leave school at the end of the grammar course is a strong argument in favor of one of the above plans. very few classes spend more than a month each year upon the subject of historic ornament; this means from four to eight hours. if eight hours can be had, prob- ably the plan of commencing to classify the schools in the sixth year is preferable. the relative importance of the different schools and their correlation with original work ought now to be thought of, particularly by those directors of drawing who cannot allow eight hours a year for the study of ornament. the term "historic ornament " is applied to the art of the past ages, which has withstood the criticism of man for cen- turies. it forms, therefore, a reliable source from which to draw inspiration for original work it should be so taught as to lead to and correlate with our work in design. "in the study of nature, without which the architect as well as every other artist can do nothing,—absolutely noth- ing—he must study the commentaries on her, i. e., all pre- vious productions of his art. all these are so many anno- tations on nature's great and most difficult book; and he who attempts to read her without their assistance, simply sets up his wisdom against that of all mankind; and, how- ever satisfactory his discoveries may be to himself, he may be assured that they are as old as adam; and that should he have at once the greatest genius and the longest life ever granted, he will have advanced no further than the first efforts of art, which, pursued on this principle would, un- like all other human pursuits, be never beyond its begin- ning. it is impossible for the designer to produce anything true but by the study of nature, and it is impossible to pro- duce anything new but by a knowledge of what has been done by his predecessors. the most original artists of any kind are the most extensive imitators." as we look back at our training in historic ornament and design, it seems now like a new topic for our consideration, inasmuch as the ornament we talked about and copied had very little or no relation to the designs we were expected to produce. we were shown pictures of pyramids, temples, mosques, capitals, acanthus foliage, scrolls, etc., etc., but what had all this to do with the design for a border which we were to make? therefore, the practical application of historic ornament to design is to many a new subject. a better method would be based upon the requirements nec- essary for the production of original work. all ornament and design, all art, is a result of the careful study of nature—and of geometry, of which nature is the embodiment. the pupil can not indulge in abstract idealizations until he has concrete concepts. "you beat your pate, and fancy wit will come; knock as you please, there's nobody at home." —pope. in his "grammar of the lotus," goodyear says: "for before the days of decorative art theories, and south ken- sington instruction, the evolution of the conventional pat- tern was a natural and a gradual one. . . . in the case of the lotus we can point to myriad forms where the flower was carefully detailed, and to innumerable transitions to the more highly conventional forms, all descended from a time (for there was a first time) when the naturalistic pattern was the only one. if the cave dwellers of the stone age began with realistic art, we cannot doubt that the egyptians did the same, and the history of their sculpture and painting, as far as we can trace it back, is proof that they did." in arranging a course in design we should, then, commence with nature, and lead toward the abstract and ideal. this would involve three steps: (i) familiarity with natural forms. (primary grades.) ( ) study of naturalistic or slightly conventionalized units arranged conventionally. ( ) study of highly conventionalized and idealized designs. (in- termediate and grammar grades.) a careful study of owen jones's "grammar of ornament" has aided in choosing the following order: grades and .—gothic. reasons: first, slightly con- ventionalized designs may be found in which the arrange- ment of the units is simple and decorative. second, the class will be more interested in this school at this age than later. gothic ornament presents an abundance of easily comprehended symbols. this period in the child's life is the age of symbolism, the time of dolls, of finger languages, of those mysterious "hog-latin" notes which are written backwards. the child at this age is more openly interested in religion than when he becomes self-conscious, and the story of the crusades has a definite charm for him. third, gothic architecture is found everywhere. grades and .—egyptian. reasons: first, it is the most interesting of all schools of art. it has a wonderful symbol- ism, but more difficult to interpret than the gothic. second, the pupils at this time in life can understand something of the immense size and age of the old egyptian art products, and of the peculiarities of the religion which led to this symbolic style. grades and .—greek. reasons: first, if we could send our pupils from the public schools with a love for any one style of ornament, would we not choose the greek? greek ornament has never been surpassed; it forms a fitting climax to our work. second, pupils are now somewhat familiar with history and good literature. they have heard of many of the greek scholars, and know some of the greek myths. many of the high grammar grades have debating societies, and the stories of the old orators will be interesting. their next work will be in the high school, and an interest in the ancient greeks may serve as an incentive to the study of their language. third, the boys are beginning to be inter- ested in athletics, and the pan-athenian games will at once arrest their attention. fourth, the class knows something of perspective and will appreciate the laws which governed the building of the parthenon. an analysis of the anthemion is not too difficult to be undertaken. the work in grade may include a review of the gothic and egyptian styles. gothic and greek architecture and ornament can be found in numerous buildings in any city. pictures of buildings, details and designs of all three schools can be brought in by chapter iv. elements of beauty in nature and ornament "if i could put my woods in song and tell what's there enjoyed, all men would to my gardens throng, and leave the cities void." —emerson. ur individual ideas of beauty may vary, yet there are certain lines, forms and principles of composi- tion which have for centuries been regarded as elements of beauty. as all our ideals are the outgrowth of sensual impressions, so these ideals of beauty in design were derived from natural growths. (some may add, and from geom- etry, but every geometric figure can be found duplicated in nature,—geometry was evolved from nature.) the pupils ought to know the meaning of and be able to illustrate by sketches the following principles and terms: fitness to purpose.—suited or adapted to the particular end or design to which it is applied. every natural form or element of form seems to be adapted to its most perfect use. a few common illustrations are found in the evolution of the frog, the feet of a duck, the bill of the stork, the trunk of an elephant, the joints in plant growths and the various meth- ods plants use in distributing their seeds. we should strive for the same fitness in our designs. for example, a unit which appears to the best advantage when in a vertical posi- tion only, will not do to use in a design for a carpet, nor will a book-cover designed from the water lily be suitable for a book on arctic explorations. again, every element in a de- sign must be adapted to its surroundings. see figs. , , - , , etc. fig. .—radiation unit.—a form which may be repeated in design to corer a surface. figs. - , - , etc. repetition is expressed in the repeating of the same form. (rhythm is the highest form of repetition.) see figs. , , , , , etc. alternation.—two or more forms or parts, different in size, or shape, or both, repeated in regular order, first one then the other. figs. , , , , , etc. contrast.—the effect due to the placing together o: forms or colors quite different in character. leaves contrast in shape size and color with flowers and both with the stalk. see figs. a; . and ; *, etc. in ornament, see figs. , , , , etc. growing point.—that part of unit or design from which its elements seem to issue. it is analogous to the root in plant forms. the use of a growing point generally involves radiation. find the growing points in figs. , , , is , » . °, °, etc. symmetry.—the adaptation of the several parts of a form to each other. bilateral symmetry, or bilateral is a term applied to a form which has two sides alike in shape and size and which bear the same relation to the central axis. radial symmetry is that in which like parts are arranged symmetrically around a centre. all natural forms are symmetrical—except through acci- dent—for evolution has eradicated all weak, unnecessary or cumbersome parts. nearly all plant and animal forms are bilaterally symmetrical or have parts which exhibit this ar- rangement. figs. , , , , , , etc. radial sym- metry is found in flowers and top views of many plant growths. figs. ; , and "; , , , etc. we understand that nature never produces two forms exactly alike or two halves of one form in which the one is the exact counterpart of the other; therefore when speaking of a nat- ural object as showing bilateral or radial symmetry, we do not mean a mechanical repetition but nature's ever-varied rhythmic repeat. radiation means the diverging of lines or elements from a common point. see figs. , , , , , etc. rhythm is an accented repetition. the fingers on the hand these characteristics must be possessed by every perfectly beautiful curve. it is not essential that the increase in length should be one-third, it may be one-half or one-fifth or any other fixed proportion. if we take two equal arcs from the circle, for instance a b and c d fig. , the two curves are exactly alike. in the spiral the line / k is of the same length as m n, but m n is a more violent curve than ik; the spiral is continually chan- ging in the degree of its curvature. again, any one of the curves sub-tended from the straight lines, as or , is an exact reproduction in miniature of the next larger or of the largest, ; in other words is echoed again and again ac- cording to a constant law, just as a loud noise may be re- peated in a constantly diminishing echo. the spiral is designated as an "infinite" or "immortal" curve, often in school it is called the "curve of elegance." it may be studied on shells, in tendrils, curled leaves, the growth of vines, etc. (fig. .) see how it is employed in ornament in figs. , , , , - , etc. the curve of force is a vigorous line, showing a law of continued variation as it leaves a straight path. it expresses life and force and strength and it is much more interesting than the monotonous curve of the circle. it may be seen in the sky-rocket, the elm-tree, the goldenrod, the fountain, the midrib of flowers, etc. (fig. ) this curve is more beautiful because of the gradation in its thickness, noticea- ble in every natural illustration. we may find this curve in the ornament shown in figs. , , , , etc. the reversed curve or curve of grace is found in the outline and veining of leaves, in flowers, fruits and animals: figs. , , - , etc. in ornament: figs. , , , etc. ruskin calls such curves as the circle, ellipse and oval "finite " or "mortal " curves, because if a part of one be given the whole figure may be completed by continuing the line until it returns to the starting point: if we have the arc ab, eg, or ioj in fig. , we can complete the circle, ellipse, or oval. the circle is considered the most common- place of the three, because the curve is alike throughout its entire extent. the ellipse is perhaps less interesting than fig. —radiation the oval, for while, no two portions of the line e g are alike in curvature, the whole line eg may be found repeated in g f, fh and h e; in the oval, which can be bisected by but line ij, no two parts in the curve / arealike, and the whole curve is repeated but once, in ipj, making a bilat- eral, symmetrical whole. the oval is the geometric figure most abundant in vegetable and animal growths, and the best art productions. at the top of fig. are reproduced sketches of seaweed as it appeared floating in the water. if we place reversed drawings beside the originals we shall have a series of beau- tiful vase forms. ""tis not in the high stars alone, nor in the cups of budding flowers, nor in the redbreast's mellow tone, nor in the bow that smiles in showers, but in the mud and scum of things there alway, alway something sings." the teacher who habitually looks for the beauty in all things, will find that this attitude of mind will be noticeable in her pupils. moreover, unless the pupil does recognize beauty in material things his drawings will proclaim this lack of perception, for he can express no more than he sees. all beauty is in the perception or imagination of the individ- ual. "true wisdom in all things consists in discovering law, and obeying it." it is not necessary that the definitions of the various curves be taught, but it is of prime importance that the pupils know how to draw them, for, being beautiful in themselves, they are continually met with in beautiful objects. the grammar grade and high-school classes can comprehend such an anal- ysis of the curves as given above. much practice should be given in drawing them free-hand on paper and at the board. no diameters or construction lines of any kind should be used in this drill work, but the whole curve should be made with a free (not reckless) continuous arm (not hand or fin- ger) movement, using a very light line. where the line seems faulty, correct by a stronger stroke and so on until it is right. "art consists in the doing of each right thing well." this drill will lead to an appreciation of good curva- ture. chapter v. the teaching and drawing of ornament "though we travel the world over to find the beautiful, we must carry it with us or we find it not." ll teachers know that historic ornament, in common with other subjects, can not be successfully taught unless we interest the class. a half-hour's talk should do this. in selecting material for a talk upon each school, various authorities have been consulted, and the more in- teresting statements of each, if compre- hensible to young students, are recorded in following chapters. wherever two writers have differed (and this is not an infrequent occur- rence) the statements which are most suggestive have been selected. we are not teaching the facts of history as an end, but as a means to interest the class in ornament. every nation has certain peculiarities of customs, language and art, just as every individual has marked characteristics of manner, dress and handwriting. the illustrations in this book were chosen primarily because they are characteristic of the various schools, and whenever posssible under this condition, examples are given which the pupils can draw. casts, photographs, prints, the penny pictures, and the geographies or a wall map can be effectively used during these lessons. a series of charts of uniform size (about twelve by eighteen inches is convenient for carrying and large enough to be studied from any part of the room) illus- trating the symbols, units and designs, may be prepared by many teachers. these charts will serve to concentrate the attention of the class more effectively than will individual illustrations. they may be left hanging upon the walls of the room throughout the time given to historic ornament, and even for a longer period. it is very important that the pictures of the world's architectural masterpieces be placed before the pupils for a considerable length of time if they are to find permanent lodging places in their respective memories. having these pictures constantly before them unconsciously creates ideals.* if there is an art museum in the city the teacher is indeed fortunate, and she should arrange to visit it with her class to supplement the lessons in school. have the pupils search for buildings in the neighborhood, which possess some elements of the historic style under con- sideration. there have been many styles of ornament, the six most important are explained in later chapters. these are the egyptian, greek and roman, the three ancient styles, and the byzantine, saracenic and gothic, dating from a.d. to . the subject-matter relating to each school has been arranged so as to present an introduction which can be made interesting to the class, followed by the important data, in- cluding essential illustrations,—the aim being to present the whole in a teachable order. exact measurements or dates mean little and are soon for- gotten unless they are associated with familiar objects or events. (see pages . and .) hence the teacher should make it a rule, when, for example, something is said to be one hundred and fifty feet wide, to find some well-known ob- ject, having the same dimensions, to which she may refer. the pyramids were built six thousand years ago, that is three times as many years as have elapsed since the birth of christ, or forty-eight times as far back in history as our rev- olutionary war. in class talks and criticisms try to develop an understand- ing of the beauty of line and mass. supposing that we are considering some particular design, say fig. , a few ques- tions like the following will be helpful: can any one in the class suggest a better arrangement of ♦excellent half-tone reproductions can be obtained for one cent each of the j. c. witter co., fifth avenue, new york city; from the perry picture co., maiden, mass., or the prang educational co., new york city. small blue prints can be purchased from francis hendricks, syracuse, n. y., at the same price. nal design. it will be noted that nearly all the border and surface designs herein shown contain units repeated in sim- ple geometric forms such as the square, circle, triangle or rhombus. in this final drawing of one large surface design or border, in which certain units are repeated, all mechanical aids such as compasses, rulers and tracing paper may be employed; the pupil ought to know how to use these tools to produce a design in which accuracy is one of the elements of beauty. each pupil should space off his paper to receive the units; draw (not trace) one unit carefully in one of the spaces and then trace and transfer his drawing of the unit to the remain- ing divisions in the design. if time permits, it is well to precede this manner of repeat- ing a unit by making a drawing of the same border or sur- face pattern, doing the entire work free-hand. in this way a thorough understanding of the unit involved will be gained. as a last lesson on any style of ornament a short examina- tion may be given or each pupil may be requested to write a composition, illustrated by drawings. either of these exer- cises will cause the class to carefully think over the whole subject, and will make evident to the teacher the weak points in the teaching,—if there be any. chapter vi. egyptian.— - b. c. "well building hath three conditions: commodity, firmness and delight."—sir henry wot ten. brief mention of the story of moses, the children of israel, or joseph, will turn the attention to egypt and the nile. what can the pupils tell you about this interesting river? do they know that "all egypt is the gift of the nile?" but for this river the nile valley would be as much of a desert as the adjacent sahara. near the middle of june the river begins to rise and in september has a high-water mark twenty-five feet above june water, resulting in the overflow and consequent fertilizing of a strip of land from one to five miles wide on either side. here is a picture of a part of the nile with two triangular- shaped mounds in the distance (fig. ). how high are those pyramids? if we were to have a church with a spire as high as that of church (naming a neighboring church with a spire a little over feet high) and place another of the same size upon it, a third on that, and on the third a fourth, the distance from the ground to the top of the fourth steeple would be about the same as the altitude of the largest pyramid—the pyramid of cheops. (at the right, in fig. ) the next time you are near this church look at the top of the spire and then into the air four times as high and you can estimate the height of the great pyramid. this pyramid was originally feet high, the loftiest structure erected in pre-christian times. at the present date some of the top is gone and the base is covered with sand to a depth of several feet. the boys know yards as a standard of running distances. each side of this pyra- each pyramid held but one body, that of the king. we may now understand why the west bank of the nile was k always selected as the site for the pyramids. ulc this side of the jjjjjsn^ river was associa- ted with the setting sun. the sun was worshipped as a god, who, during the night, visited the celestial regions. the dead body was carefully treated to prevent decay. wrapped in the finest linen, it was put into a heavy paper or pasteboard case which fitted the form closely. this was placed in a wooden coffin and finally in a stone sarcophagus. the stone casket was hidden in a small room in the middle of the pyramid and the passageway leading to it was care- fully sealed up with large blocks of stone. (see fig. .) it is less than one hundred years ago that an entrance was found to the great pyramid at c. the passageway going underground leads to a chamber probably constructed as a blind to tomb robbers. the room at b is called the queen's chamber, although nothing was found in it to indicate that a body was ever buried here. at a is the king's chamber, not as large as the average schoolroom, which contained the king's mummy. the passages in this pyramid are but feet and inches wide and feet and inches high. it was customary to mortgage the mummies of their ancestors, and to pay these debts before any others was a point of honor. mummies were exhibited at their feasts to serve as evidence of the shortness of this life and the quiet of eternity. their houses were built to last but a few years; their tombs, forever. at death the soul was thought to wander through the valley of shades, which was supposed to be under the earth, or to do penance by living in various animals. this was one reason why some animals were regarded as sacred. an egyptian dare not kill a cat for fear his grandmother might be occupying a suite inside. the ka, or spiritual body, which remained with the mummy in fig. . fig. .—temple of edfou. the tomb, required nourishment, and food and water were left beside the dead, as were the various useful and orna- mental articles which had served the deceased. after many- years of travel the soul was to return to the body, and for this reason the bodies were so carefully preserved from decay and from tomb robbers; but egyptian hieroglyphics have never stated definitely how the resurrected inmate of a pyramid was to get out. near the great pyramid is the sphinx, even older than the pyramids. the head is human, the portrait of the ruling king, and the body is that of a lion. thus it expresses the highest type of intellectuality combined with marvelous strength and agility. as the king was supposed to be a relative of the gods, the sphinx was an object of worship, and a small temple was built for religious purposes directly in front of the body. (shown in fig. .) the sphinx is carved from a solid rock and is feet high and feet long. the head has been estimated to be , times as large as fig. —portico of the temple of edfou. a human head. the beard, nose and lower part of the head- dress are gone. art must have existed many centuries to produce such works as the pyramids and sphinx. recent authorities es- timate that a fair degree of civilization existed on the banks of the nile , years ago. heroditus states that ancient egypt contained five million people and two thousand cities four hundred and fifty miles above cairo on the nile is thebes, the ancient city of temples. all the theban struc- tures are in such a state of ruin that we may get a better idea of an egyptian temple from an examination of the tem- ple of edfou (fig. ), situated about one hundred miles south fig. —lotus capital. of thebes. a study of fig. will help us to understand the plan of the building. in front are the two great masses of masonry called pylons, no feet in height. in the centre is the entrance to the temple, a doorway feet high. pass- ing through this we find a large open court surrounded by columns. opposite the first entrance is another (seen in the distance in fig. and nearer in fig. ) leading into a hall with a flat roof supported by columns. finally, after going through several smaller similar halls we reach a sanctuary, where none but the priests and king were allowed. here fig. —obelisk, central park, new york. were kept the statues of the gods and the city treasures. as but little rain falls in egypt, a comparatively small part of the temple had a roof, which was always flat. this roof was supported on columns as shown in fig. . four of the capitals on the front row of columns were designed from the papyrus plant which grew in the nile; the other two are from the palm. a common capital was shaped to resemble the lotus lily (fig. ); another form had its origin in the lotus bud, and sometimes the sculptured heads of goddesses were used. thebes contained many temples, all practically alike in plan and construction to the temple of edfou. the largest of these, karnak and luxor, were built by seti i., and his son rameses; the latter is generally credited as being the pha- raoh of the exodus. the temple of karnak was , feet long and feet in width. some of its columns are feet in circumference and feet high. this and many other theban temples were approached by magnificent avenues of sphinxes the egyptian obelisks are cut from a single rock. one has been brought to this country and placed in its original upright position in new york city (fig. ). similar obe- lisks of various sizes, often placed in front of temples, are to be seen throughout the nile valley. egyptian sculpture is not noted for its beauty, but is inter- esting because of its age and peculiarities and often its mon- umental proportions. egyptian image cutters were of low caste, the trade descending by law from father to son, hence egyptian statues are all alike (with but one or two excep- tions), conventional, stiff and symmetrical. we shall notice these characteristics in the few statues herein illustrated. the singing memnons(fig. ), situated near thebes, are feet high. memnon is supposed to have been a sun god, and these statues were said to produce at sunrise a noise not unlike the sound of the word mem-non, resembling the sharp twang of a harp-string. what is believed to be the oldest known statue in the world is the "wooden man of boulak," found in an ancient underground tomb. as its name indicates, it is made of wood and is about three and one-half feet high. the eye. fig. —the scribe, louvre, paris. fig. - a pond was drawn as a rectangle, water was represented by zigzag lines, and the trees surrounding it were drawn flat upon the ground at right angles with the sides. in the child's drawing, in fig. , the wagon is shown in top view, the horse and wheels as if laid on the ground. it is easier to ex- press ideas this way as all perspective is avoided. children enjoy drawing outlines and filling in with flat washes of color. this is precisely what the egyptians, the world's children, did with all their wall decorations; every drawing was colored. fig. contains other symbols. a is a picture of the sun; b and c of the nile river; b suggests waves and c may have had a similar origin or it may represent the zigzag course of the nile; d is the royal feather; e the royal snake, or asp. the feather and asp were worn by kings and queens to de- note their rank, as the crown is used in european countries at the present time. in fig. we have a relief of a man worshipping a statue typifying truth. we know the man is a king for he has an asp on his headgear; the statue holds the looped cross, the emblem of divine life, while on its head is the ostrich feather, associated with gods and kings as the emblem of justice. under the king's right elbow on a stand- ard is a bunch of egyptian water lilies, evidently an offering to the goddess. f (fig. ) is a drawing of the egyptian beetle, and g shows the manner in which these old artists drew it. this picture represented immortality. the wings indicate pro- tection; between two feet is the ball of sand which holds the eggs, and the other circle is the sun, the creative power. small stone beetles were worn suspended from neck chains, much as some people wear crosses to-day. h is the egyptian fret, showing the wanderings of the soul after death. how well this symbol tells its story can be understood by starting with the first long line and thinking that the soul travels in this direction for awhile, then changes to this—the next line, then goes this way, etc., until finally it ends its journey at the centre, in other words it returns to the mummy. or, if as some think, the egyptian believed in the transmigration of the soul, we can imagine these lines as representing various animals. sides of the adjacent circles. the sun, in several sizes, side view of the lotus, and separate petals or buds are put to- gether in fig. . in fig. the circle is a heavy band, the solidity of the rosette seems to demand a strong enclosing form the circle plays a less important part in fig. ; it is less interesting than the large rosette, and it is made a secondary matter by employing a narrow line. if the reader will look at this design from a distance, or with half-closed eyes, it will be seen that the egyptian designer succeeded in making the rosette combinations the dominant effect. al- most unnoticed is the small unit between the large circles. this unit may have been taken from the upper right rosette in fig. , eight lobes being left out that it may better fit the space in which it is placed. fig. can be easily analyzed, being made from the cir- cle, lotus petals and a four-lobed rosette. any one familiar with the egyptian temples, pyramids, the sphinx, obelisks, conventional statuary and drawing of the human figure, the peculiar symbols used in picture-writing and the lo.us forms in decoration, may be sure of recognizing egyptian architecture and ornament. as we have seen, the ornament was essentially symbolic. its aim was to glorify fig. . fig- —portion of wall, temple of abydos. fig. - very interesting to a class of any age and will lead to a sym- pathetic understanding of egyptian picture writing. after a talk with the class about this style of ornament, let each pupil make a sheet of labelled sketches of these in- teresting symbols, as shown in fig. . the lotus is the predominant element of egyptian ornament; have it drawn many times, singly and as illustrated in borders, on paper and at the board; then reproduce some of these forms from memory. the class ought to know how to draw the lotus, and how to spell it. fig. gives the steps in drawing the most difficult border. while these lessons on the drawing of the ornament are being given, the pupils may be collecting illustrations of egyptian art, which may later be mounted as in fig. . analyze in class the surface patterns to ascertain what ele- ments are combined to make the units. let each pupil select one surface design and carefully draw it. the meth- ods of drawing one unit and of spacing off the entire surface are shown in fig. . when one unit is completed it may be traced and transferred to the remaining squares, and then the whole inked, or colored if the teacher has an illustration of the original coloring. label this sheet, egyptian lotus ornament. for additional general suggestions see chapter v. summary: . talk on the ancient egyptians and their art, including pyramids, age, size, purpose; religion, peculiarities of; tem- ples; sphinx; obelisks; picture writing, comparison with fig. —lotus surface pattern. fig. —collected illustrations of egyptian ornament. fig. —pupils' sketches of egyptian ornament. ( child's; symbols and their meaning; the lotus, how drawn and employed in design. . sheet of sketches with symbols labelled. . mounting illustrations brought in. . analysis and careful drawing of one egyptian surface pattern. egyptian architecture: pyramids, b. c. sphinx and sphinx temple. temples (dating from about b. c): karnak, luxor, medinet abou, abydos, ipsamboul, philae, denderah, edfou. tombs: beni hassan. colossal statues and obelisks. fig. . chapter vii. greek.— - b. c. "and nobly plain, the manly doric rose; the ionic then, with decent matron grace. her airy pillar heaved; luxuriant last, the rich corinthian spread her wanton wreath." — thompson. he records state that as early as b. c. various settlements had been made in what is now known as the peninsular of greece. we shall consider but one of these settlements, that at athens. the first athenians settled on a large rocky elevation, which can be seen in the dis- tance (fig. ), probably selecting this site as a protection from neighboring tribes. later, this rock, the acropolis, became the king's residence and legend and history assert that the common people dwelt in caves hewn out of the hillsides near by. in times of peril all were assembled on the acrop- olis. as athens increased in size, the acropolis became the site of the city treasury and temples of the gods, and about b.c. the most beautiful buildings in all the history of the world were located upon it. this period in greek history is often called "the golden age of pericles," in honor of the leading contemporary statesman. the greek schools were conducted in the open air. gym- nastic games, singing patriotic verses and reciting stories of greek heroes (the same stories that our high-school students read in their greek lessons) formed the daily program. this schooling and its schoolhouse evolved an extraordinary regard for things beautiful. to such an extent was physical beauty worshiped that prizes were given in competition to the hand- somest men and women; in some parts of greece, all the weak or deformed children were killed, only the strong and fig. —temple of jupiter. healthy were thought worthy to live. the games of the schoolboys culminated in the great greek athletic contests. the boys and girls in the higher grades, being interested in field sports may remember that the best athletes in this country were sent to greece in the spring of to take part in the revival of the contests held there over two thou- sand years ago. we know of the excitement occasioned here by intercollegiate football and rowing matches and other trials of skill and strength, but it is only a drop compared with the interest aroused by the ancient games in greece. messengers were despatched all over the known world to procure the best athletes of all nations. one writer states that if we were to combine the enthusiasm of a camp-meet- ing, cattle show, political rally,college gamesand a circus, we should not have the excitement of the pan-athenian games. they were held once in four years. the victor in modern games receives a badge or a medal and a newspaper notice. the winner in the ancient games was almost an object of adoration. walls of cities were torn down that he might not enter the city gates in common with others. he was bribed to change his birthplace that some city or town might be thus honored. enormous sums were paid him as a model to pose for artists. the greek runner would race six hun- dred feet and catch a hare. he could jump fifty-five feet. (this probably means a hop, step and a jump, the modern record in this sport being fifty feet and one-half inch.) the contestants were trained from childhood, and must have been magnificent specimens of physical development. the games called for grace, quickness and skill rather than brute strength, and were an expression of the greek taste. later under the rude and warlike romans the games degenerated into brutal and blood-thirsty exhibitions. the contests lasted several days and were held as a part of the celebration due the goddess athena. as a finale, a procession composed of the rulers, priests, attendants and citizens and headed by the victorious athletes marched to the top of the acropolis, where the concluding exercises were held in or on the porch of the largest temple, the parthenon (fig. ). inside this building was a gold and ivory statue of the goddess forty feet in height. athena, or minerva, was at first considered a representation of the clear, bright upper regions of the sky; then an embodiment of high intel- lectual powers; later, as a goddess of war, and she was usually represented with a helmet and spear; and lastly she was regarded as a symbol of high intelligence in all the arts and sciences. the myth says she sprang from the brain of the all-wise zeus, and that he had the day before swallowed metis (intelligence), his wife. the interiors of greek temples were considered as places for the gods themselves and their statues and not for wor- shipers, thus differing essentially from the modern church. while it is true that the best greek architecture was always embodied in the temples consecrated to the gods, grecian art rejoiced in the freedom from religious laws which in egypt bound the artist to a mechanical repetition. greece was plentifully supplied with quarries of white marble and other stones, and the temples were built with beautiful ex- teriors, that they might add to the joy of the national out-of- door life. the parthenon was feet long and feet wide. as can be seen in the plan (fig. ) it contained but two rooms; the smaller was used as the city treasury; the larger con- tained the statue of athena, which was placed upon a pedes- fig- —plan of parthenon. tal, indicated by the rectangle opposite the entrance. the whole structure was built of white marble, and was completed in b. c. ictinuswas the architect and phidias the sculp- tor. (plutarch says pericles made phidias general superin- tendent of all the artistic work done in the state.) the three styles of architecture employed in ancient greece are distinguished by the capitals and columns used. the parthenon was built in the earliest style, the doric. vitruvius, an ancient roman historian states that the doric column (fig. ) was suggested by the figure of a man, be. ing about six diameters high; the average man is about six times the length of his foot. the flutes in the column he explains as suggested by the drapery in the flowing greek dress. (the claims of vitruvius regarding the origin of the three greek styles of architecture are not substantiated by facts, but will, perhaps', serve better than the statements of other authors to interest the pupils in differentiating each capital from the others.) the early doric capitals, constructed long before the par- thenon, have the top-heavy, flattened-out appearance illus- trated in fig. , where the outside edges of the curved part seem to be in danger of breaking off; a few hundred years after the time of pericles this same part of the capital was made too straight and stiff (fig. ). again, the early doric columns were but four to five (lower) diameters high, and the very late productions were too slender for the capital, being six and seven diameters in height. in the construction of the parthenon, we find a wonderful understanding of beauty. some time ago the turks used this building as a powder-house, and an explosion wrecked about half of it, but enough remains in place to convey an idea of its original glory, and to enable us to study some of its features in detail. fig . fig- - fig. - one writer has used as a text, "nature is the source of all that is possible in art," and he has presented us with some very interesting conclusions regarding the natural, the arm or leg, and the artificial column. in brief, he states: . the natural column has roundness; so has the artifi- cial. . the natural columns vary in length from four to six diameters in animals noted for power and majesty. the doric column is five and a half or six diameters high. . the diameter of the natural column diminishes as it approaches the wrist or ankle; true in the artificial column. . this diminution is not in straight lines but involves curves which vary in different animals:—decidedly curved in the human figure, little in the elephant. the artificial col- umn seems to be a happy medium, not an imitation of any one natural form. . the natural capital is the hand or paw, generally on one side for convenience of locomotion. the artificial col- umn stands still so the capital is the same all around. . every hand or paw has certain common characteristics in outline when applied against a flat surface; first, concave, then slightly convex terminating by an abrupt convex curve to the surface against which it is placed. he says further, that "all six of these ideas are embodied in that wonderful specimen of generalized imitation, the original doric column; that form on which no subsequent efforts have been able to effect any improvement in fitness of expression to its particular purpose; that form which when first seen, so throws into the shade everything else that we have seen applied to the same purpose, that it seems too perfect for human invention." fig - the columns tapered from the bottom to the top, curving outward three-fourths of an inch in the thirty-four feet of their height. they are not vertical but slanted toward the cella, the principal room in the building, at so slight an an- gle that if they were continued upward they would meet at a point over a mile above the base. the long line of the base of the parthenon is two and one- half inches higher in the middle than at the ends. the roof was the same number of inches lower in the centre of the sides. various reasons are given for this deviation from a straight line in the columns and other parts of the temple. it may have been with a view to increasing the apparent size through correcting perspective effects. (an explana- tion of this statement would involve problems too complica- ted for public-school pupils to comprehend.) the slight swelling in the middle of the platform and column would suggest elastic resistance. perhaps it was merely an ex pression of the greek distaste for straight lines. whatever the reasons for these subtle proportions and curves may be, it is certain that the parthenon in its original form was a creation not to be criticized by modern architects. in our study of egyptian architecture we found only flat roofs. the greek temples had sloping roofs which added a new feature, the pediment, to the world's architecture. the pediment is the triangular portion extending along either fig. —the erechtheum. end of the temple just under the roof (fig. ). on the western pediment of the parthenon was a carved representa- tion of the strife between athena and posidon (neptune) for the land of attica (southern greece). the eastern pediment contained an illustration of another greek myth, the birth of athena, the scene representing the goddess just after she has come forth from the brain of zues. the second style of greek column is the ionic (fig. ). vitruvius claims that this column was suggested by the fig- ure of a woman. it is from eight and a half to nine and a half diameters in height, which vitruvius says represents the slenderer figure of a woman. the scrolls at the sides of the capital may have represented hair, and the decorations between them, a necklace. the ionic column has twenty- four flutes, typifying, as in the doric, the greek dress, allow- ing for four more folds in the woman's dress. vitruvius thought the base represented sandals. the ionic capital, very different from the doric, is an equally beautiful composition. the spirals are seen first, spirals so beautifully chiseled that they cannot be drawn by any mechanical means. note how the curves between and connecting the spirals offer contrast and break the otherwise monotonous repetition of horizontal lines. the rhythm in the height of the horizontal bands, beginning with the an- lights the eye through its contrast in line and mass, and both combined form a harmonious whole, a perfect unit. this style of column was used on a small three-room tem- ple called the erechtheum (named from erechtheus, an early athenian king), also situated on the acropolis. in the distance at the left in fig. may be seen one of the ionic columns. the construction of this temple seems to violate the usual greek method of building—nearly all tem- ples being constructed somewhat as was the parthenon— but it is really three temples in one. on the right side may be seen the carytid porch, often called the porch of the maidens. the remaining style, the corinthian (fig. ) vitruvius explains as developed by an architect who saw a basket of flowers on the grave of a corinthian maiden, while around the gravestone grew the acanthus. the acanthus is a plant common in southern europe, having deep-cut shining leaves. an idea of its growth may be obtained from the lower half of the corinthian capital. it was seldom used by the greeks in decoration, but later under the romans it was very freely employed. by giving the imagination free play one can imagine that in fig. the decoration represents plants growing around a stone. vitruvius further states that the corinthian order may be understood "to represent the delicacy of a, young girl, whose age renders her figure more pleasing and more susceptible of ornaments which may enhance her natural beauty." the column was about ten diameters in height. this capital cannot be classed with the other two in point of beauty. its upper and lower halves are not distinctly one growth. the two halves are almost unrelated as can be proved by putting a piece of pa- per over either—each is complete in itself (although not well proportioned as individual capitals) and does not re- quire the other. in line with the thought, "the beauty of simplicity far exceeds the mock beauty of gaudy, showy ornamentation," the greeks seldom employed this capital. the only perfect illustration of a greek corinthian capital that has been found is in the choragic monument of lysicra- tes. in the foreground of fig. maybe seen an illustra- tion of the roman corinthian columns, which were an out- growth of the greek order. sculpture. the gymnastic training had a great influence upon sculp- ture, and such names as phidias, praxiteles and lysippus are well known to-day. not one whole greek statue or re- lief has ever been found. casts of these old broken statues are sold in all civilized countries, and are used as models in modern art schools. artists and anatomists are unable to find any flaw in them. the greek physical ideal was not expressed in such an extraordinary development of muscles that the subject appears weighed down by its own strength. their athletic training aimed to secure agility, symmetry, buoyancy and grace of form, a body which might have corn- fig. —metope, from the parthenon. plete command of itself, and this is the impression we get from the greek statue, be it of the male or female figure. the top of the outside of the cella wall contained a carved representation of the pan-athenian procession. this pano- rama was about three and one-half feet high and over five hundred feet long. about half of it was found in the ruins and sold to lord elgin, an englishman, for thirty thousand pounds. these fragments, now in the british museum and known as the elgin marbles, form the most valuable collec- tion of marbles in the world. fig. gives a view of that part of the frieze which was composed of athenian youths riding on spirited horses. on the outside of the parthenon, just below the roof, on the sides and the pediment in front, was a repetition of squares (metopes), in which were reliefs of various myths connected with greek history. fig. pictures one of these, a contest between a lapith and a centaur, emblematic of mankind and a mischievous monster, or of the conflict be- tween the greeks and the persians. among the elgin marbles in the british museum may be found the three figures illustrated in fig. . they were taken from the eastern pediment of the parthenon and are generally called the three fates. many artists consider this the finest group of greek figures that has ever been found. the winged victory (fig. ), was modeled on a base re- sembling the prow of a ship. we note how well the sculptor has carried out the idea of forward motion in the pose of the figure and the arrangement of the drapery, which seems to be blown backward. in this statue and the three fates, and in fact all greek statues, despite the fact that heads and arms or other parts of the figure are missing, the bodies seem to be full of vitality and we almost expect to see them move. the greeks rarely portrayed physical suffering in their statues, as they discouraged any art expression other than the pleasurable and the beautiful. whatever the attitude of the statue the face exhibits the same calm peaceful expres- sion indicative of a well-balanced contented mind. the venus de milo (so called from the island of melos, where it was found at the beginning of the nineteenth century) and the hermes (mercury) give us typical greek heads. (figs. and .) fig. —venus de milo, louvre. fig. —hermes. by praxiteles. be pericles rises from the grave we gaze around and say, here stood the parthenon, the wonderment of art to all succeeding ages; here rose the propylaea, the splendid entrance to the venerated acropolis, which modern skill has endeavored to imitate, but has not hoped to equal the athenian himself was so filled with the consciousness of her loveliness, that her name never rose to his lips unless ac- companied by some term of endearment. there is no one acquainted with the greek poets, or even with the historians, who can help being struck with the exuberance of their af- fection toward athens. every epithet which can convey the idea of loveliness or splendor is lavished upon ' the violet- crowned city.'" teaching greek ornament. i. an interesting introduction to a talk on greek art may be found in the reference to the olympic games. when the teacher is familiar with the preceding subject-matter a few headings like the following may be helpful: greek art: i. athletic games. . early athenians. fig. . mlioche fig. - f'g- —collected illustrations of greek ornament. . temples . athena and parthenon. . doric style. . pediment, new feature in architecture. . ionic. . corinthian. . sculpture, elgin marbles. . ornament, anthemion, how used. . frets, egg and dart, and guil- loche. . influence on later architecture and ornament. this list includes the most important facts found in the first part of this chapter, and may safely be used as a basis for work. additional general suggestions for teaching may be found in chapter v. . have each pupil make a sheet of sketches of greek capitals, anthemions, etc. (fig. .) have the anthemion forms (figs. to ) copied many times, using single brush strokes to make the lobes. then encourage the making of original variations of these forms. . ask pupils to cite examples of greek architectural and ornamental forms employed in city buildings. each pupil may make a sheet of collected illustrations of greek art ideas, or the class may combine their clippings and mount upon a large paper. (fig. .) . careful drawing of one greek anthemion border. (figs. - .) allow individual pupils to choose which border they will draw. the method of drawing these borders is illustrated in fig. . in each seek the large general forms and draw these first, then add details. after one of the units is completed it may be traced and thus repeated in the remaining spaces, or, if the teacher prefers, all may be drawn free-hand with- out using the tracing paper. label the sheet, '' greek an- themion border." greek architecture. temples at corinth ( b. c); paestum ( b. c); castor and pollux ( b. c.) at agrigentum; nike apteros ( b. c.) at athens; athena ( b. c.) on island of ^egina; zeus ( b. c.) at olimpia; theseus ( c b. c.) at athens; parthenon ( b.c.); propylaea ( .? b. c), and erechtheum ( b. c ) at athens; apollo epicurius ( b. c.) at phigalaea; zeus ( b. c.) at nemea; di- onysus ( b. c.) at teos; monument of lysicrates ( b. c.) at athens; olimpian zeus ( b. c.); theatres in vari- ous places. chapter viii. roman— b. c - a. d. ry to imagine a large enclosed park, about one quarter of a mile square, containing pleasure gardens, ath- letic grounds with a race-course and gymnasium, and on one side a building ft. by ft. which was nearly all roofed over. think of this building as containing loun- ging and reading-rooms, libraries, art galleries decorated with such statues as the laocoon, the far- nese bull, and the gladiators, and equipped with beau- tiful marble baths capable of entertaining thirty-five hundred bathers at one time. picture the grounds and buildings as replete with every possible decoration and animate with human interest—groups of nobles clad in robes of rich coloring, attended by scores of slaves. let the reader image such a scene as here described, and he will have a true idea of one characteristic feature of ancient rome, the luxurious baths, the use of which was a part of the daily program of the roman noble. who were the people that lived in such sumptuousness? for several hundred years before and after the birth of christ the whole known world was ruled by them. rome, "the eternal city," was the capital of a nation of tremendous strength. her armies were everywhere victorious; her accumulated wealth was immense; her political methods and statecraft have ever been the admiration of the world. among other spoils of war brought to rome were many greek works of art. this created a demand for architecture and ornament. the roman life was not conducive to the training of artists, hence it was necessary to import greek artists to carry out the wishes of the roman populace; al- most every work of art produced in rome was planned by fig. —corinthian capital. (the etruscans) who lived in italy before rome became a centre of any importance. in looking over pictures of ro- man architecture, we at once notice that this round arch is really a dominant characteristic. (figs. , , , .) used in doors, windows, bridges, etc., it suggested the half-cylin- drical vault, which in turn resulted in the hemispherical dome. (fig. .) we may notice that neither the vault nor the dome have been found in egyptian or in greek archi- tecture. the round arch was nearly always combined with a roman elaboration of the greek doric, ionic or corinthian columns. (figs. , .) the corinthian, seldom used by the greeks, was most freely adopted as being nearer the roman ideal of profuse ornamentation. by comparing fig. with the greek corinthian in fig. £ , the added scroll and acanthus decoration will be seen. this capital is one of the most elegant examples of the roman corinthian, and was found in the temple of castor and pollux. (castor was fig. —roman composite capital. the god of equestrian exercise; pollux was the god of box- ing.) one variety of the corinthian, called the composite (fig. ), was made by combining the ionic volutes (spirals) with the acanthus foliage from the corinthian. in the ro- man corinthian capital the top scrolls grow out of and are strongly united with the acanthus foliage below, while in the composite capital the ionic and corinthian features are not bound together, the two parts are unrelated, and the jointure is not successfully hidden. the result as a whole is not pleasing and was not much used. many other kinds of capi- tals were occasionally employed, such as combinations of foliage, animals, armor, masks, monsters, and the human figure. none of these have ever been considered worthy of fig. —aqueduct near rome. among others, the artist raphael. "an interior like that of the pantheon—with its simple divisions, its surfaces so spar- ingly broken, its immense dome brooding equally over all— conveys a sublime idea of unity, which is perfectly express- ive of the character of the romans." we can mention but one or two other roman creations. chariot races and sea fights were held in immense circuses (read the "chariot race "from ben-hur). caesar's circus is said to have held one hundred and fifty thousand people. triumphal arches (fig. ) were built on the great roads as memorials of successful conquests (just as the people in new york city erected the dewey arch to celebrate the return home of admiral dewey). this was an outgrowth of the custom of decorating the city gates. one of the roman roads, the appian way, three hundred miles long, is yet in good condition, although it has been used two thousand years. aqueducts brought water from dis- tant springs to the city; one of these was sixty-two miles long. portrait statues of wax, marble and bronze adorned the streets and houses. we remember that the greek statuary represented the ideal, but the thousands of statues in rome roman acanthus ornament. fig' —roman rosettes. it lacks the symbolism of the egyptians and the refinement of the greeks, yet it presents a variety of new combinations, many of them very rich and beautiful. the elements which were practically first employed by roman architects, the arch and dome and several stories in one building, have had a great influence on all later produc- tions, even to the present time. the roman capitals, arches, gates, bridges, acqueducts, sewers, roads, baths and palaces have been admired and copied by all civilized countries. the same statement holds true with regard to their orna- ment. in the decoration of modern buildings and of com- mercial articles we may find the acanthus and scroll forms used as they were two thousand years ago. teaching roman ornament. with some classes, reading the " chariot race " from ben- hur, or some parts of quo vadis will introduce roman orna- ment in a very interesting manner. roman architecture was essentially practical. roman ornament was rich. when these two sentences are fully un- derstood through a knowledge of roman art the pupil will have an intelligent idea of roman citizenship, for the char- acter of the nation is found perfectly portrayed in its art, and will be able to recognize roman work wherever seen. emphasize the characteristic features, the round arch and dome and several-storied buildings, and the scroll and acan- thus ornamentation. in most classes it will be sufficient to know that we are considering the rome of the first two or three centuries after the birth of christ. an outline like the following may be helpful in preparing and presenting the lessons: . a talk on rome and the roman life; the beginning of roman art through the importation of greek artists; the practical character of roman architecture; capitals; new features, such as dome, arch, several stories; colosseum; pantheon; use and character of acanthus ornament. . sketches of acanthus forms and any of the capitals and buildings which the pupils can draw. . mounting collected illustrations of roman buildings and ornamental details, including modern adaptations of roman elements of design. . careful drawings of one or more examples of roman acanthus ornament. a soft pencil, pen and ink, or a piece of charcoal or crayon is a better medium than the brush for drawing roman orna- ment, but some practice work with the brush may be done as shown in fig . the methods of drawing two acanthus borders are illus- trated in fig. . the general plan to be followed in.draw- ing any of the ornament is: first, block in the shape of the oblong or square which includes the whole design; secondly, draw the large masses, all the long flowing curves, then the important offshoots and add the details last. the illustra- fig. —st. apollinare in classe, ravenna. closed the body. added to this in' the oldest vaults were painted or carved fruits, flowers, birds and genii, all bor- rowed from the roman world above. as in ancient times, love of decoration and religion were the dominant factors in this new era of art. the christians soon began to regard the ornamentation of the romans as a worship of nature. they cared not for the beauties of this world. their hope was in the hereafter. with christianity came new ideas which must find an expression in art, and as with the early peoples, as the egyptians, the first expression was in sym- bols, which might declare the religious beliefs. in this way it came about that the roman ornamentation soon gave way to a series of signs and pictures relating to sacred history. the roman birds developed into doves, signifying pure christian souls. the palm suggested eternal peace; the peacock, immortality; the anchor, hope; a shepherd and sheep, christ and his flock; a ship, the church; the cock, , o solomon!" no building from the time of constantine to the th century approaches santa sophia in grandeur and beauty. the ground plan is a cross. the large central dome—significant of the vault of heaven—was adopted from the roman baths. the roman domes had a circular base. here, for the first time, we find a dome resting upon walls forming a square. excellent lighting was afforded by a series of windows piercing the lower part of the dome. "sprouting out" from this central feature are semi-domes, the whole forming a marvelously harmonious design. the interior effect is perhaps unsurpassed by any church in the world. the large dome is feet high and feet in diameter. "it hangs with little apparent support like a vast bubble over the centre. such is its lightness that it ap- pears to be suspended by a chain from heaven." during the early centuries it was customary to make the churches repositories for collections of objects associated with christianity. it is interesting to note that writers of the nth and th centuries affirm that santa sophia con- tained the cross on which christ was crucified. it was kept in a wooden chest. three successive days each year it was placed on exhibition. the emperor headed a procession formed according to rank and all passed and kissed the cross. among other treasures stored in this church are mentioned the doors of noah's ark, the chain which bound the apostle paul, the stone on which christ sat and conversed with the woman of samaria, the table of abraham, the column by which peter wept, and the lance which pierced his side, the sponge that was offered to him and the reed that was placed in his hand. it will be noticed that there is but little ornamentation on the outside of santa sophia. (the minarets were added later by the mohammedans and are not byzantine.) the interior was covered with the most beautiful marbles and stucco work and with bible pictures in mosaics, suggesting one vast and glorious bible or prayer-book. another noted byzantine church is st. mark's at venice. the round arches show the influnce of roman architecture, and the dome arrangement is quite similar to that of sta. sophia. (see figs. and .) fig. ioo. fig. ioo is a drawing of a byzantine capital which is like the roman corinthian (fig. ) in the arrangement of the foliage on the lower part and the use of the spirals at the top, but being quiet and much less enriched it shows a different spirit of design. in figs. - , we see other more characteristic byzantine capitals which are unlike the roman, in which the curve was concave and the acanthus applied. the typical byzantine capital was generally curved outward and the ornament incised. an oriental taste for detail treatment was created by trade with the east, and byzantine ornament often reminds us of an eastern rug. the acanthus and other leaves were broad toothed, acute pointed, flat and in low relief. compare figs. and with the roman acanthus (figs. - ). the general effect (at a distance) of lace-work seemed to be more desired than beautiful detail. a study of these illustrations will reveal many half-hidden symbols, the meaning of which the class can and must understand if the true character of fig. . the influence of byzantine architecture on the later styles is not so noticeable as that of the greek or roman. the early christian architects gave us but one new feature in con- struction, the arrangement of domes as found in santa sophia. this idea is occasionally found adopted in modern churches or other large buildings. byzantine ornament was a stepping-stone toward the gothic and is not uncommon in the decoration of our churches and public buildings. teaching byzantine ornament. the lessons on byzantine ornament should include: i. talk on the beginning of christian art, its causes, place, time and symbols; purpose of mosaics; influence of fig. —marble screen. ravenna. fig. in. constantine's proclamation; santa sophia; capitals; the new acanthus; the life of the people as expressed in their art; influence on subsequent styles. these are the points to be emphasized. chapter v. contains additional general suggestions. . sketches of symbols (as found in figs. - , etc.). some pupils may add to this a drawing of a byzantine capi- tal or santa sophia. meanwhile have the class look for byzantine capitals and ornament in modern buildings. . mounting collected illustrations of byzantine architec- ture and ornament, including pictures of modern buildings and designs showing byzantine influence. fig. no. had not time for the consideration of architecture. then came the desire for mosques and tombs, and native architects were employed. this resulted in more or less imitation of the native art of persia, turkey and egypt. especially prominent do we find the influence of the byzantine dome arrangements. every mosque has four distinguishing features: a fountain for ablutions; a niche to indicate the direction of mecca; a pul- pit for the reading of the koran; minarets for calling to pray- ers. the latter is a variation of the modern church-bell idea, the mohammedans preferring the human voice. there can be no mistaking a saracenic mosque, tomb or city. the abun- dance and variety of domes and minarets and the character of the ornamentation at once determine the style. taj mahal (fig. ) is considered one of the most beautiful examples. twenty thousand men worked twenty-two years upon it. built entirely of white marble and studded with precious stones, the total cost was twenty million dollars. it stands on a terrace feet high and feet square. of quite re- cent date (a. d. ), it was built by an indian prince at agra, in north-central india, as a festal hall with the idea of using it later as his tomb. this was a common practice among the moslems. we are at once attracted by the large central dome. then we notice others, smaller and characteristically saracenic, bubbling up from the square and octagonal sub-structures. heretofore we have found only the round dome. and now we see the large doorways and windows with the same curve in the pointed arch that we found in the domes. this form of arch is sometimes called a keel arch, from its likeness to the bottom of a ship. about the windows and doors was placed considerable ornament. this attracts the spectator and tends to prevent the eye from comparing the openings with the size of the building, which process would result dis- advantageously to the latter. in other saracenic buildings we may find the common pointed arch (figs. and ), much like the arch used by the gothic builders, the roman semi-circular,(fig. ), and a new arch, from its shape called a horseshoe arch (fig. ). if we were to travel from agra westward to the atlantic fig. n . we should find saracenic domes and minarets predominant in all cities. the greater part of these were erected between and a. d. even in spain the moslems at one time held powerful rule. beautiful examples of their art may be found in the great mosque at cordova, the alcazars at seville and malaga. the madison square garden tower in new york city was fashioned after the giralda at seville, which was designed by el gebir, sometimes called the inventor of algebra—as every high-school boy knows. and who has not heard of the alhambra at granada! washington irving's "alhambra" rivals the "arabian nights." columbus was obliged to postpone his discovery of america until the christians under ferdinand had taken granada and the al- hambra from the moslems. as will be seen from fig. , the outside of the alhambra looks more like a fort than any- thing else, and it was indeed used for this purpose by the moorish kings of granada. nothing is to be seen which is essentially saracenic. in some ways it reminds us of the acropolis at athens. it was built between and a. d. inside these massive walls we may find the perfection of moorish ornament. every principle of nature which can be used in design is here employed in perfect harmony. the fig. . koran forbade the use of natural forms. we can see in figs. - many suggestions of flowers and leaves, but they are copies of neither. nature suggested and the sara cenic artist created,—but he did not copy. "arab art is not nature; it is a dream of nature." the interior of the alhambra is covered with decoration as seen over the two doorways in fig. . yet it seems that if anything were added or taken away the whole effect would be marred. perhaps we miss the hidden meaning, the sym- bolism of the egyptian and byzantine ornament, but in many places (as over the doorways) we find arabic writing express- ing such thoughts as "there is no conqueror but god;" "there is no god but god." occasionally there are other fig. —marble capitol, alhambra. to emphasize the important parts of the whole scheme. at a distance the general geometric forms appear. this is illus- trated in fig. , where the detail is subordinated by using a lower tone of color. the same plan is noticeable in the oriental rug of the modern moslems. quite in contrast to these designs are those composed wholly of straight lines, distant relatives of the egyptian fret and the greek meander (figs. and ). figs. and present a few of the innumerable inter lacings. at the top of fig. is another arabic inscription. fig. contains a few brush drawings of saracenic ele- ments. note the exquisite curvature and the vigor and life in all. here again we see that these figures are very much like plant forms, yet no one of them is the picture of any par- ticular growth. in the larger cities the jewish synagogues furnish sara- cenic models that lack but little of being complete mosques. the jews in spain abut the time of the moslem conquest, , first adopted this style of building. aside from its use in synagogues, saracenic architecture has had no great influ- ence on later work, although occasionally a horseshoe arch or acorn dome may be seen in modern buildings. these characteristic elements of saracenic architecture are very suggestive of mohammedanism, probably this is one reason they are not more universally employed. saracenic ornament is adopted in modern times when a light, graceful, fantastic surface covering is desired. the interior decoration of theatres, frets, grilles, rugs, tapestries and wall-papers are often saracenic in character. teaching saracenic ornament. ( .) the talk on saracenic ornament should involve an elaboration of the following points: mahomet and the begin- ning of the saracenic style; mosques, taj mahal and its saracenic features; arches; spread of saracenic art; alham- bra; characteristic ornament; columns, frets, elements, in- fluence. general additional suggestions may be found in chapter v. with a brush each pupil may then make ( ) sketches of saracenic elements from fig. , or interesting bits may be fig. . fig. chosen from figs. - . these can not be well drawn if the pupils use any but vigorous and live methods. there are no "inch at a time" lines here. find the longest curves, or those which seem best to build upon, and draw them first with a continuous free stroke of brush (or pencil). after copying one of these brush drawings several times, try to reproduce it from memory. get the spirit of the drawing. when the pupil has this quality in his reproductions, he will perceive that the same attributes which make these saracenic units beautiful permeate all nature. he is now ready to re- ceive suggestions from nature. designing becomes select- ing (and drawing). some of the class may like to draw one of the frets in fig. . the method of drawing the lowest one is shown in fig. . as in drawing everything else, the largest fea. tures should be represented first, then the details can be put in their proper positions. these frets should be sketched in free-hand, and when the parts have been rightly placed, the lines may be corrected, strengthened with a rule and the bands inked in. probably there will be a few pupils who are able to draw one of the capitals. ( .) each pupil, or all those in a room, may make a sheet of collected pictures of saracenic ornament and architecture, including modern buildings and designs showing the influ- ence of this style. see figs. , and . ( .) drawing of one large saracenic surface pattern. draw the large enclosing forms first, working toward the details and background. see fig. . ( .) if time permits, a very interesting exercise consists fig. —original designs by pupils. fig. —original designs by pupils. fig. —cologne cathedral. architecture and design very different from anything which had been seen before. let us for a moment examine a picture of a gothic cathe- dral—that at cologne is an excellent illustration. (fig. .) what an immense structure it is; the surrounding build- ings look like mere sheds! those mighty towers rise to a height of five hundred and twenty-five feet, and are echoed again and again all over the building. this calls our atten- tion to the strong vertical tendency of all the masses and leading lines. everything seems to be stretching heaven- ward. gothic lines are "infinitely perpendicular without the horizontal restraint of the greek temple, which cut short aspiration heavenward and bound it firm and solid to the ground." this grand architectural structure was commenced in , and finished in . it was one of the results of the crusades. all classes helped to build the cathedrals. nobles and peasants worked side by side, dragging the stone from the quarries; and there was quite a rivalry between the neigh- boring towns to see which should have the most magnificent church. working on the buildings was regarded as a form of religious worship. they were built in the form of a cross. cologne cathedral is over five hundred feet long and about half as wide. perhaps the builders thought that the snow and ice would be less likely to remain on the roofs and spires, if they were made nearly vertical. windows were introduced everywhere that the structural design permitted, so that the warm sunlight might help to heat the building in winter. this is true of northern gothic churches. in the warm southern portions of europe, we know that the same people built with much less-inclined roofs and smaller win- dows. (fig. .) we notice two forms of windows—the pointed arch (fig. ) is employed in one, and the other, the rose or wheel window (fig. ), is circular in shape. this pointed arch is seen repeatedly, not alone in the windows, but in doors, spires, buttresses, and in all detail decorations. its origin is not definitely known. various theories have been promul- gated by different authors. some have suggested that the intersections of semicircular arches led to the construction of this arch; others trace it to the interlacing of the branches of trees planted in parallel rows. it is probably true that it was taken from some of the buildings found in the east. (a very few arches were used in egyptian underground tombs , or , b. c., but so far as is known, they never were employed in other buildings of that period.) it is certain that it was never used in europe previous to the end of the first crusade, and soon after the return of the crusaders it appeared all over that continent. probably the first gothic churches had windows composed of one pointed arch; later, this arch was subdivided so as make a geometric tracery inside. the same may be said of rose windows,—small circular windows at first, enlarged in after patterns, and changed to complicated designs. all were beautifully illuminated with stained glass, which gave a rich coloring to the inside of the building. this use of stained glass seems to have been suggested by the mosaic floor and f'g' —franchetti palace, venice. fig. ' leaves of trees, such as the oak, maple and beech; or of shrubs and plants, as the holly, raspberry-bush, laurel, grapevine and rose. others were conventionalized repre- sentations of these natural forms (figs. and ). the crusaders saw much in the east that was beautiful in statuary. the greek and roman statues emphasized the physical perfection of mankind. the govhs, however, wished to make prominent the spiritual, and their first statues were thin, stiff and ungraceful, in order that the spectator might dwell upon the intellectual face rather than be impressed with the beauty of the form. hundreds of niches were left by the architect, both on the outside and inside, for the re- ception of these statues. see figs. - . the subjects chosen were religious—saints, martyrs, apos- tles, christ, mother and child, and scenes from the old and new testaments. in the door of the cologne cathedral may be seen over eighty single statues and many groups. '' over and above the solemn shadows of column and vault, so full of religious repose, the light spring of pointed arch, heavy climbing shaft, the sky-tipped spire, the enduring lessons of carved stone and brilliant fresco,—to all these spiritual de- lights he added rays of heaven-tinted light, streaming through rainbcw-hued windows alive with saintly and an- gelic forms, and filling the whole interior of the sanctuary with a soft effulgence that soothed the soul, and by its mag- netic harmony lifted thought and feeling through all their earthly gradations up to their god." another method of proclaiming the purpose to which the churches were dedicated may be found in the symbols used in the ornament. (fig. .) the two triangular forms and the trefoil are significant of the trinity; the circle represents eternity, having neither beginning nor end; the quarterfoil, the four evangelists; one circle surrounded by four others, christ and the evangelists; the fleur -de-lis stands for purity. the last three foils in the top row are elabora- tions of the first and second. in the lower line are some of the crosses, used by different religious orders, and a gar- goyle, by some believed to be an evil spirit turned to stone by a good spirit. tradition tells us that these grotesque images were placed on cathedrals to drive away the devil. two other gargoyles are shown in fig. . the illustrations in fig. are interesting as presenta- tions of naturalistic and conventionalized ornament. we have no difficulty in recognizing a familiar leaf in the draw- ing at the right. the other conforms with all the laws of natural growth; it is an idealized interpretation of nature, a composite photograph, rather than a reproduction of a single plant. it shows us the best type of gothic ornament. westminister abbey (fig. ), london, milan cathedral, notre dame, paris, and many other churches and palaces (fig. ) of england, france, germany and italy are world- famous examples of gothic architecture. there need be no hesitation in distinguishing a gothic building; see how the characteristic gothic elements are used in the churches and palaces illustrated in this chapter. supposing we have before us a building, say fig. , and we wish to know to what fig. —gothic capital. school of architecture it belongs. let us see what elements of design the architect has employed. first, we notice nu- merous pointed arches; pointed arches were used occasion- ally by the moorish or saracenic architects; they are a prom- inent feature in gothic architecture. these arches are supported on columns and capitals entirely unlike the sara- cenic (fig. ), but very similar to the gothic capital seen in fig. . at the corner of the building are several statues. the saracens never used sculpture (with one ex- ception, the court of lions in the alhambra) in connection with their architecture; the gothic designers habitually left just such niches as these and in them placed similar statues. then we may see the circle containing the quarterfoil be- tween every two arches in the upper tier, also repeated in the form of small windows near the top of the building. on okix- ©•!•+■ + fig. —wrought iron detail, national museum, florence. * i ft • j > f v ft < > ft j ft < lit a iti ill fig- —gothic. fig. —gothic. the roof is a series of spire-like forms thus we find an abundance of gothic elements in this palace and may be sure that it is a gothic structure. in much the same manner one can assign such an example of ornament, as fig. , to the gothic school. we are now ready to intelligently interpret the symbolism if figs. - . these surface patterns have been selected because of their beauty, simplicity and symbolism. in fig. we see the trefoil, emblematic of the trinity, to which has been attached a graceful well-balanced stalk adding to the beauty of the unit. in fig. we have the fleur-de-lis, with the lower part suggesting the trinity. the alternate unit may be translated as the four evangelists, each from the form of representation suggesting association with the trinity. fig. shows the sexfoil, which was a development of the trefoil. fig. is made from the fleur-de-lis. the influence of gothic architecture is very noticable in all christian lands. indeed there are comparatively few churches in this country which do not display the essential features of the gothic buildings of the th- th centuries. in modern decoration the crosses, foils, fleur-de-lis, etc., are as common as are pointed arches and rose windows in our churches and other buildings. fig. . fig. . teaching gothic ornament. an outline of the work is suggested, as follows: . talk on gothic ornament; gothic cathedral; charac- teristics—vertical tendency, pointed arches, rose windows, capitals, statues, by whom built and where; ornament con- sidered as to its symbolism and beauty; influence on later art. . sketches of gothic elements, such as foils, crosses, circles, triangles, fleur-de-lis, windows and capitals. these sketches may be made with a pencil, or with ink and brush, or both. it a is good plan to label them. let each pupil draw those which most interest him. the method of beginning drawings of the pointed arch and rose window are in figs. and ; large forms first, details last. . mounting collected illustrations of gothic elements, such as pictures of gothic capitals, windows, crosses, triangles, foils and fleur-de-lis forms. (some of the latter elements are common in dress goods, draperies, wall-papers, etc.) (fig. ) . analysis and careful drawing of one of the gothic sur- face designs. the use of the ruler, tracing paper and any other mechan- ical aid is allowable in drawing the surface design. allow individual pupils to choose which surface pattern they will draw; decide upon the shape of the space which holds one unit and space off a large oblong on the drawing paper to hold the same number of units as are represented on the chart; then a careful drawing is to be made of one unit, which may be traced and transferred to complete the design. (see fig. .) the drawing may be finished by inking in the units after the style of the chart, or by coloring, if an illustration of the original coloring can be used to work from. . interest the class to look for pointed arches, rose win- dows, gothic capitals, etc., in neighboring buildings. if there is a church near the school which is built in the gothic style, arrange to visit it after school hours with those mem- bers of your class who desire to go. as a preparation for such a lesson the teacher should carefully study the church in regard to its construction and ornamentation. it is sur- prising to see how much interesting material the pupils will find. recently, after studying gothic ornament, about forty pupils of the fourth and fifth grades with three teachers vis- ited one of the best gothic churches in the city. the spires, pointed arches, rose windows, steep roofs, trefoil and quar- terfoil forms were noticed on the exterior and their origin and meaning discussed. in front were found several fleur- de-lis designs. then all entered the church and noted the familiar single and clustered columns with oak leaf and acorn, or maple leaf, or conventionalized capitals, the stained glass windows and the very free use of foils and crosses, each of which now had a meaning to every child. a half hour later the class came out of the church and one boy discovered a weather-vane representing a rooster. for some time no one could think of any reason for placing such an object on a church. finally some one remembered the story of the denial of christ by peter, and then the symbolism of the rooster was apparent. children of foreign parentage can often obtain at home much additional information regarding the european cathedrals. gothic architecture. france: notre dame, paris, , (additions) , . chartres, , , , . reims, , , . rouen, , , . amiens, , . bordeaux, . great britain: canterbury, , , . lincoln, , , . litchfield, , , . salisbury, , , . glasgow, , . westminster, , king's college chapel, cambridge, , . glou- cester, . germany: cologne, , (towers finished ). strasburg, , , . the netherlands: brussels, , . utrecht, . antwerp. , . italy: campo santo, pisa, . orvieto, , , . campanile, florence, . milan, , . fig. fig. fig. is a sheet of units made from a hydrangea. in these drawings the curves, prin- ciples and methods of jointure suggested above are used. a few of the units are comparatively naturalistic while others belong to the idealized type of design, — some would never be recognized as belonging to the hydrangea, although they conform with the growth of many other plants. see also page . it is an excellent plan to have each pupil select several times, using two his best unit and reproduce it or three tones of ink (fig. ). four methods of finishing a background for a design are shown in fig. a. show the pupils how nature suggests the principles of de- sign—" nature is the source of all that is possible in art" (chapter iv.)—and how bilateral and balanced f^y^^ ^zz-^ units may be obtained from any plant form. let every unit have a growing point, a place from which all the leading lines spring to form a framework. so far as public-school designing is concerned, we have been considering the more difficult part of the work. the second step is comparatively easy. let each pupil select and fig. . fig. . arrange the unit which he considers the most beantiful after the manner employed in the example of historic orna- ment which he has copied. the illustrations figs. - are from designs made by pupils in grades - . the originals were all worked out in water-colors. figs. - show the influence of gothic ornament, figs. and of the egyptian surface pat- terns. oftentimes, as in figs. - , a design may be made more interesting by connecting the units. give some definite subject for which to make a design; a book cover, silk for a sofa pillow, or a curtain, a rug, table mat, plate, burlap, portiere, border for a curtain or vase dec- oration, etc. each pupil should consider for what purpose his design is to be used, for some designs as figs. - are especially adapted for a vertical surface; others which look equally well from any side (figs. and ) can be satisfactorily applied to horizontal surfaces, as ceiling or floor coverings. a part of one lesson may be devoted to planning a repeat for surface designs, using the square, circle, triangle, rhom- bus, hexagon, etc. the pupil should choose that form which best encloses the selected unit. border designs. all that has been said above regarding the obtaining of units applies to border designs. from the borders the pu- pil has learned how to repeat a unit. draw the construction lines for the border as in the ornament (fig. ). in one fig. . i~u>.tnj%'<xiw. fig. . soi .) the making of simple plaid designs in the color har- monies studied each year is excellent practice. these plaids should be original designs. notice in fig. the variety in the ( ) spacing between the stripes, ( ) the width and ( ) strength or depth of tone in the stripes, and ( ) that, as in nature, the large masses are more delicate in tone, the nar- row lines being strongest. any plan for the consideration of color as an element in design ought to be based on a study of nature and art. a step in the right direction will have been taken if the pupils can be led to obtain from nature these three generalizations: . standard (primary or normal) colors are generally used to cover small surfaces. (for example, insects, flowers, birds, gems, but not mountains ) the primary colors are usually found on the upper parts of objects; the graded, on the lower. . natural forms are sometimes emphasized by an outline of a lighter or darker tone. (often caused by light and shade effects.) in coloring an original design made from plant forms the pupils ought to utilize the knowledge of color harmony which they have obtained through collecting and studying illustra- tions and the designing of plaids. throughout all this work the teacher should constantly re- fer to nature and art. an appreciation of color harmony and of the charm of the quiet colors can gradually be acquired in this way. jan -